EFFECTS OF STORY GRAMMAR AND SOCRATIC SEMINAR INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PROSE IN LITERATURE-IN- ENGLISH IN OWERRI, NIGERIA BY MARY CHIZOMA OKERE Matric Number:66003 B. A. Ed. (Hons) English, M. A. (Communication and Language Arts), M. Ed. Language Education (Ibadan) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN OCTOBER, 2016 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION This is the Lord‟s doing and it is marvelous in our eyes. This work is dedicated first to God Almighty whose love and tender mercies to me are more than tongue can tell and to my sweet mother, Deaconess C. C Unaigwe who has unfailingly encouraged and prayed for me throughout this academic journey. 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ABSTRACT The study of Literature-in-English is aimed at the complete development of the learner with respect to literary appreciation. To achieve this goal, effective teaching and learning of drama, poetry and prose are important. The reports from public examination bodies in recent times revealed a prevailing under-achievement in the subject. This has been attributed to students‟ poor performance in and attitude to the prose genre in particular. Previous studies focused more on the use of cognitive and cooperative instructional strategies without considering the effects of text structure awareness and metacognitive instructional strategies. This study, therefore, determined the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. It also examined the moderating effects of verbal ability and learning style. Reader-response and structuralist theories provided the framework while the pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design with 3 x 3 x 3 factorial matrix was adopted. Participants in the study were 243 senior secondary school two (SSS II) students drawn from six purposively selected secondary schools in Owerri. Six intact classes of SSS II students were used and randomly assigned to each of treatment and control groups. Instruments used were: Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement (r = 0.88), Verbal Ability (r = 0.85) tests, Students‟ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English (r = 0.91), Learning Style Preference (r = 0.81) questionnaires and instructional guides. Data were analysed using Analysis of Covariance and Scheffe Post-hoc test at 0.05 level of significance. There was a significant effect of treatment on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature- 2 in-English (F(2,215) = 3.32;  = 0.03). Socratic seminar instructional strategy group had the highest posttest achievement mean score ( = 29.71), followed by control group ( = 27.35) and story grammar group ( = 26.84) respectively. Similarly, there was a significant main 2 effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 3.31;  = 0.03). Socratic seminar group has higher posttest mean attitude score ( = 56.76) when compared to control and story grammar groups respectively. There were no significant main effects of verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. The two-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English was significant (F(4,215) = 2 3.57;  = 0.06) but not on attitude. The two-way interaction effect of treatment and learning style, verbal ability and learning style and the three-way interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English were not significant. Socratic seminar instructional strategy was effective in enhancing achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English in Owerri, Nigeria. Therefore, Literature-in- English teachers should adopt Socratic seminar instructional strategy for improved learning outcomes. Keywords: Story grammar, Socratic seminar instructional strategy, Prose in Literature-in- English, Owerri, Nigeria Word count: 457 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My most sincere gratitude goes to my thesis supervisor, Dr. F. O Ezeokoli. Sir, I‟m not sure where to begin. It is somewhat impossible to convey with words how much you contributed to the successful completion of this work. Your style of supervision is exceptional. It inspired and challenged me in ways I never would have imagined before starting this programme. Additionally, the patience you exhibited in the course of this work gave me a sense of confidence that enabled me to complete this work. I give special thanks to Prof. O. Oha whose dedication and conscientiousness in reading my work at every stage guided me so expertly. Sir, your constructive criticisms added quality to this work. I am equally indebted to all my lecturers in the department most especially Prof. Akinsola, Prof. Kolawole, Dr. Fakeye, Dr. Araromi and Dr. Ukoh who in one way or the other contributed to this work whether it was to make input into the research instruments used for data collection for the thesis, to offer words of encouragement or to inquire about my progress on the programme from time to time. I remain grateful for all your concern. I also want to express my gratitude to Prof. Adewale, Dr. M. N. Odinko, Dr. Enu, Dr. Felix Ibode and Dr. S. Alieme for their contributions to the successful completion of this work. Although this journey has been a stressful one, your readiness to explain certain statistical concepts and words of encouragement kept me going. I am truly grateful for all you have done for me. To my friends and colleagues on the programme– Wikina, Evelyn, Onyekwere, Dr. Chikwendu, Bateye, Dr. Awolere and other colleagues too numerous to mention, I wish to register my unreserved gratitude for your friendship and for being there for me as we all embarked on this lengthy academic journey. Your emotional support helped me get through a number of difficult times. I must equally express my gratitude to, Pastors D Nwakuna and Davies and the entire members of University Baptist Church, FUTO who have helped me both spiritually and 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY physically throughout this academic endeavor. Your prayers, good wishes and words of encouragement helped in many ways you cannot imagine. My heartfelt thanks also go to my sweet sisters– Evang. Stella Unaigwe and Mrs Grace Mbilitam and my brother-in-law, Nathaniel. All of you have made this journey a lot easier. You have always been there for me throughout this stressful process. Thank you for always believing in me and encouraging me to keep going. Your support has been invaluable. This section will not be complete without my saying a heartfelt thank you to the following people who helped in the field work: Dr. R. Nwachukwu, Mr. Chiaka, Mrs. Dorothy Okoro, Ms. Joy Amadi, Mr. David Anaele, Mrs. B. Ekechukwu, Mrs. Nnenna Obiako and others too numerous to mention. I truly appreciate your contribution to the timely and successful completion of the field work. My greatest appreciation goes to my wonderful husband, Rev Emmanuel Okere, who has always encouraged and supported me in all my endeavours. I will eternally remain grateful for your patience and endurance especially during the nights when I did not feel like cooking; for weekends when I felt frustrated and tired from reading and from working on my thesis and above all for tolerating the years I spent pursuing this passion of mine– getting a Ph.D. You have always reminded me that I can achieve whatever goal I set. I want to say that I appreciate you more than you will ever know. Lastly, I say a big thank you to my lovely baby and best friend, Michelle, whose arrival inspired me to “dream big” and set many more goals for myself. Baby, your company kept me going even when I felt that I could not. The times I got angry with you for either tearing or scribbling on my manuscripts gave me the motivation to persevere. Really, those moments have provided the grammar for my story. 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I certify that this study was carried out by Mary Chizoma OKERE (Matric. No. 66003) for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education in the Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria under my supervision. ________________________ _________________________ Supervisor Date F. O. Ezeokoli Ph.D B.Ed. (Hons) English, M.Ed., Ph. D. (Ibadan) Reader, Dept. of Teacher Education Faculty of Education University of Ibadan, Nigeria 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Title Page i Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Certification vi Table of Contents vii List of Tables x List of Figures xi List of Abbreviations xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 14 1.3 Hypotheses 15 1.4 Scope of the Study 16 1.5 Significance of the Study 16 1.6 Definition of Terms 17 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.0 Theoretical Framework 19 2.1.1 Reader-Response Theory 19 2.1.2 Structuralist Theory 21 2.2 Nature of Prose in Literature-in-English 23 2.3 Educational Values of Literature 25 2.4 Approaches to Teaching Literature-in-English 29 2.5 Story Grammar Instructional Strategy: Uses 37 2.6 Origin and Benefits of Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy 39 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.7 Text Structure Awareness and Reading Comprehension 41 2.8 Studies on Literature-in-English Teaching 44 2.9 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Academic Achievement 49 2.10 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Students‟ Attitude to Learning 52 2.11 Studies on Learning Style and Students‟ Academic Achievement 52 2.12 Learning Style and Attitude to Learning 55 2.13 Studies on Story Grammar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement 59 2.14 Studies on Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement 64 2.15 Appraisal of Literature Review 69 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design 71 3.2 Variables of the Study 72 3.3 Selection of Participants 73 3.4 Research Instruments 74 3.4.1 Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test 74 3.4.2 Verbal Ability Test 75 3.4.3 Students‟ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English Questionnaire 76 3.4.4 Learning Style Preference Questionnaire 76 3.4.5 Research Assistants‟ Rating Scale 77 3.5 Story Grammar Strategy Instructional Guide 77 3.6 Socratic Seminar Strategy Instructional Guide 78 3.7 Modified Lecture Strategy Instructional Guide 79 3.8 Research Procedure 80 3.8.1 Selection and Training of Research Assistants 80 3.8.2 Administration of Pretest 80 3.8.3 Provision of Treatment to Experimental and Control Groups 82 3.8.4 Administration of Posttest 83 3.9 Method of Data Analysis 84 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Presentation of Results 85 4.2 Discussion of Findings 94 4.2.1 Main effects of treatment and students‟ achievement in prose in Literature- in-English 94 4.2.2 Main effects of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English 95 4.2.3 Main effects of verbal ability on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English 96 4.2.4 Main effects of learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English 97 4.2.5 Interaction effects 98 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary of Findings 99 5.2 Implications of Findings 100 5.3 Conclusion 101 5.4 Recommendations 101 5.5 Contributions of the Study to Literature Education 102 5.6 Limitations of the Study 102 5.7 Suggestions for further Study 103 REFERENCES 104 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test 128 Appendix 2 Verbal Ability Test 130 Appendix 3 Learning Style Preference Questionnaire 135 Appendix 4 Students‟ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English Questionnaire 139 Appendix 5 Research Assistants‟ Rating Scale 141 Appendix 6 Scoring Guide for Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test 142 Appendix 7 Scoring Guide for Verbal Ability Test 146 Appendix 8 Lesson Notes 148 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Appendix 9 Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet 178 Appendix 10 Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide 179 Appendix 11 Story Mapping Sheet 181 Appendix 12 Story Grammar for The Old Man and the Sea 182 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Analysis of Literature-in-English Mock Results for 2012/2013 Session Table 1.2: Analysis of Literature-in-English Mock Results for 2013/2014 Session Table 1.3: Stein and Glenn‟s Story grammar components and definitions Table 3.1: A Representation of the 3x3x3 factorial matrix Table 3.2: Test Blueprint for Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test Table 4.1: Summary of ANCOVA of posttest prose in Literature-in-English achievement scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Table 4.2: Estimated Marginal Mean for posttest achievement scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style. Table 4.3: Scheffé Post-hoc test of prose in Literature achievement scores by treatment Table 4.4: Summary of ANCOVA of posttest scores of students‟ attitude to prose in Literature- in-English by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Table 4.5: Estimated Marginal Means for posttest attitude scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style. Table 4.6: Scheffé Post-hoc test of post attitude scores by treatment 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1: Freytag‟s Triangle of Narrative Structure Fig. 3.1: A Representation of Variables of the Study Fig. 4.1: Interaction effects of Treatment and Verbal Ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS WAEC The West African Examinations Council SSS Senior Secondary School ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance EMM Estimated Marginal Mean SGS Story Grammar Strategy SSS Socratic Seminar Strategy MLS Modified Lecture Strategy PLEAT Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test SAPLEQ Students‟ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English Questionnaire VAT Verbal Ability Test LSPQ Learning Style Preference Questionnaire RARS Research Assistants Rating Scale SGSIG Story Grammar Strategy Instructional Guide SSSIG Socratic Seminar Strategy Instructional Guide MLSIG Modified Lecture Strategy Instructional Guide 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Literature-in-English is one of the subjects studied at the junior and senior secondary school levels of education in Nigeria. At the junior secondary school level it is integrated into the English language curriculum while it is a subject on its own at the senior secondary. Although designated a non-vocational elective, it is a prerequisite for admission into tertiary institutions for courses such as law, music, mass communication, theatre arts, among others. The contribution of Literature-in-English in achieving an all-round development of learners which education the world over aims at may have necessitated its inclusion in the school curriculum. It is one of the school subjects that contribute greatly to the realisation of Nigeria‟s national educational goals that comprise the inculcation of the type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society. Others are the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around, the acquisition of appropriate skills, the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competencies. These national goals are designed to equip the individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society (National policy on education, 2004). Through the study of Literature-in-English, students are prepared for active living in the society. Literature-in-English, as a subject of study, is sub-divided into three genres namely: drama, poetry and prose. Among these genres, prose is often regarded as a popular and easy-to- read literary genre. This is probably because the linguistic structure of most of the sub- genres of prose in Literature-in-English is closer to the language of everyday life than those of drama and poetry. According to Bamisaiye (1982), students prefer prose in Literature-in- English to poetic and dramatic literature because, students have been given short stories and prose versions of plays right from the junior classes. Apart from that, their textbooks in other subjects are written in prose form. To this end, Bamisaiye concluded that because students see prose writing all the time, they would rather read prose writings than other forms of writing. However, that prose writing is seen in many areas of writing does not make it easier to read or more popular among students than other genres of Literature-in- English. Narrative prose and in fact all other forms of prose are about creating the proper 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY effect on the reader. Oftentimes, one of the things that hinder that effect is complexity which arises from the author‟s diction. Some books are abstract because the author used abstract rather than concrete words. Another thing that makes a prose text complex is the narrative technique employed by the author. When a novelist employs stream of consciousness, a reader may find it difficult to tell who is who and who is saying or thinking what. To this end, a reader will find such a prose text intellectually difficult. Similarly, that prose is more popular among students than drama or poetry is subject to debate. It is known that right from pre-school years children have always enjoyed nursery rhymes which are forms of poetry. At this stage they could recite lines of poems more easily than they could read texts in other forms of writing. Again, most forms of poetry are short. This tends to make students to love poetry because a topic whether complicated or simple could be dealt with in few words or lines. The teaching of prose in Literature-in-English is aimed at the complete development of the learner which embraces the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains. This is evident from the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) specified objectives of teaching prose in Literature-in-English in schools as stipulated in the Senior School Certificate Examination Syllabus for 2002 – 2005. The objectives are: 1. To expose the learners through reading, to varied valuable experiences, real and imaginative, local and world-wide which may contribute to their emotional, social and moral development. 2. To inculcate in the learners through interesting reading the love for extensive and continued pleasurable reading for its own sake. 3. To develop in the learners the ability to think critically leading to adequate judgement. 4. To aid the learning of the language in which the literary work is composed through exposure to reading, role-playing and acting. 5. To help students to appreciate their own culture and those of others and to develop the reader‟s creative ability. (p. 228.) To determine whether these objectives have been realised or whether students have acquired the necessary intellectual and practical skills expected of them, an evaluation is done 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY through examinations at various levels in the form of continuous assessment tests, end-of- term and end-of-year examinations (both internal and external). As regards this, there is evidence from the reports of WAEC Chief Examiners that students generally have not performed well in the three genres of Literature-in-English for some years. The reports on Literature-in-English paper two (Drama and Poetry) for four consecutive years (2009 – 2012) have shown that the standard of the papers was within the academic level of the candidates and was comparable with those of the previous years. The marking scheme was exhaustive, but there was no significant improvement in candidates‟ performance. Candidates continued to exhibit lack of essential skills necessary for literary appreciation. Contrary to expectation, the reports on Literature-in-English paper three (Prose) for the same years were on the same note. The reports revealed that the questions set were within the examination syllabus, and the marking scheme was quite exhaustive to accommodate all possible answers. However, there was no remarkable improvement in candidates‟ performance. Given that it is generally assumed that students prefer prose in Literature-in- English to poetry and drama, one would expect a better performance in it than in the other genres. This is not the case as shown in the WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports. Though, the reports of WAEC chief examiners concern all Nigerian students, the trend in Imo State which is the location of this study merits consideration. Imo State is one of the states categorised as educationally-advantaged states in Nigeria. According to Ajero (2011), it is one of the states that records high number of candidates for WAEC and NECO examinations. Over the years, the dwindling performance of students in the state in these examinations has become a source of worry among stakeholders in education. On Literature-in-English, Mbonu (2010) observed that students‟ poor performance may have reached its lowest ebb as their performance continued to dwindle from year to year. This, Ajero contended, points to the deplorable state of Literature-in-English teaching and learning in Imo State. An analysis of Literature-in-English mock examination results of SSS III students from ten selected secondary schools in Owerri for two consecutive years tends to lend credence to Mbonu‟s assertion. Details are provided in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 1.1. Analysis of Literature-in-English Mock Results for 2012/2013 Session School No. in a b c Credit pass and Pass Fail + class 70 60-69 50-59 above (a+b+c) 40-49 Below 40 1 42 1(2.4)* 3(7.1) 7(16.7) 11(26.19) 10(23.8) 21(50) 2 36 4(11.8) 8(19) 3(8.3) 15(41.66) 11(30.5) 10(27.7) 3 28 5(17.9) 3(10.7) 7(25) 15(53.57) 5(17.9) 8(28.6) 4 31 3(9.7) 6(19.4) 3(9.6) 12(38.7) 7(22.6) 12(38.7) 5 25 4(16) 0 8(32) 12(48) 6(24) 7(28) 6 34 3(8.8) 6(17.6) 4(17.8) 13(38.23) 12(35.2) 9(26.5) 7 26 7(26.9) 8(30.8) 5(19.2) 20(76.92) 6(23.1) 0 8 40 9(22.5) 6(15) 5(12.5) 20(50) 9(22.5) 11(27.5) 9 44 3(6.8) 8(18.1) 4(9.1) 15(34.09) 13(29.5) 16(36) 10 33 4(12.1) 6(18.18) 3(9.09) 13(39.39) 7(21.2) 13(39.39) Source: Secondary Education Management Board, Imo State Ministry of Education * Numbers in parentheses are percentages 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 1.2. Analysis of Literature-in-English Mock Results for 2013/2014 Session School No. in a b c Credit pass and Pass Fail + class 70 60-69 50-59 above (a+b+c) 40-49 Below 40 1 28 5(17.9)* 4(14.3) 5(17.9) 14(50) 10(35.7) 4(14.3) 2 40 4(11) 7(18) 8(20) 19(47.5) 7(18) 14(35) 3 56 10(17.9) 7(13) 19(33.9) 36(64.28) 3(5.4) 17(30.4) 4 44 8(18.1) 6(13.6) 5(11.4) 19(43.18) 12(27.3) 13(29.5) 5 22 7(31.8) 4(18.1) 5(27.7) 16(72.72) 0 6(27.2) 6 36 6(16.7) 7(19.4) 4(11.1) 17(47.22) 10 (27.8) 9(25) 7 33 0 9(27.3) 14(42.4) 23(69.69) 6(18.2) 4(12.1) 8 47 5(10.6) 8(17) 9(19.1) 22(46.8) 11(23.4) 14(29.8) 9 49 4(8.2) 8(16.3) 8(16.3) 20(40.81) 7(14.3) 12(24.5) 10 43 3(7) 6(14) 10(23.3) 19(44.18) 13(30.2) 11(25.6) Source: Secondary Education Management Board, Imo State Ministry of Education * Numbers in parentheses are percentages Tables 1.1 and 1.2 reveal that only in three schools out of ten did 50% and above students obtain a credit pass and above for the 2012/2013 academic session while for the 2013/2014 session, 50% and above students in four schools obtained a credit pass and above. Although, this was an improvement over the previous year, a large number of students‟ scores falls between zero and forty-nine. Worthy of note is that Mbonu (2010) observed that students‟ poor performance in the subject is to a large extent connected to their achievement in Literature-in-English paper three (Prose). The question then that might be asked is, “What is responsible for students‟ poor performance in prose in Literature-in- English?” Several factors have been identified such as: poor language ability (WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports, 2009 – 2012), poor reading habit (Lawal, 2000), lack of interest in the subject (Ezenandu, 2011), poor teaching method (Ezeokoli and Igubor, 2014; Bell, 2013; Mujawar, 2013; Ogunsiji, 2008; Brindley, 2006). These factors are interwoven. It is possible that poor language ability is responsible for students‟ unwillingness to read the prescribed texts which 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY perhaps culminates into the negative attitude or lack of interest they exhibit towards prose in Literature-in-English which in turn leads to the poor achievement. Some studies have revealed that there is a correlation between students‟ attitude to school subjects and their academic achievement (Erdogan, Bayram and Deniz, 2008; Uwameiye and Osho, 2011). Some others have suggested that students‟ achievement in and attitude to learning can be influenced by factors such as teacher‟s instructional method and strategy (Bello, 2000; Etuk, Afangideh and Uya, 2013), teacher‟s content mastery and attitude to the subject (Adediwura and Bada, 2007), the course content (Mbaabu, Gatumu, and Kinai, 2011). However, there seems to be a consensus among scholars that teacher‟s instructional method and strategy have more far reaching effect on students‟ achievement in and attitude to school subjects than other factors. According to Boardman and Holden (2006), the difficulties and frustrations frequently encountered by students in learning any school subject are significantly related to poor teaching. This assumption arises probably because, it is often believed that success in the teaching and learning process rests on the teacher, given that the teacher is responsible for stimulating learners‟ interest and in directing the mood and flow of classroom activities. Similarly, Peck, Ali, Matchock and Levine (2006) asserted that the way and manner course content is presented to learners is very vital because, it may make them like or dislike the subject. It may also generate in them a love for school or alienate them from all that is associated with it. The challenge then before a Literature-in-English teacher is how best to teach so as to stimulate students‟ interest in the subject and improve their performance which no doubt will lead to the realisation of the objectives of Literature-in-English curriculum. Scholars have over the years decried the poor state of Literature-in-English teaching and learning in Nigerian schools (Uwaifo, 1979; Adedokun, 2002; Mbonu, 2010). As regards prose in Literature-in-English, the general finding is that teachers focus on story narration, vocal reading of texts in the class, transmission of background information on the author and the text and review of past examination questions. These activities lead to what Kateregga (2014), Mujawar (2013) and Lange (1995) referred to as product-process or exam-oriented approach to Literature teaching which has been widely criticised. Mcahan 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and Robert (2012) and Tseng (2010) noted that the product-process approach does not promote students‟ active engagement with literary texts and it is teacher-centred. Yaqoob (2011) equally argued that the approach makes students become a storehouse of the information related to certain texts but not critical and creative thinkers and problem solvers. To them, the goal of a Literature teacher should be to equip students with reading and study skills which would enable them process relevant information, analyse and appreciate literary texts independently. In the teaching and learning process, the traditional view that the learner is a blank slate which encouraged the delivery of instructional content to students through the lecture method, has given way to modern approaches. The modern view of teaching according to DeCaprariis, Barman and Magee (2005) is constructivist, in which case, students are expected to be active in the learning process by participating in discussion or collaborative activities. In consonance with this view, Olagunju and Ojo (2006) explained that effective teaching involves providing students with opportunities to talk meaningfully and listen, write, read and reflect on the content, ideas, issues and concerns of an academic subject. The constructivist view is also in line with the concept of active learning. Active learning entails students developing the ability to purposefully access information from a variety of sources, analyse and evaluate the information and then integrate it to construct a personal knowledge base from which to make intelligent decisions. This is to say that learning does not involve students‟ mere reception of information and ideas from the teacher but individual students use sensory inputs to construct meaning. Thus, with the understanding that Literature lessons should be student-centred and that classroom activities should not be limited to reading and note-taking, education researchers have recommended innovative, student-centred and interactive instructional strategies for Literature-in-English teaching. According to Kateregga (2014), students should be taught to be creative thinkers and not mere reproducers of knowledge. Such student-centred instructional strategies include story grammar and Socratic seminar. Story grammar, also referred to as narrative structure, story schema, story mapping, or story elements, is a rule system devised for the purpose of describing the regularities found in one kind of text. These rules describe the parts that make up a well formed story, the way they 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY are arranged and the relationship among them (Davies, Shanks and Davies, 2004). Story grammar theorists postulated that narrative structures have a processing reality which can be encoded into rules. These rules, when formalised in a grammar, would thus correspond to the strategies used by readers in order to recall stories. The most commonly cited story grammar models are those developed by Rumelhart (1977), Stein and Glenn (1979), Thorndyke (1977), Mandler and Johnson (1977). According to Zahoor and Janjua (2013), all these models have commonly outlined almost similar story constituents and the type of semantic relationships held between the constituents. It is only the way of representation that differs. Zahoor and Janjua further observed that the invariant story constituents postulated by these models generally include the equivalents of setting, event structure, episodes, initiating event for the episode, a reaction to the initiating event, goal, attempts and consequences, and a final resolution. As an instructional strategy, story grammar provides a teacher with an organisational framework to enhance students‟ interactions with stories. To this end, the goal of the teacher when using the story grammar teaching strategy is for the students to develop their knowledge of story elements as the teacher moves away from general explanations of story structure for example, that stories have beginning, middle, and end to the more specific explanations that stories have setting, characters, themes, and a plot. Thus, story grammar instructional strategy is designed to provide students with rules for retrieving relevant information from stories (Dymock, 2007). The story grammar which was used in this study is Stein and Glenn‟s model. Their story grammar components and definitions are shown in Table 1.3 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 1.3. Stein and Glenn‟s Story grammar components and definitions __________________________________________________________________________ Component Definition Story Setting + Episode Structure Setting Introduction of main characters, as well as the time and place for the story action Episode Initiating event + internal response + plan + attempt +consequence + reaction Initiating event/problem An action or happening that sets up a problem or dilemma for the story Internal response The protagonist‟s response to the initiating event Plan The intended action of the protagonist (the announcement of the intended action) Attempt The overt action or actions of the protagonist to solve the problem Consequence The result of the protagonist‟s actions Reaction An emotional or evaluative response of the protagonist to the consequence Source: Nancy Stein and Christine Glenn, “An analysis of story comprehension in Elementary school children” (1979) As shown in Table 1.3, there are two major components of stories delineated by Stein and Glenn. These are setting and episode. There are six components to the episode. The initiating event sets the story in motion, causing the main character to react in some manner. The internal response is that character‟s reaction to that initiating action. The plan is the intended action. The attempt is the action (s) carried out to attain a goal. Attainment or non- attainment of the results of behavior is included under consequence. Finally, the reaction includes the character‟s response to consequence. Stein and Glenn‟s story grammar model is limited in a number of ways, for instance; the representation of attempt is insufficiently flexible to represent unforeseen circumstances or unexpected events that happen during attempt to achieve a goal. Again, only a limited range 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of stories can be represented by this model. The sequencing of elements can only be applicable to simple stories. Finally, there has been a controversy over the validity of the labels attached to the internal constituents of the story grammar. Whereas in traditional syntax it is easy to recognise the difference between a verbal group and a nominal group, the difference between „plan‟ and „attempt‟ is relatively hard to identify. As a result of these limitations and for the texts used in the study to fit into this story grammar frame, „plan‟ and „attempt‟ were merged as one element. The second teaching strategy is the result of the work of Mortimer Adler “Paideia Proposal” (1982) in which it is argued that education should be rooted in three goals: the acquisition of knowledge, the development of intellectual skills, and the enlarged understanding of ideas, values and issues. According to Adler, the first goal can be accomplished through textbooks and didactic teaching in the content areas. The second goal can be developed through coaching, exercises and supervised practice. The third goal can be achieved through Socratic questioning and active participation in seminar discussions of imaginative and expository literature, works of visual and musical art, mathematical theorems and so on. Adler stressed the need for all students to be given an opportunity to receive an education of a democratic society, one that would give preparation for learning to go on either at advanced levels of schooling or in adult life, or in both (p. 15). In Socratic seminar instruction, students help one another to understand the ideas, issues, and values reflected in a specific text. Students are responsible for facilitating a discussion around ideas in the text. Through a process of listening, making meaning, and finding common ground, students work towards shared understanding rather than trying to prove a particular argument. An important aspect of Socratic seminar instruction is that students are given a common text. After the students have read the text, open-ended questions are asked. The open-ended questions allow the students to think critically, analyse multiple meanings in text and express ideas with clarity and confidence (Herber, 2003). Therefore, the goal of the teacher using Socratic seminar teaching strategy is for students to develop their critical faculties and analytical skills. Although several studies on story grammar instructional strategy have been conducted, for instance, Fitzgerald and Spiegel (2003), Amer (1992), Hayward and Schneider (2000), 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Shelton (1999), Boulineau, Fore III, Hagan-Burke and Burke (2004), Saadi and Mahdi (2009), Stetter and Hughes (2010), Miller (2013), quite a number of these studies are therapy studies. They focused on the use of story grammar teaching strategy to improve the ability of students with language impairment and learning disabilities to read. Participants in the studies were students who were learning to read and not those reading to learn. Non- therapy studies on story grammar strategy involved the use of short passages and fables as teaching materials. In the present study, two novels were used. Aside these, the studies were conducted outside Nigeria. Studies on story grammar strategy in Nigeria, published or unpublished seem to be rare. Studies on Socratic seminar instructional strategy were mainly designed to determine students‟ attitude towards teachers‟ use of the strategy in teaching. Marcheggiani, Updyke and Sander (2009), Katalin (2004), Paraskevas and Wickens (2003), Garlikov (2011) all sought to determine students‟ attitude towards Socratic seminar in comparison with other teaching methods. Studies in which the effects of Socratic seminar strategy on students‟ achievement in and attitude to school subjects were determined have given little or no attention to Literature-in-English (Smith, 2014; Cromwell, 2012; Clark-koellner, Stallings and Hoover, 2002). Apart from academic achievement, another variable that is influenced by teaching methods and strategies is attitude. Students‟ attitude towards their studies can be influenced by the attitude of the teacher and his method of teaching (Yara, 2009; Al samadani and Ibnian, 2015). Teaching methods vary (Felder, 1995). Some instructors lecture, others demonstrate or discuss; some focus on rules and others on examples; some emphasise memory and others understanding. To Felder, how much a given student learns in a class is governed in part by that student‟s native ability and prior preparation but also by the compatibility of his or her characteristic approach to learning and the instructor‟s characteristic approach to teaching. Studies have revealed that adopting appropriate instructional methods and strategies especially those that promote students‟ active participation in the teaching and learning process yields better learning outcomes (Adesoji, 2008; Akinsola and Olowojaiye, 2008; Duze, 2010; Yilmaz, 2012; Farnazeh and Nejadansai, 2014). As regards students‟ attitude to Literature-in-English, the general finding is that students have positive attitude 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY towards Literature-in-English generally but particularly the prose genre (Siti, 2008; Wan, 2009; Davis, Kline, Gorrell and Hsieh, 2002). Similarly, scholars have reported significant effects of student-centred and participatory instructional strategies on students‟ attitude to Literature-in-English (Aluko, 1990; Ayanniyi, 2009) and to reading comprehension (Maduabuchi, 2008; Osikomaiya, 2012). However, Ezenandu (2011) reported that literature circles and scaffolding instructional strategies had no significant effect in changing students‟ negative attitude towards prose in Literature-in-English. Given these conflicting results of the previous studies, there is the need for further studies on attitude as a variable. The present study will therefore in part determine the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ attitude towards prose in Literature-in-English. Besides teaching strategies, another variable which could influence students‟ learning outcome in school subjects is verbal ability. The influence of verbal ability on learning has been the focus of a substantial number of empirical studies in recent times particularly in Nigeria. According to Nwosu (2002) and Odiaka (2002), verbal ability is an individual‟s intelligence or language development level and his/her ability to do abstract reasoning. With regards to verbal ability and academic achievement, some scholars found significant main effect of verbal ability on students‟ academic achievement (Adegbile and Alabi, 2007; Aimunmondion, 2009; Ayanniyi, 2009; Nwosu, 2002). Meanwhile, Jiboku (1998), Komolafe (2011) and Ezenandu (2011) reported that there is no relationship between verbal ability and students‟ academic achievement. Considering these inconclusive results in the previous studies, there is need for further empirical investigation into this variable as it relates to students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Learning style is another variable that affects students‟ learning outcomes in` school subjects. It is known that the way people learn varies from person to person due to the presence of biological and psychological differences. Compared to the extensive work done on methods of teaching and instructional activities, one variable often neglected in the area of Literature-in-English teaching and learning is the exploration of learning style in the classroom (Locke, 2008). Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer and Bjork (2009) defined learning style as a term that describes the variations among learners in using one or more senses to understand, organise and retain experience. In the context of education, if someone would 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY rather listen to things being explained than read about them, that person is said to be an auditory learner. On the other hand, if someone needs visual stimuli such as chats, maps, illustrations and other visual learning tools in order to process new information, that person is said to be a visual learner. According to Vaishnav (2013), visual learners rely on their sight to take in information. They organise knowledge in terms of spatial interrelationship among ideas and store it graphically. Then, if someone learns best by doing an activity, that person is said to be a kinesthetic or tactile learner. Kinesthetic or tactile learners prefer to learn by doing or by touching. They learn best by being active, and they often rely on physical interaction in order to master a concept (Pride, 2010). The learning styles exhibited by learners depend on two major factors– the way they perceive information and the way they process information. Evidence abound that the inability of teachers to account for the learning preferences of learners causes frustration among a good number of them (Gilakjani and Ahmadi, 2011; Chukwu and Akpabio, 2013). This presupposes that for teaching to be effective the method used should account for individual learner‟s preferred learning style. Apart from this, students with different types of learning style may need different instructional strategies to suit their information processing needs. One of the weaknesses of the prevalent lecture method used by prose in Literature-in-English teachers is that it benefits only auditory learners. It does not account for students of other learning styles. The concept of learning style has continued to be explored in educational research. Research concerned with identifying the relationship between academic achievement and individual learning style has provided support for the following: i. students prefer certain methods of learning more than others i.e. students do learn differently from each other ii. students‟ performance in different subject areas is related to how individuals do learn iii. when students are taught with approaches and resources that complement their unique learning styles, their achievement is significantly increased Accordingly, teachers should provide their students with rich learning environments and a variety of learning possibilities for effective teaching which shows the importance of 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY considering individual differences and diversity in the instructional design processes (Dembo and Howard, 2007). Previous studies on the relationship between learning style and students‟ academic performance have shown conflicting results. Khaki, Ganjabi and Khodamoradi (2015), Rohrer (2008), Pashler, Rohrer and Bjork (2009), Cox (2007) reported that there is no significant relationship between students‟ learning styles and their academic achievement. To them, students can perform equally well regardless of their perceptual learning style preference. However, other researchers reported significant correlation between learning style and students‟ academic achievement (Cassidy, 2008; Udeani and Adeyemo, 2011). The results of their studies suggested that the manner in which a learner chooses to or is inclined to approach a learning situation has impact on his performance. Given the conflicting results on the influence of learning style on academic achievement, there is therefore need to carry out more research on the variable. There is also, a difference between previous studies and this study in terms of the learning style model used. Review of literature revealed that a large number of studies on the effect of learning style on academic achievement tend to focus on the use of the sociological dimension of learning style while this study used the physiological dimension. 1.2 Statement of the Problem It is generally assumed that students find prose in Literature-in-English easier to read and understand than Poetry and Drama. This, notwithstanding, for some years now in Nigeria, students‟ achievement in this literary genre and indeed other genres of Literature-in-English has been consistently below average. This problem has been blamed on a number of factors but largely on students‟ failure to read the prescribed texts and their poor language ability. Besides, instructional methods and strategies adopted by teachers do not yield satisfactory results. Consequently, several studies have been carried out in search of ways of addressing the problem of poor teaching and learning of Literature-in-English generally and prose in Literature-in-English in particular. However, previous studies, irrespective of their scope, focused on the use of cognitive instructional strategies like literature circles and advance organisers to improve students‟ achievement in Literature-in-English and did not address the issue of text structure awareness which is necessary in reading and comprehension of 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY literary texts. Extant literature also revealed the neglect of the use of metacognitive strategies that focus on the affective aspect of the learner and strategies that encourage learners‟ active engagement with texts. Text structure awareness and metacognitive strategies have been used in different contexts and school subjects to improve students‟ performance. They could also be a means of achieving this goal in prose in Literature-in- English. It is against this background that the present study was designed to determine the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on senior secondary school two students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. It also examined the interaction effects of verbal ability and learning style on the dependent variables. 1.3 Hypotheses Based on the problem of the study, the following null hypotheses were formulated. They were tested at p<0.05 level of significance. Ho1: There is no significant main effect of treatment on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho2: There is no significant main effect of verbal ability on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho3: There is no significant main effect of learning style on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho5: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho6: There is no significant interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students‟ 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho7: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students‟ a. achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. b. attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. 1.4 Scope of the Study The study covered six senior secondary schools purposively selected from Owerri, Imo State. The participants in the study were 243 senior secondary two (SS II) students drawn from the six selected secondary schools. The focus of the study was to determine the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. The effects of moderator variables (verbal ability and learning style) on the dependent variables were also examined. Although, there are different modes and sub-genres of prose, the literary texts used in the study were limited to the print mode of the novel sub-genre of prose in Literature-in-English largely because this is the mode studied in Nigerian secondary schools. 1.5 Significance of the Study The study would serve as a contribution to the efforts at finding effective student-centred interactive strategies that would improve the teaching and learning of prose in Literature-in- English in Nigerian secondary schools. It is expected that the study would create awareness on alternative instructional strategies that teachers could use in teaching prose in Literature- in-English. This could enhance students‟ performance in the subject and reduce the failure rate in examinations. When students‟ performance improves, they will be motivated to offer Literature-in-English and the objectives of the Literature-in-English curriculum would be realised. Also, the study would provide teachers and curriculum planners with information on attitude of students towards prose in Literature-in-English. This information is important because, it could lead to the redesigning or modification of the curriculum. Apart from teachers, students would benefit from the study in that, the interactive and collaborative nature of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies would 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY help them to develop critical and interpretative reading skills that could enable them to read and appreciate narrative prose texts in and outside school. This would in turn lead to improvement in their achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Similarly, the study would benefit Literature-in-English resource book writers because they would find other research-based classroom activities that could engage students‟ interest and motivate them during Literature-in-English lessons. The findings of this study would equally, provide useful information basis for improving aspects of language training and retraining programmes that focus on methodology. The findings of this study would further add up to the knowledge about the effects of verbal ability and learning style on academic achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Through this knowledge, various strategies could be established and policies put in place to curb students‟ poor achievement. In addition, the study would provide empirical research evidence for subsequent researches in language education and other related disciplines. Aside these, the result of the study would support or refute previous studies on story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies. 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms The following terms which were used in the study are operationally defined. Story Grammar Strategy: It is taken to mean an instructional device in which students use a learned story structure to read and make meaning out of a literary text. The following story structure or elements are used in this study: setting, initiating event, internal response, attempt, consequence, and reaction. Socratic Seminar Strategy: This is an instructional technique that enables students to read a literary text and share their opinion through discussion/dialogue. Instructional Strategies: A sequence of activities or techniques designed by a teacher to facilitate learning which in this study are exemplified by story grammar and Socratic seminar. Learning Outcomes: These are taken to mean students‟ achievement in and attitude (their predisposition) towards prose in Literature-in-English as measured by pre and posttests of achievement and attitude. 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Modified Lecture Strategy: This means a teaching device in which a teacher reads a text or asks students to read, after which the students are taught the elements of prose and given notes. Verbal Ability: Students‟ capacity to apply abstract reasoning in solving language problems. Learning Style: This is taken to mean students‟ disposition to use either of the senses of sight, hearing and touch to receive and process information during a teaching-learning process. 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW In order to situate this study in the context of previous works, literature related to the study were reviewed in this chapter. It focused on the following themes: 2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 Reader-Response Theory 2.1.2 Structuralist Theory 2.2. Nature of Prose in Literature-in-English 2.3 Educational Values of Literature-in-English 2.4 Approaches to Literature-in-English Teaching 2.5 Story Grammar Instructional Strategy: Uses 2.6 Origin and Benefits of Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy 2.7 Text Structure Awareness and Reading Comprehension 2.8 Studies on Literature-in-English Teaching 2.9 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Academic Achievement 2.10 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Students‟ Attitude to Learning 2.11 Studies on Learning Style and Students‟ Academic Achievement 2.12 Learning Style and Students‟ Attitude to Learning 2.13 Studies on Story Grammar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement 2.14 Studies on Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement 2.15 Appraisal of Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Framework Two learning theories provided the anchor for this study. They are: reader-response and structuralist theories. 2.1.1 Reader-Response Theory Reader-response theory was first advanced by Rosenblatt in 1938 in the work Literature as exploration. In the work Rosenblatt theorised that each unique reading event involves a transaction between reader and text wherein both reader and text continuously act and are acted upon each other in spiraling, to and fro, non-linear process (p. 26). The author further 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY advanced that a text is “merely an object on paper and ink until some reader responds to the marks on the page as verbal symbols” (The reader, the text, the poem p. 23). Rosenblatt argued that a literary text does not have the same meaning for all readers, and that each individual brings background knowledge, beliefs, values, cultural expectations and reading context to the act of reading (p.144). An important component of Rosenblatt‟s theory is the stance of the reader during any reading process. He identified two modes of experiencing a text- the “efferent” and the “aesthetic” depending on the kind of meaning a reader intends to derive. In the aesthetic stance, the reader combines the “cognitive and affective elements of consciousness (sensations, images, feelings, ideas) into a personally lived-through poem or story”. According to Gordon (2008), Rodney and Benton (2001), aesthetic stance implies temporary detachment from the pressure of the world in which the reader lives in order to enter the secondary world mapped out by the literary text. To Gordon (2008) and Rodney and Benton (2001) aesthetic stance of experiencing a text has strong emotional appeal because readers are invited to live through what the speaker, narrator or characters experience in their textual worlds. Thus, aesthetic reading approach is interaction based which means that the literary text is viewed as a structured stimulus brought alive by the reader. It also offers a specific type of intellectual challenge which is more open in focus than other intellectual activities. Apart from that, it helps readers to make connections between ideas, themes, characters and so forth (Kaston, 2008). Kaston therefore, concluded that the reading of literary texts can be improved while students‟ experience of the world, life and other cultures and people is enriched through the aesthetic stance. In contrast, when adopting an efferent stance, Rosenblatt opined that the reader focuses on the information he/she intends to carry away from the text (Writing and reading p. 5). That is, readers‟ focus in the efferent stance is not on the experience they have while reading, but on what facts they can retain for use after reading is over (Amer, 2003). In Amer‟s view, efferent reading is not appropriate for a literary text which contains much more than a simple opinion or knowledge. According to Becker (1999), these stances represent different ways for a reader to approach a text. In presenting the differing nature of the stances, Rosenblatt does not portray these stances in conflict. The author noted that during any one 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reading experience, a reader may shift back and forth along a continuum between efferent and aesthetic modes of reading. Specifically, this learning theory is reader-oriented and focuses on the contribution of the reader in the construction of meaning of literary texts. It recognises the reader as an active agent who imparts “real existence” to a literary work and completes its meaning through interpretation. It argues that a text contains no meaning before a reader experiences it. In other words, it is only the reader who can say what a text is. Rejecting the idea that there is one “correct” meaning or interpretation to a text, reader-response theory holds that individual reader creates their own meaning which is dependent on the reader‟s prior and current knowledge, life experiences and emotions. As a result, each reader‟s interpretation or meaning of a text is subjective and unique. The theory therefore, advances the view that it is important for the teacher to avoid imposing any preconceived opinions about the proper way to react to any text. The relevance of this theory to the present study lies in the fact that it recognises the reader as a force to reckon with in the reading and interpretation of literary texts. It also emphasises independent and personal interpretation of ideas in a text. The theory further provides support for the student-centred, interactive strategies employed in the study. In Socratic seminar instruction for instance, students read a literary text and engage in thought- provoking discussion that provides them opportunity to express their own ideas, opinions and feelings on issues in the text. This produces varied interpretations to a text. 2.1.2 Structuralist Theory Structuralist theory holds that, according to the human way of understanding things, every element or substance has no absolute meaning or value. Its meaning or value is relative to other elements. It proposes that an element cannot be perceived by itself. Everything makes sense only in relation to something else. In other words, structuralist theory rests on the view that to understand a particular element there is need to study the whole system of relationships or structure. As a literary theory, it focuses on the reading activity and how meaning is produced. Its primary concern is the analysis or explanation of the structures underlying literary texts. It 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY investigates the kinds of patterns that are built up and broken down within a text which a reader uses to get at an interpretation of that text. According to the theory, meaning is made possible by the existence of underlying systems of conventions. That is, every element in any given situation has no significance by itself, and in fact, is determined by all the other elements involved in that situation (Sanusi, 2012). The theory not only gives supremacy to structure over content, it analyses the structures underlying a text or system that makes its content possible hence; among the leading principles of structuralist theory is that the form defines the content (Dmitry, 2010). In other words, the underlying structure of a text or system which presents and organises the content determines the nature of that content, as well as the message or communicated information. Structuralist theory is a broad conceptual framework which has many perspectives. Lévi- Strauss‟s is one. Lévi-Strauss believes in the structuring activity of the human mind and the structuredness of reality. Lévi-Strauss posited that the human mind perceives things in a state of binary oppositions and that such oppositions structure all phenomena of human culture. Kinship systems, myths, rituals or objects such as masks are products of the way the human mind works (Lévi-Strauss, 1962). To this end, Lévi-Strauss holds the view that every surface substance and content of social relations has a deep underlying form or structure and that reality is layered (Lévi-Strauss, 1973). That is, a given phenomenon is explained in terms of some structure that lies beneath human conscious or perceptual awareness of the phenomenon in question. This structure, according to Levi-Strauss, causes the surface phenomenon to exist or operate (Adu-Febiri, 2012). Following structuralist theory, the usual reading practice is for the reader to analyse the text in in terms of its structure that is, the overall network or relationships among units within the text. This practice is deficient in many ways. It turns the analysis of structure an end in itself rather than a means to discover the beauty and values of a literary text. It excludes looking at the connection between the text and the reader‟s experiences that usually become apparent during the reading process. Furthermore, in the view of post-structuralists, it requires students to approach literary texts scientifically and this tends to lead to the belief that meaning in a text is fixed. Jonathan Culler pointed out the weakness of the structuralist theory in its application to literary studies thus: 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The type of literary study which structuralism helps one to envisage would not be primarily interpretative; it would not offer a method which, when applied to literary works, produced new and hitherto unexpected meanings. Rather than a criticism which discovers or assigns meanings, it would be a poetics which strives to define the conditions of meaning. Granting new attention to the activity of reading, it would attempt to specify how we go about making sense of texts, what are the interpretative operations on which literature itself, as an institution is based (Structuralist poetics p. 45). To Culler a literary criticism should focus attention on the reader‟s interpretation of texts rather than on how the authors write them. Structural analysis does not explain or bring out the meaning(s) of a text. Meaning of a text is a product of transaction between the reader and text. This makes any literary text open to an unlimited range of interpretation instead of a closed entity that has definite meaning as structuralist theory advances. The theory is relevant to this study because it emphasises the need to reconstruct an object or system so as to bring out the structure(s) underlying it. Mapping of story elements as story grammar instructional strategy entails, brings out the underlying structures of the literary texts used in the study. This theory therefore, served as a means to an end in the study. It provided the students with an organizational framework with which they explored the texts. The two theories on which the study is anchored are interrelated. They are both concerned about the reading activity and how the reader constructs meaning. Reader-response theory stresses that a literary text does not exist or have meaning until it is read and experienced by the reader. Knowledge about text structure is necessary in the construction of meaning and in reading competence. 2.2 Nature of Prose in Literature-in-English Different terms and expressions have been used to describe or define prose. Nevertheless, it has been generally seen to consist of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures other than simple grammar. According to Parkinson (2004), the term “prose” sometimes appears pejorative. He observed that a negative perception which has persisted 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY from classical times to the present day is that it is a medium that lacks strong features and creative vigour hence; the use of prosaic to mean dull, common-place and unimaginative writing. He observed that prosaic writing simply says something without necessarily trying to say it in a beautiful way or using beautiful words. This view is subjective. Prose makes use literary devices for effect as does drama or poetry. In fiction for instance, novelists use beautiful diction and literary devices like metaphor, symbolism, simile, etc. to create beautiful pictures of their characters and events/scenes. The ancient association of prose th with tedium, he noted, has however diminished greatly in the 20 century in the course of which prose has become the dominant form of printed discourse and verse has become largely peripheral. According to Iranmanesh (2013), prose texts are personality-oriented. That is, in prose texts, writers choose appropriate personalities; distribute their thoughts and encourage interaction among them based on their thoughts. Iranmanesh opined that it is through the interaction among the personalities that writers create adventures until the readers discover their thought, aim and their message in the emotional space which can be concealed in the heart of events or adventures by a simple mechanism through which they create a permanent or everlasting work in the mind of the readers. The novel which is the major form of prose has been described as an invented prose narrative of considerable length (Burton, 1994). This definition as one can quickly point out is superficial because it does not reflect the sociological background as well as the thematic value and stylistic peculiarities of the novel. But on a larger perspective that classifies the novel in its own class, Parkinson (2004) highlighted the features of the novel. He argued that it tends to centre on an average individual and the realistic portrayal of his or her mind. He further described the novel with a comparison between it and epic poem and romance. He was of the view that the novel, unlike the epic poems or romances which concentrate on a demigod or an aristocratic warrior, tells the experiences of someone far more average. To Parkinson, even in fantasy or science fiction narratives, the main characters are in their behaviour and thoughts more like the reader intellectually and emotionally than unlike the reader. Thus, while the romance writer or poet deals with characters in vacuo, the novelist imbues his characters with human qualities. The characters wear their personae or social identity. So, the novel is different from other long works of fiction by the attention it gives 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY both to the individualisation of its characters and to the detailed presentation of their social environment. This, Parkinson observed, allows writers a chance to critique their society. On the same note, Marantz-Cohen (2004) described the novel by comparing it with the film. He opined that the essential difference between the novel and the film is that while the novel is a social critique that sees no limits to what it can unearth and expose, the film is a form of social control, a simplification not only of character but of value. However, a close look at this comparison reveals the scholar‟s oversight of the potentials of the film. It may be uncontestable to say that the film is a medium through which the filmmaker mirrors his society. Through performance, the film projects the realities of human experience. So, rather than being a mere simplification of character and value, the film, like the novel is a powerful instrument for social critique. In his view, Zyngier (2001) remarked that the main object of the novel is to represent life hence, the success of a work of art to him may be measured by the degree to which it produces a certain illusion; that illusion makes it appear to us for the time that we have lived another life, that we have had a miraculous enlargement of experience. This, he concluded the novel does. The foregoing impressions touch on one of the defining characteristics of the novel– realism which qualifies its generic type. But then this does not suggest that all other literary forms pursued the unreal. 2.3 Educational Values of Literature-in-English To say that Literature-in-English, as a subject of study is a very important tool for the holistic development of those exposed to it, is perhaps stating the obvious. According to Timucin (2009), literary works serve as food for thought and a tonic for imagination and creativity. To him, some of the great literary works like John Bunyan‟s Pilgrim’s Progress and Indian epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, among others, provide society with guiding principles of life. It is through reading such great works that one understands life. They help a person take a closer look at the different facets of life and in many ways it can change a person‟s perspective towards life. To him, those who study Literature will find their knowledge of human affairs broadened and deepened. The ability to understand life and the human nature more deeply can trigger the reader to reflect upon his own life. For instance, reading a story that is related to the reader may teach him morals and encourage him to ask questions that relate to the standards of a “good” life. He added that Literature- 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in-English equips one to live meaningfully in one‟s environment. It also helps one to face and cope with life experiences. In the same line of thought, Hwang and Embi (2007) remarked that Literature-in-English opens up a whole new world to the readers by giving them insight into other people‟s thinking, way of life, times and personalities. It enables them to perceive and understand the problems people face and how they deal with them hence, allowing him to understand more about his own thinking and how to approach life. Another importance of Literature-in-English is its language development value which is perhaps why it is seen as a legitimate and valuable resource for the development of the language skills. Olness (2010) observed that studying the literature of any language is one of the ways if not the best way to learn it and get a „feel‟ for it. According to him, Literature is a practical discipline. It cultivates important abilities which involve the four processes of reading, thinking, discussing and writing hence, its pedagogical value lies in its tendency to stimulate these activities and thereby improve students‟ ability to perform them in other contexts. To Zhen (2012), Literature-in-English is an indispensable means for students to learn English especially in countries where English is not a native language. He opined that asking students to examine sophisticated or non-standard examples of language makes them more aware of the norms of language use. Very good literary texts show the reader how to express complex ideas into words as succinctly as possible. It lays the foundation for reading comprehension skills that can be transferred into other fields of study (Ghosn, 2002). Savvidou (2004) agreed with Ghosn as he believed that Literature-in-English manifests valuable language experience. He was of the view that when children study Literature in any language, they learn the language implicitly. For example, in the case of grammar, by reading enjoyable literary texts, all the grammar constructions are internalised and assimilated unconsciously. Drucker (2015) added that having a large and wide-range of vocabulary is essential for a number of reasons. It helps with both writing and reading abilities and it also allows for more complex discourse. The larger a student‟s vocabulary is, the more in-depth and thoughtful discussions he/she can have on important topics and issues, both in and outside of the classroom. He observed that reading literary works is a great way to build and 39 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY enhance vocabulary. According to him, due to the descriptive nature of a story, any novel will include plenty of words students have likely never seen or heard before. To this end, as students read, they will see those words in context and will learn their meanings passively rather than having to drill. Drucker concluded that because students are reading a story and not drilling, they probably will not even realise they are building their vocabulary (hence they will not be able to complain about it). Considering the writing skill, Drucker (2015) asserted that writing skills can be taught, to some extent. But the number one way to become a better writer is to read often. He noted that when students read, they are being immersed in language in the way it sounds and feels when put together in the right ways. As literary texts are much richer in terms of style of writing, scope of vocabulary, and array of grammatical points, it is highly probable that upon using them students may encounter more difficult structures and learn many more vocabulary items in terms of denotative as well as connotative meanings, idiomatic expressions, proverbs, slangs, and colloquialism. To this end, students who are encouraged to read have a more intimate knowledge of the ways in which language works, and so have an advantage when it is time for them to write. This effect, he maintained, can even be made transparent by encouraging students to try writing in a particular book or author's style. Literature and language are interwoven however; the value of Literature cannot be restricted to only enhancing language abilities. The most important gains achieved by studying Literature are those of the imagination. Literary study expands the capacity to sympathise with other human beings, enhances the ability to see and imagine human complexity. It also broadens the intellectual horizon by enlarging the power to experience life vicariously (Preszler, 2010). Preszler contended that we live in an age that grossly and dangerously underestimates the power and importance of the imagination and that to ignore it, is to stifle the breath of the mind. To him, even the most practical kind of student can benefit from knowing beyond his or her own professional field and literary study provides the kind of imaginative human broadening that can prove very valuable in the long run. Similarly, Drucker (2015) opined that education is supposed to give students the tools they need to become a valuable part of society, and one such tool is the ability to think critically. Society does not just want them to passively consume whatever is around them, but to analyse and 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY criticise it as well. He explained that educators often use Literature to promote this kind of thought actively by teaching students how to analyse what they read, understand others‟ opinions about the text, and how to formulate their own views. To Drucker, students can learn to think critically about the events and characters in a novel, the themes it presents, the author‟s purpose in writing it, and the ways it fits into a certain time period. They can also analyse its impact on society and the ways it compares and contrasts with other texts. He concluded that few activities give students‟ critical abilities such a workout as the close reading of literary texts. In their view, Khatib, Derakhshan and Rezaei (2011) observed that one of the advantages of Literature is its impetus to bring about desirable motivation on the part of the learners. They