BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. Research article 2582-0214 RELIGION AND THE NIGERIAN STATE Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) (Department of Religious Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.) Email: mepaiyedas@gmail.com A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article history: One interesting character observed about religion in Nigeria is Received 19 April 2019 Accepted 18 May 2019 that it has played both the anabolic and catabolic roles in the society. It Available online 22 May „19 has been used as a catalyst for building up as well as instrument for demolishing peaceful coexistence of the citizens of the country. Keywords: Religion, Christianity, Historical evidences attest to the fact that religious resurgence Islam, Nigerian State. most especially in the northern part of the country led to violent riots that claimed the lives of more than 100,000 Christians and Muslims within a space of 34 years (1977 and 2011). From examination carried out on the perennial incidence of religio-political crises in Nigeria, factors responsible include the missionary spirit of the Christian faith which the Muslims could not tolerate; persistent attempts to nationalize sectional interest; the surreptitious use of religion by the government to achieve economic or political advantages and the reluctance to accept a change in certain areas. Having considered the effects of religious crises on the psyche of the citizens, the paper recommends that Nigerians must come to terms with the religious plurality of the country and the imperatives of secularity. Harmonious coexistence demands sacrifice from various religious groups within the state while attitudinal re-engineering is recommended at all levels of religious and political leadership. . Author(s) retain the copyright of this article ©2019 Publishedby VEDA Publications This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creative commons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 20 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. I. INTRODUCTION religion of peace and that this is conveyed in 1 the 99 names of Allah. A similar vein Jesus Going down the memory lanes, one is Christ and his Jewish followers were fond of confronted with the fact that the Nigerian saluting people with the expression shalom State has experienced series of religious leka. The word “Shalom” and the Arabic violence. However, the current cognate YSHLAM both mean peace. But that preponderance increase in the acts of cold- peace is eluding Nigerian society because of blooded terrorism, kidnapping, rampart the activities of adherents of both organised violence and virulent ideological Christianity and Islam which is unimaginable insurgency by religious fanatics in recent and contradictory. times has made the citizens of Nigeria as well as nationals of other countries Therefore, it is pertinent to make vulnerable to attacks. Nigeria is now a some clarifications of the concepts, Religion country where some religious fundamentalist and Nigerian State. movements kill innocent people in the name (a) Religion of religion. The new nihilists shed blood 2 persistently as long as everyone in Nigeria According to Dada Adelowo, refuses to embrace their ideology or religious religion has no specific definition because ideals. It is imperative to make a reference to any attempt to do so leads to further the unpleasant demand of a religious sect argumentation. Although this view was popularly known as Boko Haram (Yusufiyya) shared by other scholars, yet some basic who laid among other conditions for the truths are inherent in the concept. The cessation of terrorism, the conversion of the concept religion is a relative word or President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria personal experiential phenomenon. More to Islam and that Nigerians must accept its importantly, religion deals with the issue of own brand of Islam or else the country will Ultimate Reality which is beyond complete continue to experience upheavals. human understanding. Some common features of religions should be identified. S. Besides this sect, there are other Awoniyi asserts that there are beliefs, nefarious religious insurgents whose supernatural beliefs, a supernatural life, attempts to enforce their religious ideologies secular world-views, the destiny of man, the have sparked off crises that pose a threat to meaning of history, sacredness, worship, and national security. What is more disturbing is 3 ethics. Nigeria is playing host to the fact that the perennial incidence of religious crises emanate from adherents of 1 M.O. Ekpenyong, 2005. Beware of gods: monotheistic religions which preach peaceful Economics, Ethics and Politics for National coexistence in the society. Could it be that Development. Ibadan: Daily Graphics Nigerian these fundamentalists lack sufficient Ltd., p93. 2 E.D. Adelowo, 2001.Methods and Theories of understanding of their religions and the Religion. Ado Ekiti: Olugbenro Press and constitutional provision that Nigeria is a Publishers, p.2 3 S. Awoniyi, 2003. Religion and Society in secular state? Micheal Ekpenyong asserts Nigeria since Independence in Essays in that Islam is etymologically and doctrinally a Contemporary Nigeria History. Akungba-Akoko: First Academic Publishers, p351. 21 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. Christianity and Islam alongside the subdivided into the predominantly catholic indigenous religion. It should be noted that it east and the west, with an almost equal is from the mission-oriented religions that number of Muslims and Christians. The conflicts always emanate. There are other traditional religion has the rare quality of belief systems such as Asian-oriented belief accommodation and tolerance to other systems, secular ideologies or world-views religions. It is not a proselytizing religion in in the country. Odumuyiwa in his own the sense that it does not go forth seeing perspective affirms that: converts neither does it pick offence when deserted by its adherents nor assume that its There is no society that is devoid object of worship is superior. For its docility, of religion and religious the religion has remained the recruiting activities. Even in an atheistic ground for other religious groups. society, it is presumed that such society recognizes the place of This is not the case with Islam and religion believing that there is no Christianity, both of which not only arrogate 4 God is a kind of belief. themselves the status of being the sole dispensers of salvation but enjoin their This assertion implies that religion is an adherents to canvas for followership. For the inescapable phenomenon in human society Christians, the catalyst for missionary zeal is because religion exists and it is practised in derived from Mathew 28:19 (NIV): “Go ye society, and every society has a religion as a therefore and make disciples of all moral sustainer with the view to building a nations…” In Islam, you find such passages well-ordered society. Scharf establishes that, as: religion has a pervading, continuing and 5 universal power in all societies. It is in this Fight against such as those who sense that Durkheim once said that “the have been given the scriptures voice of man is the void God” (vox populi and believe no in Allah, nor the vox dei). last day, who do not forbid what Allah and His apostles have Lending credence to the discussion, forbidden, and do not embrace Ehianu says that by the time of Nigeria‟s the true faith, until they pay independence in 1960, the country was tribute out of hand and are utterly drawn more or less along religious zones of subdued. influence, namely, the largely Muslim north 6 and the Christian south. The latter was Quran 9:29 Another passage admonishes 4 E.A.Odumuyiwa, 2001. “A Religious but th Criminal Society – Any Remedy? 19 Inaugural Muslims thus: Lecture Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye Tuesday, 27th February, 2001 p.3. It is he who has sent forth His 5 B.R.Scharf, 1970.The Sociological Study of messenger with guidance and the true Religion, London: Hutchinson faith to make it triumphant over all PublishersCompany Ltd. pp. 82-87. See also Dzurgba, A God and Ceasar pp. 42-43. 6 Wilson Ehianu, 2012. Religious Crises in Nigeria Development. Ibadan: Department of Religious and their Implications for Good Governance and Studies, University of Ibadan. p 127. 22 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. religions, however much the idolaters the advantages which numerical superiority may dislike it. confers in the field of politics as religion and politics have become somewhat of a Siemens Quran 9:33 twins. The aftermath of the cut throat In carrying out these mandates, competition between Christians and Muslims adherents of these religions have in their is the emergence of monstrous religious frenzied zeal employed such means as crises. politics of exclusion, intimidation, blackmail, (b) The Nigerian State manipulation of ethnic sentiments and violence in an attempt to out- do each other The setting up of the Constitution and gain the ascendancy. Thus, conflicts of Drafting Committee (CDC) in 1976 was part varying magnitude continually ensue, due to of the efforts of the Murtala regime to pursue the teaching of these religions on the one the programme of the return to civil rule by hand, and human foibles on the other. Islam, the military administration. A draft for instance, is theocentric in its doctrine. constitution was ready on the 20th August, This means that it does not draw any line 1976 and the government threw it for debates between religion and state, spiritual and and comments around the country. Then, at mundane affairs. Both are fused and this juncture, the Sharia debate at the entrusted in the hand of one man who is Constituent Assembly (CA) in 1977/78 believed to be Allah‟s representative. marked an important landmark in ushering 7 Besides, in Quran 4:59 Muslims are enjoined religion into Nigerian politics till today. It to aspire to rule themselves wherever they was evident that the debate on Sharia may be according to Allah‟s laid down laws. continued to dominate the political landscape beyond the political programme of 1979. The challenges of political domination by adherents necessitated the In consonance with the second birth of the Christian Social Movement Vatican Council Declaration on religious (CSMN), an organ described by Asemota as freedom, the Nigeria‟s 1979 and the the socio-political wing of the Christian suspended 1989 constitutions enshrined the Association of Nigeria. This organ is saddled protection of freedom of thought, conscience with the responsibilities of mobilizing and and religion thus: conscientizing Christians on their religious a. Prohibition of a state religion, that is, and political rights. It is to complement CAN a particular religion should not be on social issues and to act as its think thank taken as an official religion in the on political matters. country; From the foregoing, it appears b. Everyone has the freedom to practice obvious that the two major religious groups their religion according to their in Nigeria-Muslims and Christians have conviction; pursued parochial interests. There has been desperation to win converts not just because 7 M.H. KuKah,1993. Religion, Politics and Power it is a religious duty, but more as a result of in Northern Nigeria, Ibadan:Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 115-120. 23 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. c. While teaching of religion is allowed shall not adopt any religion as a State 9 in schools, there should be no Religion. compulsion in matters of religious In the light of the above, it is education. pertinent to reiterate that Nigeria as a nation However, the secular formulation of state is essentially pluralistic with three the religion vis-à-vis state relationship has major religious traditions (African been the subject of controversy particularly Traditional Religion, Islam and Christianity) between Christians and Muslims. While apart from several other faiths such as Baha‟I Christians interpret the constitution to mean Faith, Hare Krishna, Sat Guru Maharaji that Nigeria is a secular state and consider among others competing for relevance and this appropriate given the country‟s recognition. So for a particular religious sect heterogeneity, Muslims see church/state to be advocating a State religion is separation as Judaeo-Christian Western something that baffles any rational mind. It doctrine. The Grand Khadi of Abuja declared is absolutely necessary to note that religious in 1994 that church/state separation is not Pluralism is not the enemy of the stability of acceptable in Islam, and that one provision the Nigeria state, because religious pluralism of the constitution does not make Nigeria a is the normal state of affairs. secular state. The Muslims often refer to the II. RELIGIOUS CRISES IN preamble to the constitution which invokes HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE the guiding image of a harmonious state Historically, the interplay between “under God”. Also, the Muslims regard religious pluralism, security and common law as laden with Christian ideals development in Nigeria has been a sour one and doctrines. They further argue that in the sense that there have been escalations Sunday is a work-free day of rest in contrast of conflicts in the nation since the 80s. The to Muslim Friday prayer day. Again, they conflicts have been ethno-religious in nature. submit that the cross is used as a symbol of As Muhammed notes that since 1977/78 medical and health services; why not the Sharia controversies at the Constituent 8 Islamic crescent? Assembly (CA), the issue of religion has The Nigerian State is a pluralistic increasingly plays significant role in both society with diverse religious traditions and a domestic and foreign affairs of the nation. A secular constitution that prohibits a State historical analysis of ethno-religious religion as contained in section 10 of the violence in the nation by Oden reveals that 1999 constitution, which states that „the religious pluralism breeds religious conflicts Government of the Federation or of a State and this has had grave consequences on the nation security and development. The following are the historical overview of 8 9 K. Boyl,et al Freedom of Religion p. 53 See also Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999. The 1999 the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Nigeria 1979 p.16. Abuja: Government Printers. 24 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. major religious conflicts that have taken were killed; churches, mosques and place: public places were destroyed. 1. Kano religious riots: 18th -24th 7. Ethno-religious conflict of Zango- December, 1980 led by one Kataf: 6th February and 15th-17th Maitatsine group. Both Muslims and May, 1992. These were community Christians, numbering about 4,177 clashes with religious under-tones. persons were killed and there was Christians, Muslims, six policemen wanton destruction of private and and two inspectors of police were public properties. victims; casualties were put at 300 persons by government source while 2. Maiduguri religious riots: 2nd-3rd independent sources recorded more October, 1982; led by Maitatsine. than 1,000 persons. Christians, non-indigenes and law enforcement agents were victims. 8. Kaduna (Sharia) riots: February and Places of worship were destroyed and May, 2000 where thousand of lives about 450 persons were killed. were lost; five manufacturing firms were closed down, propertiesworth 3. Kaduna religious riots sequel to hundreds of millions of naira were Kafanchan riots: 8th-11th March lost generally. 1987; Christians and law enforcement agents were victims; 9. Jos ethno-religious riot of 8th-9th casualties were estimated at over 200 September 2000; many lives were persons with burning of churches and lost and properties worth millions of other buildings. Naira were destroyed and the Plateau government imposed a dawn to dust 4. Zaira religious riots: 10th March, curfew. 1987; Christians, non-indigenes and law enforcement agents were victims; 10. Muslim youths‟ demonstrations casualties at more than 200 persons against a crusade in Ilorin in 2003 in addition to burning of churches, resulted in burning of churches. hotels and dwelling houses. 11. Jos ethno-religious riots of 28th -29th 5. Bauchi religious riots: 1st April, November, 2008: thousand of lives 1991; launched by Muslim youths. and property worth millions of Naira Christians, non-indigenes and police were lost and the government once were victims, between 50 and 100 again had to impose a dusk to dawn 10 were recorded as casualties, places of curfew in Jos. worship and properties were destroyed. 6. Kano religious riots of 14th October, 10 L.E. Odeh 2008. Historical Analysis of Ethno- 1991; launched by Muslim youth Religious Violence in Nigeria in the Relevance of fundamentalists. About 500 persons Religion in Contemporary Society (Eds.) R.A. Raji et al. A Publication of the Nigerian Association for the Study of Religions. 25 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. Although, there is lack of accurate states in reprisal attacks. Nigeria once again, records it has been estimated that from 2009 almost came into a brink of collapse. to February 2012 nearly a thousand lives Chief Olusegun Obasanjo aptly (935) have been lost in some 164 attacks stated in the aftermath of the Shariah Crisis from the Boko Haram sect alone. The report in Kaduna thus: also estimates that 550 people were killed in attacks by Boko Haram, often targeting Any adherent of either religion would 11 police officers and government officials. thus be failing in his faith if He or she would resort to violence, destruction Gwamna went further to document of life and property. It is foolishness recent religious conflicts in Nigeria where he to trust in promoting our faith or referred specifically to the Shariah crisis of religion by violence or in protesting 2000 in Kaduna, Miss World Pageant against other people‟s faith or protest, Bin Laden‟s riots and the “Cartoon 13 religion by violenc. 12 riots” in Nigeria. He posited that the exit of the military and the subsequent transition Gwamna added the effect thatOsamaBin into a civilian democracy in 1999 provided Laden‟s attack on the United States of the platform for the re-introduction of America have on Nigeria whereby he posited Shariah in some Northern parts of Nigeria. thatin the aftermath of the 9/11, United Again, this opened the floodgates for States of America under George W. Bush opposition and renewed debates embarked on aerial bombardment of characteristic of the past years. While Afghanistan to flush out the Taliban regime. Christians expressed familiar arguments in Some Muslims in some parts of the North defence of Nigeria‟s secular status as demonstrated in solidarity with Bin Laden, in enshrined in Nigeria‟s constitution, and fears Kano, Gusau and Kaduna. Some minority of Shariah likely to affect non-Muslims, Muslims in the North had openly 14 Muslims argued on the contrary, that Shariah commended the 9/11 attacks. In February, was part and parcel of Islam and was meant 2002, a suspected Al-Qa‟ida member was for Muslims only. arrested in Gamboru, Ngala, Borno State, just as seven Pakinstanis were arrested in Ifo, Zamfara State launched Shariah Ogun State suspected to be AlQa‟ida amidst foreign Islamic admirers. But the members. It is believed that Bin Laden and attempt to introduce same in Kaduna state Al-Qa‟ida have many sympathizers in created crisis of tremendous consequences. Nigeria and remains a hero among a sizeable Several people were killed and property number of Nigerian Muslims.Apart from destroyed. The crisis spread to some Eastern this, protests greeted the Miss World Pagenat Contest scheduled to take place in Nigeria on 11 Oluwaseun Bamidele 2012.” Boko Haram 7th December, 2002, organized by Silverbird Catastrophic Terrorism – An Albatross to Productions because some Muslims National Peace, Security and Sustainable Development” in Nigeria Journal of Sustainable associated the event with bikinis and other Development in Africa Volume 14, No. 1, 13 2012,p. 4. Newswatch, March 6, 2000, p.19. 12 14 Tell, No. 22, June 2, 2005, p. 22. The News, 03, March 2003, p. 21. 26 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. forms of blatant sex, something that was cancelled and moved to London, and 15 considered offensive to them. Boer notes eventually, in a very ironic twist, Miss that to Muslims, it was clearly seen as part of Turkey of the Islamic Republic of Turkey, the ongoing alleged Christian campaign to eventually won the 2002 Miss World 16 undermine and destroy Islam. The final Contest. blow is captured by Boer thus: The question that readily comes to And then came the real blow- mind is, is the Miss World beauty Contest a probably one of the most famous Christian thing with Muslims participating? gaffes in history of Christian-Muslim Or was the crisis a combination of religion relations from Isioma Daniel, an and politics? innocent young female reporter for Finally, the religious riots of Thisday, who had little understanding February, 2006 in Nigeria, were sparked off of Nigerian Muslim dynamics. A as a result of a blasphemous cartoon on Christian from the far south who had Prophet Muhammad published by a Dutch spent time in England as a reporter, newspaper, Tyllands Posten, in September she could hardly be expected to have 2005. Similar protests had occurred in her pulse on the situation. In defence Afghanistan, Libya, Pakistan, Indonesia, of the pageant, she light-heartedly Somalia, Syria, Lebanon, and Iran, with suggested that prophet Muhammad minimal fatalities. Nigeria therefore recorded would not have objected to the event. the highest causalities. In what started as a He probably would have married one peaceful demonstration, Maiduguri, Katsina of the beauties! That was more than and Bauchi got engulfed into a near 17 Muslims could take. conflagration, leading to the deaths of many Gwamna stated that Daniel‟s write- people and destruction of property. An up sparked up reactions from Council of estimate of 43 churches, five hotels, several Imams and of Ulamas in Kaduna, Dr. homes, shops and vehicles were set ablaze, Ibrahim Datti, President of the Supreme while over 58 people were killed, including a Council for Shariah in Nigeria, and others. Catholic priest of the St. Rita‟s Catholic 18 The Deputy Governor of Zamfara State, Church. Reprisal attacks took place in Mamuda Aliyu Shinkafi (then acting as Onitsha and Nnewi where mosques were Governor), pronounced a fatwa on Isioma burn and unspecified number of people was Daniel and Thisday was to be boycotted by killed. Muslims. Riots broke out in Kaduna and In Bauchi, what started at the Abuja, leaving a trail of deaths and government Day Secondary School at the destruction of property. The event itself was Army Barracks, between a female teacher who allegedly seized a copy of the Holy 15 Jan H. Boer, “Nigeria Muslims and the Miss Qu‟ran from a female student, snowballed World Pageant,” TCNN Research Bulletin, No. 39, March, 2003, Bukuru, Jos, pp.38-39. into a religious crisis. The incident at the 16 Jan H. Boer. pp.38-39. 17 Jan H. Boer. p.39. 18 Sunday Sun, February 26, 2006, p.6. 27 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. school was only a spark of what had been religious pilgrimages.Every year the federal bottled up waiting to explode. and state governments allocate tens of millions of naira to their Christian and III. INTERNAL POLITICS AND Muslim Pilgrimage Commissions. Since EXTERNAL CONNECTIONS IN \RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA travelling to Mecca or Jerusalem on Nigeria‟s leaders have long perfected pilgrimage is a personal demonstration of the art of using religion to play politics faith, it should be funded by the individual because religion seems to be Nigeria‟s seeking to fulfill that responsibility. The biggest industry, and the second biggest government has no business subsidizing export industry after oil, ahead even of religious enterprise. Nollywood. Almost everyone in the country Nigerian Presidents and Governors will openly and fervently identify with either were often seen in religious camps and of Christianity or Islam (a good number will function whereby trying to paint the perfect expertly combine this with a traditional picture of humility and submission to God, belief system). whereas their calculation was aimed at Right there at the seat of power in putting a seal on their presumed control of Abuja, the power of religion can be clearly votes of gullible citizens. seen because conspicuously positioned near Somehow it appears as if the the presidential residences are a Chapel and a incumbent President of Nigeria has started to Mosque. be overzealous with his religion. In recent In April 2010, weeks after an ailing months he has made it a point of duty to be President Yar‟Adua was smuggled back into photographed in churches. Every week Nigeria, the „cabal‟ running Nigeria in his there‟s a photo of him in a church, or a name arranged an excursion to the gathering of Bishops, accompanied by a Presidential Villa for two groups of people: news headline and story quoting him Christian and Islamic clerics. Their speaking religionese; thanking God for assignment was to come and bear witness to giving him wisdom or thanking the Church the resurrection of a man whom we had all for their ceaseless prayers, without which presumed permanently incapacitated. They Nigeria would not be what it is today. In went in and came out, but we could tell from October 2013 he travelled to Jerusalem, and their muted enthusiasm that all was not well. his media team bombarded us with photos of But it was a brilliant move on the part of the him praying and being prayed for. then First Lady and her clique. They knew And then in February, 2014, the that if anyone was going to help convince News Agency of Nigeria quoted him as Nigerians that the president was doing well, saying, at the Dunamis Gospel Church in it would be religious leaders. They know that Garki, Abuja: Nigerians don‟t query their religious leaders. This year, we have decided that from Nigeria must also be one of the few now onward, until I leave the State secular countries that devote substantial House, every last Sunday of the amounts of state funds to sponsoring 28 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. month I will go to different churches. growing religious intolerance that we have The reasons are very oblivious, not witnessed over the years. Several because if I worship in the State explanations have been offered in respect of House I am not worshipping God… the forms and levels of external influence to But I feel that it is good for me to go this growing trend. The so-called “clash of round and continue to appreciate civilizations” today, has divided the world what our brothers and sisters have into the “West and the Rest”. Samuel P. 19 been doing. Huntington had predicted rightly when he stated that, “the dangerous clashes of the Each one of these actions, by itself, future are likely to arise from the interaction doesn‟t mean much. But put them all of Western arrogance, Islam intolerance and together and you get the picture of a 20 Sinic assertiveness. president who seems to be trying to „work‟ religion for 2015 Today, words such as Islamophobia, Westophobia, and Christophobia, During the Presidential election characterize global Christian-Muslim campaign in 2002, Muhammadu Buhari was relations, with dire consequences for quoted in a news headlines as saying that Christian-Muslim co-existence in Nigeria. Muslims should only vote for Muslims. That Peter Riddell defines Westophobia as expectedly drew a backlas. But Buhari entrenched and endemically hostile attitudes denied ever saying that, and Hassan Matthew to the west and to perceived cultural traits of Kukah, today the Catholic Bishop of Sokoto the west, while Islamophobia is the fear of came out staunchly in his defence. 21 hatred of Muslims and Islam. Christophobia As the elections approach we will is hatred or fear of Christianity and Christ. see intense scrambling for photo-ops in Vinoth Ramachandra put this tension churches and mosques, by politicians who thus: know that the quickest way to a Nigerian‟s heart is through his or her religious leaders. If there is an Islamic threat, many They will invade the religious houses Arabs and Muslims believed there looking pious and saying all the right things, has also been a western threat of and asking for prayers.But we all know the political, economic, and religio- truth. This has nothing to do with piety. If cultural imperialism, a political they were half as pious as they pretend to be occupation accompanied by cultural Nigeria would be a better place to live in invasion. As a result, many in the than where it is today. Muslim world, like their counterparts in the West, opt for easy anti- There is no gainsaying the fact that imperialist slogans and demonization. there are external connections to growing religious intolerance in Nigeria. As we had 20 Samuel P. Huntington, 1996. The Clash of noted earlier, external factors underlie some Civilizations and the Remaking of World religious crises in Nigeria, contributing to Order,New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 183. 21 Peter G. Riddell and Peter Cotterell, 2003.Islam in Conflict: Past Present and 19 The Punch. March 24, 2014 p.23. Future,Leicester:Inter-Varsity Press, p.172 29 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. At its worst, both sides have engaged Riddell on the other hand, recognizes two in a process of “mutual other factors of Muslim detest for the West 22 satanization”. in globalization and the conspiracy theory. On globalization, he states: Muslim‟s distaste and source of Westophobia arises from several factors, to It could be argued that Muslim include among others; United States‟ support opposition to globalization is driven for Israel‟s stance towards the Palestinians, by a dissatisfaction with the United States‟ contemptuous occupation of particular forms it takes, rather than Iraq and Afghanistan, and Western opposition to globalization per se. condemnation of Shariah. Sanusi Lamido Islamic globalization is desirable, 25 Sanusi puts it right, that, “the West speaks of Western globalization is not. Islam from a position of arrogance Thus, Islam is opposed to demanding not a dialogue but capitulation to globalization because they see in it, western 23 its values. He continues thus: values, which they hardly separate between The first problem with Western them. On conspiracy theory, Riddell notes: criticism of Shariah, in my view is Another more intangible yet powerful that it fails to take into account the factor in causing Muslim antipathy to wider global context of the perceived the West is the prevalence of confrontation between the West and conspiracy theorizing in much of the the Muslim world. The dominance of Muslim world. This is closely linked the US as the sole remaining power with issues of power and and its ideologically-inspired disempowerment. Up to 70 percent of promotion of the process of the world‟s rAefugees are Muslims globalization have led to a perception and some of the poorest countries in among Muslims that every criticism the world are predominantly Muslim. of the Muslim world from the West is Hence, the Muslim world has in fact, American-inspired. The truth, developed a tendency to attribute to be blunt, is that Muslims detest responsibility for economic, social, America because they believe, political problem to the world‟s rich America detests Islam and and powerful nations and societies. In 24 Muslims. today‟s world, wealth and power lie 26 predominantly in the West. From the foregoing therefore, it could be understood why Islam had responded to 22 Vinoth Ramachandra, 1999. Faiths in Conflict? the West in diverse forms. Some of these Leicester:Inter-Varsity Press, p. 19. 23 reactions have led to worldwide Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, 2005. “The West and the Rest: Reflections on the Intercultural Dialogue radicalization of Islamic groups such as: The About Shariah”, Philip Ostien, et al,Comparative Perspectives on Shariah in Nigeria, Spectrum 25 Books Limited Ibadan, p. 201. Peter G. Riddell, et al. p.159. 24 26 Sanusi Lamido Sanusi. p.201 Peter G. Riddell, et al. p.160. 30 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. Taliban, Al-Qa‟ida Network, Hamas, such as the New Nigerian, and Radio Muslim Brotherhood, Islamic Organization, Kaduna are the Hausa service of the British National Salvation Party, Islamic Salvation Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Voice of Front, Mujahid, Hizballah, Islamic Jihad, America (VOA), and Deutsche Welle. These 27 among others. Media outfits have particularly played negative roles during and after conflict Gwamna observed that the OIC had situations in Nigeria with very serious similarly been opposed by Christians in consequences to inter-religious harmony in 1986. It is within this same context that the Nigeria. Bin Laden, Miss World Pageant and the Cartoon Controversy, easily generated into IV. EFFECTS ON THE PSYCHE OF crisis in Nigeria, because of the western NIGERIAN SOCIETY attributes attached to them, which made it There is no controverting the fact that easy to mobilize Muslim support and religious crises have negative implications solidarity. on governance, security and development of Christians also see external Nigeria. A number of economists in the connections to Muslim push for Shariah country have observed that whereas the despite Muslims‟ repeated assurances that bureaucracy in Nigeria should be concerned Shariah will not affect non-Muslims in with development matters, it has since anyway. But Christians see “misplaced independence in 1960 been saddled with aggression” on them by Muslims in most issues of stability of the state which is crises, than to the West, their perceived continually threatened by religious and “enemy”. ethnic conflicts. The consequences of this situation on the nation‟s bureaucracy are Some other scholars rather see the manifold. In the first place, concentration on “manipulation” of religion by the elite for stability issues will lead to further rigidity their political and economic interests. The and ossification of administrative so-called misplaced aggression” was 28 procedures. Secondly, turbulent times have exemplified in Bin Laden, Miss World resulted in the exodus of experienced hands. Pageant and Cartoon crisis, none, which Thirdly, as the political class uses their originated from Nigerian Christians. positions to further the interest of their A very major negative influence that religion, there is the tendency for the has emerged as a strong voice in fuelling bureaucracy to be hijacked and manipulated religious intolerance in Nigeria is the foreign along religious lines through appointments media. Added to some local media voices and promotions. For instance, between 1978 that have become notorious in creating –1999, but for the two years of justice tension and thereby exacerbating intolerance Irikefe‟s tenure, all the chief Justices of between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria, 28 A.O. Oronsaye, 1986. “Is the Nigerian Bureaucracy Developmental? Political 27 Ann Cooper and Elsie A. Mawwell (eds.), 2003. Considerations in Development Administration” Ismael: My Brother. Kaduna: Evangel Publishers in Benin Journal of Social Sciences Vol. No. 2. Ltd, p. 300 p110. 31 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. Nigeria were Muslims. Similarly, the Court recognized secular society. Franz of Appeal since its creation in 1976, 32 years corroborates this plea when he says that ago, has always had Muslims as President. “Absolutism leads to fundamentalism i.e. the The High Court of the Federal Capital conviction that one has the total truth with territory, Abuja, created in 1989, has always absolute certainty and that one can only 29 31 had the Chief Judge as a Muslim. In this accept it or be an unbeliever”. Akanbi, in scenario, even a genuine effort to mitigate support of this view states that if managed violence could be scuttled by bureaucrats properly “religious pluralism could serve as and politicians who profit from the status platform for peaceful coexistence and steady 32 quo. In fact, merit is played down while development in Nigeria”. Adherents of sectional or parochial interest is put over and religions can imbibe great religious truth above national goals and aspirations. After a from other religions that could result into the careful look at the bureaucracy in Nigeria, development of the state. For instance, if the Oronsaye concluded that “it is the political government had accepted the questions of instability, largely propped up introduction/institution of Islamic banking in by religious acrimony, which has become Nigeria, the Nigerian society would have institutionalized, that has accounted for the benefitted immensely from it. seeming inability of the public bureaucracy The statement of Sir Ahmadu Bello to perform its proper role as agent of when he reacted to Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe‟s development, where development is seen as suggestion for oneness is that there is unity nation building and improvement in the in diversity if religious pluralism can be 30 socio-economic welfare of the people”. harnessed correctly. V. RECOMMENDATION AND No let us understand our differences. CONCLUSION I am a Muslim and a Northerner. You This article has examined the crises are a Christian and an Easterner, by that religion has brought to the Nigerian state understanding our differences we can due to lack of understanding of tenets of 33 build unity in our country. faith by some religious sects, politicization of religion and of course external influence In addition, the political leaders on adherents of both sensitive religions in should note that governance is about Nigeria – Christianity and Islam. delivering high quality leadership to all The paper hereby recommends that 31 M.S. Franz, 2008. “Persecuted Minority Sects: given the heterogeneous nature of the What is Happening”? In Oasis International Studies. Roberto Fontolan (ed.), No. 8, p.62. Nigerian society, there is the need to abhor 32 J.O. Akannbi, 2013. “Religious Pluralism, forceful attempt by religious fundamentalists Security and National Development in Nigeria: Toward A Better Future”. A paper presented at to impose an ideology on a constitutionally Department of Religious Studies, University of Ibadan. p.7. 33 L.E. Odeh 2008. “Historical Analysis of Ethno- 29 S. Asemota, 2002. Winner All… No Looser, Religious Violence in Nigeria in the Relevance of Benin City: Christian Social Movement of Religion in Contemporary Society” (Eds.) R.A. Nigeria, p.8. Raji et al. A Publication of the Nigerian 30 A.O. Oronsaye, 1986. p.110. Association for the Study of Religions. 32 Mepaiyeda Solomon M. (Ph.D) IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBR RY BIBLICAL STUDIES JOURNAL (BSJ) http://www.biblicalstudies.in/ BSJ.2019; 1(1):20–33. citizens regardless of their religious Franz, M.S. 2008. “Persecuted Minority Sects: What is Happening”? In Oasis International inclination. Nigerian leaders will do the Studies. Roberto Fontolan (ed.), No. 8. country good if they keep their religious Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. 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