UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
98
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport
Industry: A Study of Ibadan-Sokoto Transport Corridor
R.A. Okunola
Department of Sociology
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Human activities are conducted over space and this includes movement from one geo-
location to another. This major need for movement is mostly serviced by the road
transport industry made up of public and private investors. To protect consumers in
this sector, various policies and regulations have been put in place not only to ensure
value for money and standard but also for the safety and security of commuters and
transport operators alike. This however seems like a mirage as criminal activities are
steadily shifting from neighbourhoods and settlements to the highways. This paper is
an effort towards understanding the situation of things in terms of validity of various
reports and extent of such crimes along the Ibadan-Sokoto transport corridor, the state
offear amongst commuters, the effects of this on the road transport industry and
stakeholders (transport owners, community and the commuters). The findings showed
the apprehension of commuters along this highway and increasing criminal activities
in specific points on the highways. Aside from measures taken by commuters and
commercial drivers to 'beal' such criminals, communities along the corridor have
established local guards to protect commuters who often pay tokens to maintain their
services. It is concluded that there is need to re-address the country's highway policing
strategy and thus look for ways to integrate and provide technical assistance to local
vigilantes who are becoming increasingly relevant on long distance routes in Nigeria.
Key Words: Fear of crime, Commuters, Transport corridor, Crime statistics, Policing
Though the fear of crime is closely related to the level of crime and tends
to increase as crime rises, it cannot be seen as a mere function of levels of
criminal activity at any given time (Lucial Zedner, 1997:586)
Introduction
Empirically, crime is a common feature of social life in all types of society.
However, the scales and rates of the incidence and prevalence vary across
societies and periods. Given the varied nature of crime, societies have devoted
vast amount of human and material resources to its prevention and control.
This is because crime threatens peace, development and security in society.
Thus, the primary task of the police (ancient and modem) and other armed
forces is to acquire necessary instrument and skills to manage crime in society.
Over the years, there have been growing concern and fear by the
government over reports of widespread incidence and escalation of crime in
Nigeria (Alemika, 1997). Apart from media reports which have fuelled basic
fear and mass hysteria, scholars have equally devoted considerable attention to
its analysis However, the last few years have spurred our knowledge of crime
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 99
in Nigeria hitherto limited to crime around neighbourhoods and business
centres to much emphasis on highway crime that is fast becoming the order of
the day in modem Nigeria. The growing media reports show that both the poor
and the rich suffer the same fate on highways alongside the bolder and
sophisticated nature of bandits operations (Agbola, 1997), while the solution
does not appear to be in sight. This paper is an attempt to contribute towards
the analysis of crime on Nigerian highways.
Objectives
The broad objective of this study is gain knowledge on commuters' perspective
of fear of crime along Ibadan-Sokoto transport corridor. The specific objectives
include:
l. To examine the nature and trend of highway banditry on Nigerian roads.
2. To investigate the fear of crime amongst commuters
3. To look into the effects of highway crimes on road transport industry.
4. To analyse the responses of both commuters and road transport workers to
highway crime.
5. To offer suggestions for crime control and prevention of highway crime in
Nigeria.
Road Transportation and Armed Banditry in Nigeria
To contextualize the review, we first examine road transportation in Nigeria in
an historical perspective. Transportation is a requirement for every nation and
movement of goods and people from one place to another and is critical to the
maintenance of strong economic and political ties between regions in the same
state (Rusher, 2005). Pre-colonial transport and trade systems in Nigeria were
limited to porterage over land by animals and humans, as well as on small
boats over the many waterways through southern and central Nigeria. Such
states had extensive trade routes within their own territory that also included
moving goods across the desert trade routes of North Africa and later to the
coast to trade with Europeans. During these periods, roads were maintained by
local leaders using hired labour, or conscripted locals on the basis of age
(Rusher, 2005).
With colonialism, the British colonial masters developed modem transport
infrastructure that clearly revealed their intention, which is basically to make
ruling over the area as well as resource extraction easier. Thus, resulting from
colonization, Nigerians took advantage of the introduction of automobiles by
developing taxi and goods transport services. The country had witnessed some
growth along this modem line. To date, Nigeria's existing transportation is
essentially unimodal as over 90% of domestic freight and passengers are
moved by road transportation with the balance shared among railways, air
transport and inland waterways (Filani, 2003). The major land transport
infrastructure in Nigeria consists of 32,000km of Federal higpway; 30,500km
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
100 The Nigerian Journal of sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
of State roads and 130,000km of local roads (Buhari, 2000). Even though
Nigeria has the largest road network in West Africa and the second largest in
south of the Sahara, the Nigerian roads are poorly maintained and are often
cited as a major cause for the country's high rate of traffic fatalities (Adebayo
2009; Wikipedia, 2009; Wahab, 2008), thus posing a great burden on Nigerians
and Nigerian road users. The hazard on the passengers is not limited to this;
the more worrisome aspect of it is the burden of crime on the highways
especially highway robbery that has grown over the years as part of the
security crisis in Nigeria. Basically, crime is a common feature of social life in
all types of society.
While the scales and rates of incidence and prevalence vary across
societies, a vast amount of human and material resources have, been deployed
for its prevention and control. Further, the problem of highway banditry and or
robbery is not new in society. Akinwumi (2001) showed clearly that armed
banditry was widespread on trade routes in pre-colonial Africa and often with
the active support of some top political elite as can be cited in the activities of
bandits and pirates in the 19th century Yorubaland (Falola, 1995:96). Most of
the trade routes brought enormous wealth, but they were infested with pirates
and armed bandits. The incessant activities of these bandits or 'incorrigible
robbers', had negative consequences not only on the revenues from trade but
also on the image of the states. According to Akinwumi (2001), in the case of
pre-colonial Borgu, such robbers usually' operated in gangs under the
leadership of a powerful prince, who provided the weapons and also directed '
operation. In some cases, the gang could be up to 100 to 400 robbers. Using
various tactics that are context specific, such gangs use horses, spears, bows
and poisoned arrows. The victims as well as individual pre-colonial state
responded to these challenges in several ways, including moving in large
groups, getting armed, to the creation of anti-robbery squad teams by state
governments, to ensure safety of the routes for the flow of goods and
sustenance of the wealth being generated on the routes. However, such efforts
were fragmentary, loosely coordinated and did not totally eradicate the
phenomenon (Akinwumi, 2001).
