UNIVERSITY OF DELTA JOURNAL ̂ CONTEMPORARY STUDIES IN EDUCATION (UDJCSE) A Publication of Faculty of Education, University of Delta, Agbor Septem ber, 2 0 2 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UIMIVERSITY OF DELTA JOURNALE CONTEMPORARY STUDIES IN EDUCATION (UDJCSE) Volume 1, Issue 1 A Publication of Faculty of Education, Un ive rs ity of Delta, Agbor Septem ber, 2 0 2 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Prof. Oyaziwo Aluede, Editors Prof. Christy .N. Omoifo Prof. Regina Asiri Dr. (Mrs) Olufunke Chenube Dr(Mrs) Clara Moemeke Business Editor Dr(Mrs) Clara D. Moemeke Assistant Business Editor Dr(Mrs) Carolina Alordiah All rights reserve. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval System, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission o f the Editors. ISSN: 2971 - 5962 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Factor Structure of the Rosenberg Seif Esteem Scale in Nigerian Secondary School Students: Implications for Counselling Florence C. Oimimu 1 2. Effects O f Class Size On Effective Classroom Management In Junior Secondary Schools in Nigeria Ichazu Kingsley and Bright Irene Ewere 13 3. Assessment o f entrepreneurship skill of students involved in integrated informal apprenticeship assessment project: implication for Curriculum innovation Clara Dumebi Moemeke 21 4. The impact O f Educational Resources on the Quality of Educational Service Delivery in Universities in Nigeria Nwaham Caroline Obioma 32 5. Optimism, "Hope", and "Health-Related Issues" among Retired Teachers in Delta State Public Secondary Schools under the Contributory Pension Scheme between 2011 to 2019 Okudaye, I.N. 46 6. Blended Teaching of Human Health Habits in Nursery Classes using Multimedia Online Video Platform Instructional Technologies (Movpit) during the Pandemie Era Samuel Ademu Awuja & Egede B.A.J 58 7. Methodologies of Teaching and Leaming in Nigeria Schools: Role of the Religion Education Teacher Christiana N. Nwadiokwu 66 8. Effects of Formative Assessment with Feedback on Secondary School Economics Students' Achievement in Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria AUahnana Kwanza Maikudi, Kuza Gabriel Lazarus, Musa Bulus & Babale D. David 76 9. Influence of Introducing Information and Communication Technology into the Teaching and Leaming of Shorthand in Polytechnics in Nigeria Esah Sarah Irorevwo 90 10. Roles o f Mathematics Education towards Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria Oliweh S.I, Ohoriemu B.O. & Alordiah Caroline 99 UDJCSE i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 11. Effect of Cognitive Apprenticeship Instructional Method on Students' Interest in Auto Mechanics Technology in Technical Colleges Okotubu Oyonru John bull 104 12. Determinants Influencing Career Choice of Business Education Students in 13. Tertiary Institutions in Delta State Nigeria Eziechine Charity Uche & Egbri Jane Nwakego 113 14. An Investigation on Teachers' Readiness and Availability o f E-Leaming Resources for Effective Teaching in Secondary Schools in Post Covid-19 Era. Godwin, Adanu Joseph. 122 15. Industrial Relations Practice in Nigeria: Issues and Perspectives Akinyooye Funmilola Elizabeth & Fajimi Babatunde Ayoola 130 16. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Innovation in Teaching Students with Dyslexia Aghware Fidelis Obukohwo& Odirin Omiegbe 140 17. Assessment of the Minimum Standard Policy Compliance rate on Early Childhood Care Education in the Two Ika Local Government Areas of Delta State Osagiede, M. A 149 18. Influence of Availability and Adequacy of Instructional Facilities on Teaching and Leaming of Business Education Courses in University Of Delta, Agbor Agwazie Bridget 156 19. Socio-Economic Factors Undermining the Maintenance of Healthy Eating Habits o f Families in Delta State, Nigeria Apaokueze, T. N. & Imonikebe, B. U. U 166 20. Perception of Biology Teachers on Factors Affecting Teaching and Leaming in Some Selected Senior Secondary Schools in Education District in Lagos State Adebayo Raimot Adejumoke 178 21. Covid-19 and Community Development: A Paradigm Shift Okafor Ikechukwu Maduka 185 22. Training and Retraining the Trainers for Improved Entrepreneurship Education Chukwudolue, J. C. & Omorojie Stella 195 23. Online Knowledge, Internet Abilities and Internet Attitudes as Predictors of UDJCSE n UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Internet use Gladys N. Obimgba 203 24. Examining Curriculum Planning, Development and Implementation as a Factor for the Teaching and Leaming of Social Studies Education in Nigeria Egwu Grace Ifeoma & Eboh. Rhoda Nkemdilim 212 25. Strategies for Managing Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition among Tertiary Institution Business Education Students for Self-Reliance in Delta State Okonkwo Mary U. 219 26. Prospect of Citizenship Education and its Impact in Providing Qualitative Values to Nigerian Society Ba’shama Kaze Akwanga, Aliyu Yusuf Chunbaya, Dorcas David Anjugu & Musa Gamaliel 227 UDJCSE iii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Industrial Relations Practice in Nigeria: Issues and Perspectives Funmilola Elizabeth Akinyooye '& Babatunde Ayoola Fajimi2 -.