noted that Literature is a voyage of discovery since it abounds with a welter of new experiences all of which are applicable to the real world situations. When something is pertinent to the real life situations, it arouses interest and enthusiasm in the learners. Consequently, they become motivated and immersed in the experiences of any kind they wish. The result of this immersion and engagement, they concluded, is what every teacher is seeking i.e., learning. In his view, Mork (2004) noted that it is through literary studies that an individual can see into other people‟s lives and become more understanding and tolerant. He explained that the value of Literature is that it transports a reader to another place through another pair of eyes and this helps him to learn about the hearts and minds of other people. This is perhaps why Kellem (2006) opined that fiction enables us to explore the recesses of man‟s head and heart with a torch; history allows us only the natural light of day which does not usually shine into such places. Thus, Literature is man‟s exploration of man by artificial light which is better than natural light because we can direct it where we want. On a similar note, Fogal (2011) remarked that physically speaking, it is impossible to be someone else. It is impossible to switch bodies with another human being and it is impossible to completely understand the complexity of their world. Literature, as an alternative is the closest thing the world has to being able to understand another person whole-heartedly. He expatiated on this view with an illustration with a novel about a treacherous war written in the perspective of a soldier. Literature, he said, allows the reader to envision his memories, his pains, and 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY his emotions without actually being that person. This is why he said that Literature can act as a time machine enabling individuals to go into a specific time period of the story and into the mind and soul of the protagonist. Similarly, Umstead observed that fiction is a unique vehicle for explaining and illuminating the reality of human life. He opined that although a fictional story does not necessarily tell a true story, it is an instrument through which the reader can discover truth. In line with this view, Bolton (1992) noted that those who study Literature will find their knowledge of human affairs broadened and deepened. Whether in the individual, the social, the racial or the international sphere, they will understand the possibilities of human life both for good and evil and understand how they came to live at a particular time and place with all its pleasures and vexations and problems. Thus, Bolton concluded that Literature serves as information base by providing individuals knowledge of their literary heritage while at the same time increasing their awareness of their cultural values, history, and almost everything about them. Similarly, Ghosn (2002) opined that Literature is a powerful change agent. According to him, Literature develops learners‟ intercultural awareness and it nurtures their empathy and tolerance for diversity and emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence, which according to Goleman (1995) is the understanding of one‟s feelings and those of others, is essential for empathy and tolerance. In all, the words of C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) can perhaps sum up the value of literature in human lives. He said “literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become” (http//www.collegenet.com/elect/app/app?service=external/Forum&sp-52672) 2.4 Approaches to Teaching Literature-in-English Literary texts can be taught through different approaches. An approach is a theoretically well-informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings (Brown, 2001). Anthony (1963) defined it as “a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching”. For Dweikat and Shbietah (2014), approaches are theories, beliefs and assumptions on how languages or other subjects are learned and should be taught. A variety 42 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of approaches which differ in terms of their focus on a text have been proposed. These approaches are essential for students, teachers and course designers in order to achieve the required objectives of improving students‟ literary appreciation skills. The approaches are: i. cultural approach ii. language-based approach iii. personal growth approach iv. paraphrastic approach v. information-based approach vi. moral-philosophical approach vii. stylistic approach viii. reader-response approach ix. new criticism approach x. critical literacy approach Cultural Approach The cultural approach views literary texts as a source of facts or information which learners need to explore and interpret the social, political, literary and historical contexts of a specific text. In line with this approach, the teacher not only reveals the universality of thoughts and ideas but encourages learners to understand different cultures and ideologies in relation to their own. Calia (2009) posited that in the cultural approach, reading tends to be based on obtaining information hence; it centres more on knowledge about texts without much time given to individual texts. Plastina (2001) added that the approach is not only teacher- centred where the teacher transmits knowledge and information to the students; it provides little opportunity for extended language work. He maintained that the approach represents the traditional approach to teaching Literature-in-English. Similarly, Keong (2007) was of the view that the cultural approach does not allow students to read for themselves and interpret the meaning of texts. To him knowledge of Literature should be imparted through a student-centred approach which is activity based and attained through personal response and involvement. This approach is similar to the cultural model proposed by Carter and Long (1991) in which a literary text is seen as a cultural atefact. 43 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Language-based Approach The language-based approach seeks a closer integration between language and Literature where literary texts are seen as legitimate sources for helping students improve their language proficiency. This is done by providing them exposure to the target language through series of language activities. In this approach, teachers apply strategies used in language teaching such as cloze procedure, prediction exercise, poetry recital, summary writing, debate, discussion and role playing to create opportunities for language use in the classroom. With the use of language-based approach, the focus is shifted to the learner, the reading process and creating language awareness in the learners (Keong, 2007). The classroom practice involved in this approach is related to what obtains in Carter and Long‟s (1991) language model. In the language model as proposed by Carter and Long, a text is used as a focus for grammatical and structural analysis. In line with this, a language-based framework for reading literary texts is proposed by Abdullah, Zakaria, Ismail, Mansor and Aziz (2007) which moves from lexis (vocabulary), syntax (sentences) to coherence (discourse). It also focuses on phonology (sounds), graphology (visual effect of the text), semantics (meaning), dialect (variations of standard English), register (tone), period (achaisms) and function (message in the text). According to Van (2009), the teacher‟s role is not to impose interpretation but to introduce and clarify technical terms, to prepare and offer appropriate classroom procedures, and to intervene when necessary to provide prompts or stimuli. He concluded that the language-based approach is motivating because it fulfills students‟ needs in learning about Literature and language. It helps students to handle a text, enhances their enjoyment and interest in Literature, develops their autonomy, and improves their learning of English. This use of Literature has been criticised. This approach is considered to be too mechanistic and that it demotivates the pleasure of reading Literature. It does not encourage creative thinking but the acquisition of information related to the target text (Padurean, 2015). Ganakumaran (2007) also contended that instead of motivating students, the approach can become a mechanistic process and the use can be detrimental. He remarked that the 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY language activities are not the real aim of literary study and will very likely detract from any sense of pleasure the literary text in question should impart. Personal-response Approach This approach to teaching Literature allows students to explore different meanings in a text. It has been termed by some as an engagement with the reading of literary texts, or an engagement not for the sake of getting through examinations, but as a genuine liking for Literature not confined solely to the classroom (Hwang and Embi, 2007). The personal- response approach focuses on the personal development of the students which includes their emotions and personal characteristics. Vethamani (2004) observed that the reason behind this approach is to motivate and encourage students to express their opinions and feelings and make connections between their own personal and cultural experiences and those expressed in the text. Like the language-based approach, the personal-response approach is student-centred. One important aspect of this approach as identified by Cheng (2007) is that it relates to the top-down reading model which emphasises the interaction of the reader and the text. It focuses on learner‟s response to the author‟s text. The learners would respond to what they think are the author‟s intentions and what meanings they think could be derived from the text (Hirvela, 1996). As Parkinson and Reid-Thomas (2006) noted, “a text itself has no meaning, it only provides direction for the reader to construct meaning from his or her own experience”. So, a real literary experience is when readers are able to interpret texts and construct meaning on the basis of their own experience. Not only that, interpretation of texts by learners can bring about personal responses from readers by touching on significant and engaging themes. Similarly, Savvidou (2004) opined that if Literature is worth teaching, then it seems axiomatic that it is the response to a text itself which is important. Personal-response approach is associated with personal growth model proposed by Carter and Long (1991) as its aims are to elicit personal response and to foster students‟ personal development. Paraphrastic Approach This approach deals with the surface meaning of literary texts. It allows teachers to use simpler words and sentence structures when the ones in the texts are more complicated and sometimes the teacher can translate words into other languages. Rashid, Vethamani and 45 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Rahman (2010) said that this approach is suitable for beginners of the target language as it acts as a stepping stone in formulating original assumptions of the author‟s work. They argued that in an ESL classroom, some students may be weak in English hence, their understanding and comprehension of a particular literary text may be impeded due to low language proficiency. According to Hwang and Embi (2007), paraphrastic approach can be employed in assisting students with a better understanding of the text. They proposed that activities for this approach could include teacher‟s re-tells of the story or a poem using simpler language, the use of translation using other mother tongues and reading paraphrased versions or notes provided in the workbook or by the teacher. Information-based Approach The information-based approach demands a large input from the teacher hence; it is teacher- centred. It perceives the study of Literature as an aesthetically patterned artifact endowed with facts. The teaching methodologies involved aim to expose learners to facts and information about a target country, culture and even the writer of the literary texts. In this approach, teachers aim to teach and concentrate on “areas such as history and characteristics of literary movements, the social and historical background to a text, the biography of the author and its relevance to his or her writings, literary genres and rhetorical devices etc.”(Lazar, 1993). Hwang and Embi (2007) argued that the activities emanating from this approach could be lectures, explanation, reading of notes and criticism provided in workbooks or by the teacher and these activities usually cater for instrumental purposes such as examinations. Moral-philosophical Approach Moral philosophical approach adopted in Literature teaching enables teachers to lead learners in discussing the existence of moral values discernable in a text. The focus of this approach is to search for moral values while reading a particular literary text. Students‟ awareness of values is seen and this approach assists students to understand themes in future readings. Thus, students would be able to reflect what they have learnt based on their readings of a particular text (Hwang and Embi, 2007). Activities for this approach could be the incorporation of moral values at the end of the Literature lesson, reflective sessions, 46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY getting students‟ evaluation on what they should do or not do based on their readings (Wang, 2003). Stylistic Approach This approach analyses the features of literary language to develop students‟ sensitivity to Literature. Here the teacher encourages students to use their linguistic knowledge to make aesthetic judgment and interpretations of the texts (Van, 2009). According to Niazir (2010), the stylistic approach provides a way of integrating two subjects– English language and Literature-in-English. In this approach, the teaching of Literature and poetry in particular emphasises the writer‟s choice of words and their functions, the structure and the deviation from the norms, the use of foregrounding and parallelism, and other figures of speech, the lexical cohesion and coherence in the texts and the grammatical patterns (Dweikat and Shbietah, 2014). Rodger (1983) agreed that the language form plays the most important role in the understanding of a poem‟s significance. However, to Moody (1983), the reader‟s background knowledge along with close attention to language features is important to interpreting complex texts that are capable of analysis and commentary from a variety of different points of view. Van (2009) submitted that the stylistic approach is relevant because it clarifies one of the rationales for teaching Literature-in-English which is to highlight the aesthetic value of literary texts and provide access to the meaning by exploring the language and form of the literary text with a focus on meaning. To this, Verma (2015) added that literary analysis through stylistic approach encourages in students the ability to infer meanings by interacting with the text because it demands a close reading and re-reading of a literary text by the students. A close reading and re-readings of a literary text, Verma concluded, would help students internalise the rules of the grammar of the target language indirectly. Reader-response Approach The principles of this approach include attention to the role of the reader and a process- oriented approach to reading texts. It supports activities that encourage students to draw on their personal experiences, opinions and feelings in their interpretation of literary texts. It recognises that an author‟s idea about a work may be described in a multitude of ways (Van, 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2009). Here, the learners are not told about a literary text, instead they themselves have to discover what it might mean. Therefore, ideas and issues in the text which were once discovered by the teacher and dictated to the learners are, in the reader-response approach discovered by the students themselves while wrestling with the text to interpret it (Al-Masri and Al-Sharaideh, 2011). According to Chung and Lee (2012) the reader-response approach entails that Literature should be treated as a performing art in which every reader re-creates his or her own, unique, text-related meaning. However, Van (2009) contended that students‟ interpretations may deviate greatly from the work thereby making it problematic for the teacher to respond and evaluate and that lack of linguistic guidance may hinder students‟ ability to understand the language of the text or respond to it. New Criticism Approach The major principle of this approach is that meaning is contained solely within the literary text and the reader‟s role is to discover the one correct meaning by a close reading and analysis of formal elements such as genre convention, rhyme, meter, imagery plot structure, conflict, theme etc. It stresses close attention to the internal characteristics of the text itself, and it discourages the use of external evidence to explain the work. New critics uphold that literary texts have their own type of knowledge, and to understand that knowledge, readers must explore the relationships and connections between a work‟s many structures. By examining the structures together, new critics argue, one can uncover the “intended meaning(s)” of a text (Sharma, 2015). New criticism is not concerned with external circumstances like the historical context, social conditions at the time of production, effects on the reader and biography of the author. In Mattisson‟s (2012) view, the social, historical and political background of a text, as well as the reader‟s reactions or knowledge of the author‟s intention, distract from and are not relevant to the interpretation of the literary work. This approach has been credited with some benefits. According to Dosen (2013), the close, attentive reading and rigorous analysis of literary texts encouraged by new criticism approach can sharpen reader‟s critical reading and thinking skills. He added that new critics‟ insistence on textual evidence to back up assertions is a helpful reinforcement for good writing habits and good practice for argument whether on an English class paper, a 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY history paper, a letter to an editor, a business proposal or a political discussion. However, Verma (2015) and Sharma (2015) contended that since new criticism approach aims at finding one single or correct interpretation of a text, it does not allow subjective response to the meaning of a text and there is heavy dependence on the teacher to decipher the work. Again, they opined that the approach can even be perceived as elitist, because it excludes those readers who lack the background for arriving at the “correct” interpretation. Similarly, Van (2009) observed that one major drawback of the approach is that most class activities are dedicated to identifying formal elements and literary devices such as symbolism, metaphors, similes and irony. This turns the study of literary terms into an end in itself rather than a means to discover the beauty and value of a literary work. Critical Literacy Approach Critical literacy is a theory commonly associated with two major branches of inquiry: critical text analysis, and critical pedagogy (Luke, 2012). The critical literacy approach to teaching and learning attempts to undo the process whereby a premise is accepted because it is repeated, unchallenged, and is part of the status quo. It facilitates students‟ critical aware- ness about the role of language in producing, maintaining, and changing social relations and power, and it is considered “a resource for developing the consciousness” about the relationship between language and society (Van, 2009). In the classroom, critical literacy approach is conducted primarily through discussing controversial issues, critiquing institutional policies and practices, and taking social action. Critical literacy uses texts and print skills in ways that enable students to examine the politics of daily life within contemporary society with a view to understanding what it means to locate and actively seek out contradictions within modes of life, theories, and substantive intellectual positions (Bishop. 2014). According to Fajardo (2015), using critical literacy approach helps pull the power away from the author and makes it an equal relationship between the author and the reader by allowing the reader to see the texts from all angles, not just believing what is written down. That is, critical literacy encourages students to challenge what Bourke (2008) termed “the rule of text” which involves the perception that a text is authoritative and final, and an underlying belief that suppresses the reader‟s license to challenge, question, deconstruct or 49 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY rewrite the assumptions, beliefs, ideologies, concepts embedded, implicitly or not, within the perspective of the text”. A review of literature has shown that there are various approaches to the teaching of Literature-in-English. This suggests that teachers should be familiar with a variety of approaches to be used with students of lower, intermediate and high abilities so as to make the subject accessible to them and beneficial for their moral, intellectual and emotional development. 2.5 Story Grammar Instructional Strategy: Uses Story grammar is one of the reading comprehension strategies of graphic organiser used to comprehend narrative texts. It refers to a hierarchical set of rules that specify constituents of a story, their organisation, and the logical relationships that connect them. These rules provide a framework that facilitates comprehension by analysing stories in meaningful parts (Marks, 2013). According to Dymock (2007), story grammar identifies the basic elements in a story and shows how these elements cohere to produce a well formed story. In his view story grammar presents a complete framework for narrative structure hence; he concluded that students who have a thorough understanding of narrative structure showed better narrative comprehension. The foundation of story grammar as a teaching strategy rests on the story structure rewrite rules of Mandler and Johnson (1977). In their definitive work “Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall,” they examined the underlying structure of well-formed stories in hopes of exposing common elements and to derive generalisations about structure from traditional folktales. Because folktales have retained their structure over time through only oral retellings, Mandler and Johnson suggested this structure to be the ideal schema or framework by which to construct a story (Dimino, Gersten, Carnine and Blake, 1990). An important feature of story grammar instruction as Amer (1992) and Nampaktai, Kaewsombut, Akwaree, Wongwayrote and Sameepet (2013) noted, is that it encourages students‟ active reading of text unlike what obtains in lecture method where students are passive readers. In a story grammar lesson, students ask themselves some wh-questions which are related to the story. Such questions include: 1. Where and when did the story happen? 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2. Who is the main character?/ Who is the story about? 3. What is the main character‟s problem?/What is the big problem that the story is about? 4. How did the main character feel about the problem? 5. What did the main character try to do to solve the problem?/What did he do about the problem? 6. What is the result of the main character‟s action? 7. How did he feel at the end? As students read and find answers to the questions, they have active engagement with the text which helps them to evaluate the quality of stories. At the end, they could write their own stories. As Schmitt (1986) stated, story grammar strategy is a reading comprehension strategy useful in improving students‟ interactions with texts in order to find out the important information of a story by using an organisational framework. In addition, story grammar can be used as a foundation to answer the questions related to the story (Dimino, Gersten, Carnine and Blake, 1990). Mahmoud and Nazzal (2010) noted that the benefits of story grammar strategy are: it can be used at all levels and not only can it improve reading comprehension, but can also enhance students‟ vocabulary, writing, and imagination. Then, it can motivate students to be proud with their work. Mahmoud concluded that story grammar strategy is appropriate to be used for students who work individually or in group or the whole class discussion. Fiestas and Peña (2004) also observed that story grammar can improve performance in reading and writing for bilingual (Spanish/ English) students. They reported that bilingual students who were instructed in story grammar through guided reading assignments were able to construct equally complex stories that incorporated the structure of story grammar learned. In their view, Stadler and Ward (2005) posited that one sure way for teachers to enhance students‟ comprehension of narrative text is to actively instruct them in using story grammar strategies. Story grammar, they maintained, provides students with a framework to help them understand narrative texts that include common elements such as plot, character, setting, and theme. According to Foley (2000), story grammar is a metacognitive strategy since it gives the learners the opportunity to distinguish different parts of a story, 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and focus on how these parts are combined to make a story. This task, he observed challenges students‟ critical thinking and makes them actively involved in the learning process. 2.6 Origin and Benefits of Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy Socratic seminar methodology started in the 1920s and it is named after the Greek philosopher, Socrates. He believed that there was a more effective and productive way of teaching students than the lecture (Copeland, 2005). He inspired his pupils to take an active role in their learning. Therefore, he regularly engaged his pupils in dialogues by responding to their questions with questions instead of answers which encourages divergent thinking rather than convergent because, to him, it is better to allow learners to think for themselves than to fill them with the “right” answers (Bunyi, 2010). As Styslinger and Overstreet (2014) noted, Socrates was convinced that the surest way to attain reliable knowledge was through the practice of disciplined conversation which he called dialectic. A dialectic is the art or practice of examining opinions or ideas logically often by the method of question and answer so as to determine their validity. According to Watson (2011), Socrates, whose mother was a midwife, assumed that his job was similar to midwifery. Thus, just as a midwife helps to deliver babies, Socrates helped his students deliver knowledge. Ironically, he was accused, tried and executed for corrupting the minds of the young. The corrupting of the young is linked with Socrates‟ belief that within each of his students resides an often- untapped reservoir of knowledge and understanding which he could help them to examine through his methodology (Copeland, 2005). As an instructional strategy, Socratic seminar, hit mainstream education in 1982 when Mortimer Adler‟s Paidea proposal: an educational manifesto was published. Mortimer suggested that it is not enough to simply lecture students and hope they acquire the skills that educators deem necessary for them to have. He argued that students can only acquire the skills expected of them when they are taught „by asking them questions, and by engaging them in discussions (Adler, 1982). These activities are found in Socratic seminar instructional strategy. Adler described Socratic seminar as an instructional method that stimulates the imagination and intellect by awakening the creative and inquisitive powers (p. 29). Lambright (1995) defined it as an exploratory intellectual conversation centred on a 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY text. He went on to add that it is the nature and process of that conversation that differs radically from the typical teacher-led, question-and-answer discussion. Styslinger and Overstreet (2014) viewed Socratic seminar as a method to foster an understanding of information by creating a dialectic in which participants seek deeper comprehension of complex ideas through rigorously thoughtful dialogue. Socratic pedagogy impacts the entire learning community. One primary benefit of Socratic seminar strategy is that it engages the learners and maximises their participation during lessons. Learners do not passively listen to information presented as it is the case with traditional lecture method. Even those students who are hesitant to speak up in class can benefit from seeing a genuine discourse modeled. Socratic seminar helps all students particularly those who are apathetic and disaffected engage the material in a way that has meaning for them. Learning to become a critical thinker is not just the province of the smarter, more active, more vocal students. The Socratic process makes the tools of inquiry available to all participants (Boghossian, 2003). Styslinger and Overstreet (2014) opined that Socratic seminar enhances writing skill. Based on a research they conducted, they reported that with Socratic seminar, students become aware of varied viewpoints that positively affect their written composition of counterarguments and rebuttals. Saiki (2009) presented the advantage of Socratic seminar instructional strategy over lecture with a front door analogy. According to Saiki (2009), a lecturer walks up to a house, explains in great detail the purpose and function of the front door, the house and the doorknob. The lecturer opens the door and asks the students to follow him inside. He contended that the problem with this scenario is that the teacher does most of the thinking. The teacher decides which house and portal to enter. In contrast, the Socratic teacher sneaks around and enters the house through the back door. He calls out to the students to find their own ways to enter the house. The teacher uses guiding questions to point out different methods which might help them gain entrance. The students in this scenario do most of the thinking. They must decide which portal to enter through. They must decide how to operate doorknobs. In sum, a lecturer attempts to disseminate information while the Socratic teacher attempts to draw knowledge out of students. 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Another benefit of this strategy is that it encourages critical reading of texts. This is extremely important because critical reading provides opportunities for students to create their own meaning and experiences of texts. In essence, in Socratic seminar instruction students would no doubt see themselves as „producers‟ of knowledge and not as „consumers‟ of knowledge as it is the case in lectures. This could make students become “intrinsically motivated lifelong” learners (Copeland, 2005; Mee, 2000). Besides, collaboration is the main feature of this strategy. Students reshape and add to their understanding of a text as they construct meaning with other readers. This no doubt will improve students‟ confidence and self-esteem. Copeland (2005) credited Socratic seminar with setting students on an “ongoing, honest quest for information and understanding” that may not always be easy but will always be worth it in terms of the critical thinking skills gained (p. 7). Similarly, Lam (2011) observed that instilling Socratic learning style in students, that is, by helping them to make it a mental habit, students will become more autonomous thinkers and decision makers. He contended that autonomy and the ability to make rational judgement are essential in building a democratic society. Thus, transforming students into active Socratic learners means sowing the seeds for vital democracy. 2.7 Text Structure Awareness and Reading Comprehension Text structures are organisational structures used within paragraphs or longer texts appropriate to genre and purpose. They refer to the structural framework that underlies the order and manner in which information and ideas in a text are presented to the reader (Pardo, 2013). Text structure knowledge has been recognized as an efficient strategy that enhances reading comprehension (Zarrati and Nambiar, 2014). Text structure acts as a road map for reading comprehension and understanding and it empowers students. Students benefit from explicit instruction about text structures because it helps readers navigate the text to anticipate or predict what to expect, determine the most important parts, make meaning of the information presented, and recall information (Hess, 2008). According to Read, Reutzel and Fawson (2011), when students understand text structures, they can also apply the same patterns to organise their thinking and writing. In the same line of thought Meyer (2013) posited that knowledge about the ways different types of text are structured 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and the ways these structures reveal the organisation and interweaving of the author‟s ideas has been shown to influence comprehension, memory and writing skills. All texts are different to a certain extent, but depending upon the author‟s purpose, the topic and the genre, reading selections tend to be organised to employ a few predominant structural patterns. There are two major types of text: narrative and expository. The structural pattern, or the way information is organised, and the relationships those ideas form to communicate meaning in the texts are different (Glass and Zygouris-Coe, 2005). The most common expository/informational text structures include: description, sequence, comparison-contrast cause-effect, and problem-solution. Each structure has related signal words/expressions that aid the reader in the identification of that structure (Marzban and Seifi, 2013). A description structure in expository text involves the author‟s description of a topic, idea, person, place, or thing by listing its characteristics, attributes, examples and features. Signal words/phrases for this type of text can be: for instance, characteristics, including, to illustrate, to begin with etc. A sequence organisational pattern involves a situation when the author describes or lists items or events in chronological order or tells the steps to follow to do something or make something. Signal words for this type of text include: first, second, finally, then, additionally etc. In a comparison-contrast structure, the author presents information by detailing how two or more things are alike or how they are different. Signal words for this type of text can be: however, nevertheless, on the other hand, likewise, in comparison etc. A cause-effect structure in expository text involves the author presenting the result of an event or occurrence and the reasons it happened. Signal words that could guide the reader when reading this type of text will include: if…then, as a result, therefore, because, consequently etc. A problem-solution pattern involves the author telling about a problem and then presents one or more solutions to the problem. Signal words for this type of text can be: problem is, dilemma is, to solve this….etc. A narrative text is a text which relates a series of logically, and chronologically related events that are caused or experienced by factors (Roberts, 2003). Narrative structure is generally described as the structural framework that underlies the order and manner in which a narrative is presented to a reader, listener or viewer. It consists of the traditional 55 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY parts of a story and the order in which the reader encounters them (Hiebert, 2014). According to Evans (2013), narrative text structure is predictable in nature. It generally contains characters that are motivated into action by some initiating event. The characters then take a series of actions as part of an overall “goal”. Fletcher (2012) observed that a narrative has rhetorical steps or order in which events are related. The most common order he noted, is chronological order which is represented graphically in Freytag‟s Triangle of narrative structure as shown in figure 2.1. Climax Rising Action Falling Action Exposition Denouement Fig. 2.1: Freytag‟s Triangle of Narrative Structure Source: Fletcher, “Text awareness: an overview” (2012) The exposition establishes the start of the story. It indicates the way things are before the action starts. Rising action refers to a series of conflicts and crisis which lead to the climax. The climax is the turning point. It is critical moment when the problem/conflicts demand something to be done about them. Falling action is the moment away from the highest peak of excitement and the resolution consists of the result or outcome (Fletcher, 2012). On the other hand, Anderson (2011) posited that the generic structure of a narrative comprises four elements– orientation, complication, resolution and re-orientation/coda. In orientation, the narrator tells the audience who is in the story, when it is happening and what is happening. In complication, the narrator tells about something that will trigger off a chain of events that lead to climax. These events will affect one or more of the participants in the story. In resolution, the problem or crisis of the story is resolved either in a happy or a sad 56 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ending. The re-orientation/coda part is a closing remark to the story. It consists of a moral lesson, advice or teaching from the author. According to Boyd (2013), coda is an optional structure in a narrative. To him, it is not essential except there is to be a moral or message to be learned from the story. However, Hiebert (2014) argued that there is hardly any story that has no moral or message to pass across to the reader. He opined that rather being regarded as an optional part of a narrative, coda is an integral part of a well formed narrative. 