THE TEACHING OF FRENCH IN NIGERIA: HISTORICAL PANORAMA, PEDAGOGICAL CONSIDERATION AND MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES , An Inaugural Lecture delivered at the University of Ibadan on Thursday, 5February, 2009 by MACARAROMI Professor of Language Education Institute of Education, University of Ibadan Ibadan UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ·Ibadan University Press Publishing House University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria. © University of Ibadan 2009 Ibadan, Nigeria First Published 2009 All Rights Reserved ISBN: 978 -121- 452 - X 978 - 978 - 121 - 452 - 3 Printed by: Ibadan University Printery UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The Vice-Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administration), Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic), Registrar, Librarian, Provost of the College of Medicine, The Deans of Faculties and Postgraduate School, Dean of Students, Directors of Institutes, Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen. Preamble It is with great pleasure and deep sense of humility that I accepted to deliver this inaugural lecture, which is the 7th in the series of 2008/2009 inaugural lectures on behalf of the Institute of Education and the Faculty of Education. The lecture is also the 9th in the series of inaugural lectures delivered by members of the Institute of Education. The first lecture was delivered by Emeritus Professor E.A. Yoloye in 1976, followed respectively by Professor Obanya (1982), Professor S.T. Bajah (1988), Professor J.O. Obemeata (1992), Professor Wole Falayajo (1998), Professor S.O. Ayodele (2001), Professor T.W. Yoloye (2004), and Professor P.N. Okpala (2006). Today, we are witnessing another landmark in the history of the presentation of inaugural lectures from the Institute of Education. I wish to express my profound gratitude to the staff of both the Institute of Education and the Faculty of Education for giving me the opportunity to deliver this lecture, Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, my first contact with the French language was in my second year in the secondary school. On that occasion one of our teachers who at that time was teaching us Religious Knowledge just sauntered into the classroom shouting "Debout" and we were all looking at him, not knowing what he was saying. Then the word "debout" sounded once again, but this time with a gesture indicating that we should stand up. We all stoop up. This was closely followed by an "Asseyez-vous" which to us sounded like Greek. But again with the gesture from this French Canadian teacher we all sat down. And so, the language that was to play a significant role in my academic and professional lives came into play. Ever since Mr. Vice-Chancellor, I have been thinking French, dreaming French, and speaking French all through my life so much so that people usually say jokingly that I speak French more fluently than I speak English and my mother tongue, Yoruba. In the course of 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY my interaction with French language, I have been deeply involved in the issue of history of the language in Nigeria. the methods for teaching the language, and strategies for motivating pupils to learn die language. This consequently gave rise to the topic Ihave chosen to discuss in this lecture: "The Teaching of French in Nigeria: Historical Panorama. Pedagogical Consideration and Motivational Strategies". Panoramic View of the Introduction of French in Nigeria Let us begin this discourse by giving a historical perspective of the introduction of French in Nigeria Feuser (1970) in an illuminating article in Le Francais au Nigeria related how the . French people made their first contact with the Africans about the 15th century, when according to him, the French engaged in intermittent warfare against the Portuguese and the Dutch (the first comers to African soil) until they (the French) were able to subdue the Portuguese and the Dutch, and finally established their foothold on the West Coast of Africa. While the French were engaging in this warfare, the English w~ doing the same until the two peoples (the English and the French) were able to establish their interests along the coast of West Africa This was the state of affairs until the Berlin Conference of 1884--when Africa was partitioned amongst the European powers who set up artificial boundaries across ethnic groups. Thus today, as a result of this balkanization, the Hausas can be found in Nigeria. in Niger Republic, Chad, and many other countries of West Africa under various names such as Peuhls, Foulah, e.t,c, In the same vein, the Yorubas are found today in Nigeria (an anglophone country) as well as across the borders in Benin Republic (a francophone nation) and in other areas along the West Coast of Africa So also can the Kanuris, the Baribas, and other tribes find today their kith and kin on either side of these artificially created boundaries. It is pertinent to say that before the advent of the colonial era. these Africans communicated among themselves-both at peace time and at war time-in their native languages. There was no reported case of language barrier or communication problem between them, nor was there any need at the time to employ international European languages in order to express 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY their views 011 matters of common interest. But with the influx of the whites, the Europeans jealously preserved their influence by virtually discouraging all sorts of relationsbips between the anglophone and the fumcophone nations in social, political, and economic spheres. Indeed an manners of communication had to be cbamteUed through the metropolis, London, and Paris. Acconting to fenser, the aftermath of this political gimmick was to further cause division among the Africans in order to safeguard British ami French interests. Thus, until a few years back" educated Nigerians close to the Republic of Benin border did not even know that the so-called Frenchmen' of Benin Republic could also speak one of their own Nigerian languages, the Yomba language, The relationship between Nigeria and her francophone neighbours changed drastically for the better when Nigeria obtained her political independence in 1960. In the same year the ncighboming francophone countries obtained their own politi£ali imJepemleoce as well. With the attainment of independence, Nigeria entered the committee of nations and helped to found the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.) now called African Union (A.U.). According to Adelekan (1983) the charter of O.A.U. was signed on 26th MaY7 1963 in Addis Ababa by all the then 32 independent black African nations, all of whom pledged to improve living standards (!)f their peoples, promote unity and solidarity, and cooperate internationally among themselves in keeping with the aims of the OA.U. Besides, Nigeria concluded diplomatic relations and treaties stating that French was one of tire two world languages of international communication. 1l'Iis was in fad: the commencement of our proximity with the mnch language in a formal manner since attempts had earlier been made by some missionaries to introduce the teadBng of French into some missionary schools prior to this period. Talking about this period, Adelekan (1983) said: French has been taught in Nigeria since 1859. It was; among the earliest subjects introduced in the fOrst secondary school founded in Lagos in 1859. In April, 187~ the Wesleyan High School and ·3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Training Institution was opened and French was one of the modem languages taught in that school. A charge of 7/6d per quarter was required of students taking the course, and in 1909, when Kings College was founded in Lagos, French was one of the optional subjects offered. But up till the independence period, French was not officially inserted into the secondary school curriculum. But then in 1961 there was a conference in Yaounde, Cameroon by experts of modem' languages of Africa There and then it was recommended that a second European language should be introduced into our schools after ascertaining that our students had acquired sufficient knowledge of the official language of the country. By implication, English was to be introduced in French-speaking countries while French was to be taught in the Eng:lish-speaking .countries, just for the purpose of breaking the linguistic barriers artificially created by several years of colonial administration. The meeting was of the opinion that the second European language should be considered not only as a means of communicatien between English- and French-speaking countries in Africa" hut also as an international language with a wider purpose which, jointly with the iWst European language, could enable Africa to communicate with other countries throughout the world. It expresses the wish that this imtemational objective should be taken into account, to aline ~ extent, ill dite preparation of syUabus and textbooks. Thus we realize from this quotation dial a knowledge of FFendl would be necessary for inter-African and imtemabomal communication in general. As the Nigeriaa gG~eI1Ill'L'1mftt gradually emancipated itselliffrom me habits of Ihe C01tmial administration and with Iber much ilIlm,p.ro~ ooo.mmmy occasioned by the then oil boom, 'She conclmlledeconomic a:md diplomatic cooperation with the neighbmuing West Aifricam 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY francophone countries and this tentative arrangement in fact culminated in the formation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), a treaty of Lagos signed in May 1976, whose main aim was to unite and govern the economic affairs of its sixteen West African member states. These states agreed to promote trade, cooperation, better relation, self-reliance, and progress among themselves. Apart from this, Nigeria has been able to establish close association with France especially from technical and economic points of view. This can indeed be visualized in the establishment of French firms and factories that are currently participating actively in the industrialization of the country. And in fact, France has greatly proved to be our partner in progress in the dual fields of technology and education. For example some Nigerians were sent to France a few .ars ago to train as professionals in French Polytechnics and Institutes of Technology. A deep study of the Nigerian educational system shows that primary education should continue to prepare children for future life while opportunity should be given to the very brilliant pupils to continue their studies to the intermediary cadre of the educational cycle in the country. Emphasis should be made on a programme of studies which would facilitate the realization of this primary objective i.e. to prepare the children for future life. From the language point of view there was the recommendation that a Nigerian should be versed in his mother tongue and his official language (English) and in a third language that was not clearly defined. More precisely it was said that: The Nigerian primary school child should be well grounded in his/her mother tongue apart from learning English and/or any other language as a second or third language of instruction. One can presume that this reference to a third language of instruction is made about a foreign language like French. At the secondary school level, the National Policy recommended for Nigerians a diversified curriculum which could furnish useful experience for the differences of talents and characteristics that the pupils could have. 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ·Besides, it was said that: The youth must learn their privileges and respon- sibilities in society, the school should start developing and projecting the Nigerian!African culture, arts and languages, as well as the world cultural heritage. Students should be able to think reflectively about Nigerian common national problems, for example, Nigerian unity in diversity. All schools must fire students with a desire for achievement and excellence and for continuous self-education and self-improvement. The underlined expression in the citation above shows that it is not solely the Nigerian and African heritage that have to be projected, also there must be a projection of the world heritage. Whereas it is through learning foreign languages that we can really project the heritage outside Nigeria. At this stage one can think of the French language as a vehicle for projecting world heritage apart from English language, which is our official language of communication. There is no doubt some individuals have given pronounce- ment in favour of French in their official capacities. Note for example this speech credited to the Chief Federal Adviser on technical education in January, 1970: We in the Federal Ministry of Education regard French as a very important subject in schools all over the Federation and we are doing everything possible to encourage its teaching. French is a dynamic world language and we want our schools to produce people who can speak the language and thus help establish more contact between English- speaking and French-speaking African countries. Moreover, a good knowledge of French opens up a vast field of interesting and valuable literature. There is nothing like reading an article, or a book, or an exposition in the original language in which it is written. 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY However, if the position of Nigeria vis-a-vis the learning of French had been positive up till the year seventies, we notice a rather negative or lukewarm attitude towards the subject in the eighties and beyond, when Nigeria, as a result of its political development and awareness, occasioned by the necessity to encourage integration among its heterogeneous population, encouraged the study of three major national languages to the detriment of foreign languages apart from English, the official language. Thus in the revised edition of the National Policy on Education (1981) which was again reviewed in 1998 and 2004, Nigeria said 'inter alia': In' addition to appreciating the importance of language in the educational process, and as a means of preserving the people's culture, the Government considers it to be in the interest of National Unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major languages other than his own mother tongue. In this connection Government considers the three major languages in Nigeria to be Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. In selecting two Nigerian languages, students should study the languages of their own area in addition to any of the three main Nigerian languages, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba, subject to availability of teachers. Bamgbose (1982) stated that Nigeria is a multilingual nation which counts between 400 and 513 languages. If Nigeria has between 400 and 513 languages and she is only laying emphasis on the study of three of them, we know she has made a lot of sacrifice and concession. Although we cannot imagine a curriculum peopled with a proliferation of macro and micro languages when other disciplines should also be given a chance in the school curriculum. We find however that despite the concession, the emphasis placed on the study of the three main Nigerian languages already affects the position of French. When French still enjoyed a pride of place in the school curriculum it was only competing with one mother tongue with which it was an optional subject. But now that it is obligatory for a Nigerian to learn a second national language apart from his 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY mother tongue it looks like French is being relegated to the background and it no longer enjoys the enviable position, that it had in the sixties when it was formally included in the secondary school curriculum. During the administration of General Sani Abacha, French was made Nigeria's second official language and the status quo has not in any way changed ever since. But whether the Nigeria government is serious about this position leaves much to be desired for we do not see any concrete effort being put in place to actualize this policy. Who are the Teachers of French? Due to the relative newness of the French language in Nigerian secondary schools, the then existing Nigerian indigenous teachers were not in a position to teach French properly to their pupils. As a result, the first batch of French teachers in Nigeria were mainly British qualified graduates who were later joined by some young men and women from neighbouring French- speaking African countries most of whom possessed only their 'brevet elementaire' the equivalent of our West African School Certificate or the G.C.E. Ordinary Level, and the 'Bacalaureat' equivalent of our Higher School Certificate or the G.C.E. Advanced Level. Other foreigners of course soon joined them under the names of American Peace Corps and the French 'Cooperants' sent by the French government as technical advisers. It was much later, say late sixties and early seventies that we had the first crop of indigenes who either possessed the Nigerian Certificate in Education (N.C.E.) or the B.A. Honours Degree in French or better still the B.Ed. degree with French as a major. Added to these classes of French teachers were a few graduates of other disciplines like History, Geography, Religious Studies, and Classics who studied French as beginners' course at their various universities, to supplement their major courses. Today, however, in most parts of Nigeria the following categories of teachers engage in the teaching of French: university graduates and N.C.E. graduates most of whom are Nigerians and many young men and women from the ECOWAS countries such as Ghana, Togo, Chad, Niger and Benin Republic, even though these foreign nationals teach mainly in our private institutions. 8 UNIVERSITY O IBADAN LIBRARY Pedagogical Consideration With these various interest groups that have been engaged in the teaching of French in Nigeria, we are bound to have various methods of teaching French. Brann (1971) in his description of the first sets of French teachers in Nigeria described their mode of teaching in the following terms: The first were British teachers who brought with them the good old grammar translation method which informed the school examinations imported from London and Cambridge. Even though the above reference to the methods of teaching French in Nigeria refers specifically to the first wave of British teachers, this does not mean that other categories of French teachers about the same time and even up to the present day in some schools, differ significantly from the British teachers in their adoption of the age old grammar translation method. History of foreign language teaching has revealed that there have been various means of arriving at the desired goals of teaching the foreign languages. The Sumerians for instance, emphasized the acquisition of knowledge of grammar and vocabulary through the use of bilingual dictionaries thus attaining a working knowledge of the written language for purposes of keeping records. To the Egyptians, the practical knowledge of the spoken language was the desired goal and this was achieved through direct contact with speakers of the foreign language in their country. The Romans insisted on complete coordinate bilingualism both orally and in written form and to achieve this, they had two sets of teachers (one native and the other foreign) at all the educational levels from the primary to the university. Large scale abandonment of French is a common phenomenon in our secondary schools (Obanya 1977). This to a large extent is a manifestation of unfulfilled expectation, and part of the problem lies with the method adopted for teaching the subject (Ituen 1984). Teaching method is of paramount impor-tance since it will determine to a large extent the level of interest the students are going to demonstrate towards the 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY subject which will eventually lead to their decision either to continue or discontinue with the subject. We are convinced that the French language teacher can do a lot to influence the attitude of his pupils through his pedagogical approach. There are various methods of teaching foreign languages and these include: the Traditional Method often referred to as the Grammar-translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audio Lingual Method, the Generative Grammar Method, the Bilingual Method and the Communicative Language Approach. We shall now examine them one after the other. The Grammar-translation Method This is one of the oldest formal methods used in teaching foreign languages. Its main procedure was based on memorization of grammatical rules, sets of forms of words, and analytic translation of text. The word and not the sentence was regarded as the unit of speech. Language teaching thus consisted of random acquisition of vocabulary, which the learner had to knit together in accordance with a set of prescribed rules of grammar in order to arrive at the sentence. The International Encyclopedia of Education noted this when it stated: Nineteenth century textbook writers were mainly concerned with codifying the foreign language into rules of morphology and syntax to be explained and memorized. Textbook contained definitions of rules and exceptions, lists of paradigms and classes of words, passages for translation into and from the target language, and some exercises. No effort was made to process and grade the words in accordance with the frequency of their use in everyday speech. On the other hand, very many equivalents of each word were given by way of synonyms and sometimes the antonyms were added to swell the list even for the French language beginners. Little or no attention was given to the oracy (aural and oral) skills, rather emphasis was on literacy skills (the written language). This method was however considered ineffective for helping the learner to speak the language fluently, although, '10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Kelly (1969) found it effective for teaching gifted children to understand written texts. In reaction against this arid and futile grammar translation method, the association of linguistics and language teachers who have, since the thought-provoking writings of such men as Govin, Berlitz, Victor, Bell, Sweet, et al, sought to understand the nature of language and its implications for teaching. Many theories on the nature of language were put forward but all boil down to what Brooks (1960) pointed out: Language is learned, systematic, symbolic, vocal behaviour, a culturally acquired, universal mark of man. The practical application of this concept of language as vocal behaviour is summarized in the words of the linguist and teacher, Politzer (1960) when he said: "As language is behaviour, the only way it can be taught is by inducing the students to behaviour". In the light of this, these teachers looked around for appropriate models, hence the birth of the direct method. The Direct Method This method was developed in Germany in the latter part of the 19th century and spread to some of the schools in the United States. The aim of this method is to produce bilingual citizens. So emphasis is laid on the use of the target language for genuine communication right from the first stage of language study. In the direct method class, no English is used; all vocabulary and grammar are introduced directly in the foreign language with the aid of pictures, gestures, and demonstrations. Apart from these aids, the teacher can also make use of concrete objects and the pupils can associate these objects with the sound of the target object without having recourse to their native languages. The teacher however, is expected to create a continuous message- oriented foreign language classroom environment. Yet, the development of true communicative competence in the target language remained outside the reach of many pupils although their abilities to make foreign language utterances may have 11' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY increased when compared with what they would have achieved if they had been subjected to grammar-translation method. The results obtained using this method were still not good enough to develop true communicative competence in the target language, hence the search for another method to help improve the existing ones. Then the audio-lingual method was introduced. The Audio-lingual Method "Necessity" they say, "is the mother of invention". The birth of this method came as a result of the call of the 1950s and 1960s on linguistic scientists by foreign language educators to help develop more effective methods of teaching a foreign language. As a result, a good number of modern foreign language teachers adopt this method. It emphasizes the oral skills and techniques of memorization and systematic pattern practice or structure drills particularly at the initial stage of language learning. The main idea of this method is to avoid any method which will convert language learning into a puzzle-solving exercise because in an actual language interchange, the words follow one another at the rate of several hundreds per minute and the speaker does not have time for puzzle-solving or the application of those rules which the grammar-translation method stressed. What then is expected is a situation where pattern is drilled to a point of automatic response in the belief that the learner would then merely have to slot in lexical items appropriate to the conver-sional situation. For example, the teacher presents a dialogue orally and helps the students memorize the various lines; the teacher may use props or visual aids to convey the meaning or recount the dialogue in English. The student in turn forms the language habit gradually, through imitation and repetition of the models presented to him. It is noteworthy that this method varies in content, emphasis, density, vocabulary, and speed of progression, but some features are common to all. All are based on the synchronization of filmstrips or pictures with a recording on tape or disc. As each frame or picture is looked at, the appropriate sentence is heard. The visual element clarifies the spoken and facilitates the process of understanding. The sight of a scene aids learning and remembering. 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The method however has its weaknesses. One of such weaknesses is observed by Rivers (1981). According to her, pattern practice did not achieve the anticipated dramatic improvement in the learner's general command of the language. Some learners found the mechanical repetition of drills in the language laboratory boring while others could repeat the patterns perfectly without using them in spontaneous conversation. This weakness is also observed in the Encyclopedia Americana where it states: The audio-lingual method can be used to teach a large number of pupils to mimic their teachers and to memorize numerous dialogues ·find often their pronunciation is near native. But in many cases, the pupils have not 'internalized' the meanings of the sentences they are repeating. They parrot the dialogues without really knowing what they are saying. It is however suggested that this method can produce excellent results when the class is motivated to do more than parrot what the teacher says. This requires a creative teacher with a flair for drama and a talent for making effective visual aids. Despite these problems, this method has been adopted in countries like the U.S.A., France (where it was known as the 'audio-visual method), Britain (where it was known as Teacher Audio Visual Oral). But the method is hardly ever in use in the Nigerian setting because it is highly expensive. These weaknesses coupled with the development of linguistics have made this method a subject of controversy in recent years. In view of this, a new approach, the generative grammar, was introduced to aid language acquisition. The Generative Grammar Method The proponents of this method introduced another rationale to the language acquisition process, which is summarized by Diller (1978) as: "A living language is characterized by rule- governed creativity". For one to master a language (ability to produce as many sentences as possible), learning the rules of 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that language is therefore imperative. It is worth noting that this learning of the rules is quite different from that of the grammar- translation method. Here, a student is led to the knowledge of the structure of the language through carefully selected utterances and it is only after a conscious knowledge of the rules that govern the structure of the target language that he will be able to generate an infinite number of sentences in that language. Again, the rules of grammar are psychologically real. The rule of the language of every individual is known to him. However, some do not know how to formulate them. A living language is one which gives one an opportunity to think and students must be put in a situation that will enable them express those thoughts in a foreign language. Testing in foreign language has to be based on coherent stories rather than a set of sentences chosen as illustrations of the rules to be practised. The Bilingual Method This method was developed specifically to teach minority groups whose official language of the country is in effect a foreign language. In the former Soviet Union, for example, where people speak more than a hundred languages and dialects apart from Russian, which was the official language, this method was employed to teach Russian in those Soviet schools. Again in the United States, a movement called "Teaching of English as a Second Language" (TESOL), came into active existence in the 1960s to meet the need for teaching English to Spanish-speaking immigrants from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Mexico. In one elementary school in Florida, where half of the children were from Spanish-speaking homes, classes were taught in Spanish and English for half the day for each and as a result the children became bilingual. In this method, the teaching of grammar and teaching through translation are employed as its basic elements. Here, the emphasis is laid on reading, grammatical analysis, and translation to make understanding easier for pupils (Araromi 1987). In the grammatical analysis, the emphasis is on the conjugation of verbs and giving the correct forms of adjectives. It also emphasizes the agreement between nouns and verbs. 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY This method, like others, has its shortcomings. A lot of time is devoted by users of this method to the surface structure of language thereby ignoring or devoting little time to the actual language used for communication, which is the principal aim of language teaching (Ituen 1984). This made English to remain the dominant language in the French class, which is contrary to the aim of bilingual method. The aim of the bilingual method is to help the children to be highly familiar with the presented elements that will in turn allow them to recombine patterns and vocabulary in some forms of communication context. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Communicative Language Teaching CCLT) is the generally accepted norm in the field of second language teaching. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves more as a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning. The teacher still sets up exercises and gives direction to the class, but the students do much more speaking than in a traditional classroom. This responsibility to participate can often lead to an increased sense of confidence in using the language. In CLT, students practise real-life situations, for example, buying food at the market .or asking someone for directions. In these exercises, the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar. CLT also stresses social and situational contexts of communication. For example, in many languages, the form of "you" changes depending on the age and status of the two speakers. Addressing a person in the proper way can make a big difference in having a successful exchange, even if the verb tenses aren't right. Basic Features of CLT David Nunan (1991 :279) lists five basic characteristics of communicative language teaching: 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. 2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. 3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on the language but also on the learning process itself. 4. An enhancement of the leamer's own personal experiences as important, contributing elements to classroom learning. 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom. The Role of Motivation in the Teaching of French as a Foreign Language The word "foreign" in itself signifies strangeness, unlocalized, alien, and every word that describes anything that does not belong to a particular geographical location that one belongs. Any language that is not one's mother tongue can be rightly termed as belonging to a strange world and an attempt to understand this strange world means creation of situations that will make such strange world accessible. This is the way we should view our (Nigerian) relationship with a foreign language, like French which is neither our mother tongue nor our official medium of communication. It is like a baby who sees an insect near him and immediately he is seized by fear, he runs away from it until an adult around encourages him to move nearer it, either by holding it himself or by some other means that will allay the fears of the child. This medium by which the adult encourages proximity between the child and the strange object can be termed "motivation". In like manner the teacher of a foreign language can create the interest, the desire, and the willingness on the part of a child to embrace a foreign language like French. Meanwhile, let us examine the word "motivation" in relation to the learners' needs. These needs are multiple and may be physiological, psychological, need for love or affection, need for approval, need for a sense of belonging, need for independence, need for achievement, e.t.c., and these basic needs vary from 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY one individual to the other. A child who needs food to be able to pay attention in class may, for some reasons, not eat before going to class and the teacher may not know this is responsible for his poor performance in class on that day. In the same way a pupil who naturally fears teachers or elderly people may not feel at ease in their company. This will obviously affect his performance or his behaviour in class. A child who is often hit by the teacher may be too scared of him to pay attention during his lessons. In the same manner a pupil may be doing very well and loves to be commended for a job well done, but when this does not come, discouragement may set in. Even a low performer deserves some encouragement and this is what the modem language teacher should really understand and put into practice to make maximum success. In addition to all these of course, rewards and punishments have significant role to play in the realm of motivation. These rewards may be in form of the award of marks, the certificate issued at the end of a course, or prizes at the end of term or school year. These are judicious ways of motivating pupils, but if used in excess it may produce negative effects on pupils especially those with less ability. But whatever its application, reward is still better than punishment, which if not well applied may fail to produce the required results. Punishment may alter behaviour, but its results are less predictable than the results of reward. Other factors, which the teacher of a modem language should strive to understand are; the child's family background and the customs and beliefs of his people that may affect his attitudes. These will be treated one after the other. Child's Family Background The pupil may come from a very poor family which cannot afford to buy him all the materials he needs to make -him a good learner. The members of the family may be generally uneducated and consequently lacking the necessary encouragement they should normally give their wards. Under this very important topic we should consider the vital role heredity is playing in shaping a child's behaviour in class. Biologically, some children are more inclined to the sciences, 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY mathematics, or the social sciences than they are towards modem languages. The teacher of French should realize this and if the child is not naturally brilliant, the task of the teacher becomes onerous in getting such a pupil interested in his subject. We can then talk of motivating him. Customs and Beliefs A child is above all a product of a given community with its customs and beliefs, its likes and dislikes as well as its prejudices. The child carries all these behind him as he goes to a French language class. It is often said that language is culture and vice versa. Therefore, when you are teaching the language of a people, you are equally involved in teaching the culture of the people. And to impart this culture to a pupil of different cultural background needs a lot of motivation. Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, permit me to recount two vivid experiences I witnessed during my programme abroad as an undergraduate, each of which demonstrates the conflict of culture among people of different cultural backgrounds. During the year programme, I was sharing a room with an African colleague from Burkina Faso. One evening at about 6.00p.m., I received a letter from home announcing the death of my father. I was downcast. Immediately I announced this sad news to the Burkinabe roommate, he stopped the record player he was listening to. He did not utter a word-but he left the room, leaving me alone to bemoan my sad experience. Back home in Nigeria, people would have clustered round me paying their condolences and expressing their sympathy. But this was not so with this francophone roommate. Yet on another occasion, when we were in a restaurant in the University of Dakar, Senegal, a youngman who was trying to exhibit his youthful exuberance picked up some crumbs of bread and began throwing them around in the dining room. One of the crumbs accidentally hit a francophone male student in the eye. He yelled and a Nigerian who was watching the scene and who was expressing his sympathy to this affected student just shouted: "Desole monsieur", which means: "Sorry sir". Immediately the Nigerian uttered those words of sympathy, the francophone victim just landed a "hot blow" on the sympathetic 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigerian's face. He did this because as far as he was concerned, the Nigerian was responsible for the act-that was why he expressed regret by saying "Sorry". Conflict of culture one might call it. That explains why learning another man's language entails learning the culture too, for language is culture and culture is language. How can Motivation be Achieved? With the above explanations, we shall now consider how a modem language teacher can motivate his pupils to learn a foreign language. I am very often puzzled when discussing with some colleagues and I hear that pupils are not interested in learning French. The question is: Are they interested in learning other subjects? If so, why are they interested in other subjects and not French? While I believe that many people are biased in favour of science subjects because of the values society attaches to them, those who study history, English literature, religious knowledge, and other liberal arts subjects still run away from French. Why? To my mind, part of the problems lies with the French teachers. This is because the pedagogical approach to the language is in itself faulty. The fact is that many of our teachers are .of the orthodox type, who still believe in traditional approach to teaching. Such teachers go into the classroom and write certain words on the board, ask the pupils to read them and translate into English-that ends the lesson. The next time-it is the same process. This is far from being ideal in teaching a new language. Apart from its monotony, it does not help in achieving the desired results. On the other hand the modem pedagogue believes in the direct method of teaching a foreign language which lays emphasis on activities and on the oral presentation. By this method the teacher talks in French within the limits of pupil's knowledge. Apart from this, he takes cognizance of the various modes of motivation earlier highlighted in this lecture. For example he does all he can to show his likeness for his pupils in general; he gives rewards where necessary; praises those who deserve praises and encourages those who are rather backward; and above all, avoids corporal punishments as much as possible. I This, to my mind is outmoded. As regards the actual methods of 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY teaching, various techniques can be utilized to impart knowledge so as to motivate the pupils. Some of them will be examined here. Songs Songs are of paramount importance in language acquisinon among children. Children are naturally attracted to songs because of the melody of such songs and they readily learn them whether or not they are familiar with the language. When pupils hear songs translated from their mother tongue into French they will definitely be aroused and very well enthusiastic to learn such songs. Examples are the following two songs, which I have translated and which I now use to attract children: Ma mere etait ma gardienne Qui m' a soigne en mon enfance Elle me montait sur le dos Bon travail a ma mere Je dis bon travail a ma mere Avec beaucoup de respect Je ne refuserai rien a ma mere Jamais! Jaimais! Jaimais! and Ma mere est de I' or inestimable Qu' on ne peut pas acheter (bis) Elle m' a concu pendant neuf mois; Elle m' a monte pour trois ans. Ma mere est de I' or inestimable Qu' on ne peut pas acheter. Once they master the songs, efforts should be made to explain difficult or unfamiliar words in the songs to them. We can also encourage them to reproduce the songs orally, then in writing. With all these steps, pupils will acquire various skills through their mastery of the songs. These include: pronunciation, reading and writing apart from vocabulary acquisition. But we should control the frequency of the songs to avoid monotony. 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Poems Poems are another motivating factor in modem language learning technique. Short poems of various registers designed to take into account the pupils' level of understanding will be highly recommended. Children like recitation as much as they like songs. Well-written poems have melodies which appeal to the pupils' senses. Such poetic devices like rhymes, alliterations, and repetitions of words very often hold pupils' interests and they take the initiative to memorize them. One of such poems which I have often found to be attractive to children, is that by Jacques Prevert, which goes thus: II a mis le cafe dans la tasse Il a mis le lait dans la tasse de cafe II a mis le sucre dans le cafe au lait Avec la petite cuillere if a tourne Il a bu le cafe au lait Et if a repose la tasse Sans me parler. Il a allume une cigarette Il a fume la cigarette Il a fait des ronds avec la fumee Il a mis les cendres dans le cendrier Sans une parole sans me regarder. Il s' est leve Il a mis son chapeau sur sa tete Il a pris son manteau de pluie Parce qu'il pleuvait Et if est parti sous la pluie Sans une parole, sans me regarder Et moi, j' ai pris ma tete dans la main Et i' ai pleure. This is the scene of a quarrel between a husband and his wife during which the man gives vent to his anger, by ignoring the wife in all he does. The wife is here giving a vivid description of the activities the man engages in-in his reaction to the family feud. This poem is quite valuable in several ways. Apart from its sonority occasioned by the repetition of words and expressions, 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY it is an interesting piece for teaching some grammatical elements such as the 'passe compose' which students might not have enjoyed listening to if taught in the normal traditional manner. The fact that it has been embedded in a poem makes it more captivating. Plays In the same vein, short plays can be committed to memory and acted by pupils in class. Pupils are always fascinated by such exercises particularly if such plays are comical because children like funny episodes. Besides, such pedagogical devices such as mimicry have captivating effects on children. The teacher may mime some actions while the pupils are required to reproduce, or a pupil may be asked to do the miming while others are asked to reproduce what he has mimed verbally. This is a very useful device for lexical acquisition as well as a noteworthy way of writing essays. When this has gained popularity with the pupils, one will be astonished by their eagerness to participate in the lesson taught. Audio- Visual Aids The modern language teacher will be doing his pupils a lot of good if he utilizes audio-visual aids to enhance his teaching. Such include tape recorders, records, fiannel-graph boards, posters, advertisement or a travel brochure and illustrated magazines and books, micro films, pictures, cuttings, concrete objects, radio and television. Sometimes, language lessons are run on the radio and television. The teacher should be conversant with such programmes and could arrange that his pupils listen to such programmes at the appropriate times. Pupils are easily motivated through such. While it is true that audio- visual aids are costly, efforts can be made to purchase them through the Ministries of Education. Exchange Programmes/Visits Exchange programmes/visits to French speaking countries are a source of inspiration to children. At their tender age, they are quite romantic and love of the exotic is most markedly noticed in their daily life. The best way of learning a language is for the learner to live with people who speak the language for a reasonable length of time, mix with them, and partake in their 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , daily activities. Consequently, I personally view exchange programmes with institutions of equivalent standards in French speaking countries as desirable in laying a good foundation for practical language acquisition. No doubt the children would be stimulated by such a laudable programme and the degree of improvement in their understanding of the language will be very high. A cursory look at this analysis reveals that a teacher must motivate his pupils, as well as choose the methods through which such motivation can be effective which is why the view is often held that there are as many methods of teaching as there are teachers, for no two teachers will teach exactly alike. Motivation is the word. It is one ingredient-the driving force that facilitates modern language learning. We should therefore endeavour to utilize motivation to achieve a relatively high degree of success in teaching a modern language like French. Some Research Efforts made in Relation to French Teaching in Nigeria Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, in the course of my academic career, I have been able to highlight some problems associated with the teaching and learning of French in Nigeria. The three broad areas have been its teaching approach, problems of resources, and the status accorded French in the national policy on education. I will now go ahead to give some reports of my findings in two of these three broad areas, starting with pedagogical approach. In a study titled, "Effects of Two Methods of Teaching French on Motivation, Attitude and Achievement of Some Nigerian Secondary School Pupils", a number of problems confronting learners of French in Nigeria since its inception were highlighted. Such problems included faulty pedagogical approach, lack of aptitude for the study of French, poor attitude towards the language, and lack of motivation for the study of the language. With regard to French teaching in Nigeria, the most acute problem linked with the study of the subject has been associated with the teaching approach. We believe that students' performance can best be improved through their teacher's teaching techniques. Since our aim is to establish what could be done to improve the standard of French teaching, we decided to 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY consider the effects of the direct method and the bilingual method on pupils' motivation, attitude, and achievement in French. This has become necessary in view of the growing awareness-globally-about the importance of the bilingual approach to foreign language teaching especially in Canada, Wales, and Switzerland. The growing impetus nowadays is that we cannot treat a child learning a foreign language as a nonentity who comes into the foreign language class with absolute no knowledge of language skills. The contention is that whatever we say, the child will always utilize the knowledge of his mother tongue or his first language in learning a second or foreign language. Stern says for example that once a child has learnt to read and write in one language it is fictitious to treat him as a non-reader (by unnecessarily delaying the introduction of the script). This is of course at variance with the belief and practice of the direct methodologists who believe that the child should be taught solely in the target language. . In view of the growing interest in the use of the child's mother tongue for teaching him a second or foreign language this researcher tried in this study to examine empirically which of the two methods is more effective; the direct method or the bilingual method. 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 1: Comparing the Mean Differences Between the Two Experimental Groups and the Control Group Pre- , Test Prior to the Start of the Experiment Methods Mean Source of Sum of DF Mean F-ratio Sign. of remark Variation Squares Square F Bilingual 18,98 Main Effects 5.263 2 2.632 0.114 0.999 NS Direct 19,19 Method 5.263 2 2.632 0,114 0.999 NS Control Group 18.78 Explained 5.263 2 2.632 0.114 0,999 NS Residual 4778.621 207 23.085 Total 4783.887 209 22.889 P<.05 Table 1 indicates that with an F-ratio of 0, 114, the three groups used in the experiment were homogeneous, 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • Table 2: Comparing the Post Achievement Scores of the Two Experimental Groups and the Control Group Using ANOV A for Comparison Methods N Mean Source of Sum of DF Mean F-ratio Sign. remark Variation Squares Square OfF Bilingual 80 68.3 Main Effects 77856.938 2 38928.469 184.797 0.001 Sign. Direct 80 62.48 Method 77856.938 2 38928.469 184.797 0.001 Sign. Control 50 20.58 Explained 77856.938 2 38928.469 184.797 0.001 Sign. Residual 43605.563 207 210.655 Total 121462.500 209 581.160 P< .05 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Summary of Findings The results of this study showed that: (a) There was a significant difference between the bilingual and the direct methods in the overall post treatment achievement at .05 level of significance, with the bilingual method proving to be more effective than the direct method. (b) There was no significant difference between pupils taught with the bilingual method and their counterparts taught with the direct method in the listening skill although pupils taught with the direct method were slightly better than their colleagues taught with the bilingual method in this skill. (c) There was a significant difference between the achievement scores of pupils taught with the two methods in the speaking skill, with the bilingual method producing a better result. (d) There was a significant difference between the post achievement scores of pupils taught with the bilingual method and those taught with the direct method in the writing skill, the bilingual candidates proving to be better than their direct method counterparts. (e) In the reading skill, the pupils taught with the bilingual method again proved superior to their direct method counterparts. (f) There was no significant difference in the motivational scores of pupils in the two methods of teaching although those taught with the bilingual method had a slight edge here; in addition both groups were positively motivated. (g) There was a significant difference between the post treatment attitude of the pupils taught with the direct method and the bilingual method. The direct method candidates showed a more positive attitude towards the study of the French language at the end of the experiment; however, both methods positively encouraged attitudinal changes in the learners. (h) Finally, it was found that there was no significant difference between the performance of boys and girls 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • involved in the study both within groups and across groups. Another study carried out by this researcher is in the area of the use of certain resources for the teaching of French in Nigerian schools. Thus a study titled "The Effects of Visual Imagery Instruction on Pupils' Achievement in French Language" was carried out in order to find out if the use of visual aids could enhance the learning of French. Table 3: Content Assimilation and Vocabulary Acquisition Experimental/Control Group Comparison - SS N LX X SD V (SD2) t. obs t. crit Exp 50 691 13.82 4.89 23.87 4.09 + 3.460 Cont 50 499 9.98 4.42 19.53 N.B. The difference is significant (t. obst. crit.) at .001 level of significance. The table above shows that students in the experimental group performed significantly higher in the achievement test given than students of the control group. It has also been observed. that those students taught with visual images show a better understanding of the lessons taught-both in the realm of content and vocabulary. They show a better grasp of the words used in the lessons and there is clear manifestation of their ability to reproduce more faithfully the dialogues of the lessons than their counterparts in the controlrgroup. There is no doubt that certain aids encourage pupils to make active use of the foreign language they know, be it English or French. If a picture is interesting, they will like to talk or write about what they have seen in the picture or about what may happen next in a story left unfinished. Map outlines can suggest exciting adventures about which students will have a lot to say. Language experts have even suggested that if tape recorder and microphone can be set up as a broadcasting station in the classroom, suitable advanced classes can write various sorts of programmes, which are then spoken or read into the microphone 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and recorded. This will be found to be stimulating to the students. For the class of people who believe that a foreign language is best learnt by learning something about the culture and civilization of the people in the target language, there is help given by visual aids in providing information about such culture and civilization. Posters, maps, classified advertisements, notices and labels are some of the visual aids that can be used in making the language class lively and interesting. We found that the use of visual imagery instruction helps and enhances students' performance in learning a foreign language like French. The implication this has for us as practising teachers of French is that we should endeavour to supplement our teaching efforts with the use of visual aids. Our students will find this stimulating and scintillating. But the use of visual aids by foreign language teachers also requires additional funds by the government to provide the necessary aids. This should however not be an excuse for the foreign language teacher to shun the use of visual aids-for some simple visual aids can even be constructed by some of the artistically inclined students. This will be of considerable interest to them. As foreign language teachers, we should for once transport our students to the world of the target language by bedecking our language classrooms with beautiful pictures depicting culture and civilization of the people whose language they are learning. Conclusion Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, what can one conclude from all we have been saying so far? For the teaching of French to be effective, the teacher has to choose the right method for disseminating knowledge and the teacher has a gamut of methodologies to choose from ranging from the grammar- translation method, the direct method, the audio-lingual method, the generative grammar method, the bilingual method and the communicative language teaching CCLT). In addition, whatever teaching method the teacher may wish to employ, this must be accompanied with motivation. The students must be properly motivated. There are two forms of motivation: intrinsic which is 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • already inbuilt in the learner and extrinsic, that which is external to the leamer, and that is the one the teacher should exploit in order to create in the learner the interest for the French language. Finally, it would seem that French language has not been accorded its rightful place in the scheme of things in this country. No doubt during the regime of General Sanni Abacha, French was made Nigeria's second official language. But this has been nominally so, for no concrete effort has been made by the Nigerian government to actualize this policy. French is supposed to be taught from primary four as embedded in the Universal Basic Education Curriculum. Good as this may be, there are doubts of its full realization because Nigerians usually conceive good ideas, but at the level of execution, everything is often adulterated. Recommendations Experience has shown that the French language has not been given its rightful place in the Nigerian Educational system in spite of its importance to us in meeting up with the challenges of globalization. Once upon a time, a former head of state of this country missed the position of the secretary general of the United Nations because he was not bilingual in English and French and the position went to an Egyptian who was bilingual. In view of this the following recommendations are hereby offered: 1. Nigeria should stop playing lip-service to the study of French language by embarking on an aggressive training of teachers of French in both primary and secondary schools. 2. French language should be made a compulsory subject right from J.S.S. I in all public and private schools in Nigeria. 3. French language centres should be established in all state capitals where people should be free to enroll for the study of French. 4. French teachers should be sponsored for regular training in France or French-speaking African countries 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY during the long vacations. 5. Regular conferences and workshops should be organized for practising teachers of French in our universities. 6. French teachers should be given incentives in form of allowances in order to encourage more people to take up the study of French. 7. Government should provide enough funds to schools to buy audio-visual aids to help the teachers of French as instructional materials. 8. Practising teachers of French should endeavour to motivate pupils to take up the study of French through their teaching techniques. Acknowledgement I would like to end this lecture by acknowledging a good number of people who have contributed immensely towards my success in life. First I must express my profound gratitude and deep appreciation to the Vice-Chancellor for appointing me as the Director of the Institute of Education when he did and for giving me the opportunity to deliver this inaugural lecture. I remember at this auspicious moment my late parents Chief Joshua and Mrs. Esther Araromi who deemed it fit to send me to school while other children were following their own parents to the farm. But for them, I would not have been where I am today. I thank my Aunt, Mrs. F.M. Tewe, all my siblings and their spouses in Nigeria, Britain, and America and my in-laws, the Owate family of Igbotako. I thank Emeritus Professor E.A. Yoloye fondly called 'Baba', who employed me into the Institute in October 1987 when he was the Director. I enjoyed the tutelage given to me by Professor Pai Obanya, my senior colleague in the field of French language education; past Directors of the Institute with whom I worked as Sub-dean (Professor J.O. Obemeata, Professor S.T. Bajah of blessed memory, and Professor Wole Falayajo). I acknowledge the role of Professor Ayorinde Dada who has manifestly impacted my life positively in a number of ways. Professor Dada supervised my M.Ed project as well as my Ph.D thesis and has contributed immenselyin seeing me move up the 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY academic ladder of my career. I therefore dedicate this lecture to this erudite scholar, a simple-minded, kindhearted and amiable academic of repute for his immense contributions to my academic career and family. I appreciate colleagues in the Institute of Education, Professor. S. O. Ayodele (who has been of immense assistance to me in the area of the publications of some of my articles), Professors T.W. Yoloye, Onocha, Okpala, Odeyemi, and Bishop Professor Ibeagha. Their presence in the Institute served as a tonic and catalyst in helping me move up the academic ladder fast. I th~ other colleagues, both junior and senior, both teaching and non-teaching staff, Mr. O. Dairo, secretary to the Institute, and Mr. Okocha Sunday, for the cooperation you have all given me as the director. To you all my wonderful children-Barrister Ayodeji, Maxwell Olakunle, Olumide, Adedotun, and lastly Oluwafunmbi, I thank you all for creating the much needed ambiance for me to function both in my social and professional lives. You have all been wonderful crops of children. Next comes my better half, my wife of many years, my companion, confidant, and my jewel of inestimable value, Adeseye Araromi. You have been a wonderful partner, adviser and close associate over this long period of time, spanning almost thirty years. I have enjoyed every bit of my life with you. If I have to choose a wife a hundred times over, I would definitely choose you. I thank you so much for your support. Finally, whatever I have achieved in life would not have been possible without the grace of the Almighty God. He has been my strength and succour all through my life. Mr. Vice- Chancellor Sir, it would interest you to note that by human calculation and by order of hierarchy I would only have qualified to be appointed director of the Institute two years after . my retirement and that would not have been possible. But as God would have it, He made me one-five years even before my retirement. When I look ahead of me, I see God, when I look behind, He is there, by my right and by my left the aura of the presence of God can be vividly felt. I can't but appreciate God in my life and the only way I can show my appreciation on this occasion is by singing the following songs in the language I know best, French: 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY J'ai un tres grand Dieu II est toujours a cote Un tres grand Dieu, a cote, a cote (bis) A cote, a cote (bis) Un tres grand Dieu II est toujours a cote Un tres grand Dieu; a cote, a cote and o Seigneur tu es si bon Tu es si bon a moi o Seigneur tu es excellent Dans ma vie tous les jours o Seigneur tu es si bon Tu es si bon a moi o Seigneur tu es excellent Dansma vie. Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, Ladies and Gentlemen, I thank you for your attention. 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Bibliography Adelekan, PA (1983) The relative effectiveness of three textbook methods on selected outromes in Frmcfr, Ph.D thesis, University of Ibadan.. Araromi, M.A (1990) IntrodUction of Frencb into the Nigerian Educational System and its Status in the National Educational Policy. In Education in the service ofhumanity, S.O. Ayodele (ed.) ____ (1996) "French Teaching in Nigeria, the Outcome of Studies by Three Scholars", Biannual Review of Educational Studies (RRES), vol, I,No.1, pp. 14-26. ____ (1996) "French Teachers.' View and Appraisal of the Status accorded French in the 6-3-3-4 System of Education", Biannual Review of Educational Studies. Vol 1. No.2, pp. 109-121. ____ (1996) "The Problem Facing the Teaching and Learning of French in Nigerian Secondary Schools", StuLrces in Education; vol. 2, No.2. pp. 188-193. ____ (1997) "Primary School Pupils.' Interest in, Attitude towards and Motivation for the Study of French in the Secondary School", Behavioural Review of Educatioaal Studies, vol. ILNo. 1. ____ (1997) "The Role of Motivation in the Teaching of French as a Foreign Language", Journal of Functional Education. ____ (1999) Code Mixing and Code-switdring among Nigl!rian Undergraduates, Evaluation in Africa. Sfuling-Holden ~ (Nig.) Ltd. Aroheim, R (1970) Visual thinking. London, Faber. Bahrick, R.P. and Bahrick, P. (197l) "'Indqw.udence ofVerlIaf and Visual Codes of the Same Stimuli", Joumai of Experimental Psydwlogy, 9J1, 344-346. Bamgbose, A (1982) Local languages development: Policy and practice in Nigerian languages and cultural development. Edited by Bashir Ikara, published by The National Language Centre, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos. Banjo. A (1