-partment o f Adult Education. University o f ibadan . Email: ojofunmiloa@gmail.com Abstract This study explored the practice o f The industrial relations System evolved in industrial relations in Nigeria during the an environment o f govemment military regime era and civilian involvement, intervention, and interference, govemment era. It drew a comparison whether it was the military or civilian between the eras to determine the impact o f govemment in power. Consequently, the the power dynamics and relationships industrial relations practice in Nigeria has between the govemment and labour unions not been able to represent the management on Nigeria’s industrial relations theory and o f institutionalized relationships in the practice. The study relied on the social System to promote harmonious documentary method and obtained industrial co-existence between principal secondary sources data from a review o f actors: govemment and labour unions. The journals, textbooks, and official study suggested that the govemment should publications to examine the impacts o f serve as regulators in the industrial these two eras on industrial relations relations Systems to manage practice by diagnosing their involvement, institutionalized relationships through intervention, and interference in labour policies and evolve self-goveming union movements in the country. As the mechanisms devoid o f interference for largest employer o f l abour, the govemment harmonious mutual co-existence with was more than the employer in the power labour unions fo r stability in the policy and dynamics o f industrial relations practice. economic posterity in Nigeria. Keywords: Industrial Relations Practice, the labour union movement, military regime, civilian govemment Introduction Industrial relations practice in Nigeria is a byproduct of British colonialism, urbanization, and industrialization (Bayero, 2016; Adebisi, 2013; Opara, 2013). Nigeria formally came under British colonial rule after Lord Lugard amalgamated the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914. Britain modelled industrial relations in the country after its volunteerism Systems based on the principle of free collective bargaining between employers and trade unions, without govemment regulation but rapid urbanization, industrialization (Kester, 2021), and socio-political upheavals like the incessant military coups in democratic govemment (January 15, 1966, July 29, 1966, January 29, 1975, February 13, 1976, December 31, 1983, August 1985 and April 1990), civil war (1967 to 1970) in the country. Militant labour movement activities worldwide and global ization have shaped industrial relations and influenced its practice (Akanji, 2019). The colonial administration instituted reforms, enacted ordinances and reorganized the Systems and labour sector. These reforms laid the foundation for industrial relations at independence with civilian govemment administration and subsequent democratic govemments interspersed with long years of military regimes. UDJCSE 130 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Ugbudian (2017) hinged the evolution of industrial relations in the country on four major factors embedded in the socio-political Systems of British colonialism. It militarized the colonial govemment, subjugated natives through the application of draconian laws, institutionalized pro-British political order, and the self-serving colonial interest of the British crown in Nigeria. Colonialism militarized govemance through the enactment of pro-British laws that protected the interest of Britain and the creation of pro-British political dispensation without consultation from the people on preference for self-govemance or considerations for their socio-cultural peculiarities. The different interest groups and trade unions that emerged were founded in this socio-political climate with one utmost aim of challenging the colonial govemment to demand self-govemment. Industrial relations practices would promote rights, labour welfare, and better lives for workers. Industrial relations Systems intertwined with the country's socio-political struggle against the colonial govemment. This would become the iconic symbolism of labour unionism alter independence and through the checkered political timeline of Nigeria that defined its landscape from civilian govemment in 1960 to military regime from 1966 to 1979. They handed over power to a civilian govemment in 1979 that lasted until another military rule removed it in 1983 and stayed in power until 1999, when a democratically elected govemment resumed a civilian govemment administration to the present time. Invariably, the industrial relations practice in Nigeria has subsisted under two major political dispensations of the military regime and civilian govemment after its bequest as a colonial legacy. In the political landscape in Nigeria, Britain handed over govemance to a federal parliamentary republic headed by Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa and President Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1960, and a civilian govemment has been involved in political administration and govemance for 33 years (1960-1966, 1979-1983 and 1999-2022) to date. On the other hand, since independence, the military regime has been in power for 28 years (1966-1979 and 1984- 1999). Nigeria shifted from British volunteerism in industrial relations to a prolonged period of govemment involvement, intervention, and interference during the socio-political evolution from colonial administration to civilian govemment and military regime. The contestation in the colonial administration's political environment and power dynamics, and military intervention in govemance influenced democratic practices and rendered industrial relations practice in Nigeria ineffective because of the govemmenfs incessant interference in the labour movement (Akanji, 2019; Adebisi, 2013). This study will explore the practice o f industrial relations in Nigeria under the military regime era and civilian govemment era and draw a comparison between the two eras to determine the impact o f power dynamics and relationships between the govemment and labour unions on the theory and practice of industrial relations in Nigeria. The study relied on the documentary method and obtained secondary sources data from a review ofj oumals, textbooks, and official publications to examine the impacts of these two eras on industrial relations practice by diagnosing their involvement, intervention, and interference in labour union movements in the country. Industrial Relations: Some Conceptual Clarifications A study of this nature requires some clarifications o f the conceptual definitions of industrial relations as it relates to Systems and practice. The emphasis on the evolutionary trends and comparative review of the two major political eras. directly and indirectly, impact UDJCSE 131 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 not only the Systems of industrial relations but their practice in the country. A single view mirror that looks at the meaning of industrial relations from a Systems perspective will be insufficient to interlace the impact and implications o f the socio-political environment in shaping the understanding and directions of industrial relations in Nigeria as different from similar economies like Ghana (Adeniji, 2015) or Indonesia (Nurwati, Hakim, Alexandri and Maulina, 2017). The defmitions of industrial relations may vary, but the environments give perspectives to the practice among scholars. Akinbode and Ebeloku (2017) realised that the environment shaped the view of industrial relations practice and posited that industrial relations relate to a broad field of academic study and practice covering the interchange among key stakeholders o f participants, actors, and parties in a given context. Industrial relations are labour relations in the industry that emphasize the development of peaceful relations and mutual respect in an industrial Organization (Adeniji, 2015). The Problem is that the essence is lost in the assumption that the "relations" in labour presuppose that the actors and institutions are inbuilt within the relationships. Adeniji (2015) also sidestepped the interplay o f Systems (political, economic, and social) in the larger contexts of interrelatedness. A punctilious analysis of Fajana (2000), Adebisi (2013), Anyim, Danesi & Ufodiama (2015), Ugbudian (2017), Akinbode & Ebeloku (2017) and Ojo & Adedayo (2021) corroborated earlier Nigerian scholars such as Sokunbi (1983), Ubeku (1983), Fashoyin (1988), and Imafidon (1996). They theorized and practised industrial relations within the Nigerian environmental contexts, indicating that industrial relations mean managing institutionalized relationships within a social System to promote a harmonious and peaceful network of inter- related Systems that benefit these relationships and their operating environment. Whilst these scholars built on Dunlop (1958), the perspective of this study is that contextualized definition of industrial relations incorporates the Systems approach (Dunlop, 1958), conflicts (Flanders, 1975), fimctionalist, and management theories to underscore the relative significance and role of industrial relations in the evolution of the state. The definition proposed herein is not intended to be universal as there cannot be any. It aims to cover a wide ränge o f issues that circumscribe the theory and practice of industrial relations in Contemporary times and peep into the future to propose a Strategie direction to practitioners and their environment. Industrial relations, as the management of institutionalized relationships within a social System to promote a harmonious and peaceful network of inter-related Systems that benefit these relationships and their operating environment, requires an unveiling of the parts that make the whole. Firstly, Dunlop (1958), according to Onabanjo and Chidi (2018), perceived industrial relations from a Systems approach and said that it is a System that involves certain actors and certain contexts bounded by an ideology and a body of rules to govem the actors in the workplace or community contexts. Based on Dunlop (1958), industrial relations cannot be said to be a cause-and-effect phenomenon perceived by Adebisi (2013) but a firm foundation and rationale for interactions among the actors and Systems. This brings back the debate between volunteerism and govemment involvement or interference. The latter will favour Adebisi (2013), whilst the former will align with Dunlop (1958) and the definition of industrial relations as the management o f formal relationships among actors and interactions among Systems to create social harmony in the community. UDJCSE 132 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Akinbode and Ebeloku (2017) cited Onasanya (1999), Animashaun and Shabi (2000), and Fajana (2000), identified three main actors of labour, employers, and the govemment (Fajana, 2006 in Anigbogu and Uzoh, 2018) as well as 14 stakeholders according to the World Congress of International Industrial Relations Association (WCILA) in Japan comprising job seekers, employees, union members, unions, consumers, individual employers, employee's organizations, producers, and citizens. Others include executive, legislature, judiciary, employer-employee, and union employers. The intervening Systems are political, economic, and social order. Nigeria: Power Dynamics and Evolution of Industrial Relations Practice Nigeria is a heterogeneous country with a diversity of a large and constantly evolving multi-ethnic and multi-religious socio-cultural population that predated colonialism. This diversity underscores the plurality and complexity o f its relationships and power dynamics as a social entity and the development of industrial relations and labour union movements in the country. Umaru (2008) argued that the mismanagement of Nigerian diversity is responsible for its ability to engender harmonious development. Industrial relations evolved in Nigeria as a community of interests to fight for workers' rights, welfare, higher wages, and improved conditions of employment against a perceived repressive govemment, whether colonial or military. The civilian govemment was not devoid o f its interference but at a varying degree and intensity. Wage employment which was a precursor to industrial relations practice in Nigeria, was accidentally started by the employment of two guides (Amadi and Isaac) by Mungo Park in 1795 for his expenditure (Nurwati, Hakim, Alexandri & Maulina, 2017). Kester (2021) and Afigho (1991) and George et al. (2012) in Nurwati, Hakim, Alexandri, & Maulina (2017) attributed this development to the advent of wage employment and the introduction of volunteerism. The practice was hampered by the absence of universal currency and lack of Standardization in wage determination and administration. This tilted power dynamics in favour of the demand side of wage employment, which is the employer, rather than the supply side, which is the labour union. The Royal Niger Company was given absolute power as a multinational Company through the Royal Charter of 1886 to trade in and administer the country. The company's operations became synonymous with the colonial administration, which govemed the country with legislative, military, and judicial powers (Nurwati, Hakim, Alexandri, and Maulina, 2017). The British Govemment revoked the Royal Charter of the Royal Niger Company in 1899 and assumed the colonial administration of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria before amalgamation in 1914. This dyad has been the case in Nigeria, where employment is skewed in favour of employers rather than employees. The Southern Civil Service Union was founded in 1912 but functioned as a social club for senior public officials. Subsequently, the Railway Workers' Union and Nigerian Union of Teachers were formed in 1931, respectively and Marine Daily Paid Workers' Union came into existence in 1936. The British govemment did not formally recognize these unions but permitted their existence because of its non-involvement and volunteerism disposition towards industrial relations in the home country. This approach to employment relations practice had been developed and promoted in Britain because of the social, political, and economic contexts UDJCSE 133 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 driving the industrial revolution of 18th and early 19th Britain. The factory System created a new work order, and govemment involvement in industrial relations increased. After the First World War (WWI). the unions became a protest movement and began to fight for bonuses for their members. This emboldened the unions to demand the indigenization o f administrative posts previously held by colonial officials and the promotion of Nigerians to senior Professional roles to fill these administrative positions (Kester, 2021). The country witnessed a series of labour actions immediately after WWI, including the mechanics union strike of 1918, railway workers' strike of 1921. and teachers strike o f 1925 in Calabar. These strike actions disrupted work and are the bane of national development in Nigeria (Anyim, Danesi, and Ufodiama, 2015). The strikes also showed where power was resident and its dynamism in the Systems to determine the direction o f industrial relations practice. Ademolu (2021:1) argued that The Nigerian industrial relations System has been in a worrisome state since the nation’s independence. The relationship between the govemment and labour has always been turbulent. Certain lingering challenges have not only driven a wedge between the harmonious relationship that should exist between work and govemment but have also negatively affected productivity and development. .. these challenges have accounted for the ongoing labour disputes ... strikes, lockout, picketing, sit-downs, agitations, and demonstrations in Nigeria's industrial relations System. The power dynamics in a labour-govemment relationship as it affects employment relations have always been titled in favour of the govemment, and this confirms Ademolu (2021), who surmised that the labour's attempt to balance the power equation is to resort to industrial actions, which undoubtedly impacts on national productivity and human Capital development in the country. Socio-Political Environment of Industrial Relations in Nigeria Anigbogu and Uzoh (2018) stated that the political environment of any country determines the type of law that will govem its industrial relations Systems. Dunlop (1958) conceptualized industrial relations as a System following the works of Talcott Parsons & Nello J. Smelser (1956), both American sociologists, according to Britannica (2022). The socio- political environment under review in this study spans 1960 to 2020, which came under the civilian govemment and military regime. Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960 and became a republic in 1963. The practice o f industrial relations as a System interacted with the country's socio-political System, and both were evolving through different phases, indicating their emergence and maturation. One impacted the other (Yusuf, 2005 in Anigbogu and Uzoh, 2018). Kester (2021) postulated that industrial relations practice in Nigeria has evolved through five stages. These stages spanned the colonial govemment through the independence to the formation and statehood of the Nigerian nation from 1900 to the present. The first stage is referred to as the Period Before 1938. where the colonial govemment permitted volunteerism and was laissez-faire about the formation and activities of the labour unions. The second stage UDJCSE 134 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 is the Second Period from 1938-1967, which started with the Trade Union Ordinance of 1938. The govemment got involved in and regulated the activities of the trade unions. Then, the Third Period from 1968 to 1976, introduced compulsory arbitration to govemment Intervention. This third stage was interrupted by the civil and post-civil war reconstruction of the economy and social life. The fourth stage of the evolution of industrial relations practice in Nigeria is the Fourth Period from 1977 to 1999, when labour unions came under the totalitarian control of the state. The fifth stage is the Fifth Period from 1999 to current which is characterized by industrial democracy in the workplace because of the country's retum to democracy on May 29, 1999, when President Olusegun Obasanjo was swom in as the President to lead the Fourth Nigerian Republic after 15 years of the military regime from 1984 to 1999. There is a need to look at the socio-political environment of industrial relations practice in Nigeria because one of the three main actors, the govemment, is responsible for driving the political environment and ensuring Order, stability, and govemance. The govemment's action (or inaction), which is the state, will undoubtedly influence how the country's industrial relations System is practiced. The state has oscillated between the civilian govemment and military regime since the evolution of industrial relations in Nigeria. Two Systems of govemment were considered because the colonial administration would be subsumed under the military regime as it was not the govemment of the people but an administration imposed on the people by the British, and its antecedents were driven by force and compulsory laws like ordinances and decrees (and not constitutions) like the military regime. Industrial Relations Practice under Military Regime As a follow-up to the Trade Unions Ordinance of 1938, the military administration enacted decrees to regulate and manage the activities of industrial relations practice in Nigeria. Decree 44 of 1975 and Decrees 4 and 26 of 1996 changed the structure of industrial relations and restructured trade unionism that had existed before the decree enactment (Kester, 2021). The restructuring reduced the diverse trade unions to 70, including 46 labour unions, 15 senior staff associations, and nine employers' associations. Fajana (2005) stated that the military regime established the existing structure of trade unions in Nigeria in 1976-78 by General Murtala Mohammed and General Olusegun Obasanjo. The four central union organizations, namely the Nigerian Trade Union Congress, the United Labour Congress, the Nigerian Workers' Council and the Labour Unity Front, were disbanded, and the Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC) emerged in their stead. The senior staff associations evolved into a separate central union known as the Trade Union Congress of Nigeria (TUC). Decree No. 22 of 1978 amended the schedule of the Trade Unions Decree of 1973. The enactment of decrees (Labour [Amended] Decree No. 21 of 1978; Labour Decree o f 1974) also influenced membership enrolment and statutory contributions and employers' deductions from union members' wages, known as the 'check-off System (Kester, 2021). Kester (2021) posited that military administration restructuring created unintended problems such as overlaps in the jurisdiction of unions and improper recognition of job interests. Abu (2013) traced the origin of conflicts among unions in universities in Nigeria, namely the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Senior Administrative/Technical Staff (SSANU), and UDJCSE 135 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Non-Academic Staff Union o f Educational and Associated Institutions (NASU) to the introduction o f salary differential among the three categories of staff (ASUU, SSANU and NASU) by the govemment. However, the industrial relations ecosystem was stabilized with consequences on the polity. The major downside of the military regime for industrial relations practice was the incessant interference in the operations and leadership o f trade union movements, culminating in industrial disputes by the unions, govemment administrators' appointments, and the panel of inquiries that birthed the other restructurings. Industrial Relations Practice under Civilian Government A civilian govemment is a democratic govemment established and regulated by a Constitution and designed to promote liberty, freedom, free will, and egalitarianism in society. The Constitution of the Federal Republic o f Nigeria 1999 (as amended) articulated these ideals of freedom, equality, and justice which can be found in the administration of democracy in any society. The colonial govemment handed over the administration of Nigeria as a nation and govemance o f the sovereignty of its people at independence to a democratically elected federal parliamentary republic on October 1, 1960. The country has experienced democracy for thirty- three years o f its independence with two major military incursions into politics. In the political landscape in Nigeria, Britain handed over govemance to a federal parliamentary republic headed by Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa and President Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1960, and a civilian govemment has been involved in govemance for thirty-three years (1960-1966, 1979-1983, and 1999-2022) to date. On the other hand, the military govemment have been in power for twenty-eight years (1966-1979 and 1984-1999) since independence. Nigeria shifted from British volunteerism in industrial relations to a long period of govemment involvement, intervention, and interference during the socio-political evolution from colonial administration to civilian govemment and military regime. Democratic industrial relations practice gathered momentum in the Fourth Republic from 1999. The Trade Unions (Amendment) Act 2005 was passed by the national assembly and assented by the President on March 30, 2005, to provide a framework for the democratization of trade unions, changes in their membership enrolment, and members' statutory contributions models. This Act was a departure from the various Ordinance and Decrees that have regulated the practice o f industrial relations Systems in Nigeria. It reinforced the future of industrial relations and sought to promote social dialogue as viable alternatives to industrial disputes that have characterized labour union movements since independence (Kester, 2021). Govemment intervention in industrial relations practice, a heritage from the colonial govemment through the military regime, continues with policy promulgation to regulate the relationship between parties and promote political stability. As industrial actions remain unabated in civilian govemment administration, the Third Alteration Act (2010) expanded the jurisdiction of the National Industrial Court (NIC) as the highest court to adjudicate between two disputing parties in industrial conflicts under the Trade Dispute Act (Opute and Mahmoud, 2021). UDJCSE 136 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Comparison of Industrial Relations Practice in Military Regime and Civilian Government The foundation of the regulations and policies that framed and instituted industrial relations Systems and practices in Nigeria was laid during the colonial administration and continued into the military administration. The legal existence, structure, and framework for the corporate govemance of labour union movements could be traced to the eras of military administration in the political history of Nigeria. Again, it is obvious from literature that the govemment, whether the military regime or civilian administration was the most significant determinant of industrial relations policies and the formation and structure of trade union movements in Nigeria (Kester, 2021). Oludeyi (2015) evaluated the govemment's contribution to industrial relations practice in the country and highlighted eight of ten major policy actions and implementation to the military regime, with the remaining two attributed to the civilian govemment. Although the culture of militarism has permeated the country because of the long rule of the military regime, its half-a-century-long colonial tradition and significant impact on industrial relations in Nigeria. Available literature suggests that the civilian administration portends a better climate and considerations for labour unions and interactions among the main actors in the practice of industrial relations relative to the military regime. The civilian govemment was not altogether free of interference and undemocratic methods of resolving industrial conflicts. This can be attributable to the pervasive culture of militarism in Nigerian society. The civilian govemments' interference in the operations of trade union organizations, and molestations, including intimidation and arrest of labour leaders and their followers during strike actions, remain the dark side of their scorecard. Anigbogu and Uzoh (2018) stressed that the civilian govemment provided a healthier environment for industrial relations than the military regime and attributed their excesses to the young and growing democratic experimentation in the evolving socio-political environment of Nigeria. They added that civilian govemment induces citizenship participation and positive transformations with its electioneering processes. These two forces enhance the industrial relations practice. Conclusion This study concludes that the govemment is more than the employer in the power dynamics of industrial relations practice, as the largest employer o f labour. 1t is also the political institution invested with the constitutional responsibility as the state to engender social Order and stability in the polity. The industrial relations System has evolved in an environment of govemment involvement, intervention, and interference since colonial administration, whether it is the military regime or civilian govemment that is in power. This operating environment has influenced the practice of industrial relations and shaped the formulation of policies, Organization, and management of labour union movement, the leadership of labour unions, collective bargaining, and industrial actions. Consequently, the industrial relations practice in Nigeria has not been able to represent the management of institutionalized relationships in the social System to promote harmonious industrial co-existence between Principal actors, the govemment and labour unions. UDJCSE 137 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University of Delta Journal of Contemporary Studies in Education Vol. 1 No. 1 Recommendation The following are suggested to reinforce the practice of industrial relations to achieve harmonious co-existence between the govemment and labour unions in Nigeria: • The govemment should reconsider its role and scale back its intervention and interference in labour union movements through policy review. • The govemment as a state actor should restrict itself to involvement in industrial relations through regulations to promote an industrial relations practice where inter- related key stakeholders manage institutionalized relationships. • The labour unions should institutionalize internal corporate govemance mechanisms to manage their structure and internal affairs for transparency, accountability, and productivity. • As employers o f labour, the govemment should submit itself to the principles and ethos of collective bargaining and always explore alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in conflicts. • Key stakeholders should institutionalize self-goveming mechanisms devoid of interference for harmonious mutual co-existence, stability in the polity, and economic prosperity in Nigeria. 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