2.8 Studies on Literature-in-English Teaching Several studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of using different approaches, methods and techniques to teach Literature-in-English in many countries. Some of these studies attempted to investigate teachers‟ and /or students‟ perceptions and attitudes towards using specific approaches in teaching the Literature component in ESL or EFL classrooms or the effects of specific instructional strategies on students‟ learning outcomes in Literature-in-English. Aluko (1990) investigated the effects of discussion, lecture and activity methods of poetry teaching on attitude and achievement of secondary school students. Subjects of the study were 160 form 3 students. Results showed that the discussion and activity methods were more effective in improving students‟ achievement in poetry than the lecture method. Results also showed that discussion and activity methods promoted positive attitude to poetry among students. This study focused on the teaching of poetic literature and not prose in Literature-in-English. Using 135 junior secondary three students, Ogunnaike (2002) examined the effects of discussion and reading-questioning techniques on secondary school students‟ achievement in prose Literature. Results indicated that the techniques enhanced students‟ performance in prose Literature. Of the two techniques, discussion was found to be more effective with an adjusted mean score of 15.62 while reading-questioning technique has a mean score of 9.45. The normal class mode (control) had a mean score of 8.09. These techniques were manipulated to enhance the achievement of junior secondary school students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English and not senior secondary school students. Besides, the 57 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY study measured only one dependent variable i. e achievement. It did not determine the influence of the techniques on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Dweikat and Shbietah‟s (2014) investigated the approaches used by English teachers in teaching the Literature components of English curriculum in Palestine. The study also examined the effect of teachers‟ gender, qualification, experience and specialisation on their use of these approaches. To answer the research questions, a 33-item questionnaire was used to measure the perceptions of 52 teachers. The results revealed that the teachers tend to use more than one approach and that not all approaches are used at the same degree or level since teachers‟ use of approaches ranged from moderate to high levels in the Literature-in-English lessons. Furthermore, the results revealed that the information-based approach was the most favored approach in the Literature-in-English class while the stylistic approach scored the lowest level of use. Moreover, the study showed no statistically significant differences for the total degree, or for any of the domains with the exception of the personal-response approach due to gender, specialisation and experience. On the other hand, there were statistically significant differences on the total degree of approaches employed by teachers due to qualification. Khatib and Farahian (2013) investigated the effect of two different reader-response procedures to teaching short stories on students‟ achievement. The researchers in addition examined the effect on students‟ attitude and motivation. The study adopted a pretest- posttest, control group quasi experimental design. Seventy-five EFL university students participated in the study. They were divided into three groups of equal levels of proficiency. Two experimental groups were exposed to two different treatments informed by the reader-response model. The conventional method, which consisted of instructors giving lectures and students receiving information and the interpretation of the story, was used to teach short stories to the control group. After treatment, a one way ANOVA was run to compare the performance of the experimental groups and the control group. Findings revealed the experimental group which received the treatment in the form of reading logs performed significantly better than the other experimental group which assigned the participants some tasks based on the reader response model. This group also did significantly better than the control group. In order to determine whether the treatments 58 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY have affected the participants‟ attitude and motivation, a pre-experimental and post- experimental attitude and motivation questionnaire were also given to the participants. Results indicated that the motivation of students in the experimental groups increased after receiving the treatment. Overall, the researchers recommended that teaching short stories with reader-response approach may involve the learners in a transactional relationship which would increase their comprehension as well as motivation. Ayanniyi (2009) examined the effects of three modes of expository organisers– keyword, pre-question and outline on students‟ achievement and attitude to poetic literature. The subjects of the study were 307 senior secondary two students drawn from selected schools in Ibadan metropolis. Results indicated that the advance organizers enhanced students‟ achievement in poetry. Keyword organizer was found to be the most effective followed by the outline organiser. The pre-question organiser was third while the conventional method was last. Ezenandu (2011) investigated the effects of literature circles and scaffolding instructional strategies on senior secondary school students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. The study was done with 317 SS 2 students from selected schools in Ogun State. Findings revealed that the experimental groups outperformed those in the control group. However, the difference in their performance was not significant. In their study Ezeokoli and Igubor (2014) investigated the extent to which students‟ possession of the prescribed prose texts affects teachers‟ method of teaching prose in Literature-in-English in senior secondary schools. The participants in the study were 100 teachers of Literature-in-English and their 500 students. Instruments used for data collection were observation schedule and questionnaire. Findings revealed that students do not have the prescribed literary texts. It was also reported that prose in Literature-in-English classrooms are teacher-dominated because teachers predominantly employ the read aloud and explain and the lecture methods in their teaching. Hwang and Embi (2007) examined the approaches employed by secondary school teachers in teaching the Literature-in-English component of English language curriculum in Malaysia. Eighty-seven teachers constituted the subjects of the study. Questionnaire and 59 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY classroom observation checklist were used to collect data. Findings of the study revealed that the paraphrastic approach (mean =4.05) was popularly employed by teachers. This was followed by the information-based approach (mean = 4.04), the moral-philosophical approach (mean = 3.93), the personal-response approach (mean = 3.62), the language-based approach (mean = 3.570. The least employed approach was the stylistic approach (mean = 3.36). The study was not designed to examine the effect of the approaches on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. In a similar study Rashid, Vethamani and Rahman (2010) investigated the approaches employed by teachers in teaching Literature-in-English to less proficient students in forms 1 and 2. Ninety-two teachers participated in the study. Data was collected through classroom observation. Results showed that the information-based approach was the most favoured approach among teachers. This was followed by the moral-philosophical approach, paraphrastic approach and the personal-response approach respectively. The least employed approach was the language-based approach. This study also merely investigated the approaches employed by teachers in teaching Literature-in-English. It did not determine the effect of the approaches on students‟ achievement in and attitude towards Literature-in- English. Green‟s (2003) study used quantitative data to research whether students enjoyed cooperative activities or individual learning and how they react to peer tutoring in Literature-in-English classrooms. He found that students view cooperative learning as more effective and beneficial. Furthermore, he reported that students were open to new teaching styles. This study examined students‟ attitude to instructional strategies but did not examine the effect of the strategies on their achievement. Alton (2010) examined students‟ feedback on the methods of teaching Literature-in-English in an EFL classroom. He reported that students are favourably disposed to reader-response approach and that they are willing to move beyond a language-centred methodology to one that asks them to develop a personal relationship with the text. The study examined students‟ attitude to methods of teaching Literature-in-English but did not examine the effect of the methods on their achievement. In addition, the study was done in an EFL and not ESL class. 60 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Using an integrated approach to Literature teaching, Wang (2009) in a survey investigated the effect of the approach on students‟ performance in English language. One hundred and sixty-two non-English major university students in Taiwan participated in the study. He reported that the majority of the participants found an integrated approach beneficial, citing proficiency gains in reading, translation, grammar, listening, speaking, writing and problem analysis. In addition, he reported that students enjoyed this approach. The approach was manipulated to enhance students‟ proficiency in English and not to enhance their achievement in Literature-in-English. In another study, Ghazali, Setia, Muthusamy and Jusoff (2009) examined ESL students‟ attitude towards texts and teaching methods used in Literature-in-English classes. Subjects of the study were 110 students. A five point likert scale and structured interview were used to gauge students‟ attitude towards text selection and teaching methods. They reported that short stories seemed to be the most popular among students. This was evidenced by the 80% of the students who agreed that they enjoyed reading short stories. They also reported that negative attitude was associated with reading poetry. On students‟ attitude to teaching methods, they found that most of the students believed that background information concerning a text such as the author‟s life or the setting was vital to understanding a text. This was demonstrated by the 97% of the respondents who agreed and strongly agreed that background information would make it easier for them to comprehend a literary text. Also, they found that students are in favour of working in group. Nevertheless, this study like most of the studies reviewed focused on students‟ attitude to the texts and methods of teaching the genres. It did not examine the effect of the methods on students‟ achievement in Literature-in-English. Chung and Lee (2012) examined whether instructions in task-based and reader response approaches could enhance students‟ motivation when teaching children‟s literature in an ESL classroom. The subjects of the study were fifty non-English major students. The materials used were the novel The Polar Express: Trip to the North Pole, and the film adaption. Tasked-based and response-centered activities, including learning sheets, group discussion, and essay-question writing activities, were also adopted in the lesson. To begin with, students were divided into groups, with five members in each group. Each group was 61 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY assigned one chapter and asked to prepare a vocabulary list and a summary. The students were assigned to watch the movie in the school‟s media center and then produce feedback about it. They were encouraged to produce multiple interpretations which enhanced their critical thinking skills and to participate in classroom discussions. Their responses and reflections were captured in the essay-question writing activities. The results of the study showed that, by encouraging students to generate multiple interpretations and reflections of children‟s literature, it is not too difficult for them to develop their critical thinking skills when learning in English. The use of children‟s literature as an alternative teaching material not only enhanced the learners‟ language acquisition and cultivated their literacy competence, but also helped free their imaginations, leading to more positive effects and responses. The review of the previous literature appears to provide empirical evidence that there is no one single approach or method to teaching any genre of Literature-in-English. Furthermore, the studies above showed a dearth of local and foreign studies on the investigation of the effects of narrative structure awareness and student-led discussion instructional strategies on students‟ learning outcomes in Literature-in-English. This study therefore, determined the effect of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ learning outcomes in prose in Literature-in-English. 2.9 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Academic Achievement Verbal ability refers to a person‟s facility at putting ideas into words both orally and in writing. This facility involves possessing not only a strong working vocabulary but also the ability to choose the right words to convey nuances of meaning to a chosen audience. Verbal ability also includes the ability to organise words in coherent ways (Billy, 2003). In other words, it is important for communicative competence. Verbal ability/intelligence, according to Martin and Mann (2005) is the ability to analyse information and solve problems using language based reasoning. To them, verbal tasks involve skills such as: 1. ability to listen and recall spoken information 2. understanding the meaning of written or spoken information 3. solving language based problems of a literary, logical or social type 4. understanding the relationship between language concepts and performing language 62 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY analyses or comparisons and; 5. ability to perform complex language based analysis Weymer (2002) defined verbal ability as ability to apply knowledge of printed language structure and meaning appropriately, to utilise cognitive strategies in analysing information and drawing inferences, to deduce relationships and generalise verbal attributes, and predict outcomes and evaluate the appropriateness of predictions and strategies. Thus, verbal ability encompasses the skills needed for language comprehension and expression and is profoundly important throughout the life course in academic and social settings. According to Bridgeland, Dilulio and Morison (2006), having poor verbal skills may contribute to difficulties in variety of situations, leading one to experience feelings of academic and social failure. For example, if an individual possesses poor receptive vocabulary, they may not be able to understand directions or comprehend content necessary to succeed in an academic or social setting. Persons may become easily confused or overwhelmed by simple directions or content that is responsible for learning. In his own view, Ede (2005), noted that verbal ability is a necessity if a child is to learn in school. He noted that pupils‟ inadequacy in the range and control of language is a very important factor in educational failure, in that this deficit generates a vicious circle of difficulties which increase in magnitude as school life progresses. However, based on the outcome of a study he did, Bladdel (2004) held a different view. He argued that learners‟ verbal ability does not have any effect on their academic achievement and that the notion that a learner with high verbal ability will perform better in language learning than others is false. A number of studies have examined the relationship between verbal ability and academic achievement. For example, Ede (2005) investigated the relationship between students‟ verbal ability and their achievement in social studies. The researcher used the grades of 2000 students in English language and social studies for three years. The grades were converted to grade points and correlated using Pearson product moment correlation and t- test. It was found that a significant positive correlation exists between the students‟ verbal ability and achievement in social studies. In addition, the researcher reported that although verbal ability is the best predictor of academic achievement, it explains less than 50% of the variance in students‟ grades. Maduabuchi (2008) investigated the effects of three modes of 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY graphic organisers on students‟ comprehension of expository and narrative texts. He crossed the dependent variables with verbal ability and gender. Findings revealed that verbal ability had a significant effect on students‟ comprehension of expository and narrative texts. Similarly, in a study that investigated the effects of instructional strategies on primary school pupils‟ achievement in basic reading and comprehension skill, Idogo (2011) reported that verbal ability had a significant influence on students‟ achievement in reading comprehension. He found that the high verbal ability group performed better than the other groups with an adjusted posttest mean score of 47.33. The average verbal ability group followed with mean score of 42.44 while the low verbal ability group had mean score of 32.83. Meanwhile, some other studies on the relationship between verbal ability and academic achievement came out with different results (Jiboku, 1998; Ayanniyi, 2009). Weymer‟s (2002) study on factors affecting students‟ performance in sixth grade modular technology education examined the relationship between verbal ability and students‟ performance in a heterogeneous and homogeneous pairing of students in cooperative learning tasks (i.e., students‟ performance after engaging in cooperative learning and their performance on a subsequent individual learning task (transfer). Individuals‟ scores on a vocabulary test served as an indication of verbal ability. The researcher reported that significant relationships were demonstrated in the bivariate analysis between students‟ verbal ability and MTE posttest achievement scores. More importantly, it was found that cooperative partners with dissimilar vocabulary scores recalled significantly more main ideas from the passage used in the individual learning task than did partners with similar vocabulary scores. It was noted that, for both low and high ability individuals, having a heterogeneous partner led to somewhat higher mean performance than having a homogeneous partner on all six measures. However, only one of the six effects of the partner‟s verbal ability was statistically significant (the individual‟s recall of main ideas on the transfer test). It was speculated that heterogeneous pairs may learn something from the cooperative experience that aids them in individual study. The lower verbal ability students may learn by observing the strategies of their partners while the higher ability student may learn new methods by being placed in the role of “teacher.” To this end, the researcher counselled that teachers should identify students with low verbal ability at the onset of instruction and pair them with high verbal ability students. 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Normally, literary texts are replete with varied creative uses of language which require students to possess a reasonable level of verbal skills for them to interpret a text and be able to make competent critical judgment of it. Based on this, the present study was interested in finding out how students of different verbal ability groups will benefit from the use of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies in the teaching of prose in Literature- in-English. 2.10 Studies on Effects of Verbal Ability on Students’ Attitude to Learning There have been many attempts made to enhance students‟ academic achievement. It has been the concern of teachers and parents that their students and children be as much successful as possible. In relation to this, many teachers are convinced that students need a positive attitude to succeed academically. Often a student‟s verbal ability is believed to exert a great influence on his/her attitude to and achievement in learning (Riazi and Mansorian, 2008). In relation to literary studies and reading comprehension many researchers (Ayanniyi, 2009; Maduabuchi, 2008; Ezenandu, 2011; Komolafe, 2011; Idogo, 2011; Chikwendu, 2016) have reported no significant effect. Kessing (2006) in his study found that students with low verbal ability demonstrated more negative attitudes towards both recreational and academic reading than their peers with medium and high verbal ability. However, he cautioned that it is important not to make automatic assumptions regarding students‟ attitude towards reading based solely on perceptions in terms of verbal ability. He observed that peer influence, age, gender and type of school attended are factors that can influence attitude towards reading. Nellenbach (2010) commenting on the relationship between verbal ability and attitude to reading noted that a student‟s verbal ability level can influence the way he feels towards engaging in academic reading, his transaction with text as well as his level of motivation to participate in concurrent and future reading experiences. Thus, he surmised that success with reading comprehension requires the contribution of skill-based components such as verbal intelligence and problem-solving. Considering this inconclusive results on verbal ability and attitude to learning, further investigation is required to demonstrate a clearer understanding between the two constructs. 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.11 Studies on Learning Style and Students’ Academic Achievement There are probably as many ways to teach as there are to learn. The idea that people learn differently has been acknowledged in several studies (Dembo and Howard, 2007). Learning style has been reported to be one of the significant factors that may impact students‟ achievement in various school subjects including Literature-in-English (Seyal and Rahman, 2015; Orhun, 2007). Rhorer (2008) investigated the effect of learning style on achievement with 179 students who enrolled in an introductory education course at two universities in the United States. They found the tactile learners to be superior to visual and auditory learners on tests measuring different educational objectives. Thus, the researchers concluded that learning style had a significant association with students‟ academic achievement. Meanwhile, Coffeild, Moseley, Hall and Ecclestone (2004) in their own study reported that graphic and tactile representations of the subject matter had noticeable effects on learning outcomes regardless of any attempt to match them with learners‟ modalities (learning preference or style). In a study on learning styles and high school students‟ chemistry achievement, Uzuntiryaki (2007) sought to find out if there is relationship between students‟ learning style and their academic achievement in chemistry. Two hundred and sixty-five students participated in the study. Grasha-Riechmann learning style scale was used to determine students‟ learning styles. The scale has six learning styles as dependent, competitive, collaborative, participant, avoidant and independent. Students‟ end of term chemistry scores was used as indicator of achievement. The researcher reported significant difference among students with different learning styles in terms of chemistry achievement. The independent learning style group obtained the highest achievement score. The difference between this study and Uzuntiryaki‟s in terms of effect of students‟ learning style and their academic achievement is that this study used the modified Reid VARK learning style model to classify Literature- in-English students while Uzuntiryaki used Grasha-Riechmann learning style model to categorise chemistry students. Vaishnav (2013) conducted a study on learning style and academic achievement of secondary school students in China. In carrying out the study, the researcher employed an 66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY experimental research design and used Gardner‟s VAK Learning Style Brain Box 1993 version and Chapman and Chislett VAK learning style inventory. The objectives of the study were to analyse the learning styles prevalent among secondary school students and to study the relation between learning styles and academic achievement of secondary school students. Participants in the study were 200 students. The results showed that kinesthetic learning style was found to be more prevalent than visual and auditory learning styles among secondary school students. There was also positive high correlation between kinesthetic learning style and academic achievement. The researcher thus, concluded that it is important for teachers to incorporate in their curriculum activities related to each of these learning styles so that all students are able to succeed in their classes. JilardiDamavandi, Mahyuddin, Elias, Daud and Shabani (2011) investigated the impact of learning styles on the academic achievement of secondary school students in Iran. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory (1999) was administered in eight public schools in Tehran. The mean of test scores in five subjects, namely English, science, mathematics, history and geography, was calculated for each student and used as a measure of academic achievement. A total of 285 Grade 10 students were randomly selected as sample of this study. The results of the analyses of variance showed that there was a statistically significant difference in the academic achievement of the Iranian students that correspond to the four learning styles. In particular, the mean scores for the converging and assimilating groups were significantly higher than for the diverging and accommodating groups. In this regard, the authors noted that, in order for students to benefit maximally from instruction and assessment, each should match their learning styles. They therefore, concluded that flexibility is crucial for students as well as for teachers. Cox (2007) carried out a study on learning styles and learning difficulties that foreign students face at the college level and claimed that a student‟s preferred learning style can help or hinder success in the foreign language classroom. However, when he analysed the distribution of grades according to Kolb‟s learning style types, he found no significant correlation between learning style and grades. Similarly, Hyland‟s (2005) study of English college students learning Spanish showed that students performed equally well on vocabulary tests regardless of perceptual learning style preference. 67 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The purpose of Ibe‟s (2015) study was to ascertain the effects of learning styles on the performances of Senior Secondary School Biology students in Imo state, Nigeria. The study adopted the quasi-experimental design. The sample consisted of 300 SS II Biology students comprising of (150 males and 150 females) obtained through simple random sampling in three schools (100 students per school). Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI 1999 version) was used for the identification of the students‟ learning styles. The Biology Achievement Test (BAT) was used for the determination of the students‟ performance in both pretest and posttest. Findings from the study showed that learning style has significant effects on biology students‟ performance. The converging learning style group had the highest mean score followed by assimilating, accommodating and diverging. However, the researcher opined that the use of multiple teaching methods will greatly enhance the process of teaching and learning and make it effective and rewarding. In a study he carried out, Chong-Chen (1998) reported that students retain 10% of what they read, 26% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say, and 90% of what they say as they do something. He thus, observed that identifying learning styles is not only necessary, but also important for individuals in academic settings because, most students favour to learn in particular ways with each style contributing to the success in retaining what they have learnt. These facts reveal that each learning style has its own strengths and weaknesses. From the review of literature, it may be concluded that researches on relationship between learning style and achievement in Literature-in-English appears to be rare. Thus, this study determined the interaction effect of visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles on students‟ performance in prose in Literature-in-English. 2.12 Learning Style and Students’ Attitude to Learning Learning style is one of the key learners‟ characteristics that affect their learning behaviours. Learners having different learning style preferences would behave differently in the way they perceive interact and respond to the learning environment (Junko, 1998). Since learners differ in their preferences to certain learning styles, it is important for teachers to examine variations in their students on the features of their learning styles because lack of attention to this factor can lead to inefficiencies in learning (Omar, 2013). Studies on 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY learning style and attitude to learning have demonstrated varied results. Reid (1987) conducted a research with respect to the learning style preferences of ESL learners. The overall results of the study showed that ESL learners strongly preferred tactile learning style when compared to auditory and visual. The general findings reported by Reid (1987) are as follows: 1. The perceptual learning style preferences of ESL learners differed significantly in several ways from native speakers of English for instance; native speakers of English were less tactile in their learning style preferences than all nonnative speakers. 2. The learning style preferences of ESL learners from different language, different educational and cultural backgrounds sometimes differed significantly from each other. For example, the Korean students were found to be the most visual in their learning style preferences. They were significantly more visual than the US and Japanese learners. Japanese learners, on the other hand, appeared to be the least auditory of all learners and were significantly less auditory than Arabic and Chinese learners. 3. As ESL learners adapt to the US academic environment, some changes and extensions of learning styles might take place. The data from the study revealed that the longer the students had lived in the US, the more auditory their preference became. Learners who had been in the US for more than three years were significantly more auditory in their learning style preference than those who had been in the US for shorter periods of time. These findings show that learners adapt their learning style preferences to the learning environment they are involved in. Vaseghi, Ramezani and Gholami (2012) conducted a research in which 140 male freshman learners at the Chinese Military academy completed the perceptual learning style preference questionnaire. The statistical analysis of the questionnaire revealed that students who preferred kinesthetic learning style have more confidence as well as more positive attitudes and beliefs about foreign language learning than students with other perceptual learning style preferences. Ramsel (2012) conducted a study in which he examined the relationship between students‟ learning styles and their attitude towards Literature-in-English. In order to identify any differences among the learning styles with relation to the total attitude score, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The results of the ANOVA showed that there is no 69 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY relationship between attitude to Literature-in-English and students‟ preferred learning style. He remarked that learning style preference and pre-existing attitudes towards Literature-in- English do not bias the enjoyment of a particular genre of Literature. In other words, students‟ learning style has no significant effect on their attitude to the study of Literature. The objective of the study of Brown and et al. (2009) was to determine whether learning style preferences of health science students could predict their attitudes to e-learning. A total of 822 students participated in the study. Data was generated through Index of Learning Styles (ILS) and the Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES) questionnaires. The linear regression analysis results indicated that ILS learning styles accounted for a small percentage of the OLES actual and preferred subscales‟ variance. For the OLES actual subscales, the ILS Active-Reflective and Sensing-Intuitive learning style dimensions were the most frequent predictors of health science students‟ attitudes towards e-learning. For the OLES preferred subscales, ILS Active-Reflective and Sequential-Global learning style dimensions accounted for the most frequent source of variance. Thus, the researchers concluded that the learning styles of health science students (as measured by the ILS) can be used only to a limited extent as a predictor of students‟ attitudes towards e-learning. Ghaedi and Jam (2014) examined the relationship between learning styles and motivation for higher education of EFL students. Ninety EFL undergraduates participated in the study. Students learning styles were determined through the perceptual learning style preference questionnaire and students‟ motivation for higher education was identified through the motivational questionnaire. Data analysis revealed significant relationship between students‟ learning styles and their motivation for higher education. The highest correlation was found among students who prefer visual learning styles. This shows that visual learners have more motivation for higher education than the other learning styles. Ross and Lukow (2004) conducted a study to determine the relationship between learning styles and students‟ attitudes towards the use of technology in a leisure study curriculum. The four hundred and twenty-two students who participated in the study completed the Kolb learning style inventory (LSI) and a computer attitudes survey (CAS) questionnaires developed by the authors. Multiple regression analysis used to determine whether attitude toward technology could be predicted by learning style showed no significant difference. 70 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The researchers concluded that the result supported the literature regarding the steady increase in the use of electronic mail and the internet by students in higher education. Cox (2008) conducted a study to examine students‟ attitudes toward the use of technology and to determine if attitudes toward the use of technology differ based on learning style. Lukow‟s Attitude Toward the Use of Technology Survey (ATUTS) measured attitudes toward the use of technology, and learning styles were measured using Kolb‟s Learning Style Inventory (LSI). The participants of the study were enrolled in Higher and Adult Education (HIAD) courses. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if attitudes toward the use of technology differed for participants based on learning style. The results of the ANOVA showed no significant findings, which demonstrates that among the population for this study, no relationship existed between attitude toward the use of technology and learning style. Seyal and Raliman (2015) investigated the relationship between students‟ learning style and their attitude towards educational technologies in general and e-learning management system (e-LMS) in particular. One hundred and twenty undergraduate students participated in the study. The VARK questionnaire was used to describe the learning styles of students. The result obtained confirmed that there existed a relationship between students‟ learning style (Kinesthetic-doing) and their attitude towards e-LMS. Çalışkan and Kılınç (2012) investigated the relationship between the attitudes of primary school students towards social studies course and their learning styles. Descriptive scanning model was used in the study. Participants in the study were 320 primary school students. Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey and Attitude Scale for Social Studies Course were used as data collection tools. Result indicated a positive and medium scale statistically significant relationship between the learning styles of students and their attitudes towards social studies course. The researchers also reported positive relationship between the auditory learning style preference and students‟ attitude towards the social studies course. In other words, students who prefer auditory learning style are more inclined to social studies than those in other learning style groups. Studies reviewed here showed conflicting results. This therefore, necessitates further research on the influence of learning style on attitude to learning. 