 
IRONY AND THE IRONIC IN SELECTED YORÙBÁ 
TRAGIC PLAYS 
  
 
 
 
 
FÚNMILÓḶ́ Á, MORÉṆ́ IKÉ ̣́ FÁKÉỴ́ Ẹ, 
MATRIC NO: 108719 
B.A Yorùbá (IFÈ )̣́  M.A.Yorùbá (ÌBÀDÀN) 
 
 
 
A Thesis in the Department of Linguistics and African Languages 
Submitted to the Faculty of Arts 
In Partial Fufilment of the Requirements for the Degree of 
 
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
of the 
 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN 
 
IBADAN 
 
 
JULY, 2014 
  
  
i 
 
 
CERTIFICATION 
 This is to certify that this research work was carried out by Fúnmilóḷ́ á 
Moréṇ́ ikéF̣́ ákéỵ́ ẹ under my supervision and guidance in the Department of Linguistics 
and African Languages, University of Ibadan. Ibadan. 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
…………………………                     …………………………........ 
Date Prof. M.O.Adésọlá Ọlátéj̣́ ú (JP) 
    B.A; M.A;M.Phil;Ph.D(Ìbàdàn) 
    Department of Linguistics and 
    African Languages,  
    Faculty of Arts, 
University of Ìbàdàn,  
Ibadan, Nigeria. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ii 
 
 
 
 
DEDICATION 
 
This thesis is dedicated 
 to God, the father, the Almighty who makes all things beautiful, in my life, in 
his time; to Jesus Christ, my Redeemer and to The Holy Spirit:my friend, my guide 
andmy faithful companion. 
To the glory of His name 
 For the great things He has done in my life. As I see the little lily growing out 
of the mighty thorns, I marvel at the wisdom of my God. That I can go this far is the 
Lord‟s doing. His name is praised forever and ever.  
 I give all adoration to His holy name for His mercy endures for ever.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
iii 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 I give thanks to God, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who in His mercy 
and grace sustained me through the course of this work, despite all odds. In His 
faithfulness, He made sure that His purpose and all His promises concerning this 
study came to pass. I declare my love for Him now and always. 
 I express my unquantifiable appreciation to my articulate and indefatigable 
supervisor, Prof. M.O.Adéṣó ḷ́ á Ọlátéj̣́ú (JP), who has been nurturing me in this field 
ofstylistics, and who patiently and carefully guided me through this thesis. His 
frankness, down-to earth advice and guidancemake this work a reality. I am very 
grateful. 
 I owe a great debt of gratitude to the lecturers in the Department of Linguistics 
and African Languages, University of Ibadan, who have imparted my life positively in 
the course of this programme, Prof. P.A Ò gúndèjì and Prof . D.A Adé lékèfor their 
assistance by making their valuable materials available for me.My profound gratitude 
goesto Prof. (Mrs)A.G Adé jùmò,̣́  the current Head of Department, Linguistics and 
African Languages,for her encouragement and assistance. I also cherish the ever 
ready concern, assistance and the prayers of Rev.Dr and Mrs Olújìnmi ́ for me 
throughout this programme. I also appreciate the Sub Dean (postgraduate), Faculty of 
Arts, Dr. Akin Odebunmi. Dr.Taiwo, Dr. Fádọrò ,̣́  Dr. Sunday for their wonderful 
input in diverse ways in relation to this programme. I am very grateful to Mr Moses 
Mábayòj̣́ é ̣́for his  counsel, assistance, and provision of technical materialsthat hasten 
the progress and the completion of this work.  
 Many people have allowed themselves to be used by God as helpers of my 
destiny,to assist me in the course of this programme, Pastor Yeṃ́ i ́ Adéòti , (Rhema 
Chapel) for his encouragement and consistent prayers .Mrs À lùkò and Mrs 
Oládùntóyè, (mothers indeed),Pastor Ọ́ láolúwa, Pastor Tó miníyì, Mr and Mrs 
Ọlánipèḳ́ un, a family whose support is indescribable, Mr and Mrs Adékoḷ́ á , my 
former principal with a kindred spirit,Mrs Làmídì, my big auntie, who always believe 
in my vision despite all odds,  Dr and Mrs Adélóḍ́ ún of the Department of Special 
Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, a caring family with a special 
touch, Revd and Mrs Adágbádá of Immanuel College of Theology ,Mr Bode Fákéỵ́ e ̣́, 
my unique elder brother,and Mr and Mrs Adéwóḷ́ é , I appreciate you all for your 
encouragement and  ceaseless prayers in my troubled moment.   
iv 
 
 
 I appreciate Mr Adéyeṃ́ i Babajide, a special brother who filled my Jamb form 
in those days, my amiable auntie, my Yorùbá Teacher in Oluyole Estate Grammar 
School, Ring Road,Ibadan; you have indeed been my role model.  
 I cannot forget the following lecturers, who taught me during my 
undergraduate days, Prof. Akíntúndé Aḱinyẹmí, Dr. Ayọ Ò ṕ̣ èf̣́ èyítìmí , Prof.L.O 
Adewole, Prof. Akínwùmí Ìṣòlá, Prof. Olabiyi Yai,Dr (Mrs) Sheba and Alàgbà 
Abódúndé of blessed memory.I thank you all for your positive impact on me right 
from the time I was under your tutelage as an undergraduate. 
 A list of friends, who have helped, supported, and encouraged me all the way: 
Mrs O .J Ọ́ láńrewájú, Miss Bù nmi Olú bọrọdè, Dr.Yẹmi Adégbóḷ́ àgún , friends 
indeed,Mrand Mrs Akíntó ḷ́ á (Rhema Chapel), Mr Shittu, a helpful colleagueand Mr 
Thomas Ajileỵ́ e.̣́ 
 My special appreciation goes to my academic companions in this Ph.D 
programme. These include Mr C Akangbe, Mr C Odoje, Dr (Mrs) Bóḷ́ árìnwá, Dr S.O 
Àkànmú, Dr (Mrs) Òjó, Dr. (Mrs) Oyekan, Dr. (Mrs) Aderibigbe, Dr, (Mrs) Olútúndé, 
Mr A.O Adésànyà,Mrs O.J Oḷ́ áńrewájú , Mr Olúwátúsì and  Mrs Fáléỵ́ e .̣́ I am grateful 
to you all . I also thank Miss Olú watósìn Ọ́lánipèḳ́ un for her support at home in the 
course of this programme, you have been a blessing. I thank Auntie Yéṃ́ isi ,Auntie 
Tèmísayò ạ́ nd Auntie Dásóḷ́ á , for patiently typed this work. God bless you. I am very 
grateful to my brothers and sisters in Rhema Chapel, Bodija, Ìbàdàn, for their 
wonderful spiritual support and encouragement at all times. 
 I am seizing this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to my late 
parentsMr. Ganiyu Fákéỵ́ e ̣́ and Mrs . Adéọlá Fákéỵ́ ẹ  for laying a good solid 
foundation,early in life thatcharter my coursein life.I remember you, specially,my 
mother, you were there at the beginning but you were not there to witness the 
completion. You have tried your best in my academic pursuit since my undergraduate 
days, you so much believed in the sound education of a girl child andyou have indeed 
followed your vision to a logical conclusion. Òṛ́ un re o. 
 I cannot but appreciate the invaluable contribution of my loving and understanding 
hub, Ben, whose prayers, support, understanding and words of encouragement serve 
as lubricants to me in the course of this programme. Thanks a lot. 
Once again, I thank you Lord, you are worthy for counting me fit to achieve this feat 
in life. Great is your faithfulness to me.To all who contributed towards making my 
dream a reality, I say thank you and God bless. 
v 
 
 
 
Funmi. M. Fáke ỵ́ ẹ 
      2014  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Page  
Title page i 
vi 
 
 
Certification        ii 
Dedication          iii 
Acknowledgements         iv 
Table of contents         v 
List of tables          vi 
List of figures          vii 
Abbreviations used in the study       viii 
Abstract          ix 
CHAPTER ONE:   GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the Study       1 
1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study      1 
1.3 Scope of the study        2 
1.4       The Origin and Nature of Irony      3 
1.5       Operational Definitions of Terms      12 
1.5.1   Irony          12 
1.5.2    Ironic          14 
1.5.3    Drama          15 
1.6Types of Irony         16 
1‟6.1    Verbal Irony         17 
1.6.2    Tragic Irony or Dramatic Irony      18 
1.6.3    Irony of Fate         19 
1.6.4    Irony of Character        20 
1.6.5     Comic Irony         21 
1.7Basic Features of Irony       22 
1.7.1     Irony as Contrast between Reality and Appearance    22 
1.7.2     Irony as Intended and Deliberate Action/ Activity    23 
1.7.3    Irony as Pretence and Deception      24 
1.7.4    Irony as Secret Communion       26 
1.8 Irony and its Allied tropes         27 
1.8.1   Irony and Metaphor        27 
1.8.2   Irony and Euphemism       29 
1.9 Tragedy and the Tragic plays: Yorùbá  World-view                   31 
1.10The  Synopses of the Plays       33 
Ààrẹ-Àgò Aríkúyẹrí  
vii 
 
 
Ìdáámù Páàdì Minkailu  
Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà 
Rẹ́́re ̣́ Rún 
Notes  to chapter one        39 
 
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE 
2.1 Introduction         40 
2.2 Review of Relevant Literature       40 
2.3Conclusion         45 
Notes to chapter two        46  
CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL APPROACH:  ROLAND BARTHES’ 
THEORY OF SEMIOLOGY 
3.1  Introduction         47 
3.2     Problems of Literary Interpretation      47 
3.3 Why Roland Barthes Semiology?     49 
3.4   Historical Development of Roland Barthes‟s Semiological Theory  51 
3.5     Concepts and Terminologies Associated with Roland Barthe‟s 
Theory ofSemiology        52 
3.6   Sign          52 
3.7Signifier and Signified         54 
3.7.1 Signifier          54 
3.7.2 Signified        
 553.8Signification        
 56 
3.9Denotation and Connotation.       57 
3.9.1  Denotation         58 
3.9.2Connotation         59 
3.10TheComponents of the Semiotic Triangles     60 
3.11 Factors involved in the Interpretation of Irony and the Ironic: 
The Yorùbá Contexts                                                   64 
3.11.1Philosophical Context       66 
3.11.2 Historical, Political and Cultural Contexts     66 
 3.11.3Conclusion         70
 Notes to chapter three        71 
CHAPTER FOUR: IRONY AND THE IRONIC IN SELECTEDYORÙBÁ  
TRAGIC PLAYS 
viii 
 
 
4.1   Introduction          72 
4.2   Verbal Irony         73 
4.3   Dramatic/Tragic Irony                                                78 
4.4   Irony of Fate         91 
4.5   Irony of Character        98 
4.6   Comic Irony         109 
4.7   Conclusion          119 
Notes to chapter four        120 
  
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
5.1    Introduction         121 
5.2Summary         121 
5.3Findings          122 
5.4    Contribution to Knowledge       123 
REFERENCES         125 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                        LIST OF TABLES 
 Table 3.1 Table showing the factors involved in the interpretation of the 
ix 
 
 
Irony and the ironic as distributed among the texts chosen  
for the study.65  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIST OF FIGURES                                                                
Figure      3.1       The signification process                                                                 57 
x 
 
 
Figure      3.2       Theelements of denotation and connotation58 
Figure      3.3       TheSemiotic Triangle  60 
Figure    3. 4  The combination of Semiotic Signifier and signified 
 with the Barthes‟ Elements of semiology                                      61 
Figure      3. 5      The Semiotic Triangle with examples of irony                              63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  
1.Ààrè-̣ÀgòAríkúye̩rí) as Ààrè-̣Àgò 
xi 
 
 
 
2.Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù) asÌdààmú Páàdì 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ABSTRACT 
 
xii 
 
 
Irony and the ironic , which are prominent features of Yorùbá tragic plays , are stylo-
situational elements used to draw attention to the gap between the speaking position, 
the posited truth and actions. Previous studies on the use of stylistic devices in Yorùbá́ 
literature have examined simile, metaphor, repetition and euphemism, but have not 
given adequate attention to ironic elements in Yorùbá́tragic plays . This study, 
therefore, examined the types of irony and the ironic, and their contexts of usage. The 
aim is to establish their stylistic significance and their communicative functions in the 
plays. 
 
The study adopted Roland Barthes‟ Semiological theory. Four Yorùbá written plays 
were purposively selected because they have a high concentration of ironic elements 
that depict tragic situations. They were Láwuyi ̀ Ògúnníran‟s Ààrè-̣Àgò (Aríkúye̩rí), 
Akínwùmí Ìsò̩lá‟s E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà, Adébáyò̩ Fálétì‟s Ìdààmú Páàdì (Mínkáílù),and 
O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún . The data were subjected to semantic and semiotic 
analyses. 
 
Five types of irony are found in the texts, namely, verbal irony, dramatic/tragic irony, 
irony of fate, irony of character and comic irony. The ironic covers situations 
(dilemma, bareness, extremism, frustration, deception and death) and actions 
(wrestling, wickedness, vengeance, greediness, treachery, hypocrisy, bribery, 
conspiracy, malady and role change) that lead to tragedy. Verbal irony, 
dramatic/tragic irony, irony of fate and the ironic are identified in all the texts. Irony 
of character is found only in Ààrè-̣Àgò, Ìdààmú Páàdì and Ré̩ré̩ Rún whilecomic irony 
is found only in Ààrè-̣Àgò and Ìdààmú Páàdì . Four types of contexts are identified: 
political (achieved with dramatic irony showing vengeance, escapism, malady and 
death; verbal irony showing conspiracy and deception; Irony of character showing 
treachery, bribery, extremism and escapism),historical (achieved with irony of 
character showing conspiracy and escapism ;irony of fate showing frustration, 
dilemma and death), philosophical (achieved with irony of fate showing dilemma, 
bareness, malady and death; irony of character showing frustration and 
vengeance)and cultural (achieved with verbal irony showing pretence; comic irony 
showing wrestling and role change). All the four occur in three texts (Ààrè-̣Àgò, 
Ìdààmú Páàdì and Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà) while only three (political, philosophical and 
cultural) occur in Ré̩ré̩ Rún . These ironic elements achieve four stylistic functions: 
defencemechanism, pre-destination cues, counter dogmatism and protest mechanism. 
At varying degrees is Ààrè-̣Àgò and Ìdààmú Páàdi , comical effects with ironic twists 
climaxing at the point of incongruity occur in the political, cultural and historical 
contexts; only ironic effects with satirical cues are found in Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà. The 
irony and the ironic elements are connected with three broad tragic themes, namely, 
death (all the texts), escapism (Ààrè-̣Àgò) and malady (Ré̩ré̩ Rún) which contribute to 
their stylistic function in the plays. 
 
Irony and the ironic elements, with differing manifestations , occur in historical , 
philosophical, political and cultural contexts , and perform theme and effect -based 
stylistic functions in Yorùbá tragic plays . These elements , thus, enhance the readers‟ 
understanding of the Yorùbá concept of tragedy as evident in the plays. 
 
Key words: Irony, Ironic situations, Yorùbá Tragic plays, Literary Context. 
Word count: 484 
CHAPTER ONE 
xiii 
 
 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the study 
There has been an increasing concern of scholars over the past 150 years on 
irony as a stylistic device . In relation to Yorùbá studies , however, investigation of 
irony is still in its infancy, especially in drama. Therefore, this study is significant, in 
that it unearths the use of irony as one of the pungent resources of language in 
selected Yorùbá tragic plays. Although complex in nature, irony and the ironic 
constitute an important device in both literary and routine communication.  
In the Yorùbá culture, people feel that one does not say it all;hence, they say, 
do not be an „alásó̩tan òṛ́ ò‟̣́  (a person who “says it all as it is).  Among the Yorùbá, 
people often communicate with one another using irony and the ironic̀ a great deal , 
they do not say all they intend to say, and sometimes, they choose the variant of the 
actual word they mean to say and leave their decoder to work out the meaning from 
the context. The Yorùbá believe that a word is enough for the wise and that their 
listener who operates within the same contextual background should be able to grasp 
the actual word or decode the message they want to pass across.  This is why they 
choose the word or sentence that is mild on the surface but has deeper underneath 
meaning. This manner of communication reflects conspicuously in Yorùbá drama 
texts, especially tragic plays. It is, therefore, important to investigate the use of irony 
and the ironic in their different forms if the structure and nature of Yorùbá tragic 
plays will be properly understood. 
This study examines irony and the allied tropes as powerful weapon in the 
hands of selected Yorùbá playwrights , O̩ládejo̩ Òkèdijì , Akínwùmí Ìs̩ò̩lá , Láwuyì 
Ògúnniran and Adébáyò̩ Fálétí , who use irony to strengthen and embellish their 
writings to achieve different dramatic, tragic and stylistic effects, contributing to the 
reader‟s delight in contrasting the appearance with the reality in the course of reading 
the Yorùbá drama texts. 
  
1.2Aims and Objectives of the Study 
In their different scopes, forms and functions; metaphor, simile, parallelism, 
lexical matching, personification, euphemism and so on are essential in literary works 
and have attracted the attention of a great deal of scholars. However, irony and the 
ironic have not attracted much schorlarly attention in Yorùbá studies . This study, 
xiv 
 
 
therefore, focused on irony and the ironic as stylistic devices, motivated by their 
complexity of nature, semantic ambiguity and perculiarity to drama.   
The objective of the study was first, to trace the origin and nature of irony 
andironic from the Western perspective down to the Yorùbá perspective as it reflects 
in Yorùbá written tragic plays. Another objective was to examine the different types 
of irony based on the way they are exhibited in the selected tragic plays, and their 
features in relation to their allied tropes. The third objective was to highlight the 
stylistic significance of irony and the ironicand establish the communicative functions 
in the selected tragic plays. The fourth objective was to highlight the factors involved 
in the semantic interpretations of irony and the ironic from cultural, political, 
historical and philosophical contexts.   
In order to achieve the above objectives, Roland Barthes‟ semiological theory 
was adopted as the theoretical framework. This was to facilitate correct and 
acceptable interpretation of irony and the ironic through denotation and connotation, 
since irony is recognised as a sign standing for a particular signified within a given 
context.     
 
1.3 Scope of the Study 
Irony and the ironic in the Yorùbá tragic plays is the focus of this work. There 
are examples of what is commonly called irony in novels, poems, short stories and 
narrative verses, the movie and even in life situations.  In this work, however, focus is 
on the study of irony and the ironic as stylistic devices in the tragic plays of selected 
Yorùbá playwrights. This was to unravel the „secret communion‟, which is the basis 
of irony in drama, between the authors and the readers.  
There are numerous Yorùbá drama texts in circulation but for proper and 
effective handling and for accurate analysis and because of the perculiarity of irony 
and the ironic to tragic plays, this study was limited to four selected Yorùbá writers 
whose works have a high occurrence of irony and the ironic. The selected works 
areE̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà  (1970) by Akiń wùmí Ìsò̩̣́ lá; ÌdààmúPáàdì Mínkáílù (1972) by 
Adébáyò̩ Fálétí ;Réré̩ Rún  (1973) by O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédij̀ í ; andÀàrè ̣Àgo  Aríkúye̩rí (1977) 
by Láwuyì Ògúnníran .Our choice of the texts was dictated by the fact that the authors 
are accomplished and foremost Yorùbá writers whose literary works are well known . 
They reflect different spheres of Yorùbá culture , history, politics and philosophy, 
xv 
 
 
where there are high concentration of irony and the ironic elements, richly deployed 
for tragic purposes.  
 
1.4The Origin and Nature of Irony 
Etymologically, the word „irony‟ is a Greek word είρωνεία (eironea), meaning 
„feigned ignorance‟, a technique often used by the Greek philosopher, Socrates. This 
Greek wordis derived from the combination of two Greek words: first „tείρων‟              
(eiron) which means „to ask‟ the one who put up questions to an opponent (rhetorical 
question) pretending to be naïve and inferior; and second „έίρεω‟ (eirein), which 
means „to speak‟, „saying‟ or „asking‟.The verb „έίρεω‟ (eirein) also has an extended 
meaning as a verb meaning „to fasten or to string together in rows. It gives a 
description of the character or the ironist as somebody who deliberately arranges a 
series of fact or appearances in order to mislead.It is the combination of these two 
words; „είρων‟ and „έίρεω‟ that form είρωνεία. When this word first appeared in 
Artistophanes‟ and Plato‟s works,they were used as vulgar expression of reproach 
1 
meaning “sly, mocking pretence and deception”.
In the classical Greek, the concept of irony was not really considered so much 
as a mode of speech; but rather seen initially as a mode of behaviour. The central fact 
about the history of irony in Greek use is from the Greek word „eironea‟which 
occurred in the dialogue of Plato (428-347BC) with reference to Socrates. It is from 
that time that irony no longer meant straightforward lying but now an intended 
simulation which the hearer should be able to recognise. From Aristotle‟s perspectives 
(384-322BC) ironyis referred to as understatement and as a mere rhetorical figure. 
Plato and Socrates are also ironists. The Aristotelian concept of irony „was genuinely 
deceptive and self- depreciation but it was the Platonic and Socratic use that became 
definitive for later thought Colebook (2004:6). 
For Socrates, irony is feigning ignorance in order to expose the weakness of 
another opposition. It was referred to as „urbane pretence‟ of Socrates. In other words, 
Socratic irony was used to describe the Attic philosopher‟s way of exposing falsehood 
and a way of getting at the truth; an annoying way of pretending ignorance and 
humbly questioning his interlocutor until the person convicts himself with his own 
mouth. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, only the best educated were 
acquainted with it. According to Thomson (1926), „irony‟ was hardly used in Latin 
and not in use at all in English. As the first half of the seventeenth century progressed, 
xvi 
 
 
irony became a more readily available English word.  It came into English from the 
Latin word ironia, which can also be traced to the Greek origin of eironeia. The Latin 
word was translated into English as yronye.  According to Muecke (1970:16-17), it 
did not appear in English until 1502 and did not come into focus until the early 
eighteenth century. It began to appear in general literary discourse between 1720 and 
1830. In England, like in other European countries, the concept of irony developed at 
a slow pace, except for its use by Cicero and Quintilia. Their presentation of irony as 
a way of treating one‟s opponent in an argument and as a verbal strategy was ignored 
at first and for more than two hundred years, irony was regarded as merely a figure of 
speech. 
 McMurray (1978: 46   ) asserts that:  
much of the irony in the twentieth century literature seems 
to stem out from the erosion of religious faith and the 
rejection of the absolutes based on the tenets of reason.  
 
In the early Greek literature, irony was presented as a term of abuse. Even the early 
Greek sense of irony as cunning, deceit, vulgar, mocking pretence clung to the word, 
in that it sometimes expressed a greater disapprobation than we feel it today.  
Sedgewick (1948:13) avers that“Socratic irony contains the germs of all the newer 
ironies which have so afflicted the literature of the last century”. This implies that 
Socrates was the very beginning of irony. It was in Plato‟s Socratic dialogues that 
irony is referred to as a complex figure of speech and the creation of an enigmatic 
personality. Many nineteenth and twentieth century writers also supported this and 
placed Socrates at the centre of the concept of irony. Colebrook (2004:7) makes this 
remark about Socrates: “His irony, or his capacity not to accept everyday values and 
concept but live in a perpetual question, is the birth of philosophy, ethics, and 
consciousness”. This germ is also noticed in Yorùbá concept of irony when a situation 
occurs in a way that destabilises the established dogma in the community.  
 Muecke (1970:18) notes that the tail end of the eighteenth century and the 
beginning of the nineteenth century recorded different but new meanings for the 
word. The old meanings were not disregarded but they were engrafted into the new 
meaning invented. The contribution of the English classical period was to introduce 
certain classical concepts of irony into the mainstream of English literary culture and 
to develop these older concepts in small ways. It is like a transformation with wider 
scope. Thus,Muecke (1970:7) describes the development of the concept of irony thus: 
xvii 
 
 
from its early stage of development down to this time may 
be likened to „a ship at anchor when both wind and current, 
veritable and constant forces are dragging it slowly from its 
anchorage‟. It changed shape as readily as the old man of 
the sea. 
 
The word irony does not now mean only what it meant in earlier centuries. It 
does not mean in one country all it may stand for in another country. The meaning 
may differ from the one given in the street and what it means in this study. Meaning 
may also change from one scholar to another. In all, the semantic evolution of the 
concept of irony has been haphazard but the main features remain from all angles of its 
evolution. 
In modern English, irony itself is even more complex. It is very recently that 
the word finds its place within the conversational status, together with a certain 
fashionable refinement. For example, we can now hear people say „How ironical!‟ in 
place of „What a coincidence‟. Recently, people began to look at irony as we look at it 
today, as a name, and a method that carries no reproach except in being misused. The 
account of Muecke (1969:7) best summarises the emergence of irony: 
The history of the concept of irony is in rather better shape. 
Otto Ribbeks (1876) in the classical study of eironeia in 
Greek literature of the fifth and fourth centuries; G. G. 
Sedgewick‟s Harvard dissertation of 1913 traced the 
history of the word through classical Greek and Latin to 
Medieval Latin. Norman Knox, in his book The Word Irony 
and its context 1500-1755 (1961) carried the history of the 
semantic development of the English word from its first 
appearance down to the date of Dr. Johnson‟s dictionary… 
In 1755, the concept of irony in other European countries 
had not become significantly more complex than it had in 
England. It was however, after 1755 that the word „irony‟ 
began to take on several quite new meaning, though less 
rapidly in England and France than in Germany 
 
 From the Yorùbá perspective, irony is called È̩dà ò̩rò̩  which literally means 
the variant of a word. There is also an irony in the form of teasing which the Yorùbá 
call „ẹ̀gọ́‟.It is a statement made by someone to another person but without expecting 
the action to be carried out by the addressee. For example, inÀàrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí, Ò̀ ̀ ḅ́ ọ 
Lágídò is a servant to Ògúnrinde Ajé , a warlord, who has three wives. One of the 
wives, his favourite(Fátóḷ́ á), is accused of poisoning the children of the other wife 
which results into their death.Ògúnrinde Ajé  could not hold his anger; he 
xviii 
 
 
killsFátóḷ́ áimmediately he hears that all the children have died. It is in reference to the 
killing ofFátóḷ́ á thatÒ ḅ́ ọ Lágídò complains and asks why the penalty for Fátóḷ́ á 
supposed offence should be death , when Ògúnrinde Ajé knows quite well that he 
(Ò̀ ̀ ḅ́ ọ Lágídò) his servant, could not afford to have a wife, even one, Ògúnrinde Ajé  
has three and could still afford to kill one. He opines that if Ògúnrinde Ajé  feels that 
he no longer wants Fátóḷ́ á as wife then he should have given her to him as a wife since 
he has none. Ààrè ̣Àgò (pg 34). It is an irony as teasing , for humorous purpose 
because, in the real sense of the situation , Ò̀ ̀ ḅ́ ọ Lágídò cannot and should not even ask 
for the wife of his master to be given to him and he would not have accepted Fátóḷ́ á if 
she was given to him as a wife but now he is asking for her after she has died. Irony 
and the ironic, as Muecke (1970:69) notes, „is not just something that happens; it is 
something that is at least picturable as happening‟ 
 Irony and the ironic can also be traced down to Ifá oracle among the Yorùbá 
people of south western Nigeria. It is found in Odù Ifá Ò̩wó̩nrín Orógbè, which is also 
known as Ò̩wó̩nrín Asányiǹ . In the olden days , there was a man called Asán yìn, who 
was known for the use of irony and ironic elements virtually in all his 
communications. He was so fond of speaking in irony that he never learnt his lessons 
until he lost his two sons to fire and drowning incidents .  Asányìn was going out and 
he gave instruction to his first son like this: 
Asányìn:  S̩é o rí, bí mo bá sì ti lo̩ tán 
                Ṣe ni kí o tiná bo̩lé 
Kó o mó ̣̣́́ sì mo̩ bó ó s̩e bóọ́́ ṭ́ a, s̩ó o gbó̩? 
  
           Asányìn:    Look, after I‟ve gone 
                Just put the house on fire 
                And refuse to find your way out.  
 
His son could not decode what his father told him, thought his father meant that he 
should set the house on fire and must not go out of the house even when the house is 
burning. In another incident, he told his son who was going to the stream to fetch 
water thus: 
 
xix 
 
 
Asányìn:  Lo̩ odò, 
Bóo bá sì ti dódò 
Má wulè̩ po̩nmi létí odò 
Àárín odò gan-an ni kóo ti lo̩ o̩ po̩nmi 
Torí mo mo̩ irú èèyàn tó o jé̩. 
  
          Asányìn:  Go to the stream, 
And when you get to the stream, 
Don‟t just fetch at the river bank, just go to the middle  
of the river to fetch, for I know you are so stubborn. 
 
When his son got to the river, he went straight into the middle of the river with the 
mind of fetching the water according to the description but unfortunately the boy got 
drowned in the river. This is why people say: 
Òṛ́ ò̩ ò dùn ìpín Asányìn , o̩mo̩ kan jóná mó̩lé , ó tún lo è̩dà 
ò̩rò̩ fún ìkejì, ó bódò lo̩‟,  
 
So thoughtless is Asányìn‟s destiny who through irony lost 
one son to fire and still used irony for the other one who 
got drowned in the river. 
 
After the two sorrowful incidents , Asányìn took counsel and went to consult 
his diviner. Odù Ò̩wó̩́nrín Orógbè was related to him thus: 
 Asányìn òdùdù gbe̩re̩dù 
 Kò̩ǹkò̩sò̩ báa s̩e ń s̩e ó̩ tó 
 O tún ń kùlùbó̩ 
 Ìwo̩ Asányìn, e̩ni a wí fún o̩ba jé̩ ó gbó̩ 
 Iwo̩ Asányin, e̩ni a sò̩rò̩ fun o̩ba jé̩ ó gbà 
 E̩ni a kìlò̩ fún, Ò̩rúnmìlà jé̩ ó gbà 
 À wífún ì fé̩ 
 Àfò̩fún ì gbà 
 Níí mú kélétí ikún, ó ko̩wó̩ “há à” bó̩nù. 
 Ó ní kínni ki ́ òun ó rú lé̩bo̩ 
 Wó̩n ní e̩bo̩ e̩nu ni kó rú 
 Wó̩n ní kó bo̩ olúbò̩bò̩tiribò̩ baba e̩bo̩ 
 E̩nu ní ń kó ó bá a  
 Wó̩n ní kó wá ò̩gè̩dè̩ 
 Kó rú obì 
 Kó sì rú oríjìn (ewé ifá) 
 Nígbà tó gbó̩ rírú e̩bo̩ tó rú tán 
 E̩bó̩ rú, e̩bó̩ gbà 
 Ni ò bá sò̩dàkejì ò̩rò̩ mó̩ 
 Ni gbogbo o̩mo̩ bá ń dúró fún ún 
  Ó bá n yin àwò̩n awo re̩ 
 Àwo̩n awo rè̩ ní kó máa yin Olódùmarè 
Ni wó̩n bá fi orin awo sí i lé̩nu 
L‟oun náà ba yanu kótó 
xx 
 
 
Ní orin awo bá kó sí i lé̩nu ikóró ikóró 
Ló ń wí pé; 
 
Orin: E̩nu le̩bo̩ o 2x 
A kìí jò̩gè̩dè̩ 
Kó wuni lè̩èkè̩ o 
 
E̩nu le̩bo̩2
  
 
 
Asányin òdùdù gbe̩re̩dù
Sieve, as we are treating you, 
You are still sieving yam flour 
You, Asányin,  may the king allow him that is warned to listen  
You, Asányìn   may the king allow the person that is instructed to  
harken 
May Ò̩rúnmìlà allow the person that is warned to harken 
Being warned and refusing to harken 
Being instructed and refusing to obey. 
Made a disobedient person regret his action 
He asked what to offer as sacrificial offering 
They said he should offer sacrifice to the mouth 
The greatest of all sacrifices 
He‟s being affected by mouth 
They said he should prepare banana 
He should offer kolanut 
And he should offer Ifá leaf (oríjìn) 
When he obediently offered sacrifice 
The sacrifice was accepted 
He ceased talking ironically  
And his children were no more dying 
He was praising his priests 
And his priests said he should be praising Olódùmarè 
He was full of praise songs for his priests 
He also opened his mouth widely 
The song of his priests filled his mouth 
He was saying; 
 
                        Song:  Mouth is indeed the sacrifice  2x  
           We cannot eat bananna 
             And have a swollen cheek 
                                   Its all about what proceeds from our mouth. 
 
At last, things changed for the better for Asányiǹ  when he minimised the use 
of irony and the ironic in his conversations. The important point to note is that 
excessive use of irony and the ironic could lead to problems and danger . Ifa priests 
usually refer to the Odù Ò̩wó̩nriń  Orógbè as Ò̩wó̩nriń  Asányiǹ  in order to remember 
the man with his use of irony. 
xxi 
 
 
 There is another version of this Odù called Ògúndá Borógbè that was 
performed for a man called Olúsékétewére who was also known for his use of irony 
and the ironic . This means that we can make reference to two Odù in the Yorùbá Ifá 
oracle with regard to the concept of irony and the ironic. It goes thus: 
Èḍ́ à ǹ dà dèdè è̩gó̩ 
Eyi tí mo rí yìí, ìwo ̣́ ò ri 
Èyí tí o rí yìí, emi ò ri i 
A díá fún Òṛ́ únmìlà 
Ifá ń lo ̣́ rè é sánko méjì lágbàlá 
Èyí ti mo rí yìí, o ò ri i 
3
Èyí tí o rí yìí, èmi ò ri i  
 
The subtle word is the opposite 
What I see, you see not 
What you see, I see not 
Ifá divination wasperformed forO̩runmila, 
Ifá (O̩runmila), going to clear the two farmlands at the backyard 
What I see, you see not 
What you see, I see not 
 
The aboveIfá verse explains the nature and form of irony as a double-edged sword 
wherein the underlying or the unspoken word is so important in the quest for the 
actual meaning of the surface expression in the spoken and the written forms. This 
means that an expression could be approached from different angles . The Ifá verse 
continues: 
Ò ń gò  ̣́mi 
Ò ń rà mí 
Ògúndá tó borí ète 
Ògúndá tó borí gbogbo iró ̣́
Ògúndá tó borí gbogbo awè 
Ó ní, èḍ̀̀́ à ń dà èǵ̣ ó̩ 
È ḍ́ à ǹ da dèǵ̣ ó̩ èdé 
Èyí tí mo rí, o ò ri  
Èyí tí o rí, èmi ò ri 
A díá fún Olúsekétewére 
Níjó ̣́ tí ń lo ̣́ rè é pàs̩amò ̣́ fún Ifá 
Ifá ní ìwo ̣́Olúsekétewére 
às̩àmò ̣́ tó o fé ̣́pa fún mi yìí 
bó o la á ti sẹ́́  
Òṛ́ únmìlà tún ní 
Nígbà tó ò sòṛ́ ò ̣́ sàn-án 
Tó ò sì jé ̣́ká mo ̣́ ibi tí o ń lo ̣́
Tó wá jé ̣́pé lówe lówe lò ń sòṛ́ ò ̣́
olúsékétewére ni, lédìdà, lédìdà 
béẹ̀́  ̣́ni à n rò ̣́ agogo 
xxii 
 
 
Òṛ́ únmìlà ni: ọ ò ̣́ sòṛ́ ò ̣́ sàn-án, 
Sàn-án làá rìn, ajé níí mú ni pẹkọrọ 
Òṛ́ únmìlà ni: oun náà mo ̣́ bí óun ó sẹ́  rìnrìn òun. 
O ní, bó o ló ó s̩e rìnrìn re̩, ìwo̩ Òṛ́ únmìlà, 
Òṛ́ únmìlà ni, tó ̣́ o ̣́ bá ń lo,̣́  
mó  ̣́ gba òde ikú kọjá o, ṣùgbóṇ́  kó o gbìyànjú, 
kó ò je ̣́ìyá ikú ní gbèsè eǵ̣ bèṭ́à owó oṭ́ í 
Bo bá wá wù ó ̣́
O le gbòde ikú koj̣́ á nígbà náà 
Ó ní òhun tí ìwo ̣́ òṛ́ únmìlà n dóǵ̣ bóṇ́  so ̣́ fún òun ni pé, 
kí òun ò lo ̣́ rè é rí ìyá ikú fín 
kí òun tún wá mó-̣́ ọn-mò ̣́ kọjá lójúde ikú 
Èdà ǹ dà dèǵ̣ ó̩ 
Èḍ́ à ǹ dèǵ̣ ó̩ èdè 
Èyí tí mo rí, ìwo ̣́ ò ri 
4 
Èyí tó o rí, èmi ò rí
 
You are fooling me 
You are tricking me 
Ògúndá that surpasses tricks 
Ògúndá that surpasses all lies 
Ògúndá that surpasses all deceits 
 
He said, the opposite is the subtle word 
The subtle word is the opposite 
What I see, you see not 
What you see, I see not 
 
Ifá divination was performed for Olúsékétewére 
On the day he wanted to pose a riddle to Ifá 
Ifá said: „You Olúsekétewére 
The riddle you want to pose 
How do we explain it?‟ 
Ò̩rúnmìlà asked again: „When you do not make a clear utterance 
And we know not what exactly you want to say 
Your utterances are proverbial‟ 
Olúsekétewére then replied, 
„It is indirectly that we mold the bell‟ 
 
Ò̩rúnmìlà remarked again: 
„Your utterance is still subtle 
One walks, following a straight path, 
Only indebtedness forces one to take the jungle‟. 
Ò̩̀rúnmìlà said he knew how to handle his own situation 
„How will you handle your situation?‟ he asked Òṛ́ únmìlà 
Òṛ́ únmìlà answered, „As you are going, 
Pass not the front of Death‟s house 
But endeavour to owe death‟s mother 
A sum of ₦1,200 for purchase of alcohol 
Then if it pleases you, 
xxiii 
 
 
Pass through the front of Death‟s house 
Olúsekétewére responded: 
What you are telling me in essence 
Is to be impudent to Death‟s mother 
Then foolishly pass by death‟s house‟ 
The opposite is the subtle word 
The subtle word is the opposite 
What I saw, you saw not 
What you saw, I saw not 
 
The story in the aboveIfá verse sheds more light on the fact that irony and the ironic 
language are as old even as the Yorùbá language itself. It is indeed the opposite of the 
truth and the example above really presents the nature of irony and the ironic. The 
instruction of Òṛ́ únmìlà to Olúsé kétewére was notconveyed in a straight manner. 
Decoding of the message lies on the hearer. Ironyand the ironic, therefore, are 
pretence tending towards the other side of the truth.  Among the Yorùbá we often hear 
expressions such as: 
5
Ilè ̣́tutù  - The ground is cold  
when in actual fact the ground is hot because of the hot weather 
Owó po ̣́ lóẉ́ ó ̣́ ò ̣́mi - I have money in abundance 
when what one really intends saying is I am broke, I have no money 
 Irony can also be said to have both philosophical and religious undertones. 
For instance, it has become part of the Yorùbá world view to say 
 “Àwa púpò ̣́ la wà nile”-We are many in the house   
  when in actual fact the speaker is the only one at home and he is lonely 
This is because Yorùbá believes in family and solitary life is totally condemnedwithin 
the Yorùbá community. This belief also stems from the religious belief that it is wrong 
to confess negative expression or things to oneself as Murray (1978:46) aversthat: 
„much of the irony in twentieth century seems to stem from the erosion of religious 
faith and the rejection of the absolutes based on the tenets of reason.‟ Examples such 
as the above illustrate that negative confessions are not good and that there are 
cultural and contextual backgrounds for these. Wardaugh (1986:21) rightly observes 
that: 
The culture of a people finds reflection in the language they 
employ, this is because they value certain things and do 
them in certain ways, they come to use their language in 
ways that reflect what they value and what they do 
 
xxiv 
 
 
 From the above explanations, we can conclude that irony is a highly complex 
mode of literary expression, involving the use of a word or an expression and 
expecting others to recognize that there is more to what is said in such expression. 
This is unlike what happens in everyday language. However, in the ironic sense what 
is said is often contraryto one‟s intention. In the Yorùbá context, the underlying 
motive is just to establish that there is a possibility of a meaning that is latent, hidden 
or implied, a denotation that attracts another connotation that will be brought to the 
fore by consideration of some factors in the contexts of culture, history, politics and 
philosophical background which can aid the quest for the meaning. 
 
1.5OperationalDefinitions of Terms 
Three concepts are so significant in this work. They are Irony, The Ironic and 
Drama. These are given operational definitions below. 
 
1.5.1Irony 
The word irony has been defined by various scholars from different 
perspectives.Richards (1926:250) defines it as „the bringing in of the opposite, the 
‟6
complementary impulses‟ in order to achieve a „balanced poise . Muecke (1969:53) 
views irony and the ironic as:  
a way of speaking, writing, acting, behaving, painting, etc, 
in which the real or intended meaning presented or evoked 
is intentionally quite other than, and incompatible with the 
ostensible or pretended meaning.  
 
Muecke‟s definition is broad and well applicable to this work because we are 
dealing with irony and the ironic in the Yorùbá tragic drama texts from which we will 
be able to see not only the speaking aspect but also the ironic elements in form of 
behaviour, situation and events . Arógbọfá (1978:51) presents irony as „a situation 
where words and sentences are so expressed to mean the exact opposite of their literal 
meaning‟.Holman (1980:236) gives his own definition of irony as this: 
Irony is a figure of speech in which the actual intentis 
expressed inwords which carry the opposite meaning. 
Characteristically, it speaks words of praise to imply blame 
7 
and words of blame to imply praise
 
 In the above definitions, irony in a lighter sense can be regarded as the 
concept with simple communicative formula, such as saying the opposite of what one 
xxv 
 
 
means or violating a communicative maxim. O̩látúnjí (1984:56)conceives of irony as 
“a figure of speech that involves one thing while intending another which is 
incompatible with an overt meaning. It is unpleasant meanings that are couched in 
apparently innocuous statement”. 
Irony, according to Funk and WagnallsNew Encyclopedia (1993,Vol. 10, p 
165) is „a dryly humorous or lightly sarcastic mode of speech; it is the discrepancy 
between what is said and what is meant, what is done and what is expected‟.  The 
above definition makes the speaker a superior to the hearer because the latter is left 
with the ability to apply wisdom in order to get the true sense of what is really meant. 
Another definition of irony, by Collier‟s Encylopedia (1997, Vol.13, p 297) says 
‘Irony in literature is a statement whose surface meaning is qualified by the 
implication of an ulterior contrary meaning or attitude‟. It thus means that the surface 
form hides more than one meaning, patent and latent meanings, the literal and the 
implied. 
 All the above definitions suggest that irony is a term in which we desire more 
than what is said in order to know the real meaning. Besides, Ermidia (2005:235) 
opines that irony is a situation when the speaker‟s communicative intention is not 
conveyed in a straightforward way. This implies that it is up to the hearer to identify 
the real message underlying the utterance. Dasylva (2005:13) defines irony as „a 
situation or a use of language, involving some incongruity or discrepancy.‟ He makes 
reference to verbal irony, dramatic irony and irony of situation.  
The NewEncyclopediaBritanica (2007, Vol 6 p 390) describes irony as: 
a language device either in spoken or written form (verbal 
irony) in which the real meaning concealed or contradicted 
by the literal meaning of the word or in theatrical situation 
(dramatic irony) in which there is incongruity between 
what is expected and what occurs. 
 
From the above, we can deduce that irony arises from contrast, a difference 
from „what is and what ought to be‟, the use of words to signify the opposite of what 
is said. In other words, the notion of opposition is an important feature of irony. The 
idea of opposition seems to be the central focus in the definition of irony but it must 
be context bound. We can, therefore, conclude that the fundamentalsof irony are the 
opposition of two levels(the literal and the real meaning, the plane of expression and 
xxvi 
 
 
the plane of content, the denotation and its connotation).This implies that the 
interpretation of irony and the ironic is at two levels;  
-the literary and the real meaning versus the hidden meaning,  
            -the surface meaning versus the underlying meaning 
            - the plane of expression versus the plane of content  
            -the denotative meaning versus the connotative meaning,  
All the two segments suggest that irony as expression and the ironic in actions and 
situation should not be taken at the surface levels. Both segments should be 
considered in order to arrive at the possible connotative meaning.  
Now, we can ask: what is the implication of irony and the ironic for literature? 
 Language of literature is said to be complex. According toVirginia (2000:129), 
it is this complexity that usually attracts people to literature in all its categories:   
What endears many of us to literature is its complexity, 
which of essence forbids us to take a single view ofthings 
and insist onconsidering thetwo or more sides to any 
question; that is the different elements which make up 
reality 
 
From Virginia‟s standpoint, we can see that irony contributes to the complexity of the 
language of literature.  
 
1.5.2TheIronic  
The ironic arises in situations and actions. It is when a situation or an action 
takes the place of the expression of a language. Unlike irony which is verbal, the 
ironic is non-verbal. It occurs either in action of the character or in a situational 
context. It is a purposeful pretence by deed or fact, while verbal irony is a purposeful 
pretence by word. Thirwall (483-537) describes the ironic as “irony as a practice,” 
8
and is independent of all forms of speech and does not need the aid of words.  It is a 
practical irony. This is so because the ironic is beyond our dependence on words to 
get the non-literal meaning.We cannot talk about the ironic and not relate it with 
drama because drama is its very essence.  The ironic is better understood within the 
framework of situations and actions within the dramatic structure or setting.  
The ironic references mostily occur in situations (dilemma, bareness, 
hypocrisy, treachery, anger, extremism, frustration and deception) and actions 
(wrestling, death, pretence, wickedness, vengeance, protest, greediness, bribery, 
strike, conspiracy, malady, change of seats, names and costumes).Such ironic 
xxvii 
 
 
references may be referred to as ironic elements and are often complemented by 
speech so that the reader can have a full picture and understanding of the actions. 
AsSedgwick (1948:37) rightly asserts, „the dramatic words must have drama behind 
them: something of which the verbal device is just an audible sign‟.  
Most of these ironic elements manifest in tragic plays. This is what 
promptsMuecke (1970:71) to say that „drama is typically ironic and perhaps 
essentially ironigenic‟. This shows that the dramaturgical characteristic of irony 
remains implicit. For example, in Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúyẹrí (p 47), we seethe fight between 
Òḅ́ ọ Lágídò , a man (Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s servant ) and Ìbídùn , a lady (Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s 
daughter). It is an example of an ironic action, because, according to the general 
belief,  though with few exceptions, it is ironic for a woman to beat up a man to the 
point that the man has to pretend to have fainted in other to avoid more beating that 
can lead to serious injury.  
 
1.5.3Drama 
  Abrams (1981:45) notes that „drama is the literary form designed for the 
theatre in which actors take the role of the characters, perform the indicated action 
and utter the written dialogue‟. Drama could be a play for the theatre, radio, television 
and so on. But for the purpose of this work, drama is a play considered as a form of 
literature, a written text.Another comprehensive definition of drama is the one given 
by Crow (1983:2), which sees drama as: 
a type of theatrical performance in which the active 
participants impersonate (that is, pretend to be people, 
beings, or things other than they really are) and through a 
usually predetermined sequence of physicalactions enact a 
story for the entertainment of an audience. 
 
From Crow‟s definition, it could be deduced that drama is pretence, predetermined set 
of events in different forms and has entertainment as its goal. The fact thatirony and 
the ironic are pretence makes them the major features of drama. Dramatic 
presentation is a planned, predetermined and premeditated work. Therefore, the 
sequence of events is a deliberate effort on the part of the dramatist and the character.  
Irony and the ironic therefore constitute veritable tools in the hand of thedramatist, the 
author and the character to consciously create dramatic and tragic effects.   Drama is a 
Greekword „which means „to do‟ or „to act‟. It is this doing andacting nature of drama 
xxviii 
 
 
that make it exciting. Naturally, human beings are always keen to see and watch the 
acts of others.  The very nature of drama calls for spectators or readers to place 
themselves as audience. Generally, drama means any work of art that is meant to be 
performed on stage by actors and actresses 
  
1.6Types of Irony 
 Several attempts have been made by scholars to classify irony from different 
perspectives. Some scholars see irony as word and opposite, while others see it as a 
situation that is contrary to expectation. The result of the several attempts at the 
classification of irony is the different types of irony that is believed to exist, for 
example, verbal irony, situational irony, irony of events, and irony of fate and so on.  
 Also, irony has been classified based on its originators. For example, 
references are made to Aristotle, Plato and Socrates; hence, we hear of Aristotelian 
irony, Platonic irony and Socratic irony. Those who see irony as an instrument for 
arguement and as a verbal weapon have rhetorical irony among their classifications. 
Dramatic irony evolved from the characteristics of the drama of ancient Greece. 
Romantic irony has its source in the Romantic school in Germany. 
Thompson (1948: 5-11) gives three forms of irony; they are irony of speech, 
irony of character and irony of events. Muecke (1970) presents two broad 
classifications of irony: instrumental irony and observable irony. Instrumental irony 
has language as its instrument; it is also referred to as verbal irony. Observable irony 
can be seen in the presentation of a situation, a sequence of events, a character or a 
belief. Booth(1974)classifies irony into stable irony and unintended irony. Bert (1971) 
and Sedgewick (1948) identify with dramatic irony. 
The multifaceted nature of irony is responsible for the numerous types of 
irony. Other forms of irony include tragic irony, comic irony, irony of manner, irony 
of situation, philosophical irony, double irony, rhetorical irony, self irony, cosmic 
irony, sentimental irony, irony of chance, irony of character, irony of speech and 
irony of events and the list can go on almost ad- infinitum. All types of the irony share 
certain essential characteristics that form the basis for their existentialism. These 
bases are believed to consist in such factors as motivation, function and aesthetics 
quality.  
Despite the different types of irony that exist as enumerated above, five types 
of irony are identified to be expedient and germane to this work: verbal irony, 
xxix 
 
 
dramatic/tragic irony, comic irony, irony of character and irony of fate. However, as 
far as the ironic is concerned, it covers situations such as dilemma, bareness, 
extremism, frustration, deception and death and actions such as exclamation, 
wrestling, wickedness, vengeance, greediness, treachery, hypocrisy, bribery, 
conspiracy, malady and role changeand authors‟ report, that lead to tragedy.  
 
1.6.1Verbal Irony 
Verbal ironyis the use of words to convey something else that is different from 
the literal meaning of the word spoken or written. Thirwall (1883:483-537) says,  „a 
figure which enables a speaker to convey his meaning with greater force by means of 
a contrast between his thought and his expression, or to speak more accurately,  
between his thought which he evidently designs to express, and that which his words 
9
properly signify. It is also called irony of speech and rhetorical irony. Verbal irony is 
specifically a verbal utterance that comes mainly in words, phrases or sentences in 
verbal communication.  Muecke (1970) refers to verbal irony as „the instrumental 
irony where the ironist says something in order to have it rejected as false, one sided 
etc‟. It is a purposeful pretence of words.  
Verbal irony implies an ironist, that is, an author, a dramatist,a character or 
someone who consciously and intentionally employs a technique that is different or 
deviates from the semantic principle in the presentation of his message in which the 
real meaning is context dependent. In verbal irony, there is confrontation or 
juxtaposition of the incompatible, between what is said and the original intention or 
what is expected.  Therefore, verbal irony is when we see that the actual intention of 
the speaker or writer is expressed in words that carry the opposite meaning. For 
example, in Ìdààmú Páàdì Ḿinkáílù, after the robbery attack that takes place at the 
treasurer‟s office in the local government council, Chief Ibrahim, Yunusa, the council 
secretary, meet at king Jubrilu‟s palace to discuss the sad incident. The king is 
perplexed and he innocently prays for the official in the council, of which Yunusa is 
one, because of the trouble and the effects   the incident will have on them.  Yunusa‟s 
positive reply to the prayer is this: 
                     Jubrilu:    Hà, Akọwe! Ẹ mà ku rogbodiyan. 
                                     Ọlọ‟un ó yọ nyin lọfin ò ṛ́ ò  ̣́ náà.  
Yunusa: Amin 
Jubrilu:    Ọlọ‟un o gbe wa jẹ‟rí elénìní. 
 
xxx 
 
 
Yunusa:   Amin. Baba, irú ìṣèḷ̣́́ è  ̣̣́́béẹ̣́́ ̀  ̣̣́́kò dá‟ a rárá. 
 Àwọn olè tè ̣́ l‟ówó nnì d‟Éjìgbò nihin ni. 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 27) 
 
Jubrilu:   Ha,  Secretary! Sorry for all the trouble 
 God will deliver you from this delicate case.    
 
Yunusa:     Amen 
 
Jubrilu:      God will lift us above the traitors 
 
Yunusa:      Amen.  Baba, this kind of incidents is not good at all. 
 The thieves must have monitored the money down to  
Èjìgbò.                                                
 
Yunusa is an officer in Èjig̀ bò Local Government Council . He is the council secretary; 
and by virtue of his position, he is the custodian of the secrets of the council . He is the 
one who receives the money from the state representative that brings the money from 
Ìbàdàn and later hands over the money to Sèṭ́ ílù , the council treasurer.  The irony is 
that, with this dignified position and responsibility , he is also the leader of the cult as 
well as the leader of the robbery gang that planned the killing of Seṭ́ ilu , the treasurer, 
and the stealing of the same project‟s money. Therefore, Yunusa‟s reply is pretence 
because he knows that the prayer is not for him and his observation is not correct , for 
he knows fully well that no thief followed the money to Èjìgbò . Rather he is one of 
the thieves waiting for the money to be brought so that they can steal it. 
Verbal irony forms the bedrock for other types of irony because irony is 
primarily concerned with language; this is why Socratic irony still stands as the 
reference point for verbal irony. Socrates always pretends ignorance in the course of 
interrogating his opponents through dialogue, asking questions in order to expose his 
opponent‟s weakness and frailty so that the opponent will eventually convicts himself 
with his own mouth. Hence, verbal irony is the apparent disparity between the 
language phenomenon and the meaningessence.  It is a statement whose surface 
meaning is qualified by the implication of an ulterior effect. 
 
xxxi 
 
 
1.6.2Tragic Irony 
10
Tragic irony is also called dramatic irony. Tragic irony is when irony is used 
structurally in a novel or a play. It is established in the fact that words, circumstances 
or events which seem to lead to a favourable conclusion produce an unfavourable 
one.Sedgewick (1948:49) asserts that „Dramatic irony, in brief, is the sense of 
contradiction felt by spectators/readers of a drama/play who see a character acting in 
ignorance of his condition,‟ thecondition that may likely lead to tragedy. Dasylva 
(2005) describesdramatic/tragic irony as „when the poet/playwright implies a different 
meaningfrom that intended by the dramatis persona‟. Abrams and Harpham (2005) 
asserts that, „dramatic/tragic irony involves a situation in a play or narrative in which 
the reader shares with the author, the knowledge of the present or future circmstances 
of which a character is ignorant‟. However, tragic irony is more adequate because the 
Yorùbá tragic plays chosen for this study have a high concentration of ironic elements 
in which the dramatic behind them strongly depict tragic situations.  With the above 
definitions, we can submit that tragic irony comes in different situations like: 
(i) When the character in question reveals a failure to comprehend a situation   
that the reader, the audience and the other characters in the play understand. 
For example, in Ré̩ré̩ Rún,Moréṇ́ iké ̣́(Láwúwo‟s wife) is dead, other characters 
in the play and the readers are already aware butLáwúwo is unaware .   
(ii) When the literary character unknowingly acts in a way we recognize to be          
grossly inappropriate to the actual circumstance on ground. For example, in 
Ré̩ré̩ Run, we see Láwúwo in his continual defence of the course of the labour 
union without knowledge of the tricks the Onímògún and his councils`are 
playing on him. 
(iii) when a character expects the opposite of what we know that fate holds in 
store. For example, in Ààrè-̣Àgò,Ògúnrìndé Ajé expects good returns after 
offering sacrifice to his Orí but it is tragedy instead .      
(iv)   when a character says something that anticipates the actual outcome, but not 
all in the way that the character intends . An instance is Àwèṛ́ ó in E̩fúnṣetán 
Aníwúràwho saysthe worst that Ìyálóde could do is to kill her and she dies 
eventually even though she does not wish so.  
Unlike verbal irony, tragic irony depends more on sequence of events than on 
a turn of phrase. 
 
xxxii 
 
 
1.6.3Irony of Fate 
Irony of fate is when a situation turns out with sharp contrast to what we 
expect owing to the course of events that arise naturally. It is also called cosmic irony. 
It is a type of irony with philosophical undertone , especially with the Yorùbá concept 
of destiny and pre-destination. It is mostly through situations, events and actions.  
Abrams and Harpham (2005:167) describe irony of fate within the literary work as 
this:  
Irony of fate is attributed to literary work which springs up 
from the fact that a deity or fate is presented asthough 
deliberately manipulating the events so as to  lead the                 
protagonist to false hopes only to frustrate and mock them.  
 
Irony of fate depicts the life situations that are unquestionable; it goes beyond 
the scrutiny of our reasoning faculty. This irony seems to stem from the erosion of 
religious faith, whereby people believe that some situations are inexplicable and that 
people just have to accept that it is nothing more than the law of nature and luck at 
work.  Irony of fate is all about situations that just happened and for which there is no 
natural explanation. For example, the death of three children in one day is an irony of 
fate, a great calamity that is beyond human explanation.In Ààrè-̣Àgò 
Aríkúye̩rí,Ògúnrìndé Ajé has three wives , Aṣiyanbí, Adépèlé andFatóḷ́ á .Fatóḷ́ á is his 
favourite wife, the most beautiful among them who is equally the best Rárà  chanter on 
different ocassions . Out of jealousy and in order to eliminateFatóḷ́ á , Aṣiyanbí  
poisons the three children of Adépèlé , and names Fatóḷ́ á as the killer of the three 
children. One would have thought that there could have been a divine intervention 
somewhere that would have averted the tragic incident as well as the killing of Fatóḷ́ á . 
Nobody can explain why it all happens like that. It is beyond human reasoning.  Also, 
in Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà, Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà,Ìyálóde of Ìbàdàn , the chief character, is a 
notable personality and chieftain with slaves and riches. Despite her wealth, she has 
no child and no one can explain why God has not blessed her, even with a child. This 
is considered as an irony of fate;  That is, it is her destiny or fate that is responsible for 
her childlessness.   
 
1.6.4Irony of Character 
 Irony of character is when a person‟s true character is shown to be in painfully 
comic contrast to his appearance (Knox, 1961:45). It is also called an irony of manner 
xxxiii 
 
 
and in this sense, irony of character refers to an expression of personality. It 
comprises a character‟s manner of speech and action which presents the perculiar and 
distinct image of the character in the play. In irony of character, the author‟s focus is 
on the attitude, a particular kind of behaviour put on a character by the author. Irony 
of character does not refer to the habitual manner of a character but it refers to the 
image of his own personality which the author chooses to project in one of his works, 
if not throughout the whole of his works. For example, inÀàrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí ,Òḅ́ ò  ̣́
Lágídò, Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s servant is projected as a lazy man that can easily be beaten 
up by a woman . Also, although his nameÒḅ́ ò  ̣́ Lágid́ ò , portrays him as a stupid man , 
the author has chosen to present him as a wise character who is wise enough to 
counsel his master and a warlord during his time of crisis . Ìbídùn, Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s 
daughter, is presented as a character troublesome and energetic enough to beat a man 
(Lágídò), her father‟s servant, almost to the point of death. Ordinarily in the real sense 
of it,  the role given to Òḅ́ ò  ̣́ Lágídò andÌbídùn ,  in the play is quite different from the 
character of the monkey/a woman that we all know. The employment of irony of 
character is an integral part in the workings of the tragic plays because it is through 
the character‟s words, actions and situations that we see the irony and the ironic as the 
instrument to achieve the tragic aim designed for  the plays. 
 
1.6.5Comic Irony 
Comic irony is irony in form of words and actions,which are capable of 
inducing laughter, smile and amusement for comic, sarcastic and satirical effects in 
drama. The function of comic irony is to serve as interlude, which is used to reduce 
the tension and also to heighten the tragic elements through contrast. Comic irony is 
usually an integral part of the tragic play. Many devices, like pretence, remarks, 
observation and actions such as wrestling, exchange of roles, seats, names, and 
costumes are put in place to achieve comic irony in a play. When these comical 
elements are slotted at odd times, in the sense that they come from the character that 
is least expected or at the time that is least expected, especially in a scene of serious or 
tragic work in drama, it becomes a comic irony. For instance, inÀàrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí , 
Ògúnrìndé Ajé is summoned by Basò ṛ́ un Ògúnmó ḷ́ á with regard to the kill ing of 
Fátóḷ́ á. He has refused to answer the call for some time, and he does not have the full 
support of his chief on his refusal to go, so he is confused and he wants to reconsider 
his stand as advised by his servant, Òḅ́ ò  ̣́ Lágídò . Therefore, at this point, he needs 
xxxiv 
 
 
counsel on what to say when he appear before Basò ṛ́ un Ògúnmó ḷ́ á, Òḅ́ ò  ̣́ Lágídò offers 
to help andÒgúnrìndé Ajé accepts his kind gesture. It is indeed a comic relief and 
ironic one aswe read and perceive  the way Ò gúnrìndé Ajé andÒḅ́ ò  ̣́ Lágídò exchange 
their costumes, their seats as well as their names, in serious preparation for the 
counselling class that will take place between both of them.  It is so funny and ironic 
that a servant gives order to his master, and the master obeys the instructions to the 
letter just because he is looking for a way out in a state of dillemma he has found 
himself. 
 
1.7Basic Features of Irony 
The changes in the status of irony based on its historical development with 
reference to its usage at various levels of linguistic complexity calls for clarification 
of the features of irony. The following are some of the features of irony: 
 
1.7.1Irony as Contrast between Reality and Appearance 
The basic feature of every form of irony is that it presents a contrast between 
appearance and reality. This is a dynamic quality of irony and the ironic.However, not 
everything that is other than what it seems to be is an instance of irony. Irony is at 
work only when the listener or the reader already knows that the statement cannot be 
true excerpt otherwise. For irony to have meaning, we must take note of the 
contextual situation in which it is used. It is this customary feature of irony and the 
ironic that forms the basis for the definitionof irony asphenomenon or a device that 
presents it as contradiction to what is expected. Ọlátúnjí (1984:57) gives this example 
of irony and it rightly explains the level of contrast between reality and appearance: 
Méè-wáyé-ẹjó ̣́ fọmọò ̣́ rè ̣́fóḳ́ ọ méf̣́ à 
                             He who says he hates lawsuit offers his daughter in 
marriage to six men.          
 
The man should be expecting a great deal of trouble with respect to his actionbecause 
normally a man or a father will give his daugther in marriage to just one man but 
when a father gives a daugther in marriage to more than one man , he is already 
looking for trouble. So, in the above excerpt , the man Méè-wáyé-ẹjó ̣́ (which literarily 
means „I-have-no- neck- for- lawsuit) who has bethroted his daughter to six men, he is 
not sincere. In fact, his neck will be full of trouble, the trouble from six suitors.   
 
xxxv 
 
 
1.7.2Irony as Intended and Deliberate Action/Activity 
The employment of irony as a stylistic device by an author is a deliberate 
action. One thing that must be noted about the use of irony is that it is deliberate and 
not just a mistake, an error or a slip of tongue. For example, when a mother says to a 
child that has broken a set of plates in the kitchen, „Ha! Olóríire ọmọ ni ọ‟which 
means „Ha!  Indeed you are a blessed child‟. In the real sense, the normal thing is for 
the mother to abuse or scold the child, but she deliberately prays for the child even 
with the loss of the plates.   
Another example of irony fromỌlátúnjí‟s work (1984:56) says; 
Òun ni óò sin ìyá è  ̣́
Ọmọ tí ń forí fọká remú 
 
 He will surely bury his mother 
A child who cleanses his nostril with cobra‟s head. 
 
 The prayer that the child will outlive his mother cannot be answered because of his 
contrary attitude. The irony is that, the speaker knows the result of the child‟s action, 
because it is not possible for the child to outlive his mother because of his deadly 
play; literally, he would have died from the cobra‟s sting. Therefore, if it is a prayer, 
definitely it cannot be answered. It is a deliberate use of verbal irony to warn the child 
to desist from his dangerous way of living. The use of irony in this form is not just a 
mere speech but a deliberate effort to say less than you think or less than you know 
about certain issues. It is not an accident or coincidence of speech or action.  
Òkédíjì in Ré̩ré̩ Rún,presents the standard Yorùbá proverbs in an indirect way, 
as shown below: 
Òjò tó rò ̣́ ló kéỵ́ éḷ́ é ̣́pò ̣́ mó ̣́ àgbàdo 
 
It is the rainfall that brings the co-habitation  
of penguin and the corns together. 
 
             Ìwò tá à n wàparò aṣọ rè ̣́póṇ́  koko,          
The quail is seen as a bird with dirty cloth. 
 
 Ṣùgbóṇ́  àlùkò kò paṣọ èsí dà 
 The bird is still wearing his last year‟s feathers.  
 
The irony here lies in the absurdity of co-habitation of birds (living things) and corn 
(non living things). He knows the legitimate and the standard way of saying the 
proverbs and he is aware of the connotative values of every word, but he does this 
xxxvi 
 
 
deliberately to achieve some tragic effects. Therefore,the proverbs that proceed from 
Láwúwò‟s mouth indeed present his  emotional state at that particular time. The author 
wants us to hear more than the proverbs and to infer the totality of the message which 
connotes the condition of the character at that point in time .  He knows quite well that 
in the Yorùbá cultural context the proverbs should have been said like the following:  
Òjò tó rò̩ ló ké̩ye̩lé pò̩ mò̩ adìye̩  
               The rainfall causes the co-habitation of chicken and penguin 
 
 ìwo tà ń wàparò bíi ka fi dá‟lá ori e̩ye̩ ni ò pe̩ye̩ . 
                          Man‟s only imagination of the quail is that,  
                          it is a good meat for okro soup  but her destiny would not permit 
  
Àgùntán kò pas̩o̩ èsí dà 
              The sheep doesn‟t change his last year‟s wool. 
 
The irony here is that the reader would not have expected such muddling up of 
proverbs to come fromLáwúwò, a character that has been presented as a Yorùbá  
speaker in the beginning of the play , who has once displayed his  proficiency in the 
Yorùbá  language during his meeting with the labour union after his release from the 
prison. The proverbs are deliberately put in the mouth of the character in order to 
show the tragic effect thatLáwúwò is really mad. 
  
1.7.3Irony as Pretence and Deception 
 Pretence and deception areanother basic features of irony and the ironic. In 
these senses, irony is seen as dissimulation and occasional hypocrisy, in that a 
character or an author hides his feelings or intentions by way of pretending to have 
different ones. Pretence is the act of behaving in a particular way in order to make 
people believe that a prevailing situation is not true. For example, Yunusa‟s behaviour 
as a saint with regard to the supposed stolen money that is later found in Ìdààmú 
Páàdì. Balogun and the chiefs pleading on behalf of Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé is a pretence and 
not out of a truthful mind but because of the bribe already received fromÒgúnrìndé 
Ajé.  
This is also associated with Socratic idea of irony. He always feigned 
ignorance and humility, by going about asking silly and dubious questions of all sorts 
from people on different kinds of subjects in order to show that their ignorance and 
mistakes were more profound than his own. This is seen in the process of 
interrogating the armed robbery suspects in Ìdààmú Páàdìand in Basò ṛ́ un‟s ways of 
xxxvii 
 
 
interrogating his chiefs on the bribery act in Ààrẹ-Àgò.The underlying motive for the 
pretence is just to expose the flaws in the opponent‟s views. 
The reason for the pretence is to conceal, in the weak sense, the real meaning 
so as to avoid the explicitness of the point in question and to establish the stylistic use 
of language. For example inÌdààmú Páàdì  (pp 2-3), the uncontrollable case of 
fraudulent activities in the local government council, which hinders the execution of 
the developmental project of the town, calls for the intervention of the state 
government. The government feels that the board should be reconstituted .  A spiritual 
person is needed , as suggested by the indigenes of the town , to serve as catalyst for 
the sanitation process . A letter of invitation is brought from the governor to be given 
to Páàdì Miń káílù.Yunusa,  the council secretary, presents the letter in company of the 
council‟s board and also gives an  encouragement speech to Páàdi ̀ Miń káílù , who is 
not willing to accept the invitation. Yunusa‟s speech, though inspiring, isshallow and 
mere pretence, an act of deception. 
                        Páàdì Mínkáílù, 
                        At‟ èǵ̣ bé ̣́il̀ ú, àt‟ọgbà ìlú 
                        Àti Mèḳ́ únnù àti ẹni t‟ó jólú,  
                        Gbogbo woṇ́  ló rán wa si ́ ọ 
                        Ẹnyin náà ẹ wòlu b‟ó ti wà tí ò f‟ara rọ 
                        …            
                        Aiye baje,̣́  a „ò r‟énià̀ „re t‟áiyé sẹ́ . 
  Èyí ni gbogbo ara Èjìgbò rò papò  ̣́
  Tí wóṇ́  fi sún òṛ́ ò ̣́ s‟ìjoḅ́ a ìpínlè ̣́létí 
  Pé kí wóṇ́  ó yan eṇ́ i‟re k‟ó máa mójú tó wa 
                        … 
                        Pé b‟írú nyin ba fi wà n‟Igbimọ 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 3) 
 
             Páàdì Mínkáílù, 
                         All and sundry, 
                         The poor and the rich  
                         We are sent by every one 
                         You too, look at the state of the situation in town. 
                          ……………………………………………………. 
The world is corrupt, we found no one to sanitize it 
  These are the reasons for the unanimous decision of the  
  Ejigbo community, they informed the government about their decision 
  That a person of good reputation is chosen to oversee the council‟s  
affairs 
 
The above statement is to make the people believe that the invitation is a welcome 
idea even though Yunusa sees Páàdì Mínkáiĺ ù as a threat to his evil agenda in the local 
xxxviii 
 
 
government council, which is later revealed in the play. This particular quality of 
irony reaches its peak in drama when the readers have the knowledge about a 
character‟s dubious agenda when other characters in the play do not have it. The 
character‟s words and actions will have meanings that are not perceived by the 
character to the readers. The effect of this pretence, when discovered, often produces 
comic, humourous or satirical effects as we see the example of Yunusa inÌdààmú 
Páàdì, who is finally arrested as the brain behind the armed robbery attack at the local 
council‟s office. This means that, all his efforts both in words and actions towards 
having Páàdì Mínkáílù in the council‟s board and his concerns about the stolen money 
are pretence and fake. Even though he is exhibiting actions that may be seen as 
original, the underlying value is pretence. His arrest becomes a satirical scene for the 
whole world to see.   
 
1.7.4Irony as a Secret Communion 
Irony is known for its covert nature. The patent meaning is always hidden 
from the latent. It is in irony that everything is transparently open and yet deeply 
concealed. According to Virginia (2000), this kind of characteristic of irony is 
referred to as the „secret communion‟, that may occur between the author and the 
reader, or between the author, the reader and some characters. This particular feature 
of irony, says Abrams (1981:9) „forms the distinct feature of dramatic irony, in which 
the author invites the reader or the audience to share the same knowledge of which a 
character is ignorant: the character, therefore, acts in a way that is vividly 
inappropriate to the actual circumstances.‟ 
The readers may have the pre-knowledge of what has taken place or the next 
thing that will happen while the character concerned and other characters in the play 
do not. It is this secret communion that informs the continuous sense of character 
talking and behaving in ignorance of their condition in a play. For example, in Ré̩ré̩ 
Rún, Láwúwò, the labour union leader , is fighting for the welfare of the workers , 
Onímògún and his chiefs , the employers, are not ready to grant the worker‟s requests. 
Both parties represent different opinions. Onímògún and his chiefs already have the 
evil scheme of buying Láwúwò, over to their side against the workers and 
blackmailing him before the workers he is representing.The author has given the 
readers the pre-knowledge of their evil scheme through the initial discussion and the 
planning by the council in scene five, (Pp 44-46) before Láwúwò is invited into their 
xxxix 
 
 
meeting. Láwúwò is totally ignorant bu t the readers have the secret of what will 
happen to Láwúwòand the kind of trap already set for him . Therefore, the reader reads 
on as Láwúwò walks ignorantly into the plot with full confidence of still being in the 
course of fighting for the labour union. Also, the reader is already aware of 
Moré̩niké̩‟s death, even as Láwúwò, out of ignorance, tries to interrogate her on some 
salient issues pertaining to his case with the labour union. The author confides in the 
reader while the character is ignorant; he is not part of the communion. 
 
1.8      Irony and its Allied Tropes   
 Knox (1961: 34) notes that „a trope or turning is when a word is turned from 
its natural signification‟. Trope is a Greek word which has its meaning as 
„turn‟.Cuddon (1976:725). The trope is a term used to refer to any figure of speech, 
for instance, irony is a trope, just like metaphor, euphemism, simile, satire, sarcasm, 
humour. Tropes are used by orators and writers as decorative elements to strengthen 
and embellish their styles of speech and composition. Irony as a trope is a means of 
effective persuasion in speech making.But of all of these tropes, those that are closely 
related to irony, with regard to this study, are metaphor and euphemism.  
 
1.8.1Irony and Metaphor 
Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia (Volume 10) describes metaphor as the 
use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or object in place of another word 
or phrase for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two. However, the 
likeness comes in the form of a shift of nomenclature , which simile does not have . 
Ọlátúnjí (1984) notes that, „metaphor is when an object, action or situation is 
described in a terminology proper to another‟. It is the comparism of two things that 
are „dinstinct‟ yet similar in some respects but in a stronger term that is difficult to 
detect.Arógbọfá,(1978).   In metaphor, the comparism is drawn as in simile between 
two dissimilar things but it is comparism that is often subtle , more compressed than 
simile. Sàlámì, (2003)  
It is not surprising to see some degree of semblance between metaphor and 
irony. The semblance consist in the fact, that just like metaphor is used as a substitute 
for another thing or an idea, so also irony is used in place of an idea that is different 
from its original features . We can say that , metaphor and irony fall into the same 
category of signs that signify another signified . In other words , irony and metaphor 
xl 
 
 
serve as means to an end and , according to Oḷ́ átúnji (1984), in metaphor the 
comparism is applied to another without explicitly mentioning the former object and 
the new application of the word requires behavioural or literary context. This is also 
the case in irony, where some contextual and cultural knowledge is important in order 
to get the real meaning. Metaphor and irony cannot be taken in isolation because both 
can be well interpreted and their meanings become clearer when the interpretation is 
done within their contextual environment. For example, inE̩fúnsetán Aníwúrà, there is 
the account of the war of words through incantation between E̩fúnṣetán and Látòósà , 
in the ironic incident where (E̩fúnṣetán) who has been the captor is now the captive.  
E̩fúnsetán:  Látòósà iná mó ̣́ ọ! 
 
      Látòósà:  Ẹfúnṣetán ìràwé ni ó,̣́  omi lèmi. 
      Ẹfúnṣetán:  Mo lè jé ir̀ àwé nítòótó,̣́  Látòósà 
                       Ṣùgbóṇ́  ìsàlè ̣́omi ni mo wà, 
Kí iná tó jó mi, omi yíò ti gbe.̣́  
 
     Ẹfúnṣetán:              Látòósà, you are in trouble 
Látòósà,            Ẹfúnṣetán you are withered leave and I am water  
 
    Ẹfúnṣetán:        I might bewithered leaf indeed, Látòósà                
  But I will stay beneath the water 
  Before I am burnt, water would have drained 
 
The above example of incantation shows that the playwright uses different aquarium 
habitats as metaphor to represent and describe the level of the power and the position 
of both characters in the play. The metaphor representsLátòósà andEf̣́ únsẹ́ tán 
asmaster and servant, king and chief, king and slave respectively. Omi (water), 
meaning strength, power and destroyer, while Ìràwé(withered leaf), means light 
weight, insignificance, and less power . Látòósà, the king refers to himself as„omi‟ 
(water)in order to show the magnitude of his power as the king and also to show that 
as water can cause so much havoc, so also he can destroy Ef̣́ únsẹ́ tán who is just 
an„ìràwé‟ (a witheredleave). The irony in the two metaphors used above is seen in the 
interpretation given by Ef̣́ únsẹ́ tán that „ ìràwé‟ (a witheredleaf) stays under the water 
which means that she is safe while the water is open to danger because the water is on 
the surface. It is not true because a witheredleaf is very light therefore cannot stay at 
the bottom of the river. Irony and metaphor involve semantic transfer.  Metaphor and 
irony make us see one thing as another by making a literal statement that inspires or 
prompts the insight.    
xli 
 
 
 
1.8.2Irony and Euphemism 
 Euphemism is from Greek words „euphemism‟, meaning the use of an 
„auspicious word‟ for an „inauspicious one‟. Grambs (1984:119) defines euphemism 
as „the use of a milder or less direct word or phrase for one felt to be too starkly, 
explicit, to avoid offending through bluntless or as a form of evasive double talk … a 
tactful or deliberate inexplicit expression.Like Leech (1969), Ọlátúnjí (1984) gives the 
definition of euphemism as an alternative roundabout mode of expression used in 
preference to a blunter, less delicate one .  From the Yoruba cultural perspectives , 
Ọlátéj̣́ú (1989) describes euphemism with refrence to its usage ; … àwoṇ́  Yorùbá máa 
ń lo àdàpè fún òṛ́ ò ̣́ tó jẹ mó ̣́ nǹkan àṣírí ,‟ …, The Yorùbá use euphemism for words 
refering to female and male genitals. Fowler (1996:267) avers that euphemism means 
the use of mild or vague or periphrastic expression substituted for one judged to be 
too harsh or direct.  
All these suggest that euphemism is a substitute which expreses shades of 
meaning in order to make some things or ideas more presentable and pleasant within a 
particular cultural setting . It is a polite way to avoid the direct naming of an 
unpleasant painful or frightening reality .For example , Àwèṛ́ ó in E̩fúnsetán 
Aníwúràsuspects that something is wrong with Adétutù another female slave . The 
symptom she is manifesting shows that she might be pregnant and this is a dangerous 
and death signal in Ìyálóde Ef̣́ únsẹ́ tán‟s house . Therefore she laments thus: 
Àwèṛ́ ó:    Ọló ṛ́ un má mà jé ̣́kí á rí àìdáa ò, 
                 Ohun ti ́ mò ńrò nípa rè ̣́kò gboḍ́ ò  ̣́ jé ̣́be!̣́  
                 Ṣe kì í ṣe pé ọmọ náà ti di abara méjì? 
                 Ara rè ̣́ ń funfun, ó sì ń síntó,̣́  ó sì ń ló ̣́ tìkò ̣́ ṣáá? 
                 Kini a ti ́ ń pe irú èyi ́ o?.. 
                 Ọló ṛ́ un mà dákun o.  
 
 
Àwèṛ́ ó:    God, please forbid bad thing 
                How I wish my thoughts about her will not come to pass 
                Hope this lady is not pregnant? 
                Her skin is getting lighter; she is now sluggish and feeling   
                irritated 
                How do we explain all these? 
                 God, please 
 
 Àwèṛ́ ó is afraid to declare that Adétùtù is pregnant so she prefers to use „abara 
méjì‟ (woman with two bodies ), instead of „lóyún‟ (being pregnant ) because of 
xlii 
 
 
theironic situation of Adétùtù‟s case .  In a normal state of circumstances, what makes 
the symptoms of pregnancy which are cast ineuphemism to be ironic is the fact that 
pregnancy is a thing of joy. But here, rather than being a symbol of joy and happiness, 
it symbolises the end, stiff penalty and death for the character or victim and here lies 
the irony in the expression. 
           It is assumed that the employment of euphemism brings comfort and rest of 
mind even in the face of a painful situation.Holder (1995:V11) observes that, 
„euphemism is a language of evasion, hypocrisy, of prudery and of deceit‟, so also is 
irony. Euphemistic words and expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things 
and neutralise the unpleasantness of such things. Wardhaugh (1986:281) Irony and 
euphemism share some resemblance in the sense that both of them are signs standing 
for something else, the thing that is deliberately avoided. The interpretation of irony, 
the ironic and euphemism is anchored to the context and the tropes are most times 
culture dependent for interpretation. Irony and euphemism are language devices in 
which there is semantic transfer because something contrary to what is said is to be 
understood; only that irony and the ironic flourish asdevices through situation and 
events especially in drama.  
 In sum allthese tropes have something in common:  all of them involve 
semantic transfer; their interpretation is culture dependent and is always facilitated by 
a contextual environment. Making meaning of these tropes depends more on the 
secondary meaning than the primary meaning. This means that the plane of content is 
important in order to get the meaning that lies under the plane of expression. All of 
them are stylistic devices that have, in addition to their literal sense or meaning, 
another sense or meaning. All of them require special insight on the part of the reader, 
which help them to know that ordinary language in its usual function cannot induce 
such insight in the reader. All the literary tropes mentioned along with irony, when 
used in anyliterary work, show how language can be used for different effects and 
how dexterous the author/ literary artist is in his/her language use.  
 
1.9Tragedy and the Tragic plays: Yorùbá Worldview 
 In the Western sense, drama,is basically classified into three, namely: tragedy, 
comedy and the epic drama. Tragedy is rooted in the Greek dramas of Aeschylus. 
Aristotle‟s discussion of tragedy is not far from the Greek origin. Dasylva, (1997:37)  
Tragedy, according to Aristotle (1965:38-50), is an “action involving serious incidents 
xliii 
 
 
arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish the catharsis of such emotions. . .” 
Tragedy as defined above is seen  as the immitation and the presentation of the 
realities of life in poetic and especially in dramatic form.  From the Western 
pespectives,  Shakespeare‟s Romeo and Juliet, an English play is an example of  a 
tragic play. Romeo and Juliet meet in a party and they instantly fall in love, but they 
do not realize that their families are mortal enemies, the Capulets and the Montagues, 
two prestigious families in Verona, Italy. When they realize each other‟s identities, 
they are devastated, but they cannot help the way they feel for each other.Romeo and 
Juliet get married secretly. Juliet‟s mother, completely unaware of her daughter's 
secret marriage to Romeo, informs Juliet that she will marry a man named Paris in a 
few days. Juliet, in anger, refuses to comply but her parents insists that she must 
marry Paris. In order to avoid the arranged marriage, Juliet, according to Friar 
Lawrence‟s advice drinksa herbal concoction that will make her appear to be dead for 
42 hours. Everybody assumes that she is dead. Friar Lawrence‟s letter fails to reach 
Romeo. So he assumes that his wife is dead. He rushes to Juliet‟s tomb and, in deep 
grief, drinks a bottle of poison. Moments later, Juliet wakes to find Romeo dead and 
kills herself due to grief. Once the families discover what has happened, they finally 
end their bitter feud. The tragic deaths  of their children bring the families together. 
Romeo and Juliet is a true tragedy in the literary sense because the families gather 
sufficient self-knowledge to correct their behaviour but not until it is too late to save 
the situation. This is just an example of the concept of tragedy from the Western point 
of view. Their concept of tragedy within the Aristotolean concept  comes in form of 
trouble, fatality, destruction, blood and ususally ends with death.   
In the African -Yòrúbà sense , whether a drama is near tragedy or complete 
tragedy, it must involve sadness or death . The sad situation could come in any form 
within the Yòrúbà context . Therefore, the concept of tragedy is seen as a drama with 
an unhappy , disastrous or bloody ending . Tragedy is also seen as the reversal of 
fortune. Sofọla (1977)  gives a broad definition of tragedy as „a purposive, volitional 
involvement in a serious action which is moral, noble and desirable, but whose 
consequences are painful, even fatal. It is an experience when man is thrown into 
critical dilemmas which are difficult or impossble to escape‟ . In Sofoḷ́ a‟s definition of 
tragedy, some points, not all, are identified as the fundamentals of tragedy except the 
fact that it is only within the Yorùbá cultural context that we judge the actions that can 
be considered as noble, moral and desirable. For example, E̩fúnṣetán‟s action of 
xliv 
 
 
several killings cannot be described as noble or desirable.  Ọlábímtán (1981), submits 
„that the definition of tragedy in Yorùbá literature is more moral than critical any 
action that conflicts with the moral ethics of the Yorùbá is a possible tragic element‟ . 
Therefore, tragedy is a serious action that should be borne out of purpose to achieve a 
certain goal that may result in the unexpected but it may not necessarily be morally 
acceptable when the context , culture and belief in the soceity are considered . This is 
why,we may not consider Basòṛ́ un Gáà as a tragic hero . 
When we consider the definitions given above and in line with the texts 
chosen for this study, we can say that the tragic plays chosen for this work fit into the 
structure of the Aristotle‟s definition  to some extent. The first part of Aristotle‟s 
definition describes the forms of tragedy in which we have the object, manner and 
medium of immitation. A tragic play must be a serious action with great suspense in 
the way that the readers can grasp the truth and feel the gravity of the incidents in the 
play. The Yorùbá plays chosen for this study present a serious action , with irony and 
the ironic used as the language that carries the weight of the serious action. The plays 
also have the characteristic of a complex plot with examples of tragic hero in Yorùbá 
tragic plays within the Yorùbá philosophical , political, cultural and historical contexts. 
Therefore, the concept of tragedy, in relation to the tragic plays chosen for this study , 
is not different except its conformity with the Yorùbá contextual background. 
1.10 The Synopses of the Plays 
 In this section,  a synopsis of each of the selected texts is given in order to see 
the storyline . The texts selected are Akiń wùmi ́ Ìsò̩lá‟s E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà  (1970), 
Adébáyò̩ Fálétì‟s Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù (1972), O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún  (1973) 
and Láwuyì Ògúnníran‟s Ààrè-̣ Àgò Aríkúye̩rí  (1977) Three out of the four drama 
texts are historical with political undertones namely:Ààrè Àgò Arikuye̩ ri, E̩fúnsetán 
Aníwúrà, Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù , while the fourth one,Ré̩ré̩ Rún ,is  aprotest play. 
The synopsis of each of the play will help us have an overview of the events in them . 
They also serve as the data through which irony and the ironic are studied in the 
Yorùbá tragic plays.  
 
Ààrè-̣́ Àgò Ari ku ye̩ri (1977)  
 In Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí,Ògúnrìnde Ajé is the Ààrè-̣Àgò, a warlord who also has 
chiefs under him. Among them is Jagun who comes to pay homage to Ògúnrìnde Ajé 
for his safe return from À kókó region. From their meeting emerges the elaborate 
xlv 
 
 
discussion on the concept of Orí among the Yorùbá. Historical facts and excerpts 
from the Ifá literary corpus are used as reference point to substantiate the fact that Orí 
is greater and more powerful than all the other gods in Yorùbá land. This discussion 
leads to Ogúnríndé Ajé‟s announcement of his plan to make sacrifice to his Ori. After 
the propitiation segment, during the time of the merriment,one after the other, each of 
the three wives of Ogúnríndé Ajépresents different praise names of their husband with 
rárà chants.  This is where it shows thatAdépèlé‟s does not have the ability for rárà 
chanting likeFátó ḷ́ á, the second and the favourite wife, who is the expert in rárà 
chanting both in the content and in the tone of delivery (pp 16-17). 
Òḅ́ ọ Lágído‟s sarcastic comment about Adépèlé‟s presentation makes her 
angry; Ògúnrìndé Ajé also frowns at Lágídò‟s comment. This causes bitterness among 
the wives especiallyAdépèlé, the last and the youngest wife of Ògúnrìndé Ajé. The 
first wife , Asiyanbí, seizes this opportunity of the incident to express her own 
grieviances onFátó ḷ́ á, the favourite wife, by lying against her as the murderer 
ofAdépèlé‟s three children  who are suspected to have swallowed poison or that 
somebody give them poison.At this point,Ògúnrìndé Ajé loses control and, without 
further investigation, he accepts Asiyanbí‟s report, takes his bow and arrow in a rage 
and shoots Fá́tó ḷ́ á, his dearest slender wife. Although Fátóḷ́ á is killed, the death of the 
three children still remains a riddle . Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmoḷ́ a  sends forOgúnríndé Ajé. 
There is a clash of power, Ògúnrìndé, a war -chief, sees himself as an authority that 
should not be challenged . Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmoḷ́ a al so sees himself as the general-
overseer over the entire Ìbàdàn land and its environment and, as such, has full 
authority to challenge Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s office even as a war captain. Later, Ògúnrìndé 
Ajé is forcefully taken to Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s palace and the hearing begins. 
           Many things about the murder case are laid bare and the final decision that 
brings the tragic situation to an end comes into view. It is discovered that Asiyanbí  is 
the culprit ; she is the brain behind the report that leads to Fátóḷ́ á‟s death . Ògúnrìnde 
Ajé laments Fátó̩lá‟s death when he sees the result of his impatience. 
Ògúnrìnde Ajé is faced with the unexpected that must be accepted, the ironic 
outcome of an event that is least expected. The messengers of Ògúnrìnde Ajé are 
presented in order to avoid uneasy interrogation and to hasten the speed of the play to 
safe landing. Thus, Ògúnmó̩lá‟s judgment marks the clima x and the tragic end of the 
play. However, instead of Ògúnrìnde Ajé to do according to the judgment passed on 
him, he runs-away. It is the run-away attitude of somebody expected to commit 
xlvi 
 
 
honorary suicide, who even boasted ofnot fearing death as the warlord that informs 
the ironic title of the play. Therefore, the play presents a problem in ironic term. 
 
Ìdáámù Páàdì Minkailu 
In Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù (The Dilemma of Rev. Fr. Michael), the local 
government council in Èjìgbò is used as the micro-setting that represents the third arm 
of government. A public outcry on the cases of theft and robbery in the local 
government council in Èjig̀ bó Township  has reached an unbearable level to the extent 
that the state government is aware of it and it decides not to allow the local 
government to single-handedly execute any developmental project again. The play is 
designed to expose two degrading acts, corruption and fraud. 
A Catholic priest , Páàdì Mínkáílù, is nominated by the people and appointed 
by the governor into the council management board. This is done in order to put 
sanity into the affairs of the counci‟sl and also to serve as a check to the incessant 
fraudulent cases recorded in the past. When invited,Páàdì Mínkáílù reluctantly agrees. 
He takes the appointment with mixed feeling. Súfíánù, Páàdì Mínkáílù‟s houseboy, 
warns him about the sensitivity of the post he has agreed to take without taking 
counsel from him.  
On the other hand, there is a strategic plan on how to steal the special project 
fund allocated for the construction of the River Ajìngò ̣́ dò‟̣́ s bridge by the evil men 
who call themselves the workers and the noble in the town. The perpetrators and the 
brain behind the robbery cases are the important members of the board, namely: 
Yúnùsa,the council secretary, who is also among the board members; Ibrahim, a chief 
who is also a member of the council‟s board; and Salu, a worker in the local 
government council. In a desperate desire to steal the money , Sèṭ́ ílù, the council 
treasurer, is gunned down but they could not steal the money because Sèṭ́ ílù has 
transfered the money to Páàdi ̀ Mínkáílù‟s house through his wife, Saratu.Sèṭ́ ílùand the 
money are taken to Ìbàdàn , the headquarters. The robbers are bewildered when they 
later see the money they have struggled to steal. It is so painful that Yúnùsa has to 
follow the convoy that brings the money from Ìbàdàn back toÌbàdàn again. There are 
so many suspects in the robbery case: Yunusa, Ibrahim, Salu, the son of Jubirilu and 
Jubirilu, the king himself. Rafilu and her mother suspects Salu. The police inspector 
suspects Sàlú , Yunusa and Chief Ibrahim. Salu confesses to Páàdì Mínkáílù who , 
xlvii 
 
 
because of the tenets of his office, could not help the police. It is really a dilemma for 
the priest. 
Different levels of interrogation and investigation methods are put into 
operation by the detective policemen in order to expose the culprits. With many 
troubles, the culprits are exposed. The truth prevails at last but with the records of the 
death of the innocent and the guilty as well.  
 
Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà 
E̩fúnsẹ́ tánAníwúrà is the story of a traditional chief in Ìbàdàn. The text is a 
reconstruction of the life and times of E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà , the Ìyálóde of Ìbàdàn 
during the reign of Ààrè  ̣́ Lát̀ósà. She is a terrorist, fearful, wealthy, strong and wicked 
woman. She is very wicked to both her slaves and her immediate community. She is 
childless and this is one of the reasons she refers to as responsible for her wickedness. 
E̩fúns̩etan treats the slaves badly. She puts them through hard labour with little 
to eat. She also makes a law prohibiting any of her female slaves from getting 
pregnant for any man either among themselves or for anybody outside, however 
highly placed.She kills her slaves as she pleases. She kills thirteen female slaves and 
twenty-eight male slaves. She represents the high-handedness, wicked and the power-
drunk leaders.  When she reacts to Akiń kúnlé‟s visit , she detests his talking about his 
sick son.  This triggers her emotion about her childlessness and she expresses how 
brutal, wicked and ferocious she has been and will be as far as procreation issue and 
his slaves are concerned. Notable among her terrorist and bloody conducts is the 
killing of Ògúnjìnmí, a palm- fruit tapper in the farmland of Chief O̩làtiń wo̩ that 
shares boundary with her own farmland. The chiefs deliberate on the issue but they 
could not reach a conclusion because E̩fúns̩étán is too powerful and feared by all .  
Àwe̩rò, a female slave and a friend to Adétútù , notices that Adétutù is 
pregnant. She makes Ìtáwùyi ́ to be aware of this . Akínkúnlé, E̩fúns̩etàn‟s younger 
brother, takes up the responsibility for the pregnancy and solicits for the assistance of 
Akíngbadé to help appeal to Ìyálóde.Ẹfúns̩etàn, aware that Adétutù is pregnant, 
summons all the slaves and announces that Adétutù will be beheaded the following 
morning. The elders, led by Akíngbadé, appeal to Ef̣́ úns̩etàn to pardon Adétútù  since 
Akínkúnlé is the one responsible for the pregnancy, but she refuses. In fact , the visit 
and the mentioning of Akínkúnlé‟s name make the matter worse . She rejects their 
plea. A report is brought to the market place by a woman that a pregnant slave has 
xlviii 
 
 
been beheaded in front of Ẹfúns̩etàn‟s house. The news of the terrible incident reaches 
Látóòsà. He sends a message to E ̣́ fúnsẹ́ tán through the town crier , that she should 
leave the town immediately . E̩fúns̩etán disregards the message and refuses to leave ; 
she also detains the town crier and adds him to her slaves. 
Ìtáwuyì decides to take vengeances with the help of Àwè̩ró by putti ng poison 
in E̩fúns̩etán‟s food . However, when E̩fúns̩etán detects it , she makes them eat the 
poisoned food that quickly results to their death . E̩fúns̩etán takes the law into her own 
hand and behaves as a small god that owns the entire universe. The entire town, led by 
King Látóòsà, match to E̩fúns̩etán‟s house to arrest her . Though Àjilé her only friend, 
advises her to escape, she refuses to run away. The townpeople surround her house, 
singing war songs, and then there is an exhange of verbal metaphysical words and 
incantation between Látòósà and E̩fúns̩etán . Látóòsà overpowers her. The people 
enter into her residence, loots her house while E̩fúns̩etán watche s them. E̩fúns̩etán is 
captured and taken to Látóòsà‟s house. The remaining slaves are set free on the order 
of Látóòsà. E̩fúnsetán is highly humiliated . She is ashamed of her situation that she 
takes her own life by eating poison.  
 
Rẹ́́re ̣́ Rún 
 Réṛe ̣Rún  is a play about theworker‟s experience and the problem of labour 
union with leaders. It is a reflection of the modern society in which the efforts and the 
struggle of the poor to improve their living and working conditions in a capitalistic 
society comes to nothing. Láwúwò is the labour leader who is ready to fight the 
course of the labour union to a logical conclusion. The workers demand for better 
condition of service and remuneration, but the employers and the rulers refuse to 
listen. Instead, they embark on various ways to frustrate, intimidate and oppress the 
workers. 
Láwùwó, the committed union leader , proves difficult and he is to the 
employers and the rulers a hindrance in the course of the execution of their cunning 
plans. Láwúwò organizes  and prepares the workers for a confrontation with the 
employers. The skillful plans of the rulers to buy Láwùwó fails , then the rulers, led by 
Onímògún, decide to blackmail Láwùwó and also to portray him as a traitor before his 
loyal and faithful workers. The rulers succeed in disorganizing the union, by creating 
sectionalism within the worker and finally replace Láwùwó with Ìdòwú , their 
sponsored candidate . Ìdòwú arranges and commissions money -doublers to dupe 
xlix 
 
 
More̩nìkè̩é̩, Láwùwó‟s wife , of the money contributed by members of the union for 
his case. 
Moréṇ́ ikè̩ realizes her mistake and , knowing fullwell that she has become a 
thorn in the flesh to her husband for losing the money, commits suicide. The overall 
effect of this entire problem makes Láwúwò himself to l ose his mind and become 
mad. With his state of mind, he is unable to lead again: so, the struggle fails; the 
workers have no choice but to continue working and suffering under the leadership of 
the callous rulers and employers.  
        All the drama texts narrated above present different political and domestic 
conflicts in contending forces of order and disorder that culminate in the tragic ending 
of the plays. Irony and the ironic are deeply established in drama. It is in the light of 
the above account of each of the plays that we  embarked on the stylistic analysis of 
irony and the ironic to show how the employment of irony and the ironic as devices 
are used stylistically and as communicative functions in the plays. 
 
 
l 
 
 
Notes to Chapter One 
1. See Hutchens E.N, in The Identification of Irony in ELH Vol. 27, No 4, 
Dec.1960, pg 352-363. The John Hopkins University Press. Stable 
URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 2872064, Accessed 05/01/2012. 
 
2. It is taken from the personal interview with Awo Adéníyì Àpáta on 
17/12/2007.       
 
3.           It is taken from another personal interview with Awo Adéníyì Àpáta on 
               09/11/2012 
 
4.           It is the continuation and the completion of the Ifa verses from the same Odù  
              Ògúndá Borógbè. 
 
5. According to Yorùbá cultural context , people do not say“ilè ̣́gbóná” meaning 
„the ground is hot‟ , in the real sense of the weather condition but they say “ilè ̣́
tutù” in order not to invoke the wrath of the „Sòṇ́ pòṇ́ ná‟ the deity of smallpox , 
who is believed to be capable of causing smallpox, especially during the dry 
season. So when you say, „the ground is hot‟ it means you are deliberately 
speaking ill of the deity. 
 
6. See  Muecke 1970: 26. Irony and the Ironic, Critical Idiom Series,Vol.13. 
Methuen&Co Ltd. London. 
 
7.     See  The Ironies of  students‟ recognition of irony by MilnerJ.O, Lynch E.B, 
CarterF. S, CogginsJ., Cole K, Elise W.H, Lucy M. The Clearing House            
Volume 72, No 5 (May-June 1999) pp 308-314. Published by Taylor & 
Francis Ltd. http://www.jostor.org/stable/ 30189457/. Accessed: 18/01/2012 
09.56 
 
8.   See Hutchens E.N, in The Identification of Irony  ELH Vol. 27, No 4, 
Dec.1960, pg 352-363. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Stable URL: 
http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 2872064, 05/01/2012. 
 
9.  See  Hutchens E.N, in The Identification of Irony in ELH Vol. 27, No 4, 
 Dec.1960, pg 352-363. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Stable URL: 
http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 2872064, 05/01/2012. 
 
10.   See Thompson (1948:30) 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
li 
 
 
CHAPTER TWO  
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE 
2.1 Introduction 
Literature is a word and not a thing (Scholes.1982:17). Literature is an 
imitation of life. Different research works have been carried out on literature. Also, 
scholars have worked on the different stylistic devices that are embedded in works of 
literature. This chapter is devoted to the review of the works of scholars that are 
relevant to this study on irony. Irony and ironic, as stylistic device has received little 
or no attention, despite the fact that it is a prominent figure of narrative and dramatic 
texts, tragic plays especially.  
 
2.2 Review of Relevant Literature 
 Irony is one of the very important stylistic devices in literature.Illustrating 
irony with the poems of Adébáyò̩ Fálétí , Ọlátúnjí (1982:93) describes irony as “a 
literary tool that induces the reader with a notion of ambiguity or multivalence that is 
aesthetically stimulating”. He is, perhaps, the first Yorùbá scholar to give the concept 
at least a passing attention from the Yorùbá philosophical and literary points of view. 
He, Ọlátúnjí (1982:93) defines irony as:  
a figure of speech that involves one thing while intending 
another which is incompatible with an overt meaning….  It 
is an unpleasant meaning that is couched in apparently 
innocuous statement. (p. 93).   
 
He gives two examples of irony  thus: 
              (i)           Òun ni óò sin ìyá ẹ  
                             Ọmọ tí ń fọká remú 
  
                             He would surely outlive his mother 
                             The child who cleans his nostrils with a cobra. 
 
                (ii)       Méè-wáyé- ẹjó  ̣́ fọmọò ̣́ rè ̣́fóḳ́ ọ méf̣́ à 
                            He who says he hates lawsuit trouble offers his daughter in marriage  
                            to six men. 
 
Ọlátúnjí gives a working definition of irony , but says nothing on the ironic, which 
deals with the dramatic action as against irony which is more of a verbal 
phenomenon. 
lii 
 
 
 O̩lábò̩dé‟s (1981) work does not discuss irony specifically, but metaphor, one 
of the devices we consider as an allied trope to irony. He sees metaphor as a sign that 
requires interplay oflanguage, individuality and the contextual situation within the 
culture for its interpretation. His work, though not on irony specifically, serves as a 
springboad for this study, especially with regard to irony and its allied tropes as 
important literary devices. 
        Adéyẹmọ (1986) is on selected tragic plays are based on three out of the four 
tragic texts that are chosen for this study. His focus is on the concept of tragedy, the 
reason for their categorisation as tragic plays, the characterisation and the didactic 
elements in the plays. However, the work does not mention the stylistic devices 
employed by the playwrights in achieving tragedy. This is very important because 
irony is synonymous to tragedy.  This is the gap the present study is all out to fill, to 
bring out the tragic incidents in the play through the use of irony and the ironic. 
In the consideration of other stylistic devices that share some resemblance in 
operation and effects with irony , the work of Ògúnrá ntí (1987) is relevant. He 
discusses the different developments that have taken place on satire in Yorùbá society. 
He presents satire in traditional and modern society of the Yorùbá. He discusses satire 
in written drama, using seven Yorùbá drama texts to substantiate the fact that satire is 
not limited to only prose and poetry; it is also seen in drama. In his discussion, he 
makes no reference to the fact that irony and the ironic often generate satirical effects. 
This is a very important area when looking at satire, especially in drama texts. 
Although, the work does not give attention to irony in all the sevenYorùbá drama 
texts, it is still relevant in that irony and the ironic are used for satirical effects in the 
drama texts selected for the present study.  
Adágbádá (1995) presents a critical study of Láwuyì Ògúnni ran‟s plays. She 
presents the features of his plays to include the use of poetry or verse, loan words, 
songs, proverbs and slogans as well as adaptation of Yorù bá history. Though, 
Adágbádá also discusses Láwuyì Ògúnníran‟s  use of language , but irony , which 
constitutes an aspect ofÒgúnníran‟s language st yle, is not mentioned. Ògúnníran uses 
irony with poetic template for rhetorical purpose and for other stylistic effects , like for 
comical, satirical and humorous effects . However, Adágbádá‟s work cannot be totally 
dismissed. Her discussion on characterization and thematic presentation serves as a 
useful material for the ironic situations and events in this study. 
liii 
 
 
Ìs̩ò̩lá (1998:98) writes on the „forms of dramatic language in Yorùbá literature‟. 
Although irony as one of the forms of dramatic language is not fully discussed, he 
sees  language as a force and as an instrument for generating actions in drama andthis 
serves as an inducement for our analysis on irony as an extension of the force 
oflanguage.  
O̩láté̩jú‟s(1999) work on Adébáyò̩ Fálétí‟ s „Basò̩run Gáà‟is also useful to this study. 
He discussesFálétí‟s use of language inBasò̩run Gáà , noting that a literary artist has 
two ambitions, namely: to pass a message and to entertain. For him to be able to do 
these requires both literary and linguistic skills that will generate aesthetic pleasure. 
These literary and linguistic skills areemployed and deliberately. He explores Fálétí‟s 
use of language under two sub -headings: the Yorùbá traditional materials and Yorùbá 
stylistic devices. He looks at the rhythmic pattern, simile, metaphor, euphemism and 
wordplay. O̩láté̩jú does not mention irony among the stylistic devices used in Basọ̀́ ṣ́ ún 
Gáà as a dominant stylistic device . He is , however, not conscious of the fact that 
Baṣòṣ́ ún Gáà is a tragic play that is full of irony and the ironic ,wherein there are many 
incidents of incongruity. He is perhaps, satisfied with his identification of metaphor 
and euphemism which are great allies of irony.  He, therefore, feels at ease to discuss 
these two devices at length with their stylistic and semantic significance rather than 
irony. Therefore, the attention must be drawn to the importance of irony in the tragic 
plays as it is done in this present study.   
       A stylistic study of humour in Adébáyò̩ Fáléti‟́ s w ritings is the pre -occupation 
ofAdésànyà (2002). He discusses the origin and evolution of humour, its concept and 
types. He gives different categories of humour, such as linguistic humour, black or 
gallows humour, political humour, situation humour, humour in illogicality and self-
depreciating humour.He uses three different theories of humour, discussingFálétí‟s 
sources of humour in his writings . He submits that Fá létí‟s use of humour in his 
writings originates from comparison through the use of stylistic devices like 
metaphor, simile and wordplay. The use of dialect and scenes of cinematography are 
also part of Fá léti‟s sources of humour. He claims that Fá létí creditably uses humour 
as a weapon of criticism, a descriptive instrument, a way of driving home his 
philosophical themes and a suitable weapon of laughter. However, his work fails to 
recognise irony as one of the devices used to generate humour in Faleti‟s play, 
especially in Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù ,  where irony is used for humourous purpose in 
more than one instance. The work is relevant because irony and humour are related, 
liv 
 
 
especially in drama because irony and the ironic are basic elements in generating 
humour.  
Language of protest forms the focus of the work of Adésànyà (2003). He 
discusses the language of protest in Akínwùmí Ìsò̩lá‟s E̩fúnṣetán AníwúràandAyé Yẹ 
Wóṇ Tán,Adébáyò̩ Fálétì‟s Basòrun Gáà and O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún.He presents 
the various ways the different authors use language in the identification of their 
characters. He presents and analyse the language of the oppressed and not necessarily 
the language of the oppressor. Language, as reflected in the work, serves as one of the 
tools in the construction of a social identity and a sign of demarcation between the 
oppressor and the oppressed. This is done through the use of different stylistic 
devices, metaphor, simile, wordplay and traditional materials like songs and 
proverbs.Although his work is based on Yorùbá tragic plays , he does not include irony 
and the ironic in his list of the language of the oppressed when it is clear that irony 
and the ironic situations and events are instrumentfor the workings of the protest that 
eventually leads to the tragic end in the plays.  It is a means of communication 
between the oppressed and the oppressor because the oppressor does not understand 
any other language except the one from the opposite direction.  This study is meant to 
fill the gap and explore how irony and the ironic are used as the basis for the remote 
and the immediate causes of the protest in the selected plays.  
Abíóḷ́ á (2005) focuses on the plays of Akiń wùmi ́ Ìs̩ò̩lá where language of drama is 
discussed extensively. He presents a stylistic analysis of how Akínwùmí Ìs̩ò̩lá uses 
language to deliver his message to his readers. He observes that, since language 
cannot be divorced from society, what makes drama relevant in society is the use of 
language. He highlights and discusses how Ìs̩ò̩lá uses Yorùbá traditional materials and 
other stylistic devices to reinforce the various themes in his plays. However, the non-
recognition of irony as an aspect of language of drama creates the necessity for this 
present study because irony is an important device in drama as reflected inE̩fúnṣetán 
Aníwúrà. 
Shittu (2006) presents a stylistic study of humour in Láwùyí Ògúnnìrán‟s plays . He 
presents different definitions of humour , types of humour and theories of humour . 
Shittu discusses Láwùyí Ògúnnìrán‟s sources of humour , which are through the scene 
of cinematography, dialect, comparison, incongruity and wordplay . He declares that 
satire is one of the distinguishing features of Láwùyi ́ Ògúnnir̀ án from other Yorù bá 
playwrights. This work fails to see that humour can be derived through the 
lv 
 
 
employment of irony and the ironic situations and events in Láwùyí Ògúnnìrán‟s 
plays,especially in Àarè̩ Àgò Aríkúye̩rí , in which they are used to produce humourous 
effect. Therefore, this study is not onlylooking for irony and the ironic as stylistic 
devices in Ààre̩ Àgò but to also see irony and the ironic elements as devices  used to 
generate humourous effect in order to achieve the overall message of the play. 
Adégún (2006) investigated the language of satire, focusing on its origin and 
definitions. She also presents the linguistic patterns of satire at the word, phrase and 
sentence levels.The use of satire as the reflection of social and political issues is 
discussed within the framework of sociological approach. However, the work does 
not make an attempt to look at irony and the ironic as the platform for the tragedy in 
his plays . It does not also see the relation between irony and satire even when it is 
evident that Láwuyi ̀ Ògúnníran uses irony and the ironicextensively for satirical 
effects and comic relief in almost all his literary texts. However, Adégún‟s work helps 
in this study because irony and satire are close neighbours For instance; irony is used 
extensively for satirical effect and comic relief in Ààre̩-ÀgòAríkúye̩rí, which is one of 
the texts selected for this study.  Therefore, this work tries to establish the fact that 
devices such as metaphor and euphemism cannot be treated in isolation but in 
conjunction with irony and the ironic as allied tropes.     
The concern of Bello (2006) is poetry in Láwùyi ́ Ògúnnir̀ án‟s drama . He 
discusses the relationship between poetry and drama and the importance of poetry in 
drama. He points out that poetry and drama are unified entities as reflected in Láwùyí 
Ògúnnìrán‟s drama texts.Although the texts arehistorical, they are presented in a 
poetic form. He submits that poetry cannot be counted out of the featuresof literature 
because drama makes use of all segments of poetry like chants, songs and dance. He 
shows in his work how Ògúnnir̀ án uses po etry and poetic devices, rhyme and rhythm 
to make his drama an aesthetic piece. However, the irony and the ironic situations 
thatLáwùyí Ògúnnìrán  uses poetry to present are ignored in his work, especially in 
Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí .According to Bello (2006:28), „drama is very close to poetry as 
far as the use of language is concerned.‟ When poetry or poetic features are found in 
drama, they are for specific stylistic, semantic and communicative purposes. He 
asserts that, in order to enhance the stylistic quality of his work , Ògúnníran, uses 
1
traditional materials like E̩se̩ -Ifá, Rárà, Oríkì, O̩fò̩,  songs, proverbs and riddles 
extensively. However, he fails to identify the purpose for the usage of Yorùbá 
traditional materials, especially eṣ́ e-̣́ Ifá and Yorùbá proverbs from which irony of fate 
lvi 
 
 
used to establish the Yorùbá philosophical belief on destiny derives . There is also the 
use of verbal irony as rhetorics delivered in poetic form for defence purpose by 
Balógun in Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí . Bello‟s work also undermines the fact that irony 
within the frame of poetic structure by Ògúnniŕ an in Ààre̩-ÀgòAríkúye̩rí is used to 
emphasise the strong effects of the tragic outcome of the play. However,Bello‟s work 
serves as a pointer, for it shows that poetry is a good framework from which irony and 
the ironic can be used to carry the weight of tragic incidents that can easily arouse the 
sense of pity and fear as noticed Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí. 
 
2.3 Conclusion 
           In this chapter, we have reviewed the scholarly works that are related to the 
present study. It is evident from this review that no specific work has been done on 
irony and the ironic as literary devices used in Yorùbá literature, especially in tragic 
plays. It is important to note that those scholars that have worked on drama did not 
see the invaluable place of irony and the ironic as the window through which all other 
stylistic devicessee the fundamental and the organization of dramatic principles such 
as conflict, clarification, crisis or complication and denouement in the Yorùbá tragic 
plays. In addition, and those thathave worked on tragic plays also failed to see irony 
and the ironic as the major stylistic device and an ever-ready instrument for tragic 
incidents and situations. However, the various stylistic devices that have been studied 
serveas the motivation for this study.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Note to Chapter Two 
1. In Ògúnniŕ an‟s Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí, uses E̩se̩-Ifá to present the importance of 
the concept of Orí , the primordial head and destiny as the basis for the 
example of irony of fate . Rárà, Oríkìandsongs are used as the instrument to 
lvii 
 
 
express the remote cause that initiate and prompts the actions that resulted in 
tragic incidents in Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí , while O̩fò̩, (incantation) is used as 
instrument for defencein the last encounter of Ààrè-̣Àgò and Ògúnmóḷ́ á 
inorder to prevent an embarrassing situation that eventually happened. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
lviii 
 
 
                                                CHAPTER THREE 
THEORETICAL APPROACH: ROLAND BARTHES THEORY OF 
SEMIOLOGY 
3.1 Introduction 
The theoretical approach adopted for this study is Roland Barthes‟ 
semiological theory.  The theory is considered adequate for this work because it isan 
interpretive model that embraces the contexts and the different types of irony and the 
ironic elements in form of situations and actions in the process of interpretation. 
Besides, the model is able to account for the various possibilities of interpretation of 
irony and the ironic through the elements of semiology in form of signifier, signified, 
denotation and connotation for a wider scope in the meaning- making process. 
Therefore, the intention in this chapter is to discuss Roland Barthes‟ semiological 
theory as an interpretive model for irony and the ironic as stylistic devices employed 
by the Yorùbá playwrights using these texts : Ààrè-̣Àgò (Aríkúye̩rí),E̩fúnṣetán 
Aníwúrà,Ìdààmú Páàdì (Mínkáílù), and Ré̩ré̩ Rún. 
 
3.2Problems of Literary Interpretation 
The essence of literature is an interpretation. For this reason scholars over the 
years have made attempt to find ways of giving literature or literary texts acceptable 
and meaningful interpretation. Different techniques or approaches to literary 
interpretation have evolved. There is, for instance, a historical school of thought or 
criticism that argues that „meaning is not found in the words but in a set of values and 
implication which are matters of history‟ that surround the texts in question. This 
school of thought attaches greater importance to the values that are embedded in 
historical facts, which must be understood before embarking on any meaningful and 
profitable interpretation of any literary work. However, this theory has its 
shortcomings because the venture of meaning- making is far more than the excavation 
of historical facts. 
  There is another theory that is author-centred, in which the authorial intention 
governs the interpretation.However, the death of the author must not bring an end to 
the examination of his work. Scholes (1982:14) argues that: „author alone does not 
speak but other voices also speak through him,‟ for example, the cultural, public or 
private voices of his environment. Although the author is a major voice that channels 
the combination of all other voices, be it public or private, the conscious and the 
lix 
 
 
unconscious elements put together, which eventually form the basis for the analysis 
and interpretation of his texts, these other voices must have a separate attention in the 
interpretation process. It is these other voices that form the secondary meaning that 
semiology is taking care of because  authors do not live in an ivory tower; they live 
among the people who are also custodians of culture that give birth to the same 
language that produces the literature.  
There is also another theory that is reader-oriented, that is the semic approach. 
This theory elevates and privileges the reader‟s interpretation of the text. It states that 
the fact that any literary work has many meanings makes the work special and 
peculiar. Nevertheless, the reader-oriented criticism gives room for disorderliness 
because one‟s point of view will be different from another person‟s perspective. For 
example, one hundred people may automatically present one hundred interpretations 
of a single text. Moreover, semiology is systematic and liberal. It lays emphasis on 
codes which emanate from a given culture; therefore,the interpretation of any literary 
work is subjected to different contexts from which they spring out.  
Another school of criticism emphasizes the text; the submission of the 
advocatesof this theory (the Russian Formalist) is that the text in itself is enough 
material for any interpretation. The formalist is of the opinion that the text is the only 
tangible thing the reader can possess and that one can make use of it to get to the 
meaning of the work. The theory gives room for total concentration on the text, 
nothing must be taken out of the text and nothing should be brought into the text as 
far as the interpretation process is concerned. The formalist‟s approach has its 
deficiency, in that, it focusses only on the linguistic description of a text based on 
structural analysis and this is not enough for meaning making. This theory fails 
because the meaning of any literary work does not depend only on the surface 
structure or in the plane of expression, but also in the plane of content that may have 
its root in different contexts, like culture, politics, philosophy and history. The 
application of this approach could lead to confusion or ambiguity through interpretive 
error, as a text could be and it is a product of a system, society or contexts that are 
important and equally serve as the springboard for its interpretation.  
The Russian Formalists move from textual analysis for meaning-making to the 
codes that give birth to the text as advocated by the structuralists who place emphasis 
on the codes that may be silent but initiates the production of the text. The limitations 
of these earlier mentioned approaches to the interpretation of literary works make 
lx 
 
 
scholars and critics think of semiology (semiotic theory) as a way out of the problems 
of literary interpretation. Semiotic theory advocates the interpretation of texts through 
the conventional and generic codes and stylistic conventions. It is this emphasis on 
codes and conventions by the structuralists that facilitates the birth and development 
of semiotics by theorists like Umberto Eco, the development of semiology by 
Saussure, which is later expanded by the Roland Bathes‟ theory of semiology. Barthes 
argues that every narrative is interwoven with multiple codes; therefore not all the 
variable meanings can be exhausted within the signifier and the signified.  
 
3.3Why Roland Barthes’ Semiology? 
 Since the objective of this work is to unfold how irony and the ironic are 
employed by Yorùbá playwrights in the presentation of the tragic issues of life within 
the Yorùbá political , historical, cultural and philosophical contexts, it is necessary to 
adopt an interpretive model that will embrace the contexts and the different types of 
irony and the ironic elements in form of situations and actions in the process of 
interpretation.  
After considering the different approaches and the tools of interpretation, 
Roland Barthes‟s semiology theory is adjudged adequate for this work. The model 
will be able to account for the various possibilities of interpretation. Two out of the 
four elements of Roland Barthes semiological theory: (i) signifier and the signified (ii) 
denotation and connotation, afford us the opportunity to have the extension of 
meaning that is beyond the form of expression in the irony and the ironic template.  
Roland Barthes semiology is an improvement on de Saussure‟s semiological 
theory. It does not see irony and the ironic only as signifier and signified, but it also 
explores the manner in which language signifies in the form of denotation and 
connotation.  
Semiology is preferred to other theories because it rejects the authoritarian 
hermeneutics position which places the author as the total and final authority when it 
comes to making meaning of texts. It also sees the process of interpretation beyond 
the syntactic analysis of the literary text at hand as claimed by the formalists. Also, 
the contemporary social semioticians and the current semiology theorists have 
criticised the structuralist prioritization of structure over usage and have raised the 
level of describing and searching for the meaning beyond the internal structural 
relations of the segments that are within a given text. The focus now is mostly in the 
lxi 
 
 
exploration of the use of signs with respect to specific social and cultural contexts in 
which it is possible to have extension of meanings both within and outside the 
context. 
Roland Barthes semiology is also preferred because it sees the literary text, 
either written or spoken, as an act that is beyond the spoken word.Roland 
Barthessemiology also arguesthat interpretation and meaning-making cannot be left in 
the hands of the readers as claimed by the advocates of the semic approach, who 
argue that a literary works can have different meanings from different people at 
different levels. The adoption ofRoland Barthes semiology will make it possible to 
look at literary interpretations from both the denotative and connotative perspectives. 
As Culler (1981:32) asserts, semiology has the possibility of „making explicit the 
implicit knowledge, which enables people within a given society to understand one 
another‟s behaviour…this implicit knowledge is a deeply rooted set of cultural norms 
and conventions.‟  
In other words, semiotics places premium on the general rules and codes 
paramount in a given society,which make the hidden meaning of a text to be brought 
out.  For this study, the comparative advantage of semiological theory over the other 
theories lies in its ability to reveal the culturally and contextually determined nature of 
behaviour with respect to language use. Lyons (1977:58) notes that: 
It is because by common consent, language is the most 
important and most highly developed semiotic system 
employed by human beings and this gives the reason why 
we have to distinguish vocal from non-vocal signs.   
 
Semiotics studies sign system, which includes language. Words and 
expressions are taken as signs which, in some sense, signify or stand for something. 
Essentially, it focuses on the discovering of codes, the rules, and the system which 
underlies all human and social practices that facilitate the use of language.Barthes 
semiological theory also sees the interpretation of the signs using the elements of 
denotation and connotation in order to accommodate wide range of interpretation. 
Since language is described as a system of signs that express ideas, then irony and the 
ironic are symbols that represent some ideas.The application ofBathes semiology 
would bring to the fore the authors‟ ideas, opinions and messages which have been 
expressed through the use of irony and the ironic expressions.  
 
lxii 
 
 
3.4Historical Development of Roland Barthes’ Semiological Theory 
 The historical development of the modern-day semiology theory can be traced 
back to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure(1971:2) says that: 
Language is a system of signs that expresses ideas, and is 
therefore comparable to writing, to the deaf-mute alphabet, 
to symbolic rites, to codes of good manners, to military 
signals etc. It is simply the most important of these 
systems. A science that studies the life of signs in the 
society is therefore conceivable: it would be a part of 
general psychology; we shall call it semiology. 
 
           According to him, semiology is a science which studies the life of signs in      
society. He postulated the existence of a general science of signs, or semiology in 
which he viewed linguistics as only a part of general science of semiology. 
Linguistics is viewed as a branch of semiology. His focus is to take and embrace any 
system of signs irrespective of its substance and limits. The above postulations 
generated questions and criticisms about its use and how sound the theory will be if 
put into use with regard to the semiological analysis of literary texts and to see 
whether  this is the royal road to a science of literature and of many other phenomena 
not neccesarily of language only. 
The American Philosopher, C.S. Pierce also conceived and developed a 
general theory of signs which he called semiotics.According to him, „a sign is 
something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity‟. He 
considers semiotics as the „formal doctrine of signs‟ which is closely related to logic. 
Saussure emphasizes the social function of signs but Pierce emphasizes its logical 
function.Semiotics, semiosis and semiology stand for signs and the study of signs but 
from different approaches.  
  There are two divergent traditions in semiology that evolved respectively 
from Saussure and Peirce. The works of Louis Hjelmslev, Roland Barthes, Claudes 
Levi-Strauss, Julia Kristeva, Christian Metz follow the tradition of Saussure; while 
those of Charles W Morris, Ivor A Richard, Charles K. Ogden and Thomas Sebeok 
are in the „semiotic tradition‟ of Peirce. The gap between the two traditions is filled 
with the work of Umberto Eco (1976) who says that „semiotics is concerned with 
everything that can be taken as signs‟.   
 In the late 1960s, semiotics progressed as it become a major approach to 
cultural studies because of the work of Roland Barthes who followed the semiotic 
lxiii 
 
 
tradition of Saussure in his work on mythology. He says that, Saussure‟s semiology 
„aims to take in any system of signs whatever their substance and limits‟ and if this is 
so, we must realise that there are some signs that are more than mere codes but 
language in the real sense. He argues that, if Saussure‟s semiology embraces all the 
components of signs, given the examples of images, gestures, musical, sounds, 
objects, ritual, convention or public entertainment, then it must be noted that, even if 
they are not regarded as language, they are, in most cases,the system of signification. 
1
He therefore, submits that Saussure‟s semiology  must see its operation within the 
scope of language.  
 From the above, we can see that Barthes theory of semiology is an 
improvement on semiotics and Saussure‟s semiology. Barthes presents semiology as a 
branch of linguistics. He avers that, it is true that images and objects, gestures musical 
sound can signify, but not in isolation, not without a linguistic interpretation. It is for 
this reason, that every semiological system is deemed to have its linguistic undertone, 
as no signifier and signified exist without language. Therefore, semiology as a 
theoretical concept has the prospect of accommodating many disciplines, including 
stylistics, in the concept of signification because it has its root in language.  
 
3.5Concepts and Terminologies associated with Roland Barthes’ theory of  
             Semiology 
 Semiotics is a theory of signification that recognises language as a system that 
is capable of being interpreted. Some of the terms and concepts crucial to Barthes‟ 
theory include sign (indexical, iconic, symbolic), signifier and signified.  
 
3.6Sign 
  To the semiological theory there are three different types of signs, namely the 
indexical, iconic and symbolic signs. According to Pierce (1975), each of these signs 
has its features and functions in the signification process. 
(A) Index/Indexical Sign:This is a sign in which there is a direct relationship 
between it and the object it stands for. The relationship is not arbitrary but it is 
directly connected in one way or the other to the object. For example, a natural 
sign like smoke is an indicator for fire or a fire outbreak, just like the thunder 
is an indicator for rainfall or danger; footprints and echoes are signs for the 
presense of people or living beings around. Similarly, non-synthetic odours 
lxiv 
 
 
and flavours are direct signs for cooking or an indicator to detect many things. 
In medical parlance, the presence of medical symptoms, like pain, rash, high 
pulse rate, are direct signs to detect the sickness that a patient is suffering 
from.  In this regard, the relation of the indexical sign to the object is a relation 
of fact which calls attention to their objects. For example, the worker‟s protest 
action in Ré̩ré̩ Rún is an index for industrial crisis, chaos and lack of job 
satisfaction. 
(B) Icon/Iconic Sign: This is based on natural resemblance between a sign and 
what it represents. In this case, the sign is perceived as resembling or imitating 
the object in a recognized way, like looking, sounding, and feeling, tasting or 
smelling like it. This is because the similarities depend on the fact that the 
objectpossesses the same qualities as the sign, for example, a portrait, a 
photograph, a diagram, an imitative gesture. Iconicity is closer to „direct 
perception‟. For a sign to be truly iconic, it would have to be transparent to 
someone who has never seen it before. The more a signifier is constrained by 
the signified, the more motivated the sign is. Iconic signs are highly 
motivated. A sign is an icon in so far as it is like the object it stands for. For 
instance, Láwúwo is a labour icon in Ré̩ré̩ Rún , an icon for truth, loyalty and 
good leadership;  Páàdì Mínkáílù , in Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù , is a religious 
icon for honesty , fortrightness; and Ògúnmóḷ́ á in Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí , is a 
leadership icon for truth, justice and equity. 
 
(C) Symbol/Symbolic Sign:  Here, the sign does not resemble the object at all; the 
relatioship is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional. It is an example 
of an unmotivated sign; hence it is seen as arbitrary. This is when a sign is 
received as a sign because it is used as such, a sign that stands in the place of 
an object. In Greek, symbol means the celebration of a contract or an 
agreement. In Aristotle‟s view, a name is a symbol, a conventional sign. For 
Pierce, symbols function as such not by virtue of a character that belongs to 
them and neither by virtue of a real connection with their objects but simply 
based on the agreement between the speaker and the listener. It is by virtue of 
a law, which is usually based on an association of general ideas. For example, 
words, sentences and concepts are mere symbols because the meanings they 
convey are based on convention and not on any relationship between them as 
lxv 
 
 
signs and what they mean. The less motivated the sign, the more the learning 
of an agreed convention is required. The symbolic sign is interpreted 
according to „a rule‟ or „a habitual connection‟. 
A sign can be an icon, a symbol or an index or a combination of any two or all. 
Consequently,irony and the ironic are regarded as signs in form of symbols standing 
for something else with an intention of communicating something meaningful. The 
use of irony and the ironic is meant to show the intensity of the meaning the author 
wants to pass across.  In Barthes‟ semiology, the different types of signs are reffered 
to as the typical signsthat can encompass all the other signs, like the verbal sign, the 
graphic sign, the iconic sign and the gestural sign. As far as this work is concerned, 
and since language is made up of signs in form of words, irony and the ironic 
expressions in the selected texts are regarded as typical signs used to communicate or 
pass information to the readers.  
 
3.7Signifier andSignified 
3.7.1Signifier 
„Signifier‟ is the form which the sign takes, the sign which stands for 
something in some respect or capacity.  It is considered as the material (or physical) 
form of the sign. Barthes refers to the signifier as „denotation‟, the plane of expression 
which includes physical materials of the medium, like photographs, recorded voices, 
and printed words on paper. This substance of expression could be in the form of 
expression, through language, formal syntactic structure, technique and style or an 
action carried out. In this study, irony and the ironic are the signifiers, the substance 
and the plane of expression. Barthes (1964:47) says „the nature of signifier is purely a 
relatum, whose definition cannot be separated from that of the signified‟. The 
signifier stands for something and the something is the signified. In semiology, the 
signified comes with mixed systems where different kinds of matter are involved, like 
sound and image, objects and writing. Therefore, one can have signifiers in verbal, 
graphic, iconic, and gestural forms as signifier within the scope of what semiology 
refers to as typical signs. 
 
3.7.2   Signified 
          „Signified‟ is what the sign or the signifier represents or stands for; it is what 
the sign refers to. Signified is not a thing but the mental representation of the thing. 
lxvi 
 
 
The signified has been given difference labels by scholars.For instance, de Saussure 
calls it concept; it is called „an object‟by Pierce; and „referent‟ by Ogden and 
Richards. Barthes calls it the plane of contentwhich is the target of the concept in 
one‟s mind, that is the object or the word that the signifier refers to. Its substance or 
content could be human, textual word, subject matter or genre.  
Functionally, the signified is one of the two relations of the sign from which 
we arrive at the meaning. It is very much applicable with the use of irony and the 
ironic in the written tragic texts, where words, sentences, situations, actions, in as 
much as they are significant, refer back to something which can only be expressed 
through them. For example, in Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù , because of the inccessant 
fraudulent practice of the council workers and the inability of the  council board to 
rightly execute the assigned developmental projects,Mínkáílù the Catholic priest is 
invited to be among the members of the board as recommended by the people through 
the state governor. The invitation is brought by the board members and after the 
secretary has presented the reason for their visit , Mínkáílù is troubled.  This is seen in 
his reply to the invitation. His confused state is signified by the catalogue of  different 
contrary events of surprises and particularly by his mispresentation of the Yorùbá 
proverb in the last line of his speech. 
Mínkáílù:Ó ye ̣́k‟ara ò f̣́ à ó ló ̣́ tii kó tó 
  S‟òwò ìjàkádì  
  Níjó ̣́ tí wóṇ́  bá fé ̣́f‟oníjàkadì 
  J‟olórí ogun 
  … 
  Nítorí pé agódóngbó a máa dá  
 Mèdókí l‟ápá  
   Béẹ̀́  ̣́ni séḷ́èṛ́ ú leè gbe „ròmì lọ 
   Un ló fi yèḳ́ éṇ́ i tí ó bá gbóṇ́  ó fura 
  B‟ónínúre bá joyè n‟ilé ̣́ìkà 
  Ìkà „o ni jé ̣́ó joyè náà pé ̣́
                         Ẹni t‟ó p‟oun‟ó fò  ̣́ ‟bajẹ aiye mó ̣́
Yio kan‟yò  ̣́ ninu id̀ in  
 
Yunusa:            Yio kan‟din ninu iyò ,̣́  Páàdì  
                        “Yio kan‟din ninu iyò ”̣́  ni nwóṇ́  íwí 
(Gbogbo woṇ reṛin) 
Ìdààmú Páàdì(p.4) 
 
Mínkáílù:Ò f̣́ à‟s indegene should be relunctant before 
Engaging in a wrestling contest 
On the final day of selection of the chief wrestler 
For the weight of the Colt can break the Shepherd‟s hand 
lxvii 
 
 
 So also the spring can cause flood 
                       The reason the wise man needs to be careful 
  If a kind-hearted are enthroned in the land of the wicked 
 The wicked will not allow him to reign for long 
 Whosoever determines to purge the world of evil deeds 
Will definitely find salt inside the maggots (will definitely find  
                       Himself in unexpected trouble) 
 
Yunusa:          Will finds maggots inside the salt, Páàdì  
                       They say “Will finds maggots inside the salt” 
                                                                                      (They all laugh)  
 
The words in bold print are signifiers which are culturally motivated ; „agódóńgbó‟ is a 
young horse that should not be too heavy for the shepherd to carry on his arm but the 
reverse may be the case if the situation runs contrary . According to semiology , both 
agódóńgbó and ṣéḷ́ èṛ́ ú also signify the insignificant situations th at can frustrate even 
the wise. Páàdì Mí ńkáiluis of the opinion that, no matter how strong and mighty a 
person is, he should be careful when he is challenged,even with what he has been 
trained to do. He adds that it may be ironic but it is possible that a young horse can 
break theshepherd‟s hand and a small river can do terrible havoc. The environment 
determines the success of a leader, and this means his involvement in the council‟s 
affairs should be approached with caution. The underlined expression, a misquoted 
proverb fromPáàdì Mí ńkáilu, is a signifier, which refers to the signified that is the 
emotional state of PáàdìMíńkáilu at the point in time. It shows his confused state of 
mind and the troubled situation he could see ahead of him if he accepts the invitation 
into the council‟s board. 
 
3.8 Signification 
Signification is the relationship between the signifier and the signified. 
According to Eco (1976), signification can be referred to as „codification‟. Barthes 
(1964:48) asserts that, „signification can be conceived as a process, the process of sign 
formation. Thus, he defines it as „the act that binds the signifier and the signified, an 
act whose product is the sign‟, which is also reffered to as „semiosis.‟ 
 
 
SIGNIFICATION 
 
 
lxviii 
 SIGNIFIER SIGNIFIED 
Plane of expression Plane of content 
 
 
 ..….………..relation…………………. 
 
 
Figure 3. 1. The signification process                                                                  
 
The acts that bind them together are borne out of the conventional relationship.Irony 
and the ironic are codes among the Yorùbá speakers used to denote or connote some 
facts or ideology. When they are used, it is recognised, since the speakers can notice 
and identify that there has been a deviation from the normal standard of day-to-day 
use of the language. They recognize and accept the conventional relationship between 
the signifier (irony and the ironic) and the signified (the connotative meaning) and 
subject themselves to it.We can refer to the acts as the factors that produce the 
signifier and the signified out of which the process of meaning-making can be done. 
Therefore, the relationship between the signifier and the signified in the case of irony 
and the ironic embraces all the contextual backgrounds that serves as materials for 
interpreting the plane of expression and the plane of content.   
 
3.9 Denotation and Connotation   
 The union of signifier and signified does not exhaust the semantic act. The 
signs derive its total value from its surrounding. The mind of the readers do not get 
meaning by connecting the signifier with the signified only, but through imagination 
and carving out of meaning from the relation of the two. This is the reason for 
Barthes‟ elements of denotation and connotation inhis theory.Denotation and 
connotation are the two principal methods of describing the meanings of words and 
sentences through the consideration of factors that are outside the texts but are of 
paramount importance to the interpretation of the texts. The factors are now given 
wider coverage and this is very much applicable to the making of meaning from the 
employment of irony and the ironic in the texts under consideration. The figure below 
shows the elements of denotation and connotation as additional factors in the semiotic 
triangle. 
 
 SIGN 
 
lxix 
 
SIGNIFIER SIGNIFIED 
Plane of expression Plane of content 
 
 
 
 
      …………relation…………………. 
 
 
Figure 3.2.  Theelements of denotation and connotation 
 
3.9.1Denotation 
Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word or a sign. It is the dictionary 
meaning or definition of a concept that distinguishes it from other concepts. It is the 
strict,explicit and precise or referential meaning of a word. It is also known as the 
surface meaning.  Denotation is when you say what you mean , literally. It is when one 
designates things directly . For example , the sprinkling of powder on every item in 
Sẹtilu‟s office , if taken at the denotative level, is not more than the fact that the 
powder is used as one of the detective materials to get the murderer in Ìdààmú Páàdì.  
However,it is more than that , this is clear from Adégboyè‟s explaination to Yesufu ; he 
says, the powder in itself does not contain special chemical to arrest the criminals but 
it is used to instil fear in their hearts thereby making the arresteasy and possible. One 
can see that it has more than the denotative meaning. The denotative meaning is 
powder for beautification, but in this context, it connotes fear. Jindal and Pushpinder 
(2001:114) describe denotative meaning as „the literal meaning of a word, indicating 
the idea or concept to which it refers. The denotative relationship has to do with the 
correlation between the form of expression and the form of contents.  
 
lxx 
 
 
3.9.2    Connotation 
Allexander of Hales in Barne (1945) describes connotation as „a word which 
in addition to what an individual entity connotes, notes along with reference, a 
relation between that entity and some other‟.Jindal and Pushpinder (2001:115) view 
connotative meaning as „the additional meaning that a concept carries‟, while Leech 
(1981) defines connotative meaning as the „communicative value an expression has, 
by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content‟. All these 
suggest that connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a 
word. It refers to the wide array of positive and negative references that most words 
naturally carry, the association that people make with a word; it is the emotional 
weight of a word. Connotation is created when you mean something else, something 
that might be initially hidden from the surface structure. It is the meaning of a word 
that is ususally based on implication, or shared emotional association with a word or 
the expression in question. In other words, connotation is a step forward from 
denotation. Connotation only occurs after it has added its own form to that of 
denotation. With regard to the use of irony and the ironic,connotative meanings are 
influenced by different interplay of contexts, such as, cultural implication. For 
example,  
                                Denotative ( a chieftain and warlord) 
Ààrè-̣́ Àgò ………..               
                                Connotative (wife murderer, a coward/ run-away chieftain) 
 Within the Yorùbá -political context, anywhereÀàrè-̣́ Àgò is mentioned as a name, it 
denotes power and authority but, in the text, the playwright has used it to connote the 
weaker sense of the name in order to bring out the dramatic effect in his work. It 
means that irony and the ironic have both the denotative (literal meaning) and 
connotative (suggestive meaning). Denotation and connotation are useful tools in this 
study because they reveal how the playwrights use irony and the ironic as stylistic 
devices to futher develop or complicate the stages in their various plays towards 
achieving their tragic goals. Irony and the ironic are instances of a higher order of 
meanining-making and interpretation because simple explication does not count as an 
aesthetic activity, especially on literary work. This is what makes denotation and 
connotation relevant to the aesthetic appreciation in this work.       
 
3.10The Components of the Semiotic Triangle 
lxxi 
 
 
Saussurean terms of signifier and signified and the Piercean „interpretant 
termcalled „concept‟ are the most common terms used in semiotics.  (Eco 1976:59-60) 
They form the part of the semiotic „triadic angle‟, as presented below: 
 
      B      Concept 
 
 
 
    Signifier     A C Signified
    
Figure 3. 3.  The Semiotic Triangle                                                                      
In order to properly understand the analysis and the working of irony and the 
ironic in this study, it is necessary to give an explanation of the relationship between 
the three sides of the semiotic angle . Ọlátéj̣́ú (1989:400-403) emphasises the 
importance of the understanding of the relationship among the three elements that 
constitute semiotic triangle, „…ó ye  ̣́ kí á so̩  àsẹ̀́ pò̩ tó wà láàrin igun kínní , ìkejì àti 
ìke̩ta nítorí nínú ìbásepò̩ wo̩n ni òye ìtumò̩  wà‟ (…we need to explain the relationship 
between the three sides of the triangle because in their relationship lies the meaning). 
The interaction among signifier, concept and signified is referred to as 
semiosis by Pierce. Within the language system, everything depends on relations, 
because no sign makes sense on its own without its relation to other signs. In the 
semiotic triangle, there is no one-to-one link between signifier and signified because 
one signifier may refer to many signifieds. Therefore, a signifier is not to be identified 
directly with its signified because the signifier is still a concept in the mind waiting 
for interpretation. The concept in the mind is not a thing but the notion of a thing; it is 
the signified that eventually gives us the picture of what is in the mind of the speaker. 
Signifier do not give proxy to their objects but are seen as vehicles for the 
conception of the objects. It means that angle „A‟ does not have a direct relation with 
angle „B‟. Angle „A‟ is just a vehicle, a train of thought, for the mind in Angle „B‟; it 
is the Angle „C‟ that will present the idea and the principle or the picture in Angle „B‟.  
According to Barthes, although the signifier and the signified are the components of 
the sign, the union of the signifier and the signified does not exhaust the semantic act, 
for the sign derives its value also from its surroundings. Therefore, he refers to the 
signifier as the plane of expression and denotation, while the signified is seen as the 
plane of interpretation (content and connotation). With the denotation and 
lxxii 
 
 
connotation, one will be able to see and explain the link and the relation between the 
signifier and the signified. Under the plane of expression and the plane of content, 
there is also the substance of content for the signified and the substance of expression 
2
for the signifier. All these are presented below  
 
   B 
 SIGN /CONCEPT 
 
 
                 A                                                                                                    C 
 SIGNIFIE R SIGNIFIED 
 
 Plane of expression 
Plane of content 
Substance of expression  Substance of content  
Denotation Connotation                                                  …………relation………………… 
 ot 
                   Figure 3. 4.   The combination of Semiotic Signifier and signified 
with the Barthes’ Elements of semiology                                       
What constitutes the substance of expression at the literal meaning levels are the 
whole aspects of linguistics; the phonic, the articulatory and the non-functional 
substances. The substances of content under connotation include the emotional, 
ideological, contexts and all the notional aspects of the signified that can help us 
arrive at the positive meaning . For example , it is the understading of the Yorùbá 
cultural context that serves as the link for the interpretation of Láwúwo‟s proverbs . It 
is this substance of content that forms the basis for the conventional relationship 
between the signifier and the signified and it is from these substances that the sign 
derives its extensional meanings. The conventional relationship between angles „A‟ 
and „C‟ can also derive its full value and wider coverage of meaning when it is 
subjected to the elements of denotation and connotation.   
Irony and the ironic as signifiers standing for signifieds in the tragic plays 
under consideration in this work enjoy a wider coverage of interpretation when 
subjected to the elements of denotation and connotation. Another set of proverbs from 
Ré̩ré̩ Rún illustrate this: 
      Láwúwò‟s proverbs in Ré̩ré̩ Rún (p 92), 
lxxiii 
 
 
(i) a.  E̩ni tó bá fórí tí i titi de òpin, àfàimó̩ ni kò fi ni i di aláàrú, 
 He who endures till the end, may later become a load carrier.   
                                        instead of: 
                         b.   E̩ni tó bá fórí tí i titi de òpin, ni a ó gbà là 
                               He who endures till the end will be saved    
 
 (ii) a.   O̩mo̩ tíi yóò jé̩ Àṣàmú, òkèèrè lá tí i wo,  
A would-be smart child is seen from afar. 
                                           instead of: 
 b.    O̩mo̩ tíi yóò jé̩ ṣàmú, láti kékeré ní í ti í sẹnu ṣámúṣámú  
A would-be smart child, must have displayed smartness from 
                                   childhood 
 (iii)   a.  Àgbàlagbà kì í ri erin tán, kó máa jó láńgbáláńgbá. 
                    An adult, after seing the elephant will not be dancing anyhow. 
instead of: 
 b.     Àgbàlagbà kì í ri erin tán, kó tún wá di àmùrín 
                      An adult, after seing the elephant, will now say it is an insect 
  
(iv)    a.      Ìwò tá à n wàparò aṣọ rè ̣́póṇ́  koko, 
                                   The quail is seen as a bird with dirty cloth. 
                                                   instead of: 
 b.     Ìwò tá à n wàparò bí i ká fi dá ila 
           The quail is seen as a bird that is good to prepare okro soup        
 
 The above represent the signifier and denotation which is the plane of 
expression that is deliberately presented for a particular signified and for certain 
connotation. The relationship between theproverbs as signifier and the signified is 
embedded in the culture ; it is the Yorùbá cultural way of saying the proverbs that 
serves as clues to the production of the meaning the author is trying to impress on the 
reader‟s mind. The message is what the signified represents, the connotative meaning 
which is the plane of content . However, the connotative meaning can only come up 
when we consider the relationship between the signifier and the signified which is 
conventional. The Yorùbá people know the co rrect way to say the proverbs and they 
can tell that the proverbs are said the other way round and that the presentation calls 
for observation with regard to the character that is saying the proverbs.  
The relationship that can bring out the right interpretation is seen under the 
substance of content , plane of content and connotation , which is cultural relationship . 
This is one of the aspects of the texts which point away from the text itself for 
meaning-making. First, a typical Yorùbá person cannot say t he proverbs as in the 
above. Also in the context of the play , Láwúwò, a character known to be active , and 
lxxiv 
 
 
who has been presented as a character that has the good mastery of the Yorùbá 
language and culture, should be able to say the proverbs accurately.  
Yorùbá proverbs come in two segments , the beginning and the end , but 
Láwúwò started the proverbs correctly and ends it with the other parts of another 
proverb or another sentence entirely that do not have any correlation with the first 
segment. This shows that something must be wrong . Also, the Yorùbá believe that 
there are two ways to suspect a person in a state of insanity: in speech and dressing. 
This means that the character talking is not in his right state of mind. Therefore, the 
presentation of the proverbs is a verbal irony that connotes malady, insanity and 
unsettled mind. The use of the proverbs in a seemingly wrong way is not a mistake or 
a slip of the tongue but a deliberate attempt to communicate connotatively an 
affliction of an unsettled mind of the speaker (Láwúwo). This is illustrated in the 
semiotic triangle below.   
          Concept 
    B    Èrò okan 
 ìtàkora òṛ́ ò,̣́  àìgún èrò 
 
          Signifier   A 
C Signified 
Àmì ìtóḳ́ así  
Ohun ìtóḳ́ así  
 
(Ìwo tá n wo àparò, as̩o̩ rè̩  ̣́ (Insanity,orí dídàrú, 
p óṇ́  koko) 
wèrè) 
 
Figure  3.5. The Semiotic Triangle with examples of irony                                   
The above semiotic triangle reveals that the character‟s presentation of the proverbs in 
angle„A‟ shows the non-correlation of words, sentences and thoughts of the character 
in angle „B‟ that eventually means insanity in angle „C‟. Therefore,the signifier 
(Angle A) and the signified (Angle C) have no independent existence outside their 
combination within the sign. It is the „concept‟ in the mind of the speaker that 
mediates between the signifier and the signified.However, the connection betwee 
Angles A and C is highly conventional because the presentation of the proverbs is 
quite different from the natural or the cultural way of saying it; he says it the other 
way round.As noted by Oḷ́ átéj̣́ ú‟s (1989) that we need to understand the relationship 
between the angles in order to have good interpretation, for positive interpretation of 
the irony and the ironic in the tragic plays , the understanding of the Yorùbá concept of 
lxxv 
 
 
tragedy in line with the Yorùbá political, philosophical, historical and cultural contexts 
are necessary ingredients. We can thus, conclude that, in interpreting irony and the 
ironic, meaning is not transmitted but created denotatively and connotatively through 
the signs with interplayof codes and conventions within the society. 
 
3.11.Factors Involved in the Interpretation ofIrony and the Ironic: 
The Yorùbá Contexts 
 The world in which we live is a semiological coded atmosphere that must be 
expressed in various signs in which irony and the ironic are one within a context. The 
job of the Yorù bá author using irony and ironic to passs across his message is to 
present before his reader a false point of view in a form that they whould really 
accepts. This is an interesting task of the ironist author his focus, but the reader must 
recognise that the point of view is false and that they are not accepting it but instead 
attacking it with all the weapons of deconstruction available. After all, the author will 
be delighted if his point of view is detected.The ironist‟s attitude is described by Knox 
(1961:147) thus: 
Unlike the criminal, he wants to get caught. If he is not 
caught the object of his attack escapes unharmed while the 
ironist remains the sole and sterile to his own 
cleverness.Thus, he must dissemble the fact that his praise 
is insincere, but he must not dissemble so well that 
ultimately he deceives no one. 
 
The main reason for the employment of irony and the ironic is to urge a search 
after an unknown truth, pertinent in the quest to interpreting irony and the ironic is  to 
be sensitive and determined not to take words, sentences or expressions at face value. 
It is therefore expedient at the level of interpretation and analysis that references are 
made to the factors with which the interpretation of irony and the ironic can be well 
done. When irony and the ironicin the Yorù bá written tragic plays are seen from the 
perspectives of denotation and connotation, they have a wider scope that is not only of 
word and opposite, or word and variants, or  just a written text, but as devices that can 
take meanings from the relevant values and contexts. This will ensure us the 
interpretation of irony and the ironic out of a dynamic relation of both denotation and 
connotation in which both the said and the unsaid (verbal, situations, events, actions) 
matter, so as to get to the positive connotative meaning.   
lxxvi 
 
 
 Irony and the ironic in the selected plays go beyond mere identification and 
usage.They attract not only one‟s linguistic competence of the Yorùbá language but 
also the cultural and the ideological competence of the same. The Yorùbá contexts are 
the major factors that are important in the interpretation process of irony and the 
ironic in the Yorùba written tragic plays selected for this study. Four types of contexts 
are identified in all the texts, namely: philosophical,historical, political and cultural 
context.All the four occur in three texts (Ààrè-̣ Àgò, Ìdààmú Páàdì  andẸfúnṣetán 
Aníwúrà)while only three (political, philosophical and cultural) occur inRé̩ré̩ Rún . 
These contexts are part of the values upon which irony and the ironic are employed to 
achieve the tragic motive of the playwrights. The contexts serve as a backdrop for the 
understanding and the interpretation of irony and the ironic usage in the plays.  
 
Historical
Cultural
Philisophical
Political
Aare Ago Efunsetan Idaamu paadi Rere run
Aniwura
 
Table 3.1Table showing the factors involved in the interpretation of the 
Irony and the ironic as distributed among the texts chosen  
 for the study.                                                                                        
 
 
 
3.11.1Philosophical Context 
Philosophy, with reference to this work, covers the Yorùbá way of life , with 
respect to their religion, beliefs, social life, thoughts and ceremonies. For 
lxxvii 
 
 
example,some irony and the ironic situations energize Yorùbá belief about life, fate, 
destiny, religion and the supremacy of God. The philosophical contexts cut across all 
the texts. The Yorùbá believe inshowing gratitudefor a good deed done or for any kind 
of gesture in cash or kind . AYorùbá proverb confirm this : ‟Bí èniỳ àn bá dúpé ̣́oore 
àná, yóò gba òmíràn‟ (showing gratitude for a good deed attracts another one ) and 
„Oḍ́ e ̣́tó peṛ́ an tó sẹ̀́ tùtù , nítorí èyí kó  ̣́ nítorí òmíràn ni‟ (a hunter who makes sacrifice 
for the game killed today does not offer the sacrifice for the present success but for 
the next hunting exercise).   
        There is also Yorùbá worldview which submits that „Àyànmó ̣́ ò gbóògùn‟ , (no 
medicine to appease or revoke man‟s destiny ) Dasylva (1988) asserts that the Yorùbá 
worldview on destiny, emphasises „the irrevocability of man‟s pre-life choice which 
may either be favourable (fortune) or unfavourable (misfortune)‟. This informs the 
reason why irony of fate according toYorùbá worldview is traced to the predestination 
as it reflects in the condition of Èsụ̀́  and Ògúnrìndé Ajé  in Ààrè-̣Àgò 
Aríkúye̩rí;Ẹfúnṣetán in E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà ;Láwúwo in Ré̩ré̩ Rún ; andPáàdì Miń káiĺ ù , 
Jubirilu andSèṭ́ ílù inÌdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù. 
 
 
3.11.2Historical, Political and Cultural Contexts 
 
Historical, political and cultural contexts are other contexts from which all the 
four texts selected for this study sprang out. The political and the cultural contexts cut 
across all the texts, while the historical context is seen only in Ààrè ̣ Àgò, Ìdààmú 
Páàdì and E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà. The historical backgrounds of these texts also serves 
as the backdrop for the proper understanding and interpretation of the irony and the 
ironic messages employed in them. The cultural context refers to science or body of 
knowledge that operates in a given soceity .  It is a conventional agreement on how 
things are done or how things shoud be done with refence to the Yorùbá culture . In 
Roland Bathes‟ semiology,  reference is made to the cultural code of denotation and 
connotation. The understanding of this code  as the background knowledge  helps in 
the interpretation or meaning-making process.Irony and the ironic require a cultural 
backdrop to be understoood wherever it is employed as stylistic device because an 
expression or an action with a secondary meaning that is clear to the Ò ỵ́ ó ̣́ -Yorùbá  
may be obscure to the Èkìtì -Yorùbá. It is this cultural knowledge that informs Òḅ́ ọ 
Lágído‟s sarcastic comment after Adépèlé chantsrárà in praise of her husband. It 
lxxviii 
 
 
shows that Adépèlé‟s does not have the ability for rárà chanting not to talk of the tone 
of delivery because chanting of rárà is common among the Ò ỵ́ ó -̣́ Yorùbás. Lágídò‟s 
statement further establishes that rárà chanting is not among the Yorùbá oral poetic 
forms of Èkítí and Òndó. 
 Òḅ́ ọ Lágído:   Ẹ ẹ m‟eleyìí so! Yóó mòḄ́ ‟aré jé-̣́ é!̣́ ... 
Ta ló bè ̣́ara Àkókó ní rárà sun? 
Ajá a máa jobì bí? Pa‟nu e ̣́mó  ̣́ ń bè ̣́
Ààrẹ Àgò (pg 14) 
 
 Òḅ́ ọ Lágído:   Please, caution this one! 
She will spoil the show! 
                         Who asked Akoko woman to chant rara 
                          Do dogs eat kolanut? Keep quiet. 
 
Ààrè ̣ Àgò Aríkúye̩rí  is a historical play which presents Yorùbá politics 
alongside  Yorùbá cultural practices . The play presents the history of Basòṛ́ un 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á who was known for true judgment and as an advocate of fundamental 
human rights and equality before the law at that time .  Historically too , Ààrẹ Àgò 
(Ògúnrìndé Ajé ) was a warlord, whose position was so powerful in that soceity . 
According to Yorùbá  history  and tradition ,Ààrẹ Àgò was not always at home ; he was 
always at the battle field in order to expand the Òỵ́ ó ̣́ territory . Politically, he used to 
have  his own cabinet that comprised of a  number of chiefs , advisers, and  soldiers 
who were under him  as  chiefs , administrator and political and security officers . In 
history, his cabinet would include the following chiefs : Jagun, Ìkó ḷ́ àbà, Badà, Oòtà, 
Ààrẹ-Alásà, Ààrẹ-Oníbọn and Ayingun. The historical fact is contained in the text(pg 
38). Looking at the historical background and the political position of Ò gúnrìndé Ajé, 
we can see the reason for his refusal to respond and report immediately in Basòṛ́ un 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s cou rt when he is summoned . This is to prove his military gem . This 
action is appreciated byBasòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á for his war -like character.  This is evident 
in his reply to Chief Ò ṭ́ ún , who condenms his refusal to answer them on time. He 
answers Chief Ò ṭ́ un with stern warning; 
        Basòṛ́ un:         Má bá òṛ́ ò ̣́ lọ níbè ̣́un, Òṭ́ ún. Rántí pé jagunjagun ni 
                               Ajé; a kì í si ̀ í bá oḳ́ ùnrin l‟áàbò.̣́  Ó ṣe bí ọkùnrin ni. 
Ààrè-̣ Àgò, (p 57) 
 
       Basòṛ́ un:       Don‟t mention that, Òṭ́ ún. Remember, Aje is a warrior and a 
                             man should always behave like a man. He just behave like a man. 
 
lxxix 
 
 
In Yorùbá political setting , a warrior exhibit the qualities of a warrior anytime, in any 
situation and before anybody.    
Through the cultural window , we can see that polygamy is fundamental to the 
Yorùbá marriage culture and co -wives could not live harmoniously among 
themselves.So also the choice of Fátóḷ́ á , the second wife as a favourite wife (Ààyò) 
among the other wives is not alien to Yorùbá culture .  Therefore, it is easy to 
understand the position and the hostility that a favourite wife faces before her rivals in 
the home, as in the case of Fátóḷ́ á , the favourite wife of Ògúnrìndé Ajé in Ààrẹ-Àgò 
Aríkúyẹrí.Asiyanbí (the first wife ) identifies with Adépèlé (the last wife ) in her 
predicament for her own ulterior motive that is not known to Adépèlé who is still 
overwhelmed with sorrow over the death of her three children . This helps the reader 
to see the template upon which the ironic incident in the play is built . It is also the 
Yorùbá historical and cultural knowledge of the position of a warlord that prevents the 
immmediate execution of Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s death sentence  and neccesitates his being 
allowed to commit honorific suicide. 
Akínwùmí Ìsò̩lá‟s E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúràis a play that is based on the history ofÌyálóde , 
a chief in Ìbàdàn , who stands as an antagonist to the power and to the throne of Ààre ̣́
Látòósà , who is the king on the throne .  According to Yorùbá culture and history , 
Ìyálóde is an important position , one of the chiefs in the kings‟ cabinet, a 
representative and  protector of  the interest of the entire women in the community. In 
view of this position and the  duties assigned to her in her official capacity, her acts of 
wickedness both in her immediate environment and in the town as a whole,  as 
revealed in the play, is unexpected of a mother. However, her actions are ironic.  
Also, the value and the importance placed on childbearing in Yorùbá cultural context 
makes us understand the irrational behaviour of Ef̣́ únsẹ́ tán Aníwurà . The different 
contexts, like political, historical and philosophical, that are associated with irony and 
the ironic situations and actions help in the understanding of the subject matter in this 
texts. 
 Látóòsà, politically and in Yorùbá culture and history , is the ruler and chief 
administrator with the power of a king. He is supreme, because the Yorùbá believe 
that the king is a representative of the gods in the land. He is sacred and his position 
must be revered by all the chiefs in his cabinet. He presides over the council meetings 
in all their deliberations. The above gives the reader the contextual base with which to 
see how insulting Ìyálóde is to have defiled the political and cultural orders by taking 
lxxx 
 
 
the law into her own hands to the level of establishing her own little kingdom in her 
house with rules and laws that are against the Yorùbá political system.  
Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù is a historicalplay with political undertone. It is a play 
that is based on the incidents that took place in Èjìgbò , in a local government in the 
old Oyo State, now in Ò ṣ́ un State, Nigeria. The Christians in the town were mainly of 
the Catholic denomination. The political context is seen in the way the local 
government, the third tier of the Nigeria government, operates. The council board 
comprises the community leaders (the king and one of the chiefs ) and the council 
workers (the secretary and the treasurer ).  There are no banking facilities in the town , 
so, the money sent for the developmental project (construction of Ajiǹ gòḍ́ ò ̣́ bridge) is 
put in the safe and not in the bank. Thus makes it easy for the thieves to have access 
to the money . The people‟s opinion and the government‟s belief that religion may 
serve as the catalyst in the political affair informs the inclussion of the priest ,Páàdì 
Mínkáílù, as a board member. The doctrinal stand  of the priest prevents him from 
carrying out his responsibility as a member of the political board.  According to the 
Catholic doctrine, the priest is not supposed to release the confession of sin by his 
members to anybody for whatever reason. This greatly contributes to the 
complications that later results into bloody tragedy . The playwright‟s submission 
through Páàdi ̀ Mínkáílù‟s statement is a proof that politics and religion are separate 
entities: 
            Minkailu:  Ẹ kòẉ́ é padà sí Gómìnà 
                             K‟ó jé ̣́ki ́ n‟ maa b‟éṣ́ iǹ  tèmi lo,̣́  
                             K‟o je k‟Igbimo ̣́ o maa b‟ósẹ̀́ lú bò  ̣́
                             Bi t‟aiye Oníléẹ́ ́ṛ́ é  ̣́
                             K‟ólórí eṣ́ iǹ  ó maa gb‟oḳ́ ankan wòranòṣèlú 
                             Ayé ò féṛ́ àn ẹni re. 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 4) 
 
           Minkailu:   Send reply to the Governor, 
                              That he should allow me to continue with my religion 
                              And let the council board continue with the political matter, 
                              As  it was during thetime of  Oniĺ éẹ́́ ṛ́ é‟̣́ s  
                              Let the religious leaders remain an observer of the politicians. 
                              The world does not like a sincere man. 
 
The  background knowledge that the Catholic church , as the dominant church at 
Èjìgbò at that time , will help the reader to see why it is the Rev. Fr. that could be 
available as the religious leader to be chosen in the community. Also, the knowledge 
of the Catholic doctrine will definitely help the reader to understand why Páàdì 
lxxxi 
 
 
Mínkáílù cannot help Salu to confess his sin to the inspector of police. The inter-
connectivity of historical, political and religion brings the use irony and the ironic 
elements in form of situations and actions into focus and therefore aids the  
interpretation of their usage in the texts.  
      Therefore,  it is when irony as in expression and the ironic as in situations,events 
and in structure are placed in their proper setting of the different contexts from which 
they springs up that we can have sensible and reasonable interpretation of their usage. 
It is also good to be an insider that have the same taste and temperament as the 
ironist/playwright so as to appreciate the aesthetics functions of irony and the ironic in 
the tragic plays.  
As rightly emphasised by Scholes (1982:76), „for irony, of all figures, is the one that 
must always take us out of the text and into codes, contexts and situations.‟  With 
these contextual background, one will be able to grasp both the pretended andthe 
intended meaning. One cannot understand irony and the ironic without having a 
generous dose of the required contextual knowledge that will make oneappreciate 
fully, their stylistic purpose in the overall message of each of the plays. „The ability to 
recognize irony is one of the surest tests of intelligence and sophistication.‟ Holman 
(1980).  
 
3.11.3 Conclusion 
 In this chapter , the theoretical framework was discussed . Roland Barthes‟ 
semiological theory was considered the appropriate analytical tool for the 
interpretation of irony and the ironic in the selected Yorùbá written tragic p lays. Its 
interpretive model is able to account for the various possibilities of interpretation of 
irony and the ironic through the elements of semiology. The theory also within the 
window of denotation and connotation give room for the contextual base so as to have 
wider scope in the meaning-making process. The factors involved in the interpretation 
of irony were discussed within the four Yorùbá contexts identified in this study.  
 
lxxxii 
 
 
 Notes to Chapter Three 
1. See  the views of F. de Saussure on semiology as it relates to language  
in  the translation of semiology by Pierce C.S (1975) p.1 
 
2. The figure is my own modification of the semiotic triangle so as to 
captureall 
     the elements necessary for interpretation of irony and the ironic. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
lxxxiii 
 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
IRONY AND THE IRONIC IN SELECTED YORÙBÁ TRAGIC PLAYS 
 
4.1   Introduction  
There is a „differentia specifica‟ between the languages of literature (LL)be it 
in poetry, prose or drama, and the standard language (SL), which is the language of 
ordinary discourse or everyday conversation1. In the selected Yorùbá tragic plays , the 
authors have used irony and the ironic as part of their literary style to achieve certain 
stylistic and communicative effects. The focus of this chapter is to examine how the 
authors have deployed these devices to achieve effects in their plays. Five types of 
irony are found in the texts, namely: verbal irony/rhetoricalirony, dramatic/tragic 
irony, irony of fate, irony of character and comic irony. The employment of these 
different types of irony and the ironic will be analysed within the four contexts 
identified in the texts, namely: political, historical, cultural and philosophical. 
 
4.2 Verbal Irony 
Verbal irony occurs in all the texts selected for this study. As stated earlier, 
verbal ironyis the use of words to convey something else (an idea, message or 
information) that is different from the literal meaning of the words spoken or 
written.It is also called rhetorical irony when it is used in literature either for stylistic 
effects or as a form of rhetoric for defence mechanism.  
 In Ògúnníran‟s Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩ri,  for instance,the title of the text itself is 
an instance of verbal irony. As indicated in the title, the text presents Ògúnrìndé Ajé 
as a coward and a  run-away warlord. Considering the Yorùbá political and cultural 
contexts,  a warlord is  not surposed to be afraid of death of any type and at any time .  
We can make reference to the praise poetry of the Oniḱ òyi ́ lineage as a typical  
example of the stuff a warlord is  made of. According to history , the warriors of 
2
theOníkòyí lineage  would not run away from the arrow but, instead face the 
opposition and receive the arrow with  their chests.  How can a man be an Ààrè-̣́ Àgò, 
the battalion commander of the whole Yorùbá race and minister  of defence, andrun 
away in the face of storm and trial. He should have chosen to die honourably by 
committing  suicide in order to safe his name and title. Instead, he chooses the path of 
shame by running away and he is thus labelled with the descriptive shameful title of 
Aríkúye̩rí  (one who absconds in order to escape death). This is an example of verbal 
lxxxiv 
 
 
irony and it is used to achieve satirical effect,„Aríkúye̩rí‟ as a sobriquet or nickname 
for a high chief and prominent war title holder (Ààrè-̣́ Àgò), such as Ògúnrìndé Ajé , is 
an irony.  The stylistic function or effect of the use of this irony is to satirise the 
position of a warlord in order to bring him to disrepute, perhaps, to serve as a 
deterrent to others.  It also connotes that the character cannot carry the weight of the 
title assigned to him. 
Another instance of verbal irony in Ààrè-̣Àgò is whenÒḅ́ ó ̣́ Lágídò, a mere 
personal aid , puts to task the bravery and authority of his master , Ògúnrìndé Ajé , 
when he makes him to realise the foolishness of his rash action , that of killing Fátóḷ́ á , 
his favourite wife. After murdering his wife in anger, Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á sends for 
him,Ògúnrìndé Ajé becomes annoyed and accusesBasòṛ́ un of intruding into his family 
affairs. He declares in anger: 
Ààrè-̣́ Àgò:  Èmi ni mo ni ara mi, Èmi kì í sì í yọjú sí òṛ́ ò ̣́ ọló ṛ́ ò ̣́
 Láti „jọ tí mo ti dé‟lè ̣́yìí. 
  
Lágídò:       Iró  ̣́ lẹ f‟èyiùn-un pa Baba, gbogbo rè ̣́ló sojú u wa… 
 Ẹ bá wọn dá sí òṛ́ ò ̣́Ajagùnnà t‟ó pa èǵ̣ bóṇ́  rè ̣́ń‟jelo tí wóṇ́  
 fi ní ki ́ wóṇ́  pa òun náà. Nígbà té-̣́ ẹ sọ pé-̣́ ẹ dá s‟óṛ́ ò  ̣́ ọló ṛ́ ò  ̣́ rí 
 L‟ó je ̣́kin ng ran yiń  l‟étí. 
Ààrè-̣Àgò (p 35) 
 
Ààrè-̣́ Àgò:  I live my life, and I don‟t interfere in other 
 people‟s affairs since I came into this town.  
 
             Lágídò:         Baba, you have told a lie, we were all witnesses…. 
 …You were there, during the Ajagunna‟s murder trial 
 When he killed his brother sometime ago, and it was decided  
that he  should be killed. I remind you because you said you  
don‟t intrude into other people‟s matter. 
 
 From the cultural perspective , Òḅ́ ọ Lágídò‟s response to Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s 
statement-„Èmi kì í sì í yọjú sí òṛò ̣ọló ṛ ò ̣láti „jọ tí m o ti dé‟lè ̣yìí .(I don‟tinterfere in  
other people‟s affairs since I came into this town) is an instance of irony. No matter 
what, it is wrong and unethical for a younger person to brazenly tell an elderly person 
that he is a liar. Therefore, for Òḅ́ ọ Lágídò to have responded to his master thus: 
“Iró  ̣ le ̣f ‟èyiùn -un pa Baba , gbogbo rè ̣ló sojú u wa …(Baba, you have told a lie ; we 
were all witnesses… )  is an instance of verbal irony . In other words ,Lágídò‟s 
challenge to Ààrè-̣́ Àgò‟s submission that he does not interfere in other people‟s affairs 
is a case of irony used in order  to satirise the person and the position of Ògúnrìndé 
lxxxv 
 
 
Ajé. The reaction and the statement of Lágídò to Ògúnrìndé Ajé , that he is lying, 
isagainst the Yorùbá cultural or ethical norm and brings the verbal irony to the 
limelight. Apart from its comic effect, the use of this type of irony contributes 
significantly to the build up to the tragedy that is later to unfold itself in the play. For 
instance, it creates some kind of awareness in Ògúnrìndé Ajé of the likely 
consequence of his murderous action despite his feigning ignorance since he had at 
one time or the other participated in effecting justice in a similar murder case , the case 
of Ajagùnnà who was killed for killing his elder brother .  It is now very clear to the 
readers and Ògúnrìndé Ajé  himself that theconsequence of his action is a death 
penalty. The next question on the mind of the readers would be how Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé  
would defend hismurderous act, and if he is convicted, how would he take the 
judgement. Would he resign to fate and take the honourable path or what is he going 
to do.  
Rhetoric, as a branch of philosophy, is the act of using language effectively 
and persuasively. Rhetorical irony, an aspect of verbal irony, is based on emotions or 
thoughts with the aim of persuading or influencing other people with a different 
opinion to change their minds or reach a certain level of compromise. In the selected 
texts, instances of rhetorical irony abound . For example , Balógun‟s rhetoric on 
Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s case is another example of verbal irony in Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí . The 
irony consists in Balógun‟s arguement infavour of Ògúnrìndé Ajé , which is contrary 
to the position held by the chiefs on the case the previous day . It is a surprise that as a 
chief who knows the truth and who is expected to uphold the truth in an ironic twist 
has to switch to Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé‟s side byreeling out his military exploits and 
achievements to whip up sentiment in order to have him discharged and acquitted. He 
concludes like thus;  
Balógun:   Káábíèsí, olúwa mi Iba, 
                                Nígbà t „á- a rántí oj̣́ ó  ̣́
                                Orí gbogbo wá wú:  
                                T‟Ájé jagun niĺ é-e K‟óro; 
                                Nítorí Ìbàdàn yìí 
                                L‟ó fi foṃ́ o ̣́ bo‟̣́ lè ̣́ l‟Ékit̀ ì-È f̣́ òṇ́ . 
                                 Gbogbo rè ̣́ la rántí, 
                                 L‟eḳ́ ún fi n gboṇ́  gbogbo wa.    
                                 Ìdí rè-é, olúwa mi,  
                                Tí a fi pinnu pé k‟á wo àtèỵ́ ìnwá, 
                                 … 
                                 K‟á dáríjin Ajé, 
                                 K‟ó ma baa dà bi ́ eṇ́ i pé, 
lxxxvi 
 
 
                                 Ìlú f‟ibi ṣú olóore. 
                                 Aní k‟ó ma baa jìyà mó ̣́ pòṇ́ mòṕ̣ ọnmọ ètè. 
                                 Ìpinnu wa rè-é o Iba!              Ààre̩ Àgó (pp 83-84)  
 
          Balógun:    Kabiyesi, homage to my lord 
                             When we remember the day 
                             All of us were stirred 
                             When Aje fought gallantly in the homestead of Kóro  
                              Because of this Ìbàdàn land 
                              he offered a child in  sacrifice at Èkìti ̀ Èf̣́ ò ṇ́  
                             We remember vividly 
                             That‟s why we are all filled with tears 
                             My Lord, that‟s the reason why 
                             We have concluded and agreed to consider the past 
                              …………………………………………. 
                             And forgive Ajé 
                             So that we will not be painted 
                             As ingrates  
                             So that we would not add insult to his injury 
                             This is our resolution,          
 
It is obvious that the irony in the above exerpt is a rhetorical discourse , a serious 
attempt by Balógun to rescue  Ajé from the impending calamity (death through 
honourable suicide) awaiting him for the criminal offence of murdering his wife . 
Balógun‟s rhetoricis an irony in that , rather than to uphold justice and the rule of law 
as directed by tradition and their position as custodian of justice, he pleads for 
leniency and a waving of the laws of the land. The irony of the rhetoric is proved even 
the more when it is realised that the chiefs on whose behalf the Balógun spoke has 
collected bribe in order to  plead for him whenever his case comes up for hearing 
beforeBasò̩run Ògúnmọlá. Balógun‟s speech  is a rhetorical device , stylistically 
employed as a defence mechanism  for pretence to obtain a pardon  for Ògúnrìndé 
Ajé. 
 In Fálétí‟s Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínká́ílù , there are instances of verbal 
irony/rhetorical irony as well. Yunusa‟s rhetorical discourse on the invitation 
ofMínká́ílù to the council‟s board is an example of verbal irony: 
 
Yunusa:           Páàdì Mínká́ílù, 
             Àt‟ẹgbé ̣́ ìĺú, àtòǵ̣ bà ìlú, 
             Àti Mèḳ́ únnù àti gbogbo ẹni tó j‟olú 
  Gbogbo wóṇ́  ló rán wa sí o.̣́  
  Ẹnyin náà ẹ wò‟lú b‟ó ti wà tí ò f‟ara rọ 
  T‟oṃ́ oḍ́ é t‟àgbà l‟ó d‟oniś é ̣́ àparo ̣́
lxxxvii 
 
 
  Ẹlomii ti baba re o d‟ẹgbaa ni lóẉ́ ó  ̣́
  A sì gbójiji ̀ d‟eṇ́ i òẉ́ ò  ̣́
  A máa fa póụ̀́ n póụ̀́ n kiri lóẉ́ ó ̣́ yẹbẹ yẹbẹ: 
  L‟éṇ́ i tí kò sise ̣́kan kó làágùn rí 
  L‟éṇ́ i tí kò jé ̣́ jáde n‟ílé lakoko ìrí, 
  L‟éṇ́ i ti ́ à „o gb‟órúko ̣́ rè ̣́n‟íbik̀ an tì rí, 
  Nibo ni wóṇ́  ti r‟owo tí nwon fi d‟eṇ́ i aiye mbo?̣́   
   Awọn Akọwe Igbimọ kékéké nṣèrú abéḷ́ è ̣́nwọn mbà‟lú jé  ̣́
  Béẹ́ ̀,̣́ b‟a sì fe ̣́gbeṣ́ an l„ara woṇ́ , Ijọba „ò jé!̣́  
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 2)  
 
Yunusa:          Páàdì Mínká́ílù 
All and sundry 
                        Both the rich and the poor in the community 
                        Have sent us to you 
                        You too should also consider the state of things in the town 
 The young and the old becomes a sudden workers 
                        Those whose father cannot boast of having two thousand 
                        Suddenly become revered persons in society 
         And start carrying cash all about the town 
                        Somebody that has never worked before 
                        Somebody who never leaves the house at any time 
                        Somebody whose name has not been heard anywhere 
Where did he get the money to become the heroes of the 
people? 
                        The junior civil servants are corrupt and perpetrate evils in the  
  community 
                        And if we want to punish them, the government will no permit 
us. 
 
Yunusa‟s address in the above excerpt meets the four strategies required for 
achieving the goals of persuasion. The four strategies, according to Herrick (1997:13) 
are arguement, appeal, arrangement, and aesthetics. Verbal irony employed as defence 
mechanism is indeed a planned discourse. Yunusa‟s speech can be seen in the light of 
this. The author has deployed the use of verbal irony as a defence mechanism for 
defence. Yunusa‟s speech, as a planned discourse/speech, is carefully crafted for 
advocacy, persuasion for his premeditated plan to deceive Páàdì and other people as if 
his desire to rid their community of corruption is genuine. The irony of the case is that 
he is not a saint but a rogue, the treasury looters, one of the master-minds of the 
robbery attack on the community‟s money and the death of some innocent persons 
that he is talking about, whose activities the committee to be set up is intended to 
investigate and expose. With this irony, it is clear that Yunusa, though the secretary of 
lxxxviii 
 
 
the committee is going to frustrate the efforts of the committee. What is not clear to 
the readers is how or by what means. 
        Another instance of verbal irony as defence mechanism and for rhetorical 
purpose is found in O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún.Láwúwo tries to justify himself on the 
reason for rejecting the service of a lawyer in the labour union‟s case with their 
employer. It is Láwúwo‟s over -confidence and belief in the Yorùbá philosophy that ; 
„Òtító ̣ni yóò lékè‟  (only the truth shall prevail) that makes him reject the services of a 
lawyer in the pursuit of thelabour union‟s case. He believes that since they are 
pursuing the right and the true cause, God will surely fight for them, without 
considering the present dispensation of influence and whom you know in the high 
place.  He gives his argument for the rejection of the money thus: 
 
      Láwúwo:    A kó nii rojò  ̣́ kí woṇ́  tóó dá a ni? Ohun ti ́ mo bá fi sẹ́  wóṇ́ ,  
 ṣé wọn ó sọ. Wọn kò si níí fọwó  ̣́ bo èmi náà léṇ́ u… 
              Emí mò ̣́ pé orí òdodo ni mo dúró lé, ọwóọ́ ̀  ̣́mí sì mó .̣́   
Omi ti ́ a bá dà sí eỵ́ in lára kì í mó  ̣́ eỵ́ in lára . 
Ré̩ré̩ Rún.(p39) 
 
Are we not supposed to state our case before the judgment? 
And they will declare my offence. And I too will be allowed  
to talk… 
                        I know I am standing for the truth, and my hands are clean. 
No evil  will happen to me. 
 
 It is an example of verbal irony for defence. The irony in his resolution is that, even 
though he had clearly planned his defence strategy he never had the opportunity to 
plead his case as he had determined before the unexpected malady takes over him.  
 In E̩fúns̩etán Aníwùrá , there is an instance ofverbal irony. For example , 
Akínkúnlé, a cousin to Íyálóde , thinks that he should inform her about his journey to 
the village to visit his sick child . Therefore, he goes to Íyálóde‟s house very ear ly in 
the morning to do this but she accuses him of disturbing her so early in the morning.  
Later, she declares thus: 
 Íyálóde: Kíni ó kàn mí pèḷ́ú ọmọ ọlọmọ, 
   Mélòó ni emi na bí- Amúnironú, 
   Èmi kò mọ ohun tí mo fi ṣe Elédùwà 
   Ṣùgbóṇ́  kò burú, ohun ti à á sẹ́  kù. 
   Kí òun mú òkè Rè ̣́lóẉ́ ó ̣́ lóḥ́ un, 
   Kí emi na mú ilè ̣́lóẉ́ ó  ̣́ níhin, 
   Ohun tí n‟máa fojú eṛ́ ú rí, 
   A dá gbogbo ayé ní agara , 
   Gbogbo eṛ́ ú tí mo bá fowó mi rà, 
lxxxix 
 
 
   Ó dájú, wọn kò kúkú gbọdò  ̣́ bímọ. 
   Èyí tí ó bá lóyún nínú àwọn omidan, 
   Ọrun alákeji ni yíó ti bí i. 
   Ẹrúkùnrin mi tì ó bá sì fé ̣́yàwó 
   Ànàbéṛ́ í ni bí ajá Ògún, ṣogán! Bẹ ni. 
   Ṣé mo ti ńkó  ̣́wọn lóǵ̣ bóṇ́  ti pé ̣́díè,̣́ 
E̩fúns̩etán Aníwùrá(pp 9-10).  
 
Ìyálóde:           What concerns me about other people‟s children?  
                                    How many do I have- just to make me  
feel depressed. 
                                    I don‟t know my offence to God 
                                    To have rendered me childless…   
                                    It‟s not yet bad; there is still a way out, 
                                    Let God be in heaven over there 
                                    I will also be on earth here 
                                    I will make sure that my slaves smell pepper 
                                     Everybody will feel the heat 
                                     Every slave bought with my money 
                                     Surely must not have children 
                                     Whosoever gets pregnant among the female slaves? 
                                     Will have to deliver the baby in heaven 
                                     And a male slave that gets married  
                                     Will equally have his head cut off from his neck! 
                                     I have been dealing with them for some time 
 
Akínkúnlé‟s request warrants the above response of Ìyálóde , who wondered why she 
should be informed and why he had to come so early just because of a sick child . 
Therefore, Ìyálóde uses the opportunity to justifies herself for her pe rceived 
callousness at different levels through virtuperations . It is a verbal irony for self 
defence which also covers the way she disregards the elders„s plea on behalf of 
Akínkúnlé, who claims the responsibility for Adétutù‟s pregnancy and the way she 
has been killing her slaves at will.  
 
4.3   Tragic irony 
 Tragic irony is the contradiction in the words and action of a character.  In 
such discrepancies and contradictions there is a display of ignorance and naïvety of 
character and these are what lead to a sorrowful and the bloody oucomet of the 
character‟s actions or inaction. It occurs also when things are done the way they are 
supposedto be done and yet the result is tragedy orwhen things are not done the way 
we expected.  
xc 
 
 
There are instances of tragic irony in Ògúnníran‟s Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí . For 
example, the death of Ògúnrìndé‟Ajé‟s threechildren is a tragic incident . Two things 
make this incident a tragic one. First, the death of anyonein the family is not expected, 
not to talk of three children at a time. Even if a person has ten children, losing three of 
them in one fell swoop the same day is calamitous; a great tragedy for that family. 
Second, the tragedy of losing three children is compounded by yet another tragedy, 
the death or murder of Fátóḷ́ á by Ògúnrìndé Ajé himself , all happening within the 
same family. The irony in all these tragic incidents is the fact that the tragedies occur 
after Ògúnrìndé Ajé had offered sacrifices to appease his head (Orí). Among the 
Yorùbá, it is believed that propitiation of one‟s head brings great fortunes to that 
person.  However, in the case of Ògúnrìndé Ajé , it is death and calamity that he got in 
return.  
Ògúnrìndé‟Ajé has good reason to react .  His utterance shows that he does not 
have many children and probably does not have them on time; also the three children 
are males. After the death of the twins he declares: 
 
   Ààrẹ-Àgò:     … 
                       Áà! b‟óṃ́ o ̣́ ti poṇ́  mí l‟ójú to! 
                       Ẹnìkan tún ń f‟òḅ́ ẹ èỵ́ ìn jẹ mi n‟íṣu 
                       Gbogbo ara ilé yìí dáràn.       
 
       Ààrẹ-Àgò: …    
                        Oh! How I suffered to have children 
                        Somebody is still cheating on me 
                        All the occupants of this house are in trouble. 
 
This is a great tragedy, a deep and sorrowful incident. Ààrẹ-Àgò has been destabilised 
both physically and emotionally, he over-reacts, and the warrior in him overrides his 
intellect. He forgets that two wrongs can never make a right ; Fátóḷ́ á is named as the 
killer.Ààrẹ-Àgò, for lack of patience, could not investigate the matter further. This is a 
great mistake on his part and this paved way for another tragedy, Fatóḷ́ á is killed. The 
action issudden, spontaneous and dramatic. The dramatic in theFatóḷ́ á‟s tragic death is 
that Ààre-̣́ Àgò acts in ignorance of the true situation of things . He does not know that 
he is working on a false template prepared for him by Asiyanbi ́ because of her selfish 
and devilishmotives that are borne out of jealousy .  It is later detected during the 
judgement proceeding that Asiyanbi ́ lied against her. 
xci 
 
 
         Ààrẹ-Àgò‟s shameful arrest is another tragic irony , after his few attempts of 
refusal to answer the call of Ògúnmóḷ́ á . His last attempt to refuse the call is met with 
great opposition and attack from Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s soldiers . The irony here is in the 
shameful arrest of Ààre ̣́ -Àgò; a warlord is now subjected to humiliation of arrest to 
the extent that he is bound hands and feet and carriedto Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s court for trial . 
The tragedy recorded here is so dramatic in the sense that the manner of arrest 
contradicts the position and the power (both physical and supernatural) ofÀàrẹ-Àgò as 
a warlord. 
Another instance of tragic irony inÀàrẹ-ÀgòAríkúye̩rí is the judgement 
pronounced by Basò ṛ́ ùn Ògúnmóḷ́ á on the people that delivered the money for bribe to 
Basò ṛ́ ùn Ògúnmóḷ́ á and the chi efs.  They are sold out to other tribes very far from 
their domain, namely; the Fulani, Dahomey and Kutuwenji . The money realised from 
this is to be put in the town‟s treasury as declared by Basò ṛ́ ùn Ògúnmóḷ́ á . The irony in 
this judgement is that those people would have thought they were doing a noble job as 
well as doing Ààre -̣́ Àgò a favour , not knowing that by agreeing to go and deliver the 
bribe, they were digging their own graves. Their expectations are cut short. The 
playwright uses this aspect of the judgement to show the ironic landscape upon which 
the ironic behaviour of the chiefs is built. The action that is tailored towards twarting 
the judgment of Ògúnrìnde Ajé‟s case is designed for their tragic end . Ààrẹ-Àgò 
miscalculates, forgetting that nobody is above the law.  
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s judgement on Asiyanbí is another example of tragic 
irony,Ògúnmóḷ́ á pronounces that Asiyanbí be killed at the market square as a 
deterrent to other women with the same habit of bitter jealousy. The irony in 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s judgement on Asiyanbí ̣́is that Asiyanbi ́ ẉ́ ould never think that she is 
going to die the same way as Fatóḷ́ á whose death she facilitated through acrimony and 
lies. The judgement takes her by surprise, and now she also has to die.  
Ààrẹ-Àgò‟s cowardly escape from commiting honorific suicide is another 
tragic irony. The irony in his fleeing away instead of commiting the honorific suicide 
is seen as he falls from his high and lofty position asa warrior, a noble man, to the 
status of a refugee in a foreign land.   
In Fáléti‟́ s Ìdààmú Páàdì, the first example of the tragic irony is recorded in the way 
the plan to steal the project money fails.  The drama behind the tragedy is seen in the 
strategy about the delivery of the money. It is planned that the delivery of the money 
be delayedso that it will not get to Sèṭ́ ílù , the treasurer, until towards the closing time 
xcii 
 
 
and that the money be brought in cash and not in cheque .  Sẹtilu is not aware of their 
scheme, although he complains about the mode of payment because he has envisaged 
that there may be problem in keeping such a huge amount of money in the office since 
there are no banking facilities in the town. The irony is seen in the conflict of interest 
in the two officials: the treasurer is interested in the safety of the project money, while 
the secretary is interested in how to make it easy for them to steal the same project 
money. The tragic irony here is used for suspense, as the reader is waiting to know 
whose plan will succeed among the two. What is dramatic in the impending tragedy is 
seen in how Seṭ́ ilu is worried about the safety of the money and how he comes out 
with a scheme , to send the money home through his wife or to Miń káiĺ ù‟s house , for 
safety. The tragic irony here produces ironic suspense because one will be eager to 
know the next move.  
The author also uses tragic irony as a secret communion to heighten the 
suspense because not all the characters in the play know where the project money is 
kept. It is shared only between three characters : Sẹtilu, Saratu and Miń káílù , and the 
readers.The thieves do not know. Therefore, it is not just a surprise for them, but it is 
also a tragedy. The council-workers-turned-armed-robbers are taken aback with the 
abscence of the money in the safe. This is tragedy for them; their strategic plan has 
failed but this result in entertainment for the readers who are already aware of the 
ironic outcome of the drama. The irony is that the thieves do not in any way expect 
disappointment about the location of the money; they could never think that 
somebody can be smarter than they.Therefore they are confused about the quick and 
sudden disappearance of the money kept in the safe at least in the presence of one of 
them.  It is so painful that they argue among themselves:   
             Ibrahimu:  Akòẉ́ é, Yunusa, ṣeb‟ó o sọ pé nwóṇ́  gb‟ówó 
òḥ́ un wá‟lè ̣́yi loni ni? 
 
 Yunusa:    Emi fun‟ra mi ni mo mú àwoṇ́  tí ńwóṇ́  gb‟ówó 
                                    òḥ́ un wá wá sihin: 
S‟ojú mi bayi ló sì fi kó o siń ú aríyàrádògiri---  
Ẹgbèṛ́ ún lóṇ́ à ogún pọn-un. 
 
 Salu:       Èé ti ẁá jé ̣̣̣́́́? 
Yunusa:   Kàyéfì gbáà ni. Níbo l‟ó gbé e si?... 
 Ìdààmú Páàdì(pp24). 
 
Ibrahimu:   Yunusa, the secretary, did you not say the money was 
 brought to this town today? 
xciii 
 
 
 
Yunusa:  I personally took those who brought the money to 
this office and he put the money in the safe in my presence….. 
                                    Twenty thousand pounds. 
 
              Salu:              How come? 
 
             Yunusa:          It‟s a surprise indeed. Where did he keep it? 
 
Sẹtilu is wounded but the money is not found . Another instance of tragic irony is that 
the thieves think that Seṭ́ ilu is dead . Mínkáílù is coming in  anger to challenge Seṭ́ ilu 
on why his house should be the best place to keep such huge amount of money. Saratu 
and Mínkáílù meet with another unexpected tragic situation ; the supposed dead body 
of Seṭ́ ilu is on the floor . Mínkáílù could not ask an y question again but to attend to 
Sẹtilu immediately. 
 Also, in the same Fáléti‟́ s Ìdààmù Páàdì Mínká́ílù there is also an instance of 
tragic irony.The police mentioned the detective powder as if it is a special or a 
scientific powder, clinically designed to expose the offenders as a device to arrive at 
the dramatic and the tragic irony. However, the irony is that nobody suspects that it is 
just the normal powder designed in order to bring about the ironic platform on which 
the system of the investigation will be built.Inspector Adégboyè‟s announcement of 
the use of the detective powder cannot be trivialised in any form. He declares: 
Adégboyè:     Ẹ ṣeun, Yesufu ó lo ̣́ s‟Ibadan, yíò lọ mú àtíkè kan wá lọhun. 
 Àtíkè òǹmò ̣́
 
Adégboyè:Thank you, Yesufu will go to Ibadan, to bring a certain powder, 
Detectivepowder. 
Ìdààmú Páàdì(p 66) 
 
The secret of theso-called detective powder is not revealed until when Adégboyè 
explains the secret behind its usage to Yesufu who is also in the dark with regard to 
the function of the powder;  
Yesufu:        Ẹ gbọ ná, Òǵ̣ á. Nígbàt‟ẹ ti‟ẹ ti fi àtíkè ònmò ̣́ s‟ara        
                     gbogbo kini wòṇ́ yí, kil‟a tún wa dúró sihin fún?  
                      K‟a máa lo ̣́ l‟o kù! 
 
 
 
 
Adégboyè:  Wá nihin, kò ye ọ ni. Ṣé o rí àtíkè t‟o n wo yi, àtíkè iró  ̣́                   
   nu-un, ṣé o mò  ̣́ pé bí àwoṇ́  asẹ́ bi bá gbó  ̣́ pé òògùn kan wa t‟ó  
 lè fi iṣé ̣́ ibi wọn hàn, gbogbo òṇ́ a ni nwoṇ́  ó wa láti ba òògùn  
xciv 
 
 
 náà jẹ. Nitori náà, máa múra ìjà sílé ̣́dáadáa.  
Ìdààmú Páàdì(p 83) 
 
 Yesufu:     Listen, sir. Since you have sprinkled the detectivepowder on 
 all these materials, then what are we waiting here for ? 
 We ought to be going! 
 
Adégboyè: Come here, you don‟t understand. This powder is a fake one, 
 You know that, if criminals hear that something can be used 
 to expose their evil deeds, they will definitely look for  
 ways to destroy it. So, be preparedvery well for battle.  
 
 Suspense is a formidable strategy in drama for entertainment purpose. The 
playwright‟s ability to do this puts the drama in its proper perspective for suspense 
andentertainment purposes. It is an instance of irony for the thieves because what they 
think that if they do will prevent them from being trapped, caught and exposed 
eventually turns out to be the trap for them to be trapped, caught and exposed finally . 
They never realise that the powder is used as bait for them to be caught just as bait is 
used to catch fish.  The example of irony here corroborates a Yorùbá proverb that says 
„Ọgbóṇ ju agbára lọ ‟ (wisdom is greater than power ). Their hope is shattered and 
their expectation is cut short . They are caught right where they are trying to shake off 
the powder from the items in Sèṭ́ ílù‟s office. 
  From Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínká́ílù again, Yunusa and Ibrahim conspire against 
King Jubrilu and he is detained by the police, even though he does not know anything 
about the case. Rafilu, a younger sister to Salu, tries to play her role by counselling 
her brother against his suspicious behaviour and the cultist groupin which he is 
involved in recent times. All her efforts to see that Salu quit the armed robbery gang 
fails. The irony is that Rafilu is killed by one of the armed robbers in order to prevent 
her from exposing them to the general public as she has threathened them. Irony at 
this point leads to great tragedy for King Jubirilu who becomes childless at his old 
age. He laments his tragedy: 
 Jubirilu:   Páàdí Minkalu! 
  Ẹ tún sọ pe Rafilu kú! 
  Ẹ‟ò si tun  mọ „bi ti Salu wò ̣́ lọ! 
  Kil‟e ̣́wa fe ̣́ki n‟maa gbé „le aiye ṣe? 
 
 
  Ọjó  ̣́ ikú mi kù dèḍ́ è ̣́
  Ọjó  ̣́ ikú mi ò pé ̣́mò…̣́  
  Páàdì Minkalu…            Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 78) 
 
xcv 
 
 
 
 Jubirilu:          Paadi Minkailu! 
   You also said Rafilu is dead! 
And that you don‟t know where Salu has gone to! 
What then should I be living for? 
Death is no longer far from me 
For me, the day of death is not far... 
                                    Paadi Minkailu! … 
 
 In the Yorùbá culture, it is a tragedy for a child to die while the parents are still 
alive. It is even more painful and worrisome for a child to be lost or missing. In fact, 
these kinds of situation arewhat everybody prays against. It is tragic irony that this 
particular incident happens to King Jubirilu and his wife who lost two children at a 
go,even at their old age.  One is dead and one is missing as he himself declares that 
death is the ultimate end of an experience like this:   
Jubirilu:   Ọmọ mi kú, ọmọ mi nù, 
                Mo si tun nf‟agba ara ja lámba: 
                B‟okùn eṃ́ i yi bi ìpèṭ́ ì, 
                Nigbawo náà ni „ò ni já, 
                Nigba ibanuje ̣́ba ti r‟ibi 
                P‟àgó  ̣́ si l‟oḳ́ an eṇ́ i    
Ìdààmú Páàdì (pp 78-79)      
 
Jubiril:       My child died, my child is missing, 
      And I am running helter skelter in my old age: 
      Even if the cord of life is so enduring 
      When will it not cut? 
      When sorrow has found a place to reside in one‟s heart 
 
As Mínkáiĺ ù consoles Jubirilu over the death of his daughter , so he also encourages 
Saratu over the health of her husband that is still in the hospital (pp 78-79). It is a 
dramatic irony in the sense that we do not even see Mínkáílù officiating as the 
Catholic priest in the church but only as the crisis manager throughout in the play. 
Sèṭ́ ìlú is discharged from the hospital and he is brought toMínkáílù‟s house to 
stay in his guest room for a while till theend of the investigation that will end very 
soon. The police arrest Salu later, Salu is killed by an unknown person.When Sèṭ́ il̀ ú is 
presented as the last witness against the robbery gang , Yunusa kills Sèṭ́ ìlú and himself 
at the same time.  Páàdì Mínkáílù loses two members of his church consecutively. The 
irony is that both the innocent and the criminals die. Those that remain have their own 
share of sorrow in abundance. The unstable situation and confusion that emanate from 
the armed robbery and the murder cases cause great frustration for Mínkáílù . 
xcvi 
 
 
Hence,the tragic irony in Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù can be likened to the Yorùbá 
proverbs; „Egbìnrìn ò ṭ è,̣ bá a tí ń pa òḳan ni òḳan tún ń rú‟.(A complex issues, as you 
settle one, so another one emerges). The playwright, through the political and cultural 
contexts, presents the tragic irony and ironic situation prevalent among the 
government workers to achieve entertainment and stylistic purposes. 
  In Réṛé ̣Rún,the tragic irony is presented on two platforms as explained earlier 
in this section. For example, the meeting between Láwúwo and the Onímògún-in- 
council presentsa dramatic scene for tragic irony.Onímògún and his chiefs have set 
traps for the labour leader . Láwúwo is invited to a meeting . It is a meeting that is 
organised for two purposes. The first is to settle Láwúwo by giving him a bribe so that 
they can destroy his credibility as union leader in order for them to have their way . 
The second is to execute the alternative arrangement so that if Láwúwo refuses to take 
the bribe, the chiefs will set the workers against him and choose Ìdòwú in his place as 
the new labour union leader.  They so much believe in their plans and are happy when 
Láwúwo gives a nod , acknowledging the gift of a house and car from the Onímògún‟s 
cabinet.  For example, when he is told to check the residential house offered him as 
gift, after checking,  he says: 
                        Láwúwo:     Ó té ̣́mi lóṛ́ ùn, ó dùn mó ̣́mi nínú. Ẹ ṣeun. 
Réṛé ̣Rún,(p 50) 
Láwúwo:  Thank you. I am happy and satisfied. 
 
When he is asked to go and check the car of his choice in the market, and also told 
that the maintanance of the car, the service of a driver and the fuelling of the car are 
free, he replies: 
                            Láwúwo:   Irú ooore tí ẹ ṣe mí yìí sòẉ́ óṇ́ , ó jọ mí lójú ju bí mo 
                                              ti lè máa wí lo.̣́   
Réṛé ̣Rún,(p 50) 
 
                            Láwúwo:   This is a rare privilege, I really appreciate it beyond 
                                             expression.       
 
Láwúwo„s  positive response in words and action to the council‟s generousity 
sounds satisfactory to them as it signifies consent and success of their mischevious 
plans. However, the irony in the drama begins to unfold when Láwúwo introduces 
another dimension to the issue. He wants the largesse to be extended to all the 
workers as well, not to him alone. He says;  
               Láwúwo:     Gbígbà tí mo gbà owó náà lóẉ́ ó  ̣́ yin, kí ẹ lè ráyè yanjúu ti  
xcvii 
 
 
àwọn ọmọléỵ́ ìn mi ni.  Bí é ̣́bá fún àwọn náà ni gbogbo nǹkan  
tí ẹ fún mi, dandan ni kí èmi náà gba tèmi: tayòṭ́ ayò ̣́ ni ǹ bá sì fi  
lọọ jíṣé ̣́fún wọn… 
 
  Mo ko ̣́ àbèṭ́ éḷ́ è ̣́yin. Mo sì ń bèèrè fún ìyípadà rere fún àwọn  
Òṣìṣé.̣́E tètè mójútó o wéréwéré. Àìjé ̣́bèẹ̀́ …̣́  Àìdá wọn  
lóhùn lásìkò… a ṣèṣ̣́ è ̣́bèṛ́ è ̣́ni, díè ̣́ni ẹ tíì rí.   
Réṛé ̣Rún,(p 54) 
 
 Láwúwo:I accepted the money, so that you will be able to settle the  
workers also.If you settle them the same way you have  
settled me, of course I would definitely deliver your  
message to them… 
 
I reject your bribe. And I want  a good change for the workers      
which must be done in earnest. If not…failure to do so.. 
                                     ........ we have just started, you‟ve not seen anything. 
 
      The irony also consists in Láwúwo‟s ignorance about the presence of a 
photographer in a corner of the venue of the meeting  who has been taking his pictures 
at every stage of his supposed consent. These pictures are later used against him 
before the worker‟s union.Láwúwo‟s naiv ety leads to another crisis in the labour 
union, as Bóḍ́ úndé and Adéniý ì accuses him of taking bribe from the council ; they 
present the pictures of Láwúwo while at the council‟s meeting as evidence . 
       (Bóḍúndé kó fóṭò jáde.) 
 
        Adéníyì: Àwòráan ta nìyí, òǵ̣ á Láwúwo? Ta ní ń muti ́ nínúèyí?    
                        Ẹ tún wo èyí, ta ni ń dòḅ́ álè?̣́  Ta ni wóṇ́  ń nawó ̣́ ilé si ́ nínú èḳ́ eṭ́ a yìí? 
                        Owó ni wóṇ́  ń kó lée yín lóẉ́ ó ̣́ yiì ́, àbí àgbàdo? Ẹ ṣe lè máa puró ̣́  
ojúkojú bá yìí?           
Réṛé ̣Rún (p 85). 
 
          Adéníyì:   Whose picture is this, Láwúwo? Who is drinking alchohol in this?  
     Also look at this one, who is prostrating?   
                           To whom are they pointing the house in this third picture?  
                           You are being given money here, or is it grains of corn?   
                           You can‟t continue to tell lies after all the evidences.  
 
Láwúwo is surprised. He is told that all the workers already have the pictures and that  
the workers must have felt betrayed and dissappointed . The tricks and the tactis 
deployed on Láwúwo by the council chiefs cause conflict and confusion with in the 
labour force and an ironical twist in the cordial relationship and confidence between 
Láwúwo and the workers . This irony is a strong build -up to the tragedy that is to 
befall not only Láwúwo as the union leader , but also  the entire union. 
xcviii 
 
 
 Another example of tragic irony is the case of Moréṇ́ iké ̣́ and the money- 
doublers.Moréṇ́ iké ̣́ is duped by the supposed money-doublers,  another tragic irony 
that is put in place to usher inMoréṇ́ iké‟̣́ s tragic death. She wants to do this to help her 
husband  to raise money to settle the lawyer‟s fee on the case that is in court. The 
irony is in the fact that her good intention turns into a catastrophy for her husband 
andherself as well. She commits suicide by taking overdose of the pain-relieving 
tablets. The tragic irony is also seen in Láwúwo‟s ignorance about Moréṇ́ iké‟̣́ s 
condition. He assumes that his wife is sleeping because of the sedative effect of the 
pain-relieving drugs she has taken , but the author uses the sleep as signifier for death 
and Láwúwo as an ironic victim that keeps on acting in ignorance of the situation on 
ground. The suspense created through Láwúwo‟s speech and reaction about 
Moréṇ́ iké‟̣́ s sleeping condition brings the tragic irony to the limelight . Láwúwo warns 
his guest like this: 
 
             Láwúwo:         Ẹ máa rọra, Moréṇ́ iké ̣́ń sùn… 
                                     Oògùn tó lò un, yóò kún lorun díè,̣́ àmó ̣́ bó bá tají wàì  
                                     lorun ó daa lójú rè.Ṛ́ éṛé ̣Rún,(p 83) 
 
Láwúwo: Please  be careful, Moréṇ́ iké ̣́is sleeping… 
 The drug she took make her sleep, when she 
                                    wakes up she may not sleep again. 
 
Tragic irony is a good device to achievesuspense. The author creates the 
suspense so as to increase the tragic tension in the play. It stares up actions in drama 
and causes the reader to concentrate. This helps the reader to participate in the drama 
by projecting and predicting what could be the next action in relation to the  already 
created suspense. It is indeed a tragic irony because Láwúwo‟s struggle for the 
betterment of the workers is jeopardized. Morèṇ́ ikè‟̣́ s death is also another tragedy and 
his hope of having children is shattered. Everything turns tragic . Láwúwo‟s tragic 
condition automatically disqualifies him from being a hero leader. His condition 
marks the climax of the catastrophe and the hopes of the workers are shattered. It is a 
tragic irony because the result and outcome of their struggle do not match the zeal 
with which they start out at the beginning of the play. They are back to zero level with 
the working condition worse than before. 
The tragic irony takes another shape in E̩fúns̩étanAníwúrà.  The killing of 
Ògúnjìnmí, a palm-fruit tapper in the farmland of Chief O̩làtínwo̩ that share s 
xcix 
 
 
boundary with that of Ìyálóde , is so tragic .  Based on Yorùbá living , a palm-fruit 
tapper is not a thief but a hired labourer . So in the case of Ògúnjìnmí , he is hired by 
Látińwó  ̣́ to work for him in his farm. Ìyálóde does not investigate the matter before 
taking the law into her own hands and ordering that Ògúnjìnmí be beaten mercilessly 
and later be brought to her. Ògúnjìnmí is beaten to the point that he faints and dies. 
The tr agic irony is that as pathetic as the case is and though the chiefs deliberate on 
it, they could not reach a conclusion,therefore, nothing is done to Ìyálóde to challenge 
her for her impunity . Ìyálódeis too powerful and feared by all. The gravity of the 
tragedy is described by Ògúnniyi ; 
 Ògúnníyì:         …… Òṛ́ ò  ̣́ ib̀ àńújé ̣́ni òṛ́ ò  ̣́ na jákèjádò il̀ ú yí. Àwọn ọmọ Ògúnjìnmí 
                                   aláìníbaba; ìyàwó rè ̣́di opó. Ó di pé kí àwọn ọmọ rè ̣́máa ̣̣́́ 
̣̣̣́́́
                                   yọjú si ilé onílé láti jẹun. Ó di pé kí a máa gbá wọn lóẉ́ ó  ̣́  ̣̣̣̣̣̣́́́́́́
                                   séḥ́ ìn nídì.àwo oúnjẹ olóńjẹ. Ṣùgbóṇ́  ẹni ti ́ a kò le mú,  
̣̣̣̣̣̣̣́́́́́́́
                                   Ọló ṛ́ un ọba ni à á fi í fún. ̣̣́́
̣́
̣̣̣̣́́́́
E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà (p 34) ̣́
̣̣́́
̣́
̣̣́́
̣́
 ̣̣̣́́́
̣̣̣́́́
  Ògúnniyi:               It is sorrowful news througout the town that ̣̣̣̣́́́́
̣̣́́
̣́
                     Ògúnjìnmí‟s children become fatherless and his ̣̣̣̣́́́́
̣̣̣́́́
                     wife is now a widow. Now, his children will be begging ̣̣́́
                     for food in the neighbourhood, others will now hold back  
                     their hands from the plates. But whom we cannot subdue 
                     we hand over to God. 
 
The case of Adétutù who was murdered for being pregnant is different . It is 
tragic irony because Adétutù commits no criminal offence that could warrant death as 
the penalty but Ìyálóde , who has her own judicial immnunity in her house , declares 
death as the punishment. The intervention of the elders in the case ofAdétutù is a clear 
instance of irony. The irony consists in the fact that rather than bring respite, succour 
and pardon to the slave girl, it aggravates andprovokes Ìyálóde E̩fúns̩étán the more to 
the extent that she orders immediate execution of the death sentence . She decides to 
kill Adétutù right in front of her house instead of the backyard previously chosen.      
 Another instance of tragic irony is found in the vengeance plan against 
Ẹfúnṣetan by Ìtáwuyì. One would expect that Ì táwuyì‟s plot will work on Ef̣́ únsẹ́ tan 
and that Àwèṛ́ ó is going to succeed in carrying out the operation .One would also think 
that Itáwuyì will be able to killE̩fúns̩étán as planned, but the irony consisits in the fact 
that E̩fúns̩étán, through her supernatural power, detects the poison in the food, Àwèṛ́ ó 
confesses their plans; the table turns against Àwèṛ́ ó and she eventually eats the poison 
she has put insideE̩fúns̩étán‟s food. The death of the two slaves,Àwèṛ́ ó and Ìtáwuyì, is 
c 
 
 
tragic and must have sent cold shivers down the spines of the other slaves in Ìyálóde‟s 
courtyard. The irony generated by the failure of the assassination plan forÌyálóde and 
the failure of the charm is responsible for the tragedy and hopelessness of the slaves 
and anybody interested in the safety of the slaves. This is an example of tragic irony 
for tragic purpose, to show that the extent of the power of anyone is unpredictable 
because sometimes power may surpass power. The confidence in the efficacy of the 
failed charm is explained by Ìtáwuyì:  
Ìtáwuyì: Oògùn tí à ńwí yí, gbàkan-gbọn ni 
                           Àgbá-ra-gbá èèdì ni.  
                           Alágbára ni baba mi kí ó tó kú, 
                           Ó ní agbádá iná kan tí ó ba ni léṛ́ ù 
                           Agbádá yi máa ńgbe lọ sí sánmà keje , 
                           Níbi tí ó ti máa ńgba agbára tirè .̣́  
                           Oògùn tí ó bá mú ti ibè ̣́bò ,̣́  
                           Apá àjé ̣́kan kò lè ka a.  
                           Òḳ́ an nínú àwọn òògùn na tí ó já mó  ̣́mi lóẉ́ ó  ̣́ nìyí. 
                           Bí mo bá fi májèlé sí ońje. tán. 
                           Ng ó wá di iỳ á yi tí yiò́  fi jé ̣́é  ̣́sạ́́  ni .  
                           Kò sí iyèméjì níbè,̣́  Kì í ṣe òní ni mo ti ńlò ó.  
Ẹfúnṣetán Aníwúrà (p 61) 
 
Ìtáwuyì:  This particular medicine is undoubtable… 
                        My father was a powerful herbalist before his death 
                        He had one firebrand agbádá that is awesome 
                        This agbádá takes him to the seventh heaven, 
                        Where he went to receive his own power no power of any witches  
could match or supress, the power of the medicine that he brought  
from the place. This is one of the medicines that I inherited from  
my father. After putting the poison in the food 
then I  will use another charm on Ẹfúnṣetán to make her eat the food. 
                        No doubt about it, this is not my first time of using it.  
 
          The last days of Ìyálóde E̩fúnṣetán are not only an irony of fate , but also 
tragically ironic . The Ìyálóde is presented by the author in a degrading state :   
Ẹfúnṣetán ró àkísà , ó ńgbálè ,̣  àwọn ènìyàn ń kọjá . Látòósà dúró ní kò ṛ ò ̣kan , ó ńyó  ̣  
Ẹfúnṣetán wò .‟ (Ẹfúnṣetán is sweeping with tattered wrapper tied to her waist and 
people are passing by . Látòósà stands in a corner, watching her).This ironic situation 
that brings her final tragedy is best described by E̩fúnṣetán in her own words thus: 
Ẹfúnṣetán:   Afi ig̀ bà ti ́ wóṇ́  so ̣́mí da báyí; 
                    Mo wá di eḍ́ un-arinlè.̣́ 
                    Ìyálódé ìlú Ìbàdàn , 
                    Èmi naa ló dẹni ń fọwó  ̣́ kómí ẹran! 
                    Ibi ti ́ Látóòsà bá mi dé rè é o!            
E̩fúnṣetánAníwúrà, (p76) 
ci 
 
 
 
Ẹfúnṣetán:    At last they succeeded in destroying me, 
                      I became nothing, 
                      I, the Ìyálóde of Ìbàdàn , 
                      Now, I park  goat faeces with my bare hands! 
                      This is the situation Látòósà has brought me to! 
 
The Ìyálóde of Ìbàdàn has now fallen from grace to grass and this is the tragic end of 
the life and times of E̩fúns̩etàn Aníwúrà, the hitherto powerful chief, slave owner and 
a woman leader. It is a tragic end for her but freedom for her slaves. The message of 
the author to his readers and soceity at large is very clear, as one Yorùbá proverb says: 
„Ìgbà ò tó ̣lo ̣bí òréré , ayé ò tó lọ bí òp̣á ìbọn . Sáà làá ní, ẹnì kan ò layé. Ki oníkálukú 
ó rọra máa ṣe .‟ (The season is not as straight as the road; life is not as straight as a 
gun; Nobody owns a lifetime , you can only have a season . So, let everyone be 
careful). E̩fúns̩etàn cannot be in charge forever . She was in charge for a season, the 
season that passed out in tragedy; and the irony is a tragic one because it is a change 
from glory to shame.The tragic end of ÌyálódeE̩fúns̩étán connotes that power corrupts, 
but absolute power corrupts absolutely. 
           The verbal irony, ironic elements in situations and actions,ironic suspense and 
ironic surprise identified in these texts are devices used to contrive tragic irony 
projects towards the tragic end that has been destined for the plays. Frye (1957:285) 
notes that “As tragedy moves over towards irony, the sense of inevitable events 
begins to fade out, and the sources of catastrophe come into view”. The above 
statement is a clear description of the tragic ironic upon which the foundation in the 
texts are built. In Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù ,as the interrogation continues with Yunusa 
and Ibrahim and as the use of detective powder is mentioned, the culprits are sure that 
there is no way of escape for them and tragedy is unavoidable.  In Ààre-̣Àgò 
Aríkúye̩rí, after the first hearing of Ogunrinde Aje, after his effort to give bribe has 
failed, and he has heard Ogunmola‟s judgement on others, he is sure that tragedy is 
unavoidable. He takes to his heel and runs for his life. InE̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà, Ìyálóde‟s 
slaves were released in her presence, she was captured and bound, humiliated to the 
level of a slave inLátòósà‟s palace. She is surethat there is no way of escape for her 
and tragedy is unavoidable. In Ré̩ré̩ Rún , since the workers have seen that Moréṇ́ iké ̣́
(Láwúwo‟s wife) is dead and the pathetic condition of Láwúwo , the workers already 
know their fate. They are sure that there is no way of escape for them and tragedy is 
cii 
 
 
unavoidable, so they go back to work sorrowfully as commanded by Ìdòwú , the newly 
appointed labour union leader. In other words, when all the possible avenues have 
been explored for possible change and the change does not come into view the 
remaining option is to face the ironies of life.    
 
4.4 Irony of Fate  
        Irony of fate is when life situations and circumstances present contrasts that arise 
naturally which are unquestionable because they go beyond the scrutiny of human 
reasoning. Different types of irony and the ironic are employedby the authors of the 
selected texts. Of particular attention is the irony of fate which finds its relevance in 
Yorùbá worldview. The Yorùbá strongly believe that to occupy a leadership position 
is good and prestigious. They also believe that there are challenges attached to every 
leadership position, as privilege entails responsibility. For instance,in Ìdààmú Páàdì 
Mínkáílù,Mínkáílù finds himself in a horrible situation , after Salu‟s confession of 
being a member of the occultic group as well as his involvement in the killing of 
Sẹtilu, the council treasurer. This connotes that uneasy lies the head that wears the 
crown. Leadership position is honourable but it comes with greater responsibility and 
trouble of different kinds .  The irony inMínkáiĺ ù‟s appointment into the council‟s 
board, based on his spiritual placement in the town , which should bring honour and 
prestige, now brings frustration and dilemma for Miń káílù . Páàdì Mínkáílù‟s 
involvement in the council is good, he is chosen as somebody that will definitely help 
to sanitise and purge the council from its corrupt practices but the case of the Èjìgbò 
community fails to establish this . Mínkáílùtries to prevent the stealing of the project 
money by his prompt action (out of anger ) and also struggles to save Sèṭ́ ílù‟s life 
butSèṭ́ ílù eventually dies. Yes, frustrationis expected. He had anticipated it, hence his 
reluctance in accepting the post. But the irony in it is that much as he tries, he fails in 
the assignment. 
 Also, in Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù,we have another instance of an irony of fate. 
The death of the children while the parents are still alive is bad not to even talk of 
children dying at the parent‟s old age . It is an irreparable loss and a bad omen in the 
Yorùbá worldview and cultural contexts . This, as we have seen from King Jubirilu‟s 
experiences, can be traced to irony of fate.  According to him, the few children he has 
die while he is still alive:  
Jubirilu    Àyiṕ o àyiṕ o n‟ile aiye! 
ciii 
 
 
                Nibi te‟̣́ leḳ́ un gbe nfi gbogbo eṇ́ u sunkun 
                Nibẹ l‟alawada gbe nd‟eṛ́ in pàle ̣́nibikan 
                Ọkọ ọlọkọ kú, ọkọ ọlọkọ tún jí 
                Tal‟òóògùn ti yio ba mi ji 
                 Rafilu oṃ́ o ̣́ temi? 
                 Ogbó dé, ọmọ ti mo bi kò to nkan 
                 Gbogbo woṇ́  ti lo…̣́  
                 Ìpàdé d‟òḍ́ ò  ̣́ Èdùmare 
                 Hùn-ùn…                                         
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 82) 
  
Jubirilu:     Life is not static, always turning round and round 
                  Where the sorrowful are crying with mouths wide open 
                  There also gathered together are the joyous who laugh heartily 
                  Someone‟s husband dies and rises again, 
                  Who is the doctor that will re‟/vive Rafilu, my own daughter? 
                  Now I am old, my children are few and all have died 
                  Till we meet before the Almighty God… 
                  Hun-un… 
 
The tragedy that befalls King Jubrili is not something that any human being 
can explain and nobody can find the right word to console him ; it is a serious 
situation. He concludes that he can only know the reason behind the tragedy that 
befalls himat his old age when he meets with Olódùmarè , his creator. His conclusion 
confirms irony of fate as the origin of his tragedy . Ọládiípò ‟̣́ s assertion (2005:4-5) 
corroborates this:  
Human life is an unsual undertaking because it is not fully 
comprehensible and it is uncertain…The Yorùbá believe 
that human beings are fully in control of their destinies 
even though they believe that an individual has a crucial 
role to play in directing her own affairs. After all, there are 
serious situations over which they do not seem to have 
3
control- hopeless situation, so to say  
 
The connotative meaning of this tragic incident is that destiny forms the bedrock for 
all the tragic occurences inÌdààmú Páàdì Mínkáìlù. 
 As said ealier , that irony of fate , according toYorùbá worldview can be traced to the  
Yorùbá belief in predestination .  Ab́imbóḷ́ á (1976:113) gives a clear explanation on 
predestination based on Yorùbá worldview. He says; 
Predestination among theYorùbá is known by different 
names. Sometimes it is known as àyànmó(̣choice)or ìpín 
(predestined share) or kádàrá (divine share for man) or 
ìpòṛí (inner head ). Whatever the name by which 
civ 
 
 
predestination is known . It is always associated with Ori ́
(the inner head ). It is believed that the Symbol of free 
choice is Orí (inner head) which everyone received in 
heaven. A man‟s destiny, that is to say his success or 
failure in life, depends to a large extent on the type of head 
he chose in heaven.  
 
Therefore, after a lot of criticisms and arguments over a case, one will have to resort 
to fate and submit to the workings of hisOrí (the inner head), the choice of Ori ́ in the 
4
house of Àjàlá- the maker of heads.  
Instances of of irony of fate also abound in Ògúnníran‟s Ààre̩ Àgò Aríkúyẹrí. 
Irony of fate inÀàrẹ Àgò also reflects theYorùbá belief and thought  that, to be 
hardworking is good and it is well appreciated but destiny (Orí) has the final say in 
one‟s success and blessing . The submission of Chief Jagùn in the beginning of the 
play about Èsụ̀́ ‟s poverty -strikken condition after so much toil and hard work is an 
instance of irony of fate based on his choice ofOri ́ (the inner head), it is the 
foreknowledge and the anchor to which the other instances of irony of fate in the play 
stand. Jagun comments that:  
         Jagun:   Hun-ùn-ùn! Ẹjó ̣́Èṣù kó -̣́ ọ!   
Hun---un—un! Ẹjó  ̣́ Èsù kọ-ọ  
  Kì i kúkú s‟ẹjó  ̣́ Èṣù rárá 
  Àyànmó  ̣́ l‟ó ń ṣe béẹ̀́  ̣́ojàre  
  Ṣé ẹni t‟ó gbóṇ́ , 
Orí rè ̣́ló pé kó gbóṇ́ ; 
  Èèyàn tí kò gbóṇ́   
  Orí „è ̣́l‟ó ní ó gò ̣́ ju „ṣu lọ 
                        B‟áa m‟éwúré ̣́ ńlá s‟onigbòẉ́ ó ̣́ ifá, 
                        Ifá ní ń gbewúré ̣́
                        Kádàrá kò gba nkànkan. 
                        B‟áa mágùntàn bòḷ́ òj̣́ ò ̣́ s‟onigbòẉ́ ó ̣́ òṕ̣ èḷ́ è,̣́  
                        Òṕ̣ èḷ́ è ̣́ là ń s‟àpóṇ́ lé fún,  
                        Kádàrá kò gba nkànkan. 
                        À bá kúkú bọ „rí 
                        Ká má wulè ̣́bọ „òògùn; 
                        Nítorí oògùn ló l‟ọjó ̣́ kan ìpóṇ́ jú, 
                        Orí a gbé w‟áyé ló l‟ọjó ̣́ gbogbo  
                        Ẹni tí „ó ṣ‟ẹbọ k‟ó máa ṣ‟ẹbọ 
                        Ẹni tí „o ṣ‟òògùn, k‟o maa s‟̣́ òògùn 
                        Ìṣẹbọ, ìṣòògùn 
B‟aa ti w‟aye wá rí l‟àá ri ́  
Àìgbóṇ́  Èṣù kó ̣́
  Ẹjó ̣́ kádàrá „è ̣́ni.  
Ààrẹ Àgò (p 4) 
          Jagun: Not Esu‟s fault 
cv 
 
 
 Not Esu‟s fault at all 
  But the workings of destiny 
  For the wise ones 
 It is to the praise of their destiny 
  For the foolish ones 
  The destiny caused their foolishness to be greater than 
  Yam 
                         When we take a big goat to appease Ifá                                     
                         Ifá will willingly accept it,  
                         When we take a big sheep toappease òṕ̣ èḷ́ è,̣́   
                         It is òṕ̣ èḷ́ è ̣́we appereciate, 
                         Destiny will not make any requests 
                         We should just make sacrifice to Orí 
                         And also neglect medicine 
                         Medicine is only useful on a rare trouble situation  
                         But Orí is in charge all the time    
  Those who like sacrifice should continue to make sacrifice. 
  Those who prefer medicine should continue to domedicine. 
  Whether sacrifice or medicine 
 It is what we are destined to be on earth that we live to become  
 
The above is an example of a lifefull of irony of fate with a philosophical undertone.It 
is an example of irony of fate in which the experience of man in life does not mean 
that man is indolent, but it is his destiny that works in contradiction to his expected 
reward of hard work. Jagun‟s submission shows that È ṣù‟s choice ofOrí (the inner 
head), that is responsible for his abject poverty even with evidence of hardwork. He 
adds that there is no solution to any issue pertaining to destiny, which is in line with 
man‟schoice of Orí (inner head); only the gods can accept sacrifice; Orí (inner head) 
orkádàrá (divine share for man) does not need any appeasement . Therefore, Èṣù‟s 
predicament, though unknown to him is as a result of his choice.  
The ironic outcome of Èsụ̀́ ‟s condition will now be applicable to Ògúnrìnde‟s 
situation.When things work out well for man , they make sacrifice to thank their Orí 
(the inner head), so as to record more success .It is this Yorùbá worldview of showing 
gratitude that prompts Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé to make propitiation to his ownOrí (the inner 
head), after recording so many successes of conquest from battles.The playwright 
builds Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s misfortune on the Yo rùbá worldview about àyànmó(̣choice)or 
ìpín (predestined share).Dasylva (1988) refer to àyànmóạs „that which is chosen and 
sticks‟, Ironically, the steps taken by Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé does not work , showing that, no 
matter how much one tries , the destiny in line with one‟s choice of Ori ́ (the inner 
head) will still prevail. Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s situation is an other instance of irony of fate 
cvi 
 
 
because it is afterhe has made sacrifice to hisOri ́ (the inner head), that he records the 
death of his three children in one day . Based on the above philosophical stand , one 
can conclude that it all happened to Ògúnrìndé Ajé according to the destin y he has 
chosen from heaveneven before he was born; when coming down to earth. Therefore, 
irony of fate is a sharp contrast between human intention and the actual result since 
the choice is already made by man. 
             In Ìsọ́ ̀ ḷ́ á‟s play E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà,  the ÌyálódeẸfúnṣetán‟s barrenness and the 
consequence of childlessness is a clear example of irony of fate. This is because only 
God grants or gives the blessing of „child‟ to a person.She accuses the Almighty God 
for being cruel in his dealing with her , when one can actually says that her 
childlessness can be traced to her choice of Ori ́ (the inner head). However, she 
laments as if God only should be held responsible: 
Ẹfúnṣetán:   …Sụ̀́ gbóṇ́  rírò ni ti ènìyàn 
                    Ṣíṣe ḿbẹ lóẉ́ ó  ̣́Ọló ṛ́ un Ọba 
                    Èmi kò mọ ohun tí mo fi ṣe Elédùwà  
                     Tí ó fi fọmọ lá mi lójú bayi… 
E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà (p 9) 
 Ẹfúnṣetán: …But man proposes 
                     God disposes 
                    I don‟t know my offence to God 
                    To have rendered me childless….                    
 
E̩fúnsetán‟s expression of her condition connotes many things. It connotes that God is 
wicked and he punishes without a cause. In Yorùbá culture, it is a stigma to be barren . 
The people place a high value on having children and , if there is none, it connotes that 
there will be nobody to continue her generation after her . Also, with the Yorùbá 
worldview, it connotes that she sees no reason for her childlessness. 
DespiteE̩fúns̩etán‟s social status as Ìyálóde , her wealth and affluence, the irony of fate 
in her life is that she is childless. The author uses this irony to explain the reasons for 
her callousness, wickedness and her penchant for killing her slaves who dare to 
become pregnant. 
An instance of irony of fate based on the Yorùbá worldview about destiny is 
also found in O̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún. The Yorùbá believe that nothing happens to 
a person without a reason and everything that happens to one in life can still be traced 
to one‟s fate or destiny . For example , Láwúwo recounts the tragic events in his 
genealogy and ties his present misfortune to his family background. He believes that 
hard work and selfless attitude, for him, is a good heritage from his parents. He 
cvii 
 
 
equally believes that toiling without gain is not a new thing because it has been so 
right from the time of his fathers. Therefore, his view towards his own personal matter 
is not borne out of a non -chalant and careless attitude as his wife (Moréṇ́ iké)̣́  and his 
auntie (Wúràọlá) have taken it to be  at the denotative level of meaning  but as  
destiny has designed it for him, the selfless leadership traits has been in his family 
history. Hence, Láwúwo, the chief character, in the text talks about his pedigree as a 
hard-working family with yet very little or nothing to show for the industry at the end 
of the day:  
 Láwúwo:   Ìsinmi!  Ìsinmi! Mo sinmi irúu rè ̣́rí lójúú rẹ láti ọjó ̣́ ti o  
ti mo mi? 
Mọlémọlé ni mi, mọlémọlé ni baba to bi mi.  
Àjogúnbá ilée wa ni. Nínú ilé tí òṃ́ òḷ́ é e mọ,  
mélòó ni ti òun fúnraa rè ̣́níbè?̣́      
  O gbàgbé pé ilé onílé ni babaa mi n mo ̣́ ní òkè ọjà tí  
ogiri fi wó pa á? … Ìyaa mi àbèj̣́ é ̣́ òḳ́ iń , ó ṣiṣé,̣́ ṣiṣẹ bí  
ẹni máa kú, kí á ba lè máa  róúnjẹ jẹ! Ṣèbí èyí ló dà á  
lórí rú, to fi bèṛ́ è  ̣́sí siń wiń …Ìsẹ̀́ ḍ́ álè ̣́ ilé e wa ni, ká  
máa  ṣiṣé,̣́ láìro wàhálà tó wà níbè,̣́  láìro nípa èrè gúnmó ̣́  
kan fún araa wa.  
Réṛé ̣Rùn (pp 41-42) 
 
     Láwúwo:     … Rest! Rest! Have I observed that kind of rest since you‟ve known  
me? I am a builder, my father is a builder. It‟s our family work. Out of 
all the houses the builder builds, how many belongs to him. Have you 
forgottenthat it was the collapsed building that killed my father beside 
the market? ... My mother, offspring of peacock, she worked tirelessly 
so that we the children can eat! She became insane owing to the burden 
of the hard work. … It is common in our own lineage, to work without 
taking thought of the trouble involved, without expecting any gain or 
dividend for ourselves. 
  
 Láwúwò‟s explanation (rhetoric) to his wife about his own biodata and family 
history is full of ironies. For instance, he is a workaholic, he never rests, yet he has 
nothing to show for it in terms of property and good living standard. Like his father, 
he is a builder, who builds houses for others, yet, none is built for himself and neither 
did his father own a house. Futhermore as a builder, his father died under a collapsed 
building beside the market while building. His mother worked tirelessly so that the 
children can eat, yet they found it difficult to eat. More pathetic, and a case of irony of 
fate, is the fact that as hard working as Láwúwò‟s lineage is , they work tirelessly and 
they all died of the  hazard of the job.  InYorùbá worldview , it is believed that what 
you know best to do may be the source of your death. This is well applicable 
cviii 
 
 
toLáwúwò‟s lineage according to his account . Yorùbá has this saying that : „Orí isẹ́́  ̣́
laago ń kú si‟́  (clock dies at  work).  Therefore, what they know best to do happen to 
be the cause their destruction, as these Yorùbá proverbs confirms it that: 
                             „Ikú ogun nií  ́ pakíkanjú 
                              Ikú odò níí pòmùwè ̣́ 
                              Ikú ẹwà níí pòḳ́ ín 
                              Ikú ara ríre níí poódẹ 
                              Òwò àdá bá mò ̣́ níí pàdá 
                              T‟oḳ́ ó  ̣́ nií  ́ ya oḳ́ ó  ̣́ léṇ́ u 
 
                             Warriors die in the battle field 
                              Swimmers die in the river 
                              Beauty causes the death of peacork 
                              Fastidiousness causes the death of parrot.               
                              The trade a cutlass knows kills the cutlass. 
                              That of the hoe destroys its edge 
 
With such an account as these, full of ironies, the author has prepared the readers well 
ahead that the workers‟ struggle for better working conditions and life more abound 
led by Láwúwò, a union leader with family history of  trials and failures and long list 
of unfavourable irony of fate is going to end in a deadlock, with no gains but many 
losses. 
 All the above examples stem out of irony of fatewhich connotesthat the choice 
of Orí (the inner head), by a person influences and determines what his lot will be 
here on earth. Even though, man would have forgotten the type of destiny chosen at 
the point of entrance, Yorùbá worldview is that everything will still work out in line 
with one‟s choice of destiny. Therefore, irony of fate reveals that there may be 
sconflict between man‟s choice of Orí (the inner head), and his desires later, while on 
earth. The irony and the ironic situations of life serves as a pointer to see 
predestination as responsible for the inexplicable experiences of man as they are 
presented in the tragic plays chosen for this study within the Yorùbá worldview. 
 
4.5 Irony of Character  
In this type of irony, a character acts or behaves in a way that is contradictory 
to expectation or exhibits the traits that are contrary to what is expected of him or her 
by the readers. Such traits include pretence, deceit, hypocrisy, greediness, bribery, 
conspiracy, treachery, anger, verbal expression, surprises and inappropriate 
behaviour. Examples  are when a character pretends instead of being fortright or 
cix 
 
 
straightforward, when a character is deceitful instead of being honest, hypocrite 
instead of being open, and greedy instead of being self satisfied. Any character 
showing any of these traits or characteristics can be said to be exhibiting an irony of 
character?  Traits such as these are  usually imposed on characters for entertainment 
and other sylistic effectsbecause a drama should be dramatic enough in words and 
actions. 
Instances of irony of character abound in Ògúnníran‟s Ààrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí . For 
example,the way of life of Ààrè ̣́ -àgó is presented as a character that lacks the 
rudiments of home leadership even though he is an experienced warlord.  He is 
displayed as somebody that lacks self-control.His tragic flaw is seen in the way he, 
with hot temper and anger, handles the crisis within his family setting. His lack of 
patience and wrong judgment lead him to committing murder . The judgement strips 
Ògúnrìndé Ajé naked from his honourable position and brings him down from his 
glorious height as a warlord. He sows the seed of discord among his wives during the 
time of sacrifice ceremony of his primordial head.  He stands up to dance only when it 
gets to Fátóḷ́ á‟s turn to chant rárà.Fátóḷ́ á outshines the other two wives because 
herrárà chantis the best . Ògúnrìnde Ajé is so joyous and happy that he praises Fátóḷ́ á 
and thanks his destiny for giving him such a beautiful, slim wife.The content of the 
rárà chant by Ògúnrìndé Ajé shows his love and affection for her, as he appreciates 
Fátó ḷ́ á‟s body structure and her beauty:   
          Ajé:      Obìnrin téẹ́ ́ṛ́ é  ̣́ye ̣́ọkọ rẹ n‟íjó ijó 
Ọkọ-ọ Fátóḷ́ á 
Iwíndàmóḷ́ á 
Òsùmàrè yè‟̣́ run dandan-an dan 
 
 
 Ori ni kúkú se ni 
Táa l‟áya tó pa‟wó, ọkọ-ọ Fátóḷ́ á 
Olówó orí Àmòṕ̣ é 
Orí náà ló se ó  ̣́ pàdé-è-mi 
Ààrẹ Àgò (p 19) 
 
 
         Ajé:   Slim woman fits her husband on the dancing floor 
Fátóḷ́ á‟s husband 
Iwíndàmóḷ́ á 
The rainbow fits the sky very well 
It is one‟s (primordial) head that causes one 
To have a beautiful wife, Fatola‟s husband 
                   The husband of Àmòṕ̣ é. 
cx 
 
 
The one who pays Àmòṕ̣ é‟s bride price 
It is this same (primordial) head that causes us to meet 
 
Just after the incident, Asiyanbí, filled with envy and jealousy, decides to kill 
Adépèlé‟s three children with poison and later declares that Fátóḷ́ á is the culprit that 
has done it.The irony in Ògúnrìnde Ajé‟s action is that he did not take time to 
investigate the matter even when the name of his beautiful and favourite wife is 
mentioned as the killer of the three children. It is clear in the course of the 
interrogation at Basòṛ́ un Ò gúnmóḷ́ á‟s palace that there are remote causes for 
Asiyanbí‟s ulterior motive and action which , through patience, would have been 
brought to the fore before the case gets to the tragic level.  Therefore, Asiyanbí‟s 
confession is really a clue and another exposure of Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s character as a 
weakling. She describes her husband‟s character thus: 
 
Asiyanbí:A kúkú féṛ́ àn ara wa dáadáa téḷ́é.̣́   
bàbá wa náà ló ba gbogbo rè ̣́jé…̣́  
Bàbá wa ni ò kúkú gbóṇ́ .  
òun lo pogun tó rógun,  
òun ló pòṛ́ àn tó róṛ́ àn Ààrẹ Àgò (p 73) 
 
Asiyanbí:  We have been good friends before 
Our husband spoilt the relationship 
Our husband lacks wisdom. He looks for trouble and 
                             has it in abundance. 
 
Asiyanbí‟s confession sheds light on the real si tuation and Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé realises his 
mistake that could have been avoided. He sees the result of his impatience and his 
wrong response.  He therefore confesses and laments Fátóḷ́ á‟sdeath that he had killed 
for his lack of patience;   
Ajé: Kí l‟éḅ́ i mi ń nú òṛ́ ò ̣́ yìí 
Olúwa mi?sùúrù mi nìkan ni kò tó! Aa! Àṣé-e 
                        Ẹni a gbójú okùn lé kò tilè ̣́jò ̣́ ẹni agba! 
                        Àṣé, Fátóḷ́ á kò sí nínú à n pète ibi! 
               Àmòṕ̣ é kò si nibi, à ń gbìmò ̣́ ìkà! 
                        Àmòṕ̣ é kò sí nínù à ń ṣ‟èké! 
                        Àṣé, ikú olórogún ló mú Fátóḷ́ á lo!̣́  
(Ààrẹ Àgò (p 76) 
 
 
Ajé:What is my fault in this matter? 
  Only I did not exercise enough patience! My lord,  
 Oh, it‟s a pity; the condemned is not even the offender! 
 Fátóḷ́ á was not among the evil doers, 
cxi 
 
 
 Àmòṕ̣ é was not among the evil plotters 
 Àmòṕ̣ é was not a traitor! 
  Oh, Fatola‟s death was caused by co-wives rivalry! 
 
One begins to wonder what kind of love he has for his favourite wife, the love that 
cannot afford to wait and investigate in order to get to the root of the case.  He is 
unable to manage the crisis in which he finds himself and he could not control his 
emotion. His lack of patience exposes the irony in his character. When looked at from 
the Yorùbá culturalcontext of polygyny , the husband of many wives should be 
discreet, full of self-control, have a large heart and patient enough to handle sensitive 
family issues . One Yorùbá proverb says „ Àgbà tó r orò kìí kó èèyàn jo‟̣̣  (An elderly 
man with hot temper will not have many people around him). His lack of all the above 
attributes imposes an ironic characterization on him, thus making him look stupid, 
foolish and an object of ridicule. The stylistic effect of the use of this irony of 
character is to satirise the position of the warlord as a person whose character cannot 
carry the weight of its responsibilities. The situation connotes that, if we are patient 
enough, what we think is a riddle will be unfolded with time; hasty decisions always 
result to regrets. Emotional stability is a great virtue for good leadership.  
Another instance of irony of character inÀàrè-̣Àgò Aríkúye̩rí ,is that of  Lágid́ ò , who 
has been potrayed as a faithful aid to his master Ààrẹ-Àgò through counselling at the 
beginning of the play is now presented as a betrayal. After the last batch of Basò ṛ́ un 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s police has been beaten by Ààrẹ-Àgò, he realizes the great trouble  
aheadof him. He, therefore, calls on Lágídò to start wat ching at the town gate so that 
he can give danger alert on time . But Lágídò , who  knows thedanger involved , 
requests for adequate preparation like a warrior . Ààrẹ-Àgò agrees, but in spite of this , 
Lágídò is still afraid because he knows that he is not up to the task. He cannot risk his 
life for the offence he did not committ. His love for his master does not reach the level 
5  
of dying for him  or of dying with him as the traditional Abóḅ́ akú (the one who dies 
with the king).  Lágídò‟s characterisation in the play is typical of  an ironyof 
character. His name Òḅ́ oḶ́ ágídò (an extremely stupid person) portray him as having a 
low intelligent quotient, stupid, foolish but his behaviour as an aid and errand boy 
toÀàrẹ-Àgò contradicts what his name portends or suggests about him. He is smart, 
intelligent and quick witted. He says in derison of his master: 
 
 Lágídò: Oníyèỵ́ é ̣́ènìyàn bíi wèrè tí wọn ń pè ní  
cxii 
 
 
               Ajé yìí kò sí 
   Ṣ‟émi ni ó wá lọ d‟ojú kọ iná? 
   Ẹni bá p‟ogun ní í r‟ógún; 
   Ẹni bá p‟òṭ́ è  ̣́ní í r‟ó ṭ́ è;̣́  
   Ẹni bímọ ò ṛ́ àn ní í pòṇ́  ọn. 
   Ng kò pà „nìyàn 
   Ng kò t‟iná bo‟̣́ lé, 
   Ó ní kí ń gbáradì lójú ìloro 
   Kò burú, kò bàjé ̣́
   Òní ni yóò mò ̣́ pé: 
  „Eṇ́ i a ti ̀ s‟óde kò ní kú, 
   Ẹni a sé mó ‟̣́ le l‟ẹbọra ó pa‟. 
Ààrè-̣Àgò (p 49) 
 
Lágídò:  No one is as foolish as this mad man called Ajé 
                         Am I the one that will now face the fire?  
                         He who asks for war faces the war; 
                         He who asks for conspiracy faces conspiracy; 
                         He who harbours trouble manages it. 
                         I am not a murderer   
                         I did not set any house on fire           
             Yet, he asked me to put on the armoury and  
             watch at the town gate 
             It‟s not bad; it‟s just okay 
             But today, he will realise that, 
             The person sent outside will not die; 
             But the one well protected inside the spirit will devour. 
 
 The irony is in the way Lágídò describes his master. The above statement presents 
the true character of Lágídò as wise and not stupid. The way he welcomes the 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s aides that have come to effect Aje‟s arrest buttresses this :          
Lágídò: Ẹ máa rọra o! pèḷ́épèḷ́ é.̣́ Ẹ máa rọra o… 
 
            Akóḍ́ à kìnní:     Kí nì‟wọ ń ṣe níbè?̣́  
 Lágídò:               Èmi kò bá t‟ìjà wá‟hin. Ọmọ abé ̣́yín ni mo jé .̣́  
 Mo so ̣́ f‟Ájé ̣́pé kò tó béẹ̀́ ,̣́ etí rè ̣́l‟ó di. Èmi kó…̣́  
Ààrè-̣Àgò (p 49) 
 
Lágídò:       Welcome! gently, take care! 
 
First 
Messenger:     What are you doing there? 
 
           Lágídò:      I am not here to fight with you. I am your Servant.  
 I told Ajé that he is not up to the task, but he is deaf. 
 It is not me…….  
 
cxiii 
 
 
He changes his style of approach,when the messenger arrives again,Lágídò‟s 
approach is another instance of irony, his action and words does not match his 
appearance, with all the armour on him as a soldier,  he plays it softly with the guards 
and apologises for his past misconducts when challenged by one of them.  
Akóḍ́ à Kejì: Dáké ̣́ẹnu „ẹ! Ṣe bí ìwọ yìí l‟o gbá mi l‟étí l‟éẹ̀́ ḳ́ an. Àbí? 
 
Lágídò:  Bí ng kò bá ṣe béẹ̀́ ,̣́  yoo pa mí. Wèrè gidi mà ni Ajé! Ìdí nìyí  
 tí mo fi wá bè ̣́yín l‟óde. Ohun t‟é-̣́ ẹ bá sa fé ̣́kí ng ṣe fún yín  
 ni ki ́ e ̣́so.̣́  Èmi kò jà. 
Ààrè-̣Àgò (p 49) 
 
 
Akóḍ́ à Kejì: Keep quiet! Are you not the one who slapped me the other  
   time. Yes? 
 
Lágídò:         He will kill me if I fail to do that. Ajé is indeed a mad  
   person! 
 This is why I have come here to beg you. Just tell me what  
             you want me to do for you. I am not here to fight.   
   
This time, Lágídò‟scharacter is different from what we have known  and seen ealier in 
the play, as the only friend of his master. He changes completely and has become a 
traitor by giving the situation report of Ògúnrìnde Ajé‟s preparation and by showing 
the enemy the other entrance, the back door of the house. It is a surprise that 
Lágídò,who knows the perculiarity and the sensitivity of his office, who is expected to 
protect his master at all cost,in an ironic twist, switches to the side of Basọ́ ̀ ṛ́ un 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s messenger .This action shows him not as fake, pretender, traitor, selfish 
and unfaithfull aide, but a clever aide. The stylistic funtion of the irony of character 
here is to achieve comic effect (laughter) and to prove Yorùbá  agelong adage about 
the monkey, who is  erroneously being looked upon as a stupid animal, that „Ta a ló 
sọ pé Ọ̀bọ ò gbó ṇ , ò ḅ ó  ̣ gbó ṇ , tinú òḅọ l‟ò ḅ ọ ń ṣe‟ (Who says the monkey is not wise, 
the monkey is wise, it is only doing what is in its mind).   
In Ààrẹ Àgò Aríkúye̩rí,the chiefs are not, in any way, different, as they act 
contrary to the tenets of the office they occupy by acceptting the bribe offered them 
by Ògúnrìnde Ajé and quickly share the money . Their true character is revealed, the 
greed in them is exposed, and their hypocritical attitude is displayed through a 
disgraceful defence of Ògúnrìnde Ajé in his murder  case.Their initial unanimous 
decision and the zeal with which they frown atÒgúnrìnde Ajé‟s action, the resolution 
that justice must prevail, as echoed by Ìyálóde at the first hearing of the case , confer 
cxiv 
 
 
on them the characterisation of honest, bold and honourable characters committed to 
justice and equity. Ìyálóde comments thus:     
Ìyálóde:          Yóò f‟orí fà á ni.Tirè̩„ò gbò̩dò̩ yàtò̩ 
Àárè  ̣ Àgó (p 61) 
 
Ìyálóde:  He must face the consequences. 
His case cannot be treated differently 
 
However, in an ironically twist, and in a way contradictory to their earlier stand, they 
take bribe and perverts justice. This makes their conduct an irony of character.  
Hence, Baṣò ṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á describe the irony in their character as this : 
             Baṣò ṛ́ un:  È ỵ́ in torí owó ẹ ń yí òtító  ̣́ po 
                              Ẹtorí obì, ẹ di dìdìnrìn àgbà,! Ẹ di òpònú, ẹ di ṣùgóṃ́ ù. 
                              Ẹ di akíndanidání! Ẹ di onísọkúsọ! 
                              È ỵ̣́́ in „ò mò  ̣́ pé gbogbo b‟a-a ti ń sẹ́ , l‟ayé n wò wa? 
Àárè  ̣ Àgó (p 95) 
 
            Baṣò ṛ́ un:  You, because of money turned down the truth! 
                             Because of bribe you become stupid elders! You become senseless 
                             You become an imbecile! You become irrational!             
                             You‟ve forgotten that the entire world is watching us the way  
                              we behave. 
 
The stylistic effect of the irony of their character is to satirise the chiefs as those 
whose characters are mostly unpredictable with high tendency of perversion of 
justice.   
Another instance of irony of character in Àárè  ̣ Àgó Aríkúye̩rí is the Ògúnriǹ dé  
Ajé‟s refusal to commit honorific suicide as the custom for the warlord in Yorùbá land 
demands. At the end of the final hearing, Baṣò ṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á sentences  Ògúnrìndé 
Ajé to death through honorific suicide .  He agrees to do just that and declares boldly 
as a warrior that he does not fear death and to commit suicide is not a problem; 
            Ajé:     Kì í ba ni ká yẹrí n‟ikú jé `̣́  
            Ẹ dáké ̣́ẹjó ,̣́  ẹ dáké ̣́ariwo. 
  Ẹni tí kò kú ló ni‟gbó òkè yìí 
 Aláwùrà l‟ó m‟eṇ́ i tí yóò l‟oḷ́ a 
  Ẹni tí yóó jọba, ẹni kan kò mò ̣́
 Ko s‟éṇ́ i tí kò ni ́ kú l‟áyé 
 Ikú ń s‟àwá l‟éǵ̣ bé ̣́ni 
 Ààrẹ Àgò (p 109) 
 
            Ajé: Death is inevitable 
 Stop talking, stop the noise 
 There is hope for the living 
 Only God knows those who will live till 
cxv 
 
 
 tomorrow  
 Nobody knows the next king 
 No one can escape death 
 Death is just taking us in turn 
 
Theirony in the above excerpt is that hisstatement does not correspond to his action 
that later forms the title of the play because he finally runs away; the news of his 
escape is unexpected. His action is disgraceful. His position as warlord does not 
permit such a disgraceful act.A warrior is not supposed to run away from death. This 
escapism ridicules his person and his position as a warrior . The ironic character of 
Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s brings the dramatic forces in the play into view . His action heightens 
the overall ironic force in the play . Basò ṛ̣́́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á and the chiefs are expecting 
the news ofÒgúnrìndé Ajé‟s death but they receivecontrary news instead .  
  It is Ògúnriǹ dé Ajé‟s character that gives him a new name „ Aríkúyẹrí’, (The 
one who dodged death ). Hence, Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á refers to his ironic behaviour as 
being a coward, the opposite of the brave man that he has claimed to be:   
 
Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á:    Ikú wọlé dé tán  
                         Ó sálọ bí ọmọ ojo! 
              Ẹ má p‟léyìí l‟éèyàn mó  ̣́ gbogbo jànmáà ; 
  Eléyìí kì í ṣ‟èèyàn rárá, 
Aríkúyẹrí ni!                  Ààrẹ Àgò (p. 111) 
 
 
 
 Basòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á:   When death finally came 
                          Like a coward, he fled 
              My people, don‟t call him a human being any more 
  He is not a human being   
                                     He is a run- away-from-death.  
 
The stylistic effect of irony of the character displayed by Ajé can be interpreted from 
different connotative angles. It shows that the killer would not want to die, the inner 
man is totally different from outside appearance , and it is difficult to willingly take 
one‟s life.  The author uses the irony to bring home the Yorùbá proverb that says ; Kò 
séṇ́ i tí yóò gbó ̣́ ọjó ̣́ ikú rè ̣́tí èṛ́ ùkò ní í b à á . (No one hears about his/her death and 
wold not be scared stiff).  Politically, it causes an amendment to the immunity given 
to the political post holders in relation to the method of punishment for murder case.  
Irony of character is used in this text as a weapon to counter dogmatism and to 
destabilise the stable situation that has existed for a long time. The immunity is 
cxvi 
 
 
removed and since then, there is no chance for honorific suicide for any political 
office holder. Henceforth, all citizens will receive equal treatment as far as 
punishment of offenders is concerned.  
 The characters inFálétì‟s Ìdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù are all examples of irony of 
character as revealed through their characters and behaviours in various  situations 
and actions which engender surprise, frustration, inappropriate behaviour, dilemma 
and religious extremism. For example, while setting stragegies on how to steal the 
project money, one can see Chief Ibrahim‟s real character as a violent man as against 
his position and character as a community leader. He even suggests the elimination of 
the treasurer in charge of the safe.The chief‟s reply to Yunusa‟s description of the 
tight security that will accompany the delivery of the money exposes his true 
character; he declares his stand like this: 
  
 Ibrahim:  Hain-in, ká lọ dáwọn ọlóṕ̣ àá lóṇ́ à.  
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p10) 
 
 Ibrahim: Yes, then, let‟s go and attack the police. 
 
Also,when Yunusa declares that Seṭ́ ilu may stand as another hindrance, chief Ibrahim 
quickly replies that; 
Ibrahim:  Bó bá fé ̣́salátakò fún wa, b‟a bá yej̣́ ú rè ̣́ ò buru 
           Ìdààmú Páàdì (p11) 
Ibrahim:   If he poses an antagonist, it serves him right if we  
                 eliminate him. 
 
The irony in Ibrahim‟s character is that such plans and statements should not proceed 
from the mouth of Chief Ibrahim. But for the readers to know his true character,  the 
author, from the above description, prepares the readers well ahead for more surprises 
from the Chief who is a commnunity leader. With the above comment, one begins to 
wonder if Chief Ibrahim is truly a Chief or a professionalthug or an armed robber. 
Inappropriate behaviour reveals character. It reveals his person with respect to the role 
assigned to him in the play.  
 Another instance of irony of character is also seen inÌdààmú Páàdì Mínkáílù, 
when the inspector of police congratulates Yunusa,the council secretary, on the 
recovery of the project money supposed to have been stolen: 
Adégboyè:  Àti Akòẉ́ é pàápàá èṇ́ yin l‟ẹ kú orí ire jù, nítorípé  
  òṛ́ ò ̣́ náà ìbá kó„yọnu bá yin díè ̣́bí wóṇ́  bá fi r‟ówó náà gbé lo .̣̣́́  
cxvii 
 
 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 33) 
 
Adégboyè:     And even you, the secretary, is the most lucky because 
  You would have had a lot of trouble if they were able to steal 
                         the money. 
 
The irony here is that Yunusa is already in trouble, an unofficial trouble that he has 
put himself into but behaves as if he is innocent and happy. He answers frankly as if 
he really deserves the congratulatory comment: 
              Yunusa:        A dúpé.̣́  Òótó ̣́ inú ló yọ mí. 
Ìdààmú Páàdì : (p 33) 
 
              Yunusa:        I thank God. The truth sets me free.   
 
 The irony in Yunusa‟s character is also seen in his reply because he knows that  there 
is no truth in his character that can set him free. The police inspector does not know 
the real character of the person he congratulates but the character knows himself as a 
thief and a traitor. He may deceive the police, but it is just for a while because later 
the police inspector suspects Yunusa, refering to his words and his actions that are 
contrary to what is expected of a council secretary in the case at hand; 
        Adégboyè:       Òṛ́ ò ̣́ ẹnu rè ̣́ati ìhùwàsí rè ,̣́  kò jọ bí ẹni p‟óẉ́ ó ̣́ rè ̣́mó  ̣́
                                Bákannáà ni Olóyè Ibrahimu t‟ó ńlọ fúnra‟rè ̣́só ̣́ ilé -iṣé ̣́ ìgbìmò.̣́  
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 52) 
Adégboyè:         His words and action make him a suspect, so also is 
                              Chief Ibrahim, that turned himself to council‟s office guard.       
Yunusa‟s and Ibrahim‟s actions are a reflection of irony of character . Yunusa could 
not believe that Sèṭ́ ílù‟s wife and Mínkáílù can be involved in the money issue . His 
ironic character puts him in ironic situation. They cannot believe that the money is 
kept somewhere and it is safe.This must surely call for reaction. He, therefore, 
exclaims: 
                                 Yunusa:     Owo! Ẹ gbe e wa‟lẹ yi ni? 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 32) 
 
                                 Yunusa:    Money! Did you bring it back here? 
 
  Another instance of irony of character is when Yunusa and Ibrahim, who 
claim to be what they are not, but what they really are cannot be declared in the 
public.  Now that they have the opportunity to steal the moneywhen it is placed before 
them without extra effort, they could not because it is difficult for them to really proof 
cxviii 
 
 
their hidden character. The stylistic effect is that opportunity once lost may never be 
regained even when it is so close again.   
        So shameful, pathetic, humiliation and ironic it is for Yunusa, the secretary , 
when he is told that, as secretary, he will have to take the project money to Ìbàdàn and 
officially return it to the treasury.In order to avoid the embarrassing situation, he 
suggests sending a letter with the money instead of his physical presence but the 
police officer rejects the option, insisting that he will have to go with them. His duty 
as a secretary is to do just that but the connotative meaning of the action is more than 
that.  It is a silence and painful experience. One could imagine the sense and the level 
of agony and pain that will be going on within the heart ofIbrahim and Yunusa. The 
situation is so ironic that Yunusa is not given the opportunity to go and eat as 
requested because they will have to return the money before the closing hour. They 
are so surprised that they have to touch the money to be sure that it is still the same 
money and not something else. The level of surprise and imagination is described 
below:            
         Ibrahim:   (Ó bu owó náà wò, Jubirilu náà bù ú ati Yunusa bákannáà) 
                             Owó náà rè é!                       
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 34) 
 
Ibrahim:   (He held the money, Jubirilu and Yunusa did likewise) 
                              This is the money! 
It is a big surprise; an ironic surprise that brings about chains of reaction, that futher 
confirms theincongruous actions as well as the description of the ironic behaviour of 
the council staff and the noble chief even with painful effect. It is an ironic mockery 
for Yunusa, when he has to follow the money he had struggled to steal down to Ìbàdàn 
again.  
 InO̩ládè̩jo̩ Òkédìjí‟s Ré̩ré̩ Rún , there are instances of irony of character.The 
worker‟s conditionin Ré̩ré̩ Rúnalready affects their performance and commitment to 
work, which should be a joint decision but one of the workers, Ìdòwú,has adifferent 
attitude because of his hidden allegiance to the Onímògún and his council.He 
disagrees with the workers and detests the ways they are wasting the building 
materials, an action contrary to what they all agree to do. The workers decide to waste 
all the cements allocated for the day even though they know that they may not be able 
to finish it. This is part of the strategies for the worker‟s protest but Ìdòwú frowns at 
cxix 
 
 
the worker‟s decision to waste the cement. The irony in his character is seen in his 
reaction to Kàrímù and Adéniý i ̀ who ask for the remaining cement to be brought:  
Ìdòwú:       E̩ni tí wó̩n bá biire nínú yín kò tún fo̩wó  ̣́
         kan èyi ́ un ki ń ri ́ i. Àpà alápà gbogbo. 
  A ti lo tilé̀ ̣́ tán ni, àbí o̩mo̩ Ajé a máa bá 
  owó jẹ. 
Réṛé ̣Rún (p 44) 
 
Ìdòwú:    Whosoever is bold enough should touch  
the cement. You are wasters. Have we 
exhausted the already opened bags? You 
should be prudent enough to know that. 
 
One can quickly detect that, once a worker deviates from the joint opinions of others, 
there must be something wrong with the character‟s attitude. It is not surprising to see 
that Ìdòwú turns out to  be a traitor, a hindrance to the union‟s struggle. He is finally 
chosen by the Oniḿ ògún as the new labour leader to replace Láwúwo .  
Another instance of irony of character in Réṛé ̣Rún is chief Balógun.  Although 
Onímógùn leads the other chiefs and the council as oppose d to the agitation of the 
workers, yet Chief Balógun does not see the workers as their common enemy . He 
stands out in his own opinion; he is always against the policies of the council about 
the worker‟s welfare. He is an advocate offair judgement for all. His advice to the 
council to attend to the workers‟ needs is meant to stop the chaotic situation that the 
handbill distributed earlier by the workers might have caused. He rejects the copy of 
the handbill handed over to him by Olúgbò̩n , so as to let him know that the issue is no 
longer news to him. Balógun declares: 
Balógun:  E̩ nǹkan tí wó̩n ti ń gbé lóẉ́ ó ̣́ yẹbẹyẹbẹ kiri ìlú 
latana! E̩ jé̩ jé̩ kí á tété tu  àwo̩n òsís̩e̩ wò̩nyí nínú ! 
Wó̩n lè da ogun sílè̩ o. 
Réṛé ̣Rún (p 44) 
 
Balógun:  Yes, what everybody has beencarrying about since 
yesterday! Let us answer them on time, for they can 
cause serious problems in the town.  
      
 The above statement reveals Balógun‟s character as a good person when compared 
with the anti-workers‟ attitude of the other chiefs. His anonymous contribution 
towards the hiring of a lawyer for Láwúwo and his rejection  of Ìdòwú as the worker‟s 
union leader by chief Balógun also reveals his h idden affection for the workers.His 
character is on the positive side and the author projects him asdifferent from the 
cxx 
 
 
greedy and the exploiters who calls themselves employers. In this context, his 
character is ironic. The irony is that nobody would have thought that Balogun will be 
unwilling to toe the line of the council of which he is a member. His attitude is 
deviant, uncompromising and antagonistic to the general plans of the members of the 
council. The irony of character here is used to destabilise the unneccesary stable 
condition in cases like this . The ironic character of Chief Balógun connotes that 
human being are unpredictable and that, no matter how bad a situation is, there is 
always a ray of hope somewhere.  
In E̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà, the law inÌyálóde‟s house  that no slave must be in love, 
marry or get pregnant at all is contrary to the law of multiplication set for man by God 
and also to the Yorùbá cultural order . E̩fúnṣetán is an example of irony of character. 
Her character is supposed to be that of a mother, a kind, loving, caring and 
understanding one but her character totally deviates from all these. She is always in 
bitter opposition to anybody with plans to get married or give birth.   
 
4.6        Comic Irony 
 Comic irony is a type of irony pertaining to a character, an event, or an 
utterance that is capable of inducing laughter or amusement. It is usuallydeliberately 
designed for sarcastic and satirical effects in drama. Situations and actions like 
pretence, wrestling, exchange of roles, seats, names, and costumes may constitute 
comic irony to generate comic, satiric andsarcastic effects. 
In Ààrẹ-Àgò Aríkúyẹrí , at a time when Ò ̣́ bọ Lágídòshould still be mour ning 
withhis master Ààre ̣́Àgò over the loss of his three children and his favourite wife , and 
be worried about the ruinous consequences of the murder case hanging on his neck, 
he is thinking about how he is going to get a wife. He wonders why his master 
decided to kill his wife when he knew that his aide is without a wife. The comic irony 
inLágídò‟s thought is the thinking that if the master knew he did not want a wife any 
more or he was tired of the wife , he could have passed the wife to him (Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò) 
who has the need of a wife. He is not afraid to declare his ironic feeling even in the 
face of a serious and tragic situation:   
 
                 Lágídò:       Baba ǹjé ̣́e ̣́mò  ̣́ pé inú t‟èmi ò dùn bé-̣́ ẹ ṣe pa Fátóḷ́ á un?..    
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:       Lágídò! Ki lo wi nla! 
Ẹni t‟ó pa mi l‟óṃ́ ọ jẹ! 
cxxi 
 
 
Àṣé òṭ́ á…?                   
 
Lágídò:     Kì í ṣe b‟é-̣́ ẹ ti rò ún ló rí Baba. 
 Ó ní „hun  tí  ń dun kálukú. Àrùn tí ń ṣe Lémbájé 
 kò sọmọ „è.̣́ Lémbájé ń sunkún owó, ọmọ rè ̣́ń 
 sunkún ọkọ. Nígbà tí ẹ mò  ̣́ p‟émi ò l‟áya kankan n‟ile té-̣́ ẹ wá 
 pa oḳ́ an s‟ode. Ki l‟o sẹ́  t‟eỵ́ in ò le fà á fún mi nígbà t‟é-̣́ ẹ mò  ̣́
 pé kò wù yín mó?̣́   A ki ̀ í paró ,̣́  ọmọ yin t‟ó kú  kò dùn mí bíi 
 Fátó ḷ́ á t‟é-̣́ è ̣́ le fà fún mi. 
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:    Kí lo wí Lágídò? 
 
              Lágídò:     Kí lẹ gbó ̣́Baba? Àní àì-lóbìnrin kò ṣe-é dáké.̣́ Gbogbo ayé ni ́ í 
 bá ‟ni i gbó  ̣́ ọ. 
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:    Ìwọ „ò ṣe dúró níbẹ nígbà ti mo ń pa á. Ng bá kàn pa ó  ̣́mó  ̣́ oṇ́  
 
Lágídò:      …..‟puu‟ ni. 
 
             Ààrẹ Àgò:    Bá kátikàti „ẹ sóḥ́ un ọjàre Jé ̣́ng gbóṛ́ àn.  
Ààrẹ Àgò (p 34) 
Lágídò:   Baba, do you know that I am not happy as you have killed 
Fátóḷ́ á 
 
 Ààrẹ Àgò:   Lágídò! What did you say? 
  The person that killed my children! 
                        So you are my enymy…?                 
 
Lágídò:     Not the way you think Baba. The heartcries of people are  
   different.  
  Lémbájé‟sproblem is different from that of her daughter‟s . 
Lémbájé is in need of money while her daughter is in need of a 
husband. 
You know that I do not have a single wife, and you killed one 
outside.  
Why didn‟t you give her to me when you knew that you did not 
need her again? 
I will not lie , I don‟t care so much about the death of your 
children as I care that you did not give Fátóḷ́ á to me as a wife .  
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:   What did you say, Lágídò.? 
Lágídò:     What did you hear, Baba? I say, being a bachelor for too long is 
not a secret thing; it is a problem that must get to the hearing of 
all and sundry. 
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:  Where were you when I was killing her? I would have killed 
you together… 
 
Lágídò:       … like this „pùú‟ 
cxxii 
 
 
Ààrẹ Àgò:   Just go away from here. Don‟t disturb me.  
 
 From the above conversation , the irony is much clearer , especially when 
viewed from the Yorùbá socio -cultural perspective. In an ideal situation, Lágídò‟s 
expression of his feeling and request at this time is very wrong. Ordinarily, Lágídò 
would not have acceptedFátóḷ́ á if at all she was offered to him as a wife . Apart from 
the comic effect of the irony, to douse the pang and ethos of the tragedy that has 
befallen the Ajé‟s family , it is also used to confirm the age -longYorùbá worldview 
that two people may not think alike or think differently over a particular issue .  The 
Yorùbá expression „Ìyá ń ronú , ọmọ rè ̣ ń rokà‟ (the mother is busy pondering on an 
issue while the child is busy preparing àmàlà‟). andLágídò‟s expresion may be seen in 
the light of a Yorùbá proverb which says , „B́í iná bá jó ni, tó jó ọmọ ẹni, ti ara eṇi là á 
kó ̣gbò ṇ ,‟ (in a fire incident that involves parents and the child, the parent take care of 
themselves first) capture the essence of a comic irony like this. The stylistic function 
of the comic irony in this context is to counter the dogma and destabilise the 
unnnessarily stable situation attached to this kind of tragic incident in real -life 
situations. It is a comic relief slotted in as a pain -reliever and for suspense as Ààre ̣́
Àgò andLágídò await Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s further reaction about the murder case .  
 Comic irony is seen in the same text in (pp 41-42). Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò delivers the 
message of Ààre ̣́Àgò‟s chiefs to him . They have divided opinions ; four out of the 
seven chiefs are in support ofÀàre ̣́Àgò‟s decision on his refusal to answerÒgú nmóḷ́ á‟s 
call and that he should maintain his stand as a warlord while the remaining three 
advise him to answer Basọ̀́ ṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s call as the overall head . He is now in a 
dilemma. He needs advice. So he asks Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò this question; 
          Ààrẹ Àgò:   Jé ̣́ká p „àwàdà tí l‟ootọ. O rò p‟ó ṛ́ àn l‟èyi ́ ti ́ mo dá yìí jé ?̣́  
Ààrè-̣ Àgò (p 39) 
 
          Ààrẹ Àgò:   Jokes apart. Do you thinkI have commited anoffence in 
                              this matter? 
 
To this question, Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò replies and makes him realise the gravity of his offence 
and that it is a must for him to appear before Basọ̀́ ṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á anyhow : 
Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò:  …kí e ̣́mo ̣́ „hun t‟é ̣́bá mú sà l‟óògùn kí onísẹ́ ́  ̣́
Ògúnmóḷ́ á tó dé . Àbẹ ẹ rò p‟ó ṛ́ ò  ̣́ náà ti tán síbè ni ? 
Bí é ̣́bá ń rò pé òṛ́ ò ̣́ kò ní gbé yin dé‟wájú 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á, iró ̣́ lè ̣́ń pa . Bó s‟òkú yin ,                                         
b‟ó s‟ààyè yin , ó dá mi l‟ójú pé òḳ́ an yóò dé‟wájú 
cxxiii 
 
 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á. (Ìrèẉèṣì bá ọkàn Ààrẹ-Àgò nítorí òṛò  ̣ tí 
Lágídò  sọ náà. Ó doríkodò. Lágídò bè ṛ è  ̣ tì í.) 
Ààrè-̣ Àgò (pp 39-40) 
 
Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò:    …You‟d better decide on what to do before the arrival of  
Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s messenger . Do you think that is the end of the 
case? It is a lie , if you think you will not appear before 
Baṣòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á . Whether your corpse or your living 
body, one must appear. (Ààrẹ Àgò is depressed because of 
Lágídò‟s reply . He bows hishead . Lágídò bend down with 
him.) 
 
In his depressed situation ,Ààrẹ Àgò agrees to Ò ̣́ bọ Lágídò‟s suggestion to 
honour Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s surmmons and even request fo r his counselling. The irony in this 
comic setting is seen in the light of the Yorùbácultural context . A slave is not wiser 
than his master who has bought him with his own money . In fact , a Yorùbá proverb 
says „Bó ti wù kí irungbò ṇ  aĺagbàṣe ó gùn tó, ẹni tó gbóko fún un lò g̣ á ẹ‟  no matter 
how long the beard of a hired-worker on the farm is the person that hires him is his 
master. The slave should not talk where the free born are talking, not to even talk 
about his master and his owner. Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò‟s assumption of the position of an 
adviser or a counsellor is ironic and strange.  The author wants the reader to notice the 
irony by placing two opposite personalities together . Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò connotes stupidity; 
therefore, how can a stupid fellow teach his master the wisdom to apply in a murder 
case on ground?  How can a slave teach his master?  However, if the author has 
allowed that, then we must know that it must be comic irony for comic relief. The 
ironic action is a smooth progression from the state of anxiety and depression to a 
state of short relief for both characters in the play.  
The ironic saga in Ò ̣́bọ Lágídò‟s conversational drama with his master on how 
to help him (the master) debacle becomes profound whenLágídò suggests a practical 
demomstration of how the hearing or trial would go when the case eventually gets 
toÒgúnmóḷ́ á‟s court.  Lágídò says:   
 ́           Lágídò:     … K‟ó ṛ́ ò  ̣́ náà lè ba à ye yin dáadáa , ẹ jé ̣́kí ng joko  
s‟áàyè yin . Ẹ bó  ̣́ èẉ́ ù yin fún mi kí n wò  ̣́ ó ̣́ . Bí ng bá 
joko s‟áàyè yín tán , kí ẹ máa bèèrè iru ibeere t‟ẹ -ẹ 
ba mo ̣́ pe Ògúnmóḷ́ á  le beere lóẉ́ ó  ̣́ yín lóẉ́ ó  ̣́ t‟èmi . 
Ìdáhùn tí mo bá sì fún yin ni ẹ é ̣́máa fi dá a l‟óhùn.  
Ààrè-̣ Àgò (p 41) 
 
cxxiv 
 
 
Lágídò:  So as to understand very well , let me sit on your 
seat. Remove your cloth and give me to wear . After 
sitting on your seat , you can then begin to ask me 
the question that you thinkÒgúnmóḷ́ á will ask from 
you. And my reply to your questions will be the 
reply you will give him. 
 
We can see the ironic action in display as seen in this scenic description:  
(Ààre̩ Àgó dìde l‟órí ìjókó rè ̣, òun àti Lágídò pààrò  ̣ è ẉ ù fún ara wọn . Lágídò jókó sí 
àyè náà .Lágídò dúró dojúkọ ọ ) (Ààre̩ Àgó  stood up from his own seat; both of them 
exchanged their cloths,Lágídò sat on his seat.Ààre̩ Àgó stood directly opposite him). 
Lágídò:  Baba! Ẹ è ̣́ní pé mí ní Lágídò báyìí o. Ààrẹ Àgò lẹ é ̣́máa pè mí,  
èṇ̀́ yìn náà ó sì jé ̣́Baṣòṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á . Ó yá . Ẹ máa ṣe bí 
Ògúnmóḷ́ á. 
Ààrè-̣ Àgò (p 41) 
 
Lágídò:  Baba! You won‟t call me Lágídò now. You will be calling me        
                                 Ààrẹ Àgò, and you will be reffered to asBasọ̀́ ṛ́ un Ògúnmóḷ́ á . So, 
                                  begin to act as Ògúnmóḷ́ á. 
 
The semantic implication of this comic irony finds interpretation in this 
Yorùbá proverb : „Bí ọló́gbóṇ bá fi etí aṣọ jóná , òmùgò ̣á bèèrè pé báwo ló ṣe fi aṣọ 
jóná‟. (If a person burns the hem of a cloth , the foolish person will ask him how he 
did it ) The readers now know who is the wise man now , Ààrẹ Àgò , the master or 
Lágídò, the servant. 
Another instance of comic irony is seen in Ààre̩ Àgó Arí kúyẹrí through the 
wrestling acts that occur betweenÒ ḅ́ ọ Lágídò (Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s slave) and Ìbídùn 
(Ògúnrìndé Ajé‟s daughter). What brought about wrestling between a male and a 
female in the play is when Ò ḅ́ ọ Lágídò, who should remain loyal to Ògúnrìndé Ajé 
and who alsohas it as a duty to protect his master , especially during his trying period , 
goes to meet Ògúnmóḷ́ á‟s messenger behind t he palace to plead his own case and to 
exonerate himself from the danger ahead of his master (Ògúnrìndé Ajé).  Ìbídùn saw 
him, Ààre̩-Àgó is told . He later accuses Lágídò of disloyalty to him . But instead of 
Lágídò to explain , he starts rainning abuses and curses on whosoever reported him to 
Ààre̩-Àgó.  Ìbídùn hears him and decides to deal with him for his treacherous act.  
 
Ìbídùn:    Baba ńlá‟e ̣́ni woṇ́  yóò mú so. Ìwọ buruku(Ìbídùn pa kuru mó  ̣ ̣ Lágídò, ó  
  gbá a létí! Ìjàkadì ber̀ẹ̀ !̣) 
Lágídò:    (Lagido ń ké!) Baba! S‟e ̣́ń ri i o! S é-̣́ n rit́ ú t‟óṃ́ o ̣́ yiń  ń pa àb‟é -̣́ è  ̣́rí i!  
cxxv 
 
 
  (Ààre̩-Àgó kò sòṛò.̣ Ìbídùn dá Lágídò móḷ́ è ̣́nígbà àkóḳ́ ó!̣́ ) 
Baba! S‟e-̣́ ẹ rí i b‟ó ti ń kó mi l̀ éṣ́ è ̣́ lójijì !  (Ààrẹ kò sòṛò ̣síbè ̣ . 
Lágídò sáré wọ.  Káà lo. Ó mú ońdè kan jáde, ó ń so ó mọ ìdí). 
Ó yá .  Ìwọ tún sún mó  ̣́mi bí ó bá tó .  Ng ó là á yé o ̣́ (Ìbídùn 
tún pa kuru mó  ̣ Lágídò . Lágídò bìlà sé‟̣hìn . Ó túnsáré wọ káà 
lọ, ó tún jáde, ó ń fi òrùka ẹlé ḷ òọ́ ̣b‟ọwọ́ .) B‟ésù bá ń sẹ́  o ̣́, sún 
mó ̣́mi. Suńmó ̣́mi níhin b‟o-o bá tó. 
 
(Ìbídùn fi ìbínú gbá Lágídò létí . Ìjàkadì tún béṛè ̣.  Ìbídùn ń la 
Lágídò mó ḷ̣ è ̣lákọlákọ. Ara Lágídò ko ̣ìyà, ó já ara rè  ̣ gbà l‟óẉó ̣
Ìbídùn, o ń sá lo,̣ o sì ń hó bòọ̀ ̣bí àgùtàn. Ìbídún ń le e lọ. Ó bá 
a, ó já ońdè ìdí rè ,̣  ó kó bò ó. Wóṇ wọ ìjàkadì, Ìbídùn dá Lágídò 
móḷè ̣l‟ógèdèǹgbé. Lágídò dákú! Ààre̩-Àgó sáré dìde.)                  
 
Ààre̩-Àgó:    Ìbídùn! O pá a! O pa a! 
(Ààre̩-Àgó di Lágídò mó ̣àyà , ó ń pè é . Ó ń pọfò ̣le lórí . Ó wọlé, ó ń bu 
àgbo fún un mu. Nigba tí ó sẹ, Lágídò jí. Ó n fé ̣atég̣ùn sára. Ìránṣé  ̣ yọjú 
láti inú ilé.) 
Ààre-̣ Àgò (pp 47-48) 
 
Ìbídùn:   It is your great grandfather that will be tied down.You this ugly thing  
(Ìbídùn ran closer to Lágídò and gave him a dirty slap!  And the wrestling  
begans) 
 
 
Lágídò:   (Lágídò is shouting) Baba can you see her! Can you see what your daughter  
   is doing or not ! 
 
               (Ààre̩-Àgó didn‟t say anything. Ìbídùn threw Lágídò down for the first time). 
 
Baba! Did you see how she suddenly holds my leg in a lock! 
(Ààre̩-Àgó still didn‟t say anything. Lágídò quickly ran inside the 
courtyard and brought one waistband, he tied it to his waist). 
Now come. You come closer to me if you are bold enough. I will 
teach you a lesson. (Ìbídùn ran closer to Lágídò again. Lágídò 
moved back.  He quickly ran back into the courtyard, he came 
out, he put one spring ring into his finger.) If the devil pushes 
you, just come close to me here if you think you are bold enough. 
 
 (Ibidun, in anger slappedLágídò, the wrestling started again, 
Ibidun throws Lágídò on the ground many times. Lágídò could 
not withstand the rigorous beating anymore; he releases himself 
from her and starts running, shouting like a sheep. Ibidun runs 
after him, she meets him and removes his waistband; she uses it 
to beat him very well. She throws him on the ground many times. 
Lágídò faints! Ààre̩-Àgó suddenly rises up)  
 
Ààre̩-Àgó:   Ìbídùn! You want to kill him! You want to kill him! 
cxxvi 
 
 
 
(Ààre̩-Àgó holds Lágídò to his chest, calling his name, chants 
incantation on his head. He brings concoction and gives him to 
drink. After a while, he wakes up. He gasps for fresh air. A 
messenger calls from the inside).  
 
The wrestling is comic irony because one would have expectedLágídò, a man, to have 
been able to defeat Ibídùn, in a wrestling bout, but the reverse is the case.The irony in 
Lágídò‟s character is that a woman can beat up a man when in most cases it is man 
that beats a woman, except in few cases, as we have the example of  Oỵ́ a , the wife of 
Sàngó who is more troublesome than her husband .  Also, we have few cases of a wife 
beating up her husband but in this context, it is comic irony used for a particular effect 
in the play. The effect of this irony is comic relief to douse the serious tension already 
created in the play. It is also to satirise and counter the general belief and dogma that a 
man should subdue a woman in all ways and at anytime.  
Another instance of comic irony is found in Ìdààmú Páàdì. The King and the 
council official pay a special visit to Páàdì Miń káílù in order to invite him to be a 
member of the board.It is a crucial and sensitive issue. Although Páàdì Mínkáílù has 
given his consent, he still wants to share his opinion or his recent decision to his only 
companion in the house after the guests have gone . He calls on his houseboy and he 
begins on a serious note to let Sufianu know the decision he has just taken in order to 
hear his opinion about the issue .Páàdì Mínkáílù wil l never know that Sufianu may 
have a contrary opinion about his decision to join the council board , as a native of 
Èjìgbò. He expects him to appreciate the new development of helping the town  to 
progress, but on the  contrary , he exclaims and asks  Pá àdì Mínkáílù why he should 
involve himself in the board. 
  Páàdì Mínkáílù is surprised about Sufianu‟s question . He does not expect an 
ironic pose from his houseboy. He explains that he was invited and it was based on 
people‟s demand. Even with his explanation, Sufianu does not see why he should 
support him.  Based on his knowledge about his people, he can foresee the danger 
ahead ofPáàdì Mínkáílù. Súfíánù tenders his own submission about the situation and , 
therefore, confirms Mínkáílù‟s impending dilemma and doom . BeforePáàdì Mínkáílùl 
declares his acceptance of the position, Sufianu already gives a stern warning to his 
master to quickly return the governor‟s letter. 
cxxvii 
 
 
 Contrary to what Páàdì Mínkáílù expects, Sufianu replies bluntly to smear 
Páàdì Mínkáílù‟s decision. He thinks that the kind gesture and the good intention of 
Páàdì Mínkáílù should be thoroughly scrutinised even before his acceptance. He is of 
the opinion that his decision will be opposed by various contexts, such as political, 
culture and philosophical. The comical and the sarcastic aspects of the expression is in 
the way Sufianu replies him when he declares that he has accepted the letter and that 
he has given his consent; 
                  Sufianu:  Ẹ ti gbà! Nígbà tí ẹ ti gbà, kíl‟ẹ wá f‟ò ṛ́ ò ̣́ lọ mí sí?.. 
                                     Ẹ ti téẉ̣́́ ó ̣́ gbàá? 
 Ǹjé,̣́ ẹ máa rù ú o. Ọrùn nyín kò ní yín o! 
Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 8) 
 
              Sufianu:        You have agreed! When you have agreed, why did you 
                                     seek for my advice? 
                                     It‟s okay, carry your burden, I pray that your neck will not  
break! 
 
 The manner with which Sufianu replies his master is so casual . He is so bold , frank 
and blunt in his reply with no regards for his master on the issue . The comic joke has 
a serious semantic complication. Here, the comic irony is employed to prove right the 
Yorùbá adage that says: „Ọgbóṇ oḷóg̣bóṇ kì í jé ̣kí á pe àgbà ní wèrè‟ (The elders‟ gets 
wiser by adopting the sensible views of others). It is an ironic relationship in which 
the master and the servant operate at the same level with the aim of satirising the 
person and the position of the masters.  
Another instance of comic irony in Ìdààmú PáàdìMínkáílù is found in the way 
Sufianu, interrogates his master on the sacred song dedicated to the praise and prayer 
for Pope , the Catholic leader .  Mínkáílù wants to rest for a while before the first 
general meeting of those concerned with the robbery issuein his house. It is a has also 
chosen this time to sing and make noise all over the house. The song disturbs 
Minkailu‟s sleep and, more importantly, he is disturbed and concerned about the 
waySufianu profanes the sacred song by putting his own name  and using the song to 
pray for himself instead of  Pope‟s name.  He regard this action as foolishness.  It is a 
comic irony for satirical effect. Sufianu opposes the idea behind the Catholic prayer, 
and he considers it as hypocritical prayer, a prayer that is notfrom the heart. He, 
therefore, presents his reasons for opposing the principle that is borne out of 
hypocrisy like this: 
cxxviii 
 
 
Sufianu: Abajọ! Aṣẹ wèrè èṣ́ ìn Ìjọ Àgùdà náà l‟ó ran t‟Ìjọ Gèẹ́ ́ṣ́ ì , 
t‟áwoṇ́  náà fi í máa gbádúrà láàrìn is̀ iǹ  f‟oḅ́ a woṇ́ . Un-hùn! 
(O reṛ́ in ) Sufianu, o kare oj̣́ are , ng‟ò ni je ̣́k‟eṇ́ ikan ó fi 
ṣéḳ́ éṣ̣́ ẹkè ̣́ èṣ́ ìn kan de mi n‟ídèkude ni tèmi o . Èmi „ò ní 
gbádúrà f‟ọba Kankan péẹ̀́  ̣́ki n‟to gbádúrà fún „ra mi ! Àb‟é ̣́
„ò mò ̣́ ni , Páàdì Minkailu , pe oḅ́ a t‟a ba nsạ́́ dúrà fún , t‟a 
nwípé: 
  “Oorun òḍ́ úndún o, 
  Ìsùn-un tèṭ́ è ̣́o”,  
A nri ̀ nkan je ̣́lóḍ́ ò  ̣́ rè ̣́ni . Ọba kan ì báà sùn nínú èǵ̣ ún 
òṣùùṣu, ìbáà sì sun k‟o f‟ọrun yín , nigbati Sufianu „ò ba je ̣́
nínú owó rè,̣́ àgun-lá, àgun-tèṭ́ è ̣́àg‟ewekó-kò ja fùrùpòṃ́ ù! 
                                                                                              Ìdààmú Páàdì (p 51) 
 
Sufianu: No wonder! So it is the foolishness in the Catholic doctrine                                     
that spread to the Anglican that makes them pray for their king                                     
even in the midst of the service. Oh-hoo (he laughs).Good of                                     
you Sufianu, I will not allow anybody to putme in religiou‟s                                     
bondage. I will not pray for any king at all before I pray for myself !                                    
You don‟t know , Páàdì Mínkáílù, that the king we pray for and say                                    
the following prayers: 
 May your sleep be peaceful like Ò ḍ́ úndún leaves , 
                        May you sleep calmly as the green vegetables, 
It is because we are getting something from him. Any king may sleep 
in the midst of thorns, or he may have twisted neck after sleeping, as 
long as Sufianu does not eat from his riches I am less concerned! 
 
The denotative meaning of the above example is forcomical effect and 
Mínkáílù‟s submission is the truth at the surface level.  The connotative meaning is 
just to satirise the dogma of the Catholic Church and to also destabilise the 
unneccesary stability of the Catholic doctrine and that of the Anglican Communion 
with regard to their prayer for the Queen of England. He observes that the same 
doctrine has crept into the African worship culture which makes them pray for the 
king who has not contributed in any way to their well-being. He is being realistic. It is 
true that you pray for your immediate visible provider and not the imaginary 
sustainer.  
The example of comic irony here is to elicit laughter and to create fun even in 
the midst of a tense situation. Sufianu‟s song is used by the author as a comic relief of 
tension for Mínkáílù who may be worried about the crucial meeting that is coming up 
very soon in his house.  Also, the above examples of comic irony show that irony 
flatters our sense of superiority as we can see that no one has the monopoly of 
knowledge, especially with reference to Ògúnrìndé Ajé and Òḅ́ o ̣́Lágídò‟s case in 
cxxix 
 
 
Ààrè-̣ Àgò,Mínkáílù and Sufianu‟s case in Ìdààmú Páàdì . The two masters have to 
take counsel from their servantsin their critical and trying periods. Comic irony comes 
as episodes of dialogue and is action packed.It is a comedy slotted in with the effect 
of a sudden contrast in the feelings and the condition of the character in question, not 
to hurt their feelings but just to gratify them. It is for the purpose of alleviating tension 
and for adding variety to the play as interlude, especially tragic plays.  It is a comic 
relief. No matter the tension in the air, there will still be a ray of hope somewhere . 
One Yorùbá adage says , „Ọ̀rò ̣burúkú tòun tèṛín‟ . (Sorrowful situations also have a 
way of eliciting laughter). Comic irony has a way of lowering emotional temperature 
and consequently bringing out the satirical, humorous and sarcastic effects into focus.  
Therefore, it is clear, with the stylistic function of the comic irony that no 
matter how serious a tragic play may present the issues of life the place of 
entertainment is still paramount. The focus of any literary writer , according to Oḷ́ átej̣́ ú 
(1999: 277), is to achieve two things: „message and entertainment‟. The message of 
the playwrights is their purpose of writing the texts, while the aesthetic use of the 
different types or irony and the ironic elements produces the pleasure and 
entertainment effect on the reader.  
4.7Conclusion 
 This chapter has demonstrated the way the Yorùbá playwrights employed the 
various forms of irony for different stylistic and communicative effects. For example, 
verbal, dramatic/tragicand irony of fate are used in all the texts, irony of character is 
used  in Ààrè ̣Àgò, Ìdààmú Páàdì and Ré̩ré̩ Rún andcomic irony is used in Ààrè ̣Àgò 
and Ìdààmú Páàdì .Irony in verbal expression (like words, exclamation, title 
presentation, rhetoric); and non-verbal (ironic elements) in situations, like (dilemma, 
conflicts,  extremism, death, frustration, deception);and actions like (wrestling, 
pretence, wickedness, treachery, hypocrisy, vengeance, greed, bribery, strike, 
conspiracy, malady,exchange of role, costumes, seats, names and secret communion) 
are devices used to derive irony and the ironic in the plays. All these are geared 
towards the achievement of their tragic motives and for entertainment purposes.  
 
 
 
 
 
cxxx 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
cxxxi 
 
 
Notes to Chapter Four 
1. See Oḷ́ átéj̣́ ú 2004, pp 9 
 
2. See Babalọlá. A.1967, Oríkì OrílèP̣p 59-72, for further reading on the 
Oníkòyí‟s lineagePoetry 
     3.    See Oḷ́ ádipò(̣́ 2005, pp 4-5) on Yoruba philosophy. Keynote address at the  
             YSAN Conference at Adéyeṃ́ í College of Education. Oǹdó. 
4.  See Abímbóḷ́ á. W., Sixteen great poems of Ifá(UNESCO, 1975:178),  Àwọn 
        Ojú Odù Méṛ́ ìndínlógún (Ibadan: O.U.P ., 1977: xiii) 
 
     5. Abóḅ́ akú in the Yorùbá historical concept are the generation of the male slaves  
(not applicable to all Yorùbá towns ) set aside as a man who must die or kill 
himself immediately a king dies. It is believed that the king should not be 
lonely on his journey to heaven.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
cxxxii 
 
 
                                               CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 
 5.1      Introduction 
This chapter presents a summary of this study. It also highlights the major 
findings in the employment of irony and the ironic in the selected Yorùbá written 
tragic plays. The main objective of the study was to undertake a critical study of irony 
and the ironic in some selected Yorùbátragic plays  with a view to establishing their 
stylistic significance and communicative functions. Recommendations were also 
made for further study.     
 
5.2Summary 
In this study , we foccused attention on irony and the ironic , which form a  
prominent feature of Yorùbá tragic plays . They served as stylo-situational  elements 
used to draw attention to the gap between the speaking position, the posited truth and 
actions in the tragic plays.The types of irony and the ironic, and their contexts of 
usage were critically examined. Irony and its allied tropes such as metaphor and 
euphemism were also given attention. However, they were merely given attention to 
highlight their close relationship with irony and the ironic as devices to achieve 
certain stylistic and communicative effects in the plays. They are left for the future 
when other scholars so interested in them can pick them for  analytical or stylistic 
study. 
As for the theoretical framework employed for this study, we adopted the 
Roland Barthes‟ semiological theory. The model was noted for its ability to account 
for the various possibilities of interpretation through the elements of denotation and 
connotation.  This afforded us the opportunity of extending meaning beyond the form 
of expression in the irony and the ironic templates .  Factors such as the contexts in 
relation to Yorùbá culture , politics, philosophy and history were employed to 
complement the Barthes theory, the main theoretical thrust of the study. This helped 
in bringing to the fore the plane of content from the plane of expression for the 
purpose of semantic interpretation.  
Although irony and the ironic have not receieved much schorlarly attention 
inYorùbá studies in spite of its being the basic dramatic principle and strategy to 
achieve tragedy in the Yorùbá written tragic plays examined , few scholarly works 
cxxxiii 
 
 
found to be related to this study were critically reviewed. They were found to be a 
motivation for the work. 
Data for the study were obtained from four literary texts. These include 
Ògúnníran‟sÀàrè-̣ÀgòAríkúye̩rí, Ìsò̩lá‟sE̩fúnṣetán Aníwúrà , Fálétì‟s Ìdààmú 
Páàdì ́Mínkáílù and Òkédìji‟́ sRé̩ré̩ Rún. Irony and the ironic elements were thereafter 
subjected to semantic and semiotic analysis and interpretation. 
 
5.3Findings 
In this study, five types of irony were discovered, namely, verbal irony, 
dramatic/tragic irony, irony of fate, irony of character and comic irony. The ironic 
covers situations and actions. The situations include dilemma, bareness, extremism, 
frustration, deception and death, while the actions cover wrestling, wickedness, 
vengeance, greed, treachery, hypocrisy, bribery, conspiracy, malady and role change  
which are characteristic features of  tragedy.  
Verbal irony, dramatic/tragic irony, irony of fate and the ironic were identified 
in all the texts. Irony of character was found only in Ààrè-̣Àgò, Ìdààmú Páàdì and 
Ré̩ré̩ Rún while comic irony was found only in Ààrè-̣Àgò and Ìdààmú Páàdì. 
 The study also revealed four types of contexts in relation to the usage of irony 
and the ironic. The contexts may be  political, historical, philosophical and cultural. 
Political context was used as platform for dramatic irony to depict vengeance, 
escapism, malady and death; verbal irony was employed to reflect conspiracy and  
deception, while irony of character was employed to reflect treachery, bribery, 
extremism and escapism. Historical context was used as platfom for irony of character 
to reflect conspiracy and escapism, while irony of fate was used to reflect frustration, 
dilemma and death. In case of philosophical context, it was used as platform for irony 
of fate to reflect dilemma, bareness, malady and death while irony of character was 
employed to reflect frustration and vengeance. For cultural context, it was used as 
platform for verbal irony to reflect pretence while comic irony was used to reflect 
wrestling and role change. All the four contexts occurred in three texts (Ààrè-̣Àgò, 
Ìdààmú Páàdì  and Ẹfúnṣetán Aní wúrà) while only three contexts (political, 
philosophical and cultural) occured in Ré̩ré̩ Rún. 
Irony and the ironic elements in situations and actions as highlighted above 
achieved four stylistic functions. They were used for defencemechanism, pre-
destination cues, counter dogmatism and protest mechanism. At varying degrees in   
cxxxiv 
 
 
Ààrè-̣Àgò and Ìdààmú Páàdi, ironic twists with comical effects climaxing at the point 
of incongruity occurred in the political, cultural and historical contexts.  
It was also found that irony and the ironic were veritable sources of 
information in the Yorùbá written tragic plays as they reflected the Yorùbá concept of 
tragedy within the political, historical, philosophical and cultural contexts. As 
reflected in the text under study, the concept of tragedy among the Yorùbá was found 
to be slightly different from that of Aristotle which features death as the cannon for 
the western tragic literary texts . Whereas, in the Yorùbá context death is not the only 
yardstick or sign for tragedy.  In theYorùbá context , there are shameful situations and 
conditions that are more tragic than death .  One Yorùbá adage says , „Ikú yá ju èṣ́ ín lo‟̣́  
meaning death is better than shame . Looking at it from the Yorùbá philosophical 
context, the malady condition of Láwúwo in Ré̩ré̩ Rún and escapism in the case of 
Ògúnrìndé Aje in Ààrè-̣Àgòare typical examples of tragedy triggered by shame. 
Finally, three broad tragic themes were discovered in the selected texts for this 
study, namely; death  (in all the texts), escapism (Ààrè-̣Àgò) and malady (Ré̩ré̩ Rún). 
which contributed to their stylistic function in the plays. 
 From the foregoing, we can safely conclude that irony and the ironic elements 
constituted the main stylistic devices used in achieving tragic effects in the selected 
plays.  
 
5.4Contribution to knowledge 
Unlike other stylistic devices in Yorùbá studies which have been sufficiently 
studied,irony and the ironic have not attracted such overwhelming attention. This  
study therefore, to the best of my knowledge is the first attempt by any scholar to give 
irony and the ironic the schorlarly attention they deserve. Here in this study, the 
definition, the features, the types, functions, their contexts of usage and factors 
involved in the interpretation of irony and the ironic are brought to the fore or 
highlighted.  
One of the qualities of literature is complexity leading to multi-dimensional semantic 
interpretation. Literature is no longer an artistic work when the appeal is simple, 
straight and most immediate. Therefore, this study has made it clear that irony and the 
ironic, because of their nature also contribute to the complexity of literature. 
The study has made it clear thatirony and the ironic constitute the most 
veritable stylistic tool (used by authors) for the Yorùbá written tragic playto achieve 
cxxxv 
 
 
the tragic themes of death, escapism and malady. No other stylistic devices are known 
to achieve this effect more than irony and the ironic.  
 Irony and the ironic elements , with differing manifestations , occurred in 
historical, philosophical, political and cultural contexts , and perform theme and 
effect-based stylistic functions in Yorùbá tragic plays . These elements, thus, enhanced 
the readers‟ understanding of the Yorùbá concept of tragedy as evident in the plays .   
 Though irony and the ironic are veritable stylistic devices. However, they 
must be used minimally and with caution in order not to impair communication. This 
is because irony and the ironic may be semantically misleading if care is not taken in 
its usage. This implies that irony and the ironic should be minimally used for the text 
to be semantically accessible. 
 
 
 
 
 
cxxxvi 
 
 
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