The emergence of the modem state was to change all these arrangements
with the creation of modem police and policing systems. The modem police
that emerged became more embracing and had a special unit for ensuring
security and safety on the highways. The question is: to what extent are road
users assured of safety and security under this modem arrangement in Nigeria?
The fact that crime statistics in Nigeria do not clearly show the rates of arrests
for crime on the highways makes it difficult to be able to give a definite answer
for the above question. In same vein, the extent of crime on the highways will
be difficult to ascertain. We can move closer to the understanding of these dark
alley figures by examining the fear of crime amongst those using the highways.
UNIVERSI Y OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 101
Fear of Crime
The threat crime poses to peace, development and security has continued to
create fear in the minds of the people. Numerous studies have been conducted
on fear of crime (Agbola, 1997; Albert, 2003; Fabiyi, 2004; Reid, 2008). In
the words of Maxfield (1984:3), the concept of fear of crime refers to
perceived threat to personal safety rather than threats to property or mere
generalized perception of risk. From this definition, the construction of the
fear of crime may then be as closely related to feelings of powerlessness or
vulnerability as it is to calculated perception of risk (Zedner, 1997). Fear of
crime varies according to where people live and is affected by where people
live within housing projects (Fabiyi, 2004; Reid, 2008). The degree of fear is
equally influenced by the nature of social interaction correlates.
According to Fisher and Nadan (1995), fear is greater at night than during
the day. Research suggests that women and elderly have the greatest fear of
violent crime but they are less likely than young people or than men in general
to become victims. Furthermore, both women and elderly may perceive
themselves as more vulnerable to crime and less able to protect themselves
from violent predators than men and the young do. In addition, it was further
shown that compared with men, women take more precautions to protect
themselves and are more likely to avoid being abused on the street at night
(Reid, 2008). The literature has equally demonstrated that fear is greater
especially when (a) there are places for potential offenders to hide and wait for
their prospective victims, and (b) there is lack of prospect (the ability) to obtain
an open view of the area by looking into or walking through the areas.
Also relationships have been found between race, culture, fear of crime and
effects of local/national television news in creating fear. It was further stressed
that the fear of crime may contribute to widespread ownership of guns (Reid,
2008). In similar vein, Fisher and Nadan (1995) suggested that fear of crime
should be analyzed more carefully in terms of the environment and those
factors that might create unrealistic fear. In the analysis of fear of crime,
scholars (Williams and Dickinson, 1993; Sundeen and Mathieu, 1976) have
identified fear spots. These are specific places or areas where individuals feel
fear of being victimized, but where crime may not be frequent or where the
police may not have recorded any criminal incidents either during the day or at
night.
Some of these fears are realistic and others are not (Reid, 2008); and crime
surveys have produced problematic data that appear to show that levels of fear
are far from closely correlated with actual risk (Zedner, 1997). In this context,
others (for example, Zedner, 1997) have argued that the relationship between
risk and fear often stem from methodological issues, two of which are relevant
here. These include how to control for variants in respondents' willingness to
admit such fears and how to frame questions so as to identify the nature and
level of this fear without distorting the data by importing other anxieties.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
102 The Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
The above notwithstanding, it is obvious that the fear of crime is
widespread and has changed peoples' social life in society in many ways. This
therefore necessitates the need for its analysis with a view to having a proper
understanding of its causes and to alleviate it.
Crime on Nigeria Highways
As noted earlier, armed banditry on the highways is an old phenomenon and it
had posed a challenge to commuters over the centuries. Documentation of
these incidents is however scanty and limited to some reports at different
Police posts/offices along the highways. However, newspaper reports of
victims' narrations abound. Two examples are given below:
In a well publicized incident last year, an east-bound luxurious bus
was diverted into the bush somewhere between Abuja and Lokoja, late
in the night, where the passengers were subjected to unspeakable
torture. Their valuables were stolen, the females, raped, and, to
complete the round of brutality, they were all stripped naked and
ordered to run into the darkness while the vehicle was driven away
with their clothing (The Statesman, 2006).
Another occurrence, not long ago, along the Asaba-Benin expressway
confirmed the desperation and viciousness of the men of the
underworld. That night, the passengers were forced out of their bus
and commanded to lay face-down on the road, while their property
was being plundered. A truck later crushed the victims, including a
pregnant woman, while still lying face-down (Thisday, 2006).
As noted above, it is difficult to get any statistic on the extent of highway
crime in Nigeria but the high rates of crime and violence keep the highways
bloody and boiling (Obono, 2007). These attacks usually occurred at some dark
spots like Ife-Ibadan roads, Owo road in Ondo State, Okpella in Edo State and
Okene in Kogi State (Enekwechi, 2008). The regular and similar patterns of
such robbery occurrences had remained a cause for concern to many motorists,
especially as one could easily see police patrol vans and personnel very close
to the scenes of such robberies. Despite public-private partnership which
propels key programmes and policies of government, insecurity and real threats
to lives and property loom large on highways and cities. From Lagos to Kano,
Enugu to Abuja, Ibadan to Sokoto to mention but a few, these trajectories of
problems are replicated in increasing magnitude. Yet, the need to make the
highways serene and comfortable for drivers and passengers cannot be over-
stretched. This is the tall task confronting government, and security agencies in
Nigeria.
Media reports show the trend in the mode of operations of highway bandits
in Nigeria, which involves operating in large numbers, sometimes posing as
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 103
passengers, boarding same vehicles and operate on board after departure in the
middle of a journey (Thisday News, 2003). In this way, they overwhelm and
intimidate guards, frighten innocent citizens and sometimes send the police and
other security personnel scampering for safety in situations where the bandits
are more equipped. The incidence of gang robbery on the highways is also on
the increase as many notables and commoners have had their share and many
Nigerians including those in the diaspora are now weary about travelling to
Nigeria during festival periods and other times because of safety reasons.
Nigeria has been turned into a place of fear by bands of armed robbers and
kidnappers. Consequent on the above, most embassies in Nigeria are placing
warning alerts on their respective websites for those planning to travel on
Nigerian roads. An example of such goes thus:
There has recently been an increase in the number of robberies and
kidnap pings in Abia,Edo and Anambra States; in the latter
particularly along the Enugu-Awka-Onitsha expressway. Travellers
should exercise caution when driving outside cities, consider travelling
in convoy, and avoid making any journeys that would involve travel
after dark (European Union Travel warnings, August 2009).
Ginifer and Ismail (2003) observed the rise in Small Arm and Light
Weapon (SALW) and its consequences, alongside all forms of criminality,
especially armed robberies in residential neighbourhoods and along motorways
both during the day and night in Nigeria. The failure of the police service, in
spite of a series of highly publicized police actions ('Operation-Fire-For Fire',
for instance) and force expansion has led to increase in criminality. This
subsequently gave rise to self-help security measures by the citizenry through
vigilante groups. However, the two sides seem to be overwhelmed by the
escalating rise in armed criminality. Over the past five years, armed criminality
has been transformed into organized banditry, piracy, bunkering and hostage-
taking in the oil rich Niger-Delta region. Uzokwe (2003) noted that most armed
robbery incidents on Nigerian highways are carried out near potholes.
Knowing that motorists would slow down for potholes, they seize this
opportunity to stage their nefarious activities/trade. Potholes have also been
identified as culprits in several deadly accidents that have occurred on Nigerian
roads. Unsuspecting motorists chance onto them and because they have very
little time to react, they swerve and sometimes get into fatal accidents.
Statistics attributing many highway accidents to the presence of potholes are
sufficient conviction for the government on the need for reasonable budgetary
allocation for the highway construction.
Petty crime is common in the entire country including the highways and
this includes common crimes such as armed robbery, murder and carjacking.
Armed robberies are usually committed at knife or machete point. The use of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
104 TheNigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
home-made weapons in all crimes has increased to an alarming level. In 2005,
armed hold-ups and car hijackings became increasingly common across
Nigeria. The year 2006, in particular, saw an increase in the sophistication of
criminals in conducting surveillance on their victims especially in carjacking
and organized crime. Highway bandits continue to get away with simple road
barricades used to waylay their victims. Residential break-ins are generally low
and do not pose a threat as such. However, many people live behind barricades
of window grilles, alarm systems, night guards and security lights (Dawha,
1996; Agbola, 1997; Albert, 2003; Fabiyi, 2004).
Part of the crime problem is blamed on the country's porous borders. The
Benin-Nigerian (Seme) border is particularly notorious for all sorts of illegal
activities. Gangsters are known to operate on both sides' of the border,
launching attacks on one side and seeking shelter on the other. The networks
on each side sustain the illegal activities. Highway banditry has forced drivers
to travel in armed convoys on main roads in the north. Still, the public
continues to fall prey to highway bandits. In May 2006, bandits between Niger
and Benin Republics stripped a bus-load of passengers of all valuables and slit
the throat of a woman who had tried to resist. This continued lawlessness
forced the Minister of State for Defence to call in the army to help
(Chikwanha, 2007).
Many reasons have been adduced to explain the upsurge in crime. One
hackneyed thesis that has been bandied about is the infiltration of foreign ,
bandits through the country's porous borders. While several foreigners from
neighbouring countries have been captured or killed over the years in response
to this thesis, the rise in crime rate has not been abated. Evidently, Nigerians
commit more than a few of the robberies and in many cases, allegedly with the
direct or indirect connivance with security agents (Umaru, 2004; Ikhurionan,
2003).
For obvious reasons, many concerned Nigerians for the most part, point
accusing fingers at the police. But other security agencies are equally culpable.
Obasanjo did observe, for instance, that "the custom man is the chief
smuggler". Similar vile but valid comments can be made with respects to many
other security agencies. Under such depressing circumstances, as the former
President queried, in anguish, "What do we do?" (Shettima, 2006). As he
rightly said, the police are hiring out their guns to armed robbers, what will
stop the same police from 'selling' the right of way in the use of the roads to
armed robbers? It becomes clear that ordinary Nigerians are powerless and
bewildered by the sheer brazenness of bandits on the highways.
Fear and Reportage of Crime on Highways
The fear of crime in today's society can lead to change and adaption of new
lifestyle in many ways (Larkin, 2008). It can restrict our working and social
lives to such a degree, which may if not checked, become quite threatening.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 105
Being involved in an incident or some form of attack whilst driving may
influence some people into not using their vehicles as often as they may wish.
Newspaper and television reports have often increased the fear of violence
by the reporting of any incident or attack involving motorists. This is not a
criticism of the media, but it should show that because such incidents merit the
attention of the press, the incident itself is newsworthy and not simply an
everyday occurrence. If such incidents went unreported, it would at least
indicate that they were 'commonplace' and subsequently not worth reporting.
The rarity of any event is often in relation to the amount of publicity given.
In view of this, in future, if one hears of any such incident, which may
occur, one should not automatically assume that it is happening everywhere
and that it will happen to anyone. It is pertinent to learn from the incident in
order to ensure that one will not become a victim of a similar incident. The
time to be concerned is when such happenings are not reported as widely as
they occur. This would usually indicate that they are 'commonplace' and an
everyday occurrence.
Theoretical Framework
Crime, according to Brantinghaam and Brantinghaam (1981), is complex and it
occurs when four things are incongruent - a law, an offender, a target and a
place. The place demonstrates the spatial context of crime. In- the same vein,
the fear of crime cannot but be analyzed more carefully in terms of the
environment and the cues that might create fear (Fisher and Nadan, 1995).
Against this backdrop, this study adopted the Routine Activities Theory as
originally developed by Cohen and Felson (1979) and subsequently elaborated
mostly by Felson, (1994) and Eck (1995). The theory simply holds that the
probability that a violation will occur at any specific time and place might be
taken as a function of the convergence of the likely offenders and suitable
target in the absence of capable guardians.
The Routine Activities Theory was proposed by Lawrence Cohen and
Marcus Felson in 1979 (Miller et al., 2006:81) as a response to the crime rate
of the United States during 1947 to 1974 (Cohen and Felson, 1979:588). Cohen
and Felson based their theory on a rational choice model, in which people
make rational decisions in ways that will be to their advantage, with as little
disadvantage as possible (Akers and Sellers, 2004:26). The Rational Choice
Theory is based in the classical school of criminology (Miller et aI., 2006: 4).
When Cohen and Felson proposed the theory, they clearly defined the
concepts used, and the propositions they wished to express. Their proposition
was that for a crime to occur, you needed three elements: motivated offender,
suitable target, and lack of a capable guardian (Cohen and Felson, 1979:588),
and those three elements must converge in space and time through routine
activities (Akers and Sellers, 2004:33). They clearly define what each element
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
106 TheNigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
is, and that if you remove any of the elements a crime would not occur (Akers
and Sellers, 2004:33).
A motivated offender, is a person who is motivated enough to commit a
crime (Akers and Sellers, 2004:33), while suitable target, which is the second
element, was part of the theory that was expanded on by the acronym VN A,
which stands for Value, Inertia, Visibility, and Accessibility (Miller, 2006:82).
Value according to Miller (2006) is dependent upon the person assessing the
object or person, and it does not depend on the actual economic worth of the
object; Inertia is the size of the target and the ability of the offender to remove
that object, or in the case of an offender attacking a person; it can be if the
offender feels he/she can overcome the victim; Visibility refers to whether or
not the offender knows that the target is there while Accessibly is if the
offender is able to have access to the target, and then if they can retreat or
escape. The last requirement, absence of capable guardians, occurs through
everyday people as they continue their routine activities, and prevent a crime
either overtly or not (Cohen and Felson, 1979:588).
This theory by Cohen and Felson seeks to explain criminal violations, and
they give the parameters in which the violations will occur. Cohen and Felson
give a wide range in which the theory can be applied. A major advantage of
this theory is that it can be applied to many different types of studies and
crimes including homicides, hot spots of crime, property and violent crimes,
natural disasters, and even internet crimes (Akers and Sellers, 2004:35-6). The.
theory, although wide enough in the range in phenomena it wishes to explain,
fails to account for why some individuals are motivated offenders (Akers and
Sellers, 2004:38). It makes an assumption that motivated offenders will just be
in a particular place when their target is there and there is a lack of a capable
guardian. In Nigeria, this is not just an assumption; this theory aptly explains
the common scenario where lots have been said and heard about people taking
to criminality in order to meet their social responsibility. Take, for instance,
armed robbery along the highway, criminals usually engaged in their nefarious
activities after noting the absence of 'capable' guardian, which is the Police
Highway patrol. The concept of 'capable guardian' could also imply the Police
patrol that is adequately equipped to handle unpleasant situation if by chance
the robbers are trying to resist arrest. Police patrols that involve themselves in
extortion of money from motorists cannot be classified as 'capable guardian' at
all.
Capable guardian may come in form of provision of infrastructural and
technological facilities, such as street light and closed circuit television
cameras on the street (Danner, 2003) as well as motorable roads. Except for
recent time when information abounds about the daredevil robbers that operate
during the daylight, their activities are mostly during the dark. Where they are
operating in the daylight, closed-circuit cameras will assist in tracking them. It
was also noted that the dilapidated parts of the highways were always the
hotspot for criminal activities. The position here is that existence of these
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 107
facilities will deter the activities of highway robbers or reduce it to minimal
level.
A closer analysis of the routine activities theory shows an interpretation in
two major features within the context of 'opportunity' (Bottons and Wiles,
1997:327):
1. There is a strong interest in the day to day actrvmes of potential
victims of crime and of those potentially able to offer 'natural
surveillance', and
2. Routine activities theory has an explicitly special dimension of crime
which emphasizes the fundamental human ecological character of
illegal acts as events which occur at specific locale, space and time
involving specific persons and lor objects.
Finally, this theory embeds the concept of opportunity within the routine
parameters of the day to day lives of ordinary people, and in doing so also
emphasizes the spatial - temporal features of opportunity (Bottons and Wiles,
1997).
Methodology
This covers the scope of the study, the instruments used to collect data for the
study, the target (study) population and sample size as well as data analysis.
Scope of the study
This was limited to the Ibadan-Sokoto transport corridor. This corridor covers
approximately 850 kilometres of surfaced road and can be broken down as
follows:
Ibadan Ilorin - 165 kilometers (Oyo/Kwara States)
11orin Jebba - 100 kilometers (Kwara State)
Jebba Mokwa 40 kilometers (Niger State)
Mokwa - Makera 60 kilometers (Niger State)
Makera - Kontagora 80 kilometers (Niger State)
Kontagora- Jega - 265 kilometers (Niger/Kebbi States)
Jega Sokoto 140 kilometers (Kebbi/Sokoto States)
Research Instrument
The study adopted qualitative methodology of In-depth Interviews (IDIs),
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Observations. Structured guides were
developed for the IDIs and FGDs and pre-tested to ensure validity. Data from
responses offered by respondents and discussants in the FGD and IDI guides
were summarized using content analysis and grouping of relevant information.
Three trained field assistants were engaged for the field survey. Three
languages: Yoruba, Hausa and English (and in some occasions Pidgin English)
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
108 TheNigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
were used for the IDls; the transcribed scripts were later translated into
English.
Study Population
The selection of the respondents for this study was purposive. The respondents
involved in in-depth interviews (IDls) included the commuters, their relatives
(who accompanied travellers to the park), National Union of Road Transport
Workers (NURTW) officials and Police officers. The respondents for the
Focus Group Discussions were limited to drivers from CarIB uses and
Truckffrailers sections of Ibadan/Sokoto transport corridor. The Police
Officers were selected from Ojoo Divisional Police headquarters which has
jurisdiction over the Motor Park.
The loading schedule of the CarslBuses and Trucks/Trailers make
involvement of the drivers in FGDs appropriate. The drivers are always at ease
awaiting their turns to load, which may not take place until the following day.