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.13 Studies on Story Grammar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement There are a number of interventions that have instructed students of various language ability and grade levels in the structure of narrative text with the aim of improving comprehension. In a study that sought to determine the effect of story grammar instruction on students‟ achievement in texts‟ theme identification, Saadi and Mahdi (2009) reported that direct instruction in story grammar could enhance poor students‟ ability to identify themes in narrative texts. Thirty students participated in the study. They were grouped into experimental and control groups. The experimental group consisted of poor students (students who get bad marks) while in the control group were students who get good marks. The experimental group was taught the elements of story grammar by using related key words such as: because, as a result of, since, then, after, before etc.. The control group was taught according to the traditional lecture method. The narrative text used was The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway. After six weeks of treatment, the two groups sat for a test of identifying the themes in the unstudied passages of the text. The results of the U-test showed that there was no difference between the two groups. Saadi and Mahdi‟s study is different from the present study in that it compared an experimental group with a control group whereas the present study compared a control group with two experimental groups. Again, while the study focused on only one element (theme) of a narrative text, the present study focused on four elements (theme, plot, setting and characterisation) and on two narrative texts. In addition, both the experimental and control groups of the study consisted of same ability students while the experimental and control groups in the present study comprised mixed ability students. Tabatabaei (2013) conducted a study aimed at investigating the effect of story mapping on writing performance of EFL learners in terms of the writing components (i.e., organisation, content, grammar, mechanics and style). Eighty-two Iranian EFL students participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to one experimental group and one control group. Each group completed two thirty-minute composition writing tests, one as a pretest and the other as a posttest. The experimental group received four sessions of instruction on how to use story mapping strategy in writing personal narratives. The researcher reported that the result of one-way ANOVA and post hoc Scheffé test indicated that the experimental group 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY made more progress in their personal narrative writing than the control group. Based on this result, Tabatabei concluded that instruction in story mapping fosters meaningful learning (i.e., clarity of materials, their relevance to learners‟ prior knowledge and increasing students‟ motivation to learn) in learners. This study focused on improving students‟ writing skills and not their reading skills. Again, it involved EFL and not ESL students. Stevens, Meter and Warcholak (2010) examined the effects of explicit teaching of story structure on children‟s comprehension. In the study, teachers explicitly taught narrative structure to kindergarten and primary school children to increase their comprehension of children‟s literature. Instruction was delivered as children listened to stories during daily story time. The results after treatment indicated that children who learned story structures recalled more ideas from new stories and answered more questions about structural elements of these stories (e.g., who is the main character?). Findings further suggested that teachers can deliver effective comprehension instruction to emergent and beginning readers in the context of listening comprehension activities. Boulineau, Fore III, Hagan-Burke and Burke (2004) used multiple baselines across participants to determine the effects of story-mapping instruction on the reading comprehension of six elementary students in third and fourth grades identified with learning disabilities and exhibited reading deficits. The study also assessed whether the effects would maintain once the intervention was discontinued. Using a descriptive, three-phased, single-subject design, the effect of story-map instruction on student participants‟ comprehension of story grammar elements was monitored. During intervention, the elements of story grammar were explicitly taught using a story map as a visual aid and an organiser for guided practice. Positive results were observed and maintenance probes suggested that the effects of the intervention maintained after treatment was withdrawn. Participants in the study were students with learning disability and not normal students. Hence, it is a therapy study. Again, the study design was descriptive and not experimental. To this end, the functional relationship between story mapping and performance could not be established. The purpose of Shelton‟s (1999) case study was to determine if a structured approach to teaching story grammar components, including the use of visual symbols would be effective 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in improving the complexity and completeness of children‟s story production. Two children who were identified as having language learning disabilities by an American school system participated in the study. The participants were a male aged 9:2 (years: months) and a female aged 10:2. A single-subject design was used in the case study. Before and during the study, students were attending learning disability laboratories and language remediation classes. The study was carried out in three phases: (a) a model story task which was aimed at acquainting the students of what a complete story should include. (b) The collection of baseline data for story measures, and (c) intervention. Prior to obtaining baseline story productions, each student was shown a black and white picture and was read a model story about the picture by the clinician. The model story contained all story grammar components. After, each student was shown a similar picture and asked to make up a new story about the picture. All storied produced by the students were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. Results showed that students displayed a change in their knowledge and spontaneous use of story grammar components by increasing their story complexity from developmental story level two to levels five and seven. However, the inclusion of visual symbols may have influenced the result. This study is a therapy study and employed a descriptive design. Only two students participated in the study. This, therefore, makes it difficult to generalise the result to the larger population of students with language and learning disabilities. Hayward and Schneider (2000) designed a study to determine if narrative intervention programme in which story grammar components were specifically taught would improve the ability of pre-school children with language impairments to produce oral narratives. The participants in the study were thirteen children diagnosed by a speech and language pathologist as demonstrating a moderate to severe language impairment characterised by deficits in one or more of the following areas: comprehension, expressive syntax, appropriate and effective use of language, verbal reasoning. Story grammar intervention programme was designed and implemented as a centre activity in Language and Learning Intervention for Kids (LINKS) classroom. Activities during story grammar intervention included use of cue cards to identify story grammar components, sorting and sequencing story grammar components, identifying missing story grammar components and reformation of scrambled stories. Two measures of content were used to analyse children‟s story 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY productions, story information and episode level. A posttest result revealed that all the participants showed improvements in their narrative productions when compared to their pretest scores for both inclusion of relevant story information and in episode complexity. This study like those of Shelton‟s (1999) and Boulineau, Fore III, Hagan-Burke and Burke (2004), is a therapy study. In Fitzgerald and Spiegel‟s (2003) study, twenty identified as average and below average fourth grade readers identified as lacking a keen sense of narrative structure were randomly assigned to one of two treatments: special instruction designed to develop knowledge of story structure or instruction in dictionary usage and word study. The instrument was the original and scrambled version of “the Wolf and the Bird with the Long Neck”. There were two phases of instruction, a short-term intensive phase and a long-term intermittent phase. They reported that the instruction in narrative structure did enhance story structure knowledge and had a strong positive effect on reading comprehension when compared to the dictionary usage and word study group. The effects were realised by the end of phase one. The effects were maintained during phase two, but the group differences did not increase over time. The material used for the study was a very simple and short fable story while in the present study, two longer and more complex literary texts were used. Amer (1992) examined the effects of story grammar on EFL students‟ comprehension of narrative texts. Seventy female students participated in the study. The experimental group (n = 37) received instruction in story grammar based on a short story titled „the bottled imp‟. Two tests were used as dependent measures: a multiple choice test and a story frame test. Results showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on both tests. This result showed that direct instruction in story grammar could improve reading comprehension of narrative texts. However, the use of same sex participants could have influenced the result. This study differs from the present study in that the sample was EFL students while the sample for the present study was ESL students. Again, the story grammar instruction was on a very simple short story while the present study used two longer and more complex texts. Alberti (2014) conducted a study entitled “improving students‟ reading comprehension on narrative texts by using story grammar strategy”. The design of this research was a 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY classroom action research. The study aimed to explain the extent to which story grammar strategy can improve students‟ reading comprehension of narrative texts and find out what factors influence the changes of students‟ reading comprehension. The researcher used quantitative and qualitative data to see the improvement of the students‟ reading comprehension and the factors that influence the changes of students‟ reading comprehension. The instruments used in the study were reading comprehension test, observation checklists, field-notes and interview. Based on the result of the test, the students who passed the standard score improved from 30% in the preliminary data to 73% at the end of the research. This meant that story grammar strategy improved students‟ reading comprehension and this was influenced by student‟s factors (attention, interest and participation) and teacher‟s factors (choosing the material and classroom management). The purpose of Mahmoud and Nazzal‟s (2010) study was to investigate the positive effects of applying story grammar as a teaching strategy on students‟ scholastic performance. To achieve this aim, the researchers used story grammar instructional strategy in teaching junior and senior college students. The researchers used the independent samples t-test to show the equality of means between the experimental group and the control group and to show the significant difference between the same two groups after applying the story grammar instruction. Likewise, the researchers used paired samples t-test to show the changes in the experimental group students‟ results after applying the story grammar strategy and to show the changes in the control group students‟ results after applying the traditional strategy in teaching. The findings of the statistical analysis were in favor of incorporating the story grammar as a pedagogically conducive approach in the teaching of literary genres. The findings of the same experiment also underscored the fact that there is a significant difference between the two groups in favor of the experimental group due to the application of story grammar as an effective strategy in teaching. As a consequence, and due to the positive results found, the researchers concluded that this strategy is an essential component of the pedagogy in teaching EFL and ESL classes. When researches conducted on story grammar instructional strategy are examined, it could be seen that a part of these researches are those that used story grammar instructional strategy in therapy studies. In this study, story grammar was used to enhance prose in 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Literature-in-English achievement of mixed-ability students who were reading to learn and it was compared with other instructional strategies. 2.14 Studies on Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy and Academic Achievement Socratic seminar has been defined as a systematic process of questioning and dialogue centred on ideas from a text where students are encouraged to discuss many possible answers (Clenton, 2008). As Copeland (2005) pointed out, it is the nature and process of that conversation that differs from the typical teacher-led, question-and-answer. Polite and Adams (1997) assessed the effectiveness of Socratic seminar method employed at the Lookout Valley middle school in Tennessee. Using qualitative research approaches to data collection, the researchers observed middle school students engaged in Socratic seminar, conducted focus groups and semi structured interviews with both teachers and students. They found that the seminars were useful in promoting higher-order thinking, appropriate conflict resolution strategies and enhanced interest in learning. Seminars that focused on topics viewed as relevant or real life were extremely well received. Those that placed students in metaphorical learning situations were viewed as less valuable. In their study, Marcheggiani, Updyke and Sander (2009) compared the effect of Socratic seminar teaching method and interactive lecture style on undergraduate students‟ performance in an introductory financial accounting course. The effect of the teaching methods on students‟ attitudes towards the accounting profession and the course was also analysed. Analysis of variance was used to test for differences between experimental and control groups. The results did not show evidence that either method of instruction resulted in significantly higher scores in examinations, nor was there any significant difference in attitudes towards the accounting profession or the course. Kalelioğlu and Gülbahar (2014) investigated the effect of instructional techniques on critical thinking and critical thinking dispositions on online discussion. Six thinking hats, brainstorming, role playing, Socratic seminar and “anyone here an expert” were the selected instructional techniques. Participants in the study were 24 pre-service teachers who were attending a distant education undergraduate course. Results of the quantitative part of the study showed that except Socratic seminar, there was no difference between groups in terms of scores of pretests and posttests of critical thinking disposition. However, in the 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY qualitative part of the study, the Socratic seminar group performed with the least ability of critical thinking. As a conclusion, the researchers suggested that no matter how interesting a given instructional technique is, students will adapt to it and lose interest over time. Thus, it is important for a teacher to vary his/her teaching approaches. In this study, Socratic seminar technique was used in an online learning environment and not in a face to face classroom environment. Clark-Koellner, Stallings and Hoover (2002) assessed students‟ conceptual understanding of functions and their graphical representations during a mathematics lesson. The objective of the study was to clarify students‟ understanding of the definition of function. For the experiment, the researchers initially asked students to define function on a notebook. They asked students to share their definitions when needed during the seminar so that any misconceptions that may have been discovered through the discussions could be clarified. Then, they distributed several choices of graphs to represent a scenario. Each student decided his own answer before the discussion began. The first question required the students to decide which graph in the group best illustrated the scenario of a child swinging. The researchers reported that their observations of the seminars indicated that students who participated understood the concept of function better than those who did not take part. They further observed that students were actively involved in reasoning and communicating about mathematics and explaining functions to their classmates who had misconceptions. They saw repeatedly that when students discussed their ideas with others, they continued to revise, refine and improve them. They concluded that adding Socratic seminar to teaching is a productive and entertaining way to promote students‟ mathematical reasoning and communication skills. The researchers employed observation technique for data collection and the study measured mathematics students‟ communication skills. According to Metzger (1998), after years of exploring techniques to teach high school students how to improve reading comprehension with little success, he found solution in Socratic seminar. In an experiment, 48 high-school newly admitted students went through series of teacher-led Socratic seminars using multiple texts. The researcher noted that at the beginning of the experiment he did a lot of talking, but as the experiment went on he spoke less and less. He found that students learned more when they led the discussion as they 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY found themselves under the obligation of discovering the answers. In addition, Metzger noted that when he did become involved in the discussion, it was for the sake of asking how students had come to a specific understanding of a text. At the end of the experiment, the researcher measured students‟ learning and their opinions of the Socratic seminar based unit. Results showed that Socratic seminar could be a key tool for helping students to develop metacognitive comprehension skills especially for struggling learners because 47 of the 48 students “did well” on the examination. Also, the qualitative results of the students surveyed indicated students felt enthusiastic about the Socratic seminars. In another study, Parkinson and Ekachai, 2002) used the Socratic case method, which is a variation of Socratic seminar in an experiment, to teach principles of public relations in a comparative experimental study. The study involved 227 undergraduate students in two courses. One course was taught in the traditional lecture method while in the other Socratic case method was implemented. Pre and post questionnaires were administered for quantitative data as well as discussion groups with 50 students for supplemental purposes. Students‟ perception of Socratic case method was viewed in comparison with the traditional lecture method in respect of knowledge retained, confidence of ability to apply knowledge, practice of critical thinking, opportunity for problem solving, motivation to work in public relations, and satisfaction of the course. The results revealed that there were no statistical differences found for four of the categories; however, the Socratic case method based course yielded statistically significant student perceptions of increased opportunity for critical thinking and problem solving. In another research project, Katalin (2004) employed the use of Socratic dialogue to examine the extent to which the strategy is appropriate for the discussion of ethics as regards public debate for xeno transplantation. For the study, two Socratic seminars of the same content were held in three countries, Spain, Austria, and Germany. Participants completed self-report while non-participation evaluators observed and implemented pre and post interviews. Results indicated not only an increase in awareness, but also an increased understanding of the content and an improved ability to communicate interpersonally. Garlikov (2011) employed Socratic method to determine the extent to which the method is appropriate to entice and hold students‟ concentration about a somewhat complex 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY intellectual matter. For the experiment, 22 students were taught binary arithmetic. None of the participants had been introduced to arithmetic before. The experiment was conducted during an afternoon class period on a Friday. This was a time found to be difficult to get students involved and excited about an intellectual exercise. The researcher reported that when the lesson ended, 19 of the 22 students had fully and excitedly participated and absorbed the entire content. This study determined students‟ attitude to the method and not its effect on their achievement. The purpose of Smith‟s (2014) study was to determine the effectiveness of Socratic seminar in increasing student confidence, performance and frequency of scientific communication in relation to data analysis and interpretation. The study involved implementing Socratic seminar in a regular chemistry class. The students were expected to analyse data presented in the form of observations, tables and graphs. Students engaged in four separate seminars using a set of data as their text. Data was collected through Data Analysis and Interpretation Assessment Rubric, Participation Tally Sheet and Confidence Survey Questionnaire. The researcher reported that there was significant effect of Socratic seminar on students‟ achievement in data analysis and interpretation skills. He also reported that Socratic seminar promoted high levels of both verbal and written scientific communication as well as an increase in confidence levels among students. The greatest gains were made in students‟ participation and the frequency and value of comments. Burder, Tangalakis and Hrywic (2014) conducted a pilot study that used a „Socratic‟ small- group discussion in addition to content-based instruction to enhance critical thinking skills of 59 ESL Biomedical Science students. Students were provided a detailed protocol for the analysis of a research journal manuscript and participated in a Socratic discussion. Students wrote evaluative pieces to summarise the manuscript‟s topics, both before and after the small-group discussion. Result after analysis of text indicated that, overall, a third of all students displayed an improved critical thinking score based on Bloom‟s taxonomy. Students agreed that the Socratic discussion improved their understanding of science and enhanced their ability to review scientific literature. Importantly, ESL students believed that the discussion made them feel positive about their ability to read scientific literature. Thus, 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the researchers concluded that content-based language instruction can assist English as second language (ESL) students to achieve better learning and teaching outcomes. Cromwell‟s (2012) study aimed at examining the effect of Socratic seminar in enhancing students‟ confidence and proficiency in a second language. Participants in the study were 27 American students learning German as a second language. The study involved the students watching the film, “Good Bye Lenin,” which is about a family struggling with the German reunification in 1990. After watching the film in class, the students were given a set of questions in German to complete. They used the answers to these questions for a discussion. Some of the questions included: 1. Do you think Alex was right in not telling his mother about the reunification? Why or why not? 2. What are some of the different ways that love is portrayed in the movie? 4. Would you do the same thing that Alex did for his mom for someone you know? The questions were provided in advance of the Socratic dialogue because some of the vocabularies were more difficult than what the students had previously learned. So, the teacher wanted to give them some time to prepare. To determine the effect of Socratic seminar on the students, the researcher counted the number of total participation during the first and second seminars. On the result, the researcher stated that students‟ statements were much more confident and students made fewer grammatical errors than they did in the first seminar. On the whole, Socratic seminar has greater effect on some students than others and the students were not reverting straight to English if they did not know how to say something in German. Based on the finding, the author concluded that creating a classroom environment that is open to learning new ideas and making mistakes if they facilitate learning is something that is very important and Socratic seminar can aid in creating that great environment. The results of the studies reviewed provide evidence that Socratic seminar instructional strategy improves understanding of content taught, critical thinking and communication skills. Despite this, the application of Socratic seminars in teaching Literature-in-English appears to have received little consideration in and outside Nigeria. 2.15 Appraisal of Literature Review The review of literature indicated that there exists the problem of students‟ low achievement in prose in Literature-in-English examinations. It also indicated that the conventional 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY opinion transmission approach of teaching prose in Literature-in-English which relegates learners to passive consumers of knowledge does not equip students with the necessary reading skills they need to read and arrive at a personal interpretation of narrative prose texts. This has led to studies in which researchers within and outside Nigeria manipulated different kinds of student-centred, interactive instructional strategies and techniques in a search for more effective ways of teaching Literature-in-English generally and the prose genre in particular. Majority of these studies focused on the use of advanced organisers, literature circles, teacher-led discussion, peer tutoring, and integrated approach. It was further revealed that these strategies enhanced students‟ achievement in and attitude to Literature-in-English. Despite this, the poor teaching of Literature-in-English and its attendant students‟ poor performance in the subject still persists. Besides, these strategies focus only on the cognitive aspect of learning. There seems to be a dearth of literature on studies which focus on the effects of text structure awareness and strategies that take care of the affective aspect of the learner i.e. his feelings, emotions and values on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Results of studies conducted on story grammar instructional strategy have revealed that story grammar instruction enhances students‟ reading comprehension. However, the studies were mostly therapy studies where participants in the studies were students who were learning to read and not those reading to learn. Studies conducted with students reading to learn used short fiction passages and fables for the study materials. Apart from these, the studies were conducted outside Nigeria. Similarly, most studies carried out on Socratic seminar instructional strategy focused on determining students‟ attitude towards the strategy and not its effect on their academic achievement. Again, the studies were conducted outside Nigeria. Thus, research on story grammar and Socratic seminar strategies in relation to Literature-in-English teaching are rare in Nigeria. Consequently, the present study focused on the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ achievement in and attitude towards prose in Literature-in-English using verbal ability and learning style as moderator variables. Furthermore, findings on the contribution of verbal ability and learning style to students‟ academic achievement are not conclusive. Results of studies on these variables are 82 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY conflicting. Thus, a further examination of the moderating effect of these variables on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English is needed. 83 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the elements of methodology adopted in this study. It discusses the research design, sample and sampling technique, research instruments, validation and reliability of instruments. It also discusses the research procedure and methods of data analysis. 3.1 Research Design The study adopted the pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design. The schematic representation of the design is shown as follows: O1 X1 O2 (Experimental Group 1 = Story Grammar Strategy) O3 X2 O4 (Experimental Group 2 = Socratic Seminar Strategy) O5 X3 O6 (Control Group = Modified Lecture Strategy) where O1, O3 and O5 represent pretests of achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in- English, O2, O4, and O6 represent posttests of achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English and X1, X2 and X3 represent story grammar strategy treatment, Socratic seminar strategy treatment and modified lecture strategy respectively. The study adopted a 3x3x3 factorial matrix which comprised instructional strategy at three levels, moderator variables of verbal ability at three levels (low, average and high) and learning style at three levels (auditory, visual and kinesthetic) for the purpose of data analysis. The factorial matrix is shown in Table 3.1. 84 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 3.1. A Representation of the 3x3x3 factorial matrix Treatment Verbal ability Learning style Auditory Visual Kinesthetic Low E1 (Story Grammar Average High Low E2 (Socratic Seminar) Average High Low C (Modified Lecture) Average High 3.2 Variables of the Study Three categories of variables were used in the study. They are: 1. Independent Variable: This is the instructional strategy which was manipulated at three levels of: i. Story Grammar Strategy (SGS) ii. Socratic Seminar Strategy (SSS) iii. Modified Lecture Strategy (MLS) 2. Moderator Variables: These are: i. Verbal Ability at three levels (low, average and high) ii. Learning Style at three levels (auditory, visual and kinesthetic) 3. Dependent Variables (learning outcomes) These are: 1. Students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English 2. Students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English The variables are represented diagrammatically in Figure 3.1 85 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Independent Variable Moderator Variables Dependent Variables (instructional strategy) (verbal ability and (students‟ learning learning style) outcomes) Story Grammar Strategy Verbal Ability: low, Achievement in prose in average, high Literature-in-English Socratic Seminar Strategy Learning Style: visual, Attitude to prose in Modified Lecture Strategy auditory, kinesthetic Literature-in-English Modified Lecture Fig. 3.1: A Representation of the VaSrtiraabtleegsy o f the Study 3.3 Selection of Participants Participants in the study were 243 senior secondary two (SS II) students drawn from six purposively selected senior secondary schools in Owerri, Imo State. The purposive sampling technique ensured that the selected schools were far from each other so as to avoid students‟ influence on one another. From each of the six schools, one intact class was randomly selected. Thereafter, two intact classes were randomly assigned to each of the treatment and control groups. The choice of SSS II students for this study was premised on the fact that they have acquired some level of knowledge in literary studies and they were not under the tension and pressure associated with preparation for external examinations like the SSS III students. The criteria for the selection of schools included the following: 1. The schools must be co-educational. 2. The schools must be willing to take part in the study. 3. The schools must have qualified Literature-in-English teachers who have degrees in education. 4. The schools must have presented at least three sets of candidates for WAEC and NECO examinations. 86 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. There must be at least 20 students in the Literature-in-English class in the schools. 6. The schools must be using the same prose texts as the ones used in the study. 7. The schools must be willing to allow a trained research assistant from another school to handle their prose in Literature-in-English lessons for the period of the study should teachers from their schools fail to meet the study inclusion criteria. 3.4 Research Instruments Nine instruments were used to generate data for the study. They are: i. Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test (PLEAT) ii. Students‟ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English Questionnaire (SAPLEQ) iii. Verbal Ability Test (VAT) iv. Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (LSPQ) v. Research Assistants Rating Scale (RARS) vi. Story Grammar Strategy Instructional Guide (SGSIG) vii. Socratic Seminar Strategy Instructional Guide (SSSIG) viii. Modified Lecture Strategy Instructional Guide (MLSIG) ix. Lesson Notes 3.4.1 Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test (PLEAT) The test consists of 20 questions set on two prose texts: Asare Konadu‟s A Woman in her Prime which is an African prose text and Ernest Hemingway‟s The Old Man and the Sea which is a non-African prose text. The two texts were part of the senior secondary school Literature-in-English syllabus. A Woman in her Prime consists of fourteen chapters. These chapters were divided into four episodes. The Old Man and the Sea is a novella of about 118 pages. The story was divided into four episodes (see Appendix 12) for the story grammar of the texts. These texts were chosen in lieu of their alternatives because they have a wider readership among students in Imo State. The reason for their popularity is probably because they are smaller in volume than the alternatives. The questions set on the texts comprised 16 short-answer questions and 4 essay type questions. The test was used to measure students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English before and after exposure to treatment. The items were structured to test students‟ cognitive knowledge in the three levels of the cognitive domain according to the revised Bloom‟s taxonomy of educational 87 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY objectives namely remembering, understanding and thinking (Airasian, 2000). Test items (tis) cover the contents that were focused on during lessons. The contents are: 1. Plot 2. Character and Characterisation 3. Themes 4. Setting Details are presented in Table 3.2. Table 3.2. Test Blueprint for Prose in Literature-in-English Achievement Test Treatment Levels of Cognitive Domain Remembering Understanding Thinking Total no. of Items Themes ti 2, ti 5, t 11 ti 9, t 18 5 Characterisation ti 6, ti 8, ti 19 ti 12 4 Plot ti 10, ti 17, ti 20 ti 1, ti13, ti14 ti 3, ti 4, ti 7, 10 ti 16 Setting ti 15 1 Total no. of items 6 6 8 20 The content and face validity of this instrument was ascertained through an assessment of the test items by lecturers in the Department of English and language education lecturers in the Department of Teacher Education. Their advice and contributions were taken and then the final draft was produced. To ascertain the reliability of the test, it was trial-tested on a sample of 48 senior secondary school two students who did not take part in the main study. Using the test-retest method, a reliability coefficient of 0.88 was obtained. 3.4.2 Verbal Ability Test (VAT) The verbal ability test was taken from the Australian Council for Educational Research Test. Researchers have over the years determined the appropriateness of the use of this test in the Nigerian context by subjecting it to reliability tests. Ayanniyi (2009) subjected it to a test- retest method and obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.84. In a more recent study, 88 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Osikomaiya (2012) came out with a reliability coefficient of 0.80 using a test-retest method. The test contained 36 items. Test items comprised vocabulary knowledge, sentence arrangement, word substitution and logical selections of appropriate words. For scoring, each question was awarded one mark which gave a total of thirty-six marks. The scores were used to categorise the study sample into low (0 – 13), average (14 – 19) and high (20 – 36) verbal ability groups. Test was administered on the study sample before treatment. The test was revalidated for use in the present study. It was trial-tested on a sample of 50 SSS II students from a school that did not participate in the main study. Using test-retest method, a reliability coefficient of 0.85 was obtained. 3.4.3 Students’ Attitude to Prose in Literature-in-English Questionnaire (SAPLEQ) The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English i.e. their interest in and perception about the subject. It was a 35-item four-point modified likert scale of Strongly Agree (S ), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). Items were rated as follows: SA = 4; A = 3; D = 2; SD = 1 for positive items and for negative items, the reverse was the case. The questionnaire was administered to the students before and after treatment. To determine the face and content validity of the instrument, the questionnaire was given to lecturers from Teacher Education and Guidance and Counseling departments of the University of Ibadan for their expert assessment and suggestions. Their advice was incorporated into the final draft. Thereafter, the instrument was administered on 50 SSS II students who did not participate in the main study. The reliability was determined through Cronbach‟s alpha method. Nine items had negative correlations hence; they were removed. After their removal, the remaining 26 items were analysed and a reliability coefficient of 0.91was obtained. 3.4.4 Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (LSPQ) A modified Neil Fleming (2001) VARK learning style model was adopted in the study. The model consists of four learning style types namely: visual (V), auditory (A), read/write (R) and kinesthetic (K). The researcher considered reading and writing to be visual and kinesthetic hence, the VAK version adapted from Chislett and Chapman (2005) was used for the study. The Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (LSPQ) is a 30-item 89 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY questionnaire. The questionnaire items are statements and questions that address the concerns of students with regard to their learning styles. Each statement or question is followed by three options lettered V, A, and K. After students‟ response, the number of responses for each option was added. The option with the highest number of responses was taken as a student‟s primary mode of learning. The LSPQ was used to categorise the study sample into three learning style groups i.e. visual, auditory and kinesthetic. For face and content validity, the instrument was given to lecturers in the Department of Teacher Education and Institute of Education for their expert assessment and advice. Their suggestions were incorporated into the instrument and then the final draft was produced. To ascertain its reliability, the instrument was test-run on 50 SSS II students that did not take part in the study. The reliability was ascertained using Cronbach‟s alpha method and a reliability coefficient of 0.81 was obtained. 3.4.5 Research Assistants’ Rating Scale (RARS) The RARS is a five-point numerical rating scale (1 – 5). It was designed to assess selected research assistants‟ competence to participate in the study. The instrument consists of eight observable traits on teachers‟ knowledge of content, mastery of the steps involved in the strategies and ability to use instructional guide. Participants who scored 20 points and above were selected to take part in the study. The first draft of the instrument was given to two language education lecturers from the Department of Teacher Education for face and content validity. Changes and corrections were made based on their advice and suggestions. Thereafter, the final draft was produced. 3.5 Story Grammar Strategy Instructional Guide (SGSIG) In this study, the Stein and Glenn story grammar model was used to represent the set of expectations readers might have for story structures. The decision to use the Stein and Glenn story grammar rather than another story grammar was due to the fact that this story grammar has been modified into story mapping system and the major story elements identified in the story grammar is typical of any narrative text. Briefly stated, the major story constituents proposed by Stein and Glenn are Setting, Initiating Event, Internal Response, Attempt, Consequence and Reaction. 90 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The story grammar instructional guide developed by the researcher consisted of specific instructions and classroom activities for teachers and students during story grammar lessons. It showed the step by step procedure for the lessons. No collaboration is involved in story grammar strategy. Students work individually. The SGSIG has three components. The first component is characterised by pre-reading activities with which the teacher prepares the students to read the text. Activities here included teacher‟s explanation of structure of stories, teacher and students‟ generation of “wh” questions. These are guiding questions that brought out the elements of the story grammar used. The questions helped students to focus on relevant elements in the story. The guiding questions included the following: Setting: Where and when did the story happen? Character: Who is the main character?/ Who is the story about? Initiating event: What is the main character‟s problem?/What is the big problem that the story is about? Internal response: How did the main character feel about the problem? Attempt: What did the main character try to do to solve the problem?/What did he do about the problem? Consequence: What is the result of the main character‟s action? Reaction: How did he feel at the end? The second component involved students‟ silent and independent reading of text. As they read, they ask themselves the “wh questions” and jotted down their answers. The third component consists of after-reading activities. After students‟ reading, teacher gives out already prepared charts to students and guides them to create a story map of what they have read. Thereafter, teacher discusses the story with the class and then assesses their story maps and models the story map of the reading. 3.6 Socratic Seminar Strategy Instructional Guide (SSSIG) The SSIG which was developed by the researcher was used by the trained research assistants in order to ensure uniformity on what classroom activities teachers and students engaged in during lessons. The SSSIG was adapted from the Socratic seminar lesson plan developed by facing history and ourselves online resources 91 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (www.facinghistory.org/resources/ strategies/Socratic-seminar). In line with this lesson plan, there are three stages viz pre-seminar, during seminar and post-seminar stages. Fundamental to each stage are classroom activities for students and teachers. In the pre- seminar stage, the teacher prepares the students for the seminar. The first thing the teacher does is to explain to the students the strategy and its purpose which is to facilitate a deeper understanding of the ideas and values in the text through shared discussion. Then the teacher moves on to assign the chapters to be read and review the seminar norms/rules. Thereafter, students read silently and independently. It should be noted that the classroom reading of text is only for the first lesson. For subsequent lessons, students are expected to read before coming to seminar. After reading, the teacher divides the students into three groups (the discussants, the observers and the note-takers). The discussants (four students) are to sit in the middle of the room and circled by the rest of the class. They focus on exploring and analysing the text through dialogue. They are the only ones who speak. The observers (four students) are to observe the discussants. Each observer completes a checklist and gives a feedback on his/her designated discussant‟s performance. The note-takers are every other student in the class. They take guided notes on the discussion. The roles are rotational. During seminar stage is characterised by discussion among students. The discussion begins with the teacher asking an open-ended question. The question asked must be one that allows for multiple answers and varying perspectives, allows for discovery and interest in the subject and encourages a deeper understanding of the ideas in the text. As the discussion is going on, the teacher ensures that the conversation does not become a debate or debasement of others. After the seminar, the observers and note-takers give their feedback. Thereafter, the teacher shares his/her own observation about the seminar. The lesson ends with the teacher assigning chapters to be read for the next meeting. 3.7 Modified Lecture Strategy Instructional Guide (MLSIG) This instructional guide was developed for use in the control group. The guide contains details and procedures for the modified lecture strategy of teaching prose in Literature-in- English. Basic to this instructional strategy is minimal students‟ input into meaning 92 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY construction during prose in Literature-in-English lessons. Typically, the teacher comes to the class and gives the students whatever background information he knows about the text and the author. Then, he discusses the elements of prose in Literature-in-English. After that, he might read from the text and explain at intervals or he assigns some students to read in turns and stops them from time to time to explain. After the reading session, the teacher asks students few recall questions to assess their comprehension and then gives students notes on some of the elements of prose or summary of chapter discussed. Teacher might write the notes on the chalkboard or dictate it to students for them to copy. 3.8 Research Procedure The study was carried out in four phases and lasted for eleven weeks. 3.8.1 Phase 1: Selection and Training of Research Assistants This phase commenced with identification of schools for the study and seeking permission from the school authority. This was followed by selection and training of research assistants. Five qualified teachers of Literature-in-English from the four experimental schools and three other research assistants were trained for two weeks while those in the control groups did not receive any training. The three research assistants from outside the participating schools were included so as to make provision for replacement of teachers from the participating schools who did not meet the selection criteria. There were separate training sessions for teachers in the experimental groups. The training took the form of discussions and demonstrations. The researcher first of all discussed the modalities for the pretest and posttest administrations in terms of when to administer them. Thereafter, the instructional guides for teachers were discussed. This was followed by demonstration of the lessons. Each trainee was given time to practise his/her instructional strategy. The researcher then used a self-developed rating scale to determine the competence of teachers used for the study. 3.8.2 Phase 2: Administration of Pretest The prose in Literature-in-English achievement test (PLEAT), verbal ability test (VAT), students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English questionnaire (SAPLEQ) and the learning style preference questionnaire (LSPQ) were administered to all the students in both the 93 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY experimental and control groups a week before the treatment commenced. The results obtained were used to establish data for students‟ entry performance. 3.8.3 Phase 3: Provision of Treatment to the Experimental and Control Groups This phase of the research procedure lasted for eight weeks. It involved the use of the instructional guides to teach the three groups accordingly. The research assistants conducted the lessons using the instructional guide for each strategy thus: Experimental Group 1 (Story Grammar Instructional Strategy) Step 1: The teacher stimulates students‟ prior knowledge of story elements by telling the class a story or asking a student to tell a story. Step 2: The teacher guides the students to identify the elements in the story he or a student told the class and explains story grammar strategy and procedure. Step 3: The teacher gives a mini lesson on the components of story grammar used in the study which are: setting, characters, initiating event, internal response, attempt, consequence and reaction. Step 4: The teacher and the students generate wh-questions which guided students in their reading thus: i. where and when did the story happen? ii. who is the main character?/Who is the story about? iii. what is the main character‟s problem?/What is the big problem that the story is about? iv. how did the main character feel about the problem? v. what did the main character try to do to solve the problem?/What did he do about the problem? vi. what is the result of the main character‟s action? vii. how did he feel at the end? Step 5: The students read silently and independently assigned chapters. As they read, they find and write down answers to the wh-questions. Step 6: Each student prepares a story map of what he/she has read. Step 7: The teacher assesses students‟ work and comments on their strengths and weaknesses. Thereafter, the teacher discusses the episode read and shows the 94 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY students a model story map. After, the teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. Experimental Group 2 (Socratic Seminar Instructional Strategy) Pre-seminar Activities Step 1: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking one or two students who have participated in a debate before to share their experience with the class. Step 2: The teacher explains the difference between a debate and a discussion for example: i. discussion is collaborative: multiple sides work towards shared understanding while debate is oppositional: two opposing sides try to prove each other wrong. ii. in discussion, one listens to make meaning and to find a common ground while in debate one listens to find flaws, to spot differences and to counter arguments. Step 3: The teacher explains the importance of the strategy which is to help students have a deeper understanding of the ideas and values in the text through shared discussion. Thereafter, the teacher states and explains the seminar rules which include: i. only one person speaks at a time. ii. no hand raising. iii. be respectful of others and their views. iv. base your views on something in the text. v. come to the seminar prepared. vi. be not afraid to ask questions. Step 4: The teacher assigns chapters to be read in class. Note: classroom reading of text is done for the first lesson. For subsequent lessons, the students read at home before coming to seminar. Step 5: The students read silently and independently. After reading, the teacher divides the students into three groups: discussants (four students), observers (four students) and note-takers (every other student in the class). 95 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Step 6: The teacher gives students Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet and Note Taking Guide to observers and note-takers respectively. During Seminar Activities Step 7: The teacher poses the seminar opening question and the students engage in discussion as they respond to the question. The teacher as the facilitator, prompts students deeper into the text with some guiding questions like: i. where do you find evidence for that in the text ii. why do you say that iii. who has a different perspective? iv. how does that relate to what (someone else) said? Post-seminar Activities Step 8: The observers and note-takers give their feedback on the seminar. Thereafter, teacher shares his/her own observation about the seminar. Step 9: The teacher asks a closing question e.g how does the action of Manolin‟s parents relate to us today? One or two students briefly share their views. After, the teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. Control Group (Modified Lecture Strategy) Step 1: The teacher gives students background information about the text to be read and the author. Step 2: The teacher discusses elements of prose in Literature-in-English which are: setting, plot characterization, theme and point of view. Step 3: The teacher asks students to open their texts to a particular page/chapter. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text while teacher stops them at intervals to explain. Step 6: The teacher asks some questions to assess students‟ ability to recall information from their reading. Step 7: The students copy notes. 3.8.4 Phase 4: Administration of Posttest At the end of the eight weeks of treatment, the prose in Literature-in-English achievement test (PLEAT) and the students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English questionnaire 96 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (SAPLEQ) were administered to all students in both the experimental and control groups as posttest after an interval of three days. Scoring of Tests To ensure objectivity in rating, the researcher prepared a marking guide which was strictly adhered to during the marking of the scripts. See appendices 6 and 7 for details. 3.9 Method of Data Analysis The data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was employed using the pretest achievement scores as covariates. The Estimated Marginal Means (EMM) was used to determine the group with the highest mean score. To ascertain the sources of significant differences where observed, Scheffé Post-hoc test was used for pairwise comparisons. In the case of significant interaction effects, a line graph was used to disentangle the interaction. 97 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the study are presented in the order in which the hypotheses were tested. 4.1 Presentation of Results Ho1a: There is no significant main effect of treatment on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.1. Summary of ANCOVA of posttest prose in Literature-in-English achievement scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Source Type III Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta sum of Squared squares Corrected model 11696.337 27 433.198 9.192 .000 .536 Intercept 4068.674 1 4068.674 86.335 .000 .287 Pretest 6205.592 1 6205.592 131.679 .000 .380 Treatment 312.592 2 156.296 3.317 .038* .030 Verbal Ability 228.684 2 114.342 2.426 0.91 .022 Learning Style 119.247 2 59.624 1.265 .284 .012 Treatment + V Ab 672.352 4 168.088 3.567 .008* .062 Treatment + L Style 251.979 4 62.995 1.337 .257 .024 V Ab + L Style 291.249 4 72.812 1.545 .190 .028 Treatment + V Ab + L Style 506.073 8 63.259 1.342 .224 .048 Error 10132.239 215 47.127 Total 219576.000 243 Corrected Total 21828.576 242 R Squared = .536(Adjusted R Squared = .478) *significant at p<.05 Table 4.1 shows that there is significant main effect of treatment on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 3.32; p<.05;  2 = 0.03). This means that there is significant difference in the achievement of students who were taught prose in Literature-in- 98 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY English through the use of story grammar, Socratic seminar and lecture instructional strategies. Based on this result, hypothesis 1a is rejected. To determine the group with the highest mean score, the Estimated Marginal Mean was computed. The result is presented in Table 4.2. Table 4.2. Estimated Marginal Means for posttest achievement scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Treatment Modified Lecture 27.345 .843 25.684 29.006 Socratic Seminar 29.710 .783 28.167 31.253 Story Grammar 26.835 1.001 24.862 28.807 Verbal Ability Low 26.557 .840 24.900 28.213 Average 29.166 .826 27.539 30.793 High 28.167 .988 26.220 30.115 Learning Style Auditory 26.784 1.003 24.806 28.761 Visual 28.771 .770 27.252 30.289 Kinesthetic 28.336 .853 26.655 30.016 Table 4.2 indicates that students exposed to Socratic seminar instruction obtained the highest posttest achievement mean score ( = 29.71) followed by those in the control group (( = 27.35) while students in the story grammar group have the lowest mean score ( = 26.84). Furthermore, the source of significant difference was traced using Scheffé post-hoc test. Findings are presented in table 4.3. 99 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.3. Scheffé Post-hoc test of prose in Literature-in-English achievement scores by treatment Treatment Mean Modified Lecture Story Grammar Socratic Seminar Modified Lecture 53.14 * Story Grammar 54.51 Socratic Seminar 56.78 * Table 4.3 shows that the significant main effect revealed by Table 4.1 is as a result of significant difference in the mean performance of students exposed to Socratic seminar and lecture strategies. Thus, this is the only pair that contributed to the observed significant effect of treatment on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Ho1b: There is no significant main effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. 100 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.4. Summary of ANCOVA of posttest scores of students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Source Type III Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta sum of Squared squares Corrected model 2098.220 27 77.712 1.417 .091 .151 Intercept 13227.237 1 13227.237 241.271 .000 .529 Pre_att 4.643 1 4.643 .085 .771 .000 Treatment 363.110 2 181.555 3.312 .038* .030 Verbal Ability 35.158 2 17.579 .321 .726 .003 Learning Style 194.547 2 97.274 1.774 .172 .016 Treatment + V Ab 237.779 4 59.445 1.084 .365 .020 Treatment + L Style 264.564 4 66.141 1.206 .309 .022 V Ab + L Style 179.244 4 44.811 .817 .515 .015 Treatm ent + V Ab + L Style 525.584 8 65.698 1.198 .301 .043 Error 11786.998 215 54.823 Total 746103.000 243 Corrected Total 13885.218 242 R Squared = .151(Adjusted R Squared = .045) *significant at p<.05 Results in Table 4.4 show that there is significant main effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 3.31; p< .05;  2 = 0.03). This means that the students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English after exposure to story grammar, Socratic seminar and lecture strategies was significantly different. In view of this, Hypothesis 1b is rejected. Furthermore, the results of the Estimated Marginal Means which show the group that has the highest post attitude mean score is presented in Table 4.5. 101 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.5. Estimated Marginal Means for posttest attitude scores by treatment, verbal ability and learning style Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Treatment Modified Lecture 54.663 .913 52.863 56.463 Socratic Seminar 56.764 .871 55.047 58.482 Story Grammar 53.221 1.082 51.088 55.354 Verbal Ability Low 55.462 .888 53.712 57.213 Average 54.506 .887 52.758 56.253 High 54.681 1.057 52.597 56.764 Learning Style Auditory 56.443 1.079 54.317 58.569 Visual 54.074 .829 52.441 55.707 Kinesthetic 54.132 .921 52.316 55.947 From Table 4.5, students in the Socratic seminar instructional group have the highest posttest mean attitude score ( = 56.76) followed by students in the control group ( = 54.66) while students in the story grammar group have the lowest mean score ( = 53.22). The results of the Scheffé Post-hoc test is presented in Table 4.6 102 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.6. Scheffé Post-hoc test of prose in Literature-in-English achievement scores by treatment Treatment Mean Story Grammar Modified Lecture Socratic Seminar Story Grammar 53.14 * Modified Lecture 54.51 Socratic Seminar 56.78 * Results from Table 4.6 indicate that only one of the possible pairs of groups produced significant difference. The Table shows that the story grammar group differs significantly from the Socratic seminar group. Thus, this is the only pair which contributed to the significant main effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Ho2a: There is no significant main effect of verbal ability on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Results from Table 4.1 indicate that verbal ability has no significant main effect on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 2.43; p> .05;  2 = 0.02). Therefore, hypothesis 2a was not rejected. Table 4.2 further shows that the average verbal ability students have higher achievement mean score ( = 29.17) than the high verbal ability students ( = 28.17) and the low verbal ability students ( = 26.56). The difference is not significant. Ho2b: There is no significant main effect of verbal ability on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. In table 4.4, results show that there is no significant main effect of verbal ability on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F = 0.32; p> .05;  2(2,215) = 0.00). Based on this result, hypothesis 2b was not rejected. Table 4.5 also shows that students with low verbal ability have higher attitude score ( = 55.46) than their high verbal ability ( = 54.68) and average verbal ability ( = 54.51) counterparts. The difference is however, not significant. 103 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ho3a: There is no significant main effect of learning style on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. From Table 4.1learning style has no significant main effect on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 1.27; p > .05;  2 = 0.01) hence, hypothesis 3a was not rejected. Table 4.2 further reveals that the visual learners obtained the highest achievement mean score of ( = 28.71) followed by the kinesthetic learners ( = 28.34) while the auditory learners obtained the lowest achievement score ( = 26.78). The difference is not significant. Ho3b: There is no significant main effect of learning style on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.4 shows that there is no significant main effect of learning style on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(2,215) = 1.77; p> .05;  2 = 0.02). Therefore, hypothesis 3b was not rejected. Furthermore, Table 4.5 indicates that auditory learners had the highest attitude mean score ( = 56.44), kinesthetic learners followed ( = 54.13) and then visual learners ( = 54.07). The difference is not significant as shown in Table 4.4. Ho4a: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. As Table 4.1 indicates, there is significant 2-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English (F(4,215) = 3.57; p< .05;  2 = 0.06). Thus, hypothesis 4a was rejected. Fig. 4.1 presents the performance of the different verbal ability levels in each of the treatment and control groups. 104 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig.4.1: Two-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English Results in Fig. 4.1 show that the high verbal ability students in the lecture strategy (control) group had the highest mean score ( = 29.44). The average verbal ability students were next ( = 28.73). The low verbal ability students had the least mean score ( = 23.86). Similarly, in the Socratic seminar strategy group, the high verbal ability students had the highest mean score ( =32.27) followed by the average verbal ability students ( = 28.47). The low verbal ability students had the least mean score ( = 28.38). In the story grammar strategy group, the result is different. The average verbal ability students had the highest mean score ( = 30.29). The low verbal ability students followed with a mean score of ( = 27.44) while the high verbal ability students had the least mean score ( = 22.78). Based on these results, the interaction is therefore, disordinal. Ho4b: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.4 shows that there is no significant 2-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(4,215) = 1.08; p > .05;  2 = 0.02). Based on this result, hypothesis 4b was not rejected. 105 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ho5a: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. As shown in Table 4.1, there is no significant 2-way interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English (F(4,215) = 1.34; p> .05;  2 = 0.02) hence, hypothesis 5a was not rejected. Ho5b: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Results presented in Table 4.4 show that there is no significant 2-way interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(4,215) = 1.21; p>.05;  2 = 0.02). Based on this result, hypothesis 5b was not rejected. Ho6a: There is no significant interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. From Table 4.1, the 2-way interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English was not significant (F(4,215) = 1.55; p>.05;  2 = 0.03). Therefore, hypothesis 6a was not rejected. Ho6b: There is no significant interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.4 shows that the interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English was not significant (F(4,215) = 0.82; p> .05;  2 = 0.02). Hypothesis 6b was therefore, not rejected. Ho7a: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.1 indicates that the 3-way interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English was not significant (F(8,215) = 1.34; p>.05;  2 = 0.05) hence, hypothesis 7a was not rejected. 106 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ho7b: There is no significant interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Table 4.4 shows that there is no significant interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English (F(8,215) = 1.20; p>.05;  2 = 0.04). Hypothesis 7b was therefore, not rejected. 4.2 Discussion of Findings The main focus of this study was to determine the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar instructional strategies on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. It also sought to ascertain whether students who were exposed to these strategies would perform better than those taught through the modified lecture strategy. 4.2.1. Main effects of treatment and students’ achievement in prose in Literature-in- English Findings reveal significant difference in the posttest achievement mean scores of students in prose in Literature in all the three groups (story grammar, Socratic seminar and modified lecture). This shows that treatment significantly affected students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. The enthusiasm and excitement with which students in the experimental groups embraced the new strategies could partly be responsible for the significant effect of treatment. Again, the strategies used in the experimental groups were learner-centred which enhanced teacher-student and student-student interactions. This made for greater learner involvement in the learning process which in turn improved their performance. The treatment produced a better performance on students in the Socratic seminar experimental group than those in story grammar and control groups. This result could be attributed to the fact that Socratic seminar strategy involved discussion which Hadjioannou (2007) noted helps students to exchange their thoughts, appraise their perspectives critically and then come to the conclusion about the topic. This result supports the submissions of VanDeweghe (2007) and Sabljić (2014) that classroom discussion helps students make sense of literary texts. They noted that discussion provides a setting where students can 107 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY share ideas on issues of interest which leads to deeper levels of learning because for students to build on each other‟s ideas, they must first listen and understand the contributions of others in order to respond or add to it. Besides, the result may be due to teachers‟ active role in helping the students achieve a more accurate understanding of the texts. In Socratic seminar, the teacher asked probing questions and followed up on students‟ responses by seeking for elaboration. Thus, they guided the students along the correct path as they correct misconceptions and incomplete positions and views. The findings of this study also support Ogunnaike (2002) whose study indicated that discussion teaching technique was more effective in improving students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English than lecture-based technique. The findings further reveal that students in the modified lecture strategy group performed better than those in one of the experimental groups (story grammar). This result lends support to Jaafa-furo, Abdullahi and Badgal (2014) and Al-faleh (2002). They found lecture method more effective in enhancing students‟ academic achievement than demonstration and discussion methods respectively. Also, this result could be in line with the submission of Yilmaz (2012). According to Yilmaz, although lecture is generally regarded as a teacher- centred strategy which does not encourage students‟ active participation in the teaching- learning process hence; there has been a call for a de-emphasis on its use in teaching; it is an effective method of teaching Literature. He observed that usually students will need to be introduced to a literary work before they could appreciate it. That is, they need to learn the historical background of a novel and the social conditions which the author is trying to portray in the story. He explained that it is through lecture or giving of facts approach that a Literature teacher establishes a mental set (historical background) that would enable the students to organise the cognitive and affective aspects of a text which aid them to understand a text. 4.2.2. Main effects of treatment on students’ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English The results show that there was significant effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. The result of this study in relation to the significant effects of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature might be attributed to Siti‟s (2008) and Wan‟s (2009) assertion that students possess positive and negative attitudes in varying 108 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY degrees and that attitudes are not static and can be changed through the learning process by teachers using thoughtful and a variety of attractive teaching strategies. The result further illustrates the practical situation about students‟ disposition to the new instructional strategies. A meeting with the research assistants after the posttest revealed that the students were excited when the strategies were introduced. Teachers who handled the Socratic seminar experimental classes reported that students embraced all the activities involved in the strategy with enthusiasm especially the discussion partner and seminar evaluation activities. However, they noted that students were hampered by their limited proficiency in English language. Teachers of the story grammar experimental groups equally reported that students were excited to do things differently from the usual activity of merely taking notes in class. The teachers equally indicated their interest to continue teaching Literature-in- English through the strategies. In essence, the finding supports Ihunna‟s (2009) observation that students are favourably disposed to innovative classroom activities during Literature-in- English lessons. He noted that normally students are always excited and eager to learn through new methods. 4.2.3. Main effects of verbal ability on students’ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English Verbal ability was found to have no significant effect on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. This means that students‟ verbal ability level has little or no contribution to their achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. This result is contrary to expectation. Students‟ poor language ability has been identified as one of the major factors responsible for students‟ under-achievement in prose in Literature- in-English (WAEC Chief Examiners‟ Reports, 2005 - 2011). It is then assumed that poor language ability contributes to students‟ negative attitude/lack of interest in prose in Literature-in-English. However, the strategies used in the study could account for the result obtained here. The strategies are metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies refer to student-generated and controlled cognitive operations which help them to construct meaning from texts as they read and solve problems and complete tasks independently (Blachowicz and Zabroske, 1990). According to Ijiga (2014), metacognitive strategy instructions help students to increase their capacity to comprehend written passages. Udosen (2006) supports 109 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY this stance when he observed that metacognitive strategies cater for students‟ varied language needs and could rule out dropouts as all the ability levels are actively engaged in the learning situation. Besides, the result obtained here is consistent with Ayanniyi (2009), Ezenandu (2011) and Komolafe (2011) who in their studies found that verbal ability as an intervening variable had no significant main effect on students‟ achievement in poetic literature, prose literature and English language reading comprehension respectively. The result of this study in relation to the insignificant effect of verbal ability on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English may be related to Kessing‟s (2006) view that it is important not to make automatic assumptions regarding students‟ attitude towards reading or any other school subject based solely on perceptions in terms of verbal ability. He contended that peer influence, age, sex and type of school a student attends are factors that could influence attitude towards school subjects. In the present study, none of these variables was considered. 4.2.4. Main effects of learning style on students’ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English Learning style has no significant effect on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. This result supports the findings of other studies indicating that students‟ learning style has no significant influence on their academic achievement for example: Kidanemariam, Atagana and Engida, 2014; Gappi, 2013; Mlambo, 2011; Al- Hebaishi, 2012. Although no significant difference in achievement by learning style was found in these studies, there are differences with this study in terms of grade level of participants, content area and learning style model used. For example, Kidanemariam, Atagana and Engida (2014) used Felder-Silverman eight dimensions learning style to explain the correlation between learning style and students‟ academic achievement. They pointed out that having a particular learning style did not make an impact or provide an advantage on students‟ performance on fundamental concepts in Chemistry. One of the possible explanations for the result obtained in this study is that although students may show preference for one learning style, they may use the other modalities to a lesser extent (Nilson, 2003). The instructional strategies employed in the study appear to cater for the different learning styles. Furthermore, the finding that learning style has no 110 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY significant effect on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English may not be unconnected with the observation of Zywno and Waalen (2002) that no matter how students prefer to learn, the students may have been previously exposed to sufficient levels of the content and have therefore developed their attitude towards it. To them, neither the mode of presentation nor students‟ preferred mode of learning can alter their attitude towards the content because attitude is developed over time. Thus, there are other variables that could influence students‟ attitude to learning a particular subject other than learning style. 4.2.5. Interaction effects The reported significant 2-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English shows that high verbal ability students in the Socratic seminar experimental group and control group had the highest mean score while the average verbal ability students in the story grammar experimental group had the highest mean score followed by the low ability students. The high ability students had the least score. These results when viewed against the background of the significant main effect of treatment suggest that the use of the strategies in teaching will benefit all learners irrespective of their differing verbal ability levels. From the results of the study, the 3-way interaction effect was not significant. This means that treatment, verbal ability and learning style had no influence on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. This finding indicates that teachers should employ student-centred interactive strategies when teaching contents that would require testing students‟ cognitive and metacognitive understanding of what they learned. Just as Ijiga (2014) noted, students with low verbal ability are likely to encounter reading comprehension difficulties but such students would need increased learning opportunities and experiences involved in metacognitive strategy instructions to meet up with their peers. The findings further support the submission of Gilakjani (2012) that while we each seem to have preferences in how we learn best, we use all of our senses to take in information. Thus, to him, learning style is not a predictor of academic achievement. 111 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Summary of Findings The findings of this study are summarised as follows: 1. There was significant main effect of treatment on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English. Students in the Socratic seminar experimental group obtained higher achievement scores than those in the story grammar and control groups. Similarly, there was significant main effect of treatment on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Again, students who were taught using the Socratic seminar strategy had the highest posttest attitude mean scores followed by students in the control group while students in story grammar experimental group had the least mean scores. 2. There was no significant main effect of verbal ability on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. Nevertheless, the average and low verbal ability groups outperformed the other groups in their achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English respectively. 3. Learning style had no significant main effect on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. However, the visual learners‟ achievement was better than the achievement of the auditory and kinesthetic learners while the auditory learners showed a positive attitude towards prose in Literature-in-English than the visual and kinesthetic learners. 4. The 2-way interaction effect of treatment and verbal ability on students‟ achievement in prose in Literature-in-English was significant but was not significant on students‟ attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. 5. The 2-way interaction effect of treatment and learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English was not significant. 6. The interaction effect of verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English was not significant. 112 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7. There was no significant 3-way interaction effect of treatment, verbal ability and learning style on students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in- English. 5.2 Implications of Findings The findings of this study have the following implications for the teaching and learning of Literature-in-English generally and prose in Literature-in-English in particular. The findings suggest the need for Literature-in-English teachers to incorporate instructional strategies that promote experiential, interactive in-class activities. Results show that the treatment (story grammar and Socratic seminar strategies) enhanced students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. This suggests that there is no single proven teaching strategy that has all it takes to sustain academic performance for any group of students. The instructional strategies employed in the treatment groups are learner-centred and they provide opportunities for students to actively participate in making meaning of literary texts. Thus, this finding agrees with the submission of Etuk, Afangideh and Uya (2013) that learning is known to be an active process: the more students are actively involved, the more they learn and the more they develop positive attitude towards what they learn. This therefore, implies that teachers should expose their students to a variety of interactive strategies like story grammar and Socratic seminar so as to help students take charge of their learning. With respect to verbal ability and learning style, the study did not show any significant influence of verbal ability and learning style on the effectiveness of the strategies used in the study in relation to students‟ achievement in and attitude to prose in Literature-in-English. The implication of this is that teachers should adopt these strategies in teaching and try to imbibe the steps involved in their use since they have proved to be effective for all students irrespective of their different verbal ability levels and learning style preferences. Again, the finding implies that teachers should de-emphasise same ability groupings during classroom activities. They should encourage mixed-ability grouping because when students interact among themselves, the differences in their verbal ability levels tend to even out. 113 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.3 Conclusion From the results obtained in this study, it could be concluded that the application of instructional strategies involving student-centred in-class activities like Socratic seminar is more effective in promoting students‟ active engagement with literary texts and achievement in prose in Literature-in-English than lecture-based strategy. Hence, if students are taught how to read literary texts using Socratic seminar strategy, they can overcome their persistent poor performance in Literature-in-English. Results also suggest that students‟ low achievement in and negative attitude to Literature-in-English generally and prose in Literature-in-English in particular could be effectively addressed through exposure to teaching strategies that keep students engaged to solve problems during classroom activities. Again, the findings have demonstrated that even low verbal ability students stand to gain much with the use of strategies that keep students actively engaged in the learning process. 5.4 Recommendations Based on the findings of the present study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Teachers should encourage and incorporate students‟ activities involved in Socratic seminar instructional strategy into Literature-in-English teaching. 2. Literature-in-English teachers should discourage the use of „short notes‟ and „exam focus‟ pamphlets and emphasise the purchase and reading of the prescribed prose in Literature-in-English texts. 3. Workshop and in-service training programmes should be organised for Literature-in- English teachers on regular bases so as to keep them abreast of research based innovative instructional strategies that keep students engaged and motivated throughout the learning process. 4. The instructional strategies used in this study especially Socratic seminar are recommended for use in other content areas such as Mathematics, Government, Biology, Social Studies, Economics. 5. Government should equip schools with textual and non-textual materials like video and audio tape recorders and over-head projectors for effective teaching and learning of Literature-in-English. 114 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. Teachers should operate without prejudice to students‟ verbal ability level and learning style in accomplishing their pedagogical tasks. Whether a student is of low, average or high verbal ability level or a visual, auditory or kinesthetic learner, students must be given equal opportunity to participate in classroom activities. 5.5 Contributions of the Study to Literature Education 1. The study has shown that students‟ knowledge or intuition about the structure of a text is part of the reading competence students require to comprehend a text. 2. The two strategies used in the experimental groups were beneficial to the different learning style groups. The study has therefore, provided evidence that if teachers employ instructional strategies that cater for individual students‟ learning style, students‟ performance in Literature-in-English would improve. 3. The study has shown that engaging students in in-class activities that involve collaboration would improve the teaching and learning of Literature-in-English. 4. The study has demonstrated that there is need for Literature teachers to de-emphasise same ability grouping during class activities. 5.6 Limitations of the Study Getting the consent of principals to use their schools for the study constituted a major limitation of this study. Even after giving their consent, some principals were reluctant to release their teachers for training but demanded that the teachers be trained in their respective schools. Getting teachers‟ cooperation to participate in the study was also a limitation to the study. The fact that the current prose in Literature-in-English WASSCE syllabus would end this academic year led to teachers‟ reluctance to participate in the study. Almost all the selected schools have started implementing the new syllabus (2016 – 2020). To them, it was a waste of time teaching students texts that will not feature in their final examinations. In all, while some teachers saw the exercise as an extra workload, others saw it as a barrier to the timely completion of their scheme of work. Another major limitation of the study was inadequate text possession among the students and unavailability of equipped libraries. In all the schools used, only a quarter of the total 115 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY number of students in a class had the prescribed texts. To this end, the researcher provided copies of the texts to those who did not have. Students‟ reluctance to take part in classroom activities that involved oral communication posed a barrier to the study. Students were not confident enough to speak during discussions probably due to poor language ability. They were afraid of making mistakes. This limited the extent to which some participated in the class activities. To overcome this problem, students were re assured that what is important is expressing their thoughts and not perfect speech. Aside this, the students often times turned the discussions into debates. Another limitation of the study was the plot structure of one of the texts used in the study. While The Old Man and the Sea has a linear plot hence, it lends itself well to story mapping, the same could not be said of A Woman in her Prime which does not have an easy identifiable plot structure. This made it difficult for the story elements to be mapped. 5.7 Suggestions for further Study 1. The participants in the study were learners of English as a second language. Further study in the teaching and learning of prose in Literature-in-English could be directed at investigating the readability level of the language of WAEC recommended prose texts. 2. There could be further research to determine the effects of story grammar and Socratic seminar strategies on students‟ learning outcomes in other genres of Literature-in-English and content areas. 3. 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M.Ed practicum report Kuala Lumpur; Universiti Malaya. Retrieved 28 Dec., 2012 from http://www.fpbahasa.ukm.my/journa/20030102.htm. Zarrati, Z. and Nambiar, R. M. 2014. Importance of text structure awareness in promoting strategic reading among EFL readers. Procedia- Social and Behavioural Sciences 20.4: 537-544. Zhen, C. 2012. Characteristics and strategies of literature teaching in the EFL context. International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering 5.3: 35 - 43. Zyngier, S. 2001. Towards a cultural approach to stylistics. Journal of Educational Psychology 24: 305-320. Zywno, M. and Waalen, J. 2002. The effect of individual learning styles on student outcomes in technology-enabled education. Global Journal of Engineering Education 6.1: 35-44. 140 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 1 PROSE IN LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT TEST (PLEAT) 1/ Class: SS 2 Time: 1 2 hrs Instructions: 1. Write your name and the name of your school on your answer sheet. 2. Answer all the questions in parts I and II. PART I: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway. Section A (Short answer questions) 1. Were the parents of the boy right to withdraw him from the old man? Give two reasons for your answer. 2. State two lessons you learned from the novel The Old Man and the Sea. 3. Give four reasons why the boy in spite of the old man‟s failure still wants to be his apprentice. 4. Explain the feelings of the boy when he saw the cuts in the old man‟s hands. 5. What is the significance of the old man‟s remembrance of the hand game he played when he was young? 6. What does the old man‟s encounter with the sharks symbolize? 7. State and explain four factors that contributed to Santiago‟s misfortune. 8. In four sentences describe the character of the boy. Section B (Essay questions) 9. In what way does The Old Man and the Sea represent the struggle between human beings and nature? 10. Trace the problems of the old man, his efforts to solve them and the consequences. PART II: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Section A (Short answer questions) 11. State two themes in the text. 141 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12. Would you describe Pokuwaa as a woman of strong faith? Give a reason for your answer. 13. What role did Pokuwaa‟s mother play in her second failed marriage? 14. What evidence in the text shows that the gods exercise great influence on the living? 15. Why did Pokuwaa weep bitterly more than everybody at the funeral procession of Boakye? 16. Why do you think Pokuwaa got pregnant when she stopped sacrificing to the gods? 17. Why did the people believe that Pokuwaa actually saw a ghost. 18. What is the significance of Pokuwaa‟s many marriages in the text? Section B (Essay questions) 19. Compare and contrast the characters of Pokuwaa and Koramoa. 20. With close reference to events in the novel, show what Pokuwaa‟s plight revealed about the beliefs and culture of the people. 142 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 2 VERBAL ABILITY TEST (VAT) Name: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- School: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Class: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ This test contains questions in different activity areas you are familiar with. Some examples have been given to show you how to answer the questions. Examples A: Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets at the end of the question. 1. (a) Tea (b) Coffee (c) Shoes (d) Cocoa (e) Pencil (f) Milk ( c )and ( e ) 2. (a) Door (b) Window (c) Coat (d) Wall (e) Roof (f) Book ( c ) and ( f ) 3. Hand is to finger as foot is to (a) Leg (b) Arm (c) Toe (d) Man (e) Ankle (c) 4. Newspaper is to see as wireless is to (a) Wire (b) Hear (c) Dial (d) Ear (e) Deaf (b) Examples B 5. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) Too many cooks spoil the broth (b) Make hay while the sun shines (c) A stitch in time saves nine (d) It‟s long lane that has no turning (e) Strike while the iron is hot (b) and (e) 6. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? a) A careless master makes a negligent servant b) To resist him that is set in authority is evil c) Little is done when many command d) When the cat is away the mice do play e) Where there are seven shepherds there is no flock (a) and (d) 143 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Now do the following You have 30 minutes to do the test. Some questions are easier than others. Try each question as you come to it, but if you find any question too hard, leave it and come back to it later if you have time. 1. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Table (b) Chair (c) Man (d) Bed(e) Cupboard (f) Towel ( ) and ( ) 2. FILTHY is to DISEASE as CLEAN is to (a) Dirty (b) Safety (c) Water (d) Illness (e) Health (f) Tidy ( ) 3. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Tube (b) Artery (c) Tunnel (d) String (e) Rope (f) Wire ( ) and ( ) 4. INCH is to SPACE as SECOND is to (a) Hour (b) Age (c) Time (d) Clock (e) Third (f) Month ( ) 5. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Lagoon (b) Pool (c) Swamp (d) Lake (e) Marsh (f) Pond ( ) and ( ) 6. PIN is to HEAD as NEEDLE is to (a) Prick (b) Sew (c) Eye (d) Point (e) Thread (f) Safety ( ) 7. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Onlooker (b) Spectator (c) Critic (d) Eye-witness (e) Author (f) Bystander ( ) and ( ) 8. HEAT is to ASHES as CARPENTRY is to (a) Carpenter (b) Sawdust (c) Chest (d) Furniture (e) Wood (f) Hammer ( ) 9. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Sponge (b) Water (c) Mop (d) Towel (e) Blotting paper (f) Dirt ( ) and ( ) 10. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) Time is a herb that cures all diseases. (b) Anticipation is better than realization. (c) Today is worth two tomorrows. (d) To speed today is to be set back tomorrow. (e) There is no time like the present. ( ) and ( ) 144 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 11. TELEPHONE is to VOICE as LETTER is to (a) Stamp (b) Post-office (c) Writing (d) Correspondent (e) Envelop (f) Paper ( ) 12. Which two statements prove that „JOHN IS A GOOD SWIMMER‟? (a) Bob goes to the baths every day. (b) John and Bob are friends. (c) Bob won last year‟s swimming championship. (d) John beat Bob in a race last week. (e) John has challenged Bob to a race. ( ) and ( ) 13.MANNERS are to POLITE as MORALS are to (a) Politics (b) Politeness (c) Wealthy (d) Virtuous (e) Strong (f) Riches ( ) 14. Which two of the following statements prove that „MR SMITH OWNS SOME TAMWORTHS‟? (a) Tamworths are better pigs than Berkshires. (b) One-eight of the pigs in that pen are Tamworths. (c) All the pigs in that pen belong to Mr. Smith. (d) Most of the farmers in the district own Tamworths. (e) Most of the pigs in that pen are Berkshires. ( ) and ( ) 15. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Spire (b) Church (c) Flagpole (d) Steeple (e) Tower (f) Hall ( ) and ( ) 16. OCEAN is to LAKE as CONTINENT is to (a) River (b) Land (c) Mountain (d) Island (e) Europe (f) Sky ( ) 17. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) Fire that is closet kept burns fiercest. (b) Set a thief to catch a thief. (c) A dog with a bone knows no friend. (d) Fight fire with fire. (e) Sow the wind, reap the whirlwind. ( ) and ( ) 18. Three days in the week have the same number of letters. In the bracket write the first letter of the day which comes first in the alphabet. ( ) 19. “ONLY PREFECTS WEAR BADGES. ALL PREFECTS ARE IN FORM IV.” Therefore, which one of the following statements is true? (a) All form iv boys may wear badges. (b) All boys wearing a badge is in form iv. (c) All the first eleven boys may wear badges. (d) Form iv prefects do not wear badges. ( ) 145 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Blame (b) Accuse (c) Indict (d) Loathe (e) Censor (f) Ape ( ) and ( ) 21. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) He who follows two hares will catch neither. (b) To blow and swallow at the same time is not easy. (c) He holds nothing fast who grasps at too much. (d) Despise the man who can blow hot and cold with the same breath. (e) It is easy to despise what you cannot obtain. ( ) and ( ) 22. FEW is to MANY as OCCASIONALLY is to (a) Seldom (b) Never (c) Every (d) Often (e) Always (f) Now ( ) 23. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Corrugated (b) Involved (c) Complicated (d) Intricate (e) Coarse (f) Complex ( ) and ( ) 24.Which two of the following statements prove that „MR REED DOES NOT LIVE IN HUME STREET‟? (a) All the buildings in Hume street are modern. (b) All the buildings in Hume street are flats. (c) Mr Reed does not live in a flat. (d) Mr Reed lives in comfort. (e) Mr.Reed lives five miles from town. ( ) and ( ) 25. If these words were rearranged correctly to form a sentence, with what letter would the middle word begin? “Is from a molehill a mountain a thing different.” 26. GATE is to FENCE as PORT is to (a)Land (b) Coast (c)Town (d) Sea (e) Destination (f) Home ( ) 27.Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) It is petty expenses that empty the purse. (b) Small gains bring riches in. (c) Even the weak are strong when united. (d) Constant dripping wears away the stone. (e) A chain is as strong as its weakest link. ( ) and ( ) 28. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a)Ruler (b) Heat (c) Clock (d) Thermometer (e) Rainguage (f)Yard ( ) and ( ) 146 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 29. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) Repentance is poor consolation. (b) More haste less speed. (c) Quick decisions often breed regret. (d) He‟ll have a bucket of tears for a cup of joy. (e) Marry in haste, repent in leisure. ( ) and ( ) 30. DRAMATIST is to PLAY as COMPOSER is to (a) Orchestra (b) Piano (c) Symphony (d) Performance (e) Drum (f) Concert ( ) 31. Which two of the following statements prove that „TODAY IS COLDER THAN YESTERDAY‟? (a) Every Friday this month was a cold day. (b) Tomorrow is the first day of the month. (c) Last Thursday was a hot day. (d) The last day of each month this year has been the coldest day of the month. (e) Summer is nearly over. ( ) and ( ) 32. Four of the following are alike in some way. Write the letters of the other two in the brackets. (a) Fugitive (b) Enemy (c) Evacuee (d) Escapee (e) Prisoner (f) Truant ( ) and ( ) 33.Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) A great fortune is a great slavery. (b) Better beans and bacon in freedom than cakes and ale in bondage. (c) Put a chain round the neck of a slave and the end fastens round your own. (d) Lean liberty is better than fat slavery. (e) Stone walls do not a prison make. ( ) and ( ) 34. In a certain code of English word BOARD is written CODVI. What would the English word PAT be in this code? 35. Which two of the following statements mean most nearly the same? (a) Forewarned is forearmed. (b) The loss that is unknown is no loss at all. (c) No man is happy that does not think so. (d) Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. (e) Where ignorance is bliss, it is folly to be wise. ( ) and ( ) 36. BATTLE is to DUEL as CHORUS is to (a) Twins (b) Duet (c) Selection (d) Music (e)Song (f) Riddles ( ) 147 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 3 LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (LSPQ) Name: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- School: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Class: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ People learn in many ways. For example, some people learn primarily with their eyes (visual learners) or with their ears (auditory learners); some people prefer to learn by experience and / or by “hands-on” tasks (kinesthetic or tactile learners). This questionnaire is designed to help you identify the way you learn best i. e. the way you prefer to learn. After each statement three options lettered V, A and K are given. Kindly read each statement and circle the option that applies to you. 1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I: (V) Watch someone show me. (A) Hear someone tell me how. (K) Try to do it myself. 2. When I read, I often find that I: (V) Visualize what I am reading in my mind‟s eye. (A) Read out loud or hear the words inside my head. (K) Fidget and try to feel the content. 3. When asked to give directions, I: (V) See the actual places in my mind as I say them or prefer to draw them. (A) Have no difficulty in giving them verbally. (K) Have to point or move my body as I give them. 4. When you see the word “d-o-g”, what do you do first? (V) Think of a picture of a particular dog. (A) Say the word “dog” to yourself silently. (K) Sense the feeling of being with a dog (petting it, running with it etc.). 5. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I: (V) Wrote them down. (A) Said them over and over to myself. (K) Moved around and used my fingers to name each item. 6. I prefer teachers who: (V) Use the board and overhead projector while they lecture. (A) Talk with a lot of expression. (K) Use hands-on activities. 148 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when: (V) There is a lot of clutter or movement in the room. (A) There is a lot of noise in the room. (K) I have to sit still for any length of time. 8. When solving a problem, I: (V) Write or draw diagrams to see it. (A) Talk myself through it. (K) Use my entire body or move objects to help me think. 9. When given written instructions on how to build something, I: (V) Read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together. (A) Read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together. (K) Try to put the parts together and read later. 10. To keep occupied while waiting, I: (V) Look around, stare, or read. (A) Talk or listen to others. (K)Walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my feet as I sit. 11. If someone were verbally describing something to me, I would: (V) Try to visualize what she was saying. (A) Enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself. (K) Become bored if her description got too long and detailed. 12. When trying to recall names, I remember: (V) Faces but forget names. (A) Names, but forget faces. (K) The situation that I met the person other than the person‟s name or face. 13. When you read for fun do you prefer: (V) A travel book with a lot of pictures in it. (A) A mystery book with a lot of conversation in it. (K)A book where you answer questions and solve problems. 14. If you are not sure whether a word should be spelt “dependent” or “dependant”, do you: (V) See the word in your mind and choose the best way it looks? (A) Sound it out? (K) Write both versions down? 15. When operating new equipment for the first time, I prefer to: (V) Read the instruction. (A) Listen to or ask for an explanation. (K) Have a go and learn by „trial and error. 149 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 16. Apart from price, what will most influence your decision to buy a particular textbook? (V) It looks ok. (A) A friend talking about it. (K) Using a friend‟s copy. 17. Do you prefer a teacher who likes to use: (V) Diagrams, charts and pictures. (A) Discussion, question and answer. (K) Practical sessions. 18. I tend to say: (V) Show me. (A) Tell me. (K) Let me try. 19. To teach someone something I: (V) Write instructions. (A) Explain verbally. (K) Demonstrate and let them have a go. 20. When cooking a new dish, I: (V) Follow a recipe. (A) Call a friend for explanation. (K) Follow my instinct, tasting as I cook. 21. I remember things most when I: (V) Read them. (A) Hear them. (K) Say them. 22. I think I can tell someone is lying because: (V) They avoid looking at you. (A) Their voice changes. (K) The vibes I get from them. 23. I first notice how people: (V) Look and dress. (A) Sound and speak. (K) Stand and move. 24. When shopping generally, I tend to: (V) Look and decide. (A) Discuss with shop staff. (K) Try on, handle or test. 150 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 25. I learn best by: (V) Reading books, seeing pictures/diagrams. (A) Listening to an explanation (K) Doing it myself/working on it. 26. I‟m better at: (V) Drawing, illustration. (A) Speech, conversation. (K) Using tools/machines and in sports. 27. Most of my free time is spent: (V) Watching television. (A) Talking to friends. (K) Doing physical activity or making things. 28. I feel especially connected to others because of: (V) How they look. (A) What they say to me. (K) How they make me feel. 29. I find it easiest to remember: (V) Faces (A) Names (K) Things I have done 30. What kind of restaurant would you rather not go to? (V) One with the lights too bright. (A) One with the music too loud. (K) One with uncomfortable chairs. 151 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 4 STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TO PROSE IN LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH QUESTIONNAIRE (SAPLEQ) Name: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ School: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Class: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- This questionnaire is designed to assess your attitude towards prose Literature. Kindly read each statement and respond to it as it applies to your study of prose in Literature-in-English by ticking (√) one of the columns provided against each statement. Strongly Strongly S/N Statements Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 1. Prose is the most difficult aspect of literature. I enjoy prose literature-in-English lessons 2. more than poetry lessons. I am always excited whenever it is time for 3. prose literature-in-English lessons. The themes found in poetic literature are more true-to-life than themes in prose literature-in- 4. English. I do not like prose literature-in-English 5. because it involves a lot of reading. If my teacher allows it, I will not study prose 6. literature-in-English. I do not have any of the recommended prose 7. literature-in-English textbooks. I do not attend prose literature-in-English 8. classes regularly. I prefer drama to prose. 9. I stay away from prose literature-in-English 10. lessons. I don‟t bother to tell my parents to buy prose 11. textbooks for me. I always relate the themes of prose texts to real 12 life experiences. 152 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Strongly Strongly S/N Statements Agree Agree Disagree Disagree I am not happy whenever my teacher gives us 13. assignment in prose literature-in-English. I do not participate in classroom activities 14. during prose literature-in-English lessons. I get good grades in prose literature-in- 15. English. I don‟t like doing prose literature-in-English 16. assignments. Whenever I am less busy, I will rather play 17. than read prose texts. Most of the themes of prose texts are difficult 18. for me to understand. There is no monetary benefit in the study of 19. prose literature-in-English. I revise my notes after every prose literature- 20. in-English lesson. I do not like any aspect of literature-in- 21. English. 22. I find the study of prose texts boring. I do not find literature-in-English useful in 23. solving my personal problems. My parents forced me to study literature-in- 24. English. I entered for literature-in-English just to complete the number of my subjects for SSCE 25. exam. I am discouraged by the marks I score in prose 26. literature-in-English. 153 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 5 RESEARCH ASSISTANTS’ RATING SCALE (RARS) Task Scale Knowledge of subject matter. 1 2 3 4 5 Knowledge of the stages of strategy. 1 2 3 4 5 Class management. 1 2 3 4 5 Ability to communicate effectively. 1 2 3 4 5 Mastery of lesson plan. 1 2 3 4 5 Ability to follow the steps involved in the instructional guide. 1 2 3 4 5 Ability to provide relevant and stimulating introduction. 1 2 3 4 5 Ability to monitor students as they work. 1 2 3 4 5 Key : 5 = Outstanding 4 = Above average 3 = Average 2 = Below average 1 = Unsatisfactory 154 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 6 SCORING GUIDE FOR PROSE IN LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT TEST Question 1. Were the parents of the boy right to withdraw him from the old man? Give two reasons for your answer. A student‟s answer could be „yes‟ or „no‟ for 1 mark. He/she must be support his/her answer with two reasons for 1 mark each. Total = 3marks. Note: Any „yes‟ or „no‟ answer not supported must not score. Question 2. State two lessons you learned from the novel The Old Man and the Sea. A student‟s answer must be relevant to the text. Answers could be written in short sentences with or without an introductory the first person subject marker. E.g I learned that …. .Award 1/ 1 2 marks for each answer. Total= 3 marks. Question 3. Give four reasons why the boy in spite of the old man‟s failure still wants to be his apprentice. Possible answers include: i. The boy loves the old man. ii. The boy believes the old man is the best fisherman/The boy sees the old man as the most experienced fisherman around iii. The boy believes or has faith that the old man will make it one day. iv. The old man taught the boy fishing. v. The boy wants to get more experience from the old man. Any four of these or any other plausible reason(s) should score 4 marks (1 mark for each point) Do not accept answers like: The boy has faith. The old man will catch fish one day. Question 4. Explain the feelings of the boy when he saw the cuts in the old man‟s hands. Students‟ answers must be in complete sentences. 2 marks Do not accept one word answers. Question 5. What is the significance of the old man‟s remembrance of the hand game he played when he was young? Possible answers It helped him not to give up/It taught him a lesson that if he does not give up he will kill the marlin/It gave him the confidence that come what may, he will kill the fish/It gave him the courage or strength to hold on until he killed the fish. Award 2 marks for any of these or a similar answer. An answer that stops at “ it gave him courage/strength/confidence” or “it taught him a lesson” should not score more than 1 mark. Question 6. What does the old man‟s encounter with the sharks symbolise? Answer: It symbolises the constant struggle between human beings and nature. OR It symbolises that when human beings succeed to conquer one aspect of nature, others fight back. 2 marks 155 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Question 7. State and explain four factors that contributed to Santiago‟s misfortune. Possible Answers i. Old age ii. Loneliness iii. Tiredness iv. Lack of good weapons v. Hard luck vi. Pride vii. Sea current Students should state and explain how any four of these factors or other factors they may come up with contributed to Santiago‟s misfortune for 4 marks. A student who only lists without explaining should not score more than 2 marks. Question 8. In four sentences describe the character of the boy. Students‟ answers may include: He is obedient. He is hardworking. He is caring. He is faithful. He is loyal. 4 marks Note: Answers must be in sentences. Do not accept one-word answers. Essay Questions Question 9. In what way does The Old Man and the Sea represent the struggle between human beings and nature? 13 marks For a good score, a student should be able to give a brief account of Santiago‟s inability to make a catch for 84 consecutive days, then the big catch and his struggle with the fish and eventual encounter with sharks. This should be linked to how the text represents the struggle between human beings and nature. Question 10. Trace the problems of the old man, his efforts to solve them and the consequences. 13 marks This question has three parts and the parts must be addressed for a good mark. A. His problem Students must discuss his inability to catch any fish for 84 days and the withdrawal of the boy. B. His efforts to solve the problems th Students must talk about his resolve to go far out into the sea on the 85 day. C. Consequence Students must discuss his big catch and his inability to lift the fish into his boat which led to his tying the fish to his boat. Then they must discuss the attack of the sharks and struggle between the old man and the sharks and how at the end the old man had only the skeleton of the fish. Part 2: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Question 11. State two themes in the text. Possible answers i. The futility of worry /anxiety ii. The travail of barren women iii. The reward of patience Any two of these or any other theme(s) relevant to the text should be accepted for 3 marks 1/ (1 2 marks each) 156 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Question 12. Would you describe Pokuwaa as a woman of strong faith? Give a reason for your answer. A student‟s answer could be “yes” or “no” for 1 mark. A student must support his/her answer with a reason for another 2 marks. Note a student who fails to support his first answer should score zero. Question 13. What role did Pokuwaa‟s mother play in her second failed marriage? b She was always magnifying Pokuwaa‟s husband‟s faults and even drew Pokuwaa‟s attention to those she did not observe. 3 marks Question 14. What evidence in the text shows that the gods exercise great influence on the living? Accept any one of these for 3 marks. i. The burning of the wawa tree was seen as an evidence that the gods were angry with the people. ii. Pokuwaa‟s inability to have a child within two years of marriage was attributed to the wrong done to an ancestral god, Tano. iii. The people always consult the gods on important issues. Question 15. Why did Pokuwaa weep bitterly more than everybody at the funeral procession of Boakye? Possible answers: i. She was touched by the way Boakye died. ii. She remembered how vultures were feasting on Boakye‟s corpse. For any one of these or any other reasonable point a student may come up with award 3 marks Question 16. Why do you think Pokuwaa got pregnant when she stopped sacrificing to the gods? We cannot predict what a student may come up with. Accept any cogent reason for 3 marks like i. Her mother was still sacrificing on her behalf. ii. She now believes in the true God. iii. She is not worried again. Question 17. Why did the people believe that Pokuwaa actually saw a ghost. Answer: Somebody died and they believed it was his ghost visiting his birth place. 3 marks Question 18. What is the significance of Pokuwaa‟s many marriages in the text? It shows that the expected role of a woman in the society is child bearing. 3 marks Section B (Essay questions) Question 19. Compare and contrast the characters of Pokuwaa and Koramoa. 13 marks For a score of 8 and above, a student must show the way(s) Pokuwaa and Koramoa are alike and different in character. Credit should be given for textual references to back up answers. 157 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Question 20. With close reference to events in the novel, show what Pokuwaa‟s plight revealed about the beliefs and culture of the people.13 marks For a good score, students should address the two sides of the question. First, students should discuss Pokuwaa‟s plight i. e. her inability to have a child which led to the many marriages she went through. Then they should discuss what this reveals about the beliefs and culture of the people. 158 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 7 SCORING GUIDE FOR VERBAL ABILITY TEST Instruction: Award 1 mark for each correct answer. Where a question has two answers, 1/ award 2 mark for each correct answer. 1. C and F (Man and Towel) 2. E (Health) 3. D and E (String and Rope) 4. C (Time) 5. C and E (Swamp and Marsh) 6. C (Eye) 7. C and E (Critic and Author) 8. D (Furniture) 9. B and F (Water and Dirt) 10. C and E (Today is worth two tomorrows. There is no time like the present) 11. F (Paper) 12. C and D (Bob won last year‟s swimming championship. John beat Bob in a race last week) 13. D (Virtuous) 14. B and C (One eight of the pigs in that pen are Tamworths. All the pigs in that pen belong to Mr Smith.) 15. C and F (Flagpole and Hall) 16. E (Europe) 17. B and D (Set a thief to catch a thief. Fight fire with fire) 18. Letter F 19. B (All boys wearing a badge is in form iv) 159 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20. D and F (Loathe and Ape) 21. A and C (He who follows two hares will catch neither. He holds nothing fast who grasps at too much) 22. E (Always) 23. B and E (Involved and Coarse) 24. B and C (All the buildings in Hume Street are flats. Mr. Reed does not live in a flat) 25. Letter D 26. D (Sea) 27. A and D (It is petty expenses that empty the purse. Constant dripping wears away the stone) 28. B and F (Heat and Yard) 29. C and E (Quick decisions often breed regret. Marry in haste, repent in leisure) 30. C (Symphony) 31. A and C (Every Friday this month was a cold day. Last Thursday was a hot day) 32. B and E (Enemy and Prisoner) 33. B and D (Better beans and bacon in freedom than cakes and ale in bondage. Lean liberty is better than fat slavery) 34. QAW 35. C and D (No man is happy that does not think so. Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown) 36. D (Music) 160 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 8 LESSON NOTES Experimental Group I (Story Grammar Strategy) Week 1 Lesson: 1 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway th Episode 1: From Santiago‟s return from the 84 consecutive days without a catch to his dream of lions on the beach Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. create a story map of the episode read. iii. write a summary of the story. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by asking students if they remember how stories usually start (once upon a time, a long time ago, long ago) and how they usually finish (… they lived happily ever after, and they were happy forever). Teacher asks a student to tell the class a story or the teacher tells story. Teacher guides students to identify the elements in the story and explains story grammar strategy and procedure. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher gives a mini lesson on the components of story grammar which are: setting, characters, initiating event, internal response, attempt, consequence and reaction. Step 2: The teacher and the students generate the following „wh‟ questions that will guide students as they read. The questions are: i. Where and when did the story happen? 161 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ii. Who is the main character?/who is the story about? iii. What is the main character‟s problem?/what is the big problem the story is about? iv. How did the main character feel about the problem? v. What did the main character try to do to solve the problem?/what did he do about the problem? vi. What is the result of the main character‟s action? vii. How did he feel at the end? Step 3: The students read episode one of text silently and independently. As they read, they find answers to the wh-questions. Step 4: The students get story map sheets and each student creates a story map of what he/she has read. Step 5: Each student completes his/her story mapping sheet. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: The teacher assesses students‟ work and comments on their strengths and weaknesses. Thereafter, the teacher shows the students a model story map of the episode read and assigns chapters to be read at home for the next lesson. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: The teacher leads students to discuss what they read as he asks a student to summarise the story. Step 8: The teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read episode 2 at home. 162 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 2 Lesson: 2 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 2: From Santiago sailing out of port to his promise to kill the fish before the day end Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. create a story map of the episode read. iii. write a summary of the story. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson one. Step 2: The students read episode 2 of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read episode 3 at home and summarise the story in one page. 163 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 3 Lesson 3 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 3: From Santiago‟s encounter with the weary warbler (bird) to his decision to rest after contemplating the night sky. Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by quickly going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson one. Step 2: The students read episode 2 of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read episode 4 at home and prepare a story map of the episode. 164 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 4 Lesson: 4 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 4: From the marlin waking Santiago by jerking the line to Santiago‟s return to his shack Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook , chalkboard and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. iv. state at least two themes in the text. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson one. Step 2: The students read episode 2 of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Thereafter, the teacher asks some students to state the themes in the text “The Old Man and the Sea”. Assignment: In two pages summarise chapters 1, 2 and 3 of A Woman in her Prime 165 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 5 Lesson: 5 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 1: Chapter 1 – 3 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s first participation in the purification sacrifice to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher gives a mini lesson on the components of story grammar which are: setting, characters, initiating event, internal response, attempt, consequence and reaction Step 2: The students generate the following wh-questions that will guide their reading. i. Where and when did the story happen? ii. Who is the main character?/who is the story about? iii. What is the main character‟s problem?/what is the big problem the story is about? iv. How did the main character feel about the problem? v. What did the main character try to do to solve the problem?/what did he do about the problem? vi. What is the result of the main character‟s action? vii. How did he feel at the end? 166 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Step 3: The students read chapter 1- 3 of text silently and independently and jot down answers to the questions above. Step 4: The students prepare a story map of what they have read individually. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 5: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 6: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 7: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 8: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7of A Woman in her Prime at home and prepare a story map of the major event. 167 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 6 Lesson: 6 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 2: Chapter 4 – 7 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s visit to Tano priest after the completion of her purification rituals) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson 5. Step 2: The students read episode 2 of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read chapters 8, 9 and 10 of A Woman in her Prime at home and summarise the chapters in two pages. 168 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 7 Lesson: 7 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 3: Chapter 8–10 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s discovery of a corpse in her farm) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson 5 Step 2: The students read episode 2 of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Assignment: Read chapters 11, 12, 13 and 14 of A Woman in her Prime at home and state the problem of the episode. 169 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 8 Lesson: 8 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 4: Chapter 11–14 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s decision to stop all forms of sacrifices to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Textbook, chalkboard, and story grammar mapping sheet Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the different parts of a story using a story grammar model. ii. retell the story of the episode they have read. iii. prepare a story map of the episode. iv. state at least two themes in the text Introduction (11 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by going over the previous lesson and then asks one or two students to read to the class their assignment. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher and students review structure of stories and generate wh- questions as in lesson 5 Step 2: The students read assigned chapters of text silently and independently. Step 3: The students prepare a story map of what they have read. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 4: The teacher asks one or two student to summarise the episode. Step 5: The teacher assesses students‟ story map. Step 6: The teacher presents to the students a model story map of the episode. Conclusion (14 minutes) Step 7: In a mini lesson the teacher points out and corrects any mistake identified in students‟ story maps and then gives students assignment. Thereafter, the teacher asks some students to state two themes in the text A Woman in her Prime. Step 8: The teacher and the students discuss themes in the text and the strategy. 170 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Experimental Group 2 (Socratic Seminar Strategy) Week 1 Lesson: 1 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway th Episode 1: From Santiago‟s return from the 84 consecutive days without a catch to his dream of lions on the beach Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by asking one or two students to tell the class the topic of debate(s) they have participated in and their experience during the debate. Teacher states and explains the difference between a debate and discussion/dialogue. i. discussion is collaborative: multiple sides work towards shared understanding. debate is oppositional: two opposing sides try to prove each other wrong. ii. In discussion one listens to understand, to make meaning and to find common ground. In debate one listens to find flaws, to spot differences and to counter arguments. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher briefs the students about the strategy and explains the seminar rules. i. only one person speaks at a time. ii. no hand raising. 171 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iii. be respectful of others and their opinions. iv. base your opinions on something in the text. v. come to the seminar prepared. vi. be not afraid to ask questions. Step 2: The students read silently and independently episode one of the text. Note: class reading of text is done only for the first lesson. For subsequent lessons, students read from home. Step 3: After reading, students are divided into three groups of discussants, note- takers and observers. Step 4: The teacher arranges the class for the seminar. The four discussants sit in a circle in front of the class. The observers (four students) sit near them. The rest of the class sits at their desks to take note of the seminar. Step 5: The teacher distributes the Socratic seminar discussion partner evaluation sheets and Socratic seminar note taking guides to observers and note-takers respectively. Step 6: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. What is wrong with Manolin’s parents’ reasoning concerning Santiago? Step 7: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. As they discuss, teacher guides the students deeper into the text with some guiding questions such as these: i. Who has a different perspective? ii. Where do you find evidence for that in the text? iii. How does that relate to what (someone else) said? iv. Why do you say that? Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 8: After the discussion, the observers and note-takers give their feedback on the seminar. Step 9: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 10: The teacher asks a closing question “how does the action of the boy‟s parents in the story relate to your life experience?” 172 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Step 11: The students discuss the question briefly. Thereafter, the teacher gives assignment. Assignment: Read episode 2 and raise one seminar question from the episode. 173 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 2 Lesson: 2 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 2 From Santiago sailing out of port to his promise to kill the fish before the day ends. Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given issue on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar by reading the assigned chapters at home. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. Several times Santiago expresses that he wishes Manolin (the boy) were with him. Is companionship a basic human need, as basic as the need for food and water? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. As they discuss, teacher guides students deeper into the text with guiding questions. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion the observers and notetakers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. 174 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question: “how do the ideas in the story relate to our lives today?” Step 9: The students express their views. Thereafter, the teacher asks students to read episode 3 at home. 175 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 3 Lesson: 3 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 3: From Santiago‟s encounter with the weary warbler (bird) to his decision to rest after contemplating the night sky Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing the seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. The line rose slowly and steadily and then the surface of the ocean bulged ahead of the boat and the fish came out. He came out unendingly and water poured from his sides. His sword was as long as a baseball bat and tapered like a rapier and he rose his full length from the water and then re-entered it, smoothly, like a diver and the old man saw the great scythe-like blade of his tail go under. p. 40. What might Santiago be thinking when he saw how big his catch is? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in discussion. As the students discuss, teacher guides them deeper into the text with guiding questions. 176 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion, the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question e. g. “how do the ideas in the episode relate to us today?” Step 9: The students give their opinions. Assignment: The teacher asks students to read the next episode at home. 177 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 4 Lesson: 4 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 4: From the marlin waking Santiago by jerking the line to Santiago‟s return to his shack Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar by reading the assigned chapters at home. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. At least four times Santiago expresses that he wishes catching the marlin (fish) had been a dream. Is it better to have achieved something only to have it taken away or to have never achieved it at all? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. As they discuss, teacher moves students deeper into the text with guiding questions. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion, the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question and gives assignment. 178 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 5 Lesson 5 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 1: Chapter 1–3 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s first participation in the purification sacrifice to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets the note-taking guides. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. The author states “it is indeed true that man is never without any trouble on his head” p. 26. Do you agree with his statement? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. As they discuss, teacher takes them deeper into the text with guiding questions. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question and thereafter, assigns chapters to be read at home. 179 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 6 Lesson 6 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 2: Chapter 4–7 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s visit to Tano priest after the completion of her purification rituals) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing the seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. Do you agree that the herbs Tano priest gave Pokuwaa failed to work because she looked back when going? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. As they discuss, teacher takes them deeper into the text with guiding questions. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question: “how does the action of Tano priest apply to our society?” Thereafter, the teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. 180 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 7 Lesson 7 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 3: Chapter 8–10 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s discovery of a corpse in her farm) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behaviural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets. Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. What would you do if you were a witness to a crime? Step 5: The students (discussants) engage in a discussion. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion, the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question: “how do the ideas in the story relate to us?” Thereafter, teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. 181 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Week 8 Lesson 8 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 4: Chapter 11–14 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s decision to stop all forms of sacrifice to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes (double period) Instructional Materials: Text, Chalkboard, Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet, Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide. Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. analyse multiple meanings in the section of the text read. ii. express their opinion on a given question on the text. Introduction (10 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing seminar rules with students. Presentation (40 minutes) Step 1: The teacher identifies those who prepared for the seminar by reading the assigned chapters at home. Step 2: The students are grouped into the different roles. Step 3: The students get the observation sheets Step 4: The teacher poses the seminar opening question. Was Pokuwaa’s motherhood occasioned by her refusal to go on with sacrifices to Tano or was it by the earlier sacrifices she made or by the continued entreaties of her mother with the gods? Step 5: The students discuss. Evaluation (15 minutes) Step 6: After the discussion, the observers and note-takers give their report of the seminar. Step 7: The teacher gives a general appraisal of the seminar. Conclusion (15 minutes) Step 8: The teacher asks a closing question: “how do the ideas in the story relate to your personal experience?” 182 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Control Group (Modified Lecture Strategy) Lesson 1 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway th Episode 1: From Santiago‟s return from the 84 consecutive days without a catch to his dream of lions on the beach Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take turns in vocal reading of text and the teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. What is the boy‟s reason for leaving the old man? 2. What is the relationship between the old man and the boy? 3. What makes the boy to be fond of the old man? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives students notes on the author and assignment. 183 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 2 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 2: From Santiago sailing out of port to his promise to kill the fish before the day ends Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text and the teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. What is the old man‟s favourite sport? 2. Why did the old man decide to go far away from land? 3. What gave the old man hope that he will catch fish on the 85th day? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives the students notes on elements of prose discussed. 184 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 3 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 3 From Santiago‟s encounter with the weary warbler (bird) to his decision to rest after contemplating the night sky Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: Teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text. The teacher stops them at intervals to explain. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks assesses the students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. What gave the old man courage and confidence to stay with the fish until he killed it? 2. What, according to the old man is responsible for his misfortune? 3. What made the old man to keep on wishing he had the boy with him? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives the students notes on elements of prose discussed. 185 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 4 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemmingway Episode 4: From the marlin waking Santiago by jerking the line to Santiago‟s return to his shack Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some literary devices employed by the author. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text. Teacher stops them at intervals to explain. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. Why did the old man not put the fish inside the boat when he was going? 2. What according to the old man is responsible for his misfortune? 3. How did the sharks contribute to the old man‟s misfortune? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives students notes on elements of prose discussed. 186 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 5 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 1: Chapter 1–3 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s first participation in the purification sacrifice to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: Teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text and teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. How did Pokuwaa violate the instructions Tano priest gave her? 2. Why are fetish children not treated harshly or beaten? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives the students notes on the author. Step 8: The teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. 187 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 6 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 2: Chapter 4–7 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s visit to Tano priest after the completion of her purification rituals) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text and teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. What do the people of Brenhoma believe about the dead? 2. Why is the burning of the wawa tree seen as a bad omen? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives students notes on the elements of prose discussed. Step 8: The teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. 188 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 7 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 3: Chapter 8–10 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s discovery of a corpse in her farm) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take their turns in vocal reading of text and the teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. Why did Pokuwaa and her mother refuse to tell anybody about Boakye‟s corpse? 2. How do the people of Brenhoma celebrate their Odwira festival? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives students notes on the elements of prose discussed. Step 8: The teacher assigns chapters to be read at home. 189 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lesson 8 Subject: Literature-in-English Text: A Woman in her Prime by Asare Konadu Episode 4: Chapter 11–14 (Major Event: Pokuwaa‟s decision to stop all forms of sacrifice to Tano) Class: SS 2 Duration: 80 minutes Instructional Materials: Textbook and chalkboard Behavioural Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: i. identify the sequence of events in the chapters read. ii. retell the storyline of the chapters read. iii. answer some recall questions on the portion of the text read. Introduction (8 minutes) The teacher introduces the lesson by giving the students some background information on the author and the text. Presentation (34 minutes) Step 1: The teacher discusses some elements of prose in Literature-in-English e.g. setting, point of view, plot. Step 2: The teacher specifies chapters to be read. Step 3: The teacher reads some paragraphs and explains. Step 4: The teacher assigns reading portions to some students. Step 5: The students take turns in vocal reading of text and teacher explains at intervals. Evaluation (18 minutes) Step 6: The teacher asks these questions to assess students‟ comprehension of what they read. 1. Why do the people give cowries to their dead relatives? 2. Why did Pokuwaa decide to stop carrying out sacrifices to Tano? Conclusion (20 minutes) Step 7: The teacher gives students notes on the elements of prose discussed. Step 8: The teacher retells the plot of the text. 190 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 9 Socratic Seminar Discussion Partner Evaluation Sheet Name of person you are observing: _____________________________________ Your name _________________________________________________________ Seminar Topic ___________________________________Date________________ 1) Tick each time your partner contributed in a meaningful way: ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 2) On a scale of 1-5, with 5 being the highest, how well did your partner do at the following? Analysis and Reasoning Did your partner…. Cite reasons and evidence for his/her statements with support from the text? Demonstrate that they had given thoughtful consideration to the topic? Provide relevant and insightful comments? Demonstrate organized thinking? Move the discussion to a deeper level? Notes/Comments: Discussion Skills Did your partner… Speak loudly and clearly? Stay on topic? Talk directly to other students rather than the teacher? Stay focused on the discussion? Invite other people into the discussion? Share air time equally with others (didn‟t talk more than was fair to others)? Notes/Comments Civility Did your partner… Listen to others respectfully? Enter the discussion in a polite manner? 191 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Avoid inappropriate language (slang, swearing)? Avoid hostile exchanges? Question others in a civil manner? Notes/Comments: 192 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 10 Socratic Seminar Note Taking Guide Seminar Text: _______________________________________________________ Date: ______________________________________________________________ 1. What did you observe about how the discussants used the text during the seminar? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. What was the most interesting question posed by a discussant during the seminar? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 3. What question would you like to ask the discussants about the seminar? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 4. Did the discussants demonstrate deep knowledge of the text? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 193 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. Did anyone dominate the discussion? How did the discussants handle this? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 6. At what point did the seminar lapse into debate rather than discussion/dialogue? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 7. What would I like to do differently as a discussant the next time I am in a seminar? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 194 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 11 STORY MAPPING SHEET Text: ……………………………… Episode: ………………………………… SETTING INITIATING EVENT REACTION INTERNAL RESPONSE CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT 195 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 12 Story Grammar for The old Man and the Sea SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Santiago and Manolin in Santiago has fished for 84 Santiago was hopeful. S antiago‟s shack days without a catch and the other fishermen teased him. EPISODE 1 From Santiago’s return th from the 84 consecutive days without a catch to his dream of lions on the beach REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Santiago was optimistic and Santiago set out for a Santiago decided to go confident that he would fishing expedition before far out in the sea on the m ake it. th sunrise. 85 day 196 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Santiago at sea Santiago hooked a big Santiago could not do fish. Instead of coming anything about the up, the fish kept situation. He was afraid the swimming out to sea. line might cut if he tried to restrain the fish. EPISODE 2 From Santiago sailing out of port to his promise to kill the fish before the day ends REAC TION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Santiago wished the boy The fish towed Santiago Santiago decided not to were with him. far out into the sea. pull the line but to hold on as the fish towed the boat. 197 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Santiago at sea It is the second day since Santiago believed he needs Santiago hooked the confidence and marlin. His food has perseverance in order to kill finished and he was tied the fish. and weak. EPISODE 3 From Santiago’s encounter with the weary warbler (bird) to his decision to rest after contemplating the night sky REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT S antiago was sure he would Santiago became Santiago gave himself kill the fish no matter how courageous. confidence by recalling long it stayed in the water. the arm-wrestling he played and won in Casablanca 198 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Santiago at sea on the Santiago finally killed the Santiago was happy and third day fish on the third day. He eager to go home to show could not carry the fish off his big catch. into his boat all alone because of its great size. EPISODE 4 From the marlin waking Santiago by jerking the line to Santiago’s return to his shack REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Blood from the marlin Santiago is depressed and attract sharks. They Santiago ties the marlin feels defeated. devoured the marlin to his boat so that they leaving only the skeleton. would sail together. 199 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Story Grammar for A Woman in her Prime SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Pokuwaa and some It is the appointed day for Pokuwaa is afraid that her children in Brenhoma sacrifice to Tano. failure to perform this Pokuwaa is running late sacrifice will seal her fate and the black hen she as a barren woman. proposes to sacrifice has escaped. EPISODE 1 Chapters 1, 2 and 3 REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Pokuwaa saw the sacrifice Pokuwaa found the hen Pokuwaa enlisted the as one of the many fruitless about to be swallowed by help of some children sacrifices she has made a snake. She rescued the playing in a lane and before. hen and performed the went to look for the sacrifice. missing hen. 200 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Pokuwaa, Tano priest in At the last sacrifice, Pokuwaa is worried that Tano‟s shrine Pokuwaa was told that if purification and sacrifices she did the things may never cease in her life. requested of her, she would not have to wait for more than 3 months for a child. Six months after she has not seen any result. EPISODE 2 Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Pokuwaa was certain Tano priest blamed Pokuwaa went to Tano nothing would go wong Pokuwaa for the failure priest to find out what again and she would get of the sacrifices. He went wrong. result. provided ridiculous solutions. 201 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Pokuwaa, her mother and Pokuwaa went to her Pokuwaa was scared she Kwadwo in Brenhoma farm to get some would have to answer foodstuffs. She found a unending questions if she dead body in her farm and broke the news. she was terrified. EPISODE 3 Chapters 8, 9 and 10 REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Pokuwaa lived with It took men of Brenhoma Pokuwaa and her mother memories of that incident more than a whole day to did not tell anybody for a long time. find the dead body. about it. 202 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SETTING INITIATING EVENT INTERNAL RESPONSE Pokuwaa in Brenhoma After going through a Pokuwaa concluded that broad range of sacrifices God is the only giver of to Tano, Pokuwaa did not children and not Tano. She get a child. decided to wait for God‟s time. EPISODE 4 Chapters 11, 12, 13 and 14 REACTION CONSEQUENCE ATTEMPT Pokuwaa was fully Within a few months, Pokuwaa stopped convinced her pregnancy Pokuwaa became making sacrifices to was from God contrary to pregnant. Tano and rejected all the Kwadwo‟s and her pleas from her mother mother‟s belief that it was and husband to continue Tano. the sacrifices. 203 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY