EFFECTS OF SELF-CONCEPT AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE TRAINING ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS OF PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS IN SOUTHWESTERN, NIGERIA BY Victoria Folake IYANDA B.Ed (Ilorin), MSW, M.Ed (Ibadan) Matric. No. : 84135 A thesis in the Department of Adult Education Submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the University of Ibadan MAY, 2015 CERTIFICATION I certify that this study was carried out by Victoria Folake IYANDA (Matric. No.: 84135) under my supervision in the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. …………………………………. Supervisor K.O. Kester, Ph.D Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late parents, Prince Daniel Aremu and Mama Ayinke Aremu. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give thanks to Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ, my creator who makes all things possible; to Him be the glory. I thank God for His guidance, strength, and seeing me through this work. I am indebted also to my amiable supervisor, Dr Kehinde Oluwaseun Kester. Words are inadequate to describe your undaunted assistance, guidance, brotherly advice, constructive criticism, thorough supervision throughout the various stages of the study. You were also a personal source of encouragement in running this programme. God bless you, sir. My sincere appreciation goes to the Head, Department of Adult Education, Professor Deborah Egunyomi and Professor M. O. Akintayo, who did not give up on me. Thank you for your encouragement, advice and support in the course of this work. To all my lecturers in the Department of Adult Education, I thank you for your positive encouragement and advice in the course of this work and for providing the enabling environment for my academic pursuit. I am indeed grateful to you all. To Professor A.O. Aremu and Dr A. Oluwole, of the Department of Guidance and Counselling, I say thank you for your support, encouragement and contributions towards the completion of this work. I am also grateful to the Head, Department of Social Work, Dr E. M. Ajala. Thank you for your contribution towards the success of this work. I wish to appreciate the following individuals for their immense contributions to the completion of this work, late Professor Adewale Oke, of the Department of Sociology, and his wife, Mrs. Lola Oke; thank you for allowing God to use you, to make me undergo this academic pursuit. I am forever grateful. The All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) zones that participated in this study; my research assistants – Mr. Victor Onyecholem, Mr. Samuel Oyewo and Mrs. Bose Fadare – I thank you all for your support and contribution. I equally thank Mr. N.A. Babalola, for the assistance rendered throughout the various stages of this work. I prayed Almighty God will always be there for you also. My special thanks go to my wonderful and ever caring husband, Mr. Ademola Thomas Iyanda whose support, prayers and patience during this process were extraordinary. Thank you for your words of encouragement always. God bless you. To my dear children – Adedayo, Adenike, Oluwatobiloba and Oluwatimilehin – I say thank you for your understanding, patience and support. iv I am grateful to my siblings, Prince Kelly Aremu, Prince Bisi Aremu and Barrister Iyabode Oguntebi, for their continuous help and encouragement. Mr. Dele Oguntebi, I thank you for your support and encouragement. To my aunties, Mrs. Ebun Oyewale, Modupe Adepoju Deaconess Kunbi Daramola and Mrs. Yemisi Ayanleke – thank you for your prayers and support. I am indebted to my professional colleagues, Mrs. O. O. Ojuola, V. E Osuji, Dr M. A. Akinyemi, Mrs. Tokunbo Akinsanya, Mrs. Funmilayo Adetogun, Princess Adejoju Adelakun, Dr Modupe Ladapo, Mr. Babajide and Pastor Okewunmi, for their words of encouragement and contributions to the success of this programme; I say a big thank you. My friends, Dr Abiola Omokhabi, Dr Funke Ogidan, Mrs. Anne Olufayo, Olabisi Sotade, Tewogbade Adekunle, Dr Motunrayo Adebayo, Dr Siyanbola Omitoyin and Deaconess Yemisi Olatunbosun – thank you for your encouragement and prayers. My appreciation also goes to all my pastors, members of Graceland Baptist Church, Moniya, Ibadan and Children Department of Oritamefa Baptist Church, Total Garden, Ibadan – thank you for your prayers. Finally, to all who have contributed to this work directly or indirectly whose names I have not mentioned, I express my profound appreciation. V. F. Iyanda v ABSTRACT The duties and responsibilities as well as the work environment of contemporary public secondary school administrators in Southwestern Nigeria make them vulnerable to high level of occupational stress. This affects not only their mental and physical health but also the entire functioning of the secondary school system, raising concern among stakeholders. Previous studies have identified sources, dimensions and use of some psychological interventions in managing occupational stress with little or no consideration for the combined effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence trainings. This study, therefore, examined the effects of Self-concept Training (SCT) and Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in Southwestern Nigeria. The moderating effects of self-efficacy and gender were also determined. The study adopted a pretest-posttest, control group, quasi experimental design using a 3x2x2 factorial matrix. Three non-randomised groups of All Nigerian Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) from Oyo (37), Osun (50) and Ogun (34) states were used. Participants were 47 males and 74 females with a mean age of 54 ± 2 years. The ANCOPSS groups were assigned to SCT (Oyo), EIT (Ogun) and control (Osun) groups and the treatment lasted eight weeks. Emotional Intelligence (r=0.97), Self-concept (r=0.88), Self-efficacy (r=0.79), School Administrator Occupational Stress Indicator (r=0.81) and School Administrator Stress Management (r=0.77) scales were used for data collection. Seven hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analysed using Analysis of Covariance, Multiple Classification Analysis and Scheffe post-hoc test. There was a significant main effect of treatment on occupational stress of participants (F(3; 2 117)=21.51, ŋ =.27). The participants in EIT group (𝑥 =18.77) performed better than those in the SCT (𝑥 =17.37) and the control (𝑥 =13.23) groups. There was also a significant main 2 effect of self-efficacy on occupational stress (F(2;118)=17.84, ŋ =.13) but none for gender. Participants with medium self-efficacy (𝑥 =17.76) performed better than those with low self- efficacy (𝑥 =14.37). There was a significant two-way interaction effect of treatment and self- 2 efficacy on occupational stress (F(2;114)=3.08, ŋ =.05). However, there were no two-way interaction effects of treatment and gender, and gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress. The three-way interaction effect of treatment, gender and self-efficacy was also not significant. The self-concept training used in Oyo State and the emotional intelligence training employed in Ogun State were both effective in enhancing occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. Therefore, the two strategies should be employed in assisting school administrators in coping with occupational stress. Keywords: Public secondary school administrators, Self-concept training, Emotional intelligence training, Occupational stress. Word count: 399 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page …. … … …. …. …. …. …. i Certification …. … … …. …. …. …. … ii Dedication …. … … …. …. …. …. …. iii Acknowledgements …. … … …. …. …. …. …. iv Abstract …. … … …. …. …. …. …. vi Table of contents …. … … …. …. …. …. …. vii List of tables …. … … …. …. …. …. …. ix List of figures …. … … …. …. …. …. …. xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study …. .… .… …. …. …. …. 1 1.2 Statement of the problem …. … … …. …. …. …. 7 1.3 Objectives of the study….… … …. …. …. …. …. 8 1.4 Significance of the study … … …. …. …. …. 8 1.5 Scope of the study … … …. …. …. …. …. 10 1.6 Operational definition of terms… … …. …. …. …. …. 11 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1.1 Occupational stress… …. …. …. …. …. …. 13 2.1.2 Occupational stress management …. …. …. …. 18 2.1.3 Emotional intelligence … …. …. …. …. …. 23 2.1.4 Self-concept …. … …. …. …. …. …. 29 2.1.5 Self-efficacy … …. …. …. …. …. 34 2.1.6 The school leadership: concepts, functions and challenges …. …. …. 38 2.1.7 School administrators and occupational stress…. …. …. …. …. 45 2.1.8 Emotional intelligence Training and occupational stress …. …. …. 51 2.1.9 Self-concept Training and occupational stress …. …. …. …. 60 2.1.10 Self-efficacy and occupational stress …. …. …. …. …. 62 2.1.11 Gender and occupational stress …. …. …. …. …. 66 2.2.0 Theoretical framework …. …. …. …. …. 73 2.2.1 Person-environment fit model …. …. …. …. …. 73 2.2.2 Transactional model of stress …. …. …. …. ….. 74 2.2.3 Cybernetic theory …. …. …. …. 75 2.3 Hypotheses … …. …. …. …. …. 78 vii CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research design …. … …. …. …. …. …. 80 3.2 Population …. … …. …. …. …. …. 82 3.3 Sample and sampling techniques … …. …. …. …. …. ….. 82 3.4 Instrumentation …. … …. …. …. …. …. 83 3.5 Procedure for the study …. … …. …. …. …. …. 85 3.6 Brief description of the sessions …. … …. …. …. …. …. 86 3.7 Method of data analysis …. … …. …. …. …. …. 87 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Demographic information of the respondents …. …. …. …. …. 88 4.2 Analyses of hypotheses …. …. …. …. …. 96 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary …. … …. …. …. … 125 5.2 Conclusion …. … …. …. …. …. …. 126 5.3 Policy implications of the study …. … …. …. …. …. …. 126 5.4 Recommendations …. … …. …. …. …. …. 127 5.5 Contributions to knowledge …. … …. …. …. …. …. 128 5.6 Limitations of the study …. … …. …. …. …. …. 128 5.7 Suggestions for further study …. … …. …. …. …. …. 129 References …. … …. …. …. …. …. 130 Appendix I …. … …. …. …. …. …. 162 Appendix II …. … …. …. …. …. …. 180 Appendix III …. … …. …. …. …. …. 181 Appendix IV …. … …. …. …. …. …. 183 Appendix V …. … …. …. …. …. …. 184 Appendix VI …. … …. …. …. …. …. 185 Appendix VII …. … …. …. …. …. …. 188 Appendix VIII …. … …. …. …. …. …. 190 Appendix IX …. … …. …. …. …. …. 191 Appendix X …. … …. …. …. …. …. 192 Appendix XI …. … …. …. …. …. …. 193 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 ANCOPSS Zones …. …. …. …. …. …. 10 Table 3.1: A 3x2x2 factorial matrix …. …. …. …. …. …. 81 Table 3.2: ANCOPSS Zone Table …. …. …. …. …. …. 82 Table 4.1.1: ANCOVA on the Significant Main Effect of Treatment Groups on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 96 Table 4.1.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Treatments Groups …. …. …. 97 Table 4.1.3: Scheffe Post-Hoc Pair-wise comparison among the Treatment Groups …. 97 Table 4.1.4: The Homogeneity between Self-Concept, Emotional Intelligence and the Control Groups…. …. …. …. …. 97 Table 4.2.1: ANCOVA Showing the Main Effect of Self-efficacy on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators 105 Table 4.2.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Self-efficacy …. …. …. …. 105 Table 4.3.1: ANCOVA Table Showing the Significant Main Effect of Gender on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators …. 109 Table 4.3.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Gender …. …. …. …. 109 Table 4.4.1: ANCOVA Table Showing the Interaction Effects of Treatment and Self-efficacy on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators…. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 112 Table 4.4.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Treatment Groups and Self-efficacy…. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 112 Table 4.5.1: ANCOVA Table Showing the Significant Interaction Effects of Treatment and Gender on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators …. …. …. …. 116 ix Table 4.5.2: Showing the Estimated Marginal Means on Treatment Groups and Gender …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 116 Table 4.6.1: ANCOVA Table Showing the Significant Interaction Effects of Gender and Self-efficacy on Occupational Stress Management of Public Secondary School Administrators …. …. …. …. 119 Table 4.6.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Gender and Self-efficacy …. …. 119 Table 4.7.1: ANCOVA Table Showing the Significant Interaction Effects of Treatment, Gender and Self-efficacy on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators…. …. …. .. 122 Table 4.7.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Treatment Groups, Gender and Self-efficacy …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 123 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Developing Occupational Stress Management Framework for Public Secondary School Administrators …. …. …. …. …. 77 Figure 4.1 Distribution of Participants by States…. …. …. …. …. 88 Figure 4.2: Distribution of the Participants by Gender …. …. ….. 89 Figure 4.3: Distribution of the Participants by Age…. …. …. …. …. 90 Figure 4.4: Distribution of Participants by Years of Experience in their Positions …. 91 Figure 4.5: Distribution of the Participants by Marital Status…. …. …. …. 92 Figure 4.6: Distribution of the Participants by Educational Qualification …. 93 Figure 4.7: Distribution of the Participants by School Size (Enrolment) …. …. 94 Figure 4.8: Mean score of Treatment Groups …. …. …. …. …. 98 Figure 4.9: Estimated Marginal Mean Scores of Low Self-efficacy and High Self-efficacy …. …. …. …. …. …. …. 106 Figure 4.10: Estimated Marginal Means of Gender …. …. …. …. …. 109 Figure 4.11: Showing Estimated Marginal Means of the Interactions between Treatment Groups and Self-efficacy groups…. …. …. 113 Figure 4.12: Showing the Significant Interaction Effects of Treatment Groups and Self- efficacy on the Occupational Stress Management of Public Secondary School Administrators …. …. …. …. 113 Figure 4.13: Showing the Estimated Marginal Means of Interaction between Treatment Group and Gender…. …. …. …. …. 117 Figure 4.14: Showing the Estimated Marginal Means of interaction between Gender and Self-efficacy Groups …. …. …. …. …. 120 xi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Secondary school education occupies a strategic position in the national education system by serving as a bridge between the primary and tertiary education levels (Ekundayo, 2010). It absorbs the products of the primary school and prepares them as input for the higher education, so that they can subsequently serve as the manpower needs for the labour market (Nkwoh, 2011). In recent times, the secondary school education is facing a lot of challenges. Many of the school facilities are inadequate and those available are ageing, dilapidated and in need of major repairs (Gbenu, 2012). Added to this problem is the issue of overcrowded population in schools as classes are getting larger, inadequate and low quality teachers, poor attitude of teachers and their lack of interest in teaching, student indiscipline, poor performances in examinations and inadequate funding of schools (Ige, 2013). Despite these challenges, the secondary school education is expected to provide quality secondary education output that will meet both individual and national needs. Achieving the objectives of the secondary school system requires efficient administrators and school leadership who are expected to show great concern for the human elements (both staff and students) and material resources within the system as well as for the accomplishment of the school goals. Such school leaderships need to motivate other staff to reach their highest levels of accomplishment, and must also be flexible and responsive to changes. Besides, they are expected to make sound and timely decisions, use full capabilities of their schools by developing the team spirit; developing a sense of responsibility in their staff and students, and ensuring that tasks are understood, supervised and accomplished using effective communication (Kester, 2012). On this basis, the secondary school administrator is the arrowhead of the school system with a subtle process of mutual influence fussing thoughts and feelings in the service of purpose and wishes of the leadership, staff and the students. Hence, principals and vice principals, as components of school leadership, are a necessary part of the social process in every secondary school with the expectation of presiding over and managing the entire school (Jaiyeoba & Jubril, 2008). The roles of principals and vice principals are important in the development of secondary schools, particularly in relation to the instructional qualities of the schools (Harris, 2003). This is 1 why the stakeholders feel that the success of a secondary school, which is measured in terms of the resultant good performance in public examinations, is subsequently dependent on the school administrators. The challenges of modern school administrators require the objective perspective of leaders as well as the brilliant flashes of vision and commitment that wise leadership provides., School administratorship has become more complex and challenging as curricular demands have grown; parental and government expectations and demand for greater school effectiveness have also been raised (Thody, Papanaoum, Johansson & Pashiardis, 2007; Ibukun, Oyewole & Abe, 2011). There is increasing public expectations of schools and their leaders which leads to accountability demands, thus making it inevitable that the secondary school administrators should have proper training in meeting such expectations (West & Jackson, 2002). In essence, the complex operations of secondary schools in the 21st century make the roles of a school principal and his or her assistant very vital in bringing about school improvement and effectiveness. Students are now more numerous and more diverse than ever and many societal problems are being brought to school (Ibrahim, 2011). School administrators are faced with the atmosphere of consistent and volatile environmental changes (Ekundayo, 2010). These changes which include demographic fluctuations, economic downturns and political shifts all have significant effects on the role of the school administrators (Deleon, 2006; Nakpodia & Urien, 2011). Schools are larger and class sizes are increasing, all at a time when resources are declining. More students, fewer teachers, and increased expectations challenge today principals and their assistants. Doing more with fewer resources has thus become the modus operandi for Nigerian school administrators, particularly in the public sector. The Secondary school administrator is therefore saddle with the responsibility of struggling with maximising existing facilities for an effective learning environment and directing limited resources to the classroom. Schools are also less safe, because of growing violence, cultism, chaos and access to drugs (Cruz, 2003; Hill, 2004). There is an increasing long hours, growing list of responsibilities, funding difficulties and rising accountability standards, which are constituting stress for school administrators (Bottoms & O‟Neil, 2001; Queen & Queen, 2005; Combs, Edmonson & Jackson, 2009; Ekundayo, 2010). School administrators face a variety of taxing issues on a regular basis, including meetings with various stakeholders, criticisms from parents, large amounts of paperwork, funding cuts, 2 escalating accountability, troubled students and frustrated teachers (Deleon, 2006). Public secondary school administrators, as a result of these, may see their position as unrelenting. They may feel besieged and have difficulty finding adequate time to efficiently handle every aspect of the job (Carr, 1994; Queen & Queen, 2005). However, principals and their assistants, with all these challenges are expected to make a positive difference in terms of student and staff achievement, parent involvement and overall programme success (Edmonds, 1979; Servgiovanmi, 1995). Therefore, many principals and assistants are reporting escalating pressure as well as having concerns on the demands of their role (Cushing, Kerrins & Johnstone, 2003; Jaiyeoba & Jubril, 2008; Olayiwola, 2008). Arising from all these, the secondary school leadership jobs, for many years, have been described as a stressful position and the degree of stress appears to be increasing with time (Whitaker & Turner, 2000; Grady, 2002). School administrators are under more pressure due to several changes in recent years that have increased the variety, scope and demands of the position. Time constraint, conflicting desires and needs of various stakeholders, work overload and lack of role clarity, among other things, are potential sources of increased job-related stress among secondary school leadership (Holt, 1982; Whitaker, 1995). Among other areas of stress are students discipline, excessive bureaucracy, conflicting internal and external expectations, deteriorating and overcrowded facilities, community and dissatisfaction of special interest groups as well as teachers‟ shortages (Combs, Edmonson & Jackson, 2009). All these could lead to increased levels of stress-related illness among the administrators of the public secondary schools (Travers & Coopers, 1991). The role of the school administrator is charged and overloaded with expectations to the point that if the school administrator were to meet them all, he or she would actually risk burnout (Hoyle, 1989). The role of the school administrator makes him or her to be vulnerable to stress, which may be mild or major, depending on the environmental factors as well as permeability of the principal. As those who have to make things work in the school, principals and their assistants cannot but be exposed to a lot of stressful events. Their duties are performed within a given time frame and are quite demanding irrespective of their levels of job experience. Stress among the principals shows itself in a number of ways: developing high blood pressure, ulcers, irritability, difficulty in making routine decisions, loss of appetite and being prone to job- related accidents (Robbins & Judge, 2007). School administrators‟ positions are complex and 3 challenging, vulnerable to occupational stress and imparts directly or indirectly not only on the health of the school administrators but the functioning of the entire school system. Occupational stress is known as stress at work and occurs when there is discrepancy between the demands of the work place and those of the individual (Tsutsumi, Kayaba, Kario & Ishikawa, 2009). The secondary school principals and vice principals are not immune to occupational stress and its attendant problems. Occupational stress has become one of the major influences on the daily living and well-being of secondary school leadership. When school administrators cannot cope with the pressures in their job because of poor fit between their abilities and their work requirements, this condition affect their productivity, effectiveness, personal health and quality of work (Ahlam & Hassan, 2012). Thus, workplace stress in the school has become a common phenomenon that is seriously affecting school administrators‟ mental health and well-being (Gupta & Chandwani, 2011). Erkuthu and Chafra (2006) are of the opinion that out of life situations, the workplace (including the school) stands out as a potential source of stress because of the amount of time workers spend in such workplaces. Stress in workplace has become one of the most serious health issues in modern times (Kao & Zhou, 2003; Kuman & Jones, 2003). This wearing out of school administrators includes high staff turnover, absenteeism and poor performance in terms of productivity and quality of work (Dierendonck, Garssen & Visser, 2005). It can also produce devastating results for the schools as well as for the administrators, as it may lead to lower job satisfaction, low level of organisational commitment (Butt, 2009). Occupational stress can become overwhelming among school administrators, as it may place so much impact on body and mind. They may experience grave consequences, such as physical and mental exhaustion, lack of concentration, exploitation, depression, frequent absenteeism, low productivity and greater work expense (Hill, 2004). World Health Organization (WHO) reported that about half of the entire working population are unhappy with their jobs and as many as 90 percent may be spending much of their energy and time in a work that brings them closer to their goals in life (Jaiyeoba & Jubril, 2008). Occupational stress remains one of the major causes of premature death all over the world. Therefore, clinical and health psychologists are becoming involved with clients identified as high-risk group individuals, including the school administrators, either formally as part of preventive programme (Bennett & Carrol, 1989) or informally through contact with general 4 practitioners (Iwuji, 1990). However, efforts to tackle work stress and other related occupational problems have been viewed in different forms. Occupational stress management involves all the means used to objectively or subjectively respond to a stressful situation perceived by the individual in workplace. Studies on managing occupational stress have highlighted feelings of ill-being and well-being as function of internal strength of the individuals (Funk, 1992; Dohrenwend, 2000; Heckman & Clay, 2005). Enhancing the strength of individuals, such as one‟s self-concept, emotional intelligence, and self-efficacy, have been proved to improve the capacity of individuals to face any demands of the work environment (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000) These strategies have been proved to have positive impact on protecting psychological health by withstanding occupational stress (Subramanian & Vinothkumar, 2009) Notably, self-concept is all about how an individual thinks about, views and evaluates his or herself, and acts out his or her various life roles, The perception of the individual of his or herself affects how the individual will be motivated to achieve even if there are obstacles impeding him or her. This is however, important in an individual‟s self-achievement and performance (Kester Gbenro & Ogidan, 2010). Self-concept is an internal characteristic that has been found to have correlation with perceived occupational stress (Hassan 2009; Subrainanian & Vinothlcumar, 2009). Stressors have less negative effect on individuals that have more positive self-perceptions. One‟s higher beliefs about oneself can help explain the stress-strain relationship (Mosholder, Bedan & Armalcus 1982; Hassan, 2009). The way a school administrator think, views and sees his or herself in relation to his or her role may affect how he or she copes with the demand of the job. Therefore, giving self-concept training to school administrators, like is done to others, may likely assist or help in managing stress arising from their work schedule. Emotional intelligence involves the ability, capacity or skill to perceive, assess, and manage one‟s, others‟ and groups‟ emotions; and ability to discriminate among them and use the information to guide one‟s thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Goleman, 2004; Aremu, 2006). Emotional intelligence has been found to create an ability to understand the causes of stress and to promote positive work environment (Cooper & Swarf, 1997). School administrators who are emotionally intelligent are likely to be aware of their own emotional composition, sensitive and ready to inspire others. They may also be able to handle daily school- related problems and think conceptually as they transform the school organisation through teachers, students and the community (Fullan, 2002). Emotional intelligence contributes to 5 reducing stress by better identifying feelings of frustration and stress, consequently regulating those emotions. Leaders and managers with high emotional intelligence have been found to be able to control their level of stress, which will improve individual performance and the overall organisational performance (Purushothaman, Visuanthan & Navaneethakmar, 2012). Developing these internal resources through specific training programmes may protect school administrators from stress and lead to better adaptation (Ciarrochi, Chan & Balgar, 2001). these trainings programmes which include self-concept and emotional intelligence among others have been found to have positive impact on tracking stress in the workplace, and may assist the school administrators to become resilient towards stress and enable them to tackle the root cause of their stress, increase their awareness of the cost associated with workplace stress and teach them how to cope with such stressful situations (Vokic & Bogdanic, 2007; Kester, Ogidan & Oni, 2010). These internal strength factors of emotional competence and self-concept have also been reported in the literature to have significant influences on psychological health generally (Bar-On, 2003; Pike, 2003; Strumpfer, 2003). Apart from self-concept and emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, which is the belief of being able to control challenging environmental demands by taking adaptive action, has been found to moderate the relationship between an individual and stress. It is a self-confident view of the individual‟s capability to deal with certain life stressors (Bandura, 1995). The level of self- efficacy of the school administrator may influence his/her effort, interest, persistence and performance in his/her job schedule. In addition, sex differences among school administrators may also contribute to different stress levels and their management. Studies on stress have shown that males exhibit lower stress level than females in most jobs. In essence, women experience greater stress level because they are seen to be more vulnerable to the job demands owing to family-work conflicts. The salient question arising from all these is “can the use of these strategies of self-concept and emotional intelligence training help in reducing occupational stress of school administrators?” There are many studies (Famojuro, 2004; Olagunju, 2010; Reddy & Anuradha, 2013)) generally on occupational stress and its different coping strategies. A number of studies have identified sources and dimensions of occupational stress among secondary school administrators (Durosaro, 1990; Allison, 1997; Nhundu, 1999; Jaiyeoba & Jubril, 2008; Olayiwola, 2008; Boyland, 2011; Yambo, Kindiki & Tuitoek, 2012; Pourghaz, 2012). Studies have also been 6 conducted on the use of some psychological variables in moderating such occupational stress among teachers at different levels and other professions (Adeyemo & Ogunyemi, 2005; Kumar & Rooprai, 2009; Subramanian & Vinothkumar, 2009; Bankole, Akanji & Jegede, 2009; Popoola & Ilugbo, 2010; Salami, 2010; Adigun & Okoiye, 2012; Chowen, 2013). Specifically others have focused on the isolated effects of emotional intelligence (Oginska, 2005; Hassan & Alli, 2011; Mohammadyfar, Khan & Tamini, 2009; Akomolafe, 2011; Aremu & Akomolafe 2012; Mehta, 2013), self-concept (Akinleye & Hassan, 2004; Hassan, 2009) and self-efficacy (Grau, Salanova & Piero, 2001; Rangriz & khaksar, 2013; Adebiyi, 2013) in managing stress. However, there is a dearth of empirical studies on the combined effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on managing work-related stress, particularly among public secondary school administrators, despite the challenges and demand of their job schedules, hence the need for this study. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Secondary school administrators function as leaders who preside over and manage the entire school. Teachers, students, parents, governments and other stakeholders look up to them for the attainment of the set goals of the secondary school education. This makes public secondary school administrators to have a lot of responsibilities and expectations loaded on them. They strive willingly to attain these set goals of secondary education; consequently are involved in a number of daily routines which bring about occupational stress. This, however, has a lot of consequences on both school administrators and the school system. Arising from the associated stress in the course of performing these routine jobs, the public secondary school administrators, therefore, could exhibit unwanted feelings and behaviours such as low morale, loss of self-confidence, fear, depression, anxiety, emotional fatigue, premature retirement, alcohol intake, poor health, lateness to work and absenteeism. The public secondary school administrators could also function haphazardly in their expected roles, and experience job dissatisfaction. This results into schools with ineffective administrators and poor teaching and learning environment. As a result of all these, teachers and students are poorly motivated by school administrators, thereby affecting the teaching-learning process, which significantly leads to negative attitude to work among the teachers and low productivity. There are reported inverse cases of serious indiscipline among staff and students, violence in schools 7 and poor performance of students at both internal and external examinations, poor communication and relationship with staff, students, parents, communities, supervisors, ministry officials and the government. This is a situation that needs urgent attention by all stakeholders in the educational sector. This, therefore, raises the following salient questions: Could the stress level of public secondary school administrators be managed to produce positive results? Could such strategies as self-concept and emotional intelligence training be used to positively manage the occupational stress among the public secondary school administrators? Previous studies have identified sources, dimensions and use of some psychological interventions in managing occupational stress with little or no consideration for the combined effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence trainings. It is on this basis that this study investigated the effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on the occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in Southwestern, Nigeria. The moderating effects of self-efficacy and gender were also determined in the process of providing answers to these questions. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study was to examine the effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in South- Western, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to: (i) determine the effect of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators, (ii) ascertain the effect of self-efficacy and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators, (iii) establish the interaction effects of self-efficacy and gender, and self-efficacy, gender and treatments on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators, 1.4 Significance of the Study The findings from this study would be of immense significance to different categories of stakeholders of the Nigerian secondary school system. To a very large extent, the findings will provide a sound basis for informing public secondary school administrators that stressors are inevitable but they can develop the abilities to manage and cope with their job stress by using 8 self-concept and emotional intelligence to reduce the effects of such stress. This will boost the school administrators‟ confidence in carrying out their roles effectively in the school system. It is also anticipated that as school administrators are able to cope with their job-related stress, they will be able to motivate their staff and students for the accomplishment of the set goals of secondary education. The findings would also be of benefit to teachers by preparing them for higher roles they will occupy and how they should develop coping mechanism to reduce stress at workplace. Teachers would also be better motivated by school leaders which will also help them in their job performance; promote a better work environment and indirectly helping in reducing their own job stress. The school climate will be supportive of the teaching and learning process. This is because school administrators become accommodating owing to less stress and such situation will aid students‟ academic performance, thereby reducing examination malpractices. It will also encourage interpersonal relationship between staff and students and promote school community relationship. The findings would help decision-makers and policy-makers in the Nigerian system of education to be aware of the dimension of stress among secondary school administrators and provide a stress-free and safe environment for school administrators to improve their job performance. The government will be aware of school leaders‟ challenges and stress; make provision for adequate facilities and make the required materials available to schools so as to create an enabling environment that will reduce stress among school administrators; and organise regular training or workshop for school administrators. This will promote better industrial relations between administrators and their employers. In addition, this study will go a long way in enhancing the attainment of the current transformation agenda of the education sector by both state and the federal governments of Nigeria. This is because the ability of the school system to meet the objectives of the transformation agenda will depend largely on school leaders who are able to mobilize the teachers. This study will enhance the effectiveness of All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS), as the outcome of the study will sensitize them on the need for members to acquire self-concept and emotional Intelligence in managing their occupational stress. 9 This study will also shed more light on the effect of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress management of school administrators. It will equally help counselling psychologists and all other personnel in the “helping profession” in dealing with workplace stress among managers and administrators. Finally, the findings of the study will serve as database for researchers who may be interested in studies related to stress among secondary school administrators. 1.5 Scope of the Study The study investigated the effects of self-concept training (SCT) and emotional intelligence training (EIT) on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in Southwestern Nigeria. The study was delimited to public secondary school principals in Oyo, Ogun and Osun States. The choice of these states was based on the fact that they have higher numbers of public secondary schools and school administrators. The study location covered three out of the six states that constitute the Southwestern region of Nigeria. This made the generalisation of the research result possible. The study was further delimited to the consideration of the moderating effects of gender and self-efficacy on the main effects of treatments on occupational stress management. Participants in the experimental and control groups were drawn from public secondary school principals who were members of randomly selected All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) zones in the three states. Table 1.1: ANCOPSS Zones Selected ANCOPSS Zones ANCOPSS Oyo State(Ibadan Zone 2) Experimental 1 ANCOPSS Ogun State (Abeokuta South Zone) Experimental 2 ANCOPSS Osun State (Osogbo Zone) Control In addition the study focused on the following independent variables: self-concept and emotional intelligence training. 10 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms In this section, the terms and concepts used are defined and explained based on their usage in the context of this study. School Administrators’ Occupational Stress: This refers to the excessive physical, mental and emotional adverse reaction of public secondary school administrators to excessive pressures or demand placed upon public secondary school administrators within the school system.. Self-concept: It is the orderly and consistent way by which the school administrator thinks, feels, views and reacts about himself or herself in relation to the job. Self-Concept Training: This is a training programme designed to enhance and improve public secondary school administrator perception of his/ herself in relation to his or her job. Emotional Intelligence: This is the way school administrators effectively recognize, understand, express and control their own emotions, feelings and the emotions of others; make a difference and use the information to manage their own thinking and action. Emotional Intelligence Training: This is a program designed to enhance and improve emotional intelligence of public secondary school administrators. Self-efficacy: This is school administrators‟ judgment of their capabilities to execute the behaviour needed to carry out their responsibilities successfully amidst unmotivated environment and challenges of the demands and expectations of their job. Public Secondary Schools: These are government-owned secondary schools under the supervision of Teaching Service Commission of each state selected Public Secondary School Administrators: They are principals of the public secondary schools selected for the purpose of the study. 11 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This chapter focuses on the empirical review of the literature on all variables under study as well as theories that served as anchor for the execution of the study. This is done under the following headings: 2.1.1 Occupational stress 2.1.2 Occupational stress management 2.1.3 Emotional intelligence 2.1.4 Self-concept 2.1.5 Self-efficacy 2.1.6 The school leadership: concepts, functions and challenges 2.1.7 School administrators and occupational stress. 2.1.8 Emotional intelligence training and occupational stress 2.1.9 Self-concept training and occupational stress 2.1.10 Self-efficacy and occupational stress 2.1.11 Gender and occupational stress 2.2 Theoretical framework 2.2.1 Person Environment (PE) Fit Theory 2.2.2 Transactional model 2.2.3 Cybernetic 2.3 Hypotheses 12 2.1 Literature Review 2.1.1 Occupational Stress Stress, in general, is an ineffective and unhealthy reaction to change. It describes a force which affects human beings physically, mentally, emotionally, socially and spiritually (Akinboye, Akinboye & Adeyemo, 2002). It is the sum total of all non-specific biological phenomena elicited by adverse external influences. It is a multidimensional concept and has variety of usages in different fields, which vary according to specific focus and purposes. According to Selye (1936), cited in Malik (2011), stress is the human response to changes that occur as a part of daily living. It comes from any situation or circumstance that requires behavioural adjustment. Lazarus (2000) notes that any change, either good or bad, is stressful. Whether it is positive or negative change, the physiological response is the same, depending on the situation (Bankole, 2000). The type of stress being experienced in a person‟s work place or employment is termed occupational stress (Bankole, Akanji & Jegede, 2009). Work place stress, job stress or occupation stress are used interchangeable (Dollard, 2003). Occupational stress has been subjected to different definitions by various scholars based on their understanding of the concept. Akinboye, Akinboye and Adeyemo (2002) describe occupational stress as physical, mental and emotional wear and tear brought about by incongruence between the requirement of job and capabilities, resources and needs of the employee to cope with job demands. Similarly, job stress is defined as the physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (Henry & Evans, 2008). When the demands and pressure placed on individual workers do not match the resources which are available either from the organisation or within the individual, stress can occur and endanger that health or well-being (National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, 2004). Malta (2004) asserts that stress is any discomfort which is felt and perceived at a personal level and triggered by instances, events or situations that are too intense and frequent in nature so as to exceed a person‟s coping capabilities and resources to handle them adequately. It can be said then that placing excessive responsibilities or work load on a worker can lead to stressful condition. Various problems emanate from workplace experiences which affect workers behaviour in terms of organisational commitment, compliance, job satisfaction, job performance 13 effectiveness, organisational goal and job stress (McGratt, 1998). Bakare (1997) and Abiona (2001) view stress as conflict or disagreement between ideas which Freudians describe as imbalance between the Id, Ego and Super Ego. Stress is then perceived as a kind of natural equilibrium of the body and include within its reference deprivation and all kinds of diseases and emotional disturbance. It is a chronic complex of emotional state with apprehension and is character for various nervous and mental disorders (Olagunju, 2010). Stress can be said to be a manifest response of an individual basic needs of life in an environment of competing needs. Stress is a very imprecise term. It is better understood in terms of its three related concept which are anxiety, conflict and frustration (Udoh & Ajala, 2003; Famojuro, 2004; Smith, 2011; Coleman, 2012). In collaboration with this Kyriacoy (2009) defines occupational stress as the experience of negative emotional states such as frustration, worry, anxiety and depression attributed to work-related factors. Research suggests four variables that may have significant interactions with occupational stress: gender, age, experience in the job and position (Lau, Yuen & Chan, 2005; Antoniou, Polychroni & Vlachakis, 2006). Demographic variables that are proven to relate to someone‟s job stressor relationships include gender, age, marital status, job tenure, job title, and hierarchical level (Dua, 1994; Murphy, 1995), concerning the relationship between age and occupational stress, the ability to handle stress associated with job and organization was found to increase with age and experience (Sager, 1990). Age can be explained in terms that the individuals mature personality disposition relates to the attainment of developmental tasks specific to each developmental tasks specific to; each developmental phase and its influence on individual‟s perception of the situations as stressful or otherwise Occupational stress is a phenomenon that is seriously affecting employees‟ mental health and well-being (Gupta & Chandwani, 2011). Kao and Zhou (2003) note that stress has become one of the most serious health issues in the modern world. Arikewuyo (2004) sees workplace stress as posing a threat to physiological and psychological capabilities of workers. Yoloye (2003) asserts that work stress ultimately affects the physical and social aspects of life. Individuals affected by occupational stress, certainly face problems in decision-making and planning with others, leading to poor effectiveness and productivity. A stressed employee puts stress on other staff. As a result, stress in organizations, like a disaster, exhausts the forces and makes the efforts futile (Alawi, 1993). 14 Malik (2011) notes that stress reactions may result when people are exposed to risk factors at work. Reactions may be emotional, behavioural, cognitive and/or physiological in nature. When stress reactions persist over a longer period of time, it may develop into more permanent irreversible health outcomes such as chronic fatigue, musculoskeletal problems or cardiovascular diseases. Stress is more likely in some situations than others and in some individuals than others. Stress can undermine the achievement of goals, both for individuals and for organizations. Work may challenge the healthiness and performance of organization. Thus, when affected by work stress, people may 1. Become increasingly distressed and irritable 2. Become unable to relax or concentrate 3. Have difficulty thinking logically and making decisions 4. Enjoy their work less and feel less committed 5. Feel tired, depressed and anxious 6. Have difficulty sleeping 7. Experience serious physical problem such as heart disease, increase in blood pressure and headache. The United States National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (1999), as cited in Catherine (2005), claim that work stress is one of the ten leading causes of workplace death. Similarly, Doctor and Doctor (1994), cited in Jaiyeoba and Jubril (2008), observe that life style stressors contribute greatly, more than environment, biological and other factors to premature death. About 75% of those who consult psychiatrists are experiencing problems that can be traced to lack of job satisfaction for inability to unwind (Levi, 1987). Olugbodi (1991), cited in Bankole, Akanji and Jegede, (2009) asserts that the devastating effect of stress on an individual is enormous. Stressors can seriously affect the way people perform various task. It has been reported that a stressful condition may lead to experience of high blood pressure, asthma or headache, while negative stress suppresses the body immune system, which makes it vulnerable to illness. Chronic psychological stress, however, can be easily recognised through the affected person (Shoaf, 1989; Okoro, 2001). Yoloye (2003) identifies 2 types of such stress-induced behaviours: 1. The individual is characterised by aggression, competition, loud, explosive, has a terse accelerating speech, often interrupting kind of behaviour. He/ She is prone to danger. 15 2. The individual is easy going and seemingly never in a hurry. Sources of Occupational Stress Erkutlu and Chafra (2006) assert that, among life situations, the workplace stands out as a potentially important source of stress purely because of the amount of time that is spent in this setting. Over the years, a large number of workplace stressors of varying degrees of gravity have been identified. According to Murphy (1995), common organizational and individual stressors could be classified into five: (1) Organizational practices (performance reward systems, supervisory practices, promotion opportunities) (2) Job/task features (workload, workplace, and autonomy) (3) Organizational culture/climate (employee value, personal growth, integrity) (4) Interpersonal relationships (supervisors, co-workers, customers) (5) Employee personal characteristics (personality traits, family relationships, coping skills) Burke (1988) quoted in Lu, Cooper, Kao and Zhou (2003), groups job stressors into the following categories: Physical environment, role stressors, organizational structure and job characteristics, relationships with others, career development, and work-family conflict. Copper, Cary and Payne (1988) cited in Lu et al. (2003), identifies six sources of stress at work: factors intrinsic to the job, management role, relationship with others, career and achievement, organizational structure and climate, and home/work interface. Antoniou et al. (2006) aver that specific conditions that make jobs stressful can be categorized either as exogenous (that is unfavourable occupational conditions, excessive workload, lack of collaboration, and so on) or endogenous pressures (that is individual personality characteristics, and so forth), as well as the complexity and turbulence of contemporary business environment and organizational life. The , causes of occupational stress can be grouped into two main groups: (i) job-related stressors; with three major subgroups – environment specific, organization specific, and job specific stressors, and (ii) individual-related stressors, which can be either a consequence of individual characteristics or a consequence of individual life circumstances Consequences of Occupational Stress Ross (2005) states that stress produces a range of undesirable, expensive, and debilitating consequences ,which affect both individuals and organizations. Furthermore, in organizational setting, stress is becoming a major contributor to health and performance problems of 16 individuals, and unwanted occurrences and costs for organizations. The Consequences of occupational stress can be grouped into those on individual and those on organizational levels. On the individual level, there are three main subgroups of strains: 1) Unwanted feelings and behaviours– such as job dissatisfaction, lower motivation, low employee morale, less organizational commitment, lowered overall quality of work life, absenteeism, turnover, intention to leave the job, lower productivity, decreased quantity and quality of work, inability to make sound decisions, more theft, sabotage and work stoppage, occupational burnout, alienation, and increased smoking and alcohol intake. 2) Physiological diseases (poor physical health) – such as increased blood pressure and pulse rate, cardiovascular diseases, high cholesterol, high blood sugar, insomnia, headaches, infections, skin problems, suppressed immune system, injuries, and fatigue. 3) Psychological diseases (poor emotional (mental) health) – psychological distress, depression, anxiety, passiveness/aggressiveness, boredom, loss of self-confidence and self-esteem, loss of concentration, feelings of futility, impulsiveness and disregarding of social norms and values, dissatisfaction with job and live, losing of contact with reality, and emotional fatigue. On the organizational level, consequences of occupational stress can be grouped into two major subgroups: 1) Organizational symptoms – such as discontent and poor morale among the workforce, performance/productivity losses, low quality products and services, poorer relationships with clients, suppliers, partners and regulatory authorities, losing customers, bad publicity, damage to the corporate image and reputation, missed opportunities, disruption to production, high accident and mistakes rates, high labour turnover, loss of valuable staff, increased sick-leave, permanent vacancies, premature retirement, diminished cooperation, poor internal communications, more internal conflicts, and dysfunctional workplace climate. 2) Organizational costs – such as costs of reduced performance/productivity (lack of added value to product and/or service), high replacement costs in connection with labour turnover (increase in recruitment, training and retraining costs), increased sick pay, increased health care costs and disability payments, higher grievance and litigation/compensation costs, and costs of equipment damage. As evident from the above, consequences of occupational stress, both on individual and organizational levels, are a real cost to organizations. Because of its significant economic 17 implications, stress is not only a huge burden (Ben-Bakr, Al-Shammari & Jefri, 1995), but one of the fastest-growing concerns to contemporary organizations, especially given the high levels of competition and environmental turbulence, which do not allow organizations to bear costs like those caused by stress (McHugh, 1993). However, costs which are a consequence of stress are hardly ever assessed or calculated either in human or financial terms. Despite the apparent need for measuring costs of stress, it seems that, to date, relatively limited number of organizations estimated those enormous indirect costs. Also contrary to popular belief, stress can be associated with both pleasant and unpleasant events, and only becomes problematic when it remains unresolved (Erkutlu & Chafra, 2006). In other words, one could argue that not all stress is dysfunctional and that, in fact, stress is not inherently bad, while a limited amount of stress combine with appropriate responses actually can benefit both the individual and the organization (Chusmir & Franks, 1988). Therefore, low and high stress can predict poor performance, and moderate stress can predict maximum performance (Sharpley, Reynolds, Acosta & Dua, 1996). The personality variables that have been linked to stress include locus of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-concept, type A behaviour pattern, hardiness, and negative affectivity (Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Lind & Otte, 1994; Murphy, 1995). The studies reviewed, showed that unchecked presence of stress in any workplace could have negative implications on the health and general well-being of the individual; effectiveness of employees as well as the overall development and growth of the organisation. Therefore, such stress and stressors need to be managed and reduced for the benefit of both the individual and the organisation. 2.1.2 Occupational Stress Management Stoica and Buicu (2010) assert that people‟s ability to mobilize and successfully or unsuccessfully deal with stress factors is termed coping, adjusting to stress, or stress management self-mobilization. Stress management also refers to all the means used to objectively or subjectively respond to a stressful situation perceived by the individual (Baciu, 2007). According to Stoica (2007), anti-stress strategies involve very high costs, but they bring great benefits, which can be measured financially in the improvement of the employees‟ morale. Some organizations have programmes designed to help physical and mental health workers to prevent problems caused by stress and to help "make do" with work-related stress. They have 18 both prophylactic and therapeutic nature, and in order to be effective, emphasis must move in time from treatment to prevention. He further states that the best solution is preventive, which involves recruitment and selection (choosing those able to cope with stress levels for those positions), training and development programmes (which means acquiring knowledge and abilities that will allow adjusting to job requirements and coping with professional stress), the communication process in the organization (designed to eliminate any aroused ambiguity). Armstrong (2003), in his study on organizational strategies to prevent stress and keep stress under control, utilizes the following: 1. Defining the job – by setting specific tasks, by reducing the element of danger caused by the ambiguous and conflicting function. 2. Granting more autonomy to employees in carrying out their tasks within a well-defined organizational structure. 3. Setting objectives and performance standards – the normal and achievable targets, likely to mobilize people, but without burdening the absurd tasks. 4. Sharing the burden – careful framing of the people in positions that would match their capacities. 5. Career development – development and promotion at work must be based on professional skills, not on an overestimation or underestimation of the employee. 6. Performance management – to stimulate dialogue between managers and employees in connection with the work done, with their problems and their aspirations 7. Providing advice – creating conditions so that employees can discuss their problems with someone in service personnel, health care professionals of the company or in a programme assistance for employees. 8. Training managers in the methods of performance analysis and counselling techniques, and in terms of how to mitigate the stress affecting them but also others, 9. Ensuring a balance between service obligations and social obligations –taking up policies that take into account employees‟ responsibilities as parents, spouses or legal guardians, or providing them necessary facilities, such as special leaves and flexible work schedules However, Stoica and Buicu (2010) state that organisational strategies prevention of occupational stress involve the creation of a suitable working environment in terms of employment characteristics, labour relations, organisational structure and achievement of a 19 healthy organizational culture. The design work must meet certain conditions to create a positive organizational climate, without stress. Positive organisational climate must allow the use of employees‟ skills and freedom, and must ensure that the loads of work are sufficiently varied and challenging to maintain interest of the employees, that tasks do not run counter to their interests and that they are provided with a consistent way of working. it must also give employees feedback on performance obtained, take up the responsibility of the employee, enable the individual to participate in decisions concerning their own work, enable professional learning and ensure the existence of clear goals, which do not contradict the aims of others. In terms of labour relations, an important role is played by social support provided by superiors. Superiors may adopt a flexible management style, allowing employees to focus both on individual needs and on achieving the tasks of the group and making sure that the group has a spirit of cooperation. Occupational stress management intervention (SMI) is also viewed as any activity or programme that focuses on reducing the presence of the work-related stressors or assisting individuals to minimize the negative outcomes of exposure to these stressors. Richardson and Rothstem (2008) view job stress as a situation wherein job-related factors interact with the worker to change his or her psychological and/or physiological condition such that the person is forced to deviate from normal functioning. The stress management intervention may attempt to change these work-related factors, assist employees in minimizing the negative effects of these stressors, or both (Newman & Beehr, 1979). Ivancevich et al. (1990) state that SMIs can target three different points in the stress cycle (a) The intensity of stressors in the work place (b) The employee‟s appraisal of stressful situations (c) the employee‟s ability to cope with the outcomes Giga, Cooper and Faragher (2003) assert that the components of actual stress management interventions vary widely and treatment may focus on 1. Individual 2. Organisation 3. Individual and organization 20 Stress management intervention can also be classified as: 1. Primary Intervention: this attempt to alter the sources of stress at work (Murphy & Sauter, 2003). An example of Intervention programme includes redesigning jobs to modify workplace stressors (Brunce & Stephenson, 2000), increasing workers‟ decision – making authority or providing coworker support groups. 2. Secondary intervention attempts to reduce the severity of stress symptoms before they lead to serious health problems (Murphy & Sauter, 2003) 3. Tertiary intervention – this is in the form of employee assistance programmes which are designed to treat the employee‟s health condition via free and confidential access to qualified mental health professionals (Arthur, 2000) Giga, Cooper, and Faragher (2003) view the secondary prevention programmes as the most common stress management intervention because it aims at the individual and involves instruction in techniques to manage and cope with stress. Examples are cognitive behavioural skills- training, meditation, relaxation, deep breathing, exercise, journaling, time management and goal setting. Cognitive behavioural interventions are designed to educate employees about the role of their thoughts and emotions in managing stressful events and to provide them with the skills to modify their thoughts to facilitate adaptive coping (Bond & Bunce, 2000). These interventions are intended to change individual situations and their responses to them. For examples employees, are taught to become aware of negative thoughts or traditional beliefs and to substitute positive or rational ideas (Bellarosa & Chen, 1997). Sadri (1997) and Allison (1997) discuss the use of stress reducers (a primary approach), and stress managers (a secondary approach) in their studies. A stress reducer is a coping strategy that seeks to reduce the stress before it has a negative effect on the subject. Stressor- reduction methods would include changes in organisation design, structure, enhanced communication levels, increased employee participation and employee empowerment (Sadri, 1997). Stress management methods include meditation, deep relaxation, exercise, better nutrition, and other preventative stress- management techniques (Sadri, 1997). In their study on administrator stress and burnout, Gmelch and Torelli (1994) found that principals tended to choose secondary (stress managers) rather than primary strategies to stress. The effectiveness of SMIs is measured in a variety of ways. Researchers may assess outcomes at the organizational level (for example, absenteeism or productivity) or at the 21 individual level, using psychological (for instance stress, anxiety, or depression) or physiological (for instance, blood pressure or weight) measures. Given the wide array of stress- management programmes and outcome variables, there has been much debate in the literature as to which interventions, if any, are most effective (Newman & Beehr, 1979; Murphy, 1984; DeFrank & Cooper, 1987; Briner & Reynolds, 1999; Bunce & Stephenson, 2000; Giga, Noblet, Faragher, & Cooper, 2003; Caulfield, Chang, Dollard, & Elshaug, 2004) Cognitive-behavioural interventions, on the other hand, are more active. These interventions encourage individuals to take charge of their negative thoughts, feelings, and resulting behaviour by changing their cognitions and emotions to more adaptive ones and by identifying and practising more functional behavioural responses. Cognitive-behavioural interventions promote the development of proactive as well as reactive responses to stress. They are generally taught by a trained professional in a group session and, therefore, require a greater investment of organizational resources. These interventions encourage individuals to take charge of their negative thoughts, feelings, and resulting behaviour by changing their cognitions and emotions to more adaptive ones and by identifying and practising more functional behavioural responses. They promote the development of proactive as well as reactive responses to stress (Richardson & Rosthein, 2008) Chyuan (1998), in the study of managing occupational stress among school administrators, found that one of the ways of managing stress is through self-management. Effective self-management can be achieved by adhering to a number of rules, which include the following: develop a clear overall plan by setting yourself objectives and sub-objective in each of the key result areas, that is, develop action plans which convert goals into action; establish a clear system of priorities; use time effectively by avoiding time-wasters such as interruptions, procrastination and lack of organization; delegate as much work as you can; identify the time of the day when you work most effectively; and schedule difficult work at that time; regularly review personal progress and make improvements for self-management when necessary; develop a time management system which works for oneself; have an effective system for coping with paperwork; and learn to say no when necessary. Chyuan (1998) suggests that it is sensible to approach stress from two directions. One approach is usually referred to as stressor management and focuses on situational factors and methods of reducing demands of the situation on an individual (Kelehear, 2004). The other 22 stress-management approach focuses on the behavioural-cognitive or the physiological components of an individual response in an effort to permit calmer response to the demanding situation. The coping strategies are maintaining good physical health programmes, withdrawal and re-charging; intellectual, social and spiritual support; positive attitude; realistic perspective; increased involvement; time management and organization. Reddy and Anuradha (2013) assert that occupational stress can be conveniently managed at different stages through various institutional interventions, such as: (a) prevention of stress through organizational interventions at the management level, like selection of suitably qualified teachers, proper job designing and training, adequate work conditions, effective supervision and incentive system, effective communication system and participative management, (b) minimizing the frequency and intensity of stressful situations integral to the job at the organizational level; (c) moderating the intensity of integral job stressors and their consequent strains through the effect of other variables of positive values, such as high or extra salary, non-financial incentives, social support, generating team feeling and participative decision-making. Arikewuyo (2004), in the study of stress management strategies of secondary school teachers in Nigeria, found that teachers of secondary schools in Nigeria frequently use the active behavioural and inactive (escape) strategies in managing stress. This is an indication that the average Nigerian teacher prefers to organize him/herself in such a way that his/her pedagogic duty will not be hampered by chores. He also found out that the majority of the teachers never engaged in physical exercises or watched films in order to manage any stressful situations. They preferred to keep away from situations that could cause stress. Active cognitive strategies were rarely used by the teachers. In conclusion, since stress cannot be avoided, identification of effective coping strategies may provide school administrators with the tools which can be used to reduce the amount of stress in their environment and to moderate the effect of stress on them. 2.1.3 Emotional Intelligence The earliest roots of emotional intelligence can be traced to Charles Darwin‟s work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and for adaptation in the 1900‟s. Even 23 though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving, several researchers in intelligence field of study had begun to recognize the importance of non-cognitive aspects of intelligence (Bar-on, 2006). Emotional intelligence started its journey to prominence in 1920, when Thorndike (1920) formulated the concept of “social intelligence”. Since then, other forms of intelligence have been identified by scholars in the field of psychology. Three clusters of intelligences have been identified. These are abstract intelligence, which pertains to the ability to understand and manipulate verbal and mathematical symbols; concrete intelligence, which describes the ability to understand and manipulate objects; and social intelligence, which describes the ability to understand and relate with people. Thorndike (1920) conceptualized social intelligence as the ability to understand and manage men and women, and boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Building on the work of Thorndike, Gardener (1983) developed the theory of multiple intelligence, wherein he classified intelligence into two, namely: interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. He describes interpersonal intelligence as the ability to understand other people, what motivates them, how they work, and how to work cooperatively with them. He identifies teachers, politicians, salespersons, clinicians and religious leaders as individuals who are likely to have a high degree of interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence is a correlative ability turned inward. It is a capacity to form a vertical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life. In what looks like a mixture of Thorndike‟s and Gardner‟s model, Salovey and Mayer (1990) coined the term emotional intelligence, which they conceptualized “as the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one‟s own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use information to guide one‟s thinking and action”. Mayer and Salovey (1997) postulate that emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotion, the ability to access and/or generate emotional knowledge, and the ability to regulate emotion to promote emotional and intellectual growth. This definition succeeds not only in clearing the ambiguity inherent in the previous definition, but it also carves a distinct image for the construct of emotional intelligence. Goleman (1995) formulated the best-known theory of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence became popular in 1995 when Daniel Goleman wrote a book titled Emotional intelligence. Goleman‟s explanation of the construct was based on Salovey and Mayer‟s (1990) 24 original theory. Among other claims, Goleman theorised that emotional intelligence is equal to, if not more important than, IQ as an important indicator of success in one‟s professional and personal life. Goleman (1998) notes that an individual‟s emotional intelligence can affect one‟s work situation. He also applied his conceptual understanding to organization as a whole. However, in the last two decades, science has discovered a tremendous amount of information about the role of emotion in human lives (Kauts & Richa, 2010). Many scholars have paid attention to the concept of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998; 2002; Cole, Martin & Dennis, 2004).. Models of Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence has been dominated by three conceptual models: 1. Ability model of emotional intelligence 2. Mixed models of emotional intelligence 3. Trait emotional intelligence model Ability Model: Salovey and Mayer's conception of emotional intelligence strives to define emotional intelligence (EI) within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios, 2001). The model defines emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth. The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. This ability is seen to manifest itself in certain adaptive behaviours. The model claims that emotional intelligence includes four types of abilities (Salovey & Grewal, 2005): 1. Perceiving emotions: the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artefacts: including the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible. 2. Using emotions: the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand. 25 3. Understanding emotions: the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. Understanding emotions involves the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time. 4. Managing emotions: the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals. Mixed Models: This model, introduced by Daniel Goleman, focuses on emotional intelligence as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance (Boyatzis, Goleman & Rhee, 2000). Goleman (2001) presents a model of emotional intelligence that includes five different dimensions. 1. Self-awareness: This is the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drive, values and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut to guide decisions. Sometimes, self-awareness is defined as thinking and concentrating attention on personal experiences and mindfulness. Self-awareness is the first part of emotional intelligence. Self- awareness means to have a deep perception of emotions, power and weak points, needs, self- motivations. People who have strong self-awareness are too much depressed or too much hopeful, but they are honest with themselves and with the others. 2. Self-regulation: This involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. We do not have to avoid bad feelings to feel consent, although we should not let bad, uncontrolled feelings replace all our good spiritual moods; if those people who sometimes get angry or feel insolvency have, to the same extent, pleasurable or happy times, they will feel lucky (Goleman, 2004). 3. Social skill: This is managing relationships to move people in the desired direction. More social skills result in more friendly relationships, motivating them in your own way. Usually, the individuals with social skills have many friends and can easily find common grounds with others to build a relationship together (Goleman, 2004). 4. Empathy: This is considering other people's feelings, especially when making decisions. Empathy stands on self-awareness. The higher one‟s self-awareness, the better one can understand the others‟ feelings. In all the relationships, paying attention to others involves the 26 ability of feeling empathy for them. This ability (the ability to recognize others‟ feelings) has a role in all stages of life, including management (Goleman, 2004). 5. Motivation: This means being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement. Even if the results are against highly motivated people, they try to protect their optimism. In these cases, those who are highly motivated can overcome disappointment. The managers or administrators who try to identify their staff‟s motivation degree can look for assurance within the organization. An individual who likes himself because of his work will trust the organization that provides this job for him (Goleman, 2004). Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies (Boyatzis, Goleman & Rhee, 2000). Bar-On’s model of emotional social intelligence (ESI) Bar-On (2006) defines emotional intelligence as being concerned with effectively understanding oneself and others, relating well to people, and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands (Bar-On, 1997). EI develops over time and it can be improved through training, programming, and therapy. Those individuals with higher-than-average emotional intelligence are in general more successful in meeting environmental demands and pressures. A deficiency in EI can mean a lack of success and the existence of emotional problems. Problems in coping with one's environment are thought, by Bar-On, to be especially common among those individuals lacking the subscales of reality testing, problem-solving, stress tolerance, and impulse control. In general, emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence contribute equally to a person's general intelligence, which then offers an indication of one's potential to succeed in life. Bar-On (2005) proposed a new model of emotional intelligence which provides a theoretical basis for the EQ-I, that was originally designed to assess various aspects of this construct as well as to examine its conceptualization. In this model, emotional social intelligence is a cross section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills, and factors that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with them and cope with daily demands. According to Bar-On (2005), this model of emotional 27 and social intelligence has much in common with the earlier models that have one or more of the following components: (a) the ability to recognize, understand, and express emotions and feelings; (b) the ability to understand how others feel and relate with them; (c) the ability to manage and control emotion; (d) the ability to manage change, adapt, and solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature and the ability to generate positive effects and be self- motivated. Based on Bar-on‟s model, to be emotionally and socially intelligent is to effectively understand and express oneself, to understand and relate well with others, and to successfully cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures. At the intrapersonal level, it involves the ability to be aware of oneself, to understand one‟s strengths and weaknesses and to express one‟s feelings and thoughts non-destructively. On the interpersonal level, being emotionally and socially intelligent encompasses the ability to be aware of other‟s emotions, feelings and needs and to establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutually satisfying relationships. Thus, to be emotionally and socially intelligent implies the ability to effectively manage personal, social and environmental change by realistically and flexibly coping with the immediate situation, solving problems, and making decisions. Trait EI model Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki (2007) proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a trait-based model of EI and have been developing the latter over many years in numerous scientific publications. Trait EI is "a constellation of emotional self- perceptions located at the lower levels of personality”. Trait EI refers to an individual's self- perceptions of his/her emotional abilities. This definition of EI encompasses behavioural dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured by self-report, as opposed to the ability- based model which refers to actual abilities that have proven highly resistant to scientific measurement. An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy. The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman and Bar-On models discussed above. The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait leads to a construct that lies outside the taxonomy of human cognitive ability. This is an important distinction inasmuch as it bears directly on the operationalization of the construct and the theories and hypotheses that are formulated about it (Petrides & Furnham, 2000). 28 All the EI models reviewed above have common basic concepts. They are all referring to the abilities of the individual to recognize and regulate his/her own emotions and those of others; and use it positively. 2.1.4 Self-concept Sincero (2012) defines self-concept as the totality of our beliefs, preferences, opinions and attitudes organized in a systematic manner, towards our personal existence. Simply put, it is how we think of ourselves and how we should think, behave and act out our various life roles. Each of us have different personalities, traits, abilities and preferences that sometimes we cannot understand what is really going on inside of us. Pastorino and Doyle-Portillo (2013) submit that self-concept is the perception or image of one‟s abilities and uniqueness. At first, one's self- concept is very general and changeable. As we grow older, these self-perceptions become much more organized and specific. The earliest milestone in the self-concept theory is that of Rene Descartes, who proposed that a person‟s existence depended on how he perceives it. Sigmund Freud, one of the most prominent psychologists, proposed many theories that talk about our internal mental processes. His theory holds that there are three main aspects within us, the Id (pleasure-oriented), ego (balance between Id and super ego) and the super ego (conscience-driven) which may influence the way we think of ourselves Self-concept may cover many different areas; for instance, knowledge of the competencies one has and does not have, knowledge of one‟s attitudes and values, and knowledge of one‟s likes and dislikes, and knowledge of what one aspires to become. People tend to have clear conceptions of the self on some dimensions and rather vague or more schematic conceptions of the self on other dimensions. The more important the particular dimension is to someone, and the more they believe he/she occupies an extreme position on the dimension, the more crystallized, or clear, self-conception is (Markus, 1977). The self, thus, is an acknowledged structure that helps people organize and give meaning to memory and behaviour (Kihlstrom, Beer & Klein, 2003). Our idea of ourselves arises, to a large extent, from our experiences of how we react to the behaviours of others, and how others react to us. In addition, social interactions and social structures also provide identities for us (for example, social context may lead people to perceive 29 themselves in terms of their professional affiliation, their role in their family, or their political orientation). Importantly, the self is not one-dimensional. A person‟s overall self is typically represented as a set of categories, each of which represents a distinct self or identity (Markus & Wurf, 1987; Stets & Burke, 2003). These distinct selves or identities are typically tied to a particular social context. This means that people can have an identity for each of the different personal and social positions or role relationships they hold in a specific social context. Thus, self as manager is an identity, self as employee of organization X is an identity, and self as a husband is an identity. The number of identities and the specific content of each of them vary from person to person. The specific content of the self-concept is dependent on the situation. As such, the self may be seen as a collection of modular processing structures (self-schemas) that are elicited in different contexts or situations and have specific cognitive, affective, and behavioural consequences (Lord, Brown & Freiberg, 1999). It is the activated portion of the overall self-concept that, at that specific time, guides information processing, affect, and behaviour. So, although people may have many distinct selves, only one of them tends to be salient or activated in any specific context. This activated portion of the self concept may be referred to as the working self-concept (Markus & Wurf, 1987; Lord & Brown, 2004). Which part of the self-concept will be activated is dependent on cues in the social context and on the immediate past history. Batican (2011) observes that the development of self-concept is directly or indirectly influenced by various factors. It can be shaped by our life experiences, relationships, culture, education, sexual orientation, emotional maturity, age, gender, and even appearance. As we grow older, our self-concept also evolves, like children would describe themselves in terms of gender (boy or girl) compared to older children who can provide much detailed descriptions such as eye colour, address, or shoe size. Adolescent self-concept can be explained in terms of beliefs, or likes and dislikes. Adults can explain themselves in terms of quality of life. Lastly, the elderly ones may have developed even more self-knowledge and wisdom. The process would start from self-awareness or the consciousness of the internal traits and is being shaped by the experiences in the communal life. 30 Qualities of self-concept: The qualities of self-concept are discussed below Self-concept is learned: One of the very basic assumptions of self- concept is that no person is born with self-concept. It gradually emerges in the early months of life and is shaped and reshaped through repeated perceived experiences, particularly with significant others. The fact that self-concept is learned has some important implications:  Self-concept is not instinctive, but is a social product developed through experience; it possesses relatively boundless potential for development and actualization.  Because of previous experiences and present perceptions, individuals may perceive themselves in ways different from the ways others see them.  Individuals perceive different aspects of themselves at different times with varying degrees of clarity  Any experience which is inconsistent with one's self-concept may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these experiences there are, the more rigidly self-concept is organized to maintain and protect itself. When a person is unable to get rid of perceived inconsistencies, emotional problems arise.  Faulty thinking patterns, such as dichotomous reasoning (dividing everything in terms of opposites or extremes) or over-generalizing (making sweeping conclusions based on little information) create negative interpretations of oneself. Self-concept is believed to develop as a person grows old. This means that our perceptions towards ourselves can be shaped and can be altered, and can also be affected by environmental factors. In this sense, self-concept is actually a product of socialisation and development. A person may have a perception of himself different from what other people think of him. Self-concept is organised: Most researchers agree that self-concept has a generally stable quality that is characterized by orderliness and harmony. Each person maintains countless perceptions regarding one's personal existence, and each perception is orchestrated with all the others. It is this generally stable and organized quality of self-concept that gives consistency to the personality. This organized quality of self-concept has corollaries.  Self-concept requires consistency, stability, and tends to resist change. If self-concept changes readily, the individual would lack a consistent and dependable personality. 31  The more central a particular belief is to one's self-concept, the more resistant one is to changing that belief.  At the heart of self-concept is the self-as-doer, the "I," which is distinct from the self-as- object, the various "me's." This allows the person to reflect on past events, analyse present perceptions, and shape future experiences.  Basic perceptions of oneself are quite stable, so change takes time. Self-concept is not built in a day.  Perceived success and failure impact on self-concept. Failure, in a highly regarded area, lowers evaluations in all other areas as well. Success in a prized area raises evaluations in other seemingly unrelated areas. A person may have numerous views of himself. He may think that he is kind, patient, loving and caring, or selfish, cruel, rude and stubborn. No matter how many different perceptions one has about oneself, still, there is one perception that facilitates all of these insights, causing one organized self-concept. When a person believes something that is congruent to his self-concept, it is more likely that he would resist changing that belief. He tends to stick to his present view of himself for quite a long time, and changing this perception of his self may take too long, but change is feasible Self-concept is dynamic: To understand the active nature of self-concept, it helps to imagine it as a gyrocompass: a continuously active system that dependably points to the "true north" of a person's perceived existence. This guidance system not only shapes the ways a person views himself, others, and the world, but it also serves to direct action and enables each person to take a consistent "stance" in life. Rather than viewing self-concept as the cause of behaviour, it is better understood as the gyrocompass of human personality, providing consistency in personality and direction for behaviour. The dynamic quality of self-concept also carries corollaries.  The world and the things in it are not just perceived; they are perceived in relation to one's self-concept.  Self-concept development is a continuous process. In the healthy personality there is constant assimilation of new ideas and expulsion of old ideas throughout life.  Individuals strive to behave in ways that are in keeping with their self-concepts, no matter how helpful or hurtful to one or others. 32  Self-concept usually takes precedence over the physical body. Individuals will often sacrifice physical comfort and safety for emotional satisfaction.  Self-concept continuously guards itself against loss of self-esteem, for it is this loss that produces feelings of anxiety.  If self-concept must constantly defend itself from assault, growth opportunities are limited. As a person faces different situations and new challenges in his life, his insight towards himself may constantly change depending on the way he responds to such life changes. We see things from the perspective of our self-concept. We behave according to how we see ourselves in a situation. Therefore, self-concept is a continuous development wherein we tend to let go of the things and ideas that are not congruent to our self-concept, and we hold on to those that we think are helpful in building a more favourable perception of our personal existence. . Humanist psychologist Carl Rogers recognized three different parts of self-concept: 1. Self-image or how you see yourself. It is important to realize that self-image does not necessarily coincide with reality. People might have an inflated self-image and believe that they are better at things than they really are. People are also prone to having negative self-images and perceive or exaggerate flaws or weaknesses. For example, a teenage boy might believe that he is clumsy and socially awkward when he is really quite charming and likeable. A teenage girl might believe that she is overweight, when she is really quite thin. Each individual's self-image is probably a mix of different aspects, including your physical characteristics, personality traits, and social roles. 2. Self-esteem or how much you value yourself: A number of different factors can impact self-esteem, including how we compare ourselves to others and how others respond to us. When people respond positively to our behaviour, we are more likely to develop positive self-esteem. When we compare ourselves to others and find ourselves lacking, it can have a negative impact on our self-esteem. 3. Ideal self or how you wish you could be: In many cases, the way we see ourselves and how we would like to see ourselves do not quite match. Components of self-concept: Self-concept is composed of two key parts: personal identity and social identity. Our personal identity includes such things as personality traits and other characteristics that make each person unique. Social identity relates the groups we belong to 33 including our community, religion, college, profession and other groups. Bracken (1992) claims that there are six specific domains related to self-concept:  Social – the ability to interact with others  Competence – ability to meet basic needs  Affect – awareness of emotional states  Physical – feelings about looks, health, physical condition, and overall appearance  Academic – success or failure in school  Family – how well one functions within the family 2.1.5 Self-efficacy Self-efficacy lies at the centre of psychologist Albert Bandura‟s social cognitive theory. Bandura‟s theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality. According to Bandura, a person‟s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays an essential part of this self-system. Bandura (1994) defines self-efficacy as "the belief in one‟s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations." In other words, self- efficacy is a person‟s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. These beliefs are determinants of how people think, behave, and feel. Self-efficacy beliefs are an important aspect of human motivation and behaviour and influence the actions that can affect one's life. Regarding self-efficacy, Bandura (1995) explains that it "refers to beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations". Self- efficacy is what an individual believes he or she can accomplish using his or her skills under certain circumstances (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Self-efficacy has been thought to be a task- specific version of self-esteem (Lunenburg, 2011). The basic principle behind self-efficacy theory is that individuals are more likely to engage in activities for which they have high self- efficacy and less likely to engage in those they do not (Van der Bijl & Shortridge-Baggett, 2002). Gecas (2004) asserts that people behave in the way that executes their initial beliefs; thus, self-efficacy functions as a self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, Employee A has high ability and a great deal of experience in creating graphs, but does not have confidence that he can 34 create a high quality graph for an important conference. Employee B has only average ability and only a small amount of experience in creating graphs, yet has great confidence that she can work hard to create a high quality graph for the same conference. Because of Employee A's low self- efficacy for graph creation, he lacks the motivation to create one for the conference and tells his supervisor he cannot complete the task. Employee B, due to her high self-efficacy, is highly motivated, does overtime to learn how to create a high-quality graph, presents it during the conference, and earns a promotion. Self-efficacy has influence over people's ability to learn, their motivation and their performance, as people will often attempt to learn and perform only those tasks for which they believe they will be successful (Lunenburg, 2011). Judgments of self-efficacy are generally measured along three basic scales: magnitude, strength, and generality. Self-efficacy magnitude measures the difficulty level (for example. easy, moderate, and hard) an individual feels is required to perform a certain task (Van der Bijl & Shortridge-Baggett, 2002). Self-efficacy strength refers to the amount of conviction an individual has about performing successfully at diverse levels of difficulty (Van der Bijl & Shortridge-Baggett, 2002). How confident am I that I can excel at my work tasks? How sure am I that I can climb the ladder of success? Akomolafe and Ogunmakin (2014) note that self- efficacy ultimately determines how an individual behaves, thinks and becomes motivated to be involved in a particular task. Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to behave more positively, think more creatively, which also interacts with the motivation individuals with high level of self-efficacy have, the ability to effectively handle various tasks, obligations and challenges related to their professional role. Thus, it is not surprising that a significant positive relationship was found between self-efficacy and job satisfaction among teachers Generality of self-efficacy refers to the "degree to which the expectation is generalized across situations” (Lunenburg, 2011).The basic idea behind the self-efficacy theory is that performance and motivation are in part determined by how effective people believe they can be (Bandura, 1982, cited in Redmond, 2010). The role of self-efficacy Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change, and things they would like to achieve. However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual‟s self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached. 35 Self-efficacy -activated processes are based on four areas: 1. cognitive 2. motivational 3. emotional 4. selective People with weak belief in their self-efficacy  shy away from difficult tasks (personal threats),  have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose,  maintain a self-diagnostic focus (rather than how to perform),  dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles and adverse outcomes,  attribute failures to deficient capabilities,  slacken their efforts or give up quickly in face of difficulty,  are slow to recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks, and  are prone to stress and depression People with strong belief in their efficacy  set challenging goals and sustain strong commitments to their goals,  approach difficult tasks as challenges rather than as threats,  maintain a task diagnostic focus,  attribute failures to insufficient effort,  heighten effort in face of difficulties,  quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failure or setback, and  display low vulnerability to stress and depression Sources of self-efficacy Bandura (1977) outlines four sources of information that individuals employ to judge their efficacy: performance outcomes (performance accomplishments), vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological feedback (emotional arousal). These components help individuals determine if they believe they have the capability to accomplish specific tasks. Williams and Williams (2010) note that “individuals with high levels of self-efficacy approach difficult tasks as challenges to master rather than as threats to be avoided”. 36 Performance Outcomes or Mastery Experiences– According to Bandura, performance outcomes, or past experiences, are the most important source of self-efficacy. Positive and negative experiences can influence the ability of an individual to perform a given task. If one has performed well at a task previously, one is more likely to feel competent and perform well at a similarly associated task (Bandura, 1977). For example, if one performed well in a training workshop, one is more likely to feel confident and have high self-efficacy in another training workshop. The individual‟s self-efficacy will be high in that particular area, and since he or she has a high self-efficacy, he or she is more likely to try harder and complete the task with much better results. The opposite is also true. If an individual experiences a failure, self-efficacy is likely to be reduced. However, if these failures are later overcome by conviction, it can serve to increase self-motivated persistence when the situation is viewed as an achievable challenge (Bandura, 1977). Vicarious Experiences or Social Modelling– People can develop high or low self-efficacy vicariously through other people‟s performances. A person can watch another perform and then compare his own competence with the other individual‟s competence (Bandura, 1977). If a person sees someone similar to him/her succeed, it can increase his/her self-efficacy. However, the opposite is also true; seeing someone similar fail can lower self-efficacy. An example of how vicarious experiences can increase self-efficacy in the workplace is through mentoring programmes, where one individual is paired with someone on a similar career path who will be successful at raising the individual‟s self-efficacy beliefs. An example of how the opposite can be true is in a smoking cessation programme, where, if individuals witness several people fail to quit, they may worry about their own chances of success, leading to low self-efficacy for quitting. Verbal or Social Persuasion– According to Redmond (2010), self-efficacy is also influenced by encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an individual‟s performance or ability to perform, such as a manager telling an employee, “You can do it. I have confidence in you.” Using verbal persuasion in a positive light leads individuals to put forth more effort; therefore, they have a greater chance at succeeding. However, if the verbal persuasion is negative, such as a manager saying to the employee, “This is unacceptable! I thought you could handle this project” can lead to doubts about oneself, resulting in lower chances of success. Also, the level of credibility directly influences the effectiveness of verbal persuasion; where there is more 37 credibility there will be a greater influence. In the example above, a pep talk by a manager who has an established, respectable position would have a stronger influence than that of a newly hired manager. Although verbal persuasion is also likely to be a weaker source of self-efficacy beliefs than performance outcomes, it is widely used because of its ease and ready availability (Redmond, 2010). Physiological Feedback (emotional arousal) – People experience sensations from their bodies and how they perceive this emotional arousal influences their beliefs of efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Some examples of physiological feedback are giving a speech in front of a large group of people, making a presentation to an important client and taking an examination. 2.1.6 The school leadership: concepts, functions and challenges Defining leadership has been complex and elusive. The nature of leadership itself is complex (Daft, 1999). It has been variously defined by scholars, Jacques and Clement (1991) define leadership as a process in which an individual provides direction for other people and carries them along in that direction with competence and full commitment. Hannagan (1995) and Botha (2005) define leadership as the process of motivating people to achieve specific goals. But Hannagan (1995) does not mention those motivational procedures that leadership offers to effect organizational change. Dubrin (1998) cited in Oyetunji (2006), basing his definition on the contemporary context, defines leadership as the ability to inspire confidence and support among followers who are expected to achieve organizational goals. The leader‟s task is to build the followers confidence in their jobs so as to be effective. .It is a leader‟s responsibility to communicate the picture of what the organization should be, to convince followers and to channel all activities towards accomplishing it. Nworgu (1991) views leadership as a process of influencing the activities of a group of people by a leader in efforts towards goal achievement. It involves a force that initiates actions in people and the leader (Nwadiani, 1998). It could be described as the ability to get things done with the assistance and co-operation of other people within the school system (Omolayo, 2000; Aghenta, 2001). Leadership is also viewed as a social influence process in which the leader seeks the voluntary participation of subordinates in an effort to reach organization goals (Omolayo, 2000; Bamigboye, 2000; Edem, 2003; Kester, 2012) and a relational concept involving both the influencing agent and the person being influenced (Eze, 1995). Effective 38 leadership is the extent to which a leader continually and progressively leads and directs his/her followers to the agreed destination which is defined by the whole group (Omolayo, 2000). The school leader as an educational leader is endowed with the authority to influence the actions, behaviour, beliefs, and feelings of his subordinates and expect their willing co-operation (Edem, 2003). Akpan & Archibong (2012) refer to leadership as the ability of the school administrator to control, direct, guide and influence the activities of teachers, students and non- teaching staff towards school goals. The school leader has many roles to contend with. Jimoh (2006) identifies these roles to include curriculum/instruction, school-community relations, conflict, school financial and physical facilities management, maintenance of school discipline and motivation of staff/students among others. Oyedeji and Fasasi (2006) identify these roles as involving supervision of school activities, maintenance of school discipline, decision-making and budgeting. The school administrator, as an instructional leader, is responsible for issues concerning the implementation of the school curriculum (Babayemi, 2006). He has to see to the smooth operation of the school to ensure effective teaching and learning. He has to provide sound instructional leadership through classroom visitation and observation, communicating information clearly to staff and being actively involved in planning and evaluating the instructional programme. He should have the competence to provide a good instructional time table for the school and to ensure that the subjects are assigned to qualified staff. Busari (2005) states that, in the process of performing these roles, he helps teachers in their predicaments, shares ideas from seminars and conferences and assists them to achieve meaningful teaching and something new. Effective instructional supervision helps to bring about changes in the routine ways of teaching. Babayemi (2006) views this role as involving the aspect of school administration which is concerned with improvement of instructional effectiveness. According to Ogunu (2000), the instructional roles of the educational leader involves stimulating, encouraging, supporting and facilitating all activities designed to improve teaching and learning in the school. Motivation of staff and students is an important function of the school leader. As a leader, he should have the ability to discharge his leadership roles with and through people to achieve the school goals. He has a role to play in developing his subordinates to identify with the school and its goals. He should have the ability and competence to motivate and stimulate teachers and other 39 members of staff to participate in school activities and commit themselves to the life of the school (Edobor, 2006). Thus, the greater the inducement pattern created by the school leader, the more committed staff will be to the school (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986). The school leader should be able to create a conducive and congenial school environment that would enhance teachers‟ job involvement and high productivity. Berkey (2008) summarizes a day of work for a school leader to include the following categories of activity: safe and orderly environment, fiscal management, communication , event supervision, parents and community, staff issues, facilities and services management, special education, seminars/ meetings, instructional leadership, „adminstrivia‟ (for example, compiling reports for central office). Bunyamani (2003) states that the critical roles of administrators in basic education consists of four main components: academic administration, financial management, staff and personnel administration, and general administration. In terms of academic administration, school leaders need to be experts in academic management, especially school curriculum and learning and teaching management. In terms of financial management, school leaders must possess leadership in financial administration, allocation, and evaluation. The roles of principals in terms of staff and personnel administration focus on staff and personnel policy development, such as professional development, supervision, and evaluation. There are different roles of school leadership. Kavanaugh (2005) asserts that principals‟ roles in the twenty-first century differ from principals in the past. Principals‟ roles in the past and at the present may be different in some aspects. It can be said that school principals in the past did not encounter complex tasks as principals today do. At present, “the role of the principals will vary from place to place, as a result of organization and community expectations” (Ubben, Hughes & Norris, 2007). Their role is both intense and diverse (Lunenburg & Irby, 2006). Kavanaugh observes that, nowadays, principals work in a less bureaucratic system. In addition, schools strive to become more of a learning community. They need to perform a multitude of tasks within a short span of time during their administrative terms. Their administrative roles cover a wide range of situations and a variety of skills. The role of principal is increasing in complexity and challenges for their school administration (Matthews & Grow, 2003). However, scholars have defined roles of principals differently. 40 Principals are managers of curriculum and instruction: an effective school curriculum and instruction is the heart of school administration. Students‟ learning achievement depends on a schools‟ good learning environment, such as an effective school curriculum (Lambert, 2003). School principals, as the managers of the curriculum and instruction must know the components of effective curriculum and effective instruction before attempting to help teachers with the improvement of their personal approaches (Webster, 1994). Principals can challenge themselves by thinking seriously about various activities and interactions, seeking to discover ways that further pedagogical purposes of their schools (Murphy & Beck, 1994). As managers of curriculum and instruction, school principals should be able to answer what the curriculum goals for each grade are, and what management plans for each goal can be carried out. Tucker and Codding (2002) assert that principals require a deep understanding of the circumstances and the nature of an instructional system and assessments. Principals‟ function as instructional leaders will focus on responding to the needs of teachers and students, especially to the need for increasing their student achievement. (Kavanaugh, 2005). Principals as facilitators: Facilitative principals respect the abilities of staff members. They will also pay close attention to those staff members and acknowledge the value of maintaining a relationship that is more collaborative than directive (Dyer & Carothers, 2000). In facilitating staff members and students, principals will enhance motivation, self-esteem, security, and morale (Blasé & Blase, 1998). McEwan (2003) states that teachers who see their principals as facilitators will feel more accountable for school administration, especially in terms of the students‟ learning management. Rosser (1990) claims that, as facilitators, principals must consider adopting styles that are most appropriate to the school and to their personalities. The recognized facilitator styles are those of initiator, responder, and manager. As an initiator, principals address visions and care about what a good school should look like. As a responder, principals are concerned with different perceptions of the school. As a manager, principals are responsive to the needs of their teachers, initiate inquiries, and suggest changes for school. Goldring and Rallis (1993) assert that it is critical for principals to facilitate teacher leadership in school. They state that there are five strategies to facilitate teacher leadership at school: (a) principals need to motivate teachers to involvement, especially through establishing a problem solving climate, consensus building, and goal setting, 41 (b) principals need to provide opportunities for authentic participations in school (c)to facilitate teacher leadership, principals need to enhance teacher contact and communication around issues that are being encountered by the school, (d) essentially, principals need to provide their teachers with rewards and incentives to encourage teachers involvement in improving and maintaining the school, and (e) principals need to ensure that necessary resources for their teachers teaching are available and accessible. Kavanaugh (2005) avers that school leaders‟ roles in the twenty-first century have become more important because the work is much more complex than in the past. Educational changes in the twenty-first century have incorporated new forms of school management and teacher empowerment, (Portin & Shen, 2005). These include the calls for increased accountability in the school. It inevitably places the school principals in a precarious position to produce positive outcomes (Colley, 2005). For this reason, school leaders demand a more sophisticated set of skills and understanding than ever before (Lambert, 1998). Especially in the era of education reform, principals need to take on a greater role in the work of convincing public and private sectors, parents, and communities to supports schools. According to the educational changes in terms of demographic, social, economic, political, and cultural issues, principals may take new roles in exercising authority and administering their schools. Principals and educational accountability: The increased calls for educational accountability have impacted and changed the roles of school principals (Shen, Palmer, & Crawford, 2005). Kavanaugh (2005) avers that the increase in accountability impacts principals because they are evaluated by student performance on the state achievement tests. The stakeholders desire that schools determine accountability and effectiveness through the use of testing programmes that predictably verify if students are actually learning in their classroom (Daresh, 2002). Based on educational accountability, principals must ensure that the circle of accountability is completely reflected by improvement in student learning outcomes. This needs to be reflected in processes for evaluating programmes and monitoring the performance of the school, (Hill, 2002). To promote the challenge of accountability, leaders need to monitor student‟s achievement, coordinate and assist students, and supervise instructional improvement of schools. (Duke, Grogan & Tucker 2003) 42 School leaders and community collaboration: Schools are open systems that associate with different groups of people in the different environments (Morgan, 1997). Principals are members of the community and it is important that they cultivate a network of relationships with other members of the community in which they live. Community collaboration is not just for developing collaborative and participatory decision-making, but also for maintaining the restructuring effort as a whole. School principals not only work with an internal community, for example Ministry of Education, parents, educational boards and organisations that influence an administration. (Prestine, 1991). Pierce and Stapleton (2003) argue that if principals want parents to be an integral part of the school community, principals must make them feel comfortable. This phenomenon challenges principals‟ responsibility in creating an environment to assume a more public role, interacting with people, such as community leaders, alumni, and policymakers in the wider community and society, forging links with the school and other groups of people. Principals and professional development: Professional development is another factor that enhances and strengthens school leaders‟ knowledge and skills in administration. In the twenty-first century, it is another role of school principals to develop and increase their professional development. The issue of principals‟ professional development received much attention during the late 1990s (Wong, 2004). For school leaders, a potential purpose of professional development is to develop organizational-specific knowledge and related skills that are necessary for their administration (Rodriguez & Gomez, 2005). Another purpose is to maintain currency for knowledge and skills that are rapidly changing, for example information on new research findings, and upgrading technological skills and competencies (Peterson & Kelly, 2002). Tucker and Codding (2002) state that one of the most important issues of the new curriculum for principals is to promote the professional knowledge and skill of the faculty. Knowledge and skills from professional development programmes programs help foster the quality of administrative systems, promote principals‟ life-long learning, and create effective school environments. Grogan and Andrews (2002) argue that it is vital that principals “know about learning and professional practice to develop the structure of relationships within classrooms, schools, and school districts” As principals play important roles in school administration, professional development is regarded as a necessary factor in strengthening their 43 effective administration. Principals‟ professional development impacts quality of school administration in terms of school quality and student‟s learning. Principals can achieve and improve school quality through life-long professional development by learning to lead and leading to learn (Snowden & Gorton, 2002). McCay (2001) recommends that professional development for school principals or teachers should address developing qualities of active learning, reflection, and leadership. Principals as driver of change: One of the most challenging roles of school principals in the twenty-first century is to create changes in school contexts. Hallinger (1992) notes that they are “change agents” or “transformational leaders”. Although leading change is one of the most important roles, it is a difficult responsibility (Yukl, 2005). Efforts to implement organizational change are more likely to be successful if a leader understands the reasons for resistance to change, the sequential phases in the change process, as well as different strategies to bring change. To create changes, school principals need great efforts in depth and breadth as well as leadership skills. “Leadership for change requires an internalized mindset that is constantly refined through thinking, and action, thinking, action” (Fullan, 1996). He also states that leaders for change must engage themselves in real situations, beginning to craft their own theories of change and persistently test them against new situations and against grounded accounts of others‟ experiences. To create change, “a prime task of principals is to exercise leadership of the kind that results in a shared vision of the directions to be pursued by the school and to manage change in ways that ensure that the school is successful in realizing the vision” (Hill, 2002). As a change agent, principals should learn to identify root problems and causes. They should learn to gather intelligence and formulate a plan on the basis of appropriate data, to set performance targets, select practical strategies, and develop sound implementation plans (Tucker & Codding, 2002). Sergiovanni (1991) states that principals who are effective in implementing change in schools are team-oriented. Principals cannot make change alone; they should work with other teachers and their assistants. Educational changes rely on communications, especially with staff members who share and shape the direction of the school and decide on the changes that schools need. Principals as models: Kaewdaeng (2001) and Panich (2001) recognize the changing roles of school administrators. For example, Kaewdaeng (2001) says that the most important role of school administrators in the era of education reform is to be good models, especially in 44 understanding educational reform policies. School administrators must provide different learning resources for students. They must focus on student-centred approach and facilitate teachers to design teaching and learning based on the needs of students‟ backgrounds and capacities. Another important role of school leaders is to establish connections with outsiders, especially related stakeholders. Kaewdaeng (2001) asserts that schools leaders must have networks with other schools to help develop school administration and management. Panich (2001) says that the heart of principals as models focuses on school-based management. Administrators must have initiation in developing schools. School leaders do not need to follow Western perspectives. They should develop their schools based on their experiences, school cultures, and social contexts. The most critical role of teachers is to develop the success of students. Also, they must bring happiness to teachers by promoting their professional development. The foregoing discussion shows that school leaders in the twenty-first century are really encountering the new changing and challenging roles. If leadership is the key to successful change, it is a challenging task for school principals to make it happen, rather than merely responds to it (Gill, 2006). Since the school administration is now more complicated, it is important that school principals possess strong leadership skills in working and operating under the changing environment. 2.1.7 School administrators and occupational stress Stress is an occurrence that must be recognised and addressed in various professions, including the teaching profession (Oliver & Venter, 2003). Educators' work is becoming more complex and demanding. The roles of educators are not easily defined and the variables that come into play are growing more complex (Greenberg, 1984). Educators have to cope with demands such as the rationalization of personnel, increased specialization, the growing scope of syllabuses and a higher number of learners per class (Niehaus, Myburgh & Kok, 1996). The school administrators‟ work is continually impacted by various social, political and economic factors that exert pressures on their leadership skills and consequently affect them personally and professionally (Norton, 2005). Adams (2001) asserts that educators are expected to execute various activities which are facing enormous volumes of individual, social and professional responsibilities in today‟s fast paced world, which could lead to their experience of stress. 45 The position of school administrators has also been described as diverse and demanding, which results to stress. In addition to the daily rigours of maintaining the operations of a school, they have to cope with demands such as increase changes in education policies, curricula and society. Various studies have highlighted that time pressure with regard to administrative demands and excessive paper work is the major source of stress for teachers, as there is inadequate time for preparation, unrealistic deadlines are imposed, with excess of workload (Louden, 1987; Dinham, 1993; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996; Pithers & Soden, 1999; Kyriacou, 2001). Increase in school crime and its effect on behaviour, conditions of service, new rules, regulations and policies from the education department, (Niehaus, Myburgh & Kok, 1996) demands of unions (Mestry, 1999) also contribute to the stress of administrators. Some reasons have been accounted for school administrators‟ stress with the complexity of their roles. School administrators may feel besieged and have difficulty finding adequate time to efficiently handle every aspect of the job (Carr, 1994; Brock & Grady, 2002; Queen & Queen, 2005). Hughes and Norris (2004) stress the magnitude of the roles of principals by indicating that the principal is the key element in school success and that it is in the public best interest for principals to be highly effective. Studies have reported that the responsibilities and problems inherent in the position of school administrators are wide in scope and variety. Often times, they lead in an environment in which they are isolated, where the responsibilities are numerous and where they have limited number of allies and supports (Litchka, Fenzel & Polka, 2009). School administrators encounter considerable stress in their work that is directly related to the roles and responsibilities of their position (Cooper & Schabracq, 2000; Fuller, 2003; Glass & Franceshini, 2007). It was found by these scholars that 60% of school administrators experienced levels of stress that were either considerable or very great. They add that the amount of stress that school leaders are facing is increasing and can become a disabling condition affecting behaviour, judgment and performance. It should be noted that school administrators experience both stress and strain similar to that experienced by corporate executives. Sources of occupation stress of school administrators Sources of stress of school administrators are multi-dimensional and include time pressures, lack of communication and performance feedback and conflicting demands of various 46 stakeholders (Schmidt & Pollack, 1998; Glass, 2000). Other sources identified are several aspects of work environment, organizational, personal and occupational roles as potential sources of stress. In whichever situation, stress depends on individual differences, such as job experience and personality. This type of stress is expressed as psychological, physiological and behavioural outcomes (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Principals also experience administrative stress which can be expressed through unpleasant emotions, such as anger, tension, frustration, depression, and nervousness. This is confirmed in the works of Dorug (1993) and Friedman (1997), which suggest that principals exhibit such unpleasant emotions because it is a psychological and/or physiological response to threatening or overly demanding situations. The general factors that contribute to stress of principals include human resource management and management of time and relationships. Lack of power and influence, and office politics are among other main sources of stress in educational institutions (Mullins, 2007). Major decisions and power rest in the Ministry of Education and the Teaching Service Commission; little power and authority lie with the principal. Jaiyeoba and Jibril (2008), in their studies on stress among secondary school principals in Nigeria, showed that administrative routine, workload, conflicting demands and role between work and family were the highest nature of stress among principals. Technological change is also a type of environmental factor that causes stress. Many secondary school administrators‟ skills and experiences can become obsolete in a very short time because of innovations. For instance, those who are not computer literate and conversant with robotics, automation and similar forms of technological innovations are a threat and may cause stress for some principals (Johnson & Evans, 2000). In addition, operating a school in an unsuitable building or one with poor facilities increases the challenges for school leaders, indicating the importance of school design in fostering positive outcome (Darmody, Smyth & Doherty 2010). Yambo, Kindiki and Tuitoek (2012) identify the following stress areas of secondary school principals and their assistants: 1. Role-based stress Role is explained to be the expected pattern of behaviour associated with members occupying a particular position within the structure of the organization, and how principals believe others should respond to their actions (Graham & Bennet, 1998; DuBrin, 2006). This is 47 to say that a principal might not be clear of his/her expected role. Roles might not be explicit or specific. Roles that are explicit or specific are easier to conform with. Therefore, role ambiguity can cause stress. Where role is not clear, there is no job description. Rampant confusing assignments and responsibilities without authority, stresses the principals. As an administrator, the role of the principal is very important in a school but his/her work is not stress-free. Principals are responsible for school activities and they relate and work with people, that is, teachers, students, parents, communities and supervisors. The impact of the influence of the principal‟s role in a school is enormous and also affects the position of the parents, teachers and the communities. Thus, the principal will be executing his/her duties which will normally involve meeting stakeholders in meetings which are both formal and informal. All these meetings affect the principal. Fontana (1989) asserts that frustration arises from too many meetings, unnecessary rituals and procedures which make principals stressed up. Principals of secondary schools work under the government and are answerable to the Ministry of Education and the Teaching Service Commission. As a result of this, there is need for principals to maintain a cordial and sound relationship with the supervisors as principals discharge their duties. However, despite this, the opposite, sometimes, come with stress. Fontana (1989) points out that poor relationship between the principal and the supervisors is the source of the stress since the supervisors have the ability to influence materially. The relationship between the principals and the supervisors is the key to smooth running of schools. Misunderstanding or rift between principals and supervisors, like the Local Inspector of Education (LIE), and ministry officials can generate a considerable amount of stress. 2. Task-based stress areas This is stress that is related to actual doing of the work or job. Task-based stress focuses on substantive issue, related differences related to the work of the principal. Task-based stress, according to Olayiwola (2008), arises from the performance of day-to-day administrative activities, including telephone, teaching and non-teaching staff interruptions, meetings, writing memos and reports; responding to government circulars; and participating in school activities outside normal working hours. Principals have greater workload. This implies that they have more work load that one can perform in a given time. Tambo, Kindiki and Taofeek (2012) assert 48 that overloaded principals feel hurried have too many tasks to do have too many decisions to make, find themselves constantly behind schedule and worry about time and deadlines. Robins and Judge (2007) submit that task demands are factors related to a person‟s job (autonomy, task variety, and degree of automation), working conditions and the physical work layout. Working in an overcrowded environment or room or visible location where noise and interruptions are constant can lead to increased anxiety and stress (Johnson & Evans, 2000). Many high school principals find themselves more often in multi-tasking role everyday by trying to do two or three things at once and this can cause stress. 3. Conflict mediating stress In every organization where people are, conflicts cannot be avoided. The principal, as the head of the school, stands at the centre. Disagreement and disputes are inevitable when a team is working together. DuBrim (2006) asserts that conflict is often accompanied by tension and frustration. Whenever two or more people in an organization compete for the same resources, conflicts occur and these conflicts need mediation. The principal of a school must carry out the mediation. This process brings about conflict-mediated stress on the part of the principal. The results of conflict mediation, negative or positive, affect the institution. Conflicts in workplace affect job performance. If the principal observes that job performance is suffering because teachers are too placid, the principal might decide to place a prize for top performance in school (Marshall, 2002). Managing conflict at school is one of the usual challenges among high school principals. However, conflicts are a natural part of life that bring with them a considerable amount of stress to the high school principals. Conflicts are also rampant among students. Principals solve problems among teachers, students and parents. Principals are also responsible for seeing that teachers understand and support the objectives and policies of the school system. Conditions such as negotiation and going public, support principals‟ interaction with parents and the public. Doring (1993) and Friedman (1997) argue that principals are experiencing greater stress as a result of their responsibilities, as well as their position, where they must interact with all stakeholders. They liaise with all unions of both teaching and non- teaching staffs. Principals meet with union representatives. In some private schools, the principals are stressed in collective bargaining. They negotiate and may become stressed if the 49 schools cannot afford agreeing with such bargaining. Stress emanating from boundary spanning can be intense and acute, because it involves even members of the public. Principals need to have sound public relations, high bargaining tact, which can enable their institution to procure the needed resources among other competitors posing and having the same demands. School administrators are in a highly vulnerable position. They stand at the intersection of the school and the outside world and at the centre of a role-set distinctive for competing and conflicting expectations. They have to be skilful and diplomatic with almost super-human powers, if they are to survive and meet the responsibilities of their positions (Woods, 1990). People occupying boundary-spanning positions in an organisation experience hard times meeting the challenges and stress that it generates (Friedman, 1997). The general consensus of researchers in the field of stress management is that being a principal is a moderately stressful job. A few authors sought to determine the sources of stress in a variety of studies on principals. The general factors that contribute to stress in principals include: human resource management, finances, management of time, and relationships (Campbell & Williamson, 1987; Doring, 1993; Friedman, 1997). Coleman and Conaway (1984) describe the specific problems that principals face in a very succinct way. They say, “school principals may experience stress due to interpersonal clashes and conflicts, excessively taxing administrative responsibilities, time constraints, and conflicting role expectations”. In sum, it is obvious that school administrators experience occupational stress and the sources of stress are multi-dimensional. Occupational stress among school administrators need to be addressed because of its negative effect on both the school administrators and the entire school system. Thus, there is need to use appropriate strategies to reduce their occupational stress. 2.1.8 Emotional intelligence and occupational stress Emotional intelligence has no universal definition. It has been variously described by many researchers. Salovey and Mayer (1990) see emotional intelligence as a form of self- management of emotion-based behaviour. It is the ability of a person to manage his or her emotions and to perceive and manage the emotional response of other individuals. Salovey and Mayer, (1993) discriminated among them and used the information to discuss human thinking and actions. Therefore, a highly emotionally intelligent individual does not allow his/her 50 emotions to inhibit his/her rational thinking. Emotional intelligence is important in situations requiring adaptations and the ability to cope (Sojka & Deeter-Schmelz, 2002). Bar-on (2006) conceives emotional intelligence as being concerned with effectively understanding oneself and others, relating well to people and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings so as to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands and pressures. It is seen as the ability, capacity or skill to perceive, assess and manage one‟s of others‟ and of groups‟ emotions. Goleman (2004) sees it as a skill that anyone who owns it tries to control his life with self-awareness and improves it with self-management and perceives its effect through sympathy. By managing the relations he tries to improve his or other‟s morale. Aremu (2006) shares the same view and describes it as the management of one‟s emotions in such a way that those emotions do not constitute a nuisance to the individual and significant others in and around one. According to Mayer and Salovey (2004), emotional intelligence is the ability of cognition, evaluation and expressing emotions. It is the ability of controlling emotions to improve the growth of emotion and ration. Many scholars view emotional intelligence as a group of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills. Goleman, Boyatzis and Mckee (2002) assert that the effective use of emotion is basic to the function of successful leadership. Leader‟s that have emotional guides influence not only followers‟ emotions but also followers‟ actions through that emotional influence. Leaders exercise this influence through relationship management, motivational appeal, and goal-setting. The leader‟s emotional intelligence is necessary to effectively perform these efforts. Bar-on (1997) posits that emotional intelligence develops over time and that it can be improved through training, programming and therapy. A deficiency in emotional intelligence can mean lack of success and the existence of emotional problems. Occupational stress and emotional intelligence have been found to be highly interrelated. The ability of employees to properly manage their emotions and manage other employees‟ emotions will strongly increase their abilities to cope with physiological and psychological stresses in implementing job, and as a result, it may lead to higher job satisfaction in an organisation (Thiebaut, Breton, Lambolez, & Richoux, 2005; Sy, Tram & O‟Hara, 2006; Guleryuz, Guney, Aydin & Asan, 2008). The popularity of emotional intelligence during the past decades has lead researchers to examine its potency in various areas of human functioning. It has been found that trait or ability 51 and emotional intelligence are related to life success (Bar-on, 2001), life satisfaction and well- being (Palmer, Donaldson & Stough, 2002), interpersonal relationships (Fitness, 2001), occupational stress (Nikolaou & Tsaousis, 2002; Slaski & Cartwright, 2002) work success and performance (Vakola, Tsaousis & Nikolaoce, 2004), leadership (Palmer, Walls, Bergess & Stough, 2002). Emotional intelligence competencies have been found to have relationship and positive impact on occupational stress (Spector & Goh, 2001; Ciarrochi, Chan & Bajar, 2001; Gardner, 2005). Emotional intelligence competencies play a role in creating abilities in an individual to better handle the stress in the workplace. It generates the skill in the individual to choose various courses of action to deal with stress without collapsing, develop a positive attitude to solve a problem and feel that one is in control of the situation (Slask & Cartwright, 2003). Gardner (2005) examined the effectiveness of emotional intelligence training in decreasing feelings of stress and strain among 79 teachers. Participants were assessed immediately after participation in the training programme. The findings revealed the effectiveness of emotional intelligence training programme in terms of improving levels of emotional intelligence, decreasing feelings of stress and strain and improving the outcome of stress. These changes were evident immediately after completion of the training programme and were maintained (or improved upon) at the follow-up period. The employees having emotional intelligence competencies managed their negative emotions in the workplace better and reported fewer psychological problems with high level of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. He notes that emotional intelligence skills, like empathy, impulse control are also necessary for successful job performance which can help workers to deal more effectively with their feelings and thus directly decrease the level of job stress and indirectly protect their health, Goh and Spector (2001) examined the role of emotion in occupational stress. They employed a narrow definition of job stress as “any condition or situation that elicits a negative emotional response, such as anger /frustration or anxiety / tension” in an attempt to overcome the broadness of previous definitions and focus on negative emotional responses. He asserts that emotions influence how the work environment is perceived, that is, whether a particular condition is appraised as a job stressor or not and that these appraising emotions may lead to psychological and physical strains. Psychological strain might result from continual negative emotional experiences and might lead to decrease in job satisfaction and organizational 52 commitment. Physical strains (for example, suppression of immune system, heart disease) may result from the physiological components of experienced emotions that can adversely affect health. An individual‟s ability to manage and control their emotions (particularly negative emotions) in the workplace will influence the outcome of stress. Duran and Extremera (2004), in their study including professionals employed in institutions for people with intellectual disabilities, revealed a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and burnout syndrome, and personal accomplishment, in particular. The data clearly indicated that emotional intelligence expressed in the ability to recognize, express, and control emotions may have impact on the perceived job stress and the consequences of experienced stress. Chowen (2013) observes that emotional intelligence enhances the ability of employees to cope with job tension and work environmental challenges through their display of mastery at monitoring and managing their own emotions as well as those of colleagues and their clients. As such, employees‟ will be less likely to display anger, frustration and other negative emotional outbursts when confronted with job-related challenges and tension. Darolia and Darolia (2005) studied the role of emotional intelligence in coping with stress and emotional control behaviour. The study clearly established that emotionally intelligent people who are able to understand and recognise their emotions, manage themselves appropriately so that their impulsiveness and aggression is kept under control in stressful situations. Chabungban (2005) proposed that, by developing emotional intelligence, one can build a bridge between stress and better performance and that the effects of stress are costly to both the organisation and the employee if left unattended within a given time frame. Regular administration of emotional intelligence abilities through training can help employees at workplace to control impulses and persist in the face of frustration and obstacles, prevent negative emotions from swamping the ability to think, feel motivated and confident, accurately perceive emotions and empathise and get along well with others Abraham (2000) asserts that the social skills component of emotional intelligence is related to positive interpersonal relationship and it increases the feeling of job satisfaction and decreases occupational stress. These social skills foster networks of social relationship which, in turn, increases an employee‟s commitment to the organization. Hunt and Evans (2003) conducted a study on “predicting traumatic stress using emotional intelligence”. The study 53 investigated whether emotional intelligence (EI) can predict how individuals respond to traumatic experiences. The results showed that participants with higher emotional intelligence reported fewer psychological symptoms relating to traumatic experiences. Humpel, Caputi, and Grad- Dip- Math (2001) conducted a study on “exploring the relationship between work stress, years of experience and emotional competency” using a sample of Australian mental health nurses. The results showed that nurses with less than two years in the nursing profession were found to experience significantly more personal self-doubt than nurses with greater nursing experience. Pau and Croucher (2003) studied the emotional intelligence and perceived stress in dental undergraduates. Correlation analysis showed an inverse relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived stress. In conclusion, low EI scorers reported more perceived stress. Chapman and Clarke (2002) also conducted a study on “emotional intelligence as a concept that can be used in stress management” and found that there was a strong correlation between overall and each of the five EQ abilities and lower levels of stress, with emotion management showing the strongest relationship. Pau, Rowland, Naidoo, AbdulKadir, Makrynika, Moraru, Huang and Croucher (2007) conducted a study on emotional intelligence and perceived stress in dental undergraduates in seven countries. First-year dental undergraduates attending a dental school in England, Greece, Romania, South Africa, Australia and the United States and three schools in Malaysia were invited to complete a questionnaire on age, gender, academic background, satisfaction with career choice, emotional intelligence and perceived stress. The inverse relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived stress was confirmed in this heterogeneous sample representing diverse socio-cultural and academic contexts of dental undergraduates. Van Rooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran (2005) found that females had significantly higher reported emotional intelligence than males. A similar result was found by Atkins and Stough (2005). However, Petrides and Furnhan (2000) found that males “over all” and self motivation estimates of emotional intelligence were significantly higher than females‟ estimates. These authors suggested that males, scored higher on self-estimate of emotional intelligence than females because females might tend towards self-derogation on self-report measures. In contrast, Perry, Ball and Stancey (2004), in a study of pre-service (student) teachers, using Reaction to Teaching Situation (RTS), found that the females reported significantly higher emotional in intelligence than males. Other studies showed remarkable similar results. For instance, women 54 scored significantly higher than did men on overall emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputti 2000; Day & Carroll, 2004). Brackett, Cox, Gaines and Salovey (2005), in their study on college-age couples on their EI and quality of their relationships, found that individuals scoring low on emotional intelligence reported the greatest unhappiness with their relationship, as compared to the happiness ratings of the other two groups. The couples with both partners emotionally intelligent were very happy. Furthermore, couples in with only one partner that had high emotional intelligence tended to fall between the other groups in happiness. Suh-Suh, Ajis and Dollah (2009) conducted a study to examine the effect of emotional intelligence in the relationship between occupational stress and job performance. The outcome of the study clearly stated that relationship between occupational stress and emotional intelligence significantly correlated with job performance. Statistically, the results confirmed that the inclusion of emotional intelligence in the analysis mediated the effect of occupational stress on job performance. Law, Wong, Huang and Li (2008) examined the effects of emotional intelligence on job performance and life satisfaction for research and development in China. They found that emotional intelligence (EI) is a significant predictor of job performance. Law et al. (2008) recommended that workers emotional intelligence skills should be enhanced for improved job performance. Iordanoglou (2007) studied the relationships among emotional intelligence, leadership effectiveness, commitment, and satisfaction in education. Three hundred and thirty two primary schools participated in the study conducted in Greece. The results, using structural equation modelling, showed that emotional intelligence, especially the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions, had a positive effect on leadership roles. A strong positive effect was also apparent in teachers‟ commitment and effectiveness, as measured by teachers‟ perception. Leadership roles, such as performance evaluation, motivation support, and development improvement, had a strong influence on effectiveness. Ogunyemi (2007) investigated the effects of brainstorming and emotional mastery programmes in fostering emotional intelligence of executive management personnel. The finding revealed that brainstorming and emotional mastery enhanced participants‟ emotional intelligence level almost at the same rate. Bar-on (2002) asserts that emotional intelligence helps to predict success because it reflects how a person applies knowledge to the immediate situation. Emotional Quotient (EQ) measures one‟s common sense and the ability to get along in the world. 55 EQ training is used in corporations, employee development, leadership programmes and in educational setting. Individuals who receive emotional Intelligence training are motivated and inspired to achieve their life goals, have greater career success, build stronger personal relationships, increase their optimism and are healthier. Emotional intelligence training offers the experience of a knowingness that exudes a quality of authentic humanness, of simply being real. That is the credible factor that an individual must have in order to be solidly successful. Emotional intelligence (EI) training takes the form of what psychologists Mayer, Caruso and Cobb (2000) call socio-emotional learning: it teaches how to examine one‟s own EI competencies. These competencies include the following: - Becoming more aware of emotional triggers that can instigate an angry violent response, - Learning tactics to manage one's own mental state during stressful situations, - Being more attentive to the impact of daily emotions on long-term moods and attitudes toward colleagues and others. According to Fabio (2005), workshop interventions improve emotional intelligence (EI) competencies, such as self-confidence, conflict management, communication, and conscientiousness. The EI training also affects stress management. A study incorporating EI into stress management programmes revealed that "those frontline operational police officers (who) were able to understand and manage their emotions report lower levels of stress and were, according to their reported lifestyles, at less risk of suffering from stress in the future”. These results were evident across the sample with no real differences evident regarding the age, gender rank or length of service of the officers involved (Chapman & Clarke, 2002). In other studies, EI awareness training was found to reduce officer burnout (Donna, 2003). Okoiye (2011) opines that emotional intelligence training is a significant step for police training, leadership, recruiting, and hiring; keeping the next generation of police officers requires considering EI. According to Carmeli (2003), emotionally intelligent individuals are expected to recognize, manage, and use their emotions to eliminate the ensuing obstacles and advance their career horizons better than people with low emotional intelligence. This is likely, especially when the profession has some high levels of complexity, demand and expectations. Teaching work can be demanding and leads to high levels of stress (Salami, 2007). Emotional intelligence can be able to control this perceived stress effectively and prevent its negative effects on one‟s 56 attitude towards one‟s profession. Empirical evidence shows that emotional intelligence is related to career commitment (Aremu, 2005; Carmeli, 2003). Emotional intelligence and school administrators The role of the principal is more challenging than ever. School reform in the 21st century requires leaders to transform schools into autonomous, systems-thinking organizations, revolving around professional learning communities that can embrace change and create a high-performing learning environment for students and teachers (Moore, 2009). George (2000) avers that emotional intelligence is important to the process of leading and should be considered an essential component of effective leadership. Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2002) point out the linkage between leadership and emotional intelligence when they assert that the effective use of emotion is basic to the function of successful leadership. George (2006) describes leadership as an emotion-laden process, with emotion entwined with the social influence process. This implies that emotional intelligence, which is the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in one and others, contributes to the effectiveness of leadership. Patti (2007) asserts that effective middle school and high school principals will need to understand and manage emotions to implement and lead school reform. Moving teachers from isolation to collaboration, changing the focus from teaching to student learning, implementing structures and processes that systematically monitor student learning and increase accountability, and distributing leadership are a huge paradigm shift for most schools. It will be a daunting task and will take an emotional toll on teachers, students and principals. Leaders that are not skilled in dealing with emotions will experience much personal stress and will not be able to sustain or endure the change process (Moore, 2009). Many researchers have contributed to the field of school leadership. Some Studies indicate that the principal and superintendent have little direct effect on student outcomes (Leithwood, 1994; Hallinger & Heck, 1996 & 1998). However, studies have made it very clear that leadership has direct effect on school organization, school ethos, teacher efficacy, staff morale and satisfaction, staff retention, teachers‟ commitment, teachers‟ extra effort, and teachers‟ attitude toward school reform and change which have a direct effect on student outcomes (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000; Geijsel, Sleegers, Leithwood, & Jantzi, 2003). 57 Mehta (2013) claim that administrators in several jobs sense an increasing need to have recurrent interchanges that are both emotionally positive and supportive with employees and teachers. In educational administrations, generally, there is need to interact emotionally with others, teachers not only need to assess the reactions of others and attempt to influence other's emotions and motives, but they also need to talk with others face to face and exhibit optimistic behaviours. Numerous communal establishments, such as corporations and organizations, are commencing explorations with EI. Even though EI is a fairly innovative concept, it continues to advance in the research arena. It is envisaged that, by recognizing the manager and employee's level of emotional intelligence, a difference in corporations and organizations could be achieved. Companies attempt to develop the quality of the executives and co-workers‟ lives which is said to affect their output level, which, in turn, amplifies profits (Brophy, 1996). Stone, Parker and Wood (2005) identify key emotional competencies that determine leadership effectiveness in school administrators. In the study of 464 principals and vice principals that completed the Bar-On EQ-I assessment, the participants were also asked to include three subordinates and one superior to complete a questionnaire for assessing their leadership effectiveness. The results revealed a weak correlation between the subordinate and superior leadership scores. Therefore, a composite score was created by combining the two sources of data, which was used to divide the participants in two groups: above-average leadership and below-average leadership. Women scored significantly higher on the emotional intelligence scores than men. The results also showed that the above-average leadership group scored higher on both intrapersonal subscales (emotional self-awareness and self-actualization) and interpersonal subscale (empathy and relationship). Williams (2007) explored the factors that differentiated outstanding and typical urban principals in the mid-western United States. He used peer and supervisor nominations to identify a group of 12 outstanding principals and selected eight principals who received no nominations as the typical group. Each participant was interviewed using Behavioural Event Incident (BEI) methodology and their responses were coded according to a model of emotional and social competencies. The results showed that the outstanding group of principals consistently demonstrated five emotional competencies (self-confidence, self-control, conscientiousness, achievement orientation, and initiative) and four of the social intelligence competencies 58 (organizational awareness, leadership, conflict management, and teamwork/collaboration) than the “typical” group Marzano, Waters and McNulty (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of 69 successful school leadership studies involving over 2,800 schools, 14,000 teachers and one million students. They identified 21 categories of leadership behaviours and practices that had a statistically significant relationship with student achievement. Many of these behaviours and practices could be very easily integrated into programmes designed to improve one‟s emotional intelligence (affirmation, communication, fostering shared beliefs, comfortable with dissent, ability to self-disclose beliefs, ability to demonstrate awareness of the personal aspect of staff, increasing the high quality interactions with students and staff, and ability to inspire staff). The authors reiterated that frustration and anger usually accompany the change process in creating highly effective schools. Moore (2007) investigated the perception and effects of emotional intelligence coaching for school administrators in a case study. The data revealed that the school administrators experienced an array of emotions in their jobs. The qualitative and quantitative data indicated that there were benefits from the emotional intelligence coaching. The school administrators improved in their overall ratings from others on their improved emotional intelligence after several weeks of coaching and each administrator stressed the importance of emotional intelligence in their jobs. The study suggested that emotional intelligence may prove to be very beneficial to school administrators. Williams (2008) also corroborated this in his study of leadership characteristics of urban principals that were identified as outstanding. It was found that emotional intelligence had a positive influence on the outstanding principals. However, it should be stressed that leadership can have a positive effect on student outcomes and the school as a whole. Emotional intelligence can be the difference between a high-performing school and a low-performing school leaders who possess high levels of EI are more skilful in leading change and cultivating commitment among their staff (Fullan, 2001; Beavers, 2005; Patti, 2007; Buntrock, 2008; Moss, 2008; Moore, 2009). The findings of many researchers reported above clearly revealed that emotional intelligence is a critical factor in studying human behaviour and, most importantly, in reducing occupational stress. 59 2.1.9 Self-concept and occupational stress Self-concept is regarded as a reflection of who a person is and what he thinks of himself in the three dimensions of self as seen by others, the ideal self as conceptualized in what he/she desires to be, and the feeling absent “self”. This is in relation to the environment within the physical, moral and psychological structures as well as attitudes, ideas and values that propel one into action (Franken, 1994). Purkey (1998) defines self-concept as the cognitive or thinking aspect of “self” related to one‟s self-image and generally refers to as the totality of a complex, organized and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his existence. Bandura (1997) sees self-concept as self-confidence, which is the anticipation of successfully mastering challenges, obstacles or tasks. It is also the nature and organization of beliefs about one‟s self. Self-concept is a complex and dynamic system of belief which an individual holds true about himself, each with a corresponding value. Bauneister (1997) refers to self-concept as the totality of influences that a person has made about himself. Self-concept is currently gaining prominence in educational research and evaluation studies both as an outcome sought for its own value and as a variable mode rating other relationships (Elloy, 2005). However, contrary to this traditional definition and understanding of self-concept, Bergner and Holmes (2002), cited in Kester, Gbenro and Ogidan (2010), gave a new dimension to the concept by conceiving self-concept has been an individual‟s summary formulation of his or her status. This is to say that it is one‟s overall conception of one‟s place or position in relation to all of the elements in one‟s world, including oneself (Ossorio, 1998). Obviously, this has significant implications for how individuals will deem it appropriate to act. Purkey (1988) is of the opinion that many of the successes and failures that individuals experience in life are closely related to the ways they have learned to view themselves and their relationship with others. The importance of an individual‟s self-concept has been so much emphasized in showing that both personal and work satisfaction are not only determined by the successful integration of the different life roles, but also by the opportunity to implement the self-concept (Stadler & kotze, 2006).An individual‟s concept of him/herself affects his/her behaviour and learning. Self-concept acts as a stimulating agent underlying human behaviour. Individuals, who have behavioural problems, such as drug abuse and work stress, may have damaged self-concept. This goes along with goal setting or forgotten aspiration. The level of workers‟ well-being and performance depends on their self-concept (Hassan, 2009). 60 Personality is a reciprocal relationship between the ways a person views him/herself, his/ her experiences and his/her actual social and interpersonal experiences. The important fact is that how the person sees himself/herself and evaluates his/her worth at a particular time could influence the person‟s attitude towards work. The school administrator‟s knowledge of self, who he/she is, who he/she wants to be, how he/she wishes to be perceived, how he/she perceives himself/herself and his/her beliefs, could affect his/her leadership role performance and response to job demand. Self-concept is an organized cognitive structure derived from experiences of one‟s self. Judge, Erez and Bono (1998) argue that the principal reason self-concept is linked to job performance is because employees with positive self-concept are more motivated to perform their jobs better than those with negative self-concept; and positive self-concept may be an ability factor. Self-concept is an important personality factor in the prediction of job performance. Ozurumba and Ebuara (2002) also found that self-concept and motivation for achievement significantly correlated. Their study revealed a significant interaction among academic self-concept, social self-concept and motivation for achievement. The researchers concluded that the higher the academic and social self-concepts, the higher the motivation for achievement is. Judge, Thoresen and Pucik (1996) discovered that managers with positive self-concept have the ability to cope more effectively with stress and changes induced by organizational transformation. Hunter and Schmidt (1990) also discovered that managers with higher self- concept performed significantly better in their managerial roles than those with low self-concept. They concluded that positive self-concept acts as an ability factor that motivates the managers‟ to perform better. Buzeti and Stare (2010) carried out a study on self-concept of leaders in administrative units. They argue that it is important to have a largely positive self-concept within the leadership process. By either a positive or negative self-concept, leaders affect the conduct of their subordinates and hence subordinates‟ satisfaction and leadership performance. Leaders who do not have a positive opinion or image of themselves have certain traits that subordinates feel. If leaders have a negative or low self-concept and do not trust, respect or value themselves, they are closed within themselves and fear contact or confrontation with people; then, they will not be able to effectively influence subordinates. 61 2.1.10 Self-efficacy and occupational stress The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Bandura in his social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one‟s own capacity to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. Perceived self-efficacy develops as a result of the interaction of each of the six attributes of the social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy is derived from four sources: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion and physiological responses to experiences (Bandura, 1997). Mastery experiences are situations in which people perform successfully. Vicarious experiences are situations in which people observe others perform successfully, compare themselves to that performance, and form beliefs about their own competencies. Social persuasion is feedback from others that is judged to be authentic and a reasonable match to one‟s personal assessment of capabilities. Physiological responses are physical and emotional reactions to situations. Self-efficacy beliefs mediate individual performance through four processes: cognitive, affective, and motivational and selection processes. Cognitive or thinking processes influence self-efficacy formation through forethought or planning ahead, through visualization, through problem-solving processes and through goal setting. The affective processes influence the control of thoughts, emotions and responses. Motivational processes assist in determining the benefits of performance. Selection processes are the choices and decisions people make influenced by self-efficacy beliefs and situations (Abraham, 2012). According to Bandura (1997), by interacting with the four sources and four processes of self- efficacy, an individual form obstacles, or refuse even to try. People who view themselves as efficacious are more likely to expect things to go right (Bandura, 1989). They approach difficult tasks as challenges to master rather than threats to avoid. People who experience success react by raising their personal goals and being more committed to activity judgments about their performance which influence their self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore, persons with strong efficacy beliefs are more confident in their capacity to execute behaviour. (Bandura & Wood, 1989) perceived self-efficacy also affects how successfully goals are accomplished by influencing the level of effort and persistence a person will demonstrate in the face of obstacles (Bandura, 1977). People with strong efficacy expectations will persevere in the face of adversity, due to a belief 62 that they will ultimately succeed (Bandura, 1977). People with weaker efficacy expectations will quit when faced with obstacles, or refuse even to try. Stress and self-efficacy are closely related. When an individual faces various demands from the external environment and personal beliefs, self-efficacy helps in differentiating them as threat or a challenge. It is the extent of competence of the individual that gives the confidence to interpret an event perceived as stressful or challenging. When a task is appraised as a challenge, the individual will be able to select an effective coping strategy and to persist at managing the task. Self-efficacy thus affects the perception or of the relation between external stressors and psychological stress (Bandura, 1995). According to Schwarzer (1999), self-efficacy can make a difference to people‟s ways of thinking, feeling and acting. With respect to feelings, a low sense of self-efficacy is associated with depression, anxiety and helplessness. People with low self- efficacy also harbour pessimistic thoughts about their performance and personal development. In contrast, a strong sense of belief in oneself facilitates cognitive and executive processes in multiple contexts, influencing, for example, decision making and academic achievement. (Bandura, 1995; Schwarzer, 1999; Grau ,Salanova & Peiro, 2001). Much research has demonstrated quite convincingly that possessing high levels of self- efficacy acts to decrease people‟s potential for experiencing negative stress feelings by increasing their sense of being in control (Pajares, 1996; Mills, Harry, Reiss, Natalie, Dombeck & Mark, 2008). Perceived self-efficacy is relevant in the study of stress and work. The basis for this is found on considering control as a key factor in the stress process, so that the mere exposure to stressors, with control by the individual, has no adverse effects. Jex and Bliese (1999), using two self-efficacy measures (generalized-individual and collective), point out that perceived self-efficacy moderates the relationship between certain stressors, such as number of hours worked, work overload or task meaning, and some of their consequences, like satisfaction, physical symptoms, attempts to abandon the job and organisational commitment. Wassem (1992) claims that perceived self-efficacy have been found to be a significant behavioural determinant of actual performance and to influence psychological well-being. Jimmeieson (2000) examined the key role that perceived self-efficacy plays in stressor moderator strain relationships. Specifically, he found three-way interactions among role conflict, work control and self-efficacy, using a sample of 100 customer service representatives. He concluded 63 that the stress-buffering effects of work control on psychological well-being would be more marked at high, rather than low levels of perceived self-efficacy. A strong self-efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways; people with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be measured rather than as threats to be avoided. They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them. Such an efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishment, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to depression (Multon, Brown & Lent, 1991; Pajare, 1996 & 1997; Bandura, 2000). Pajare and Miller (1994) and Bandura (1997) opine that people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks which they view as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and on all kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully. They slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties; they fall easily to stress and depression. Akomolafe and Ogunmakin (2014) submit that self-efficacy ultimately determines how an individual behaves, thinks and becomes motivated to be involved in a particular task. Individuals with a high self-efficacy tend to behave more positively, think more creatively, which also interacts with motivation; consequently such people are satisfied with their jobs. Efficacy beliefs influence the amount of stress and anxiety individuals experience as they engage in an activity. Self-efficacy refers to the belief that one can change behaviour by personal actions; and is regarded as the most influential internal resource (Schwazer & Greenglass, 1999). Principals who believe that that they have the ability to act appropriately and achieve the desired outcomes cope better with the stress and continue to strive in spite of barriers and setbacks that may exist (Schwazer & Greenglass, 1999; Chaplain, 2003). Various studies have also established that teachers with a strong sense of efficacy tend to exhibit greater levels of planning, organization, and enthusiasm. They persist when things do not go smoothly and are more resilient in the face of setbacks. They tend to be less critical with students who make errors and “work longer with a student who is struggling” (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Tschanhen-Moran & Woolfolk, 2001). Ross (1994) reviewed 88 teacher efficacy studies in pre-college settings and identified potential links between teachers‟ sense of efficacy and their behaviours. He claims that teachers with higher levels of efficacy are more likely to learn and 64 use new approaches and strategies for teaching, provide special assistance to low achieving students, and persist in the face of student failure. High levels of stress among principals and their assistants threaten and vary in terms of levels of job experience in school. Studies conducted in U.S.A, United Kingdom, Canada and France have indicated that in terms of levels of experience in school management, novice principals, such as those with less than three years of experience, face incidences of depression, neurotic disorders and stress more than experienced high school principals, like those with eight years (Travers& Coopers, 1994; Moon & Mayes, 1997; Smith, 2004, Howard & Johnson, 2004). Such experienced principals in public high schools suffer more frequent stress than teachers and that this stress emanates from their daily routine and tasks in the job descriptions. Principals with a strong sense of self-efficacy have been found to be persistent in pursuing their goals but are also more flexible and more willing to adapt their strategies based on contextual conditions. They view change as a slow process. They are steadfast in their efforts to achieve their goals, but they do not persist in unsuccessful strategies (Osterman & Sullivan, 1996). Confronted with problems, principals with a high sense of self-efficacy do not interpret their inability to solve the problems immediately as failure. They regulate their personal expectations to correspond to conditions, typically remaining confident and calm and keeping their sense of humour, even in difficult situations. Principals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to use internally-based personal power, such as expert, informational, and referent power, when carrying out their roles (Lyons & Murphy, 1994). In contrast, principals with a low sense of self-efficacy have been found to perceive an inability to control the environment and tend to be less likely to identify appropriate strategies or modify unsuccessful ones. When confronted with failure, they rigidly persist in their original course of action. When challenged, they are more likely to blame others. Low self-efficacy principals are unable to see opportunities, to adapt, or to develop support (Osterman & Sullivan, 1996). They demonstrate anxiety, stress, and frustration, and are quicker to call themselves failures. Those with a low sense of self-efficacy are more likely to rely on external end of their jobs. Also, they might not be confident enough in teaching/dealing with disruptive pupils as they probably are inexperienced in their profession, compared to their senior colleagues (Lyons & Murphy, 1994). They, therefore, perceive the environment as uncontrollable and this typically has a debilitating effect on individual goal setting and problem-solving. 65 Salami (2010) submits that self-efficacy affects the level of mental stress, pressure and the depression caused from threatening situations. Individuals with high self-efficacy, reduce their mental stress during stressful situations. Although, individuals with low self-efficacy experience a high level of stress in controlling threats, they expand their lack of self-efficacy and see many environmental aspects as dangerous and threatening, which can lead to mental stress for an individual. Individuals who believe they can control potential threats do not let disturbing factors into their minds and, thus, they are not disturbed by them. 2.1.11 Gender and Occupational Stress A general tendency exists in the literature on how which females experience higher levels of occupational stress regarding gender-specific stressors and have different ways of interpreting and dealing with problems related to their work environment (Offerman & Armitage, 1993 cited in Antoniou, Polychroni & Vlachakis, 2006). This is similar to the findings of Aroba & James (2002) who reported that the relationship between gender and stress is complex and varied and that women are more affected by stress than men. Sharpley, Reynolds, Acosta and Dua (1996) found that males have statistically significant lower job-stress scores. However Fotinatos-Ventouratos and Cooper (2005) discovered that female managers are under much more pressure than their male counterparts. Antoniou, Polychroni and Vlachakis (2006) found that female teachers experienced significantly higher levels of occupational stress compared to their male counterparts. Gansterand and Schaubroeck (1991) assert that women experience a greater level of stress as they are more vulnerable to the demands of work to the extent that they often have more non-work demands than men. Gregory (1990) claims that, for the female professional, gender stereotyping in the workplace adds to the role-conflict stress experiences. Comish and Swindle (1994) note that role demands such as that of being wife, mother and professional provoke role conflict. Research suggests that gender may be an important demographic characteristic to be considered in the experience of stress (Jick & Mitz, 1985). Mondal, Shrestha and Bhaila (2011) found a significant difference between male and female teachers, with male teachers having more psychological stress and physical stress than the female teachers. Also, male teachers were reported to be more insecure and emphasized financial concerns, while females expressed concerns about intrinsic facets of their jobs. Moreover, males were observed to have higher 66 stress and anxiety than females (Cheng, 1993; Chaplain, 1995; Brember, Brown, & Ralph, 2002). Conversely, female teachers tended to complain more of burnout than male teachers (Chan & Hui, 1995; Bhadoria & Singh, 2010). The results of the bi-variate analysis conducted by Fotinatos-Ventouratos and Cooper (2005) revealed significant differences in terms of physical and psychological well-being amongst males and females. Aftab and Khatoon (2012) in the study of demographic differences and occupational stress of secondary school teachers showed that male teachers are more stressed than female teachers. The lesser degree of job satisfaction among male teachers can be attributed to the perceptions of female teachers to shoulder the responsibilities same as males in this competitive world, along with their aspiration level, social acceptability, challenges, job responsibilities and career development. Moreover, it is a widely accepted fact that secondary schools are heading towards the work environments that are non-masculinized. The finding is supported by Byrne (1998) and Bhagawan (1997) who emphasized that the causes leading to burnout/stress affect male teachers more than the female teachers who have higher motivation. Whatever the underlying explanation, the results discussed here contradict those of other studies that reported higher stress in female primary and secondary staffs (Laughlin, 1984; McCormick & Solman, 1992; AbdulMajid, 1998; Antoniou, Polychroni & Vlachakis, 2006) and no difference between the gender in the three burnout syndromes (Dali, 2004; Coulter & Abney, 2009).Vijayalaxmi and Triveni (2002) conducted a study on gender difference in occupational stress experience among professionals and non-professionals. Their sample consisted of 300 professionals (doctors, lawyers and teachers) and 100 non-professionals. The results revealed that women professionals experienced significantly higher occupational stress than men due to under-participation. Ushashree, Sahu and Vinolya (1995) conducted a study on 80 male and 80 female high school teachers in the age group of 25-40 years and 41-60 years. It was to know the effect of gender on teacher‟s experience of job stress and job satisfaction. Analysis of data indicated significant effect of gender on job stress. Pradhan and Khattri (2001) studied the effect of gender on stress and burnout in doctors. They have considered experience of work and family stress as intra-psychic variables. The sample consisted of 50 employed doctor couples. Mean age was 40 years for males and 38 years for females. The results indicated no gender difference in the experience of burnout, but female doctors experienced more stress. 67 Popoola and Ilugbo (2010), investigating the stress level of female teachers in Osun State of Nigeria, found that 80.3% of the female teachers in Osun State Teaching Service Commission had low level of stress and there was no significant relationship between stress and personality traits. Adigwu (2004) carried out a comparative study of the performance of female and male principals in selected schools in Benin City, Nigeria and observed that both male and female principals had above-average performance in their supervisory roles. The mean average performance of the male principals was observed to be just a few points above that of the female principals. Adigwu, therefore, concluded that male principals tended to do be better in supervisory activities than their female counterparts. This might be due to the fact that the male principals seemed to have more control over students and teachers. All these studies have revealed controversial results but gender of individuals has significant effect on experience of stress. In some situations, men experience more stress than women and vice versa. Several researches in occupational stress continues to broaden the understanding of what constitute stress in different professions and management or coping with stress using psychological or behavioural variables, such as emotional intelligence, self-concept and self- efficacy. Studies carried out at both international and national levels indicated high level of stress among educators. Pourghaz (2012), in his study on organizational factors creating stress among high school principals, involving high school principals, found that the high school principals experienced occupational stress. Four organizational factors were identified as the sources of stress, occupational necessities, physical necessities and interactive necessities which were effective in creation of occupational stress in high school principals. Principals were also affected based on year of service. Their course of study showed that there is a presence of occupational stress among principals which exposes them to many problems in their performance. Jackson and Sebastian (2006), in their study of occupational stress, organizational commitment and ill-health of educators, found that educators in secondary schools generally experienced more stress because of workload and job characteristics as well as lower organizational commitment and more ill-health symptoms. Boyland (2011), in his study on job-related stress of public school principals in Indiana, investigated current role challenges and stress levels of principals, He discovered that a large 68 majority of Indiana‟s school principals were experiencing moderate high levels of job stress. Most experienced principals indicated more stress. It was also found that principals noted the tasks that kept them busiest were managerial in nature. This is in line with Jaiyeoba and Jubril (2008), who examined sources of occupational stress among secondary school administrators in Kano State of Nigeria. Their findings showed that the administrative routine, workload, conflicting demands and roles between work and the family were the highest sources of stress. Durosaro (1990) conducted a study on major stressors and relationship to physical and mental health problems of Nigerian school administrators. They identified work pressure, family problems as well as shortage of funds as major sources of stress among Nigerian school administrators. They also found positive relationships between frequency of occurrence of stresses and the frequency of physical and mental health problems of Nigerian school administrators. Mallanorouzi, Farahani and Hosseinzadeh (2012) investigated stress-causing factors and the relation between stress and individual efficiency of Tabriz high school principals. The study found the stress impacted on personal efficiency. As principals‟ stress increased, their efficiency reduced. This implies that stress and individual efficiency have a meaningful and universal relation. Various psychological factors have been found to determine the level of occupational stress in different professions, among leaders, managers and administrators. Emotional intelligence has been found to impact on psychological health, and most especially occupational stress. Adeyemo and Ogunyemi (2005) examined the interactive effect of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on occupational stress among academic staff in a Nigerian University using 300 academic staff from eight faculties of the institution. Their findings revealed that emotional intelligence is a potent predictor of stress and when a stressful situation arises in work place, preventive issues could include the enhancement of employees‟ emotional intelligence. Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) reported a correlation between emotional intelligence and stress at work, indicating that high scorers in emotional intelligence suffered less stress related to occupational environment. Exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived stress in the workplace and health-related consequences in human service workers, Oginska – Bulik (2005) found that emotional intelligence played a very strong role in perceiving occupational stress and preventing employees‟ human services from negative health outcomes. Ability to effectively deal 69 with emotions and emotional information in the workplace assisted employees in coping with occupational stress. Akomolafe (2011) investigated the influence of emotional intelligence and gender on occupational stress among school teachers. The findings revealed that there was a significant difference between the occupational stress of secondary school teachers with low and those with high emotional intelligence. Also, there was no significant difference between the occupational stress experienced by male and female secondary school teachers. Hassan and Ali (2011) examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and occupational stress and its influence on Payane Noor University organization. They found that increase in emotional intelligence reduced the occupational stress of the employees and improve their work. They concluded that possession of emotional intelligence by managers will determine the basic abilities that an individual needs to stand against stress. Bankole and Kester (2008) studied emotional intelligence and assertiveness skills of some construction workers in Lagos State, Nigeria. They note that an individual without emotional intelligence is not likely to be assertive. Rather, such individual will be aggressive in the way he or she relates and communicates with others in the workplace. People with high emotional intelligence are more likely to exhibit high level of assertiveness skills that will enable them to develop right interpersonal communication skills and consequently manage interpersonal conflict more effectively. Akpan and Archibong (2012) studied predictive effect of self-concept, self-efficacy, self- esteem and locus of control on the instructional and motivational leadership roles performance and effectiveness of administrators of public secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. The findings revealed that self-concept, self-efficacy and locus of control contributed significantly to the predictions of school administrators‟ effectiveness in instructional leadership role performance, while self-esteem did not. It also revealed that self-concept, self-efficacy and self-esteem relatively made significant contributions to the prediction of administrators‟ effectiveness in motivational leadership role performance, while locus of control did not. Self- evaluation, is therefore, an important determinant of the effectiveness in leadership role performance of school administrators and the belief system of a school leader plays a focal role in determining his or her ability to successfully perform his or her leadership roles 70 Hassan (2009) investigated the determinants of occupational stress using gender, self- concept and occupational status as factors among bank workers in Lagos State. The findings indicated that significant difference existed between workers with high self-concept and those with low self-concept. The study discovered that employees control over job-related decision affected their health, morale, and their ability to handle workloads. It enhanced motivation and growth among professional positions. A well-motivated worker is likely to have self-concept, while a non-well motivated worker may develop low self-concept, and this may impact on occupational stress. Examination of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy as determinants of effective leadership among supervisors in selected manufacturing organizations in Lagos State, Nigeria, was done by Bankole (2010). The findings indicated that emotional intelligence and self- efficacy, taken together, were effective in determining effective leadership of supervisors in selected manufacturing organizations in Lagos State, Nigeria. Emotional intelligence is a potent determinant of effective leadership. Goleman, (1995) claim that leaders‟ success at work is 80 percent dependent on emotional intelligence and only 20 percent on intelligence. The relation among hardiness, personality, self-esteem and Occupational stress among IT professionals engaged the attention of Subramanian and Vinotakumar (2009). They discovered that internal resources such as hardiness, personality and self-esteem acted as buffer while encountering any stressful events in occupational life. Perceived levels of occupational stress can be minimised to the maximum extent possible with the improvement on these two internal resources. In their study on impact of age and level of experience on Occupational stress of academic managers at higher educational level in higher education institutions of Pakistan, Mahmood, Nudrat and Zahor (2013) used 120 academic managers of public-sector institutions of higher education in Punjab, Pakistan. They found significant negative relationship in the responses of academic managers regarding impact of age and management experiences on Occupational stress. The findings suggest that occupational stress is a connection between age, management experiences and the way stress is perceived. Olayiwola (2008) examined dimension of job stress among public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. It was revealed that 76.6 percent of the participants reported their job as moderately stressful, while 6.4 percent reported their job as mildly stressful or not 71 stressful at all. The study concluded that public secondary school principals in Oyo State are stressed. The literature reviewed above clearly showed that public secondary school administrators experience occupational stress. It is also clear that some psychological variables moderate occupational stress and improving work performance. Some of the study also demonstrated the relationship among emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, hardiness personality, self-esteem and occupational stress; and the relationship among age, level of experience, gender and occupational stress and self-concept and leadership effectiveness. However, not much work has been done on combining self-concept and emotional intelligence training to enhance occupational stress management of school administrators. 2.2. Theoretical framework A number of theories and models have been advanced in an attempt to explain occupational stress and its consequences with a view to understanding employees‟ coping behaviour. These theories consist of a basic pattern or process and individual‟s psychological response and the consequences on individual‟s well-being. Three of these theories will be discussed here  Person Environment (P.E) Fit Theory  Transactional Model  Cybernetic Model 2.2.1 Person-environment fit model The person-environment fit model argues that behaviour is a function of the interaction between the person and the situation, where one aspect of this interaction is between the person and the situation, and one aspect of this interaction is the degree to which the person fits the situation (Jex, 1988). The theory argues that if there‟s not an accurate fit between the person and the environment, stress will occur (French, Caplan & Harrison, 1982). The person-environment fit model presented by French et al. hypothesizes that objective characteristics of the person (that is abilities and goals) and the environment, which is job demands and supplies influences the employees‟ perception of those characteristics. If these perceptions indicate subjective misfit between the person‟s abilities and goals and the corresponding job demands and supplies, psychological, physiological and behavioural stress strain symptoms will result. 72 However, if perception and strain are expressed in terms of the demands and abilities, it would mean that as demands exceed the ability of an individual, stress is likely to increase. However, when demands reduce below the individual‟s ability to deliver, stress may decrease. The P-E fit model predicts that the degree of stress experienced by an individual is proportional to the extent of the misfit between the individual and his/her occupation (Pithers &sodden 1999). The experience of stress is dependent of whether or not environmental demands go down to a level that could cause boredom (Maslow 1943). This leads behaviour strain to initiate behaviour and defensive mechanisms, with coping behaviour being directed towards the subjective person and environment. Salami (2014) asserts that this model examines how stress results from the mismatch between an individual‟s abilities, needs, motives, goals and behaviour patterns, and a given job‟s demands, resources, opportunities and rewards. The abilities /characteristics of the individual (work-life conflicts, coping skills, demographic characteristics and personality traits) must be equal or commensurate to make the individual to perform to expectation. Succinctly put, if there is a misfit, then the outcome will comprise psychological, physical and behavioural strains which will lead to poor / low performance. The four basic concepts of the P-E Fit Model are  Organizational stress  Strain  Coping and  Social support. The physiological stress symptoms could include high blood pressure and lowered immunity. The psychological symptoms constitute sleeplessness, panic attacks, anxiety, and restlessness. According to the theory, these symptoms could result in behavioural changes, such as increased absenteeism and staff turnover. Research on occupational stress incorporating this model includes studies investigating organizational demands, job duties, and requirements employee skills and abilities and job satisfaction. Kalm and Byosiere (1992) found that excessive or conflicting demands on the individual in the work environment could increase the lack of fit and contribute to aspects like workload, role ambiguity and role conflict. 73 2.2.2 Transactional model of stress Lazarus and Folkman (1984) in discussing transactional model of stress, note that a person‟s variables (for example, beliefs, goals, values, commitments) interact with environment variables (for example, demands, constraints, resources) through a cognitive process termed primary appraisal. According to this theory, if the environment is appraised demanding or exceeding the person‟s resources and endangering his/her well-being, coping is activated. Coping firstly involves an evaluation of what can be done to eliminate or balance the demanding factors or source of stress (a secondary appraisal) and secondly an attempt is made to alter the relationship between the stressed person and the environment. It also involves regulating emotional distress. As it is an ongoing process, the situation is re- appraised and the process continues if the source of stress is successfully resolved, coping ceases and positive effect emerged, and if not, there will be negative effect and psychological disturbances will persist, ultimately damaging the adaptational outcomes (psychological well- being somatic health, social functioning.) According to Lazarus and Cohen-Charash (2001), stress generates emotions; appraisals will help to shape and reflect the way we cope with our emotions and the life conditions that bring about emotions. This model views stress as an individual phenomenon that is both interactive and situational. It implies that different individuals, when confronted with the same situation, may well respond differently. Stress emanates neither from individuals nor from their environments, but from the interrelationships between stressors, individuals‟ perceptions of situations and their subjective responses. The role of self-appraisal in individuals‟ stress levels is therefore recognized. Stress occurs when individuals perceive situations as a threat to their goals and feel unable to meet certain demands. In a secondary appraisal, individuals determine their coping resources. This can lead to psychological well-being if the person can cope. If the person cannot cope, he or she will experience ill-health. The transactional model, therefore, acknowledges that, in order to cope, different school administrators experience stressors differently and react in diverse ways (Benmansour, 1998; Motseke, 1998; Lazarus, 1999; Cooper, Dewe & O‟Driscoll, 2001; Rout & Rout, 2002). Both contextual and personality factors should, therefore, be considered as contributing towards stress in the lives of school administrators. 74 2.2.3 Cybernetic theory This theory describes stress as a discrepancy between an employee‟s perceived and desired state of well-being provided that the presence of this discrepancy is considered important by the employee. The theory hypothesizes that stress comes up with two types of outcomes: (1) Employee well-being composed through psychological and physical health; and (2) coping is defined as the efforts to prevent or reduce the negative effects of stress on well-being (Edward, 1992). The identified stress, coping and well-being, as the critical components of negative feedback, loop in the stress process, which suggests that stress negatively affects an individual well-being and then activates coping, which, in turn, influences well-being both directly and indirectly through the determinants of stress. The major focus of the cybernetic theory concerns the functioning of a self-regulating system, which has at its core the negative feedback loop. The theory presents an integrated theory of stress. Coping and well-being in organizations stress not only affects health, but also encourages coping when it influences the determinants of stress. The position of this theory is that emotions and self-regulation are the core of a dynamic stress process; the emotions highlight issues which, in some ways, pose threat (physical, social, or psychological) to the individual‟s well-being. The emotions are, then, considered to be adoptive, acting as mechanisms to protect the individual from physical harm and to facilitate maintenance of self-identity in social settings which guide the individual towards the achievement of tasks and goals. Therefore, the theory sees the experience of stress as an expression of negative emotions elicited by danger, threat or challenge which signal to the body the need to prepare for actions of defence and protection (Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). Central to all behaviour is the principal drive towards diminishing or reducing the negative emotional experience and stress which are viewed to have adverse effect on the self and to protect and preserve an integrated „self‟ (Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). Conceptual Framework for the study A framework was developed using an integrated approach by combining the three theories relevant to the study namely, Person-Environment (P.E) Fit Theory, Transactional Model, and Cybernetic Model. Each theory discussed above highlights the importance of beliefs, 75 goals, values, commitment, workload, well-being, perception, roles, tasks, relationships, sound interaction, self - motivation on stress of school administrators. The conceptual model for the study is composed of the independent variables (Self- concept Training and Emotional Intelligence Training) to be manipulated by the researcher to see their effectiveness on the dependent variables which is occupational stress of school administrators. There are some factors, which will affect the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables. These are intervening variables that may affect the outcome of the treatment. The variables intervene between independent variables and are expected to make an impact on the dependent variables. Thus, the researcher would manipulate the independent variables to ascertain their effectiveness on the dependent. Through the instrument to be used in the study, the researcher would be able to know how much impact the independent variables have on dependent variables. 76 Independent Variables Intervening Variables Intervening Variables Dependent Variable Emotional Intelligence Stressors Training Abilities Inadequate educational facilities A training programme designed Poor school environment to enhance and improve Large school size emotional intelligence of public Self-motivation Family problem secondary school administrators Goal setting Bureaucracies Good working relationship Time pressure Sound interaction with staff, Demands from stakeholders Conflict mediation students and stakeholders Self-Concept Training Impulse control A training programme designed Ability to inspire staff to enhance and improve Perception of working Process of School Administration secondary school administrator‟s environment Supervision perception of him/herself in Values Facilitation of activities to improve relation to his/her job teaching-learning process Self-beliefs Discipline of staff and students Actions Motivation and stimulation of human Attitude elements Creating good school climate Motivation Safety of school community Ideas Decision-making Expression Managing curriculum and instruction Control Group Managing conflict in school Stability Maintaining school quality and standard Accountability of human, material and financial resources Fig 2.1 Conceptual Framework for Occupational Stress Management among School Administrators 77 Reduction of Occupational Stress of Secondary School Administrators From the framework that was developed by the researcher using all the three theories reviewed, it could be seen that the independent variables of self-concept training and emotional intelligence training will generate in the individual school administrators some abilities that could assist in reducing their stress level. Emotional intelligence training will generate abilities such as self- motivation, inspiring and motivation of staff, self-confidence, impulse control, perception of the working environment as well as sound interaction with staff, students and other stakeholders. Self-concept training, however, will affect school administrators‟ values, self-beliefs, actions, attitudes, ideas, motivation, expression and stability. All these abilities put together may assist the school administrators to carry out the processes involved in school administration and the challenges that come along with it. These involve school supervision, facilitation of activities to improve the teaching-learning process, discipline of staff and students, motivation and stimulation of human elements of the school, creating good school climate, safe school community, decision-making process, managing curriculum and instruction, managing conflict in the school, maintaining school quality and standard and accountability of human, material and financial resources. Emotional intelligence, self-concept trainings will also help individual school administrator to be able to cope with stressors associated with the process of school administration, such as inadequate educational facilities, poor school environment, large school size, bureaucracies, time pressure, and demands from stakeholders, family problem and conflict mediation. All these would assist in reducing the stress levels of school administrators and would enhance effective school administration, better school climate, teaching-learning environment and process, motivated teachers, better school performance and good working relationship with staff, students, parents, supervisors and other stakeholders. They would also create a right attitude to work, school administrators‟ well-being, and self-development as well as school administrators‟ readiness to face challenges and changes in the school system. 2.3. Hypotheses Seven hypotheses were raised from the research objectives to determine the effects of self- concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress of public secondary schools‟ administrators: 78 H01: There is no significant main effect of treatments on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. H02: There is no significant main effect of self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators H03: There is no significant main effect of gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators H04: There is no significant interaction effects treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators H05: There is no significant interaction effects of treatment and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators H06: There is no significant interaction effects of gender and self efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. H07: There is no significant 3- way interaction effects of treatment, gender and self-efficacy, on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators 79 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the methodology adopted for the study. It covers research design, population, sampling technique and instrumentation. 3.1 Research Design The study adopted a pretest- posttest control group quasi experimental design in determining the effectiveness of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. The design employed a 3x2x2 factorial matrix, which assisted the researcher to also consider the moderation effects of gender and self-efficacy alongside treatments. The participants of the study were divided into three groups, namely, A1, A2 and A3. Two of the groups, A1 and A2, were treated, while the third group (A3) served as the control. So, the two experimental and the control groups made the three rows – A1, A2 and A3, while the male and female participants were constituted into the columns – B1 and B2.Low self-efficacy and high self-efficacy respondents were assigned into the columns C1 and C2. The first and second experimental groups were pretested and subjected to treatments (Self-concept and Emotional Intelligence Training). The control group was equally pre-tested and post-tested, while no treatment was given to them. The factorial matrix is presented below: 80 Table 3.1: A 3x2x2 factorial matrix GENDER B MALE FEMALE B 1 B 2 SELF-EFFICACY SELF-EFFICACY C C LOW HIGH LOW HIGH C 1 C 2 C 1 C 2 A 1 A 1 B 1 C 1 A 1 B 1 C 2 A 1 B 2 C 1 A 1 B 2 C 2 37 A 2 A 2 B 1 C 1 A 2 B 1 C 2 A 2 B 2 C 1 A 2 B 2 C 2 34 A3 A 3 B 1 C 1 A 3 B 1 C 2 A 3 B 2 C 1 A 3 B 2 C 2 50 Total 121 KEY: A1 – Treatment 1- Self-concept Training (SCT) A2 – Treatment 2- Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) A3 – Control Group B1 – Male B2 – Female C1 – Low Self-efficacy (LSE) C2 – High Self-efficacy (HSE) 81 Table 3.1 above shows that the two experimental groups (A1 and A2) and the control group (A3) formed the rows. The moderating variables (Gender and Self-efficacy) occupied the columns. 3.2 Population The population of the study comprised 1565 public secondary school principals in Oyo, Ogun and Osun States of Nigeria and were members of the All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) zones in the three states used for the study.(Oyo, Ogun and Osun States Teaching Service Commission, 2014). 3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques The total enumeration sampling technique was used to purposively select a non-randomised intact group of ANCOPSS members (zone) in each of the three states. Intact groups of ANCOPSS Ibadan Zone 2 (Oyo State), Abeokuta South Zone (Ogun State) and Osogbo Zone (Osun State) were used as participants for the study. The ANCOPSS zones were randomly assigned to treatment groups. A sample of 121 principals was used for the study. Table 3.2: ANCOPSS Zone Table S/N ANCOPSS Zones Treatment groups No of participants 1. ANCOPSS Oyo (Ibadan Zone 2) Experimental 1 37 2. ANCOPSS Ogun (Abeokuta South Experimental 2 34 Zone) 3. ANCOPSS Osun (Osogbo Zone) Control 50 Total 121 Inclusion Criteria The following criteria were used to select the participants in the study: 1. Participants should be willing and ready to participate in the study without any coercion. 82 2. Participants should be principals of public secondary school and members of selected ANCOPSS groups. 3. Participants should be ready to attend and actively participate in all the treatment sessions. 4. Participants should score above 40% in the school administrators‟ occupational stress indicator scale. A score above 40% indicates the presence of work- induced stress. 3.4 Instrumentation The researcher used five major assessment scales for the study: 1. School Administrator Stress Management Scale 2. Self-concept Scale 3. Emotional Intelligence Scale 4. Self-efficacy Scale 5. School Administrators Occupational Stress Indicator Scale 3.4.1 Emotional Intelligence Scale The Emotional Intelligence Scale is a 33-item instrument adapted from Schuttle, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden and Dornheim (1998). This scale was used to measure the degree of the respondent‟s emotional intelligence. The test is of 4-point Likert scale, the respondents responded to the items using the four-point scale (4=strongly agree, 3=agree, 2=disagree, and 1=strongly disagree). The adapted scale was subjected to face and content validity through criticisms from experts in the Department of Adult Education, Social Work, Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. The scale was scored in the internality with no negative items to be reversed. The original Emotional Intelligence Scale of Schuttle, et al. (1998) has a validity estimate of 0.80, but in the current study the scale was re- validated for culture-free issues and relevance to the population of the study. The scale was pre- tested using 10 principals in Lagos State as respondents, which was outside the study area and necessary corrections were made. The reliability of the scale was 0.97 using Chronbach alpha. 83 3.4.2 Self-Concept Scale The Self–Concept Scale consisted of a 2-item instrument adapted from Wylie (1974). This scale was used to measure the degree of the respondent‟s self-concept. It was designed on the four-point Likert scale rating (4= Strongly agree, 3 = Agree, 2 = Disagree and 1 = Strongly disagree). The adapted scale was subjected to face and content validity through criticisms from experts in the Departments of Adult Education, Social Work, Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. Thereafter, the reliability of the scale was ascertained through a pilot study that was conducted using 10 principals in Lagos State, which was outside the study area. The test-retest was used in determining its level of reliability after two weeks‟ interval and the reliability coefficient was found to be 0.88, using Chronbach alpha. 3.4.3 Self-Efficacy Scale This instrument was a self-developed scale used to stratify each group into low and high self-efficacy. It was designed on the four-point Likert scale rating (4= Strongly agree, 3 = Agree, 2 = Disagree and 1 = Strongly disagree). It contained 10 questionnaire items on self- efficacy. The draft scale was subjected to face and content validity through criticisms from experts in the Department of Adult Education, Social Work, Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. Thereafter, the reliability of the scale was ascertained through a pilot study that was conducted using 10 principals in Lagos State, which was outside the study area. The test-retest was used in determining its level of reliability, which was valued at 0.79, using Chronbach alpha. 3.4.4 The School Administrators Occupational Stress Indicator Scale This instrument consisted of 46 items adapted from Gmelch and Swent, (1982). It was designed on a four-point Likert scale rating (4= Strongly agree, 3 = Agree, 2 = Disagree and 1 = Strongly disagree). It considered individual school administrator‟s work environment and situations. This instrument was used to screen public secondary school administrators in order to identify those who are experiencing occupational stress. A score of above 40% on the scale indicates occupational stress, while a score below indicates absence of stress. The draft scale was subjected to face and content validity through criticisms from experts in the Department of Adult education, Social Work, Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. 84 The reliability of the scale was ascertained through a pilot study that was conducted using 10 principals in Lagos State, which was outside the study area. The test retest was used in determining its level of reliability which was valued at 0.81 using Chronbach alpha. 3.4.5 The School Administrators Stress Management Scale This instrument consisted of 23 items adapted from Boyland (2011). It was designed on a four point Likert scale rating (4= Strongly agree, 3 = Agree, 2 = Disagree and 1 = Strongly disagree). This instrument was used to explore the different strategies used by school administrators in managing their occupational stress. It considered individual school administrator‟s strategies in reducing occupational stress. The draft scale was subjected to face and content validity through criticisms from experts in The Department of Adult Education, Social Work, Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. The reliability of the scale was ascertained through a pilot study that was conducted using 10 principals in Lagos State, which was outside the study area. The test-retest was used in determining its level of reliability, which was valued at 0.77, using Chronbach alpha. 3.5 Procedure for the Study A letter of introduction was collected from the Head, Department of Adult Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan to the Ministry of Education and Teaching Service Commission of selected states in order to have access to the principals within ANCOPSS groups. The researcher personally trained and educated the two research assistants used in carrying out this study. The researcher visited each ANCOPSS zone in each state selected for the study with the aim of introducing herself, the training expert and the research assistants to the members and getting familiar with them. School Administrators Stress Indicator scale was used to screen the 145 schools administrators in the three ANCOPSS zones selected for the study. This was to identify and select principals that are experiencing occupational stress. After the screening exercise, one hundred and twenty-one principals experiencing occupational stress were stratified into 47 males and 74 females. Thereafter, self-efficacy scale was used to screen each group into low and high self-efficacy. The participants drawn into each group were not equal because they were stratified based on gender and self-efficacy without any bias. 85 This study was conducted for eight weeks. During this period the researcher, the training expert and the participants interacted. This was in four phases: 1. Recruitment stage: the researcher got a letter of introduction from each State Teaching Service Commission and The Ministry of Education to the chairman of each ANCOPSS zones selected. Thereafter, the researcher discussed the benefits of the training programme and pleaded with each chairman to assist in securing appropriate places where the treatments were administered. 2. Pre-test stage: the researcher, with the help of the two research assistants, conducted the pre- test for all the experimental groups and the control group. 3. Treatment stage: Treatment of the two experimental groups started a week after the pre- treatment measures. The first experimental group (A1) was treated using Self- concept Training. The second experimental group (A2) was subjected to Emotional Intelligence Training. These groups were exposed to eight weeks of training. The order of treatment in the two experimental groups is stated in Appendix i. 4. Post-treatment stage: the researcher and the research assistants conducted the post-test for the two experimental groups and control group with the aim of observing the effects of the treatment packages on the participants‟ occupational stress. The control group was not subjected to any treatment but was given general discussion on stress and its effect. 3.6 Brief Description of the Sessions Experimental Group1 – Self - Concept Training (SCT) The eight sessions covered the following: Session I: General orientation and administration of instrument to obtain pre-test score Session II: Introduction to Self-concept and its importance Session III: Qualities and characteristics of self-concept. Session IV: How to develop a positive self-concept Session V: Discussion on school administrators‟ occupational stress, its effects and management strategies Session VI: Discussion on self-efficacy and how it could be developed or maintained 86 Session VII: Explanation on how self-concept training can assist the individual when faced with challenges or difficulties in their work schedule as school administrators Session VIII: Revision of all activities in the previous session and administration of instruction for post-treatment measures Experimental Group 2 – Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) Session I: Administration of instrument to obtain pre-test scores Session II: Discussion on concept of emotional intelligence and difference between emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence competencies Session III: Discussion on competencies of emotional intelligence and its importance Session IV: Discussion on guidelines for enhancing emotional intelligence and practical session Session V: Discussion on school administrators occupational stress, its effects and management strategies Session VI: Discussion on self- efficacy and how it could be developed or maintained Session VII: Concretization of the benefit of emotional intelligence training for management of occupational stress of public secondary schools administrators Session VIII: Revision of all activities in the previous session and administration of instruction for post-treatment measures. The control Group 3 Session I: General orientation Session II: Administration of Pre-Test Session III: General discussion on stress and its effect Session IV: -------------------------- Session V: -------------------------- Session VI: ------------------------- Session VII: --------------------------- Session VIII: Administration of post-tests 3.7Method of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics of frequency count and percentage were used to analyse the demographic data collected for the study. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), multiple 87 classification analysis (MCA) and Scheffe post hoc test were utilised to analyse the main data collected, at 0.05 level of significance. 88 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS This chapter presents the result from the analysis of data collected through the research instruments and their discussions. The results are presented in tables, followed by interpretations and discussions. The chapter is divided into two parts. The first part (A) dealt with the demographic information and the result of school administrators‟ stress management strategies used by the respondents in this study, while the second part (B) dealt with the main results of the study. PART A 4.1 Demographic information of the respondents The characteristics of the participants is important for the understanding of certain basic issues concerning the effects of the self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in south-west Nigeria. Frequency 60 50 50 37 40 34 30 20 10 0 Oyo State Ogun State Osun State Figure 4.1: Distribution of participants by states Figure 4.1 shows that 30.6% of the respondents were from Oyo State, 28.1% were from Ogun State while 41.3% were from Osun State. These were the school administrators in each of the ANCOPSS groups used in each state. These were individuals who by the criteria set for 89 participating in this study, scored above 40% in the School Administrators Occupational Stress Scale, an indication that they were experiencing work-induced stress owing to the post of school principal they held. 47 74 Male Female Figure 4.2: Distribution of the participants by gender Figure 4.2 shows that 38.8% of the respondents were males, while their female counterparts were 61.2%. This shows that more female principals participated in the study, a confirmation that both sexes are open to stress arising from the school principalship. 90 Frequency 120 103 100 80 60 Series1 40 20 13 2 0 30-40 Years 41-50 Years 51-60 Years Figure 4.3: Distribution of the participants by age Figure 4.3 above indicates that 4.1% of the respondents were aged 30-40 years; 10.7% were aged 41-50 years; while 85.1% were aged 51-60 years. This shows that the respondents, although they belonged to different age groups, were all open to stress. The duty post of a school administrator is associated with stress regardless of age. 91 Frequency 55 60 47 50 40 Series1 30 19 20 10 0 1-4 Years 5-9 Years > 10 Years Figure 4.4: Distribution of participants by years of experience in their positions Figure 4.4 shows that 38.8% of the respondents served between 1-4 years, 15.7% served between 5-9 years, while 55(45.5%) served above 10 years. This implies that the respondents varied in their years of experience as a school principal. It also means that stress is not absolutely about tenuership in the position of a school principal; whether a person is new or not on the position. The position is associated with the same kind of stress. 92 5 2 114 Divorced Widowed Married Figure 4.5: Distribution of the participants by marital status In figure 4.5, it is evident that 4.1% of the respondents were divorced, 1.7% were widowed, while 94.4 were married. This shows that whether a school principal is married or not, he or she must experience some level of stress on the job. 93 80 74 70 60 50 40 35 30 20 10 8 4 0 B.A. Ed,B.Sc Ed B.A.,B.Sc,PGDE Ph.D Others Figure 4.6: Distribution of the participants by educational qualification Figure 4.6 shows that 61.2% of the respondents had BA (Ed)/BSc (Ed), 28.9% had BA\BSc\PGDE, 3.3% had Ph.D while 6.6% had other educational qualifications; such as HND and MSc /MEd. This is also an indication that experiencing stress in the post of a school principal is not a function of the educational qualification one is holding. Regardless of whether a school principal is a first degree holder or a holder of Ph. D certificate, every principal must exhibit some degree of stress. 94 57 64 < 500 > 500 Figure 4.7: Distribution of the participants by school size (Enrolment) Figure 4.7 reveals that 47.1% of the respondents were below 500, while 52.9% were above 500. This shows that respondents varied in their school enrolment and that irrespective of the school size of a school principal, he or she can still experience job-related stress. Stress-management strategies adapted by sampled public secondary school administrators This section of the analysis deals with the result of school administrators stress- management strategies used by the respondents in this study. The respondents‟ individual stress- management strategies were important to the findings of this study. Sixty-three percent (63%) of the respondents managed their work-related stress by taking regular exercises. They took a brisk walk round the school, which provided a physical release from tension; 52.1% did not think about school problems when they were at home. They were not in the habit of taking school work to their homes. Fifty-seven percent (57%) of them forced themselves to set aside some time to eat and take a break each day. A total of 63.6% did not 95 dwell on their mistakes, because they learnt to forgive themselves and move on with their work. They saw it as an opportunity to improve themselves. Also 43% were involved in journaling after a tough day to relieve stress and reflect on the day‟s work. They did this by writing down and reflecting on stressful events of the day in their life. Also 57% got out of the office and stayed with the students, which made them to see what was going on in the classrooms, this helped them to adjust their focus on the goals of the school. Similarly, 43% play relaxing or inspirational music in the office during the day; 57% wrote out what they planned to do the following day before they left school each day. This helped them to start the next day prepared. Also 59.5% built a supportive network by finding other school administrators to talk to; they would go to a conference or seminar occasionally. A total of 58.7% of them noted that they increased their daily level of communication with staff and parents. More communication to them means fewer problems. However, 76.9% of them stayed organized by planning ahead; they tried to take each day at a time. Among them, 72.7% asserted that they would not make snap decision unless it was an emergency; 73.6% would slow down their reaction to emotional situation; 78.5% would gather input and data before making a big decision; 75.2% would not take things personally; they would plan to serve others and realize that reactions of people to them was as a result of their position as principal. Similarly, 71.1% had a deep sense of humour; 81.0% made use of being optimistic; they try not to lose their positive attitude. But 80.2% surrounded themselves with good staff and allowed them to do their jobs; 79.3% balance their lives by making time for family, friends, recreation and a hobby; while 77.7% organized their offices, desk filing system, and so on, so that they did not waste time and energy looking for items. A total of 52.9% would go for vacation when they needed one while 9.9% would drink alcohol under intense pressure or frustration at work. This result revealed that the participants were aware of their job-related stress. The training assisted the principals to develop or add more to their coping strategies in managing their work-related stress. This is in line with the submission of Chyuan (1998) that one of the ways of managing stress is effective self- management, which will involve adhering to a number of rules. The participants used secondary stress-management intervention to manage and cope with their occupational stress. The findings corroborate the views of Giga, Cooper and Faragher (2003) that the secondary prevention programmes are the most common stress-management intervention because it aims at the individual and involves instruction in techniques to manage 96 and cope with stress. This also supports Gmelch and Torelli (1994), in their study on school administrators‟ stress and burnout; they found that principals tended to choose secondary intervention strategies rather than primary strategies in managing occupational stress. 4.2: Analyses of hypotheses This section contains the analysis of the result obtained from the pretest and posttest. The presentations of results are done according to the hypothesis raised. The results are clearly presented in tabular form and followed with interpretations and detailed discussions for easy understanding of the findings of the study. H01: There is no significant main effect of treatment on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators Main effects of treatment groups on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators This section deals with the effects of intervention on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators and it is anchored to hypothesis one (HO1) of the study. Here, the result of the effect of the treatment on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators is discussed. The result was subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean scores and Scheffe Post-Hoc test analysis, Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA). The results obtained are presented in Tables 4.1.1, 4.1.2, 4.1.3, and 4.1.4; followed by a detailed discussion. Table 4.1.1: ANCOVA on the significant main effect of Treatment groups on Occupational Stress of public secondary school Administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta square square Squared Corrected model(Explained) 729.636 3 243.212 14.805 .000 .275 Pre-Occupational. Stress Man. 4.970 1 4.970 .303 .583 .003 Treatment Group 706.696 2 353.348 21.509 .000 .269 Error(Residual) 1922.067 117 16.428 Total 2651.702 120 97 Table 4.1.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Treatment Groups Treatment Groups Mean Std Error Treatment Group I (OYO) 17.367 .670 Treatment Groups II (OGUN) 18.766 .695 Control (OSUN) 13.228 .575 Table 4.1.3: Scheffe Post-Hoc Pair-wise comparison among the Treatment Groups Treatment Groups (I) Treatment Groups (J) Sig. Treatment Group I Self-Concept .370 Control .000 Treatment Group II Emotional Intelligence .370 Control .000 Control Self-Concept .000 Emotional Intelligence .000 Table 4.1.4: Homogeneity between Self-Concept, Emotional Intelligence and the Control Groups Treatment Groups N Subset for alpha = 05 1 2 Control group 50 13.2000 Treatment Group I 37 17.4054 (Self-concept Training) Treatment Group II 34 18.7647 (Emotional Intelligence Training) Sig. .333 98 Fig. 1: Bar chart showing the mean scores of the Treatment Groups from each state 18.766 20 17.367 18 16 13.228 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Self-Concept Emotional Intelligence Control Figure 4.8: Mean score of Treatment Groups Interpretation and Discussion Table 4.1.1 above shows that there was a significant main effect of treatment on occupational 2 stress of public secondary school administrators (F (3, 117) = 21.509, P < .05, η = .269). Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4.1.2 above shows the respective mean scores of the treatment groups as: Treatment I (self-concept training) (17.367); Treatment II (Emotional intelligence training) (18.766); and control group (13.228). Table 4.1.3 is a Scheffe Post-Hoc table showing that there were pair-wise significant differences between Treatment I (self-concept training) and control group, and between Treatment II (Emotional intelligence training) and the control group respectively. Table 4.1.4 indicates that treatment I (self-concept) and treatment II (Emotional intelligence) were homogeneous and had no significant difference, but each had a significant difference with the control group. Figure 4.8 further shows the mean scores of the treatment groups and the significant difference between the treatment groups and the control group with treatment group II (Emotional intelligence training) having the highest mean score, followed by treatment I (self-concept training )and lastly the control group. The results clearly revealed that the treatment effectively enhanced the occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. The two experimental groups were 99 superior to the control group. The result also revealed that both self-concept and emotional intelligence training were effective in enhancing occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. The fact that the participants in the treatment groups performed better in the post-test revealed that the treatment programmes employed were effective and the participants in the treatment groups utilized the treatment gained. The low scores of participants in the control group were not surprising, because no treatment was given to them, while the experimental groups were involved in activities which would enhance their occupational stress management. The control group was probably engaged in various activities that were not capable of enhancing their stress management. This implies that self-concept and emotional intelligence training could be used to enhance occupational stress management. The results of this study corroborates the submission of Stoica and Buciu (2010), that the best solution in stress management is preventive which involves training and development of programmes which will involve employees acquiring knowledge and abilities that will allow adjusting to job requirements or demand and coping with professional stress. The effectiveness of these two trainings was not surprising. Self concept has an important positive implication on how a person will decide to act when faced with challenging situations on the job. The person‟s understanding of his or her position vis-à-vis others and what it calls for in terms of behaviour towards them, continuous efforts he or she will engage in to transform him/herself from an unacceptable individual into an acceptable one, or even in extreme cases, to execute actions are important. The self-concept training enhanced and improved the participants‟ perception of themselves in relation to their job. The training impacted positively on the self-beliefs of the participants by developing their self-confidence in their abilities as school managers, by exhibiting a variety of self-confident behaviours. They were able to believe in themselves and accept themselves. This improved their self-image that made the school administrators to present themselves in a confident manner to their superiors, supervisors, subordinates and stakeholders. The self concept training also boosted their self-esteem, which relates to how one feels about oneself and how one perceives one‟s worth as a school administrator. They were able to identify their weaknesses and strengths and all these brought about a change in attitude, actions and better ideas as leaders in carrying out processes of school administration with little or no stress. 100 The findings of this study strengthen the submission of Purkey (1988), that many of the successes and failures that individuals experience in life are closely related to the ways they have learned to view themselves and their relationship with others. The findings are also in line with the view of Bandura (1997) who sees self-concept as self-confidence which involves anticipation of successfully mastering of challenges, obstacles or tasks. As a chain reaction, the training affected their goal setting, pressures and the frustration experience on the job. It built in the participants, self-determination which involves motivation from within (self-motivation). It can be concluded that motivation is the energy that allows an individual to meet new challenges and enables that individual to see problems as challenges and opportunities thereby. This assisted the participants to deal with their emotions and cope with their job problems. Self-determination involves being in charge of your fate and also develops in the individual a sense of self-responsibility, an ability to accept consequences for any effort, good or bad. This makes an individual to be resilient or have the ability to bounce back. All these put together assist in reducing occupational stress of participants. These results support Judge, Erez and Bono (1998), who claim that employees with positive self- concept are more motivated to perform their jobs better than those with negative self-concept and that self-concept is an ability factor that motivates the employees. The findings of this study also corroborate Hassan (2009), who asserts that self-concept assists employees control over job-related decisions, which affects their health, morale and ability to handle workloads. Self-concept also has been found to enhance motivation and growth among professional positions. This implies that a well-motivated worker is likely to have a high self- concept which has an impact on occupational stress. Kester, Gbenro and Ogidan (2010) also aver that the perception of the individual of him/herself affects how the individual will be motivated to achieve even if there are obstacles impeding him/her. This is in line with the view of Ozurumba and Ebura (2002), that self-concept and motivation for achievement are correlated. They found a significant interaction between academic self-concept and motivation for achievement. They concluded that the higher the academic and social self-concepts, the higher the motivation for achievement will be. The results of this study also support Slaski and Cartwright (2003), who observe that stress is an expression of negative emotions elicited by danger, threat or challenge to the body and signals to the body the need to prepare for actions of defence and protection. Therefore in 101 diminishing and reducing the negative emotional experience and stress which have adverse effect on self, a high positive self should be maintained to guide the individual towards the achievement of task and goals. Akpan and Achibong (2012), studying predictive effect of self- concept on the instructional and motivational leadership role performances and effectiveness of administrators of public secondary schools note that self-evaluation is an important determinant of effectiveness in leadership role performance of school administrators. They add that belief system of a school leader plays a focal role in determining his or her ability to successfully perform his or her leadership roles and handle the challenges of their job schedule. Stadler and Kotze (2006) observe that an individual‟s concept of him/herself affects his/her behaviour and learning. Self-concept is the stimulating agent underlying human behaviour, as those who experience work stress have been found to have damaged self-concept and this affects goal setting or forgotten aspiration. Linville (1987) asserts that the level of complexity of the self- concept influences responses to stressors. People with high complexity of self-concept experience less change in mood and self-esteem in response to a stressor. They are less prone to depression, perceive less stress and experience fewer physical symptoms after stressful life events than subjects with low complexity of self-concept. The findings also corroborate the assertion of Judge, Thoresan and Pucik (1996), who note that managers with a positive self-concept have the ability to cope more effectively with stress and changes induced by organizational transformation. In the same vein, Hunter and Schmidt (1990) claim that managers with higher self-concept perform significantly better in their managerial roles than those with a low self-concept. Positive self-concept acts as an ability factor that motivates the managers to perform better. However the findings of this study is at variance Popoola and Ilugbo (2010), who found no significant relationship between personality traits, such as self-concept and stress, and that self-concept could not be relied upon as a predictor of stress. The emotional intelligence training group had the highest mean score. The efficacy of emotional intelligence training can easily be explained by the nature of the emotional intelligence. Understanding one‟s emotional ability, to regulate and manage it and that of others, has a buffering effect on occupational stress management. The participants made use of the emotional intelligence competencies that were taught. These were self-regulation; self- confidence; motivation; empathy; which involves understanding others and developing others; 102 social competence, involving influence; communication; leadership; building bonds; and conflict management. The treatment with emotional intelligence improved the ability of the school administrators in self-disclosure beliefs, as they were self-motivated and inspired to achieve their set goals, increase quality interaction with staff and students and be sensitive to the emotions of staff and students. They also developed the ability to inspire and motivate their staff, which assisted in having a positive attitude towards their jobs and allowed for a better school climate. This reduced the frustration and anxiety experienced as a result of the demands and expectation of their roles as school administrators. The acquisition of emotional intelligence competencies not only controlled their perceived stress, but it also affected their leadership effectiveness and ability to face challenges associated with leadership. The finding of this study supports a number of studies that have demonstrated the effectiveness of emotional intelligence in handling stress at workplace. Purushothaman, Visuanthan and Navaneethakmar (2012) note that leaders and managers with high emotional intelligence are able to control their level of stress, which improves individual performance and the overall organizational performance. Hasssan and Alli (2011) found a relationship between emotional intelligence and occupational stress and submitted that increase in emotional intelligence reduced the occupational stress of employees and improved their work. The study concluded that, having emotional intelligence by managers will determine the basic abilities that an individual needs to stand against stress. Akomolafe (2011) asserts that emotional intelligence is a significant factor in influencing occupational stress among secondary school teachers and that the ability to effectively deal with emotions and emotional information in secondary school teachers would assist in managing occupational stress. Suh-Suh, Ajis and Dollah (2009) also found a significant relationship between occupational stress and emotional intelligence. They assert that emotional intelligence mediated the effect of occupational stress on job performance. Slaski and CartWright (2003) observe that emotional intelligence competences play a role in creating abilities in an individual to better handle the stress in workplace. It generates the skill in the individual to choose various courses of action to deal with stress without collapsing. It also develops a positive attitude to solve a problem and feel that one is in control of the situation. Abraham (2000) asserts that the social skill competency of emotional intelligence enhances positive interpersonal relationship and emotional intelligence increases the feeling of job satisfaction and decreases occupational stress. Chapman and Clarke (2002) also found a 103 strong correlation between overall and each of the five EQ abilities effects on stress. Workshop intervention to improve emotional intelligence competences, such as self-confidence, conflict management, communication and conscientiousness, also affects stress management. (Fabio, 2005). The findings of this study agrees with the submission of Bar-on (2006) that emotional intelligence is being concerned with effectively understanding one‟s self and others, relating well to people and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings so as to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands and pressures. Thebaut, Breton, Lambolez and Richoux, (2005); Sy, Tram and O‟ Hara, (2006); and Guleryz, Guney, Aydin and Asan (2008) claim that occupational stress and emotional intelligence are interrelated, that the ability of employees to properly manage their emotions and manage other employees‟ emotions will strongly increase their abilities to cope with physiological and psychological stresses in implementing job. This may lead to a higher job satisfaction in an organisation. The result of this study is in tandem with Adeyemo and Ogunyemi (2005) who observe that when stressful situations arise in workplace, preventive issues could include the enhancement of the employee‟s emotional intelligence. Oginska-Bulik (2005) concluded that ability to effectively deal with emotions and emotional information in the workplace through emotional intelligence assists employees in coping with occupational stress. The findings of the study is also in agreement Darolia and Darolia (2005), that state that emotionally intelligent people are able to understand and recognize their emotions, manage themselves appropriately so that their impulsiveness and aggression are kept under control in stressful situations. Moore (2007) corroborates this in the investigation of the perception and effects of emotional intelligence coaching for school administrators in a case study. The study revealed that the school administrators experienced an array of emotions in their jobs and the participants benefitted from emotional intelligence coaching. The findings of this study also buttress Williams‟ (2008) findings on factors that differentiated outstanding and typical urban principals. The study revealed that the outstanding group of principals consistently demonstrated five emotional competencies.(self-confidence, self-control, conscientiousness, achievement orientation and initiative) and four of the social intelligence competencies (organisational awareness, leadership, conflict management and team work collaboration) unlike the other group. Moore (2009) avers that school leaders that are 104 skilled in dealing with emotions will experience less personal stress and will be able to sustain or endure change process. Ekeh and Oladayo (2011), in their study of emotional stress and leadership success of secondary school principals, found that emotional intelligence influenced leadership success of the secondary school principals. Principals with high emotional intelligence demonstrated greater leadership success than their counterparts who were low in emotional intelligence. High emotional intelligence had greater positive influence on leadership success than did low emotional intelligence. Therefore, principals with high emotional intelligence were found to be better and more successful leaders in their schools which collaborates the findings of Moore (2009). Salami (2007) argues that emotional intelligence controls perceived stress effectively and prevents its negative effects on one‟s attitude towards one‟s profession. El-Sayed, Zeiny and Adeyemo (2014) assert that the level of emotional intelligence will increase individuals‟ competencies and, thus, increase the ability to reduce stressful situations. The result of this study is also in agreement with Kester, Ogidan & Oni (2010) who submit that routine training can be significantly used as a coping strategy to reduce and manage workplace stress. The competencies of self-concept and emotional intelligence training in enhancing occupational stress management among public secondary school principals revealed that developing these internal resources of school administrators through training programmes have the ability to protect school administrators from stress and enhance their coping strategies in stressful situations. The trainings had positive impact on the school administrators; assisted the school administrators to become resilient towards stress, enabled them to tackle the root cause of their stress; and they learnt how to cope with stressful situations in their schools. H02: There is no significant main effect of self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Effect of self-efficacy on occupational stress of Public Secondary School Administrators This section deals with the effect of self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. The data collected from the respondents on this were subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation as well as graphical representation. Results obtained are presented in Tables 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, followed by a detailed discussion. 105 Table 4.2.1: ANCOVA table showing the significant main effect of Self-efficacy on Occupational Stress of public secondary school Administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta square square Squared Corrected model(Explained) 368.194 2 184.097 9.513 .000 .139 PRESTRES 10.445 1 10.445 .540 .464 .005 Self- efficacy 345.255 1 345.255 17.841 .000 .131 Error(Residual) 2283.509 118 19.352 Total 2651.702 120 Table 4.2.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Self-efficacy Self- efficacy Mean Std Error Low Self-efficacy 14.369 .564 High Self-efficacy 17.759 .569 In the above table, the mean scores of self-efficacy are shown: low self-efficacy (mean =14.369); and High self-efficacy (mean =17.759). The respondents in the high self-efficacy group had a higher mean score, as shown in the table. 106 Low Self-Efficacy High Self-Efficacy Figure 4.9: Estimated marginal mean scores of low self-efficacy and high self-efficacy Interpretation and discussion Table 4.2.1, shows that there was a significant main effect of self-efficacy on the 2 occupational stress of public secondary school administrators (F (2,118) = 17.841, P < .05, η = .131). Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4.2.2 shows the mean scores of self- efficacy: low self-efficacy mean score: 14.369; and high self-efficacy: 17.759. The respondents in the medium self-concept group had a higher mean score. The outcome of the study revealed that the mean scores of high and low self-efficacy participants significantly differed. The findings support the view that self-efficacious individuals believe that they are capable of carrying out their expected roles and tasks. They also have the belief in using their skills in managing situations and circumstances associated with their job to achieve the desired outcomes. This had an effect on how the participants were able to cope with occupational stress. They saw the obstacles in their task as challenges to be mastered. They had self- confidence in their ability to achieve their goals and were in control of situations in their schools. Self-efficacy strengthened their self-motivation, self-confidence and ability to perform 107 task successfully. Self-efficacy determines how an individual will behave, think and become motivated to be involved in a particular task. This allows the individual to handle difficult tasks effectively. It makes him/her to be able to cope with the adversity and pressure of his/her workplace. This study buttresses the findings of Pajare (1996; 1997), Bandura (2000), Williams and Williams (2010) and Akomolafe and Ogunmakin (2014). They note that a strong self-efficacy enhances human accomplishments and personal well-being in many people with high assurance in their capabilities to approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered. Conversely, those with low levels of self-efficacy see such as threat to be avoided. Those with high assurance approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them. Such efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to stress and depression. Adeyemo and Ogunyemi (2005) stresses that people with a low sense of efficacy may have the tendency to look at things as if they are tougher than they really are, a belief that fosters stress, depression and a myopic vision of how best to tackle problems. Mills, Harry, Reiss, Natalie, Dombeck and Mark (2008) also corroborate the above findings, noting that self-efficacy acts to decrease people‟s potential for experiencing negative stress feelings by increasing their sense of being in control. The findings of this study confirm the study of Lu, Siu and Cooper (2005), who argue that self-efficacy affects an individual‟s ability and willingness to exercise control. Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to use problem focus or active coping strategies and report less physical and psychological strain. Self- efficacy acts as a buffer in mitigating the negative impact of job stressors on school administrators. This supports the view of Jex and Bliese (1999) that perceived self-efficacy moderates the relationship between certain stressors, such as number of hours worked, work overload or task meaning; and some of their consequences, like satisfaction, physical symptoms, and attempts to abandon the job and organizational commitment. Self-efficacy is, therefore, considered as a key factor in the stress process so that mere exposure to stressors with control by the individual has no adverse effect. These are in line with Jimmeison (2000) who found three-way interactions among role conflict, work control and self- efficacy using a sample of 100 customer service representatives. The research concluded that the stress buffering effects of work control on psychological well-being would be more marked at high, rather than low levels of perceived self-efficacy. The findings also give support to 108 Bandura‟s (1995) claim that self-efficacy is the extent of competence of the individual that gives confidence to interpret an event as stressful or challenging. It is when the individual appraises the task as a challenge that he/she will be able to select an effective coping strategy and persist at managing the task. The findings of the study also agree with Redmond (2010) and Lunenburg, (2011), who submit that performance and motivation are in part determined by how effective people believe they can execute a given task and self-efficacy is influenced by encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an individual‟s performance or ability to perform. Similarly, this study agrees with Kester, Gbenro and Ogidan (2010), who found a significant relationship between Nigerian Teachers‟ Institute Programme and a number of self- efficacy components. Their study revealed the resultant effects of self-efficacy on the choices the participants made their goals, the amount of efforts they were willing to apply to given tasks, how long they were also willing to persevere at such tasks in the face of failures and difficulties. Salami (2010), in a study of occupational stress and well-being, avers that self-efficacy is a significant factor of psychological well-being and moderator of occupational stress. It aims at a broad and stable sense of personal competence to deal effectively with a variety of stressful situations. It is worthy of note that a large number of studies have demonstrated quite convincingly that possessing a level of self-efficacy have the ability of decreasing occupational stress. However this study disagrees with Jex and Gudanowski (1992), who found no empirical evidence of a moderating role of self-efficacy in the process of occupational stress. H03: There is no significant main effect of gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Effects of gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators The results shown in the table reveal that there was no significant main effect of gender on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators (F (2, 118) = 2 .429, P < .05, η = .044). Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. This section deals with the effect of gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators and it is anchored to hypothesis two (HO3) of the study. The data collected from the respondents on this was subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and descriptive statistics of mean as well as graphical representation. The results obtained are presented in Tables 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, and Figure 4.9; followed by a detailed discussion. 109 Table 4.3.1: ANCOVA Showing the Main Effect of Gender on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary School Administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta square square Squared Corrected model(Explained) 32.452 2 16.226 .731 .484 .012 PRESTRES 26.377 1 26.377 1.188 .278 .010 Gender 9.513 1 9.513 .429 .514 .004 Error(Residual) 2619.250 118 22.197 Total 2651.702 120 Table 4.3.2: Estimated Marginal Means on Gender Gender Mean Std Error Male 16.375 .656 Female 15.804 .569 15.804 16.375 Male Female Figure 4.10: Estimated Marginal Means of Gender 110 The results from the above table show that there was no significant main effect of gender 2 on the occupational stress of public secondary school administrators (F (2, 118) = .429, P > .05, η = .004). Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4.3.2 reveals the mean scores of the gender: male (mean = 16.375) and female (mean = 15.804). This result means that there is no difference in the occupational stress management of both male and female participants. Any difference in their occupational stress management was due to chance not accommodated in this study. The findings of this study disagree with those of Akomolafe (2011), who carried out a study on the influence of emotional intelligence and gender on occupational stress among school teachers and found that there was a significant difference between the occupational stress experience with male and female teachers and those with high emotional intelligence. Also, Antoniou, Polydironi and Vlachakis (2006), found that female teachers experienced significantly higher levels of occupational stress than to their male counterparts. Mondal, Shrestha and Bhaila (2011) found a significant difference between male and female teachers‟ occupational stress, with male teachers having more psychological stress and physical stress than female teachers. Furthermore, male teachers were reported to be more insecure and they emphasized financial concerns; while female teachers expressed concerns about intrinsic facets of their jobs. Aftab and Khatoon (2012) found that male teachers were more stressed than female teachers. Contrary to these findings Ravichandran and Rajendran (2007), and Bhadoria and Singh (2010) found that female teachers tended to complain more of burnout than male teachers. The results of this study are in harmony with those of some previous ones. Adigun (2004) carried out a comparative study of performance of female and male principals in selected schools in Benin City, Nigeria and found that the mean average performance of male principals was just a few points above that of female principals. Okeke and Dlamini (2013) found no significant relationship between work-related stress and gender among secondary school teachers in Swaziland. Adigun and Okoiye (2012) also found insignificant relationship between gender and occupational stress management. Bankole and Kester (2008) investigated educational and sex-related influences on emotional intelligence and found no significance in the emotional intelligence of male and female workers. Lath (2010) discovered that gender did not significantly influence job stress among teachers. Adeoye and Okonkwo (2010) found no significant difference in job stress 111 factors and gender. Ajayi and Osalusi (2013) also confirmed no significant influence of gender on occupational stressors among the heads of academic department in Nigerian colleges of education. The finding is also consistent with Hassan (2009), who found no significant difference in occupational stress of male and female bank workers. The claim of no differences in the stress levels of males and females are consistent with Olayiwola (2008) and Jaiyeoba and Jibril (2008). The existence of no significant difference between the occupational stress management of male and female participants in this study seems to stem from the fact that both were exposed to the same working condition, and there was no gender discrimination. Both were occupationally stressed. Both male and female participants had equal amounts of exposure and experience related to scale items and treatment. The results, therefore, revealed that the proportion of benefits gained from the training by male participants is commensurate with that of the female participants. It could be said that each of the treatments could be applied effectively across male and females. H04: There is no significant interaction effects of treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Effect of treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators This section focuses on the effects of treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators. It rests on hypothesis four (Ho4) of the study. The data collected from the respondents on this were subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation, graphical presentation and line graph. The results obtained are presented in Tables 4.4.1 and 4.4.2; Figures 4.11 and 4.12; followed by a detailed discussion. 112 Table 4.4.1: ANCOVA table showing the significant interaction effects of treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta Squares Square Square d Corrected Model 1017.426 6 169.571 11.829 .000 .384 Pre-Stress Management 3.495 1 3.495 .244 .622 .002 Main Effect: Treatment Group 517.574 2 258.787 18.052 .000 .241 Self-efficacy 160.249 1 160.249 11.178 .001 .089 2-way Interactions: Treatment x Self efficacy 88.316 2 44.158 3.080 .050 .051 Error 1634.276 114 14.336 Total 2651.702 120 Table 4.4.2: Estimated marginal means on treatment groups and self-efficacy Treatment Groups Self-efficacy Mean Std Error Treatment 1 Low self-efficacy 16.926 .978 High self-efficacy 17.678 .813 Treatment II Low self-efficacy 17.817 .978 High self-efficacy 19.514 .869 Control Low self-efficacy 11.442 .682 High self-efficacy 16.129 .870 113 25 19.514 20 17.678 17.817 16.926 16.129 15 11.442 10 5 0 Self Concept Emotional Intelligence Control Low Self –Efficacy High Self-Efficacy Figure 4.11: Estimated marginal means of interaction between treatment group and self- efficacy groups 25 19.506 20 1817.0.269 17.717 16.145 15 11.492 10 5 0 Self CoSneclef pCto ncet Emotional Intgelligence Control Group Low Self-Efficacy High Self-Efficacy Figure 4.12: Significant interaction effects of treatment groups and self-efficacy on the occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators 114 Interpretation and discussion Table 4.4.1 shows that there was a significant main effect of the treatment groups and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. The interaction 2 effect of treatment and self-efficacy was significant (F (2,114) = 3080, P = .05, η = .051). Hence the null hypothesis was rejected. Figure 4.11 shows the interaction effects between treatment groups and self-efficacy. The result revealed that there was a significant main effect of treatment and self-efficacy on the occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators. In Table 4.4.2, the respective scores of the treatment groups and self-efficacy are presented. From Figure 4.11, it could be deduced that high self-efficacy participants (𝑥 = 19.514), who were exposed to emotional intelligence training, scored higher in measures of occupational stress management than their low self-efficacy (𝑥 = 17.817) counterparts. Also, participants with high self-efficacy, who were exposed to self-concept training, scored higher than their counterparts (𝑥 = 17.678) on measures of occupational stress management. However, among the control group, participants with high self-efficacy (𝑥 = 16.129) scored higher in their occupational stress management than their low self-efficacy participants (𝑥 = 16.442). This means that level of self-efficacy of the participants interacted with the treatment on their observed post-test score on occupational stress management. The group which benefitted most was the high self-efficacy participants in treatment group 2. This was followed by high self- efficacy participants in treatment group 1, which was also followed by low self-efficacy participants in treatment group 1. High self-efficacy participants in the control group had the least score on occupational stress management; this was followed by low self-efficacy participants in the control group. However, the result proves that level of self-efficacy influences occupational stress management. The high self-efficacy participants exposed to both self-concept and emotional intelligence training improved better than their counterparts in the control group. This is a clear indication that the treatment in enhancing occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators was influenced by self-efficacy. Participants who had high self- efficacy performed better. This study corroborates Oyewumi, Ibitoye and Sanmi (2013), who note that self-efficacy assists the individual in their capabilities to approach difficult tasks as a 115 challenge to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. Such efficacious outlook affects how successfully goals are achieved and also influences the level of effort and persistence a person will demonstrate in the face of obstacles. This finding is in line with the previous findings of Williams and Williams (2010) and Badura (1997). The outcome of this study could be due to the fact that self-efficacy determines how an individual will behave, think and be motivated when faced with difficulty of his or her occupation. Individuals with strong self-efficacy belief have the ability to effectively handle various tasks, assignments, obligations and challenges related to their professional role. They attribute failures to insufficient effort and therefore heighten the effort in face of difficulties. They recover quickly from failures and setbacks which make them display low vulnerability to stress and depression. Conversely, those with low self- efficacy have low aspirations and weak commitments to their goals. They maintain a self-diagnostic focus rather than how to perform and always attribute their failures to deficient capabilities. These individuals slacken their efforts or give up quickly in the face of difficulty. When they fail or have a setback, they recover slowly. All these put together make them prone to stress and depression. This claim is consistent with the findings of Adeyemo and Ogunyemi (2005) and Akomolafe and Ogunmakin (2014). H05: There is no significant interaction effects of treatment and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Main and interaction effects of treatment and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators This portion deals with the main and interaction effects of treatment and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. This is tied to hypothesis five (Ho5) of the study. The data collected from the respondents on this were subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation as well as graphical representation. The results obtained are presented in Tables 4.5.1 and 4.5.2; and figure 4.13. A detailed discussion then follows 116 Table 4.5.1: ANCOVA table showing the interaction effects of treatment and gender on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta Squares Square Squared Corrected Model 763.612 6 127.269 7.684 .000 .288 Pre-Stress Management 11.458 1 11.458 .692 .407 .006 Main Effect: Treatment Group 693.312 2 346.656 20.931 .000 .269 Gender 14.501 1 14.501 .876 .351 .008 2-way Interactions: Treatment x Gender 14.905 2 7.452 .450 .639 .008 Error 1888.090 114 16.562 Total 2651.702 120 Table 4.5.2: Estimated marginal means on treatment groups and gender Treatment Groups Gender Mean Std Error Treatment 1 Male 17.930 1.178 Female 17.065 .817 Treatment II Male 18.646 1.019 Female 18.873 .960 Control Male 14.037 .853 Female 12.511 .802 117 20 18.646 18.873 17.93 18 17.065 16 14.037 14 12.511 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Self Concept Emotional Intelligence Control Male Female Figure 4.13: Estimated marginal means of the interactions between treatment groups and gender Interpretation and discussion Table 4.5.1 reveals that there was no significant main effect of treatment and gender on 2 occupational stress of public secondary school administrators (F (6,114) = .450, P > .05, η = .008). Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4.5.2 captures the mean scores from the interactions of treatment groups and gender. This shows that the post-test scores on occupational stress management of the male participants in treatment group 1, male participants in treatment group 2, male participants in the control group, female participants in treatment group 1, female participants in treatment group 2 and female participants in the control group were not significantly different. Thus, gender did not significantly interact with treatment in enhancing occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators. The result showed that self- concept training and emotional intelligence training were effective in enhancing the occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators 118 irrespective of the gender of the participants. This implies that both female and male participants benefitted from the effect of the training, as it did not depend on being male or female. This result is in harmony with the finding of Hypothesis 3, that there was no significant main effect of gender on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators. The interaction between gender and the treatments (self- concept training and emotional intelligence training) could not hinder the potency of the treatment on occupational stress management of the participants and therefore the participants, despite the perception of the influence of gender on the therapies still used and benefitted from the treatment packages equally. This tallies with Hassan (2009) and Popoola and Ilugbo (2010) that found no significant difference in the management of job stress and gender. They observe that individuals have different ways of adjustment with different coping styles and personality traits that cut across gender could be responsible. The findings lend support to the studies of Aremu and Akomolafe (2012), Akomolafe (2011), Adigun and Okoiye (2012), which found insignificant gender interaction effect in the management of occupational stress with emotional intelligence. However, Aftab and Khatoon‟s (2012) findings are opposed to those of this study. They found that male teachers were more stressed than female teachers This researcher did not find any study where self-concept training (SCT) and emotional intelligence training (EIT) were used to enhance occupational stress management of school administrators. Both male and female principals benefitted from the treatment. This could have been the reason for the insignificant interaction between treatment and gender. Other reasons could be as a result of many ongoing programmes on women empowerment and gender equality, which is now making women to be more autonomous than in the past. This is a shift from traditional and cultural expectations that view women as weak and emotional; and see men as more self-confident, autonomous and active. H06: There is no significant interaction effects of gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. Effect of gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Here, focus is on the effect of gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress management among public secondary school administrators. It is predicated on hypothesis six 119 (Ho6) of the study. The data collected from the respondents were subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and graphical representation. The results obtained are presented in Tables 4.6.1 and 4.6.2; and Figure 4.14. A detailed discussion is presented thereafter. Table 4.6.1: ANCOVA table showing the significant interaction effects of gender and Self- efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta Squares Square Squared Corrected Model 372.862 4 93.215 4.745 .001 .141 Pre-Stress Management 11.936 1 11.936 .608 .437 .005 Main Effect: Gender 2.350 1 2.350 .120 .730 .001 Self Efficacy 323.005 1 323.005 16.442 .000 .124 2-way Interactions: Gender x Self-efficacy 2.399 1 2.399 .122 .727 .001 Error 2278.841 116 19.645 Total 2651.702 120 Table 4.6.2: Estimated marginal means on gender and self-efficacy Gender Self-efficacy Mean Std Error Male Low Self-efficacy 14.716 .912 High Self-efficacy 17.756 .838 Female Low Self-efficacy 14.146 .729 High Self-efficacy 17.757 .787 120 Low Self-Efficacy High Self-Efficacy Figure 4.14: Estimated marginal means of interaction between gender and self efficacy groups Interpretation and discussion Table 4.6.1 reveals that there was no significant interaction effect of gender and self- efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. (F (4,116) = .122, P < 2 .05, η = .001). Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4.6.2 shows the mean scores. The level of self-efficacy of the participants did not significantly interact with their gender on the post-test scores. This means that the post-test scores of high self-efficacy score of male participants and high self-efficacy of female participants; as well as low self-efficacy male participants and low self-efficacy female participants are not significantly different. This implies that self-efficacy of the participants did not influence their occupational stress management. The efficacy of self-efficacy on the post-test scores of the participants on occupational stress was not 121 influenced by their gender. In other words, gender neutralized the effect of level of self-efficacy on occupational stress management of the participants. This finding is in tandem with Aremu and Akomolafe (2012) that found no significant interactive effective of gender on occupational stress. This finding may be as a result of female principals being able to shoulder the same responsibilities with their male counterparts and the fact that both utilized the benefits of the training. H07: There is no significant 3-way interaction effects of treatment, gender and self-efficacy, on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Effect of treatment, gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators In this section, attention is on the effect of treatment, gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. It is anchored to hypothesis seven (Ho7) of the study. The data collected from the respondents on this were subjected to Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and graphical representation. Tables 4.7.1 and 4.7.2, and Fig 4.15 capture the results. A detailed discussion of the results is also presented. 122 Table 4.7.1: ANCOVA table showing the significant interaction effects of treatment, gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators Source Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Eta Squares Square Squared Corrected Model 1098.851 12 91.571 6.369 .000 .414 Pre-Stress Management 7.099 1 7.099 .494 .484 .005 Main Effect: Treatment Group 519.128 2 259.564 18.053 .000 .251 Gender 14.695 1 14.695 1.022 .314 .009 Self-efficacy 100.766 1 100.766 7.008 .009 .061 2-way Interactions: Treatment x Gender 19.856 2 9.928 .690 .504 .013 Treatment x Self-efficacy 115.338 2 57.669 4.011 .021 .069 Gender x Self-efficacy 19.814 1 19.814 1.378 .243 .013 3-way Interactions: Treatment x Gender x Self-efficacy 28.479 2 14.240 .990 .375 .018 Error 1552.851 108 14.378 Total 2651.702 120 123 Table 4.7.2: Estimated marginal means on treatment groups, gender and self-efficacy Treatment Groups Gender Self-efficacy Mean Std Error Treatment 1 Male Low Self-efficacy 19.875 2.196 High Self-efficacy 17.301 1.265 Female Low Self-efficacy 16.184 1.095 High Self-efficacy 17.900 1.061 Treatment II Male Low Self-efficacy 17.172 1.548 High Self-efficacy 19.544 1.202 Female Low Self-efficacy 18.261 1.265 High Self-efficacy 19.468 1.264 Control Male Low Self-efficacy 12.673 .999 High Self-efficacy 16.222 1.274 Female Low Self-efficacy 10.310 .952 High Self-efficacy 16.067 1.200 Interpretation and Discussion Table 4.7.1 above shows that in the 3-way interactions, no significant difference was 2 found (F (12,108) = .990, P < .05), η = .018). Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. This means that treatment, gender and the level of self-efficacy did not significantly interact on their post-test scores on occupational stress. Table 4.7.2 reveals the mean scores of the groups of independent variable in the analysis. The post-test scores of male high self-efficacy participants in treatment group 1, male high self-efficacy participants in treatment group 2, male high self-efficacy participants in control group, female high self-efficacy participants in treatment group 1, female high self-efficacy participants in treatment group 2, female high self-efficacy participants in control group, male low self-efficacy participants in treatment group1, male low self-efficacy participants in treatment group 2, male low self-efficacy participants in control group, female low self-efficacy participants in treatment group1, female low self-efficacy participants in treatment group 2, female low self-efficacy participants in control group were not significantly different. The gender and self-efficacy of the participants did not influence the efficacy of self- concept training and emotional intelligence training as intervention in enhancing the 124 occupational stress management of the participants. Put differently, irrespective of gender and self-efficacy of the participants, the self-concept training and the emotional intelligence training had an effect on the occupational stress of the participants. This finding supports Ajayi and Osalusi (2013), Popoola and Ilugbo (2010) and Akomolafe (2011). Similarly, in line with the submission of Burke and Richardson (1991), who examined sex differences in level and sources of experienced stress, the results showed a similar level of stress between male and female physicians. However, the study is at variance with the findings of Mondal, Shrestha and Bhaila (2011) that establish a significant difference between male and female teachers, with male teachers having more psychological stress and physical stress than the female teachers. Quite contrary to this are Ravichandran and Rajendran, (2007), Bhodoria and Singh (2010), who claim that female teachers tend to complain more of stress and burnout than male teachers. The findings of this study may be due to the fact that female and male principals have the same job responsibilities. The male and the female principals were exposed to the same therapeutic treatment. More women are now taking managerial positions in workplaces and are prepared for the challenges of the workplace by developing different techniques to manage stress. This might explain why there is no significant difference in the interaction effect of gender, self-efficacy and treatment on occupational stress of the participants. The results of this study are not surprising because it is has been noted in the analysis of the previous hypothesis that the treatments given to the experimental groups were effective regardless of gender. The insignificant effect of gender has neutralized the significant effect of treatment and self-efficacy on occupational stress management of the school administrators. The reason for this result could be that the two experimental groups possessed the same personality determinants, and above all, the treatment had equal strength and effect on the participants of the two groups. This explains why the two interventions given were able to produce similar results. 125 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents the summary, conclusion, policy implications, and recommendations of the study. It also suggests areas for further research as well as limitation to the study 5.1 Summary The study examined the effects of self-concept and emotional intelligence training on occupational stress of public secondary school administrators in south-western Nigeria. The study, also made use of gender and self-efficacy as moderating variables. This study was presented in five chapters using the university approved sequential format; starting from the first chapter which is the general introduction and the fifth chapter that ends the study. The background to the study was discussed and each one of the variables used for this study was clearly spelt out. The statement of the research problem, highlighted the gaps observed that necessitated this study. In addition, the objectives, significance of the study, scope and some terms that were ambiguous were defined under the operational definitions of terms and concepts as used in the study. These were clearly explained with the aim of a better understanding of the variables as well as the concept used in the research work. The study did a comprehensive review of past but related literature on the independent and dependent variables used in the study. This was done with a view of linking the present study with the past studies, so as to be able to show the gap that the present study will be filling. Furthermore, a theoretical review of Person environment fit theory; Transactional model and Cybernetic model on occupational stress were considered and integrated together to develop a conceptual framework for the study. Seven hypotheses formulated that guided the analysis and discussion of findings. The study adopted a pretest-posttest, control group, quasi experimental design using a 3x2x2 factorial matrix for the study. A total of 121 principals from Oyo, Ogun and Osun states and are members of All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) were selected as participants for the study. The pretest, treatment and posttest lasted for eight weeks and five sets of questionnaire were used for data collection. The validity and reliability of the instruments used were clearly discussed. The data collected from the study were analysed using descriptive statistics of simple percentage; and inferential statistics of Analysis of 126 covariance (ANCOVA), Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) and Scheffe post-hoc. Seven hypotheses generated for the study were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of this study revealed that: 1. Self-concept training (SCT) was effective in enhancing the occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators in Oyo state while emotional intelligence training (EIT) was also effective in Ogun state. However EIT group improved better in occupational stress management than SCT group and the two experimental groups performed better than the control group. 2. There was a significant main effect of self-efficacy on the occupational stress management of the participants. participants with high self-efficacy 3. There was no significant main effect of gender on occupational stress management of the participants. 4. There was significant interaction effect of the treatment and self-efficacy on the occupational stress management of the participants. 5. There was no significant interaction effect of the treatment and gender on the occupational stress management of participants. 6. There was no significant interaction effect of gender and self-efficacy on the occupational stress management of the participants. The interaction effect of gender and self-efficacy was also not significant. 7. There was no significant 3 way-interaction effect of treatment, gender and self-efficacy on occupational stress management of participants. 5.2 Conclusion In view of the findings of this study, it is obvious that self-concept training used in Oyo State and the emotional intelligence training employed in Ogun State were both effective in enhancing occupational stress management of the sampled public secondary school administrators. The acquisition of the skill of developing a positive self-concept through the training impacted positively on the self-beliefs of school administrators and assisted in managing their occupational stress. Also, acquiring emotional intelligence competences of self awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills through the training was able to reduce the occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. Hence, the two training 127 programmes are potent in reducing the occupational stress of public secondary school administrators. 5.3 Policy implications of the study The study has the following implications: 1. Stress management training constitute a safe and effective approach for reducing stress 2. Ministries of Education and Teaching Service Commissions should make stress management training an entry programme for would be school administrators; and organize regular training programmes that would employ the techniques used in this study for stress management and coping strategies to minimise school administrators‟ occupational stress 3. Stress management through training programmes for school administrators will enhance their effectiveness, and ensure better coordination and supervision of schools. 4. Government should create a department in the Ministry of Education and the Teaching Service Commissions on stress management and psychological well-being of school administrators and teachers in general. This will assist government in spending less on supervision of schools administrators. 5. There is need for intervention in strengthening and reinforcing school administrators damaged self-concept, so as to make them have positive attitude towards their job. 6. Emotional intelligence training should be included in teachers training curriculum in colleges of education and universities so that all school administrations, whether male or female, are eligible for training in occupational stress management 7. Self-efficacy of school administrators should be sustained. 5.4 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following are recommended: 1. Government at all levels should put in place programmes that will enhance positive self- concept and emotional intelligence competencies of school administrators and teachers generally. 2. The Teaching Service Commission and Ministry of Education should, as a matter of urgency, organise regular training programmes on stress management using self-concept 128 and emotional intelligence training with the purpose of helping school administrators cope with occupational stress 3. All Nigeria Confederation of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) should make occupational stress management strategies as part of professional development programmes for members and such programmes should employ the strategies used in this study. 4. Stress management training programmes should not be gender-biased, but training programmes should target both sexes, that is male and female. Therefore, male and female school administrators should be given equal opportunities in carrying out their assigned roles. 5. ANCOPSS should develop an effective training programme for their members which will enhance their self-efficacy, thereby preparing them for the stress associated with the job‟s schedule 6. Curriculum for teachers‟ training should include courses in emotional intelligence competencies, self-concept and self-efficacy development. 7. Before teachers assume principalship position, they should be given training on stress management strategies and other. 8. Government at all levels should make provision for regular in-service professional development for practising principals on how to acquire the skill of positive self-concept and emotional intelligence 5.5 Contributions to knowledge The study has the following contributions to knowledge: 1. Every school administrator experiences stress regardless of age, sex and job tenure. 2. Stress management training constitutes a safe and effective approach for stress management for school administrators. 3. Self-concept is an essential tool for managing school administrators‟ stress. 4. Emotional intelligence is a potent stress management tool among secondary schools administrators. 129 5.6 Limitations of the study The research encountered a number of limitations. The study covered three states in south-west Nigeria, namely Oyo Osun, Ogun. Three ANCOPSS groups with only one hundred and twenty-one principals were selected for this study owing to administrative logistics, time and financial constraints. A greater number could have been preferred. Furthermore, the research encountered difficulty in getting some participants in the ANCOPSS zone seated and attentive, as some of them always wanted to take excuse to attend other meetings. Some of the meeting days had to be shifted because of emergency meetings by the State Teaching Service Commission. Some of the principals were sometimes called to attend to urgent issues by the Ministry or in their schools. Interruptions through phone calls also constituted distractions during the training sessions. The research assistants got in touch with the ANCOPSS chairpersons every week to remind them of training sessions. The researcher herself made regular phone calls to participants and visited some of them in their schools to encourage them to be present in all the training sessions. Refreshment where also served at each training session. However, all the identified problems did not have any negative effect on the findings of the study. 5.7 Suggestions for further study The study has contributed to knowledge by revealing the effectiveness of two psychological treatments, SCT and EIT, in enhancing occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. Similar research can be carried out to determine whether other psychological treatments could be effective in enhancing the occupational stress management of public secondary school administrators. This study was carried out in three states and among public secondary school administrators in southwestern, Nigeria. It could be replicated in other states and among private secondary schools administrators. 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Earnest efforts were made by the researcher to establish good rapport with the participants so as to enhance the readiness of the participants to participate in the programme The purpose and format of the programme was explained by the researcher to the group. The benefits derivable from the programme were discussed with the participants-The programme would help in reducing stress among them and improve their well-being. It would also solve specific motivational problems, enhance efficiency and reduce labour turnover. Regular attendance was emphasized. Only participants who complete all sessions would benefit fully as proceedings would be cumulative. The need to adhere to all instructions and complete all assignments was also emphasized. Participants were encouraged to feel free and ask questions for clarification. The researcher, with the help of the research assistants, administered the instruments to collect the pre test scores. Objective and independent responses of the participants were sought. Writing materials would be distributed free for the purpose of completing the scales. The subsequent meeting dates and time were finalized and communicated to the participants. Assignment 1. List some stressors that affect your performance at work. 2. Outline five things you can do to improve your performance at work 162 Session II: Introduction to the concept of Self-concept The researcher welcomed the participants and appreciated them for making themselves available again. The researcher proceeded with the session as follows: The earliest milestone in the self-concept theory is that of Rene Descartes, who proposed that a person‟s existence depended on how he perceives so. Sigmund Freud, one of the most prominent psychologists, proposed many theories that talk about our internal mental processes. His theory holds that we have 3 main aspects within us, the Id (pleasure-oriented), ego (balance between Id and superego) and the superego (conscience-driven) which may influence the way we think of ourselves. Self-concept is the totality of our beliefs, preferences, opinions and attitudes organized in a systematic manner, towards our personal existence. It is how we think of ourselves and how we should think, behave and act out our various life roles (Sincero, 2012). Bandura (1997) sees self-concept as self-confidence which is the anticipation of successfully mastering challenges, obstacles or tasks. It is also the nature and organization of beliefs about one‟s self. It is also defined as a complex and dynamic system of belief which an individual holds true about himself, each with a corresponding value. Self-concept may cover many different areas; for instance, knowledge of the competencies one has and does not have, knowledge of one‟s attitudes and values, and knowledge of one‟s likes and dislikes, and of what one aspires to become. People tend to have clear conceptions of the self on some dimensions and rather vague or more schematic conceptions of the self on other dimensions. The more important the particular dimension is to someone, and the more they believe they occupy an extreme position on the dimension, the more crystallized, or clear, self-conception is (Markus, 1977). A person‟s overall self is typically represented as a set of categories, each of which represents a distinct self or identity (Stets & Burke, 2003). These distinct selves or identities are typically tied to a particular social context. This means that people can have an identity for each of the different personal and social positions or role relationships they hold in a specific social context. Thus, self as manager is an identity, self as employee of organization X is an identity, and self as a husband is an identity. The number of identities and the specific content of each of them vary from person to person. 163 The specific content of the self-concept is dependent on the situation. As such, the self may be seen as a collection of modular processing structures (self-schemas) that are elicited in different contexts or situations and have specific cognitive, affective, and behavioural consequences. Assignment: participants are to explain meaning of self-concept and different areas of self- concept. Session III: Qualities of Self-concept; 1. Self-concept is learned: One of the very basic assumptions of self- concept is that no person is born with a self-concept. It gradually emerges in the early months of life and is shaped and reshaped through repeated perceived experiences, particularly with significant others. Self- concept is not instinctive, but is a social product developed through experience; it possesses relatively boundless potential for development and actualization.  As a result of previous experiences and present perceptions, individuals may perceive themselves in ways different from the ways others see them.  Individuals perceive different aspects of themselves at different times with varying degrees of clarity  Any experience which is inconsistent with one's self-concept may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these experiences there are, the more rigidly self-concept is organized to maintain and protect itself. When a person is unable to get rid of perceived inconsistencies, emotional problems arise.  Self-concept requires consistency, stability, and tends to resist change. If self-concept changed readily, the individual would lack a consistent and dependable personality. Self-concept is believed to develop as a person grows old. This means that our perceptions towards our selves can be shaped and can be altered, and can also be affected by environmental factors. In this sense, self-concept is actually a product of socialization and development. A person may have a perception of himself different from what other people thinks of him. 2. Self-Concept is organised: self-concept has a generally stable quality that is characterized by orderliness and harmony. Each person maintains countless perceptions regarding his/her personal existence, and each perception is orchestrated with all the others. It is this generally stable and organized quality of self-concept that gives consistency to the personality. The more 164 central a particular belief is to one's self-concept, the more resistant one is to changing that belief.  The more central a particular belief is to one's self-concept, the more resistant one is to changing that belief.  At the heart of self-as-doer, the "I," this is distinct from the self-as-object, the various “me‟s" This allows the person to reflect on past events, analyse present perceptions, and shape future experiences.  Basic perceptions of oneself are quite stable, so change takes time. Self-concept is not built in a day.  Perceived success and failure impact on self-concept. Failure in a highly regarded area lowers evaluations in all other areas as well. Success in a prized area raises evaluations in other seemingly unrelated areas. A person may have numerous views of himself. He may think that he is kind, patient, loving and caring, or selfish, cruel, rude and stubborn. No matter how many different perceptions you have of yourself, still, there is one perception that facilitates all of these insights, causing one organized self-concept. When a person believes something that is congruent to his self-concept, it is more likely that he would resist changing that belief. He tends to stick to his present view of himself for quite a long time, and changing this perception of his self may take too long, but change is feasible 3. Self-concept is dynamic: To understand the active nature of self-concept, it helps to imagine it as a gyrocompass: a continuously active system that dependably points to the "true north" of a person's perceived existence. This guidance system not only shapes the ways a person views oneself, others, and the world, but it also serves to direct action and enables each person to take a consistent "stance" in life even in the face of challenges. The world and the things in it are not just perceived; they are perceived in relation to one's self-concept.  Self-concept development is a continuous process. In the healthy personality, there is constant assimilation of new ideas and expulsion of old ideas throughout life.  Individuals strive to behave in ways that are in keeping with their self-concepts, no matter how helpful or hurtful to one or others.  Self-concept usually takes precedence over the physical body. Individuals will often sacrifice physical comfort and safety for emotional satisfaction. 165  Self-concept continuously guards itself against loss of self-esteem, for it is this loss that produces feelings of anxiety, fear, depression  If self-concept must constantly defend itself from assault, growth opportunities are limited. As a person faces different situations and new challenges in his life, his insight towards himself may constantly change, depending on the way he responds to such life changes. We see things depending on our self-concept. We behave according to how we see ourselves in a situation. Therefore, self-concept is a continuous development wherein we tend to let go of the things and ideas that are not congruent to our self-concept, and we hold on to those that we think are helpful in building a more favourable perception of our personal existence. Assignment: List the nature of self-concept and its effect on the individual. Session IV: Importance and nature of self-concept 1. Successes and failures that individuals experience in life are closely related to the ways they have learned to view themselves and their relationship with others. 2. An individual‟s self-concept of his/herself affects his/her behaviour and learning. Self- concept acts as an agent underlying human behaviour. It gives direction for behaviour. 3. Self-concept affects goal-setting. 4. How an individual perceives and evaluates himself/herself at a particular time could influence the person‟s attitude towards work and challenges at workplace. 5. Self- concept is linked to job performance. This because positive self-concept leads to more self-motivation to perform one‟s job better than those with negative self-concept. A person with positive self-concept is motivated to achieve even if there are obstacles impeding him or her. 6. Positive self-concept has the capability to cope more effectively with stress and changes induced by organizational transformation. Stress have less negative effect on individuals with more positive self-perception 7. Self-concept guards itself against loss of self-esteem which produces feeling of anxiety, fear and depression. The researcher explains signs of negative self-concept:  Being fearful  Anxiety  Easily discouraged  Inability to make sound decisions 166  Having difficulty in maintaining ambition  Inability to bounce back after disappointment  Difficulty in maintaining emotional stability  Failing to learn from past mistakes. Signs of a positive self-concept:  Self-confident  Ability to make sound decision  Ability to be introspective  Ability to bounce back after disappointment  Ability to maintain emotional stability  Ability to learn from past experience  Ability to handle a given task  Openness to develop new skills  Ability to be introspective Assignment: participants are to list those things that they think they can do to help build a positive self-concept Session V: Discussion on occupational stress and its effects. Stress, in general, is an ineffective and unhealthy reaction to change and it describes a force which affects human beings physically, mentally, emotionally, socially and spiritually (Akinboye, Akinboye & Adeyemo, 2002). It comes from any situation or circumstance that requires behavioural adjustment. The type of stress being experienced in a person‟s workplace or employment is termed occupational stress. Akinboye and Akinboye (2002) describe occupational stress as physical, mental and emotional wear and tear brought about by incongruence between the requirement of job and capabilities, resources and needs of the employee to cope with job demands. Similarly, it is defined as the physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker It is implicit that when the demands and pressure placed on individual workers do not match the resources which are available either from the organisation or within the individual, stress can occur and endanger that health or well-being (employment relations and union services, health and safety). It can be said then that placing excessive responsibilities or 167 workload on a worker can lead to stressful condition. Occupational stress involves the experience of negative emotional states, such as frustration, worry, anxiety and depression attributed to work-related factors. Occupational stress poses a threat to physiological and psychological capabilities of workers. It affects the physical as well as social aspect of life. Individuals, affected by occupational stress, certainly face problems in decision-making, planning and intrusting with others that lead to poor effectiveness and productivity. On other hand, a stressed employee puts stress on other staff, and the entire organization. Stress can undermine the achievement of goals, both for individuals and for organizations. When affected by occupational stress an individual may: (i) Become increasingly distressed and irritable (ii) Become unable to relax or concentrate (iii) Have difficulty thinking logically and making decisions (iv) Enjoy their work less and feel less committed (v) Feel tired, depressed and anxious (vi) Have difficulty sleeping (vii) Experience serious physical problem such as heart disease, increase in blood pressure and headache. The researcher discussed with the participants their occupational stress and its effect on their functioning and the entire school Assignment: 1. List causes of your occupational stress and how they affect your performance as public secondary school administrator 2. Suggest possible ways of reducing your work stress Session VI: Discussion on self- efficacy and its sources Explanation on the meaning of self-efficacy and its sources: Badura (1977) define self efficacy as a person‟s evaluation of his or her ability or competency to perform a task, reach a goal or overcome an obstacle. It is believed that self-efficacy judgement is the determinant of behaviour. It is when one‟s self belief is high that effort will be mastered to face challenging situation. According to Albert Bandura, how people behave can often be predicted by the beliefs they hold about their capabilities rather than what they are actually capable of 168 accomplishing. This shows that self-efficacy perceptions could determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they have. Explain the four main sources self-efficacy: - Creating a strong sense of self-efficacy through mastery experience. If an individual is convinced that he/she has what it takes to succeed, he/she is likely to persevere in the face of difficulties by sticking through tough times and emerge stronger and successful from adversity. - Vicarious experience: This is also known as modelling. Here van individual sees people who are similar succeeding and this could aid their capability to venture into doing similar activities, even if they fail, they try the more to succeed. - The social persuasion: this relates to encouragement and discouragement. It strengthens people beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed - Personal conviction or emotional state in judging their beliefs and capabilities. Often in stressful situations we exhibit signs of aches, pains, distress and anxiety. Ones perception of these responses can markedly alter a person‟s self-efficacy than sheer power of response. Participants will be allowed to ask questions on the discussion. Assignment: Participants are to list those things that can help develop their self-efficacy Session VII: Concretization of the benefit of self-concept training for adequate restoration of expected behavioural outcomes (i.e management of occupational stress) Discussion on developing a positive self-concept and practical session. The researcher led the discussion on causes of public secondary schools‟ administrators‟ negative self-concept. The researcher led the discussion on developing positive self –concept. A positive self-concept determines how you will be able to handle challenges, adversity and ability to handle task. Developing a healthy self-concept involves a deliberate planning and concentrated effort. - Understand your own competence: Do you have the necessary skill as a school administrator? There must be continuous professional development and training. Be open to developing new skills. - Accept your limitations - Have a sense of uniqueness and act confident. - Develop a plan in your work by setting realistic goals. 169 - Be committed in setting your realistic goal. - Finding a mentor. - Give yourself freedom to fall. Overcome fear of failure. When there is failure learn from it and see it as an opportunity to be better. - Evaluate to check progress. - Adjust and be flexible after evaluation. - Take action- when you take action you become vulnerable to both external and internal factors that affect self-concept. Benefits;  They have a positive orientation – “falling down doesn‟t mean failure, staying down does”  They are able to cope with life‟s problems.  They are able to deal with emotions.  They are able to help others and accept help themselves.  They are able to accept people as individuals.  They are able to exhibit a variety o self-confident behaviours.  By self-concept, you raised your self-esteem and you increase the level of others around you.  They are able to give people opportunities to practice self-responsibility.  Praise in public and correct in private.  Stretch people, by assigning tasks slightly beyond their known capabilities.  Encouraging people to view problems as “challenges and opportunities.” Assignment: Explain steps you would take to achieve a positive self-concept and be able to cope with challenges of your job schedules. Session VIII: Revision of all activities in the previous session and administration of instruction for post treatment measures. The researcher reflected on what have being achieved in all the sessions. The researcher administered the post-test and participants were appreciated. 170 Experimental Group II Emotional Intelligence Training Session I: Familiarisation and Administration of Instruments The session entailed the following: The researcher welcomed the participants to the venue. She introduced herself, the research assistants and the training expert. The participants also introduced themselves. The researcher explained the benefit of the programme as it would create a new thinking that would reduce occupational stress among them, help them solve specific motivational problems, reduce labour turnover, improve their well-being as well as make them effective secondary school administrators. The researcher highlighted the benefits of coming regularly for meetings on the agreed days of the week and time. The researcher and the participants agreed on rules for the meetings. -The participants are to come early and be punctual. -The participants are free to ask questions at will. -There will be take-home assignments and -All must be conscious of time. -The researcher administered the instruments with the help of the research assistants to obtain the pre-test scores. -Distribution of notepads and biros to participants. -The researcher appreciated the participants for coming. -Light refreshment was served. Home Assignment: participants are to read materials on emotional intelligence before the next session. Session II: Concept of emotional intelligence and difference between emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence competences. Objective: At the end of the session, the participants should be able to effectively explain the concept of emotional intelligence and differentiate between it and emotional intelligence competences. The researcher explained the concept “emotional intelligence” as a construct that indicates a kind of intelligence or skill that involves the ability to and positively influence one‟s 171 own and other people‟s emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) described emotional intelligence as a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one‟s own, other‟s feelings and emotions to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one‟s thinking and action. Further explanation was be made to explain the given definition. Monitoring ones and other‟s emotional feelings help a lot to overcome some problems that may arise from ignorance. When an individual is able to observe when he or she is emotionally or psychologically disturbed for instance, the individual may want to be alone or make some derogatory comments on people around him or her which may cause problems. But when the individual is able to monitor or observe his/her emotion and be able to know how to handle it properly, the individual will certainly avoid problems that may cause destructive or anti-social behaviour. The researcher explained the definition of Mayer, Salovey and Caruso 9200) that expressed EQ as the ability to perceive, appraise and express emotion accurately and adaptively; ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and generate feelings where they facilitate cognitive abilities and adaptive action; and ability to regulate emotions in oneself and others and be able to achieve required behaviour. Emotional competence refers to the personal and social skills that lead to superior performance or achievement. It is linked to and based on emotional intelligence. It must be noted that any individual needs a level of EQ to learn the emotional competencies. If an individual has the ability to recognize emotion accurately, especially others feelings, he is likely to influence and motivate others easily and get the work done. The researcher educated the school administrators that people who are better able to regulate their emotions will find it easier to develop a competency such as being initiative and have achievement drive. In conclusion, EQ is an important factor in developing emotional competence and this will equally facilitate their emotional and psychological recovery when in a stressful situation. Assignment: Participants are to differentiate between emotional intelligence and emotional competencies. Session III: Discussion on competencies of emotional intelligence Objective: At the end of the session, the participants should be able to mention the emotional intelligence competencies. 172 Review of last session‟s work, refreshing participants‟ memory about what is emotional intelligence and emotional competencies. The researcher explained some of these emotional intelligence competencies, such as Goleman‟s competencies that states the skills is in four major areas: Self-awareness, self- management, social awareness and relationship management. Self-awareness entails the ability to read one‟s emotions and recognizing their impact using our feelings to guide decisions. - Self-management entails the controlling one‟s emotions and adapting to changing circumstances. This is being able to express positive thinking into situation we found our self; this will help us to make appropriate decisions to solve problems at hand. - Social awareness-this involves the ability to sense, understand what situation we are, making them to share our beliefs to help threaten situations. - Relationship management entails the ability to inspire, influence and develop others and still managing conflict. Our thought processes needs to be adequately enhanced to be able to handle others while undergoing personal problems. The Goleman‟s competencies are personal and social, which are greatly useful to our existence. Explanation on EI in relation to Bar-On‟s definition and emotional competencies. Emotional intelligence is defined as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competent and skills that influence one‟s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. EQ involves abilities and skills that contribute to an effective performance. It includes the ability to understand one‟s own emotions, to empathize with others and to be able to draw upon the best of one‟s own inner resources, while encouraging others to do the same. People who are emotionally intelligent are also social skilled, have a positive outlook, are innovative, and are able to adapt to change such as retirement. Research has shown that emotional and social functioning, as measured by Bar-On, have significant impact on effectiveness. Thus, together they constitute only one to a number of contributing factors such as experience, knowledge, skills e.t.c.  Intrapersonal  Interpersonal  Adaptability 173  General Mood Emotional Intelligence directly influences one‟s general psychological well-being and is an important factor in determining ones ability to succeed in life. People who have high emotional quotient are generally emotionally and socially effective in dealing with daily demands. Their emotionally intelligent behaviour is typically evident in all aspect of their lives. Intrapersonal – This pertains to self-awareness and self-expression. This includes understanding of self and our emotions, ability to express thoughts and feelings, ability to be self-reliant, and free of destructive emotional thoughts, free of emotional dependency on others and the ability to drive to set and achieve one‟s goals. These skills is discussed to Improve school administrators intrapersonal skills which will help a lot in determining the way they would handle their occupational stress:  School administrators are to visualize themselves as confident and be self-assured of handling their stress.  Conscious effort not to compare themselves with others should be avoided; you are to practise affirming your uniqueness.  School administrators should keep personal records of specific situations, how they feel and why they have such feeling.  They should make conscious effort to be aware of their feelings, try to understand them and see whether there is underlying feelings why they feel so.  Try to convey the way you feel to others along with the reasons behind those feelings.  Think and visualize situations or problem that may arise and practice ways of approaching them more assertively.  Be sensitive to suggestions and be ready to discard unreasonable ones. Interpersonal skills – This consists of the social awareness and interpersonal relationship skills. The interpersonal abilities include awareness of others emotional feelings and needs as well as the ability to establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutual relationships. Having such skills would help school administrators to be good listeners and be able to understand and appreciate the feelings of others effectively. School administrators need to empathise, that is to imagine how others feel and why they feel so. They should be more cooperative at home and at work. Doing things for others, not thinking of what to get in return. School administrators should examine the nature of their 174 present relationship with others, deciding on way to improve them and getting along as well. They need to participate in social skills training programmes which include empathy development, and practising the basic social skills that are vital to build good working relationship with others.  School administrators need to make effort to study and understand the nature of their relationship with staff, students and parents and other stakeholders. It is important to improve on relationship skills.  Practise looking in the perspective of others.  Empathy, imagine the feelings of others in any situation and see how you can go on without hurting those around you.  Show concern for others, what they think and why think so.  Be relaxed at home and at work.  Do things willingly not minding to whom and not expecting any gratitude in return.  Practise the basic social skills that are important to build good working relationships Stress management This pertains to emotional management and regulation. It is the ability to manage and control emotions so they work for us and not against us. It is important to be able to know when one is under pressure, which could lead to stress, and be able to control oneself. School administrators have to be proactive in stressful situations because, there is always a way out of any difficult situation. There is need to prioritise activities; make lists and do not leave things undone till the last minute. When in a stressful condition, relax your muscles and breathe deeply to ease off the heat in you. Control your emotions, rather than being controlled by them. Let your emotions work for you and not against you. Take time to do something you enjoy doing. Adaptability This aspect entails the skills involved in change management. It requires individuals to realistically and flexibility cope with their immediate situation and effectively solve problems as they arise. Intending retirees need to have good problem-solving skills, which include the ability to identify present and potential problems and to implement potentially effective solutions. You must be ready to adapt to new changes that is coming. Improve on your relationship with your staff and students and colleagues. Some other things to be done are: 175 Examine immediate situation rather than jumping to conclusions Change your strategy or strategies when you observe your usual way of doing things does not work. Think of many solutions when trying to solve a problem. Consider the pros and cons of the outcomes of each possible solution before making a decision. General mood This is the overall encompassing skills that fuel the self-motivation needed to set and achieve goals. These include an optimistic and positive outlook combined with a feeling of happiness and contentment, with oneself, others and life in general.  As school administrators, complain less, be more positive and make sure you enjoy your work.  Look at the brighter side of your role as school administrator and see whatever that comes your way as it is.  Try to be optimistic when faced with problems and difficult situations.  Let your approach toward situations be hope of success rather than fear of failure.  Discard whatever thoughts that can make you sad.  Break goals down into achievable steps.  Build insight and self-awareness.  Use models as examples and be positive. Assignment: The participants were asked to compare Goleman‟s and Bar-On‟s emotional competencies and suggest their view against the next lesson Session IV: Explanation on types of emotions and strategies for regulating them Discuss briefly the assignments. - Discuss types of emotion (i.e. fear, anger, anxiety, depression, frustration, sadness, and joy) and their contribution to healthy, successful life, and psychological well-being. - Methods / for regulating emotions strategies (e.g. external regulatory and internal regulatory strategies - Explain how to use emotions to facilitate thinking - Discuss and teach ability to soothe oneself, to shake off anxiety and ability to manage one‟s internal states, impulses and resources 176 Assignment: Apply and practise emotional intelligence skill till the next session Session V: Discussion on Occupational Stress and its consequences Objective: At end of the session, participants should be able to explain occupational stress and its attending problems. Stress, in general, is an ineffective and unhealthy reaction to change and it describes a force which affects human beings physically, mentally, emotionally, socially and spiritually (Akinboye, Akinboye & Adeyemo, 2002). It comes from any situation or circumstance that requires behavioural adjustment. The type of stress being experienced in a person‟s workplace or employment is termed occupational stress. Akinboye and Akinboye (2002) describe occupational stress as physical, mental and emotional wear and tear brought about by incongruence between the requirement of job and capabilities, resources and needs of the employee to cope with job demands. Similarly, it is defined as the physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker It is implicit that when the demands and pressure placed on individual workers do not match the resources which are available either from the organisation or within the individual, stress can occur and endanger that health or well-being (employment relations and union services health and safety. It can be said then that placing excessive responsibilities or workload on a worker can lead to stressful condition. Occupational stress involves the experience of negative emotional states, such as frustration, worry, anxiety and depression attributed to work related factors. Occupational stress poses a threat to physiological and psychological capabilities of workers. It affects the physical as well as social aspects of life. Individuals affected by occupational stress certainly face problems in decision-making, planning and intrusting with others that lead to poor effectiveness and productivity. A stressed employee puts stress on other staff, and the entire organization. Stress can undermine the achievement of goals, both for individuals and for organizations. When affected by occupational stress, an individual may: (viii) Become increasingly distressed and irritable, (ix) Become unable to relax or concentrate, (x) Have difficulty thinking logically and making decisions, (xi) Enjoy the work less and feel less committed 177 (xii) Feel tired, depressed and anxious (xiii) Have difficulty sleeping (xiv) Experience serious physical problem such as heart disease, increase in blood pressure and headache. The researcher discussed with the participants their occupational stress and its effect on their functioning and the entire school Assignment: 1. List the causes of your occupational stress and how it affect your performance as public secondary school administrator 2. Suggest possible ways of reducing your work stress. Session VI: Discussion on self-efficacy and its sources Explain the meaning of self-efficacy and its sources. Badura (1977) defines self-efficacy as a person‟s evaluation of his or her ability or competency to perform a task, reach a goal or overcome an obstacle. It is believed that self-efficacy judgement is the determinant of behaviour. It is when one‟s self-belief is high that effort will be made to face challenging situations. According to Albert Bandura how people behave can often be predicted by the beliefs they hold about their capabilities rather than what they are actually capable of accomplishing. This shows that self-efficacy perceptions could determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they have. Explain the four main sources self-efficacy: Creating a strong sense of self-efficacy through mastery experience. If an individual is convinced that he/she has what it takes to succeed, he/she is likely to persevere in the face of difficulties by sticking through tough times and emerge stronger and successful from adversity. Vicarious experience: This is also known as modelling. Here an individual sees people who are similar succeeding and this could aid his/her capability to venture into doing similar activities, even if they fail, they try the more to succeed. The social persuasion: this relates to encouragement and discouragement. It strengthens people beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. It involves a personal conviction or emotional state in judging their beliefs and capabilities. Often in stressful situations, we exhibit signs of aches, pains, distress and anxiety. One‟s perception of these responses can markedly alter one‟s self-efficacy rather than sheer power of response. 178 Participants were allowed to ask questions on the discussion. Assignment: Participants are to list those things that can help develop their self-efficacy Session VII: Concretization of the benefit of emotional intelligence training for adequate restoration of expected behavioural outcomes (i.e management of occupational stress) Review of homework given and summary of points raised during the last lesson were done. The researcher led the discussion on areas of school administration that constitute stress and how it affects their functioning. The researcher explained what occupational stress management involves How emotional intelligence can assist school administrators in coping with stressors in the secondary school system was discussed. Participants were be appreciated and encouraged to participate in the next session that end the programme Session VIII: revision of all activities in the previous session and administration of instrument for post treatment measures The researcher reflected on what have being achieved in all the sessions. The researcher administered the post-test. Participants were appreciated. 179 APPENDIX II Faculty of Education, Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan QUESTIONNAIRE This research is focuses on effects of Self-Concept and Emotional Intelligence, Training on Occupational Stress of Public Secondary Schools’ Administrators in South- Western, Nigeria. The information gathered will be treated in strict confidence and used only for the purpose of this research. The utmost sincerity and cooperation of respondents will be of paramount importance to enable the researcher obtain factual information for the success of this research. Section A: Demographic Information 1. Name of School (optional) …………………..……………………………………………………… …………… 2. TESCOM Zone…………………………………………………………………………… 3. Position held……………………………………………………………………………… 4. Years of experience in the above position. (a) 1 – 4 years ( ) (b) 5 – 9 years ( ) (c) 10 years and above ( ) 5. Age: (a) 30 – 40 ( ) (b) 41 – 50 ( ) (c) 51 – 60 ( ) 6. Gender: a. Male ( ) b. Female ( ) 8. Marital Status: (a) Single ( ) (b) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) 9. Educational qualification: (a) B.A. ED/ B.Sc. ED ( ) (b) B.A / B.Sc. + P.G.D.E ( ) (c) Ph.D ( ) (d) Others ( ) 10. School size (enrolment):(a) Small: Below 500( ) (b) Large:500 and above ( ) 180 APPENDIX III Emotional intelligence scale (EIS) Your response will be treated confidentially. Use the following format as a guide. S.A. = Strongly Agreed; A = Agree; D = Disagree; S.D = Strongly Disagree. Please tick ( ) appropriately NO ITEM SA A D SD 1. I know when to speak about my personal problems to others. 2. When I am faced with obstacles, I remember times I faced similar obstacles and overcame them. 3. I expect that I will do well on most things I try. 4. Other people find it easy to confide in me. 5. I find it hard to understand the non-verbal messages of other people. 6. Some of the major events of my life have led me to re- evaluate what is important and what is not. 7. When my mood changes, I see new possibilities. 8. Emotions are one of the things that make my life worth living. 9. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them. 10. I expect good things to happen. 11. I like to share my emotions with others. 12. When I experience a positive emotions I know how to make it last. 13. I arrange events which others enjoy 14. I seek out activities that make me happy. 15. I am aware of the non-verbal messages I end to others. 16. I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others. 181 17. When I am in a positive mood solving problems is easy for me 18. By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing. 19. I know why my emotions change 20 When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas 22 I easily recognize my emotions as I experienced them. 23 I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to the tasks I take on. 24 I compliment others when they have done something well. 25 I am aware of non-verbal message other people send. 26 When other person tells me about an important event in his or her life I almost feel as though I have experienced this event myself. 27 When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas. 28 When I am faced with a challenge, I give up because I believe I will fail. 29 I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them. 30 I help other people feel better when they are down. 31 I use good mood to help myself keep trying in he face of obstacles. 32 I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice. 33 It is difficult for me to understand why people feel the way they do so. Thank you. 182 APPENDIX IV SELF-CONCEPT SCALE Your response will be treated confidentially. Use the following format as a guide. S.A. = Strongly Agree; A = Agree;. D = Disagree; S.D = Strongly Disagree. Please tick ( ) appropriately S/N QUESTIONAIRE ITEMS SA A D SD 1. My beliefs about myself often conflict with one another. 2. On one day I might have one opinion of myself and on another day I might have a different opinion. 3. I spend a lot of time wondering about what kind of person I really am. 4. Sometimes I feel that I am not really the person that I appear to be. 5. When I think about the kind of person I have been in the past, I‟m not sure what I was really like. 6. I seldom experience conflict between the different aspects of my personality. 7. Sometimes I think I know people better than I know myself. 8. My beliefs about myself seem to change very frequently. 9. If I were asked to describe my personality, my description might end up being different from one day to another day. 10. Even if I wanted to, I don‟t think I could tell someone what I‟m really like. 11. In general, I have a clear sense of who I am and what I am. 12. It is often hard for me to make up my mind about things because I don‟t really know what I want. Thank you. 183 APPENDIX V SELF-EFFICACY SCALE(SES) Your response will be treated confidentially. Use the following format as a guide. S.A. = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; S.D = Strongly Disagree. Please tick ( ) appropriately S/N QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS SA A D S D 1. I am confident of what people will think about my school leadership 2. I don‟t always feel nervous in my workplace because I do not fear that I may perform below expectation 3. Encouragement learning from colleagues enhance my personal belief in my ability to be a successful school leader 4. I often feel confident in setting targets or goals in my job 5. My decision to become a teacher was self-motivated 6. My desire to be a successful school leader was influenced by my determination to work hard and my personal belief in myself 7. I can cope with the stressors that are involved in my job. It brings out the best performance in me 8. Feedback from supervisors serves as a check for me 9. I believe and work for anything I want in life 10. I am not too confident to seek assistance from my colleagues 184 APPENDIX VI SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS OCCUPATIONAL STRESS INDICATOR SCALE Your response will be treated confidentially. Identify the work situations that are sources of your job-related stress. Use the following format as a guide. S.A. = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree. S.D = Strongly Disagree. Please tick ( ) appropriately S/N QUESTIONANAIRE ITEMS SA A D S D Dimension 1: Task-based 1. Being interrupted frequently by telephone calls 2. Performing managerial and supervisory role on teachers, students and school facilities 3 Evaluating staff members' performance 4 Keeping targets /deadlines 5. Having my work frequently interrupted by staff members who want to talk 6. Imposing excessively high expectations on myself 7. Writing letters, memos, and other communications 8 Feeling I have to participate in school activities outside of the normal working hours at the expense of my personal time leads to stress 9. Feeling that I have too much responsibility delegated to me by my supervisor 10. Feeling that have too heavy a workload , one that I cannot possibly finish during the normal workday 11 Feeling that meetings take up too much time 12. Trying to complete reports and other paperwork on time 13 Large class size and increase student enrolment 14 Dealing with new technological innovations 15 Inadequate facilities in schools such as laboratories, library, books, and stationery 16 Responding to government circulars 17 Attempting to meet social expectations, such as housing, clubs and friends, 185 Dimension 2: Boundary-spanning 18. Preparing and allocating budget resources 19 Need to generate money for school programmes and projects 20 Auditing process 21. Being involved in the collective bargaining process 22. Complying with Ministry of Education and teaching service commission‟s rules and policies 23. Administering the negotiated contract (grievances, interpretations, etc.) 24. Trying to gain public approval and/or financial support for school programs 25 Inadequate funding / resources 26 Under- staffing of school (teaching and non teaching) Dimension-Mediating 3: Conflict 27 Trying to resolve differences between among students 28. Trying to resolve parent/school conflicts 29. Handling student discipline problems 30 Dealing with staff and students violent behavior 31 Trying to resolve differences between/among staff members 32 Trying to resolve parent/school conflicts Dimension 4: Role-based 33. Knowing I can‟t get information needed to carry out my job properly 34. Thinking that I will not be able to satisfy the conflicting demands of those who have authority over me 35. Harassment by inspectors / supervisors 36. Not knowing what my supervisor thinks of me, or how he/she evaluates my performance 37 Rampant confusing and unclear assignment / responsibilities from the authority 38. Feeling that I have too little authority to carry out responsibilities assigned to me 186 39. Being unclear on just what the scope and responsibilities of my job are 40. Trying to influence my immediate supervisors‟ actions and decisions that affect me 41 Lack of career development opportunities 42 Feeling staff members don't understand my goals and expectations 43 Having to make decisions that affect the lives of individual people that I know (colleagues, staff members, students, etc) 44 Possessing the instructional leadership skills necessary to raise student achievement 45 Feeling it is my responsibility if the school does not make progress 46 Feeling that my progress on the job is not what it should or could be 187 APPENDIX VII SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS’ STRESS MANAGEMENT SCALE Your response will be treated confidentially. Use the following format as a guide. S.A. = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; S.D = Strongly Disagree. Please tick ( ) appropriately S/N QUESTIONANAIRE ITEMS SA A D S D 1 When I can‟t leave work, I take regular exercise by taking a brisk work in or outside the school. 2 I do not think about school problems when I am at home. 3 I force myself to set aside some time to eat and take a brake each day. 4 I do not dwell on my mistakes because I learnt to forgive myself. 5 I journal after a tough day to relieve stress and reflect. 6 I get out of the office and be with the students so as to adjust my focus. 7 I build a supportive network by finding other school administrators I can talk to and 8 I play a relaxing or inspirational music in my office during the day. 9 I increase my daily level of communication with staff and parents. 10 I write out tomorrow‟s “to do” list before I leave school each day. 11 I stay organised and plan ahead by taking each day at a time. 12 I do not make snap decision unless it is emergency. 13 I slow down my reaction to emotional situation. 14 I gather input and data before I make a big decision. 15 I do not take things personally. 16 I have a deep sense of humor. 17 I am optimistic. 18 I surround myself with good staff and allow them to do their jobs. 19 I balance my life by making time for family, friends, recreation and a hobby. 188 20 I go for vacation when I need one. 21 I practice deep breathing exercises each day. 22 I organize my office, my desk filing system etc, so that I do not waste time and energy looking for items. 23 I drink alcohol under intense pressure and frustration at work. 189 APPENDIX VIII 190 APPENDIX IX 191 APPENDIX X 192 APPENDIX XI 193 194