Their assistance and cooperation were sought to participate in the study, and
only those who were willing eventually took part in this study. The breakdown
of this is as displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: Breakdown of IDI and FGD Sessions
IDI Respondents Male Female Total
Commuters/Passengers 33 14 47
Relatives of travellers 13 5 18
NUR TW Officials 5 - 5
Police Officers 2 - 2
Total 53 19 72
Respondents in FGDs Less than 40 years of Above 40 years of Total
age age
Car section 18 (3 sessions of 6 12 (2 sessions of 6 30
respondents each) respondents each)
Bus section 18 (3 sessions of 6 12 (2 sessions of 6 30
respondents each) respondents each)
Trucks (Mitsubishi 12 (2 sessions of 6 18 (3 sessions of 6 30
Canter/911) respondents each) respondents each)
Trailers section 12 (2 sessions of 6 18 (3 sessions of 6 30
respondents each) respondents each)
Total 60 60 120
Procedure for Data Analysis
Open code software was utilized to analyze the data collected for this work. In
addition, verbatim quotations were utilized to illustrate some points during
interpretation of results.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 109
Findings and Discussion
Crime Situation and Perception of Safety along the Corridor
Discussions during the illI and FGD sessions focused on a 5 - year recurring
assessment of security and safety along the Ibadan-Sokoto Road Transport
Corridor. Respondents were unanimous on the growing crime rate on this
corridor. In ranking the problems and danger on the corridor, crime came top
followed by "bad roads". A male passenger respondent said:
The greatest problem on this route is that your vehicle can be attacked
at any moment .... maybe after that you can talk of bad roads (Male
ID!, Passenger).
Other respondents reflected' on past security situation along Nigeria
highways and compared this with the present reality. In the words of one of
them:
This route used to be safe some years back ... but now things are
terrible. Then you can travel at any period of time without fear of bad
roads or armed robbers, but this is no longer the case now (Female
ill I, Passenger). '
A driver emphatically stated that:
The major problem we encounter, I mean we drivers, are thieves on the
highway and bad roads ... A lot of drivers have bitter experience as a
result of their encounter with robbers be it night or day time. The
particular hotspot for this nefarious activity is mostly between Bode
Sadu to Mokwa and subsequently Kontagora towards Sokoto (FGD,
Bus Driver).
Respondents were also unanimous on the rising trend of this problem as
well as its growing sophistication. Corroborating earlier position of some
drivers that took part in this study, the Chairman of NURTW-Sokoto unit
submitted that:
Many of our drivers have experienced robbers attacking them ... they
leave Ibadan and before they get to Ilorin, they would have been
robbed of all their belongings ... money and other materials ...we have
lost three drivers in the last eight months (ID!, NURTW Chairman).
In another instance, some respondents shed light on the specific time when
rate of crime on the highway is particularly high. According to another parker
in FGD sessions:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
110 TheNigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
The crime situation is usually worrisome during festive periods like
Christmas, New Year, eid-el Kabir. The point here is that people
usually travel en-mass in the course of celebrating with their families.
It thus provides ample opportunity for the men of the underworld to
attack the travellers at that point in time (FGD, Car Driver).
The rise in the crime trend along this corridor could in itself reflect the
general trends in National Crime figures as Table 2 reflects. According to the
table, crimes that pertain to robbery are part of those that are increasing at
significant rates in the country. The implication of this is that other forms of
crime as reflected in the table are likely to progress from the neighbourhood to
the streets of which highways are inclusive. Except reasonable action is taken
about this, one may not rule out the possibility of extension of tentacles by the
perpetrators of these crimes to the highways in order to increase their returns.
This thus portends danger for the general well being and overall development
of the country, because fear of insecurity means reduction in the ability of the
people to engage in economic venture that may involve travelling to other parts
of the country. Where this becomes the case, it means little profit and fewer
investments. At the same time, this is likely to discourage foreign investment
due to the existing market trends and factors influencing the trends.
The general perception of safety and crime situation as reflected in the data
from illIs and FGDs is a manifestation of growing level of insecurity in the
country. The ample knowledge of this by the respondents shows the general
awareness of this among the people. One possible effect of this is the growing
fear of crime by the people with its attendant problems. Such fear and its
effects are reflected in the words of a female illI respondent. According to
her:
With the rate at which this menace is going now, every journey I make
is borne out of necessity, Even the one I'm going now is half-hearted;
I just pray that we are not attacked. Where possible I will prefer not to
make this trip ... I am just praying for total protection because nobody
could tell what will happen in the next few hours (Female illI,
Passengers ).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 111
Table 2: Summary of Crime Statistics in Ni~eria (1997-2006)
Offences 1997 1998 1999 ZOOO ZOOI ZOOZ Z003 ZOO4 Z005 Z006
Buralarv 7706 5548 4928 3768 5523 2683 2769 2908 4907 3501
Gamblin. 203 158 264 189 263 229 148 165 631
Anned 2419 2286 1877 2809 2809 3889 3497 3142 2074 2063
Robbery
Store 4235 4036 3045 2446 2446 2973 2790 2768 4887 3510
Breaking
Suicide 272 313 323 146 241 152 191 131 128 199
Receiving 2733 3812 7308
Stolen
Property
Murder 1730 1670 1645 1255 2120 2170 2136 2550 2074 2000
Assault 42815 40764 3358 17909 37531 39329 24125 29863 33991 32838
Demand! 128 112 63 133 112 88 80 56 84 63
Menace
House 8562 7847 5929 3636 6059 5448 4706 4713 6371 4774
Breaking
Unlawful 538 8772 8666
Possession
Arson 1289 1268 1010
Attempted 58 43 30 41 27 29 38 19 20 289
Suicide
Forgery of 1245 718 483 489 573 528 576 50 58
Currency
Note
RapelIncident 2585 2249 2241 1529 2284 084 2253 1626 1835 1718
Casualty
Attempted 14720 14362 15931 15241 15241 17580 17666 18733 22558 2643
Wounding
False 11950 12037 9996 7927 10234 9134 9508 9532 9580 6395
pretence!
Cheating!
Fraud
Foreerv -, 650 551 519
Theft/other 58095 54506 42974 29127 40769 35231 33124 37289 46114 2901
Stealing
Child 303 107 147 101 116 55 39 45 80 59
Stealing
Kidnanninz 377 282 342 243 349 377 ·410 349 789 II
Coining 14 14 7 4 32 6 16 7 23
Offence
Breach of 7519 6765 395 7532 7532 2324 7298 6080 7967
public peace
Unnatural 435 516 456 376 434 277 306 7967 371 361
offence
Slave 70 II 21 II 45 17 18 371 14 II
Dealings
Periurv 97 20 12 16 14
Briberyl 100 138 75 48
Corruption
Manslaughter 18 27 14 101
Escape from 743 484 352 294
lawful
custody
Source: The Cleen Foundation (2009)
The fear is not limited to the passengers and drivers alone; relatives of the
passengers equally expressed their worries. Many revealed that they came to
see off their relatives to the Motor Park in order to collect information on the
vehicles they were to board, and to give moral support to their relatives to quell
the fear of uncertainties on the road. According to a respondent:
I am here to see my wife off on an official journey that is taking her to
Sokoto. She does this on quarterly basis, and I took it as a matter of
duty to take her to the Park. I wait till the vehicle takes off after the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
112 The Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
last passenger has boarded the vehicle. On each of these occasions, I
always stay by her, tease her in order to create a lighter atmosphere
that devoid of anxiety; as the journey is about to commence, I will pray
with her to commit the journey unto the hands of God. This has been
helping the family greatly. As the journey progresses, the next line of
action is constant communication on handset to know situation of
things (Male IDI, Relative to a Passenger).
Nature of Crime along the Corridor
Further discussions revealed the nature of crimes on the corridor has been
described as mostly violent in nature. This is attributed to the preparedness of
the criminals to ensure that they succeed in their acts. A respondent submitted
thus:
We the drivers are the target ... they aim at us and as soon as we are
hit they descend on the passengers and rob them of their property at
gun point. Anybody that dares to resist is usually dealt with ruthlessly,
in most cases, such a person is killed in a violent way (FGD, Bus
~~ . .
Another driver painted the situation in a more pathetic way, according to him:
Taking a look between 1978 and 1990s the thieves of that time are not
as sophisticated as those of today. You can imagine thieves at that
time robbing with knife and cutlass not gun. But those robbing now
are very deadly and wicked and any driver who fails to stop for them
when flagged down will be killed (FGD, Truck Driver),
On similar note but with different revelation, a respondent said:
In some pathetic situations, female passengers are raped in addition to
dispossessing them of their jewelleries, handsets and money. You can
imagine the horror we live with (FGD, Car Driver).
Discussions did not reveal any ethnic factor amongst the offenders as the
languages used by offenders vary by region and section along the corridor.
However, some fear spots were discernable along the corridor. Deeper analysis
of submission by the different categories of respondents revealed that there is
no axis of the corridor that is safe. An official of NURTW, Shasha/Ibadan-
Sokoto unit said:
Bad axis with long stretch of bad road is usually the hangout of the
criminals. In some cases, the bad portion of the road may not stretch
significantly, but may be in a deplorable condition that requires slow
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 113
driving of the vehicle to prevent breakdown of the vehicle, accident,
rapid wearing-away of essential parts of the vehicles. It is at that point
that the robbers will file out to attack the vehicles and their occupants
(illI, Vice Chairman, NURTW Sokoto Unit).
Lending credence to this, a participant in one of the FGD sessions
confirmed the position of the Vice Chairman in terms of effects of bad road on
rate of crime. He was more particular about the axis noted as being notorious
for this nefarious activity. In his words:
From Ibadan to Sokoto, the most notorious areas are in Niger State ...
Niger state area is a death trap in terms of bad roads and criminal
activities (FGD, Trailer Driver).
There was a consensus in the linkage between bad roads and fear spots by
respondents. As a respondent commented:
As soon as you approach areas where roads are bad, your heart beat
goes up because anything can happen... thieves can appear from
nowhere to come and perpetrate what they are best known for (Female
ill I, Passenger).
Although respondents argued that crime is ever present on the corridor,
discussions point to the fact that forest areas along the corridor have higher
potential for crime occurrence. A respondent narrated further that:
Forest areas are one of the major areas where I fear most on the
corridor ... in such places, you cannot easily see through the criminals'
hideouts. They seize the opportunity to attack the vehicles and run back
into the forests (Female illI, Passenger).
Marauders were also reported to sometimes disguise themselves in police
uniforms. While the timing of the criminal activities is not predictable, it is
more likely when the route is lean in traffic especially between 1-2 pm and at
dusk.
Effects on the Road Transport Sector
From the cases reported, it is obvious that the fear of crime by passengers has
begun to have effect on the road transport business. The data gathered from
the entire stakeholders in transport business that took part in illIs and FGDs
lend credence to this. A respondent in the FGDs submitted thus:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
114 TheNigerian Journal of sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
The situation is so pathetic that those of us in the business are now
affected as most people prefer to travel with Luxurious Buses as
against cars and small buses. This is simply because the operators of
Luxurious Buses provide securities unlike the case with small buses
and cars where government does not permit the use of or possession of
arms (FGD, Truck Driver).
On the part of the passengers, the fear has effects on their rate of travelling.
In the words of one of the passengers:
The number of vehicles loaded per day has reduced ... and any vehicle
that is not loaded by 12 noon has no hope of loading again for the day
because no passenger would dare venture to travel at night because of
risk and uncertainties involved (Male IDI, Passenger).
In another instance, the escalation and prevalence of crime especially along
the highways is being ascribed to failure on the part of the victims to report to
the appropriate quarters for necessary action. The Police officers that took part
in the study revealed that crime reporting plays a crucial role in crime
management; however, they revealed that most victims hardly report to the
police. This position was however faulted by some passengers who opined that
the fact that the passengers are on transit at the time the crime occurred is a
setback on successful monitoring and prosecution of such cases. This'
according to them hardly give the police the needed opportunity of seeing the
case through either in terms of constant appearance of witness to supply one
information or the other as occasions demand. According to one of the
passengers:
What will the police do in this case ... don't forget the passengers are
on transit.. ..if you are in position of such victims who are on transit
(God forbid) will you come back to the station to come and ask how far
the case has gone? I'm very sure, you cannot, therefore there is the
need for the Government to see to it that necessary stone is left
unturned in the course of making our highways crime free (Male IDI,
Passenger).
Stakeholders' Response to crime
As precautionary measures towards eradicating crime along the highways or its
reduction to the barest minimum, some ideas were generated as the best ways
out of the menace. The ideas emanated from both sides of the divide -
passengers and transport operators. These are as enumerated below:
• Searching passengers and goods before take-off of vehicles. This will help
to ensure that robbers are not boarding the vehicle with the intent to
perpetrate evil in the middle of the journey.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 115
• Barring passengers from making GSM calls in the course of the trip; this is
because it was believed that some passengers stay in touch with robbers
keeping them abreast of the activities of the vehicles.
• Documenting details of passengers at point of departure in order to know
whom to contact in the course of unforeseen circumstances.
• Collaborating with state Anti-Robbery Squad vide the Save-Our-Soul calls.
• Reduction of cash at hand by passengers and drivers so as to make
highways less attractive to criminals.
• Use of alternative routes.
• Operational scheduling of movement periods by transport operators
• Going in convoys/groups
• Drivers of buses and trucks have increased ownership of guns and weapons
of violence for self-defence '
• Reduction in trips by passengers
While the Special Anti-Robbery Squad of the different states along the
corridor has been reported helpful, a major response that has emerged along the
route is the local vigilante personnel. Observations along the corridor showed
that members of this group of 'private security' guards dotted some seemingly
dangerous spots. Armed with local dane guns, they often wear uniforms that
differ across sectors along the corridor, but distinct enough to give them a
paramilitary outlook. They appear untrained (professionally) and tend to rely
on indigenous knowledge of game hunting. They have no training on modem
policing and also lack the sophistication which the criminals along the corridor
have. But they tend to have the confidence and courage imbued with these
local security outfits. These groups/outfits that come under different names
('Damusa', 'Olode', 'Oodua People's Congress (OPC)', 'Yanbanga',
'Dambakan') depending on the locality have been adjudged by respondents as
very effective. A driver who has been operating along the corridor since 1976
submitted thus:
We like them on the way, when they (thieves) are robbing at any point
of the road where they could be located and they are informed, they
will go there. They don't run from thieves. We are always happy and
feel okay when we see them along the way but once we leave their
area, the fear will return (illI, Bus Driver).
Comments as above raise the question on the trust and confidence that
Nigerians have for the Police (Okunola, 2006). This equally calls to question
the efficiency and effectiveness of the Highway Patrol unit of the Nigeria
Police. The presence and role of this unit did not elicit palatable comments
from some of the respondents. According to a respondent:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
116 The Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
Those Highway Patrol People? ..forget them ... they just appear to
extort money from the- drivers... when serious robbers' operation
happens they are nowhere to be found Highway patrols are not doing
anything on the highway (Female IDI, Passenger).
Conclusion
It is obvious that fear of crime on Nigeria highways has become a nuisance to
the transport industry and the general populace making use of the services
within it. The fear is further compounded by the nature of the roads, which as
most respondents opined has deteriorated greatly over time. The attitude of the
people towards the Police is negative. This therefore calls to question the
overall essence of the highway patrol system of the Nigeria Police.
In the light of the foregoing, it can be concluded within the backdrop of the
theoretical framework adopted in this study that in the daily routine activities
of commuters (a geo-spatial activity), armed robbers or potential criminals are
seizing the socio-spatial temporal absence of guardians and seizing the
opportunity in the absence of capable guardians (highway policing) to unleash
terror and violence on commuters. Experiences of victims have sent jitters into
the minds of potential commuters. Reported cases especially by the media have
served to increase the degree of fear amongst commuters with increasing socio-
economic consequences including uncertainty and despair. The situation is
now such that if urgent steps are not taken to restore the confidence of highway
users, it may lead to total crippling of movement of persons and goods by road
(ThisDay, 2006; The Statesman, 2006). Going by the necessity of movement of
persons and goods as crucial tools for social and economic development in all
societies, it would be antithetical for this to be dislocated by the activities of
highway armed robberies.
Suggestions
The following suggestions are proffered:
• Increased routine patrol to reduce the spatio-temporal features of
opportunity. Since both day and night travels are prone to mishaps and
criminal activities, government should wake up to its responsibility of
securing the roads. The government needs to wake up to the basic tenets of
its existence in which provision of safety for the citizenry is inclusive. One
way to achieve that is to replace the ubiquitous but inefficient police
check-points with highly motivated and well equipped patrol teams. That
would introduce unpredictability into the operations of the law officers,
which could unsettle the robbers. With proper surveillance, the highways
can be rid of felons.
• With the growing on-line banking in the country, travellers should be
discouraged from carrying huge amounts of money. There should be full
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 117
commitment to the need to promote paper economy, as against cash
economy that currently operates in the country.
• In addition to safeguarding the roads and making them more motorable,
government should also expedite action on revamping the railways. That
would reduce pressure on the highways. Even in advanced countries where
road networks are far more dependable, the railway system constitutes a
major means of transportation. A reliable railway would, no doubt, reduce
the enormous security challenges posed by the roads.
• There is need for constant patrolling of areas noted to be dangerous, while
aerial surveillance should also be introduced to curb the menace of the
existing criminals and discourage potential criminals.
• Given the correlation between bad roads and occurrence of crime,
government at all levels (especially federal) will have to increase its efforts
which should not be limited to road construction alone but also in the
repair of bad ones.
• As suggested by the majority of respondents, there is an urgent need to
increase police posts along the highways in Nigeria.
• Finally, Transport Security Administration should be established not only
to ensure security at points of departure but also monitor the routes to
prevent armed attacks on Nigerian highways.
The above suggestions raise a major issue within the various reforms
which Nigeria Police has gone through. In view of this, it is glaring that the
reform in the police has not had any meaningful impact on security on our
highways hence the need for real reform that will overhaul the entire highway
security system in the country. The contentious issues include whether the
vigilante groups, on whom the officials of NURTW have confidence, or the
state should take the lead in protecting the highway, as well as the need to
increase resource allocation for security of the highways.
The whole scenario points at the need of finding ways of extending the
community policing strategy into security on the highways in Nigeria. After
all, the vigilante groups represent an attempt by communities on the corridor to
make their input into the security system in their respective segments along the
corridor.
References
Adebayo, B. F. 2009. "Burden on Nigerians and Nigerian road users" Weekly
Trumpet (Newspaper), (May 7 edition).
Agbola, T. 1997. Architecture of Fear: Urban Design and Construction
Response to Urban Violence in Lagos State, Ibadan: IFRA Publication.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
118 The Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
Akers, R. L. and Sellers, C. S. 2004. Criminological Theories: Introduction,
Evaluation and Application (4th edition), Los Angeles, California:
Roxbury Publishing Company, 2004.
Akiwunmi, O. 200l. 'Princes as Highway Men. A Consideration of the
Phenomenon of Armed Banditry in Precolonial Borgu' Cahiers d'etudes
africaines, 200112, 162, p.333-379.
Albert, I. O. 2003. "The concept of security in the context of urban crimes and
Segregation in West Africa" in Faurchard, L. and Albert, 1.0 (eds),
Security Crime and Segregation in West African Cities Since the 19th
Century Ibadan: IFRA Publication. Pp. 53-69.
Alemika, E. E. O. 1997. Criminal Violence and Insecurity in Lagos State
Nigeria Africa Peace review. Journal of Centre for Peace and Conflict
Resolution. Vol. II2 Pp. 72-95.
Anthony, E. B and Wiles, P. "Environmental Criminology" The Oxford
Handbook of Criminology (2nd Edition), Oxford Clarendon Press, pp. 305-
350.
Bottoms, A. E. and Wi lies, P. 1997. Explanations of Crime and Place. In
Evans, D. J., Fyfe, N.R. and Herbert D.T. (Eds). Crime, Policing and Place
Essays In EnvironmentalCriminology. Pp. 11-35. London: Routeledge.
Brantinghaan, P. J. and Brantinghaan, P. L. 1981. "Notes on the Geometry of
Crime" in Environmental Criminology, Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.
pp.27-57.
Buhari, M. 2000. "The Role of Infrastructural Development and Rehabilitation
in Sustainable Economic Growth in Nigeria"; Paper presented at the All
Peoples Party Economic Summit, held at Ladi Kwali Conference centre,
Sheraton Hotel Abuja, 9th_10th November 2000; accessed at
http://www.Buhari20030rg//speeches.htm.
Chikwanha, A. B. 2007. "Enhancing the Delivery of Security in Africa:
Complementing the APRM AND working" to the African Union Criminal
Justice Issue Paper 2007.
Cleen: w\vw.kabissa.org/cleen; Accessed on zs" June 2009.
Cohen, L. E.; Felson, M. 1979. "Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A
Routine Activity Approach" American Sociological Review, Vol. 44. pp.
588-608.
Danner, T. A. 2005. 'Violent Times: A case study of the Ybor city Historic
District', Criminal Justice Police Review, 14(1).
Dawha, E. 1996. Yan Daba.iYan Banga and Yan Daukar Amarya: A Study of
Criminal Gangs in Northern Nigeria, Ibadan: IFRA.
Eck, J. E. 1995. "Examining Routine Activity Theory: A Review of Two
Books" Justice Quarterly, Vol. 12, pp. 783-797.
Enekwechi, C. 2008. "Curbing Armed Robbery Menace on Our Highways"
accessed at http://www.dailytrustonline (09-07-2008 edition).
Fabiyi, O. 2004. Gated Neighbourhoods and Privatisation of Urban Security in
Ibadan Metropolis. French Institute for Research in Africa.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Commuters' Fear of Crime and the Road Transport Industry 119
Faiola, T. 1996. "The Brigandage and Piracy in Nineteenth Century Yoruba",
Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria (1995-1996), XII (1-2); 83- 105.
Federal Government of Nigeria, 2003. "Strategic Conflict Assessment:
Consolidated and Zonal Reports", Abuja: Institute for Peace and Conflict
Resolution.
Felson, M. 1994. Crime and everyday life, (Third edition), Thousand Oaks,
CA: Pine Forge press.
Filani, M. 2003. "Advancing the cause of Private Participation in the Road
transport Sub-sector in Nigeria" A paper presented at to" Anniversary
celebration of the Association Bus Company limited, May 14,2003, Ikeja,
Lagos.
Fisher, A. and Nadan, D. 1995. "Violence and Violent Crime in the North-
East" accessed at http://www.history.ac.uklihr/resources/theses/tco2 on
12/01/2011.
Ginifer J. and Ismail O. 2003. Armed violence and poverty in Nigeria (Mini
case study for the Armed Violence and Poverty Initiative), University of
Bradford (March 2005).
Husher, N. 2005. "Nigeria, Giant of Africa"; HST 142.
Ikhurionan, E. 2003. "Robbery Kingpin, Tidjani Moved to Nigeria: Confesses
to being receiver of stolen goods" accessed at http://news.
biafranigeriaworld.comlarchive/2003/sep/26/0 115.html.
Larkin, E. 2008. "A Highway Code for Vulnerable Motorists" accessed at
http://www.highwaycodes.com.
Maxfield, M. G. 1984. "The limits of Vulnerability in Explaining Fear of
Crime: A Comparative Neighbourhood Analysis" Journal of Research in
Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 21 Pp.233-250.
Miller, J. M.; C. J. Schreck, and R. Tewksbury, 2006. Criminological Theory:
A Brief Introduction, Boston: Pearson! Allyn & Bacon, 2006.
Obono, O. 2007. "A Lagos Thing: Rules and Reality in the Nigerian Megacity"
Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, SummerlFa1l2007.
Reid, T. 2008. Crime and Criminology (11 th Edition), New York McGraw Hill
Higher Education.
Shettima, A. G. 2006. "Policing the Police" Amana Online Journal accessed at
http://www.highways/AmanaOnline.htm.
Sundeen, R. and Mathieu, J. 1976. The Fear of Crime and its Consequences
among Elderly in the Urban Communities, 3(6):211-9.
Umaru, T. A. 2004. "Our porous borders and security implications" Journal of
Culture and Environmental Studies, Vol. 15(2).
Uzokwe A. O. 2003. "Why Diasporans May Not Return to Nigeria?" accessed
at http://www.nigeliaworld.com.
http://www.widernet.orgiOurJosWeb/CMlOntheRoadiontheroad.htm (1999).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
120 TheNigerian Journal o/Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7
Wahab, A. Z. 2008. "The hazard on the passengers: The case of highway
security" accessed at http://www .vitanet.orglhazard/securityl
XXProads.html/.
Wikipedia, 2009. "Transport in Nigeria" accessed at http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/transport_in_Nigeria.
Williams, P. and Dickinson, J. 1993. "Fear of Crime: Read All About It? The
Relationship between Newspaper Crime Reporting and Fear of Crime",
British Journal of Criminology, 33:33-56.
Zedner, C. 1997. "Victims" In Maguire, M. Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. (eds).
The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (2nd Edition), Oxford Clarendon
Press.
Newspapers
Vanguard, January 28,2003.
This Day News, January 26, 2003
Guardian, January 25, 2003
Thisday (2006). Highways to Hell: 09/10/2006
The Statesman, (2006). Highways to Hell: 09/10/2006.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY