EFFECTS OF ROBINSON'S SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUES IN IMPROVING COMPREHENSION AMONG SOME SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS BY PADLIHA OLUKEMI ADES! B.A. Education (Ife), M.Ed Guidance & Counselling (Ibadan) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOI THE DEGREE OF DOCIQR OF PHUjOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN JULY, 1990 DEDICATION To God Alnighty, the invicible pillar of Support throughout my life, especially during a recent psychological thunderstorm from which it pleased Him to blow me säfely ashore; To fty Loving Children - Adeorike, Adesola, Adefdarin, Oyebade and Babaj ide - with whom it has pleased God to complement my life; And to All those «ho vould endeavour to help these chlldren in their life struggle. 111 ABSTRACT Poor comprehension ability was identified was identi- fied as an instance of poor study habits leading to under- achievement. The study investigated the effectiveness of Robinson's SQ3R and Summarization study techniques in iroproving students' coirprehension ability. The effects of the two strategies on students' attitudes to their subjects were also investigated. One hundred and forty-four JSS III Nigerian students drawn from two secondary schools in Ibadan were exposed to the treatirent programmes. A 3 x 3 factorial design was adopted with the treatment and control groups occupying the rows and the three levels of mental ability - high, medium, and low - occupying the columns. Three instruments comprising the following were used: 1. Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices 2. Comprehension Tests Ca) English Comprehension test, based on passages from "Faster Reading For ßetter Comprehension" by Dr. S.O. Ayodele, modified and validated by iv the experimenter. (b) Biology Comprehension test, designed and validated by the experimenter. 3. Attitüde test: A slight modification of Aiken and Dreger's 1963 Attitüde Scale (revised by Akinboye, 1974) was used to measure subjects' attitudes to (i) English Comprehension (ii) Biology. The data obtained were analyzed, using the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), and t-test derived from the use of the Least Mean Squares and the Standard Error of Means. The six hypotheses tested and the results obtained were (i) There will be no significant difference in the compre­ hension ability of the treated subjects and the control This hypothesis was rejected as the treated subjects performed better in English Comprehension (F = 20.56; Df 4/135; P<0.05). The result also reported statisti- cally significant differences in the columns (F= 19.14; Df 2/135; P< 0.001) and significant interaction (F= 12.35; Df 4/135; P< 0.05). This indicated that the mental ability of subjects was an important factor in the results obtained. (ii) There will be no significant difference in the Biology V comprehension ability of the treated subjects and the control. This hypothesls was rejected: the treated subjects were superior in Biology comprehension (F = 41.77; Df 2/135; P<0.01). Here, too, the interaction between the rows and the columns was signi- ficant (F = 9.61; Df 4/135; P< 0.05). (iii) There will be no significant difference in the attitudes to English Comprehension and Biology of treated and untreated subjects. The test of this hypothesis revealed that the two treated groups exhibited better attitudes to English Comprehension and Biology than those in the control group (F = 10.96; Df 4/135; P< 0.5). (iv) There will be no significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and those exposed to Summarization. The results showed that the SQ3R group performed better in English Comprehension than the Summarization group (t = 9.89; Df ■ 94; P <.001). (v) There will be no significant difference in the Biology Comprehension of the SQ3R and Summarization groups. The results showed that the Summarization group scored higher in Biology Comprehension than the SQ3R group (t = 5.11; Df = 94; P< 0.001). VI (iv) There will be no significant difference in the attitudes to English Coirprehension and Biology of the SQ3R and Summarization groups. This hypothesis, too, was rejected: The SQ3R group exhibited better attitudes to English Coirprehension and ßiology than the Suromarization group (t = 3.63; df = 94; P < 0.001) . Generally, the results of this study showed that students comprehension ability can be fostered if they are exposed to soire useful techniques, Their attitudes to the academic subjects can also be iroproved. The educational iroplications of the findings were discussed, and some suggestions were roade« Vll ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor, Professor J.O. Akinboye, for his encouragement and useful suggestions. Despite his tight schedule as the Head of Department, he still coped wonderfully well with the rigours of attending fully to all my academic needs. I quite appreciate his willingness to help and his kind, humorous but very realistic touch whenever I exhibited needless anxiety. I am particularly indebted to him for painstakingly reading through my draft thesis in record time and for roaking constructive criticisms. My sincere appreciation goes to Professor C.G.M. ßakare. riis industry, thoroughness and love for high Standard will continue to be a good source of Inspiration to his students. I thank all the lecturers in the Guidance and Counselling Department, University of Ibadan for their encouragement and support. Doctors S.O. Gesinde, N.N. Okoye, A.A. Alao, 3.0. Sokan (MrsJ, H.O. Nwagwu (Mrs.) and Mr. N.M. Ibudeh were really very helpful. I appreciate the promptness and willingness with which Dr„ C.B.U. Uwakwe assisted each time he was approached. I am very grateful to my hushand, Prince Adedeji Adesemowo, for his various Supports and assistance during the course. He was particu­ larly helpful in organizing the typing and rolling of the Instruments V l l l and the treatment programmes used for the experiment. My appreciation is hereby expressed to my dear children: Adeorike, Adesola, Adefolarin, Oyebade and ßabajide Adesemowo for their understanding patience during the Programme. I sincerely thank my loving mother, Madam S.A. Odueko; my sisters, Mrs. C.T. Osakwe and Mrs. O.ß. Ajani; and my brother, Dr. Tunji Odueko for their indispensable assistance. I hereby acknowledge the great contributions of Professors Ulu Makinde, Fola Soyode, Ibi Ajayi, E.O.A. Ajayi, Dr. Doyin Soyibo, Dr. Titilayo Hassan, Mrs. L.A. Adio and Mr. Femi Temowo. I am very much indebted to Doctors C.O. Abosi, Deji Haastrup, TUnji Abimbola, Remi Osunsanya (nee Lasekan), Messrs S. Imobekhai and G.ß. Ojo for their assistance. My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. S.O. Ayodele for his encouragement and for granting me permission to use passages and questions from hisbook: "Faster Reading For ßetter Comprehension". I thank all my colleagues at the Faculty of Education, Ogun State University, Ago-Iwoye. I express my sincere appreciation to all my friends and their husbands: Mr. & Mrs. R. Sanusi, Mr. & Mrs. S.S. Ajibade, Mr. & Mrs. L.O. Qnasanya, Mr. & Mrs. ß.R. Taiwo, Mrs. F.O. Fowora and Mrs. O.T. Ekundayo for Standing by me througn the thick and thin of the programme. I am grateful to all the elegant ladies of the Ideal Ladies Club and Ladies Friendly Society for their understanding and patience during my occasional absence from meetings. IX I am immensely grateful to Mrs. P.O. Giwa, Dr. B.A. Fakunle and Mrs. A. Faleti for allaying my fears about my little Babajide (.bom during the Ph.D Programme) who, right from birth, became their patient at the University College Hospital, Ibadan. I wish to place on record the useful and indispensable Interven­ tion received from Mrs. Mojibade Odunlami, Mr. Edward Osakwe, Mrs. A.O. Lawoyin and Mr. A.O. Adetunji. I am also very grateful for the indispensable assistance received from Mr. A. Senaike, Mrs. O.A. Akinsanya, Mr. M.O. Fagboun and Mrs. Y.A. Osundiya of the Kenneth dike Library, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. I thank very much Mrs. F.D. Sanusi, Mrs. M. Raji and Mr. Bola Alabi of St. Anne's School, Molete, Ibadan for their assistance, guidance, corrections and suggestions with the Biology aspect of this work. They were also very helpful in validating the Biology instru­ ment and study contents used. I express my gratitude to Mrs. R.A. Giwa and Mrs. 0. Dele-Ujo of Conminity Grammar School, Ring Road; Mrs. F.O. Onikan and Mrs. G.A. Osho of Oke-Ado High School; Mrs. F.A. Oyatobo and Mrs. A. Nurudeen of United Christians High School, Ijokodo; and all the other teachers and students of these schools where the validation of the instruments used was done. X I am very grateful for the kindness and hospitality received from Mrs. O.M. Adefarasin, Mrs. R.A. Akinwusi, Mrs. N.O. Animashaun and Mrs. M.A. Oke of Urban Day Graroroar School, Ring Road, Ibadan; and Mrs. M.O. Olowookorun, Mrs. C.A. Ero, Mr. L.T. Omole and Mrs. O.A. Ogunbadejo o£ Eleyele Secondary School, Eleyele, Ibadan; and all the other teachers and students of these schools where the actual experiroent was carried out for eieren weeks. I express sincere gratitude to Mr. S.A. Odewunmi, Ivlrs. J.A. Odusanya and Mrs. E.O. Olatunji of the Computing Centre, University of Ibadan, who, in spite of the continual breakdown of the Computer, ensured that my data were processed in good time. Mrs. M.O. Ajayi of the Ogun State University also assisted to ensure the tiroely Processing of the data. My thanks also go to the Non-Acaderoic Staff of the Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan; and Mr. Ogbolu for rallying round to ensure the tiroely processing of my thesis. I am grateful to Messrs Basiru Arousa, Kehinde Idowu, Seyi Olisa and A.O. Miyiwa-Ojo for their constant assistance during the Programme. My sincere thanks go to Mrs. O.B. Ajani, Miss E.B. Idowu and Mrs. S.B. Olusanya for typing, at various stages, the bulk of vAlat goes into this work. I appreciate the contribution of Dr. (Mrs.) Adeyoju Xi and Mr. Romey Ubah, who typed very promptly the final thesis. I thank the Ogun State University for granting me part-time study leave to pursue the Ph.D. Programme. Finally, I thank the Almighty God for His abundant mercies and protection during the five-year rigour of the Ph.p. Programme. Xll CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Mrs. Paulina Oluremi Adesemowo (nee Saibu-Odueko) in the Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan: Professor of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Head, Department of Guidance and Counselling University of Ibadan Ibadan - Nigeria X l l l TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE TITILE PAGE i DEDICATION ii ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i i CERTIFICATION XÜ TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii LIST OF FIGURES xvi LIST OF TABLES xvi i LIST OF APPENDICES xxi LIST OF CHARTS USED .. xxiii CHAPTER ONE: PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND: Introduction .. .. l At t itudes . . . . 21 Objectives of the study .. 23 Significance of the study .. 24 Literature Review: Theoretical Background: 27 Factors in Achievement and Underachievement 27 Study skills . . . . . . 33 Fostering Reading and Reading Comprehension 42 Robinson's SQ3R .. .. .. 52 Summarization .. .. .. 61 , xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED PAGE At C i tud es . . .. . . 66 Literature Review: Empirical Studies: Achievement and Underachievement . . 75 Study skills . . . . . . 80 Fostering Reading and Reading Comprehension 86 Effectiveness of Robinson's SQ3R .. 90 Summarization .. . . . . 94 • Studies on Attitüde .. . . 97 Definition of terms .. .. 102 Hypotheses .. .. .. 104 The conceptual model . . . . 105 CHAPTER TWO: DESIGN AND PROCEDURE : Design .. .. .. 108 Instruments used for the study .. 111 Procedure .. .. .. 117 Treatment Package .. .. 121 Pre-tests .. .. .. 122 The SQ3R technique (Group I) .. 125 The Summarization technique (Group II) 136 Control of Extraneous Variables 148 XV TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED PAGE Analysis of Data .. .. 150 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Hypothesis I .. 152 Hypothesis II .. 157 Hypothesis III .. 162 Hypothesis IV .. 167 Hypthesis V .. 172 Hypothesis VI .. 177 Summary of Results ; Hypothesis I .. 182 Hypothesis II .. 183 Hypothesis III .. 184 Hypothesis IV . . 184 Hypothesis V . . 185 Hypothesis VI .. 186 CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION: Limitation of study .. 188 Discussion of findings .. 189 Implications of findings .. 211 Suggestion for further Research 216 Ref erences .. 218 Appendices .. 258 XVI LIST OF FIGURES PAGE F igure I Conceptual Model .. 107 " 2 Distribution of Subjects " " 109 ” 3 Treatment Groups and their Features 111 ............................ < r xvii LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table I: The Adjusted Y-Means showing the Effects of Treatment on the English Comprehension Abilityof Subjects?. .. 153 " 2: Analysis of Covariance of the Ajusted Y-Means of Subjects' English Comprehension Ability. .. 154 3: Inter-Treatment Group t-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-means on the English Language Comprehension Ability of Subjects Using Standard Error of means 156 4: The Axljusted Y-Means showing the Effects of Treatment on the Biology Comprehension Ability of subjects. 158 5: Analysis of Co-variance of Adjusted Y-Means of Subjects* Biology Comprehension Ability. . . 159 6: Inter-Treatment Group t-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means on Biology Comprehension Ability of subjects, Using Standard Error of Means 161 XViii PAGE Tab le 7: The Adjusted Y-Means showing the Effects of Treatments on subjects' Attitüde to English and Biology 163 I I 8: Analysis of Co-Variance of Adjusted Y-Means of Subjects' Attitüde to English & Biology 164 I 9: Inter-Treatment Group t-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means on the Attitüde of Subjects to English and Biology Using Standard Error of Means 166 II 10: The Adjusted Y-Means showing Differential Effectiveness of SQ3R and Summarization Techniques on The English Comprehension Ability of Subj ec t s 168 11: t-Test Comparison of the English Comprehension Ability of Subjects Exposed to SQ3R and Summarization Techniques, Using Standard of Means 169 xix PAGE Tab le 12: Inter-Treatment Group t-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means on the Comprehension Ability of the SQ3R and Summarization Subjects Uslng Standard Error of Means .. 171 ii 13. The Adjusted Y-Means showing Differential Effectiveness of SQ3R and Summarization Techniques on the Biology Comprehension Ability of Subjects. .. 173 n 14: t-Test Comparison of the Biology Comprehension Ability of Subjects Exposed to SQ3R and Summarization Technique, Using Standard Error of Means. . . 174 15: Inter-Treatment Group 't'-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means on the Biology Comprehension Ability of the SQ3R and Summarization Subject Using Standard Error of means. 176• • XX PAGE Table 16: Adjusted Y-Means showlng the Effectiveness of SQ3R and Summarization Techniques on Subjects' Attitüde to English and Biology .. 178 tl 17: t-Test Comparison of the Attitüde to English Comprehension and Biology of Subjects Exposed to SQ3R and Summarization, Using Standard Error of Means. . .179 18: Inter-Treatment Group 1t'-Test Comparison of Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means on the Attitüde to English and Biology of the SQ3R and Summarization Subjects, Using Standard Error of Means . .181 xx i LIST OF APPENDICES PAGE Appendix A: Treatment Programme for Group I: Robinson's SQ3R Study Technique - Involving the use of Behaviour Modification Strategies to Enhance Persistence and Self-Sustenance at Study . . 258 Appendix B: Treatment Programme for Group II: Summarization Technique-Involving the use of Behaviour Modification Strategies to Enhance Persistence and self-Sustenance at Study .. 313* Appendix C: SQ3R Worksheets I & II . . 332 " D: Summarization Worksheets I & II .. 334* " E: Ravenfe Standard Progressive Matrices Key . . 336 " F: English Comprehension Test . . 338 " G: English Comprehension Test Answers and Item Analysis . . 366 " H: Biology Comprehension Test . . 367 I: Biology Comprehension Test Scoring Key and Item Analysis . . 391 xxii PAGE Appendix J : Engli sh Comprehension Attitüde Scale .. 392 ii K: Biology Comprehension Attitüde Scale .. 395 VI L: Letter asking for permission and letter granting permission from Dr. Ayodele to use passages from "Faster Reading for Better Comprehension." • • 398 II M: List of schools used • • 400 x x ii i LIST OF CHARTS USED PAGE CHART I: DIGESTION IN MAN (DIAGRAM I) . . 276 CHART II: CROSS SECTION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE (DIAGRAM II) . . 280 CHART IIIA: THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN (DIAGRAM IIIA) . . 287 CHART 11 Iß: THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN (DIAGRAM IIIB) . . 288 CHART IVA: FERTILIZATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS IN MAMMALS (DIAGRAM IVA) . . 296 CHART IVB: SEX DETERMINATION (DIAGRAM IVB) . . 297 CHART V: A FAMILY TREE SHOWING THREE GENERATIONS (DIAGRAM V) 304 CHAPTER ONE PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND A. INTRODU CT I ON Poor performance in schools is a pervasive problem in the schools settings. This problem is also of great concern to educational counselling psychologists who are specifically charged with the duty of helping students to maximize achievement and realize their potentialities to the füllest. In Nigeria, poor performance of students is usually a topical issue and a perennial problem plaguing the educational System. The increasing number of students failing school certificate examination is another Validation of the above observation. The 1985/86 West African School Certificate (WASC) result recording 70% failure was the worst in forty-four years. 0jo (1987) observed that 70% of the respondents who filled his questionnaire rated Nigerian public schools as "only fair"; and 60% of the pupils in the schools can be classified as low achievers (Dada, 1986). In the Universities, the cases of low GPA, repetition, withdrawal, or even expulsion are all very common. This high drop-out rate and mass failure at important examina- tionsnave been associated with 'the brain-fag syndrome' in Nigerian students (Prince, 1960). Bakare (1986) categorized 2 the causes of poor academic performance into four major classes: Causes resident in the society, the school, the family and the child. He (Bakare) differentiated beween academic failure and poor academic performance: academic failure refers to performance falling below a specified Standard or pass mark while poor academic performance refers to performance that falls below a desired Standard. The Problem is enormous because many Nigerian students are affected by either poor academic performance or academic failure. A glance at the consequences of poor educational achievement generally convinces one of the need to help students achieve better results. To the students, failing courses or repeating the same dass has some negative implications. It leads to a waste of time and money and the impact of the unrealizable goal can be psychologically weighty. Failure brings untold hardship and frustration to the individual (Vabaza, 1974). Frustra­ tion causes a person's behaviour to become less flexible, less constructive and imaginative and the person can react by withdrawing, compromising or being aggressive (Shaffer and Shoben, 1956). 3 Parents, usually entertain high anxiety about their children's academic performance (Hall, 1982). Literate parents want their children to perform well academically as they are very anxious to keep the flag of enlighten- ment flying in their family. Illiterate parents, on the other hand , cherish good academic performance to ensure that their children do not miss the golden opportunity which they themselves missed. Poor educational performance, therefore, affects the home and parents whose hope of gaining upward social mobility for their children through education become shattered. Some parents react by nagging and making negative comparisons with other children. After the secondary school education, many parents pay heavily for children to receive special coaching before they can acquire the necessary qualification for university admission. Such parental anxiety about their children's placement explains the die-hard patronage which many parents give to continuing Education centres. Some instances of examination malpractices have been traced to poor academic performance. Students who could not perform well and yet wanted to pass various examina­ tion had resorted to cheating and other examination atrocities 4 The adverse effect of students1 poor academic perform­ ance does not end with the individuals alone. The nation's political, economic, and social developments are jeopardized. As Denga (1985/6) observed, the yearly attrition of hundreds of students from the Nigerian universities due to poor academic performance has resulted in the wastage of scarce and human material resources. Drawing the link between education and economic life, Morakinyo (1984) opined that educational failure is economic failure. The National Policy on Education (1977, revised in 1981) recognizes "education as a dynamic instrument of change" and States inter alia: "The Federal Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an instrument par excellence for effecting national development" p.3. A nation is only as strong as the quality of its individuals. "No nation is greater than the individuals that make it up." (Mueller, 1974). The rigour and the challenges of modern day Science, technology, politics, and social activities demand some intellectual capacity. To improve the nation's man-power quality, Steps should be taken to maximize educational attainment and improve the youths' academic achievement. 5 Factors affecting school achivement include parents' socio-economic Status, family size, aspirations of both parents and children, and characteristics of the child such as ability, motivation and some personal traits, e.g. laziness, lack of concentration etc. (Banks & Finlayson, 1973). The home makes a great contribution towards the academic performance of the child. The strong relation­ ship between the home, the school, and the academic achievement of the child has been established (Douglas, 1964; Lacey, 1970). Another important factor to consider in school achievement is the students' aspiration or motivation towards learning. Exploring students' achive­ ment motivation;Olive and Douglas (1973) noted that the will to succeed is an important element in achievement. Many students possess high aspiration even though this can only be measured relatively and not absolutely (Turner ,1964). Students' poor academic performance is commonly attri- buted to: (i) Poor teaching methods (ii) Lack of adequate instructional materials (iii) Lack of motivation for learning, more so in these days of unemployment. 6 (iv) Laziness on the part of the students. (v) Inadequate Provision of material needs for the students. (vi) Lack of commitment and dedication on the part of the students. (vii) Inadequate guidance and counselling. A major cause of underachievement is poor study habits. A brillient Student can underachieve if he has faulty study habits. Studying high school drop-outs, Elliot ejt̂ al(1966) found that those who drop out of school have the requisite ability to pass. In an attempt to determine the reasons for academic failure, Miller (1962) came up with eleven reasons listed by under-achieving students who placed 'Poor Study Habit' first. Yet, schools generally do not make any Provision for any formal instructional Programme on Study Improvement. Armbruster and Gubbrandsen (1986) concluded that a lack of direct instructions on how to read and study for content frustrate students' attempt to understand what they read and that teachers often believe that students already know how to read andstudy for compre- hens ion. 7 In the Nigerian context, study improvement programmes are hardly talked of. Akinboye (1980) observed: "It is often assumed that all students are able to study without any aid, once they have compe- tent teachers in schools. Consequently, insti­ tutions have totally neglected any deliberate attempts to guide their students in the very important strategies of studying and acquiring knowledge in the various subject areas." The present experiment forms part of the effort to call attention to this lapse in our educational System: the need to incorporate study improvement sessions in the school Programme. Students should be trained to realize that study should be undertaken formally with maximum effort, tempo and intensity, expended in a condusive environment with no dis- traction. A causal relationship exists between time spent on home work and academic achievement (Johnson, 1985, Igbalajobi, 1989). The conclusion can therefore be drawn that if students are exposed to effective study techniques they will be able to use the time spent on study and assign­ ment more fruitfully, and better academic performance will be enhanced. Many students handle their study in an informal, carefree and slipshod manner, giving it short-lived attention 8 On-the-spot comprehension is hardly achieved let alone recall of the material during examination. The result, therefore, is under-achievement. Maddox (1963) suggested that for students to work effectively on their own, the pre-requisites are: strong sustenance of interest in their work and a wise use of their time. He further stressed that the common difficulty in study is failure to get down to real concentrated work. In Anderson and Armbruster's (1984) opinion, a successful Student has two basic tasks: (i) to focus attention on important Information in the text. (ii) to engage in an appropriate encoding activity i.e. to think about, organize, or rehearse information in a way that will enhance good test performance. There is a need to draw a distinction between under- achievement and low achievement. The underachieving child is one whose actual achievement, as indicated by his scholastic attainment in school, does not measure up to his potential achievement as indicated by his abilities (Naylor, 1972). However, with the low achiever, his actual low achievement measures up to his low potential and abilities. Courses and curricular programmes developed for 9 the low achiever are usually remedial, and evidence shows that majority of such students fail to complete such remedial courses satisfactorily, and they are doomed to failure, or forced to terminate their education (Roueche and Hurlburt, 1968). On the other hand, many of the underachievers are of high intellectual ability (Chopra, 1967); they are just not achieving up to their maximum potential because of some other variables militating against their efforts. The present study focusses on the remediation of one of such variables:;inefficient study hab it s. Training students in the use of efficient study skills will not only improve their academic performance,it will also enhance better psychological and sociological state. This borders on the relationship between the psychological and sociological realms of school achievement. A boy who does badly academically is predisposed to reject the school System which has placed him in an inferior Position, and in extreme situations,an anti-school culture may develop (Lacey, 1970). Also much work has been done relating some Personality traits to academic achievement (Eysenck, 1972; Everett, 1971). Oakland (1969) found some correlates of 10 under-and over-achievement. Over-achievers were better organized and more motivated, co-operative and conformist than under-achievers who tended to be more impulsive, critical, angry, and avoided facing problems. The present study experimented with the use of study- type reading techniques to improve students' comprehension ability. Reading is of utmost importance because the act of reading is observed to be the corner-stone of fundamental education (Harris, 1962). Moreover, "Upon his (the student's) reading depends his acquisition of most other classroom subjects. ... inability to read adequately acts as an almost insurmountable obstacle in his attempt at learning academic subjects." (Shimota, 1964 p. 408). Students' weakness at Reading is borne out by Shuman (1975) who States inter alia: "The basic fact that parents, administrators, teachers and students must grapple with is that many of today's high school students cannot read well enough to succeed in schools as they are constituted. Regardless of how one defines the teenage poor reader, the compeling fact remains that many of the high school students can deal neither efficiently nor effectively with the printed word, and are virtually shut off from all educational experiences that are predicated upon the ability to read." (p.37). Ayodele (1989) noted that one of the problems facing secondary school students is their inability to read efficiently 11 with the result that very many students perform very poorly in the certificate tests of Comprehension and Summary. All these views underscore very sharply the need for students to acquire skilful reading techniques, of which coraprehension is a basic component. Comprehension is very important because: 1. Comprehension is of great importance in the acqui- sition of knowledge. In Bloom1s (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives, after knowledge of facts, com­ prehension follows: and it is only when comprehension is achieved that application, analysis,synthesis and evaluation can be achieved. 2. Comprehension ensures that the message really passes across and that the correct impact is made in the mind of the reader; it is only when this is achieved that the individual can make his own contribution to the body of knowledge, become Creative, and make innovations. 3. Deeper comprehension leads to better recall and the more a Student gets a thorough underst anding of the lesson, the more he retains essential ideas. 4. Comprehension and rate of reading are closely related 12 because as comprehension becomes difficult, regressions and small eye span slow down the rate of reading, but as comprehension becomes easier, increased reading span and decreased regression cause the rate to be faster (Robinson, 1940). In fact, the only adequate definition of speed of reading is to consider it rate of comprehension (Tinker, 1940). 5. - Reading comprehension ability has been found to be related to self-concept: individuals who had low reading comprehension tended to have low self-concept (Hebert, 1968 and Butkowsky & Willow, 1980). Also, general improvement in reading skills led to improved grades and better self-concept (Gillham, 1967). There is a need to take students through some study- type reading techniques to improve their study skills and comprehension ability as simple reading and re-reading of passages was found to be ineffective in improving com­ prehension (Stordahl, 1956; Rothkopf, 1968). Apart from the general need to reduce academic waste, students should be trained to have maximum outcome from 13 the efforts expended on their academic work. Merely giving a set of guiding principles to follow on how to carry out their studies cannot yield any lasting dividend. There is a great need to train students consciously to apply effective study techniques to their work in order to maximize outcome especially in the present-day highly competitive Nigerian educational scene. If the achieving Student can still face some Problems of high cost of education, inadequate educa­ tional facilities, scarcity of books, admission rigour, unemployment etc. then the problems will affect the underachiever even more acutely. It then follows that a high Standard of ahievement has to be maintained in the face of stringent educational facilities and austere economic conditions. Students will be faced with the academic demand of having much to read and understand within a short time. This spells out the need for the students to acquire effective study techniques which will enhance their academic work. In this experiment, subjects will be exposed to Robinson's (1961) SQ3R, and Summarization study techniques in order to improve their comprehension ability. 14 Generally, comprehension is badly handled in schools; much of what is usually done represents a reading and questioning session» The type of questions often asked has been researched into by many scholars. Haynes (1935) discovered that 77% of teachers' questions in sixth-grade history classes demanded factual answers and only 17% required students to think. Gail (1970) reached the conclusion that 60% of teachers' questions required students to recall facts, 20% required students to think and the remaining were procedural • Ogunniyi (1981) studied the pattern of questioning of textbooks and Science teachers' instructional style and opined that the textbooks and the teachers who use them asked mostly informational and rhetorical questions. In the present experiment a step-by-step inculcation of Comprehension techniques will be undertaken to expose the subjects to some basic comprehension skills like text-surveying, self-generated questioning, real concentrated reading, reviewing, locating and writing down of key points etc. Studies known to the present researcher on the use of Summarization to improve comprehension are very scarce. Also, studies reviewed 15 on the use of the SQ3R technique involved Arts subjects like History, Social Studles and Economics ,and researchers often reported difficulty in making subjects acquire the technique (Beneke & Harris, 1972; Bailey, 1988). In the present study, subjects were trained in the use of the SQ3R technique to handle English Comprehension, and Biology, a Science subject involving diagrams and illu­ strations. Efforts were made to incorporate in the study the use of reinforcenents and other behaviour modification techniques, directed at inculcating in the subjects self-management, self-monitoring and self- sustenance skills which, it is hoped, will make the acquisition of the twotechniques easier. Briefly, SQ3R is a study technique which demands that,for a Student to read and comprehend,he has to go through the five essential Steps represented by the abbreviation SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recite,Review. Training them to use the SQ3R technique has some specific advantages: (i) Raising questions or turning the main headings of an assignment passage into questions, which is a Step * under the technique, helps students to predict examina- tion questions because the headings turned into questions 16 are usually the points emphasized in examination. The use of the SQ3R technique will ensure better prepara- tion of students for examination. Thus, examination anxiety in students will be greatly reduced. (ii) Teaching students to generate questions is highly advantageous; students have been known to demonstrate improved comprehension after they were taught togenerate their own questions (Singer & Doulan, 1982; Schmitt & Baumann, 1986). (iii) It stresses important concepts and provides for recitation as "rehearsal" of the performance expected in a test (Beneke and Harris, 1972). Summarization is also a study technique in which a Student reads any study material so thoroughly that he can fish out and write down the important details in the material. Helping students to acquire the technique of summarization» too, will ensure that: (i) Students achieve deep understanding as they can- not write a summary of any reading material they do not thoroughly understand. 17 (ii) Students need to make sensible summary of materials read especially as they read from different sources, at times from the library, and more often than not they do not possess personal copies of some of the books used. The same educational and academic demands that made the learning of the study techniques imperative also called for the incorporation of some behaviour modifica­ tion approaches and reinforcement techniques leading to the subjects' acquisition of self-management, self­ sustenance and self-monitoring strategies to ensure independent use of the techniques. Other advantages of the behaviour modification approaches are: (i) They make the acquisition of the techniques very effective and pleasant for the students because learning is usually more effective if the learner is reinforced for any response made(Wagenen, 1963; Rosenfeld, 1972). (ii) They boost and facilitate students' persistence in acquiring the techniques to the end. Beneke (1972) points out that the major problem in getting subjects to use the S03R method was that the method requires effort on the part of the subjects and that many subjects UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 try the SQ3R method but give up because of the effort involved before they learn it well enough to receive the benefit. Such persistence will even be more necessary in training ' subjects to use Summarization. (iii) They enhance the permanence of the study skills to be acquired; students show improvement for a longer time when trained to apply self-administered reinforce­ ment (Van Zoost, 1974). Therefore, the following behaviour modification techniques were used in this study: Shap ing: Each of the two techniques were broken down into small Steps indicating the skills to be inculcated at each Step. This ensured thorough mastery of each skill and the eventual acquisition of the techniques. After each skill was successfully completed, it was continuously, consistently, contingently and generouly reinforced. Active Teaching: The therapist was actively and directly involved in teaching the subjects some comprehension passages 19 and Biology topics on which the training in the study techniques were based. The Schools' Scheines of work and English Language text were followed. This arrangement made it possible for the therapist to be sufficiently familiär to establish rapport with the subjests who then became more confident to learn the techniques. Modelling: The therapist modelled (demonstrated) to the subjects the main actions involved in the two techniques e,g. reading effectively which involves maintaining a conducive environment, Clearing the reading table so as to leave only the relevant materials needed for the study, and concentrating at study. Through the modelling, the actions involved became more vivid to the subjects and easy to acquire. Akinboye (1984) posited that modelling is a behaviour change strategy whose major concept is that human behavious is powerfully influenced by that which he observes, hears, feels, perceives, conceives, creates or participates in. The vicarious experiences provided to the observer during modelling become stamped in at the acquisition stage when the observer attempts to acquire the behaviour 20 deficit. Vicarius and direct reinforcement which was applied at each stage helped the acquisition further. Rehearsal: The subjects were made to rehearse or perform the actions modelled by the therapist. This performance stage gave the subjects the opportunity of being actively iuvolved in the action. Every manifestation of the desired behaviour by subject was contingently and consistently reinforced by the therapist. Re Iriforeiment: 1 1 Ä pifettiora of studies have proved the effectiveness of the use of reinforcement in the acquisition of desired study habit or in classroom instructional situa- tions (D'orazio, 1962; Johnson, 1962, Sechrest, 1963; Chahbasi, 1967; Leather, 1968; Briggs, Tosi & Horley, 1971; Cheyne, 1972 and Akinboye, 1976). Therefore, some forms of reinforcement used in exposing subjects to the use of the two techniques were: (a) Seif reinforcement: The subjects were trained to make positive self- statements to encourages themselves. A significant gain in study habit was found as a result of self-admini- stered reinforcement (Jackson & Zoost, 1972). 21 (b) Token reinforcement: A tick was put beside each correct response given by the subjects. Of particular Interest was the increase obtained in appropriate behaviour as students were reinforced for correct work (Hundret, 1976). (c) Social (Verbal) Reinforcement; _ Subjects were rewarded with pleasant remarks indicating approval when they took any correct Step. Tosi, Upshaw, Lande and Waldron (1971) observed significant mean gain in clients' classroom response as a result of the social reinforcement awarded. (d) .Feedback : Subjects were told their performance i.e. they were fed back with the result of their previous performance to serve as encouragement for further action. Subjects provided with knowledge of results after answering a section did much better than when the feedbackwas not given (Fräse,1967; Rucinski,1968; Anderson et al, 1972;and Synder, 1972), ATTITÜDE: The study also found out if subjects' attitude toward their academic subjects improved as a result of 22 the newly acquired study techniques. It was assumed that the behaviour modification approach used, in its self-management-enhancing capacity, would lead to improved attitudes, in that attitude helps to determine the extent to which the learner will be dis- posed to acquire a specific learning task. Attitude also determines the encounters, difficulties and frustration experienced by the individual in the a11empt to learn (Bloom,1976). For example, the attitude which an individual has influences, to a considerable degree, his learning of Science and his use of the scientific Information (Hasan & Billeh, 1975). Oyetunde (1986) stressed the importance of knowing the attitude students hold toward school subjects because people learn more easily and remember longer materials that are consistent with their attitudes. Oyetunde explained further that the teacher needs to go beyond merely knowing students' attitude toward the subjects; he should also know the extent to which their attitude relates to their achieve- ment in the subjects so that predictions and manipula- tions can be made. Results of studies have shown that better attitude to the study of a subject leads to improved academic 23 performance (Maykovich, 1967; Ellish, 1968). Investi- gating students' attitudes towards education and how the attitudes related to their academic and psycho- social problems in the learning process, Morakinyo (1978) found that negative attitudes towards education are related to poor academic performance and poor psychosocial adjustment in schools. King-Fun (1964) and Lunn (1972) contended that students who possessed favourable attitude toward a school subject achieved better than students with poorer attitudes. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: This study sets out to achieve the following obj ect ives: (i) To Improve subjects' study habits and conse- quently improve their academic performance. (ii) To help subjects improve their comprehension ability so as to make reading and learning more positive. (iii) To improve subjects* attitude towards their academic subjects and thereby enhance positive dis­ position towards these academic subjects. 24 (iv) To experiment with the two study skills (SQ3R and Summatization) so as to know the effectiveness of each in bringing about desired improvement in students' study techniques and in enhancing better product ivi ty. 0 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: The adverse effects of underachievement for the students, the parents and the nation have been dis- cussed earlier in this write-up. With deficient study techniques, students expend a lot of time and energy on their studies, yet make little achievement. The present study's focus on two study techniques to enhance comprehension will increase students' output at their studies. Such positive improvement will reinforce the students to work harder still. Psychologically, improved performance will enhance the underachiever's self-concept (Bruck and Bodwin,1962 Gillham, 1967 and Jones, 1968). The importance of positive self-concept in a student's life cannot be over-emphasised. He feels more confident and better disposed to tackle his academic work and strives to try his best. Tyler (1956) pointed out a definite 25 relationship between personality factor and acholastic achievement. Improved academic achievement will also improve students' social adjustment. There exists a signifi- cant difference in the degree of academic achievement between groups of well-adjusted and poorly adjusted school children (Norman, 1959, Semler, 1960). When a child is underachieving, it is evident not only in the grade or test scores he receives but also in his broader social functioning (Swift, 1970). Improved social adjustment can enhance better academic performance still: the Student will have better social relationship with his classmates and teachers. He will be better disposed to discuss with them and ask for help if he needs any. Akinade (1982) studied the influence of peer group on performance and found that social acceptability, adjustment to school environment and seif acceptance affect academic performance. Mcxreover, improved performance on the part of the students will act as positive feedback for the teachers who will be further encouraged to do more meaningful work and be more helpful to their students. This has 26 some advantages for discipline and the tone of the school since successful boys are pre-disposed to accept the culture of the school (Lacey, 1970). If students' performance improve, parents will worry less and spend less money on coaching, school fees, and admission forms. The placement of such students will be easier. Improving students' comprehension ability, which is the particular focus of this study, has far-reach- ing advantages for the individual and the nation. With better comprehension, communication will be improved as students will find the reading of newspaper, instructions,, directions , and adver tisement s more meaning- ful. Deep understanding enhances critical thinking and judgement leading to objectivity and creativity. Increased harmony, productivity, and continued peaceful co-existence in the society of literates cannot be divorced from the level of reading with comprehension which the individuals of that society can do. The study will call attention to the need to improve the comprehension ability of students and the proper way to teach comprehension skills. The importance of mounting study improvement programmes as a necessary complement to the secondary school curriculum will be highlighted. 27 (B) LITERATURE REVIEW This study considered the improvement of study techniques as a means of solving the problem of under- achievement. Therefore, literature (theoretical and empirical) were reviewed on Achievement and Under- achievement» and on Study Skills. Comprehension, which was the main aspect of the study skills fostered, was equally reviewed. Literature was also reviewed on the two techniques to which subjects were exposed: the SQ3R and Summarization techniques. Since subjects' attitudes were considered in the study, literature on attitudes were also looked into. In effect, literature was reviewed on: (i) Factors in Academic Achievement and Underachievement (ii) Study skills (iii) Reading and Reading Comprehension (iv) The SQ3R Study Technique (v) Summarization (vi) Attitudes THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Factors in Academic Achievement and Underachievement Underachievement comes under the category of what 28 Naylor (1972) referred to as "discrepant achievement," that is achievement which does not coincide with expectations or predictions based on ability. Gowon (1964) has «ritten extensively on Underachievement and he proposed that 15% underachievement among gifted students should be regarded as "normal" experience; he held that the incidence of underachivement among potentially superior students is one of the critical, unresolved educational and social issues. Reviewing the relationship between some personality traits and discrepant achievement, Taylor (1964) came up with seven traits which were related to achievement: (i) the underachiever has more anxiety than the overachiever who has more self-control and is able to direct his anxiety to constructive ends; (ii) the underachiever has negative feeling ; (iii) the underachiever lacks conformity to authority; «r (iv) the underachiever is less concerned with social acceptance and tends to have somehow negative relations with peersj 29 (v) the underachiever tends to have more conflict over issues concerning dependence and independence than the overachiever; (vi) the underachiever is socially rather than academically oriented in his activities{ (vii) the underachiever is less realistic in his choice of goals than the underachiever; Kaury(1^7J) contended that the underachievers often are difficult clients for counsellors because of their impulsivity. Kowever, the underachiever should be viewed in relation to his self-concept. This was probably why Byrne (1982) concluded that self-concept is a multi-dimensional con- struct having one general factor and several specific facets, of which academic self-concept is one. In Stenner's (1976) opinion, one explanation for the relationship between self-concept and achievement is that self-concept scores are a realistic introspective assessment 0f a child's intellectual capabilities; and Rogers (1969) regarded a psychologically we11-adjusted seif as a necessary condition for the development of competence in the educational sphere. Lecky (1945) was 30 one of the earlier researchers to suggest that j scholastic performance tended to be consistent with the individual's self-assessment. Taylor (1964) further opined that, to a signi- ficant extent, underachievement appears to be a function of the students' attitude toward himself, and in his review of researches on underachievement, he concluded that the value a child places upon his own worth affects his academic performance. In Pottebaum's view, children's feelings about themselves are key factors in school achievement. The close relationship betwen underachievement and self-concept was upheld by Bruck and Bodwin (1962), Gillham (1967), and Jones(1968). In fact, a healthy self-concept leading to an increase in the individual's desire and ability to perform in school, is an essential component of motivation to achieve (McClelland 1951, McClelland, 1953, and Atkinson, 1966) . The issue of achievement motivation is an important •/< strained inter-relationship between the human elements in the school, inadequate facilities in the 33 school due to poor financing, poor Standard of teaching and inadequate Curricula. The third group of factors, causing poor performance according to Bakare, include factors in the home, which may affect the physical well-being of the child such as malnutrition, exposure to diseases, protein deficiency and birth complications. Other aspects of the factors resident in the home are the relationship between father and others: child and parents, the sibling relationship, discipline at home, exposure of the child to religious or political prejudice and lack of cognitive Stimulation. Factors resident in the child himself constitute the fourth group, and they include physical Problems like physical deformities, damage to a sensory organ, brain damage, emotional factors including various psycho-social problems, and intellectual problems relating directly to the academic behaviour of the child. Study Skills Okoye (1981), defined study as a systematic, conscious task of acquiring specific knowledge items geared towards a set of Standard. It has been established in many write-ups on study skills that study is hard work demanding whole-hearted 34 attention in order to achieve success. In Akinboye's (1980) view: "Studying involves doing something about the academic assignment, settling to the study assignment, concentrating, learning, absorbing the facts, coding and reorganizing the fact in the thought System so that one can recall the relevant facts as answers to certain questions in important examinations" p. This explains why Okoye (1981) further held that study should be seen as an active process, and effective study is determined by psychological as well as physical factors. According to Okoye, the psychological determinants of effective study include the totality of the individual make-up: his persona­ lity, Intel j hgence, attitudes, interest, aspiration, perceptual abilities, life style, physical health, level of concentration and determination, and the physical factors are study accommodation, sitting arrangement, books, writing materials’ and study conditions. Holtzman (1969) observed that there are wide variations in the methods of studying typically practised by students; these variations involve certain aspects of study: the time of day preferred, the time lapse between study sessions, the degree of noise or music tolerated or invited as back­ ground, the physical conditions of study, the extent to 35 which extra-curricular activities interfere and the particular study mechanics employed. Holtzman then con- cluded that "many study habits appear detrimental to efficient learning whereas others seem to facilitate it". Consequently, Brown's (1940/41) view that many failing students had poor study habits and that they qould improve their scholarship by improving their study habits is still particularly true today. Akinboye (1974) listed common study problems: lack of attention, lack of perseverance on study, day dreaming, worries, anxiety and delusions, over-studying, intensely painful negative feelings towards study and perception of study as restrictive and terribly burdensome; he (Akinoye) then opined that these are personal problems, generally refractory to treatment and for which mere advice cannot help. An analysis of the most effective procedures of improving study skills showed that students do not learn automatically, they need guidance and directions before they can engage in using the skills (Berg, 1966). There is little wonder then for Krumboltz & Farquhar's (1957) Suggestion that instructors in study skills courses need to ensure that their students not only learn about effective methods of study but that they actually apply these methods and acquire attitudes con- ducive to good study. Efforts have been made to help students acquire effective study skills by designing some study techniques and mnemonics which, if followed diligently, should aid comprehension and recall. Some of the techniques are reviewed here. (i) Robinson's 1941, revised(1961) SQ3R: Since the present study experiments with this technique, an extensive review of the SQ3R technique will come up later in this thesis. Briefly, however, SQ3R refers to a five-step study technique involving Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. (ii) Pauk1s (1962) 0K4R: The 0K4R is a study-type reading technique with each letter Standing for a Step. '0' Stands for OverView, and the reader is required to look through the pages of each chapter. 'K', the second step Stands for 'Key points' in which the reader selects the key points of the chapter after skimming to find the topic sentences and key words 37 and raising questions about them. The 'R' is third Step and it Stands for 'Read'; the reader is expected to do the actual reading. The second 'R', the fourth Step, calls on the Reader to 'Recite' what he has learned. The third 'R' which constitutes the fifth step requires the reader to 'Reflect' on all the points, questions, and facts he has read. 'R', which is the sixth and last step, Stands for 'Review' or 'Revise'. Unoh (1969) suggested that Pauk's 0K4R is an extension of Robinson's SQ3R. (iii) Tussing's (1962) PAT: This is a three-stage study formula. 'P' represents 'Pre-viewing' which involves skimming through an assign­ ment and taking note of distinct ideas. ’A' Stands for 'Attacking' which requires the reader to read actively, underlining and jotting down salient points. 'T' represents 'Testing', the third step which involves self- evaluation of the section read by asking questions and discussing with mates. (iv) Unoh' s (1969) 3S3R (SSSRRfl: The first 'S' in this formula Stands for 'Survey' and it is the same as 'Survey' or 1Over-view in the SQ3R i 38 and 0K4R techniques. However, the reader's survey in this technique should make him discover the key-points, anticipate some relevant questions, and quickly read through the questions at the end of the chapter, if any. The second 'S' represents 'Study-read' during which the reader should read slowly and intensively marking or underlining important points. To ensure maximum under- standingjthis Step can be repeated before the next Step. On coming to the third 'S1 the reader is expected to 'Speed-read', which involves going over the selection again at a faster speed so as to recognize or identify already understood material and also take care of partially-understood materials. The first ’R' constitutes the fourth Step and it Stands for 'Recite' just as in the other techniques; here the reader tests his capacity to recall the facts and information he has learned. Note- taking is very essential here. The second 'R' Stands for 'Review' and it is the fifth Step. The reader goes over the whole selection at a rapid skimming rate. The sixth and final step is indicated by the last 'R' - 'Reflect' during which the reader considers the extent to which he has understood the information read. He also evaluates 39 the relevance of the facts to examination questions. (vi) The ERICA (1982) Programme: ERICA Stands for Effective Reading In Content Area: it is one of the most comprehensive plans for improving reading and study skills. It was developed in Brisbane, Australia in 1982 (Reported in Jones, 1988). ERICA has four stages: (a) Preparing for reading which may include a structured over-view of a chapter and pointing out key words. (b) Thinking through Information which may include close activity. (c) Extracting and organizing Information involving filling in of informational charts to help students organize materials they have read. (d) Translating information. Rather than just memorizing facts, students are given time to think through what they have read, possibly discussing it with one another. (vi) Bailey's (1988) S-RUN: This is a study tool directed at achieving great com- prehension. 'S' Stands for 'Survey' or quick overview of 40 what is read. ’R' represents the next Step which involves 'Reading'. One section is read at a time; heading or sub-heading is written down prior to the reading. 'U' Stands for 'Underline', The reader is required to underline key ideas or understand the relationship of key ideas to section heading. 'N' represents 'Note-taking', the last stage during which notes are made: the information underlined or understood is written directly underneath the sections heading. This technique has a special advantage: once students read a chapter and take notes this way-they really won't need to read that chapter again since he already has concise notes that list the main and subordinate ideas. (vii) Simon1s (1989) PSRT; There are four Steps involved in this technique: 'P' Stands for 'Prepare', the first Step during which the teacher provides necessary background information, helps students to identify key concepts and find out what they already know about the key concepts. 'S* represents the second Step and it Stands for 1Structure' during which the teacher helps students see how text is organized by 41 preparing and distributing blank, possibly graphic, Over­ View to the students. The students can be helped to complete part of the blank over-view with Information gathered in Step I. In Step three, represented by ’R', 'Read', the students read the text. They should read independent ly,set purposes for reading and complete the over-view. In Step four 'T' Stands for 'Think' and here the teacher discusses the text, asks students to summarize the text and asks questions that require the students to think about the text. After making an intensive clinical investigation of students, Tiebout (1943) emphasized the 'lazy students' syndrome' as a primary problem in studying. He opined that four characteristics were common with a number of poor students: a need to rely upon strong and immediate motiva- tions to Start studying; a tendency to be governed by strong hedonistic principles; a tendency to have interest of a transitory, impermanent nature; and a deep-seated problem in learning. Tiebout also noted that such students are also characterized by a marked lack of inquisitiveness, interest, and drive for learning in an academic setting. As part of the efforts to help students improve in their 42 study habit, Bakare (1970) designed and validated the Study Habit Inventory (SHI) , an Instrument which easily detects students who have study problems for remediation. Study Habit Inventory is divided into eight sections, each concentrating on major areas of students' study where problems can arise. The major headings focussed upon in SHI are: Home-work and Assignments, Time Allocation, Reading and Note-taking, Study Period Procedures, Concentration^Written Work, Examinations and Teacher Consultation. Reading and Reading Comprehension Reading is a basic activity involved in any academic endeavour. Just as the body requires food and exercise in order to function properly, the mind also needs and demands nourishment and Stimulation, and when one fails to exercise reading skills the mind tends to disintergrate (Gentile, 1976). According to James (1984)f reading efficiency is the key to successful study, hence a Student has to be an efficient reader so as to be successful in all his academic endeavours. To undersocre the importance of reading, Strang(1967) opined 43 "Reading proficiency is the royal rOQd to knowledge; it is essential to success in all academic subjects...... learning depends largely upon one's ability to interprete the printed page accurately and fully" p.4. Balogun (1972) observed that reading ability is not only an entrance into almost all vocations, it is also the tool with which people can forge ahead in their chosen professions; he held further that, of all the valuable skills which the individual learns in his life time, the ability to read tops the list because it is the most universal and the most generally useful. In Ayodele's (1984) opinion, among the weapons in a learner's armoury for tackling his academic tasks, none is more vital than that of reading. In fact, Katrowitz (1967) saw reading at the secondary school level and at other educational levels as an important means of developing the various attributes. A strong relationship has been drawn between reading ability and scholastic success by Karlin (1964) who suggested that when no Provision is made for achievement by the poor reader that Student is eventually frustrated into a mis­ erable state of failure. Borgatta (1968) held that good readers have the tendency to possess a high measure of 44 acceptance, personal and social adequacy, security, and consistency of seif, and that self-concept is an important factor in reading success: a child who believes he cannot read is likely to avoid any opportunity to read and eventually such escape from reading becomes rewarding to him. Many writers' views about the importance of reading to the academic success of students are the same. Perhaps, this further justifies why students should be helped to acquire efficient reading techniques. The Schema Theoryi The Schema theory explains how information from the text is intergrated with the reader's prior knowledge about the world. Comprehension occurs when there is an interaction between the knowledge a reader already has, Schema, and the information on the page. A message is comprehended when the slots in a reader's Schemata corresponds with the inf ormation in the text ana gets intergrated with the information in the reader's mind to form broader Schemata which will then be assessed, enriched and modified the next time information about such a subject matter is read (Cunningham, 1980 and Jones, 1982). It then means that the more the information we already 45 have to relate new Information to, the better the chance for comprehension. The reader then should use his own knowledge to make predictions about any reading task because prediction is a major strategy of mature reading (Swaby, 1980). The basic reading skills of Observation, Organization and Classification can be improved if the gestalt concept is applied, by providing cues, the reader's attention can be directed to the printed page which is the potential field (Fagan, 1969). Unoh (1979) opined that the primary purpose of reading is to gain understanding and insight and the readers should grasp the pattern of what is read as a whole, fit in details, reorganize and assimilate in such a way as to enable them make it part of their own experience. The Psycho-linguistic Theory: Unoh's (1976) proposition of the psycho-linquistic theory of reading, is relevant here. Unoh held that reading is essentially a psycho-linguistic process and that effective reading, particularly in higher learning situations, invovles not only the processing and Inter­ pretation of linguistic cues and Symbols but the use of higher mental processes of reasoning, evaluation,imagining, 46 organizing and problem-solving. He further held that undue emphasis upon the incidential approach to the development of reading skills has contributed greatly to the prevalence of reading difficulties among Nigerians. Unoh (1977) listed the typical reading problems of students in secondary schools, particularly in Nigeria where English is used as a second language: (i) slow reading rate (ü) slow comprehension rate (iii) difficulty in distinguishing main ideas from relevant or irrelevant details (iv) difficulty in reading for gist (v) ineffective recall of what is read (vi) uncritical reading behaviour (vii) difficulty with Creative reading (viii) difficulty with intensive (study type) reading (ix) inadequate vocabulary or word power (x) inadequate reading interest. In Keppel's (1964) view every examination of the problems of our schools and every learning disorder seems to show some association with reading difficulty. Comprehension, and study-type reading form a major focus of the present study. Academic reading or study-type reading involves the ability to explore, discover and analyze what is said in books and make adequate use of reference materials (James, 1984). Leady (1963) stressed the importance of establishing the correct reading habits for such academic reading without resorting to regression, that is, the tendency to look back and re-read a phrase or sentence a few seconds after reading it, should be dis- couraged. One who has formed the habit of regressing will find it difficult to read anything with understanding without having to regress (Unoh, 1969), In his Identification of the reading problems typical of secondary school students, Unoh (1980; 1982) again included slow comprehension rate and difficulty with intensive (study type) reading. James (1984) noted that foremost among problem areas are skills related to comprehension ability. It is therefore very important that one should acquire techniques which will enhance thorough and quick comprehen­ sion of what is read because as Longe (1979) noted effi- cient comprehension is needed for good academic performance • Mackinnon (1981) noted that comprehension is the sine qua non of reading, and ample evidence was provided to support the fact that poor performance in the content areas 48 such as Science, mathematics and industrial arts often stems fron the students' failure to comprehend the questions asked or the instruction given rather than poor concept formation (Strang, 1965; Robinson, 1975). Onakaogu (1987) suggested that Use of English in the Universities should be replaced by English for Academic Purpose but he hinted that the whole effort might be impeded if the Nigerian undergraduate does not have the relevant comprehension skills. Oyetunde (1986) underscored the importance of Comprehension when he opined: "There can be no doubt that comprehension is the heart of reading..........Comprehension is why anyone reads. Reading comprehension is an active, constructive process involving the use of textual cues and the reader's back­ ground knowledge to build a model of the author's intended meaning." p.9. Quandt (1977) quoted by Oyetunde (1986) held that without comprehension, words are only a series of lifeless Symbols - which do not communicate and neither produces learning nor add anything useful to the child's life. Comprehension, Quandt concluded, is a primary goal of reading. In Jeremiah's (1988) view, comprehension is not always the result of what we read or hear but of what underlies the 49 message at the level of deep structure. Schwartz and Sheff (1975) considered comprehension to be a thinking process where multiple skills are employed in concert. It was believed that reading comprehension is made up of general factors and that the reader who compre- hends well in one area of instruction should be able to comprehend similarly in another (Artley, 1943). Fries (1963) posited that reading comprehension is a specific case of language comprehension: apart from decoding, reading comprehension is dependent upon linguistic, conceptual, cognitive and general knowledge abilites. Actually, Goodman (1967) defined comprehension from psycho-linguistic perception as an interaction between language and thought, that is, the individual decodes language to reconstruct meaning. Narayanaswamy (1972) and Carver (1978) deliberated on what the correct objectives of comprehensions should be and their ideas are similar in content to Unoh's (1979): (i) Relating the idea read to previous experiences. (ii) Reading to get the main idea of a sentence. (iii) Reading to select important details. (iv) Reading between lines, drawing inference correctly and anticipating meanings 50 (v) Reading to follow printed directions (vi) Reading to gain sensory Images from materials (vii) Reading for sequential order (viii) Recognising various types of material and understanding the purpose for which the material is being read. The methods employed by teachers in teaching comprehension h'as' '’generated some comments from writers. Rakes and Smith (1987) noted that teachers rely too often upon teacher questions and Student responses as a means of "teaching” comprehension. They contended that this approach is more of an assessment than Instruction, and that more recent views of teaching comprehension have emphasized such active Student involvement in the teaching and learning process as retelling recalling, locating, predicting, summarizing and paraphrasing. Campreil, Kapinus and Wilson (1987) suggested that for effective and efficient reading comprehension students need a full repertoire of strategies from which to draw for a particular reading task. They suggested further that the two strategies employed by skilled comprehenders are text-processing strategies and text-reorganisation strategies. 51 Oyetunde (1986) held a three-level view of compre- hens ion: (i) Literal ComprehensIon: This involves "reading the lines", that is, the emphasis is on the factual information given the selection. The main task of the reader is to locate main ideas, details, sequence, comparisons, and character traits -thatareexplicitly stated in the passage. It is the ability to recall facts and reproduce, and it is by no means a reliable evidence of comprehension; (ii) Inferential Comprehension; This involves reading "between and beyond the lines" To determine the covertneaning ofthe passage, the reader brings in meanings and reasoning processes. It is a higher level involving Identification of causative factors, making inferences from facts and reaching conclusions and generalizations. There is full understanding only when the reader can establish logical Connections between and among the ideas in the text and he can express this in an alternate form. (iii) Critical Comprehension: This is the highest level of cognitive processing and 52 it involves evaluation of what is read. The reader passes a judgement about the content of his reading. With regards to the relationship between speed and comprehension, the fear that comprehension is achieved at the expense of speed is not justified. Actually, speed has been recognized as a function of comprehension because speed is not merely the measure of words per minutes with- out regard to the thought content (Letson, 1958). Narayanaswamy (1975) opined that the two are so closely interrelated that it is meaningless to talk of speed without reference to comprehension or vice-versa. A particular objective of any reading improvement Programme should be the achievement of flexibility in reading, that is the ability to adjust one's rate of reading to suit what one is reading and why one is reading it. Reading speed, Unoh (1982) opined, is reading faster without sacrificing meaning. Robinson's SQ3R The SQ3R technique is a high level study skill origina- ted by F.P. Robinson in 1941(revised 1961.Reading of text-books and 53 subject materials need special skills that will enhance thorough understanding and lasting retention. Since mere reading and re-reading of lessons do not ensure that enough examination-oriented Stimulation is derived from any reading material, some skills have been deviced to help students make learning more effective and rewarding, The use of questions before, during, or after reading the text (or study material) has been practised. Pre-viewing or skimming through is sometimes encouraged, Underlining, outlining, reciting and reviewing are some of the methods sometimes used. Some of these methods have been put together by Robinson in formulating his study technique^: the SQ3R. SQ3R is an abbreviation representing the Steps which the Student follows in using the method. The five Steps involved in using the technique are described below: Step 1: Survey: This involves glancing through the text to discover the core ideas as presented under the main heading, sub- headings, the opening paragraph and the final paragraph. This survey should take only a few minutes and it should be done with inquiry attitude so as to prepare the reader's 54 mind for the Information about to be received. While surveying the text the reader should avoid the tempta- tion of commencing the actual reading at once because a good survey facilitates effective reading Step II: Question: The reader then raises questions about the points he has surveyed. Based on the main heading, sub-heading and lead paragraphs, he generates some questions so that in his reading later he keeps his mind open to seek answers to the questions raised. Raising questions this way arouses curiosity and enhances comprehension. It ensures that the Student does not just do the reading passively line by line. It also focuses student's attention on important details because those points on which questions are raised are the ones usually emphasised during examination. Hence, training students to generate questions in this way may amount to training them to predict examination questions. According to Rothkopf (1970) questions are very effective and they differ in how they focus the reader's attention depending on their location: Questions that appear just prior to study material tend to focus reader's attention 55 on answers to specific questions. Step III: Read: The third Step is the actual reading of the passage. Having prepared one's mind in Steps I & II, the reader in his reading should actively search for the answer to the questions he has raised.Passively plodding along each line should be avoided. There should be a conscious effort to put one's mind and attention in the reading. The attitude towards the reading of textbooks is quite different from that exhibited towards the reading of fiction where comprehending the reading for that moment is sufficient. The reading of study material demands deep comprehension which is a preprequisite for retention and easy recall. Step IV: Recite: After reading the first section the reader is trained to pause, look away from the book and recite what he has read especially the answer to his questions. The reader should overcome the temptation of wanting to read on and on without pausing to recite. The ability to recite is a good indication that he has comprehended the material. 56 If he cannot recite the material read, he should glance through the section again until he can do so. It is always more effective when reciting to write down points and cue phrases in outline form because it forces the reader to verbalize the answer. It also makes learning more effective because more sensory channels are involved in the learning. Little time and energy should be expended in the note-taking which should be very brief because lengthy notes will disrupt the progress of reading and the flow of thought many be lost. Robinson contended that pausing for short note-taking after reading a headed section prevents bcittötkw.of reading on and on for a long time, and it ensures that the reader alter­ nates period of working at different activities. Such a change of activity ensures efficiency as one Starts each new period with zest. Since the breaks are coming at logical places, they do not disrupt students' thinking too much . However, students differ in the size of the unit of reading material they can comprehend and assimilate at once. the When/material is familiär one can more easily handle longer sections than when it is unfamiliar or difficult. In 57 addition, students differ in their ability to grasp large ideas, Each reader has a problem then of finding how far he can read before he must pause and reorient himself. If one continues reading straight along the ideas tend to crowd each other out, cause confusion and jeopardize com­ p rehens ion. The 'stopping places1 should coincide with breaks in thought of the author i.e, at the end of the headed sections, If such headed sections extend over several pages which seem too much for the reader, paragraphing and other cues should be used to find the best places for brief stops in order to check comprehension and re-orient himself to the coming material. A Student can train himself to handle largerand larger unit with resulting effectiveness in his work. Step V: Review: When the lesson has been read through and recited, the reader now looks over his note to get a bird's eye view of the points under each heading. This should be possible if there has been thorough comprehension. The review should come immediately after the remaining four steps and it should be brief. From the outline,an overall, 58 easily visualized picture of the materials read should be got. He should recite the main polnts and the sub­ point again and check for accuracy. This will help the reader to see the Organization that exists between the various ideas. He will also discover the aspects not yet understood and for which he can refer to the text. All the known ideas will be so much fixed in his mind that retention and recall will be greatly enhanced. The effectiveness of the SQ3R technique has been proved by some educational psychologists, Anyaegbunam (1979) confirmed the fact that many students who endeavoured to use the SQ3R method of studying gained much from their reading assignments. In Jacobowitz’s (1988) opinion an individual who opts to use SQ3R is aware of a somewhat difficult learning task that requires in-depth processing. Learning theory: Miller (1956) expressed the view that SQ3R can be strongly supported by a learning theory. The explanation was that since the memory System is limited in how much it can hold, a reader must actively process the material in to ensure understanding and retention in long term memory. The steps of SQ3R are designed to facilitate the 59 Processing of incoming Information so that the reader can deal with it effectively (Tadlock 1978). This is why the SQ3R technique is also used to aid memory. The first Step of the SQ3R technique, Survey, gives opportunity for text preview which provides a framework for comprehending a reading selection (Bean, 1989). Ausubel (1960) and Meyer (1975) postulated that students who approach the text, knowing its macrostructure, or gist will have enhanced comprehension in that they have a framework into which they can fit new information. In the same way, the raising of questions (second Step of the SQ3R technique) tend to define independent ly students' purpose for reading and so it helps them to focus on the text and to monitor their learning (Carr, 1987). The expected effects of higher order self-questions on the comprehension and recall of information have been guided by two theoretical explanations: (i) Wittrock (1981) held an J active processing" perspective which explained that attention is mobilized to important information in text through the generation of higher order questions which represents greater cognitive effort allo- cated to central passage information and which should result 60 in increased comprehension of the targeted important ideas to enhance inferential and higher order understandings. (ii) In Rickard's and Di Vesta's (1974) view, higher order comprehension activities such as self-questioning induce more thorough processing of text so that effective self-questions enhance not only inferential comprehension but, also the recall of specific and verbatim information. Evidences abound however, that effective exposure of students to the SQ3R technique is usually a difficult task. Here, one should recall Beneke and Harris’ (1972) view that the major problem in getting subjects to use the SQ3R technique was that the method requires effort on the part of the subjects and that many subjects try the SQ3R method but give up because of the effort involved before they learn it well enough to receive the benefit. Another verdict about the technique came from Bailey (1988) "As a College study skills teacher, I had tried the SQ3R approach in my classroom but without much success. Students were reluctant to try it because they thought it looked difficult and involved too much work. Despite all my encourage- ment and enthusiasm, my students did not view SQ3R as a viable reading and study skills technique" p. 170. 61 Summarlzation Summarization is another study skill which can improve students* comprehension ability. This is based on the assumption that the ability of students to effectively summarize a study material is an indication of a degree of mastery over, and a thorough understanding of, such material. Uwakwe and Aworh (1989) described summarizing as the process of Converting materials written by others into one'.s own words without distorting the meaning and without copying the author's exact words; it is a process of condensing the essential Information from a piece of writing into a unified group of sentences, containing the main ideas of the original selection. Making a summary helps to improve comprehension (Brown & Day, 1983). Hebb (1964) advanced the force behind the effectiveness of summarization as a study technique. He opined that time is an important factor in the successful assimilation, re-organization and retention of information items. Therefore, activities which promote such re-organization process such as summary writing should result in increased learning. Conversely, tasks which direct the learner away from the reorganization process 62 should interfere with effective learning. A Summary is an attempt to capture all of the Informa­ tion or measage in a succinct manner and obtain the specific contents of the message through details at the deep level of meaning (Jeremiah, 1988). Jeremiah noted further that students have difficulty in extracting the core of the reading material because they usually injected specifics in their attempts to summarize. Summaries, as Uwakwe (1984) pointed out, serve as an abridged or shortened form of text material, and the various activities involved in summarizing ensure that the study task becomes part and parcel of the learner because such characteristic active involvement which the students engage in when summarizing makes comprehension imminent, and thus retention and recall will be enhanced. Perhaps, this is the more reason why efforts should be intensified to train students to summarize effectively. Many secondary school readers, however, are unaware of basic techniques, such as identifying key ideas, and which is basic to summarizing (Carr & Ogle, 1987). Within the Nigerian context, Unoh (1982) identified as one of the reading problems typical of secondary school students, the 63 difficulty in distinguishing main ideas from relevant or irrelevant details and difficulty in reading for gist and making good summaries. However, not much is known about the way to develop summarization skills in students (Taylor 1983). Taylor's observation about difficulty in developing summarization skills is also true of the Nigerian s i tu at ion. Summary writing, according to Oyetunde (1982), entails an interplay of some major skills: ability to identify the main ideas of paragraphs, ability to identify sentences, ability to use synonyms, ability to paraphrase and rephrase, and ability to identify paragraph formats or structure. Düring guided reading activities students should be led to summarize at various points, evaluate, make new predictions, and relate new information to prior knowledge (Schmitt & Braumann, 1986). Pearson (1985) warned that in summarizing initially the teacher must guide the students in the various activities, but gradually students should assume responsibility for them. This realization justifies the inclusion of self-monitoring skills in the present study. Literature on summarization is rather scanty and summari­ zation programmes vary from individual to individual. However, 64 summarization prograimes of Gilbert (1966), Schiller et al (1972) and Kintsch & Dijk (1978) will be reviewed next. Gilbert (1966) proposed three Steps in summarizing: 1. Read the passage intensively 2. Look for the key points 3. Then formulate a concise Statement which gives the essence of the discussion. He further warned that Statements that are either too broad or too narrow should be avoided. A Statement is too narrow if it fails to include all the essential ideas of the original passage. It is too broad if it goes beyond the limits of the original and over-states the meaning. Schiller e_t â l's (1972) Programme for effective summarization also involves three Steps: 1. Read and underline. 2. Use the five 'Ws' i.e. Who? What? When? Where? Why? to classify the Information underlined. 3. Shape the summary lead into polished form by arranging the ideas and revising the write-up. All the 'Ws' may occur or just some of them, whatever the writer feels necessary to write the summary. Accurate and important information should be included. 65 Kintsch & Van Dijk (1978) presented the following macro-rules for summarization: (a) Delete trivia (b) Delete redundancies (c) Substitute a super-ordinate for a list of Items (d) Substitute a super-ordinate for a list of actions (e) Select a topic sentence, if one is available (f) Invent a topic sentence, if none is available. Based on Gilbert, Schiller, and Kintsch & Van Dijk's programes cited above, this writer formulates the following five steps for effective summarization in this experiment: 1. Pre-view the Passage: Quickly skim through the passage to see the heading and the sub-headings; briefly note the length of the passage and have a rough idea of how many paragraphs it cont ains. 2. Read intensively and underline the important words: This is the actual intensive and undisturbed reading of the material. It should be done with wrapt attention and the reader should underline the key words as he comes across them. 66 3. Search for the key points: The underlining done in Step II help focus readers1 attention on the key points which should be jotted down in a concise form. 4. Formulate concise Statements with the key points: These Statements should be precise and direct to point. There is no need to write full sentences as too many words make the summary long, time-consuming and boring. 5. Glance through the passage again: This is to ensure that all the main points in the passage have been included. At t itudes An attitude is not behaviour or something that a person does but it is a preparation for behaviour, and a predisposition to respond in a particular way toward the attitude object (Oskamp, 1977). To Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) attitude is: "a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object" p.6 . Krech et al (1962) refer to attitudes as the enduring Systems of positive or negative evaluations, emotional feelings and pro or con action tendencies with respect to social objects. According to Buchkin (1970),determinants of attitudes include genetic factors, the person's physio- logical state, his direct experience with the object of attitude, the social institutions to which the individual belongs, and the specific persuasive Communications to which he is exposed. Attitudes have cognitive, affective and behavioural components. The cognitive component con- sists of the ideas and beliefs which the attitude holder has about the attitude object. The affective (emotional) component refers to the feelings and emotions one has towards the object. The behavioural component consists of one's action tendencies toward the object. Two view-points on the three components have been presented : (i) Krech ejt. al. (1962) favour the tripetite view and state that there is a "moderately high" relationship between the cognitive, affective and behavioural components of attitude. (ii) Fishbein and Ajzen's (1972) view-point does not require a necessary connection between the belief, affects 68 and behavioural intentions; strong relationship only exists under certain conditions. Attitudes are intrinsically evaluative since the positive - negative dimension toward an object can usually be determined, In structure, attitudes have valence and complexity, The valence of an attitude is the degree of favourabi1 ity or unfavourability of the person’s feelings towärd the object. In essence, the present study will measure the valence of students' attitude toward English Comprehension and Biology so that at post-treatment the attitude will be measured again to see if there has been any change in valence, positively or negatively, as a result of the treatment given. Complexity of an attitude refers to the number of elements which it contins, its multiplexity, how very simple or complex the attitude is. In Morse and Wingo's (1962) opinion, attitudes are among the most difficult learnings for a teacher to foster and develop. This is because there are two dimensions in the relationship between a person's attitudes and his life pattern: (i) Attitudes are embedded in other personality traits; they are needed in the individual's sensitivity and self- structure or that they are not isolated traits or ideas but 69 a whole pattern of ideas, dispositions and needs. (ii) Attitudes are enmeshed in various parts of the person's total life space. One's attitude toward an object is not just part of his self-structure but it also has a social orientation. Many attitudes are not private but they represent a social distribution. Hence, people are. reluctant to be identified with attitudes disapproved by people on whom they depend for affection or approval. Holding approved attitudes helps us to fulfil deep psychological needs. So deeply feit and broadly held attitude usually prove highly resistant to even a minor change. Attitude Formation: Attitudes and opinions are gener.ally learnt. Attitude formation refers to the initial change from having no attitude to an object to having some attitude. Several factors, internal or external, influence the formation of at titudes: (i) Genetic and physiological factors; These deal with establishing a predisposition for the development of particular attitudes. An organism's general 70 level of aggressiveness, persuasibility and tolerance can be determined by genetic factors and this can affect his readiness to adopt certain attitudes. McGuire (1969) pointed out that this notion of genetic determinants of some attitudes does not imply that those attitudes could not be changed, given the right environmental condition, though the change process may be more difficult. Such conditions as aging, illnesses, and the effects of various drugs exemplify physiological factors in attitude formation. (ii) Direct Personal Experience: The most fundamental way of attitude formation is through direct personal experience with the attitude object. Salient incidents particularly frightening or traumatic ones either in form of powerful negative condi- tioning (States, 1968) or in terms of an information - Processing model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) lead to attitude formation. Repeated exposure to an object is also very attitude-enhancing: Zajonc (1968a) emphasized that mere exposure to a Stimulus object without any associated rein­ forcement or tension reduction is sufficient to enhance a person's attitude toward the object. 71 (iii) Parental Influence: A Child's attitudes are shaped mainly by explicit teaching and implcity modelling of parental attitudes. Many childhood attitudes are therefore a combination of the child's own experience and what he has heard parents say or do. Generally, children's level of prejudice is related to their parents' prejudice which they take over directly(Bird, Monachesi & Burdick, 1952; Epstein & Comorita, 1966). As children grow older parental influence on their attitudes tend to be eroded by many other influences, and by adolescence, the degree of parent-child similarity is faint. Relationships have been established between children's development of prejudice and their parents' child-rearing methods: emotionally cold, status-oriented parents who stress obedience, discipline and physical punishment are likely to have highly prejudiced and authoritarian children (Triandis & Triandis, 1962). (iv) Group Determinants of Attitudes; A strong influence in the formation of attitudes is the pressure of various groups like the school, peer groups and reference groups. School teaching and indoctrination are second only to parental influences in determining children's 72 attitude. The importance of School influence especially in political attitudes has been emphasized (Almond & Verba, 1963; Hess & Torney, 1967; Tolley, 1973). After the family and the school»the child's peer group is the next major determinant of attitudes. Peer group contacts and influence are very dominating in the child's life and during secondary school years discussion of politics with friends increase highly (Hyman, 1959). Actually, friends' attitudes and voting intentions have been found to influence the child's attitudes and behaviour at this time (Coleman, 1961) . (v) Mass Media: Newspapers, magazines, movies, radio and television have had enormous impact on the society generally in the active transmission of information. This is very much relevant to attitude formation since people's information and beliefs are important factors in their attitudes. Apart from transmitting information, they select, emphasize, and interprete particular events. By publicizing people's reaction to such events,they define crucial issues of the day to which the public must form attitudes. Mass communication is effective in creating 73 opinions and attitudes on new issues where there are no existing predispositions to be changed (Klapper, 1963). Attitüde Change Changes in attitudes do occur in spite of the embeddedness and enmeshment qualities of attitude. Two theoretical approaches to attitude change have been p r 043 o s e d : (i) Katz (1960) and his associates put forward the functional approacheswhich emphasize that attitude change depends on the individual's personality needs and moti­ vation. Attitudes serving different functions will be aroused in different types of situations and changed by different types of influences. (ii) Learning approaches to attitude change stress that learning processes are responsible for attitude change (Insko, 1965; Bern, 1965). The protagonists of this theory all stress stimulus-response Connections, the importance of reinforcement or contiguity in learning. ln classroom Situation, the more favourable the pupils' relationship with the teacher, the better are the possibilities for change. Pupils' attitude toward a 74 subject depends on their feelings of enjoyment or boredom, and success or frustration. Although, attitude changes can be effected, they must be carefully engineered (Rosenbergy, 1960). On the relationship between reading attitude and achievement, Alexander (1976) asserted that a positive attitude is essential for successful mastery of the written page. The importance of both the teacher's attitude and the pupils* attitude in the acquisition of reading skills has been stressed (Stott 1973; Agin 1974 and Koe, 1975). The enduring nature of attitudes has been pointed out (Newcomb .et a1, 1967; Thistlethwaite, 1974) hence attitudes formed are difficult to change. This is why students should be helped to develop positive attitudes to their subjects since positive attitudes enhance achievement in academic wor k. Oyetunde (1986) speit out the importance of knowing the attitude students hold towards school subjects and he concluded that people learn more easily and remember longer materials that are consistent with their attitude. He further opined that the teacher, however, needs to go beyond merely knowing students* attitude toward his subject, 75 and determine to what extent students' attitude relate to their achievement in the subjects so as to be able to make predictions. EMPIRICAL STUDIES Factors in Achievement & Under-Achievement: Many studies have focussed on the personality of the underachievers. Catell (1966) found negative correlations between personality characteristics and discrepant achievement. Moreover, underachievers are characterized by negative aspects of self-concept (Mehta, 1969), and they are significantly higher on manifest anxiety and test anxiety (Davids, Sidman and Silverman, 1978). Lacher's (1973) result supported the hypothesis that underachievers would be significantly more likely to report and display irresponsible behaviour arising from implusivity and anxiety over achievement in work situations. Other consistent findings relating underachiever to Problems in impulse control pointed out that underachievers rarely ever come to treatment (Kipnis, Lane & Berger, 1969, Lavin, 1965) or make use of counselling relationships (Kipnis & Resnick, 1971). 76 Underachievers also recorded low scores on achieve- ment anxiety test, studied less for a test and performed less (Wittmaier, 1976). Murakawa (1969) confirmed that they are low in some aspects of thinking and memory and that they show a rather unbalanced profile. Some traits found to be interferring with the underachiever's use of their intellectual resources are perssimism, distrust, anxiety^egocentricity and resentment (Propper, 1970). Wattenberg & Clifford (1964), Williams (1973), Rogers et al̂ (1978), Bridgeman & Shipman (1978) and Hansford & Hattie (1982) found a positive correlation between achievement and self-regard just as several other studies (Binder, 1970; Cummings, 1970; Loguidice, 1970; & Shavel, 1982) found that general self-concept and scholastic achievement are related. Haun's (1965) finding showed a positive relationship between introversion and academic achievement. Studies on the relationship between achievement and academic achievement motivation showed that underachievers lack academic motivation (Terman & Oden, 1947 ; Brown £t̂ a_l 1954; Holland, 1959, Mitchell, 1959). On the other hand, good academic achievers are characterized by high drive 77 levels (Lynn, 1959). However, Cole e_t a_l (1962) found a slgnificant relationship between need achievement and academic performance only in low achieving College students. When a test of motivation to achieve was individually administered to some children in two classes, results indicated that the children in responsive classroom were more highly motivated than the children in the non-responsive classroom. (McFadden, 1978). An achievement motivation training course was given to some twenty-four teachers who then trained some 8th and lOth graders (Ryals, 1973); evaluation of the trained students' grades in Mathematics, Science and Social Studies showed that trained students performed significantly better than a randomly selected group. Would there be any sex difference in the underachiever's Personality traits? Taylor and Farquar (1965), found that among discrepant achievers, anxiety manifests itself differently between the sexes: there is evidence of tension and restlessness among boys whereas for girls there is emotional instability (withdrawal into fantasy and acting-out behaviour). Boys were ambivalent in their goal orientation which suggests an underlying tension, resulting 78 from lack of purpose. They also tended to rebel against authority and social norms while girls expressed more concern with the maintenance of Standards. Boys showed a success orientation, which placed a high value on seif. Girls showed social distance characterized by low involve- ment in interpersonal relations. Much thought and work had been devoted to identifying, diagnosing and treating under-achievement (Brislow, 1962; Powell & Jourard, 1963; Roth et al 1967; Bailey, 1971; Gilbreath, 1971). Drews and Teahan (1957) pointed out that high academic achievement may be associated with negative parental behaviours and/or over-protection; they found that mothers of high achieving junior high school Student, in contrast to mothers of children who were underachieving, express more punitive attitudes toward child disobedience and are more rejecting of their off-spring. Efforts at changing College achievement patterns through counselling or psychotherapy have met with inconsistent results: some researchers reported positive findings (Sheldon & Laudsman, 1950; Chestnut, 1955; Cilbreath 1967, 1968) while others reported that counselling was ineffective (Goodstein & Crites, 1961; Winborn & Schmidt, 1962; Spielberger & Weitz,1964). 79 Regarding the causes of underachievement, Kraft (1969) reported that underachievement is due to negativism, inferiority feelings, high anxeity, boredom, inability to tolerate less than perfection and over-protection. In a study conducted by Miller (1962) 331 underachievers ranked, in order of importance, eleven reasons for their academic failure: ' (i) Poor study Habit (ii) Insufficient Study (iii) Lack of Interest in subj ects (iv) Emotional problems (v) No vocational goal (vi) Home circumstances (vii) Insufficient home study preparation (viii) Inadequate study facilities (ix) Employment (x) Co-curricular activities (xi) Illness In a recent study, Medahunsi (1985) attempted to determine the causes of underachievement at the undergraduate level; he found that most undergraduate students lack effective study techniques. Therefore, as the main cause of underachievement 80 'Study Skills' deserves some attention. Study Skills A wide proliferation of problems revealed by inter­ views with College freshmen showed that the direct problem of the students related to study behaviour (Lesnik, 1972). In a survey of the reading and study skills of pupils in Nigerian secondary schools, Prince (1960) found 90% of the pupils lacking in study skills. In the same way, Unoh (1977) discovered that 80.5% of the secondary school pupils he used were terribly deficient in study-reading skills. In an investigation, Koile & Birds (1956) asked College students to list their problems; the students all mentioned difficulties with their studies more than any other type of problem. Perry e_t a_l (1959) found that even the good (passing) students have defective study skills. Conducting a study to find out the relationship between Personality problems and study habits of Nigerian adole- scent, Emeke (1984) found out that many Nigerian adolescent have poor study habits, and that teacher consultation, examination, concentration, study period procedure, and 81 note taking ranked highest among the subjects as study habit problems. Danskin & Burnett (1952) reported that the study techniques of superlor students are essentially the same as those of other students. In fact, an earlier Scholar^Williamson (1935) found that good students necessarily study no more but usually slightly less than poor students; good students just use their time effectively However, Cuff (1937) discovered that many of the good study habits which he examined were repeatedly being followed more exactly by inferior students than by better ones. Shaw (1961) found that majority of fresh students in Colleges and universities need formal guidance and instru- ctions on reading not just as a remedial measure but as a regulär Orientation Programme needed for College adjustment Using 1976 Nigerian secondary school students with poor study habits, Akinboye (1977) found out that most students need some sort of psychological support in order to over- come their poor study habits problems. Bassey (1986), however, did not find any significant difference in the level of study habits problems between male and female students. Crow and Crow (1967) put forward some set rules to 82 help students acquire efficient study techniques. However, the problem of persuadlng students to use newly acquired study skills persists (Harris & Ream, 1972). Investigating the effects of test anxiety on study method and techniques, Wittmaire (1972) found that students with low anxiety scores have more efficient study skills and avoided delaying academic tasks while students with high test anxiety demonstrated unsatisfactory study habits. A number of empirical studies pointed out that highly test anxious students have poorer techniques of study than do less anxious students (Sassenrath, 1967; Desiderato and Koskinen, 1969; Culler & Holahan, 1980). Inadequate study skills, however, had stronger effects on grades than test anxiety (Brown and Nelson, 1983). Across a wide variety of studies, cogent evidence indicated a positive relationship between study habits and academic success (Chahbasi, 1958; Entwistle & Entwistle, 1971). Students with poor academic records tend to have inadequate study skills (Kirkland & Hollandsworth, 1979) whereas high attainers were superior in their study practices (Jain and Robson, 1969). Miller's (1962) study on study habits Problems of students revealed that there is a relationahip 81 between study habits and academic performance. From his study on habit modification, attitude change and academic performance, Akinboye (1974) inferred that if study habits of individuals are correctly modified then the level of their academic performance would increase. Entwistle (1960) reviewed some research studies in which College study skills courses were evaluated; imptovement in students1 grade was experienced. Also students who were motivated to improve and who voluntarily enrolled in study skills courses raised their grade point averages whereas those who were similarly motivatedbut who did not enrol failed to make the same gains (Berg & Rentei, 1966). Brown (1965) mounted "a study skills guidance Programme" for a set of students who at the end of the were found to have earned significantly higher grades. Ogunlade (1981) observed that the modification of study attitudes through behavioural group counselling led to favourable attitude towards performance in the experimental subj ec t s. Investigating the likely differences in the knowledge and usage of study techniques, Weigal & Weigal (1963) dis- covered that the use of study skills by freshmen correlated 84 with academic achievement. Reviewing the effects of individual and group counselling on the study habit of sixty school students, Alexakos (1970) found out that both forms of counselling improved study habits. In a study of some psychological correlates of academic success and failure,Bakare (1975) found positive correlation between academic attainment and efficient study habits. There has been increasing emphasis on the techniques used by students in their effort to learn from written materials (Noall, 1962, Pauk, 1973). Several studies have also proved that study skills training can be very effective, for example, courses on how to study proved so positive that it was recommended to be part of the curriculum (Aspurua- Arrillaga, 1966). Some students who received study skills training exhibited significantly greater positive pre- course-post-course changes on comprehension, retention, and self-report measures than did students in the control groups (Danscreau, Colins, McDonald, Holley, Garland, Diekhoff and Evans 1979). Katahn, Strenger and Cherry (1967) reported that their subjects attributed their improved academic performance following treatment to changes in their approaches 85 to study. Students involved in contracts on a study skills Programme gianed better grade point averages and malntained this improvement for two years (Goldman, 1978). Subjects reported improvement in their academic abilities and admitted that a study Programme had increased their efficiency and time spent studying (Harris & Truji1lo,1975). Osterhouse (1972) and Altmaier & Woodward (1981) have, however, proved that study skills training alone is usually found to be ineffective in either reducing anxiety or improving academic performance. On the other hand, a com- bination of study skills training and systematic desensitization was shown to be effective and superior both in reducing anxiety and in improving academic performance (Allen, 1971; Mitchell & Ng, 1972; Mitchell e^ al, 1975, Lent & Russell, 1978). Regarding the effects which the time of study has on study and academic performance of students, Akinboye (1976) found out that morning students were better on study attitudes and academic performance than the after- noon shift students. Does students' mental ability affect the outcome in study skills training? Dimichael (1953) examined the effect of a 'how to study' course upon different I.Q levels and came up 86 with the following results: (i) the course has proved its value for the middle group of mental ability, (ii) students of very poor ability do not profit noticeably from the course, (iii) the course has not demonstrated its value objectively for the students in the highest quarter of mental ability. In fact, subjects' achievement level had been known to affect their disposition to study programmes: underachieving students seem to believe that improved methods of studying are beyond their control, and find it difficult to commit themselves to a Programme of change (Beneke & Harris, 1972 and Mcreynolds & Church, 1973). Robysk (1979) found that non-underachievers reported greater study skills knowledge than underachivers. Fostering Reading Comprehension The importance of possessing good reading skills, and of its positive effect on academic performance cannot be overemphasized. • After studying 5th grade social studies instruction, 87 Armbruster & Gudbrandsen (1986) concluded that a lack of direct Instruction on how to read and study for content frustrated students' attempts to understand what they read. Kingston (1955) examined the grade point averages of some students and reported remedical reading group average significantly greater than the control group average. Significant correlation has been reported between reading achievement and grades in College, and between comprehension grades and vocabulary (Jackson, 1955); Robertson, 1960). Smith (1967), found that students who had taken a reading improvement course showed significantly greater gain in grade point average than a comparable group of students who did not participate. A substantial positive correlation was obtained between scores on a reading comprehension test and grades in pre-law courses (Harens, 1968). Reading ability contributed significantly to the performance of students on programmed material (Herr and Tobias, 1970). Ayodele (1978) found that Nigerian students at the post-primary school level read far too slowly and possess low comprehension. With unskilled comprehenders, the deficiency is capable of leading to further diminished comprehension skills (Perfetti & Hogaboam, 1975). In terms 88 of adjustment to the content read, good comprehenders adjust their rate of reading by slowing down as the material increases in difficulty, whereas poor compre­ henders apparently read easy and difficult material at much the same rate (Bloomers & Linquist 1944). Regarding the relationship between comprehension and speed, Bridges (195l)discovered that any training which emphasized Compre­ hension and took no account of speed was more effective in developing speed and comprehension than was training that emphasized speed and minimized comprehension. On the other hand/ Mistler - Lachman (1974) examined the effect of comprehension depth upon sentence recall and found that deeper comprehension leads to better recall; this finding supports the use of memory measures as an estimate of comprehension. Pickards & Hatcher (1977/, 78) found thatJ • • for most measures of text recall, good comprehenders recalled more than the poor comprehenders. Investigating whether sex differences in reading comprehension are affected by variations in the interest level of the material, result indicates that boys read as well as girls on high interest material but that they were signifcantly poorer readers of low-interest material (Asher, 1974). 89 Doctorow (1978) predicted and found that the facili- tation of generative processes by Insertion of paragraph headings and instructions to generate sentences about story paragraphs during encoding, produced the greatest comprehension, This is because reading comprehension occurs when readers actively construct meaning for text. What impact does questioning have on Comprehension? Questioning at any point during reading has been known to improve comprehension (Fräse, 1967). The quality as well as rate of comprehension was improved through the use of questioning, that is giving questions to the readers before or as they read in order to give them a basis for selecting and organizing the materials presented (Brüning, 1968). Adejumo (1972) found that the use of students' guide questions aid comprehension & retention. Durkin (1978/79) however, found that questioning was the major instructional strategy used to teach comprehension and that a typical questioning session was really an assessment activity that was of little value in developing lasting comprehension skills. Related to the Schema theory, Arnold & Brooks (1976) investigated the effects of verbal and pictorial organizing 90 material on comprehension of paragraphs : results suggested that knowledge of the interrelationships among elements is important, if not essential for the comprehension of prose material. Effectiveness of Robinson's SQ3R Robinson's SQ3R is a study technique which has been used- to help many students achieve greater success in their academic work. It has been found to be particularly helpful in the case of inadequate study effort (Mcreynolds & Church, 1973). Briggs, Tosi & Morley (1971) combined conditioning with the SQ3R study technique on the academic performance of 'high risk' students. The results obtained were in the hypothesized direction that subjects exposed to the procedure would demonstrate higher GPA's than the control group. In another study, students receiving lessons in the use of the SQ3R method showed significant gain in GPA for the three Semesters following the study (Beneke & Harris, 1972). Using the SQ3R technique plus some behaviour modi- fication strategies to modify the study habits of some subjects, Akinboye (1974) found that subjects whose study habits were modified changed their belief that academic task was difficult. In another experiment, Akinboye (1976) 91 looked into the comblned effect of both the Robinson's SQ3R study and conditioning techniques on the cognitive, affective and conative components of study attitude and academic performances of students treated in the morning and those treated in the afternoon and he found that the morning subjects performed better than the noon group in Mathematics and that the morning subjects are academically superior to the noon group in the same subject. Survey and questioning, two of the steps involved in the use of the SQ3R study technique,have been used to effect in many studies. As far back as 1934 McClusky found that a quick survey or preview of the headings made a trained experimental group read faster and comprehend better' than the control group. Comprehension was enhanced when Graves (1983) tested text previews with below average junior high readers assigned to read complex short stories. According to the hypothesis developed by Rothkopf (1970), questions are very effective and they differ in how they focus the reader's attention depending on their location: questions that appear just prior to study material tend to focus the reader's attention for answers to specific questions. It has also been proved, that the use of questions 92 at the beginning of a section promotes a question attitude in subjects and provides a core idea around which to organize the material that follows (Ausubel, 1960; Wit troch, 1963). Blank & Covington (1965) developed an auto-instructional Programme to induce question-asking behaviour; they found that subjects who completed the Programme received higher scores on an achievement test and were rated superior to the other group. Also, questioning activities produced higher comprehension rate and overall recall than just studying (Miles, 1967; Fräse & Schwarts, 1975). Richards (1976) found that conceptual pre-questions produced higher comprehension and recall than conceptual post-questions. McGraw, Grotelueschen & Arden (1972) proved that the effect of inserted questions is superior performance on pages immediately after the questions made possible through increased attentiveness. Subjects with low vocabulary scores found text-material with questions placed after the prose passage more helpful than the text without questions (Shavelson, 1974). Swenson & Kulhary (1974) confirmed the characteristic facilitative effect of questions occurring after passage. Frequent int erspersion of questions is 93 superior to larger blocks of questions; children scored high if questions had been interspersed with parts of the text (Hudgins, Dorman and Harris, 1979). Reynolds & Anderson (1982), found that text Information relevant to question was learned better than text Information irrelevant to questions because readers selectively allocate a greater volume of attention to question - relevant Information. Andre (1979) showed that higher level questions can have facilitative effects on both reproductive and productive knowledge. In a study done to assess the effect of post­ passage question generation on comprehension question per­ formance for elementary school students, Davey (1986) directed fifty 6th grade students either to read and re-read four expository passages or to generate two good "think-type questions for each passage prior to a comprehension test. Findings revealed that the question generation group exceeded the read-read group on higher-order inferential comprehension test items. Some studies also showed the powerful focusing effect of questions on learning from print (Anderson & Biddle, 1975 ; Anderson 1980) and the positive effects of teacher and experimenter questions on students' self-generated questions were discovered to be very important to enhance reading comprehension (Andre & Anderson, 1978; 94 Dreher & Gambrell, 1985). In the modifications of the advance organizers used for his study, Haastrup (1989) showed that the questioning-enriched programme were effective for both achievement and attitude. As useful and as effective as questioning is however, studies of attempt to get students to use the questioning approach showed that students have difficulty in retaining this questioning attitude even though there are significant differences in the achievements of those who stated and held the questioning set and those who did not (Torrance, 1961 and Henderson, 1965). This shows that practice is needed to make one skilful in reading in this manner. Review, the last step of SQ3R has also been proved to be worthwhile: Di Vesta & Gray (1972) compared a group who reviewed their notes with students who merely thought about what they read. The review group was more superior. Summarization Direct studies involving summarization are rather few. Dyer et al (1979) made college students read a text with or without taking notes. One half of the learners wrote passage summaries while the other half completed a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 95 spatial relations task; more substantive Information was acquired by the summarizers. Garner (1982) asked twenty- four undergraduate students to read an expository text and to write a summary of the text; the finding pointed out that what is included or what is omitted in a student's written summary teils us something about what has been understood from the text. Kintsch et al (1977) discovered that younger and/or poor readers are more inclined to make decisions on a piecemeal, sentence by sentence basis, whereas older and/or good readers make their judgement based upon the meaning of the whole text. Ross et al (1976) conducted a study with 156 female under-graduates: one treatment group studies textual material with the expectancy that an oral summary would be presented later while another group studied the same material without this expectancy. They found that presenting summaries, and listening to oral summaries aid comprehension and recall. Arnold (1942) however, taking a group of subjects and trying the techniques of underlining, outlining, summarization, and simple re-reading of different tasks equated for difficulty discovered little or no difference in the effectiveness of the techniques 96 over each other. Two versions of a summarization Inter­ vention Programme, the inductive and the deductive versions, were designed by Hare & Borchardt (1984). Instructions about the two versions were then delivered to high school students; the two groups were signifcantly different from a control group in terms of summarization efficiency and summarization rule usage and these differences were maintained two weeks after instructions had ended. Some studies showed that generally students did not know how to use Summarization technique and that they become so much involved in indiscriminate copying from the text that their reading comprehension was actually hindered (Willmore, 1967; Thomas, 1978; Watkins, 1982). Brown & Day (1983) showed evidence of students' lack of summariza­ tion prowess when a formalized set of summarization rules are employed. The importance of real training in the use of Summarization technique had been exemplified by Stordahl and Christensen (1956) who found that underlining, outlining and summarizing while studying are not superior to reading and re-reading unless specific training has been given in the former methods. Taylor (1982), for example, recorded some success with his students who learned to improve their 97 comprehension and recall of content material and write better organized compositions when they were trained to use a hierarchical summary procedure which directed students' attention to the organization of ideas in content textbook selections. Till e_t_ a_l_ (1977) showed that little systematic effort is made by researchers to foster required skills in the individual subjects and so the skill they are testing for may not be existing in the individual. In the present study the use of behaviour modification techniques among which are shaping, modelling and rehearsal, and the use of some forms of reinforcement such as token reinforcement, self-reinforcement and feedback will ensure that subjects are actively involved in the training Programme and that the skill of summarization is acquired by the individual subje c t s. Studies on Attitüde It is highly pertinent here to look into the relation­ ship between students' attitude and their achievement. Neidt & Hedlung (1967) showed evidence to support the hypothesis that attitudes become progressively more closely 98 related to final achievement. In the same way, positive orientation toward scholastic affairs, is significantly related to GPA (Briney & Taylor, 1959) just as attitude towards the course and course grades are related (Wofford, 1968). The result of Lum's (1960) study con- firmed the hypothesis that achievement differences noted in people of similar aptitude may be attributed to attitudinal and motivational differences. The present researcher Supports Lum's concclusion that attitudes be considered in 'how-to-study' courses hence students1 pre- treatment and post-treatment attitudes to English Comprehension and Biology were explored in this study. High achievement and high attitude in teachers are positively associated with high achievement and high attitude in pupils, and attitude. towards reading influenced achievement in reading (Schofeld, 1980). Various other studies reported significant positive associations between attitude and achievement (Groff, 1962; Nielson, 1978). Actually, Schultz and Green, 1953, Brown & Hoftzman, 1955 and Aiken, 1961 dealt with the relationship of attitude toward school and achievement and found significant relations. Fenneman (1973) used attitude toward course as one of the variables 99 that were able to consistently predict achievement levels of high school Mathematics and language students. Roettger (1972) discovered that children's attitude towards reading determine both the amount and the kind of reading they do. He therefore, recommended that the development of positive attitude toward reading is important as an educational objective and as an evaluative measure of the effectiveness of reading instruction. Finch’s(1972) study, hower, provided some evidence to show that relation­ ship between attitude and behaviour were dependent upon the particular instructionalapproach used. Concerning the relationship of attitude toward specific subject matter, Aiken (1970) reported some relationship between attitude toward Mathematics and achievement in the subject. Ramsett, Johnson and Adams (1974) focussed on the relationship between learning Economics and students' attitude; they discovered that learning Economics is closely associated with students' attitude towards the subject and that attitude is significantly associated with student's performance on test of understanding Economics. They then concluded that attitude and subject matter are not separate, but instead they are closely related, mutually enforcing 100 aspects of the learning process. However, Johnson (1968) reported that significant difference in total recalled comprehension could not be traced to differences in attitude. Self-reported attitude towards work made a substantial contribution to the prediction of grades even when aptitudes are held constant (Veldmans, 1968). Bruvold (1972 & 1973) collected some data to test predictions derived frora an hypothesis of attitude-behaviour, attitude-belief con- sistency; as predicted, results of questionnaire and interview show that both belief and behaviour correlated significantly with attitude. On attitude change, Norris (1965) found partial Support for greater attitude change for close-minded persons. The effects of two types of verbal reinforcement on attitude change were studied in the content of a structured interview; positive verbal reinforcement led to significant long-term affect change, while a combination of positive and negative reinforcement produced significant immediate modification of attitudes expressed in the interview (Buckhout 1966). The contract method of teaching with a study skills course proved to be very effective: students 101 whose Independent projects in the study skills course had been structured by the contract method of teaching reported positive attitude change toward study (Goldman, 1978) . Regarding sex differences in attitude, Schofield's (1982) study indicated that observed relationship between attitudes and achievement were significantly stronger in boys than girls. Marjoribanks (1976) discovered that there are sex differences in relations between school attitudes, ability and achievement. In a study designed to investigate relationship between attitude and sex, Askor (1973) found attitude test scores to be significantly higher for females than for males. Finding out the attitudes of students towards school, Haladyna (1979) report that attitudes toward school decline more drastically for boys than for girls. Sone local studies on attitude have also found positive relationship between attitude and performance. Ogunlade (1986) gave experimental and controlgroups pre-and-post- tests of attitudes and achievement in Arithmetic. The significant improvement obtained toward performance in Arithmetic was explained in terms of the effectiveness of group counselling to assist teachers and students improve 102 their attitude to and performance in "dreaded and difficult" subjects. In the same way, Oyetunde (1986) found some correlation between attitude to and achievement in English. Using self-image psychology, Ignoffo (1988) helped students to improve their reading and vocabulary skills as they improved their attitudes about their abilities and sense of worth. Another finding worthy of note here is that brighter children tended to have more positive attitudes towards school subjects than weak ones Kalejaiye, 1977). DEFINITIOH OF TERMS Robinson4 s SQ3R: The SQ3R technique is a study procedure designed by Robinson in 1961. It is aimed at systematizing students' activities to ensure that the study is done efficiently to facilitate thorough understanding which is a pre-requisite in the enhancement of recall. Each letter/figure is an abbreviation making it easier to refer to the technique and remember each step involved. The abbreviation SQ3R Stands for: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. 103 Summarization: This is another study technique in which subjects read the study assignment thoroughly, taking note of the important points and eventually synthesizing all that has been read to produce a synopsis of the study content. The inability of the Student to produce the summary is an indication of lack of proper understanding. Study Technique: This is a highly specialized skill acquired to enhance the thorough mastery of the various school subjects. It involves a formalized effort to acquire knowledge and a high level manoeuvring of academic work with the background aim of: (i) making knowledge acquisition very effective interesting and less tedious- (ii) enhancing deep understanding of the material of study. (iii) facilitating effortless recall when the material is needed or during examination. .Comprehension: Comprehension here connotes taking in or getting a good grip of the message of a written piece. It involves real absorption of the content read. Comprehension depicts deep 104 understanding, which is an important Step in reading if knowledge acquisition is to take place. Lack of Comprehen- sion can lead to misconception and wrong interpretation. In this study, the researcher aimed at training the subjects to be able to reach at least the inferential level of comprehension in reading and study assignments, HYPOTHESES 1. There will be no significant difference in the Englisn comprehension ability of subjects exposed to treatments CSQ3R and Summarization) and those not so exposed CControl). 2. There will be no significant difference in the ßiology Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to treatments CSQ3R and Summarization) and those not so exposed CControl). 3. There will be no significant difference in the attitude to English Comprehension and ßiology of subjects exposed to treatments (SQ3R and Summariz.ation) and those not so exposed CControl). 4. There will be no significant difference in the compre- hension ability of subjects exposed to the SQ3R and Summari­ zation techniques. 5. There will be no significant difference in the ßiology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization techniques. 105 6. There will be no significant difference in the attitude to English & Biology of the subjects exposed to SQ3R and those exposed to summarization techniques. CONCEPTUAL MODEL The study techniquesused/a reconceptualized in Figure I. The figure contains four types of variables, the first three of which resulted in the fourth after manipulation. The first set of variables were the independent variables, that is,the treatment strategies: the SQ3R and Summarization techniques. The two strategies involved the use of reinforcement: seif reinforcement, taken reinforce­ ment, social (verbal) reinforcement, and feedback. There is the second type of variables which were the first set of intervening variables. Five such variables were identified: motivation, perception, self-concept, cognition, and affect. These variables were not necessarfjy independent of one another but they were all internal to the subjects and they affected the outcome of the treatment. The second set of intervening variables were also internal to the subjects but they were more outwardly mani- fested than the first set. Five such variables identified 106 are reading Interest, academic values, achievement level, expectan- cies and attitudes -üo assignment;-. These variables too affected subjects' response to therapy. The dependent variables are the third type and they were the result of the Intervention of all the preceeding sets of variables. They also constituted the criterion measures. They are: (i) " improved comprehension skills in English language (ii) improved comprehension skills in Biology, (iii) improved attitude to the two subjects. Theoretically, it was expected that as the independent variables were manipulated, the subjects became raore motivated to study, had better awareness, became more realistic, possessed better self-concept and acquired wholesome feelings. These changes modified subjects' reading interest, academic value, achievement level, expectancies and attitude to assignments. All the preceeding changes eventually resulted in improved comprehension skills in both English Language and Biology and improved attitudes towards the subjects. 107 F1GURK L: CONCEPTUAL MODEl. INDEPENDEN' INTERVENINc INTERVEN ING DEFENDENT VARIABLES VARIABLES 1 VARIABLES II VARLABLES 'SQ3R TECHNIQUE ~ ^ j T hOTIVATION 7 READING INTEREST IMPROVED - Seif Reinf orcement, - Token " COMPREHENS ION SKILLS IN ENGLISH - Social (Verbal) I - Feedback y/PERCEPTION 7 LANGUAGE- /ACADEMIC VALUE jA sK l - 7 SELF CONCEPT 7 - ACHIEVEMENT LEVEL 7 -> /IMPROVEDn 'COMPREHENSION SKILLS IN BIOLOG" I I COGNITION 7 :>/ EXPECTANCIES 7 SUMMARIZATION 1 Seif Reinforcement AFFECT /IMPROVED 'ATTITÜDE TO - Token " /-^l 7 > / '< r -WATTITUDES TO- ASSIGNMENTS / ENGLISH LANGUAGE -Social " / AND BIOLOGY_____ / - Feedback 108 CHAPTER TWO DESIGN AND PROCEDURE This chapter spells out the research design, subjects, instruments, procedure, and the treatment programmes used for the study. DESIGN: The experiment adopted a 3 x 3 factorial design. The effects whicfi the independent variables had on the dependent variables were examined. The effects of the two treatment methods (Robinson1s SQ3R and Summariza- tion) were thus designed to be observed at three levels of mental ability. The levels of mental ability - high, medium, and low - form the columns. Therefore, there were nine cells: six for the experimental groups and three for the control groupi. All the groups were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Figure 2 presents a diagramatic represen­ tation of the design: FIGURE 2 : DESIGN OF STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN: 3 x 3 FACTORIAL TREATMENT SCHOOL LEVEL OF MENTAL ABILITYHIGH MEDIUM LOW SQ3R School I School II K U 1(2) 1(3) Summarization School I School II 2(1) 2(2) 2(3) Control School I School II 3(1) 3(2) 3(3) Treatment is a factor at three levels Mental Ability is a factor at two levels 109 SUBJECTS: The subjects for the experiment were some JSS III male and female students in Ibadan City. Subjects' age ranged bet- ween 13 and 18 years, with a mean age of 15.22 years and a Standard deviation of 2.04. Intact classes, later classified. into mental ability levels, were used. Campbell and Stanley (1966) hold that intact classes form natural Clusters. Since the experiment took place during the school period, the school time-table had to be followed as the schools could not tolerate any disruption to its day-to-day programme and classes. Tue three arms of JSS III in each of the two schools were randomly assigned to the two treatment and one control groups. The two schools used had certain characteristics in common (i) Both of them were established in 1980. (ii) They both had three arms of JSS III classes. (iii) They were equally equipped in terms of basic facili­ ties e.g. Science Laboratories, Library, Home Economics Room, etc. (iv) The minimum qualification of teachers in each of the two schools was N.C.E.; most of their teachers were graduates. (v) In both schools, students were classified into the three arms randomly, and not on the basis of ability. The experiment took off with 116 subjects in the three classes in School I and 119 subjects in Nthe three classes in 110 School II. Within each of the classes, subjects of high, medium and low mental ability were identified through the use of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (to be discussed later). A description of the treatment groups and their features appears in Figure 3: FIGURE 3 TREATMENT GROUPS AND THEIR FEATURES GROUP FEATURE 1(1) High mental ability subjects assigned to SQ3R 1(2) Medium mental ability subjects assigned to SQ3R 1(3) Low mental ability subjects assigned to SQ3R 2(1) High mental ability subjects assigned to Summarization 2(2) Medium mental ability subjects assigned to Summarization 2(3) Low mental ability subjects assigned to Summarization 3(1) High mental ability subjects assigned to Control 3(2) Medium mental ability subjects assigned to Control 3(3) Low mental ability subjects assigned to Control Only the subjects who completed all the tests and took part fully in the treatment programmes were considered to be involved fully and effectively in the experiment. From these, eight subjects from each of the three levels of mental ability for each of the treatment groups in each of the two schools were randomly selected. Thus, the experiment ended up using a total of 144 subjects as shown in Figure 4. FIGURE 4 FINAL DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS TREATMENT SCHOOL LEVEL OF MENTAL ABILITY NUMBER GROUP IN EACH TOTALHIGH MED ILM LOW SCHOOL SQ3R School I 8 8 8 24 48 School II 8 8 8 24 Summarization School I 8 8 8 24School II 8 8 8 24 48 School I 8 8 8 24 Control School II 8 8 8 24 48 TOTAL NUMBER OF SUBJECTS 48 48 48 144 144 INSTRUMENTS: The following instruments were used: 1. Intelligence Test: Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices The test used to put the subjects into three ability levels, high, medium, low, was Raven's Standard Progressive 112 Matrices. It was originally developed in Great Britain by J.C. Raven. It is a non-verbal test of the individual's intellectual capacity and general mental ability. It tests the ability to perceive relationships in shapes and figures. The test's culture-free nature makes it very populär among psychologists in the U.S.A. and in Africa. It is a validated scale which consists 60 matrices Items divided into five sets (A, B, C, D, E) of 12 items each. For each item there is a diagram from which a part has been removed. The subject is then required to complete the design by selecting the missing part from six or eight alternatives provided below each design. Each set increases in difficulty: the earlier set requires accuracy of visual discrimination only, while the subsequent ones involve two- dimensional analogies demanding perception of logical relation and complicated permutation to arrive at the correct answers. The test is very easy to administer; the materials needed are pencils to record the correct answers, the test booklets (one for each subject) and the answer sheets on which the answers are recorded. After a thorough explanation about the correct procedure by the researcher, the subjects commencedthe test, writing down the letters of the correct 113 answers. The test could not be included in this thesis because of its bulky nature. However, its key and a sample answer sheet are included in Appendix E. A copy of the test should be readily available at the Department of Guidance and Counselling in any University. 2. Comprehension Tests: -These were administered on pre-test/post-test basis to students. They were constructed and validated by the experimenter. They were of two types: (a) English Comprehension Test: Designed by the experiment, its final draft contains fifty multiple-choice comprehension questions based on four selected English comprehension passages taken from Faster Reading for Better Comprehension by Dr. S.O. Ayodele (See Appendix F for the English Comprehension test). Each question was followed by a five-alternative answer from which the subjects chose the correct one. Validity: The 100 questions originally drawn were reduced to fifty through a rigorous process of item analysis and Validation. The test was administered on fifty J.S.S. III 114 students in a neutral but similar school. Only questions having between 45 and 55% in Item Difficulty test were included (See Appendix G for English Comprehension test Answers and the Item Analysis). This rather low Item Difficulty Index was taken to ensure that the items were moderately difficult, so as to leave room for any possible improved post-treatment performance on the test when it was administered again (post-test). An arrangement of students' scores from highest to lowest and a thorough inspection of the items scored right by the bright and dull students ensured that only the items that thoroughly discriminated between the bright and dull students were included and the others were discarded. The validity of the test was ascertained by referring the draft to three J.S.S. III English Language teachers who did a thorough scrutiny of the items for the test's face and content validity and also for proper phrasing of each item. The test was then modified based on the suggestions and advice of these experts. Thus, the experimenter ended up with fifty items, Reliability: It was then pre-tested on a set of 100 J.S.S. III 115 students in another similar school; a test re-test reliability co-efficient of .85 was obtained after three weeks' interval. b. Biology Comprehension Test: This was also designed by the experimenter, It contained four Biology-based passages on which some multiple-choice questions were set. Each question here, too, was followed by five alternatives from which the subjects again chose the correct answer. (See Appendix H for Biology Comprehension Test). Valid ity: Following the same process as for the English Comprehension test, the 100 questions originally set were also subjected to thorough processes of item analysis and Validation. The item difficulty index also ranged between .45 and .55 (See Appendix I for the Biology Comprehension Test Answers and the Item Analysis). The items were further pruned down to ensure that only the items that cleatfly discriminated between the bright and dull students were retained. For the face and content validity of the test, comments 116 and suggestions were invited from three J.S.S. Biology teachers. The final draft, containing fifty questions, was produced in line with the modification done by these experts. Reliability : A test-retest reliability co-efficient of .82 was obtained when the test was repeated, within a three weeks1 interval, on a set of 100 J.S.S. III students in another school. Comprehension Test Duration: After the item analysis and the validation procedures were done, and before the test-retest reliability was undertaken, each of the two comprehension tests was administered on a set of fifty J.S.S. III students in a school similar to the ones used for the experiment so as to determine the correct timing for the tests. The length of time spent by the first and last students to finish the English Comprehension spent 1 hour .21 minutes and the last Student spent 1 hour .49 minutes. As for the Biology Comprehension Test the first Student spent 1 hour 18 minutes while the last spent 1 hour 50 minutes. Since these were 117 tests of comprehension,the length of time spent by the slowest Student was used to determine the duration for the tests. This is to ensure that subjects had enough time to do the test so that inability to finish could not have been due to lack of adequate time but lack of comprehension. Thus, the duration for each of the tests was set at 1 hour 50 minutes. 3. Attitüde Tests: (a) English Comprehension Attitüde Scale (b) Biology Attitüde Scale These, too, were administered on pre-test/post-test basis. A slight modification of Aiken & Dreger's 1961 (revised by Akinboye 1974) Attitüde Scale was used. (See Appendices J & K for The English & Biology Comprehension Attitüde Scale). It is a validated Likert-type scale scored 1-5 ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree to denote the variability of the affective components of subj-cts' attitudes to the subjects. The authors reported a test-retest reliability of 0.94 for the 20-item scale. PROCEDURE: The two schools used for the actual experiment were 118 Eleyele Secondary School, Eleyele*and Community Grammar School, Ring Road - both in Ibadan. Three months before the commencement of the experiment, that is, at the beginning of the 1989 school year, a visit was paid to the two schools by the exper imenteg* t o solicit the principals' perimssion to carry out the study in their schools. The purpose and the scope of the study were discussed with the principals. The experimenter asked to be introduced to the J.S.S, III English Language and Biology teachers in both schools. Since the experiment was carried out during the school period, the J.S.S. III scheme of work in both subjects were used, The comprehension passages and the Biology topics for the first six weeks of the 2nd term were taken down by the experimenter in order to base the treat­ ment programmes on the topics. The co-operation of the subject teachers was solicited as the experimenter called on them constantly to ensure that the subject matter prepared, especially in Biology, was in line with the expected Standard. The two subjects, English Comprehension and Biology were chosen to ensure that the two techniques were tried on one Art and one Science subject. The current emphasis in Nigeria on the advancement of Science and Technology justifies 119 the inclusionof a Science subject in the study. As dis- cussed earlier, very many of the previous relevant studies reviewed made use of Art subjects: Reading, History etc. The inclusion of Biology, a Science subject involving many diagrams, introduced a new dimension. Even though Integrated Science, covering three subjects-Physics , Chemistry and Biology - is offered in the J.S.S. classes, only the Biology aspect is used in this experiment to avoid the complexity that may arise from trying to cope with all the three aspects under the same umbrella. It was hoped that if the techniques were effectively acquired by the students, they should be able to broaden the scope and apply them to the other aspects and other subjects. The mental ability test, which was used to classify subjects in each of the three arms of the two schools into high, medium,and low, was first administered. Then the following pre-tests were given to each of the three classes (See the Treatment Sessions below): (a) Comprehension tests: (i) English Comprehension (ii) Biology Comprehension (b) Attitüde tests: (i) English Comprehension Attitüde (ii) Biology Attitüde test 120 Each of the three classes in the two schools were randomly assigned by bailot to treatment techniques: Group 1 was assigned to the SQ3R technique, Group 2 was assigned to Summarization and Group 3 was the Control group (No treatment). From this stage, there was no more contact with Group 3 until after the treatment when the three groups will be given post-tests. On the whole, the experiment was carried out in eleven weekly seesions of eight periods per week in each of the schools: two weeks for the mental ability and pre-tests, one week for General Orientation, six weeks for the actual treatment and two weeks for post-tests. The eight periods per week in each school were spent thus: with Group 1 (SQ3R)-2 periods for English Comprehension and 2 periods for Biology; with Group 2 (Summarization)-2 periods for English Comprehension and 2 periods for Biology. Even though the time-tables in the two schools were generally followed, a slight modification was requested to ensure that the experimenter did not experience any clash in the two schools where the experiment was going on at the same time. The post-tests which came up during the lOth & llth weeks of the experiment followed the same order as 121 the pre-tests were given. TREATMENT PACKAGE The two treatments were carried out seperately in both schools twice a week each with the two treatment groups: once using English Comprehension as the subject of study and the second time using Biology. The treat- meht techniques used were SQ3R and Summarization. Each treatment session lasted two periods of forty-five minutes each, making ninety minutes (90) per session, and two sessions per treatment per week, The two techniques employed some behaviour modification techniques like shaping, modelling, rehearsal and active directive teaching. Also some forms of reinforcement used were self-reinforce- ment, verbal Reinforcement, Token Reinforcement and Feed­ back. The treatments took place during the normal school hours and a slight modification was effected on the time- tables of the two schools to avoid any clash during the times the therapist should be in each of the two schools. On the whole, the therapist spent eight periods per week, mainly during the morning hours, in each school: four 122 periods for each treatment technique - two periods for English Comprehension and two periods for Biology. Two classes in each of the Schools constituted the two treatment groups while the third dass was the control. PRE-TESTS WEEK I Session I; The therapist met all the J.S.S. III students in the three classes together in each of the two schools. The therapist introduced herseif and she gave the subjects the opportunity to introduce themselves. The therapist then explained to the subjects that it would be highly essential for them to complete some psychological tests first. An appeal was made to the subjects on the importance of their Cooperation to the success of the venture. In order to get the best result from the tests the therapist appealed to the subjects to be honest in their response. They were also enjoined to be punctual and regulär for various exerc ises. The mental ability test (Raven's Progressive Matrices) (See Appendix E) was then administered on the subjects 123 including the CQ.ntrol group. The therapist administered the test to the subjects personally, dass after dass, to ensure that the test ' s rudiments were adequately followed.Scores fram this test were used to screen the subjects into ability groups: high, medium and low. Se ss ion 11 : Subjects were led to take the English Comprehension test (see Appendix F), which enabled the therapist to know the pre-treatment English comprehension ability of the subjects. The test was administered personally by the therapist in each of the classes i.e. including the cont rol. Week 2 Session 1: The Biology comprehension test (See Appendix H) was administered to the three groups in the same way as the English Comprehension test was administered. This was a test of the subjects' pre-treatment ability to read and Comprehend Biology-based contents. Session II : Since there was some focus on the subjects' attitudes as one of the variables measured, subjects' attitudes 124 towards English Comprehension and Biology were measured through the administration of English Comprehension Attitüde Scale and Biology Attitüde Scale (See Appendices J & K.). The attitude tests were administered to the two experimental and control groups. The test enabled the therapist to measure the subjects' pre-treatment scores which will later be compared to their post-test scores. When the subjects had completed all the tests, the therapist expressed appreciation for their co-operation so far and she also expressed the hope that the subjects would continue giving such co-operation during the remaining part of the Programme. Hencefore, the subject in the control group were asked to stop attending the subsequent sessions. The therapist tried to convince the control group that since closer contact between the therapist and the subj ectswas highly essential, fewer students could be handled at a time, and that as soon as the treatment was completed with the experimental groups the control group would be recalled. The scores obtained during these first two weeks formed the pre-test scores 125 Appendices A & B present the details of the SQ3R and Summar iz at ion treatment programmes summarized below: THE ACTUAL TREATMENT SESSIONS-GROUP I: THE SQ3R TECHNIQUE (SEE APPENDIX A FOR THE FULL DETAIL) Week 3 GENERAL ORIENTATION 1-1*5 HOURS (a.) Ob jectives: The therapist met Experimental Group A, already screened into three ability groups - high, medium, low in their dass. The aims and objectives of the treatment were discussed: (i) To help subjects aquire improved study habits • (ii) To improve subjects' comprehension ability. (iii) To make learning more meaningful and interesting to subjects. (iv) Ultimately, to help subjects attain a high academic Standard. (h) Orientation: The therapist then gave to the subjects the SQ3R Explanation Handout and she went through it with them» 126 - Awareness & Motivation - Rationale - Explanation: the SQ3R technique - Seif Reinforcement THE (SQ3R) TRAINING SESSIONS(WEEKS 4-6:1-!^ HOURS FOR EACH SESSION). Wee 4 Session I : SQ3R Steps I and II: Survey and Question (English Comprehension Step Survey: The therapist took the subjects through Step I of SQ3R: Survey:- - The therapist gave out to the subjects copies of the The Forest is our Playground by M. Murphy & K Onadipe and The Voice by G. Okara, which were used in training them the act of surveying. - The therapist took the subjects through the different sections of the books and pointed out the areas to be survey. - The therapist also gave out copies of The passage "Louis Pasteur" (from Secret Formula by McCallum, pp. 37-39). The therapist led the subjects to survey the passage. 127 (iv) The therapist applied verbal reinforcement to encourage the subjects whenever they mentioned a courrect point. Step II: Question The therapist led the subjects to raise questions about the points surveyed in the books and the passage. She gave the subjects SQ3R worksheet I (See Appendix Ci). The subjects were encouraged to apply self-reinforcement by issuing positive self-statements which served as morale booster. Session II: SQ3R Steps I & II: Survey & Question (Biology) The therapist undertook an active teaching of Biology Study Content I: Digestion (1) using Chart I (See Appendix A for Biology Study Contents). She then handed over to each subject a copy of Study Content I as home assignment for the subjects to apply the first two Steps of SQ3R: Survey & Question, in preparation for studying the content. The subjects were told to get a notebook each where they would do any assignment given them on SQ3R. Week 5 Session I: SQ3R Step III; Read (English Comprehension) - The therapist discussed the last assignment to see if they encountered any difficulty in applying the first two Steps of SQ3R. - The therapist explained the next Step "Read" in behavioural terms: setting up a time-habit and place- habit for reading, Clearing one's table of irrelevant materials, getting all the materials needed ready, avoiding procastination and distraction etc. - The therapist gave out the reading passage, "Louis Pasteur" - With a pencil in hand, she modelled how to do the reading and got the subjects to rehearse. - The therapist applied Verbal Reinforcement each time the subjects did well. Session II: SQ3R Step III: Read (Biology) Active Directive Teaching: The therapist again taught the subjects Biology Study 129 Content II (Digestion II) explaining thoroughly the diagrams and using Chart II: Digestion (II)" (See Appendix A for details). - She handed to the subjects a copy each of Study Content II and she told them to study it from home, applying the first three Steps of the SQ3R technique which they had learnt. Week 6 Session I : SQ3R Steps VI & V; Recite and Review (English Comprehension) Recite : - The therapist went over the last assignment to see how well they applied the first three Steps of SQ3R. - Subjects were led to read through the passage ("Louis Pasteur") again in readiness for the next Step: "Recite". - The therapist trained the subjects how to recite (See Appendix A). They should not recite orally; they were made to jot down important points. Subjects were given SQ3R worksheet II (See Appendix Cii) . 130 Token Reinforcement: - A tick was put beside each point correctly recited. Review: - The therapist got the subjects to take out the passage again and she trained them to review Verbal Reinforcement: - The therapist issued encouraging reiarks to encourage the subj ects. Seif Reinforcement: - The subjects were encouraged to make positive Statements about their effort and determination. Se ss ion 11 : SQ3R Steps IV & V: Recite and Review: Biology Active Teaching: - The therapist taught the subjects Biology Study Content III "Reproduction", giving a thorough explanation and using diagrams lila & Illb and Charts lila & Illb showing the male and female reproductive organs. 131 - Subjects were encouraged to participat fully and ask questions on any point not understood. - Biology study content III were distributed to the subjects to study from home(applying the SQ3R technique. Seif Reinforcement: - Subjects were encouraged to make some positive self- statements to encourage themselves and boost their determina­ tion to apply the SQ3R technique to their study. (iv) Subjects' SQ3R note-book were collected and marked during the week in readiness to give the subjects feedback for the next SQ3R Biology session. THE (SQ3R) PRACTICE SESSIONS Week 7 Session I: English Comprehension (Practice): - Session 7 was opened with a revision of the five Steps of SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. - The therapist distributed to the subjects Practice Passage I: "Eze Learns A Lesson" (See Appendix A for details). 132 - The subjects were led to apply the SQ3R technique Step by Step, the whole dass going on at the same pace. The therapist provided asslstance and leadership as necessary, ensuring that the intensive reading was properly organized. Token and Verbal Reinf orcements: - The therapist went round to put a tick beside each point correctly recited in their SQ3R notebook and to reward subjectsverballyby making encouraging remarks. Session II: SQ3R; Biology Feedback; - The therapist gave back to the subjects their SQ3R notebooks so that knowing their performance will reinforce further interest. - General discussion about the subjects' assignment and performance was undertaken, The therapist ensured that subjects studied and reproduced diagrams as well as the not es. Active Teaching: Same as in previous sessions. Topic:Biology Study 133 Content IV - "Fertilization/Sex Determination" (Using Diagrams IVa & IVb and Charts IVa & IVb) was taught and given subjects as their home assignment to study, applying the SQ3R technique. (See Appendix A for details). Subjects' notebooks were collected during the week and graded. Week 8 : Session I: SQ3R: English Comprehension - The therapist gave subjects Practice Passage II "The Great Elephant Bird" (See Appendix A). - Subjects were allowed to go on at their own pace in the application of the SQ3R steps. The therapist, however, went round to give assistance where necessary and to apply the various forms of reinforcements as in previous sessions - The therapist called the subjects' attention to the fact that they were free to apply the SQ3R technique to all the other subjects. They were then given some hints on how to maintain the use of the technique in natural context: avoid distraction; keep a free mind; if disturbed look for a more suitable place of study, always apply seif— 134 reinforcement and avoid procastination, Session II: Biology Feedback: Subjects' SQ3R notebook were distributed to them. - There was a general discussion about the assignment and subjects’performance. The therapist reminded the subjects not to leave out the diagrams but to reproduce them or label already drawn diagrams when they got to Step IV "Recite" of the technique. - Active teaching of Biology Study Content V: "Secondary Sex Characteristics/Family Tree" using Diagram V and Chart V to explain"Family Tree'.' - Subjects were told to study the Biology content from home applying the SQ3R technique. - The therapist collected students1 SQ3R notebook during the week for grading. 135 Week 9 Session I,; English Comprehenslon: - The therapist gave out to the subjects Practlce Passage III: "The Wrestlers". - The therapist followed the same procedure as in Steps II & III of Week 8 , Session I. - The therapist placed great emphasls on subjects' use of the SQ3R technique in all the other subjects they study. Also, self-monitoring of the technique application was encouraged. Session II: *I Biology - The therapist followed the same procedure as in steps I - V of Week 8 , Session II. - The therapist encouraged the subjects to use the SQ3R techniques to study all their academic subjects and to report any difficulty encountered to the therapist for assistance. However, the therapist emphasized subjects' independent use of the technique. 136 Topic; ßiology Content VI; "Health and its Maintenance" Subjects' SQ3R notebooks were graded during the week and returned to them for effective feedback of their performance. GROUP II - THE SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUE (SEE APPENDIX B FOR TUE FULL SUMMARIZATION PROGRAMME). GENERAL ORIENTATION: 1 - 1% hours Week _3 (a) Obj ective; The therapist met experimental group B, already screened into three ability groups - high, medium, low-in their dass. The therapist went through the aims and objectives of the Programme with them: (i) To help subjects acquire improved study habits* (ii) To help subjects improve their comprehension ability. (iii) To make learning more meaningful and interesting to subj ects. (iv) Ultimately, to help subjects attain a high academic Standard. 137 (b) Orientation; The therapist distributed to the subjects the Summarization Explanation Handout and discussed it with t he sub j e c t s; - Awareness & Motivation - Rationale - Explanation: the Summarization technique. - Seif Reinforcement. (See Appendix B for detailed General Orientation programme) THE TRAINING SESSIONS Week 4 Session I: Summarization: Steps I & II Step I; Pre-view the passage. Step II: Read intensively. Step I: The therapist distributed the two books and the passage on which the pre-viewing training activities were based. The subjects were trained to pre-view the books and the passage. 138 Verbal Reinforcement was applied to encourage the subjects. Step II; The therapist trained the subjects to read intensively; - She discussed the psychological preparation involved in intensive reading e.g., all materials needed are placed on the table and other items are kept away to avoid dis- traction, a quiet and conducive environment is needed etc. Modelling: - Reading intensively was modelled by the therapist. Rehearsal: - With pencils in hand to underline important points, the subjects had some rehearsal of intensive reading. Seif Reinforcement: Subjects were encouraged to make some positive State­ ments about their need and determination to adopt the Summarization technique. (See Appendix B , Week 4(1) for full detail). Sess ion II: Summarization Steps I & II: Biology - Using Chart I ("Digestion I") the therapist engaged in the teaching of Biology Study Content I: "Digestion I" 139 Subjects were encouraged to participate fully in the lesson and ask questions about points not understood. Assignment; Subjects were given copies of Study Content I and they were instructed to study the note at home applying the first two Steps of Summarization learnt. Week 5 Seesion I ; Summarization Step III; Search For the key points. English Comprehension - The therapist revised the assignment given and dis- cussed with the subjects problems encountered in the application of the first two Steps of summarization. - The therapist trained the subjects to locate key points fron the Reading passage: "Louis Pasteur"-she trained the subjects to lpcate key sentences at the beginning, middle or end of paragraphs. - The therapist led the subjects to write the key points in Summarization Worksheet I.(See Appendix Di). 140 - The therapist applied Verbal Reinforcement as deserved by the subjects. Session II: Summarization Step III: Search for the key points Biology - The therapist again engaged in an active teaching of- Biology Study Content II: "Digestion II", a copy of which was handed to each subject. With the aid of Chart II (Digestion II) the therapist gave a thorough explana­ tion of the topic and she encouraged the subjects to participate and ask questions. - The therapist then distributed copies of study Content II to the subjects to study from home applying the first three Steps of Summarization learnt. Subjects were encouraged to get a "Summarization Notebook" in which to do the assignment. Seif-Re inforcement: The therapist encouraged the subjects to utter some positive self-statements about their own achievement in the use of the technique so far and their persistent effort to ensure mastery over and use of the technique in its entirety. 141 Week 6 Session I : Summarization - Steps IV: Formulate Concise Statements Statements and Step V ; Glance through the passage again. English Comprehension Step IV: Formulate concise Statements - The therapist first revised the previous assignment: Steps I, II & III of Summarization applied to Study Content II Token Reinforcement:Applied as before. - Using Summarization Worksheet II, the therapist trained the subjects to make concise Statements with the key points (See Appendix B for details). - Verbal and Seif Reinforcement: applied as before. Step V : Glance through the passage again. - The therapist led the subjects to look through the passage "Louis Pasteur" again to include missing points. Session II: Biology Summarization-Step IV: Formulate Concise Statements with the key points & Step V: Glance through the passage again. - Active Teaching', the therapist used Chart lila & Illb to teach the subjects Biology Study Content III:: "Reproduction" 142 (See Appendix B). She explained the topic thoroughly and ensured subjects' full participation in the lesson. - The therapist then dlstributed copies of Biology Study Content III to the subjects for home assignment: they were to study it applying all the five Steps of Summarization learnt. - ' The therapist collected the subjects' Summarization Notebook during the week to grade them for ready Feedback during the next session. THE (SUMMARIZATION) PRACTICE SESSIONS Week 7 Session I: English Comprehension - The therapist first revised the five Steps of the Summarization technique with the subjects. - The therapist then dlstributed copies of "Eze Learnsa Lesson" to the subjects. The therapist monitored the Step by Step application of the Summarization technique by the subjects. 143 - Verbal Reinforcement: The therapist issued encouraging remarks each time the students performed well. Token Reinforcement: - The therapist put a tick beside each Step correctly applied. Session II: Biology - The therapist gave subjects feedback about the last Biology assignment. Active Teaching: - The therapist undertook the teaching of Biology Study Content IV: "Fertilization/Sex Determination (See Appendix B for details). Subjects were encouraged to take part and ask que st ions. Assignment; - Application of the Summarization technique to Study Content IV. 144 - Subjects' notebooks were collected and graded during the week in readiness for the next Biology session. Week 8 Session I : English Comprehension - The therapist revised the five steps of Summarization. - The therapist distributed Practice Passage II "The Great Elephant Bird" and she led the subjects to read and comprehend it using Summarization. - Subjects were allowed to self-monitor the application of the technique but the therapist went round to give assistance where necessary. - The therapist applied Verbal and Token Reinforcements as necessary. - The therapist encouraged subjects to apply seif - Reinforcement to boost their effort. - The therapist then discussed with the subjects the strategies for maintaining the newly acquired technique in natural setting: avoid procastination; keep a free 145 mind, study where there are.no distractions etc. Se s s ion 11 : Blology - The therapist gave the subjects some feedback on their performance ln Study Content IV and she initiated a general discussion on subjects' use of the technique generally. - The therapist emphasised subjects' reproduction of diagrams under Step IV. Diagrams should not be skipped. - The therapist taught Biology Study Content V: "Secondary Sex Characteristics/Family Tree". - The therapist distributed coples of Study Content V to subjects for home assignment. - The therapist collected subjects' Summarization note­ books during the week for marking and ready feedback during the next Biology session. Week 9 Session I: English Comprehension: - Practice Passage III was distributed to the subjects ("The Wrestlers"). 146 - Subjects were encouraged to study the passage using the Summarization technique. They were allowed to go on independent ly at their own pace as they applied the technique step by Step. This was to ensure self-monitoring and self-sustenance at using the technique. - The therapist, however, went round to give assistance and to give encouraging remarks in appreciation of subjects' efforts (Verbal Reinforcement) and to put a tick beside each correct application of the technique (Token Reinforce­ ment ) . Session II: Biology - The therapist followed Steps 1 & 2 of Week 8, Session II. - The therapist actively taught the subjects Biology Study Content VI: "Health and its Maintenance". Subjects were encouraged to take active part in the lesson and to ask questions. - The therapist distributed copies of the Study Content to subjects to study from home applying the Summarization technique. 14 7 - The therapist emphasized the subjects' independent use of the Summarization technique when studying all the other subjects. They always referred any problem encountered in their application of the technique to the therapist. - The therapist reminded the subjects to always take care of the diagrams under Step IV of Summarization. - Subjects' Summarization notebooks were collected during the week, corrected and returned to them. POST - TESTS Weeks 10 Sessions I & II: The therapist administered the comprehension tests (English & Biology) on all the subjects, both the experimental and the control groups, These were the same comprehension tests taken before the treatment commenced. Scores from these tests were used as the post-treatment s core s. Week 11 Sess ions I & II: (i) The therapist administered the Attitüde tests(Attitude to English Comprehension and Attitüde to Biology) on the 148 subjects both experimental and control, in the same way as it was done before the treatment commenced. This supplied the post-treatment scores of the subjects' at t itude. (Li) The therapist expressed appreciation for the subjects' co-operation and asked those in the control group to wait behind for their own briefing on "Study Techniques" at the end of session II. CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES Sone measures were taken to prevent extraneous variables from affecting the study. The therapist administered all the tests and handled the treatment Programme personally to avoid any bias that might filter in through the involvement of any of the teachers. From the onset the therapist asked for a slight modification of the time-tables in the two schools used to avoid clashes and ensure the therapists' availability at the scheduled times. The objective nature of all the Comprehension tests used and the diagrammatic nature of the Progresive Matrices made it easy for subjects to want to spy each other, a Situation which was prevented by ensuring that subjects sat reasonably far from each other and that invigilation was very thorough. Also, copies of all the tests were made available to each subject to avoid borrowing of test materials which could make the subjects influence each other's responses. For the treatments, arrangements were made to have the two treatment groups and the control located in classrooms situated at a safe distance from each other to avoid subjects' interaction and contamination through exchange of ideas. The teachers were not given any assess to the treatment programmes and they were not present during any of the treatment sessions so it was not possible for any bit of the techniques used to filter to the control group. Experimental subjects were provided with copies of the training and practice passages used,to ensure their effective participation in the programme. Also copies of the weekly Biology Study Contents were distributed to subjects to ensure subjects' full participation and prevent any irregularity arising from subjects' borrowing of notes from one another. 150 ANALYSIS OF DATA; The effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables were determined by subjecting the data obtained in the study to Statistical analysis. The main effects of Robinson's SQ3R, and Summarization (on the rows) and high, medium, and low mental ability, (on the columns) on the comprehension ability of subjects were determined. Also, the Interactive effects of the two treatments, Robinson's SQ3R and Summarization, and the levels of subjects' mental ability were investigated. In addition, the differential effectiveness of the two treat­ ment programmes on the subjects of high, medium, and low mental ability were determined. The analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA), invented by Ronald Fisher, was used because of its special advantages in increasing precision in randomized experiments. As Kerlinger (1973) explained, analysis of co-variance is a form of analysis of variance that tests the significance of the differences between means of final experimental data by taking into account the correlation between the dependent variables and one or more co-variates, and by adjusting initial differences in the experimental groups. Analysis 151 of Covariance corrects initial mean differences or variations in the pre-test measures between the experimental groups caused by inherent or environmental factors capable of staying through and influencing the experiment. Analysis of co-variance also reauces the effects of extraneous variations in the pre-test and post-test measures (Smith, 1957; Cochran 1957). The ’t'-test Statistical analysis, using Standard error of means, was used to investigate the differential effectiveness of independent variables. 152 CHAPTER THREE RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter on Results and Conclusions is organized in such a way that the hypotheses postulated in chapter I of this report might be tested. The hypotheses were tested one after the other, and the results are explained by reference to the tables. HYPOTHESIS ONE: This States that there will be no significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to treatments (SQ3R and Summarization) and those in the control group. Table 1 shows that there are significant Statistical differences between treated subjects and those in the control group. The adjusted post-test mean scoresfor the ability groups for SQ3R and Summarization are generally higher than the post-test mean scores for the Control group. The higher the post-test adjusted mean scores, the higher the subjects' English Comprehension ability. 153 TABLE I THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF TREATMENTS ON THE ENGLISH COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS. *Rows *** Columns TREATMENT PROGRAMMES M E N T A L A B I L I T Y High Medium Low N Ad*j*u*s*- X-Means Y-̂ neated N ns X-Means Adjusted N X- Ad jus *** Y-means means ted SQ3R 16 31.81 33.42 16 24.88 25.36 16 15.94 28.46 Summari- zation 16 29.50 29.20 16 24.63 30.13 16 16.44 24.40 Control 16 31.06 27.13 16 24.94 25.63 16 17.06 22.96 All 48 48 48 * ROWS TREATMENTS 1. SQ3R 2. SUMMARIZATION 3. CONTROL. **COLUMNS LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY 1. HIGH 2. MEDIUM 3. LOW ***X-MEANS REPRESENT PRE-TEST ****ADJUSTED Y-MEANS REPRESENT POST-TEST. 154 Like Table I,Table 2 also shows that the treatment strategies uad significant effects on the subjects (F * 20.56; Df 2/135; P < 0.05). It also shows some statistically significant difference in the columns (F = 29.14 Df 2/135; P < 0.001). The interaction is also significant (F = 12.35; Df 4/135; P < 0.05). r TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS OF SUBJECTS' ENGLISH COMPREHENSION ABILITY. Source of Sum of Df Means F P Variance squares squares * Rows 23.26 2 11.63 20.56 < 0.01 **Columns 32.97 2 16.48 29.14 < 0.01 INTERACTION 27.95 6.99 12.35 < 0.01 WITHIN 1221.707 135X " 0.571 - - . Treatments ** Columns - Grouping 1 = SQ3R 1 - High Mental ability 2 = SUMMARIZATION 2 - Medium " " 3 = CONTROL 3 - Low Mental ability. 15.5 Table 3 shows that: (i) High mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R scored significantly higher than high mental ability subjects in the control (t = 23.30; P < 0.001; df = 14). (ii) High mental ability subject treated with Summarization scored significantly higher than the high mental ability subjects in the control (t = 7.70; P < 0.001; df = 14). (iii) Medium mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R were equal to the medium mental ability subjects in the control ('t' ■ -1.00; df = 14; not significant). (iv) Medium mental ability subjects treated with Summariza­ tion performed better than medium mental ability subjects in the control (t = 16.67; p < 0.001; df = 14). (v) Low mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R technique performed significantly better than the low mental ability subjects in the control group (t = 20.35; P < .001; df = 14). (vi) Low mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization performed significantly better than subjects of equal mental ability in the control group (t = 5.33; p < .001; df = 14). (vii) High mental ability subjects in the control performed significantly better than the medium mental ability subjects in the same control group (t = 5.56; p < 0.001; df = 14). 156 (viii) Medium irental ability subjects in the control group scored significantly higher than the low irental ability subjects in the same group Ct = 9.89; p < .001; df = 14). TABLE 5 INTER-TREATMENT GROUP t-TEST COMPARISON OF ROWS AND COLUMNS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS ON THE ENGLISH COMPRHiENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS USING STANDARD ERROR OF MEANS TREATMENT ADJUSTED ADJUSTED GROUPS Y-MEAN Y-MEAN N Df •t' OBSERVED P(1) (2) SQ3R (High) Vrs 33.42 27.13 16 14 23.30 <.001 Control (High) Summ. (High) Vrs 29.20 27.13 16 14 7.70 <.001 Control (High) SQ3R (Med) Vrs 25.36 25.63 16 ,4 -1.00 NS Control (Med) — — Summ. (Med) Vrs 30.13 25.63 16 14 16.67 <.001 I Control (Med) SQ3R (Low) ■ Vrs 28.46 22.96 16 14 20.37 <.001 Control (Low) Summ. (Low) Vrs 24.40 22.96 16 14 5.33 <.001 Control (Low) LMS (LEAST MEAN SQUARE) = 0.57 POOLED S.E. (STANDARD ERROR) = 0.27 NOTE: High, Medium, Low refer to different levels of irental intelligence. 157 On the basis of the results contained in Tables'1, 2, & 3, hypothesis one is rejected. HYPOTHESIS TWO: Hypothesis two States that there will be no significant difference in the Biology Comprehension ability of treated (with SQ3R and Summarization) subjects and the control. Tables 4, 5 shows^hat there are significant Statistical differences between the subjects exposed to treatments and those in the n the control. The adjusted post-test mean scores for high, medium and low mental ability treated subjects generally.indicate that the treatment had some significant effects (See Table 4). The higher- the post-test adjusted mean scores, the higher the subjects' Biology comprehension ability. 158 TABLE 4 THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF TREATMENT ON THE BIOLOGY COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS. * ROWS ** C 0 L U M N S TREATMENT PROGRAMMES H i g h Medium L 0 W N X-means Adjusted N X-Means Ajus- N X-mean Adjus- *** Y-means ted Y- sted*** * mean Y-mean SQ3R 16 30.81 27.55 16 24.94 31.31 16 16.44 29.15 SUMMARI- ZATION 16 29.63 34.43 16 25.13 30.92 16 17.44 26.97 CONTROL 16 31.00 26.66 16 25.00 25.82 16 16.44 23.02 ALL 48 48 48 * ROWS: TREATMENTS: 1. SQ3R 2. SUMMARIZATICN 3. CONTROL* ** COLUMNS: LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY 1. HIGH 2. MEDIUM 3. LOW *** X-MEANS REPRESENT PRE-TEST **** ADJUSTED Y-MEANS REPRESENT POST-TEST. 159 Like Taoxe 4,Table 5 also indicates, that:.the treatment strategies were effective (F = 41.77; Df 2/135; P < 0.01. However, the mental ability groups - high, medium, low-into which subjects were divided also had significant effects (F = 15.49; Df 2/135 P/ 0.01). Also the interaction between the rows and columns are quite singificant (F = 9.61 Df 4/135 P/0.05). This shows that the mental ability of sub-jects is an important factor in the treatment and that the results achieved are not independent of the effects produced by the ability grouping: the interaction between the rows (treatments) and the columns (ability groups) having both combined to produce the results. TABLE 5 .ANALYSIS OF CO-VARIANCE OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS OF SUBJECTS' BI0L0GY COMPREHENSION ABILITY. Source Sum of Mean of Variance Squares Df Squares F P *R0WS 50.83 2 25.41 41.77 <0.01 * * COLUMNS 18.86 2 9.43 15.49 <0.01 INTERACTION 23.40 4 5.85 9.61 <0.05 WITHIN 1314.316 135 0.61 P / .05 SIGNIFICANT AT .05 LEVEL *R0WS - TREATMENTS **C0LUMNS - GROUPINGS 1 = SQ3R 1 HIGH MENTAL ABILITY 2 = SUMMARIZATION 2 MEDIUM MENTAL ABILITY 3 = CONTROL 3 LOW MENTAL ABILITY 160 Table 6 (below) gives the following indication: (i) High mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R did significantly better than high mental ability subjects in the Control (t = 3.18; P < .01; df = 14). (ii) High mental ability treated with Summarization performed significantly better than the high mental ability in the control (t = 27.75; p <,001; df - 14). (iii) Medium mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R proved to be very much superior in performance to the subjects of the same mental ability in the control. (t = 19.61; P <.001; df = 14). (iv) Medium mental ability exposed to Summarization did significantly better than subjects of same mental ability in the control group (t = 18.21; P <.001; df = 14). (v) Low mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R performed significantly better than subjects in the same ability level in the control group (t - 21.89; P < .001; df = 14). (vi) Low mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization performed significantly better than subjects of low mental ability in the Control group (t = 14.11; P <.001; df = 14). 161 (a ii) High mental ability subjects in the control group scored signifi- cantly higher than subjects with medium mental ability in the same treat­ ment group (t = 13.00; P < .001; df = 14). (viii) Subjects with medium mental ability in the control group performed significantly better than subjects with low mental ability in the same group (t = 10.00; P < .001; df = 14). TABLE 6 INTER-TREATMENT GROUP t-TEST CQMPARISON OF RQWS AND COLUMNS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS ON BIOLQGY COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS USING STANDARD ERROR OF MEANS TREATMENT ADJUSTED ADJUSTED GROUPS Y-MEANS Y-MEANS N Df ' t ' OBSERVED P(1) (2) SQ3R (High) Vrs 27.55 26.66 16 14 19.61 <.001 Control (High) Summ. (High) Vrs Control (High) 34.43 26.66 16 14 27.75 <.001 SQ3R (Med) Vrs 31.31 25.82 16 14 19.61 <.001 Control (Med) Summ. (Med) Vrs 30.92 25.82 16 14 18.21 <.001 Control (Med) SQ3R (Low) Vrs 29.15 23.02 16 14 21.89 <.001 Control (Low) Summ. (Low) Vrs 26.97 23.02 16 14 14.11 <.001 Control (Low) LMS (Least Mean Square) =0.61 POOLED S.E (Standard Error) = 0.28 NOTE: High, Medium, Low refer to leAels of mental ability. 162 Based on the results contained in Tables 4, 5 & 6, to which references have been made, hypothesis two is rejected. HYPOTHESIS THREE Hypothesis three States: There will be no signifi- cant difference in the attitude to English Comprehension and Biology of subjects exposed to treatments (SQ3R and Summarization) and those not so exposed (control). The results in Tables 7, 8 ä 9 show that the SQ3R and Summarization techniques have been effective in improving subjects' attitude to English Comprehension and Biology. Table 7 shows that the adjusted mean scores, for high, medium and low mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R, and Summarization were higher than the mean scores of the subjects in the control group. The higher the adjusted Y-means scores, the better the attitude of subjects. 163 TABLE 7 THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF TREATMENTS ON SUBJECTS' ATTITÜDE TO ENGLISH AND BIOLOGY.* * ROWS COLUMNS TREATMENT M e n t a l A b i l i t y PROGRAMMES High M e d i u m L o w 1 N X*-*M*eans AdjustedY-means N X-Means *Y*-*M*eans N X-Means Y-Means SQ3R 16 80.19 86.56 16 79.75 87.73 16 77.75 84.42 SUMMARIZA- TION 16 78.63 86.56 16 77,56 85.43 16 79.94 84.41 CONTROL 16 80.56 79.97 16 80.44 83.14 16 79.75 82.73 ALL 48 48 «8 ROWS: TREATMENTS LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY 1. SQ3R 1. High Mental Ability 2. SUMMARIZATION 2. Medium Mental " 3. CONTROL 3. Low " " *** X-MEANS REPRESENT PRE-TEST **** ADJUSTED Y-MEANS REPRESENT POST-TEST 164 Li Ke Table 7,table ö uemonstrates the effectiveness of the two treatment strategies (F = 10.96; Df = ?/135; P < 0.05). Table 8 further indicates no Statistical significant difference in the columns and no interactions, TABLE 8 ANALYSIS OF CO-VARIANCE OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS OF SUBJECTS* ATTITÜDE TO ENGLISH & BIOLOGY. * Sources of Sum of Df Mean F P Variance Squares S quares *ROWS 28.56 2 14.28 10.96 < 0.05 ** COLUMNS 4.38 2 2.19 1.68 (NS) INTERACTION 9.55 4 2.39 1.83 (NS) WITHIN 2815.31 135 1.30 * ROWS = TREATMENTS:. ** COLUMNS = LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY• 1 - SQ3R 1 = H I G H M E N T A L A B I L I T Y 2 = SUMMARIZATION 2 = M E D I U M " ii 3 = CONTROL 3 = L O W " ii Table 9 gives the following results: (i) High mental ability subjects exposed to the SQ3R technique scored significantly higher than the high mental ability subjects in the control group (t = 35,69, P < .001; df = 14). 165 (ii) High mental ability subjects treated with Summarization technique scored slgnificantly higher than subjects in the same ability level in the control (t = 41.19; P < 001; df = 14). (iii) Medium mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R technique scored significantly higher on the attitude scale than subjects of the same mental ability level in the control group, (t - 28,69, P< ,001; df = 14). (iv) Medium mental ability subjects treated with Summarization technique scored higher on the attitude scale than the un- treatedsubjects in the same ability, (t = 14.25; P <.001; df = 14). (v) Low mental ability subjects scored higher on the attitude scale than low mental ability subjects in the control group, (t s 10,56; P < .001; df = 14). (vi) Low mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization scored significantly higher than subjects of equal mental ability in the control group (t = 10,05; P < ,001; df = 14). (vii) Medium mental ability subjects in the control group scored significantly higher than high mental ability subjects also in the control group (t ■ -19.81; P < .001; df = 14). 166 (vii) MediuiP mental ability subjects in the control group performed better than low mental ability subjects in the same group (t = 2.56; P < 0.05; df = 14). TABLE 9 INTER-TREATMENT GROUP t-TEST COMPARISON OF ROWS AND COLUMIS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS QN THE ATTITÜDE OF SUBJECTS TO ENGLISH AND BIOLOGY USING STANDARD ERROR OF MEANS TREATMENT ADJUSTED ADJUSTED GROUPS Y-MEANS Y-MEANS N Df •t* OBSERVED P(1) (2) SQ3R (High) Vrs 85.68 79.97 16 14 35.69 <.001 Control (High) Summ. (High) Vrs 86.56 79.97 16 14 41.19 <.001 Control (High) Control (High) Vrs 79.97 83.14 16 14 -19.81 <•001 Control (Med) Summ. (Med) Vrs 85.43 83.14 16 14 14.31 <.001 Control (Med) SQ3R (Low) Vrs 84.42 82.73 16 14 10.56 <.001 Control (Low) Summ. (Low) Vrs 84.41 82.73 16 14 10.50 <.001 Control (Low) L.M.S (Least Mean Square) = 1.30 Pooled Standard Error = 0.16 NOTE: High, Medium, Low refer to levels of mental ability. On the basis of the results presented in Tables 7, 8, 9 hypothesis three is rejected. 16 7 . . HYPOTHESIS FOUR: Hypothesis four States that there will be no significant difference in the comprehension ability of subjects exposed to the SQ3R and those exposed to Summarization techniques. Tables 10, 11 & 12 show that the SQ3R technique is more effective in improving subjects' comprehension ability than Summarization technique. Table 10 reveals adjusted Y-means of 33.42, 25.36 and 28.46 for the SQ3R high, medium and mental ability subjects as opposed to 29.20, 25.63 and 24.40 for the subjects exposed to Summarization. 168 TABLE 10 THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS SHOWING DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUES ON THE ENGLISH COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS. ROWS COLUMNS TREATMENTS M E N T A L A B I L I T Y PROGRAMMES HIGH MEDIUM LOW N X**-*MEANS ADJUSTED N X-MEANS ADJUSTED N X-MEANS ADJUSTEIY*-*M*E*A_N_S_ Y-MEANS Y-MEANS SQ3R 16 31.81 33.42 16 24.88 25.36 16 15.94 28.46 SUMMARIZA- TION 16 29.50 29.20 16 24,63 30.13 16 16.44 24.40 32 32 .32 * ROWS: TREATMENT ** COLUMNS: LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY 1. = SQ3R 1. HIGH 2. = SUMMARIZATION 2. MEDIUM 3. = 3. LOW *** Y X-MEANS RESPRESENT PRE-TEST **** Y-MEANS REPRESENT POST-TEST 169 Table 11 presents an adjusted Y-means of 29.08 for the SQ3R technique and 26.41 for Summarization. This shows that the SQ3R technique had been more effective in improving the English Comprehension ability of subjects than the Summarization technique (t = 9.89 df = 94 p<.001). TABLE 11 t-TEST C0MPARISI0N OF THE ENGLISH COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS EXPOSED TO SQ3R & SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUE. TECHNIQUES N ADJUSTED LMS POOLED Df OBSER- P Y-MEANS S .E. VED 't' SQ3R 48 29.08 0.57 0.27 94 9.89 <.001 SUMMARIZA­ 48 26.41 0.57 0.27 TION The inter-treatment comparisons done in Table l2.Coverleaf) yielded the following results: (i) High mental ability subjecfc$ treated performed better than high subjects treated with Summarization. (t - 15.59; P < .001; df - 14). (ii) Subjects of medium mental ability exposed to Summarization scored higher than subjects of the same mental ability exposed to SQ3R (t“ -17.67; P< .001; df = 14). 170 (111) Low mental abllity subjects exposed to SQ3R performed significantly better than low mental abllity subjects exposed to Summarlzation (t = 15.04; P <.001; df = 14), (iv) Subjects of high mental ability exposed to SQ3R seored higher than subjects of medium mental ability exposed to the same treatment (t * 29.85; P <.001; df = 14). (v) Low mental ability subjects in the SQ3R treatment group performed better than medium mental ability subjects in the same group (t = 11.48; P <.001; df = 14). (vi) Subjects with medium mental ability exposed to Summarization seored significantly higher than high mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment (t =-3.41; P <.001; df = 14. (vii) Subject with medium mental ability exposed to Summariation performed better than low mental ability subjects also exposed to Summarization (t = 21.22; P < .001; df = 14). 171 TABLE 12 INTER-TREATMENT GROUP ’t'-TEST COMPARISON OF ROWS & COLUMNS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS ON THE COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF THE SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION SUBJECTS^USING STANDARD ERROR OF MEANS TREATMENT mmu N DF 'f P GROUP (i) (2) OBSERVED SQ3R (HIGH) VRS SUMM. (HIGH) 33.42 29.20 16 14 15.62 <.001 SQ3R (MED) VRS SUMM. (MED) 25.36 30.13 16 14 -17.67 <.001 SQ3R (LOW) VRS SUMM. (LOW) 28.46 24.40 16 14 15.04 <.001 SQ3R (HIGH) VRS SQ3R (MED) 33.42 25.36 16 41 29.85 <.001 SUMM. (HIGH) VRS SUMM. (MED) 29.20 30.13 16 14 -3.41 <.001 SUMM. (MED) VRS SUMM. (LOW) 30.13 24.40 16 14 21.22 <.001 L.M.S. (LEAST MEAN SQUARE = 0.57 POOLED STANDARD ERROR = o.27 NOTE: HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW REFER TO LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY. On the whole, the SQ3R technique has proved to be more effective in improving the English Comprehension ability of subjects than Summarization technique. Therefore, hypothesis four is rejected. 172 HYPOTHESIS FIVE: . Hypothesis five States: There will be no significant difference in the Biology Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and exposed to Summarization techniques. Tables 13, 14 & 15 present the results of the test of the above hypothesis: it is glaring that Summarization is more effective in improving the Biology Comprehension ability of subjects than SQ3R. Table 13 shows the adjusted Y-means of 27.55, 31.31, & 29.15 for the SQ3R high, medium and low mental ability subjects; and 34.43, 30.92 and 26.97 for the subjects treated with Summarization. 173 TABLE'13 .THE ADJUSTED Y-MEANS SHOWING DIFFERENTIAL EFFECT IVENES S OF SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUES ON THE BIOLOGY C(MPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS. *ROWS ** * COLUMNS TREATMENT M E N T A L A B I L I T Y PROGRAMMES HIGH MEDIUM LOW N X-MEANS ADJUST- N X-MEANS ADJUST- N X-MEANS ADJUS­ * * * TED Y- TED Y— TED Y- M*E A*N S* * ME ANS MEANS SQ3R 16 30.81 27.55 16 24.94 31.31 16 16.44 29.15 TSIUOMNMARIZA- 16 • 29.63 34.43 16 25.13 30.92 16 17.44 26.97 32 32 32 * ROWS: TREATMENTS ** COLUMNS: LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY 1. = SQ3R 1. = HIGH 2. = SUMMARIZATION 2. = MEDIUM ***X-MEANS REPRESENT PRE-TEST 3. = LOW ****Y-MEANS REPRESENT POST-TEST 174 In Table 14 is presented theadjusted Y-means of 29.34 for SQ3R technique and 30.77 for Summarization. Summarization has therefore proved to be generally more effective in improving the Biology Comprehension ability of subjects than SQ3R (t = -5.11; P <.001; df = 94). TABLE 14 t-TEST COMPARISON OF THE BIOLOGY COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF SUBJECTS EXPOSED TO SQ3R & SUMMARIZATION TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUES N ADJUSTED L.M.S. P00LED Df OBSERVED P Y-MEANS S.E. ’t’ SQ3R 48 29.34 0.61 0.28 t 94 -5.11 <•001 SUMMARIZA­ TION 48 30.77 0.61 0.28 Significant at 0.001 level. The results of the inter-treatment comparisons done and presented in Table 15 indicated that: (i) High mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization performed better than high mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R (t-24.57; P <.001; df = 14). 175 (ii) Subjects of medium mental ability treated with SQ3R performed equally with medium mental ability subjects treated with Summarization (t = 1.39, not significant). (iii) Low mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R scored significantly higher than low mental ability subjects treated with Summarization (t = 7.79; P <.001; df = 14) (iv) Subjects of medium level mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R performed better than high level mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment (t = 13.42; P .001; df = 14). (v) Medium level mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R performed better than low level mental ability subjects treated with the same techniques (t = 7.71; P <.001; df = 14). (vi) High mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization performed significantly better than medium level mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment (t * 12.54; P <.001; df = 14. (vii) Subjects of medium level mental ability treated with Summarization scored higher than the low mental ability subjects in same treatment group. 176 TABLE 15 •INTER-TREATMENT GROUP 't'-TEST COMPARISON OF ROWS AND COLUMNS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS ON THE BIOLOGY COMPREHENSION ABILITY OF THE SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION SUBJECTS USING STANDARD ERROR OF MEANS. TREATMENT ADJUSTED ADJUSTED Tt' GROUPS Y-MEANS Y-MEANS N DF P(1) (2) OBSERVED SQ3R (HIGH) v’VRS SUMM. (HIGH) 27.55 34.43 16 14 -24.57 <.001 ~SQ3R(MED) VRS SUMM. (MED) 3kl .31 30.92 16 14 1.39 NS SQ3R(LOW) VRS SUMM. (LOW) 29.15 26.97 16 14 8.50 <.001 SQ3R(HIGH) VRS SQ3R (MED) 27.55 31.31 16 14 43.43 <.001 SQ3R(VRS SQ3R (LOW) 31.31 2945 16 14 7.71 <.001 SUMM.(HIGH) VRS SUMM. (MED; 34.43 ’ 40.92 16 14 12.50 <.001 SUMM. (MED). VRS 30.92 SUMM. (LOW) 26.97 16 14 14.11 <•001" -\ L.M.S. (LEAST MEAN SQUARE = 0.61 POOLED STANADRD ERROR = 0.28 NOTE: HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW REFER TO LEVELS OF* MENTAL ABILITY. From the results presented in Tables 13, 14 & 15, Summarization technique has been more effective in improving the Biology compre- hension ability of subjects. Hypothesis five is therefore, rejected. 177 HYPOTHESIS SIX: Hypothesis six States that there will be no significant difference in the attitude to English Comprehension and Biology of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization. Tables 16, 17 & 18 present the results of the test of this hypothesis: the subjects exposed to SQ3R exhibited better post-treatment attitude to English Comprehension and Biology than the subjects exposed to Summarization. Table 16 shows the adjusted Y-Means of 85.68, 87.73 and 84.42 for the SQ3R mental high, medium and low ability subjects; and 86.25, 85.43 and 84.41 for the high, medium and low mental ability subject treated with Summarization. 178 TABLE 16 A D J U S T E D Y - M E A N S S H O W I N G THE E F F E C T S OF D I F F E R E N T I A L E F F E C T I V E N E S S OF S Q 3 R A ND S U M M A R I Z A T I O N T E C H N I Q U E S ON S U B J E C T S ' A T T I T Ü D E TO E N G L I S H A N D B I O L O G Y . *ROWS r*COLUMNS MENTAL A B I L I T Y TREAT- HIGH MEDIUM LOW njtwi PROGRA­ *** **** -ADJUSTED MMES N X-Weans ADJUS­ N X-MEANS Y-MEANS N X-MEANS ADJUSTED Y- TED Y- MEANS MEANS SQ3R 16 80.19 85.68 16 79.75 87.73 16 77.75 84.42 SUMMA­ 16 78.63 86.56 16 77.56 85.43 16 77.94 84.41 RIZA­ TION 32 32 32 * R O W T R E A T M E N T S * G R O U P S 1 = SQ 3 R 1 HIGH MENTAL ABILITY 2 = S U M M A R I Z A T I O N * 2 MEDIUM " " *** X - M E A N S R E P R E S E N T P R E - T E S T * ** * Y - M E A N S R E P R E S E N T P O S T - T E S T 179 Table 17 presents the Adjusted Y-means of 85.94 for SQ3R and 85.36 for Summarization. The indication is therefore given that SQ3R had been slightly more effective in improving subjects' attitude to English Comprehension and Biology than Summarization (t = 3.63; P <.001). TABLE 17 t-TEST COMPARIS ON OF THE ATTITUDE TO ENGLISH COMPREHENSION TECHNIQUES N ADJUSTED L.M.S. POOLED Df Observed P Y-MEANS S.E. 't' SQ3R 48 85.94 1.30 0.16 94 3.63 <.001 SUMMARI­ ZATION 48 85.36 1.30 0.16 Sig. at .001 level. Inter-treatment comparisons were done and the results are shown in Table 18: (i) High mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R exhibited better post-treatment attitude than high mental ability subjects treated with Summarization(t =5.50; P <.001; df = 14). 180 (ii) The SQ3R subjects with medium level mental ability scored significantly higher in post-treatment attitude test than students with the same level of mental ability treated with Summarization (t - 14.44; P <.0.05; df = 14). (iii) Low mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R exhibited equal attitude as the low mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization (t = 0.06; not significant). (iv) Medium level mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R scored higher in attitude than high mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment (t = 12,81; P <.001; df = 14). (v) Medium level mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R scored higher in attitude than low mental ability subjects exposed to the same SQ3R treatment (t = 20,69; P <.001; df = 14). (vi) High mental ability subjects treated with Summariza- tion scored significantly higher in attitude than medium level mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment (t = 7.13; P<.00; df = 14). (vii) Medium level ability subjects exposed to Summariza- tion scored significantly higher than low mental ability subjects in the same treatment group (t = 6.31; P<.001; df = 14). 181 TABLE 18 INTER-TREATMENT GROUP 't' COMPARISON OF ROWS & COLUMNS OF ADJUSTED Y-MEANS ON THE ATTITÜDE TO ENGLISH & BIOLOGY OF THE SQ3R AND SUMMARIZATION SUBJE9TS »USING STANDARD ERROR Öl* MEANS. T ^ J E N T N DF OB’StE'RIE) P SQ3R (HIGH) VRS SUMM. (HIGH) 85.68 86.56 16 14 -5.50 <.001 SQ3R (MED) VRS 87.73 85.43 16 14 14.38 <•001 SUMM. (MED) SQ3R (LOW) VRS SUMM. (LOW) 84.42 84.41 16 14 0.06 NS SQ3R (HIGH) VRS SQ3R (MED) 85.68 87.73 16 14 12.81 z.001 SQ3R MED VRS SQ3R (LOW) 87.73 84.42 16 14 20.69 <.001 SUMM. (HIGH) VR SUMM. (LOW) 386.56 84.41 16 14 13.43 <.001 SUMM. (MED) VRS SUMM. (LOW) 85.43 84.41 16 14 6.31 <.001 ____ , L.M.S. (LEAST MEAN SQUARE = 1.30 POOLED STANDARD ERROR = 0.16 NOTE: HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW REFER TO LEVELS OF MENTAL ABILITY. Based on the results presented in Tables 16,17, 18, hypothesis six is also rejected. 182 SUMMARY OF RESULTS Based on the test of the six hypotheses, the following have emerged as the highlights of the results: Hypothesis I: There will be no statistica1ly significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of the subjects exposed to the SQ3R and Summarization techniques and those not so exposed (control). (i) There was a statistically significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of the subjects exposed to the SQ3R and Summarization techniques and in the öontrol. (ii) There was also significant difference in the columns (high, medium, and low mental ability) and significant interaction between the rows and the columns. (iii) High mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R performed better than high mental ability subjects in the control just as the high mental ability subjects treated with Summarization performed higher, than subjects of equal mental ability in the control. (iv) Medium mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R performed equally with medium mental ability subjects in the control whereas the medium mental ability subjects exposed to 183 Summarization performed better than the medium mental ability in the control. (v) Low mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization scored higher than the low mental ability subjects in the control just as the low mental ability subjects treated with SQ3R performed better than subjects of the same mental ability in the control, It then means that both treatments were more effective with high and low mental ability subjects than medium ability subjects in improving their English Comprehension ability. Hypothesis 2 : There will be no statistically significant difference in Biology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization techniques and those in the contral. (i) There was statistically significant difference in the Biology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to the two treatments and those in the control, (ii) There was significant difference in the columns and the interaction between the rows and columns was also very signif icant. 184 (iii) The two treatments proved to be equally effective with subjects o£ high, medium and low mental ability in improving their ßiology comprehension since the subjects in the three ability levels performeü significantly higher than those in the control. (iv) High mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R performed lower in the post-test than the pre-test. Hypothesis 3: There will be no statistically significant difference in the attitudes to English Comprehension and Biology of subjects exposed to the SQ3R and Sunmarization techniques, and those in the control. (i) There was statistically significant different in the attitudes to English Comprehension and Biology of subjects exposed to the two treatments and those in the control. (ii) There was no significant difference in the columns and the interaction, too, was not significant.. Ciii) Both treatments proved to be equally effective in improving the attitudes of subjects of high, medium and low mental ability. Hypothesis 4: There will be no significantly difference in the English Comprehen­ sion ability of subjects treated with the SQ3R and Summarization techni­ ques. 185 (i) Subjects treated with the SQ3R technique performed significantly better than subjects treated with Summarization technique. (ii) High and low mental ability subjects in the SQ3R group performed significantly higher than high and low mental ability subjects treated with Summarization. (iii) Medium level mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization, however, performed better than subjects in the same mental ability level exposed to SQ3R. (iv) Low mental ability subjects in the SQ3R group performed better than medium level mental ability subjects in the same treatment group. (v) In the same way, medium level mental ability subjects exposed to Summarization benefitted better than high mental ability subjects also in the Summarization group. Hyp othes is5: There will be no significant difference in the Biology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization techniques: (i) Generally, subjects exposed to Summarization technique scored higher in Biology Comprehension than those exposed to 186 SQ3R technique. (ii) High mental ability subjects treated with Summariza- tion performed better than high mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R. (iii) Medium level mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R responded in the same way as medium level mental ability subjects treated with Summarization. (iv) Medium level mental ability subjects exposed to SQ3R responded better than high mental ability subjects exposed to the same treatment. Hy.pothesis 6; There will be no significant difference in the attitude to English Comprehension and Biology of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization. (i) Generally, subjects treated with SQ3R exhibited better attitude to English Comprehension and Biology than the subjects treated with Summarization. (ii) Subjects of high and medium mental ability in the SQ3R group exhibited better attitude than subjects of equal mental ability in the Summarization group. 187 (iii) The attitude of low mental ability subjects in the SQ3R group was the same as the attitude of the low mental ability subjects in the Summarization group. (iv) Medium level mental ability subjects in the SQ3R group exhibited better attitude than high mental ability subjects in the same treatment group. 188 CHAPTER FOUR DISCUSSION The first section of this chapter briefly outlines the Limitations of the study. This is necessary because the findings and possible contributions of the present study are tenable only within the scope of the limitations. The later sections of this chapter deal with the Discussion of the Findings, Xmplications and Suggestions for further research. Limitations of the Study: The experiment took place within the normal school environment with the other students around and the other school programmes going on. It was therefore, not possible to conduct the experiment in a Stimulus controlled environ­ ment . In an experiment like this, inter-subject differences like the socio-economic background and other personality influences could not be totally removed. However, these differences were taken care of through the use of the analysis of co-variance, a Statistical device capable of equating subjects by removing any initial differences among them. Also, the possible effects of extraneous variables 189 should be curbed by the deslgn and procedure of the study so as to reduce to the barest minimum any possible conta- mination effects by the extraneous variables. Discussion of Findings: Two study techniques, Robinson's SQ3R and Summarization were used to improve subjects' comprehension. The results obtained have pointed to the great capaclty of the two techniques in improving comprehension since positive improvements were achieved among the subjects as a result of exposure to the techniques. The results obtained have proved right Brown's (1940/41) assertion that many failing students had poor study habits and that they could improve their scholarship by improving their study habit. Miller (1962) also found that many students lack effective study techniques and that it is an important cause of underachievement, Even within the Nigerian context, Unoh (1977) discovered that 80.5% of the secondary school students used for his study were terribly in need of study-reading skills. In the same vein, Medahunsi (1985), found that lack of effective study skills was one of the major causes of underachievement even at the 190 undergraduate level. The findings of the present study, therefore, present some hope toward solving the problem of underachievement; if students1 comprehension ability can be improved, ultimately their achievement would also improve. The results are here discussed hypothesis by hypothesis: Hypothesis I : There will be no significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to treatments (SQ3R and Summarization techniques) and those not so exposed (cont r ol). The results of the data in Tables 1, 2, and 3 indicate that there were differences in the English Comprehension ability of the treated subjects and those in the control group. The adjusted Y-means reflected a significantly higher score for the treated subjects. Some interpretations can be given to explain the success of the two techniques. In the first place, the treatment Programme for each study technique was very extensive* it took into account Berg1s (1966) finding that students do not learn automatically and that they need guidance and directions before they can engage in using study 191 skills. The behaviour modification approach and the rein- forcements used might have encouraged the subjects to be well disposed toward learning the techniques and persisting to the end so that they reaped the ultimate benefit of the techniques, For example, the fourth step of SQ3R "Recite" and the fourth step of Summarization, "Formulate concise Statements" proved somehow difficult for'the subjects and only the consistent application of verbal and token reinforcements and feedback saw them through. This then can be regarded as another instance proving the efficacious use of reinforcement in inculcating degired behaviour in subjects. /nother possible explanation is that during the treatments subjects were given adequate facility to make for their full and effective participation in the treatment sessions, Copies of the passages used for the training and practice sessions were provided for the subjects. This could be responsible for the Stimulation and sustenance of the subjects* interest throughout the treatment sessions. Moreover, English Comprehension is an important section of English Language, a compulsory subject for J.S.S. III examination. It is a subject with which many students have 192 difficulty, posslbly becauae it occupies a second language Position in Nigeria. Any attempt to improve performance in such a subject should be highly welcomed by the subjects. This is a plausible way to explain the Cooperation, commit- ment and full participation which the subjects accorded the Programme throughout the treatment sessions. Düring the treatment period, subjects were encouraged to use the SQ3R and Summarization techniques freely when studying all their academic subjects. Strategies for main- taining the newly acquired behaviour in natural setting were discussed with the subj✓ects. Also, some self-monitoring and self-sustenance techniques were inculcated so that subjects could use the new study formulae without any supervision from the therapist, It is possible, therefore, that in their wide use of the SQ3R and Summarization techniques subjects realized their usefulness in improving comprehension and in getting them to be better prepared for dass quizzes. Such realization in itself could be a reinforcing factor enchancing further the success of the techniques, It should also be mentioned that the comprehension passages used for both the training and practice sessions all had African background and dealt with topics relevant 193 to the subjects' experience. The fact that they all emerged from the subjects’ dass textbooks ensured that the passages' difficulty level was just adequate for the subjects. These, too, could be contributory factors to the success of the techniques. The main finding in Hypothesis I proved that subjects' comprehension ability and study habits can be improved if they are exposed to effective study techniques. This finding corroborates Goldman's (1978) finding that students involved in a study skills Programme gained better grade point averages. It is also in consonance with the finding that a combination of study skills training with some behaviour modification techniques was effective and superior in improving academic performance (Mitchell & Mg, 1972 Lent & Russell, 1978). There is a close agreement between the present finding and the findings of Entwistle (1960) and Entwistle & Entwistle (1971) that there is a positive relationship between study skills courses and improvement in students' grades. Brown (1965) also obtained a similar result when he mounted a study skills guidance programme for a set of students who earned significantly higher scores, The 194 present finding is also in line with Bakar e ' s (.19 7 5 ) f ind ing of positive correlation between academic attainment and efficient study habits. Another important aspect of the findings in Hypothesis I is the significant interaction effects obtained between the rows and the columns. This indicates that the results obtained were not independent of the effects produced by the ability grouping, because the interaction between the rows (treatments) and the columns (ability groups) have both combined to produce the results. This means that mental ability should be recognized as an important factor when training subjects to use the study skills. Both the S03R and Summarization techniques were more effective with high ability and low mental^subjects than with medium mental ability subjects. High mental ability; subjects gained more from the treatment possibly. because their high mental capacity assisted, more so since comprehension, an important language skill, was involved. The low mental ability subjects po§,sibly realized their inadequacy from the beginning and so made additional efforts to benefit from the Programme. This finding about the effect of mental ability on subjects1 response to the treatments corroborates Dimichael's 195 (1953) findlng that mental ability affected the outcome of study skills training. It ocont r ad ic t s the finding that underachieving students believed that improved methods of studying are beyond their control and actually found it difficult to change (Mcreynolds & Church, 1973). The present finding , however, corroborates Burnett 1s (1952) report that the study techniques of superior students are essentially the same as those of other students. Hypothesis 2 : There will be no significant difference in the Biology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization techniques and those in the control group. The data presented in Tables 4, 5 and 6 show that the subjects treated with S03R and Summarization scored higher in Biology comprehension than the subjects in the control group. One explanation for the success recorded here may have to do with the important position which Biology occupies among secondary school students as the only Science subject usually offered by both the Arts and Science students. It is compulsory for even the Arts students to offer at least one Science subject; most students consider Physics, and Chemistry as prohibitive because many schools are 196 inadequately staffed and poorly equipped for teaching of phy$ical Sciences (Chidolue, 1983). Many students are chen left with no other alternative than to offer Biology since it is compulsory for the Science students and it is the only Science subject which the Art students can manage. The results being that enrolment in Biology is usually very high even though performance in the subject is usually poor yearly. And study improvement Programme therefore on such important subject will be highly welcomed by the subjects, This may explain why they were highly responsive, and the consequent success of the treatments. In addition, the execution of the SQ3R and Summarization programmes feil in line with the inquiry approach advocated by the new Science curricula, which involves the wide use of repertoire of behaviours in the classroom such as stimulating students to identify problems, making obervations, asking questions, participating in classroom discussions (Lazarovwitz, 1978). Düring the treatment, charts>diagrams and notes were also made available and personal copies were provided the subjects. The emphasis was on subjects' full participation and critical thinking. All these might have stimulated subjects' interest and enhance their 197 understanding. Xager and Wiek (1966) found that students1 understanding of Science was greatly affected by the methodsof presentation . This is a possible explanation for the success of the treatments with the subjects. The replication and study of diagrams in Biology, prove very difficult for many students. Both the SQ3R and Summarization techniques, however, devoted attention to easy handling of diagrams by subjects. This might have increasedsubjects* responsivess to the techniques. Moreover, the Biology topics treated were very personal and relevant to subjects* lives. Topics like "Digestion" and "Reproduction" could be very intriguing to the J.S.S. III subjects, most of whom were in the adolescent stage and were currently experiencing some of the secondary sexual characteristics discussed. Such direct bearing of the topics to the subjects' lives might have led to personal commitment and the consequent success of the study skills programmes applied to the topics. The present finding of improved performance as a reg-ult of study skills training corroborates Berg and Rentel's (1966) finding that students who enrolled in study skills course raised their grade point averages. Weigal 198 and Weigal's (1963) discovery that the use of study skills by freshmen correlated with academic achievement is in line with the present finding. In consonance with the result of this study, improved academic performance had been attributed to changes in approaches to study (Katahn, Strenger & Cherry, 1967). Harris & Trujillo (1975) also obtained a similar result when their subjects reported improvement in their academic abilities and admitted that a study Programme they underwent had increased their efficiency and time spent studying. Also in line with the findings of this study is Allen's (1971) and Mitchell et al’s (1975) reports that a combination of study skills training and systematic desensitization was effective and superior in improving academic performance. The significant interaction obtained between the rows (treatments) and the columns (levels of mental ability) indicated that the mental ability of the subjects was an important factor in the result obtained, perhaps because of the high intellectual nature of Biology with various diagrams. The intellectual capacity of the subjects will therefore come to play in their receptiveness and responsive- ness to the treatment. Some studies have equally found that 199 subjects' achievement level affected their disposition to study programmes CBeneke & Harris, 1972) . Perhaps, this is the only way in which one can explain the rather surprising finding in the study; the high mental ability subjects exposed to the SQ3R treatment performed poorer in the post-test than in the pre-test! This can be attributed to some human factors in the subjects: may be these high mental ability subjects feit rather o^r- confident and were so sure of their performance that they feit no need for the acquisition of any study technique. Possibly, they viewed the therapist's effort to make them acquire the study technique as a sheer waste of their time, and so handled the post-test with so much levity that they performed poorer in it than the pre-test. Hypothesis 3 : There is no significant difference in the attitude to English comprenen- sion and Biology of subjects exposed to SQ3R and Summarization techniques and those in the control group. Results of data presented in Tables 7, 8 & 9 show that the subjects wno were exposed to SQ3R exhibited better attitude toward English Comprehension and Biology than those not so exposed, Since the new techniques proved effective in improving subjects in the cognitive area, it was then likely that the disposition of the students to the two subjects would improve hence the gain realized in the effective area. Specifically, the teaching behaviour of the therapist, vdio undertook an active teaching of Biology, was directed at stinulating the interest of the subjects and inculcating inquiry attitude in them. This is capable of engendering more favourable attitude in the subjects. Mintzes (1982) found strong relationship between students* 200 perceptions o£ the "information-transipitting" behaviour of the teacher and students achieveipent. Also, the use of interesting passages, moderately challenging, and with African background ensured that subjects had full participation during the English Comprehension sessions, more so as individual copies of the passages were provided for them. Moreover, the usual general negative attitude of students to Science was borne in mind by the therapist. For example, Newton (1975) reported that the attitude of subjects to science was generally negative, and Bohardt (1975) found a deteriora- tion of positive attitude toward science classes beginning at the 6th grade level and extending through the junior high school. The therapist therefore realized right fron the beginning that enlisting the subjects' interest in Biology was a great task, which was accomplished not only by making the Biology lessons and teaching interesting but also by making available relevant charts and diagrams, and by providing subjects with individual copies of such materials. All these interest-sustaining measures were also capable of bringing about improvement in subjects' attitude toward Biology. In addition, the intensive nature of the treatment programmes made possible repeated exposure of subjects to 201 Engliah Comprehension and Biology, and to the study techniques, a practice which, according to Zajonc (1968a), is very much attitude-enhancing. Attitüde helps to determine the extent to which the learner will be disposed to acquire a specific learning task (Bloom, 1976). The findings of the present study corroborates Ogunlade's (1981) report that behavioural group counselling led to the modification of study attitude. The results obtained also support Hough's (1982) analysis that there was a significant relationship between achievement and pupils' attitude. Ignoffo (1988) obtained a similar result as he reported some improvement on subjects and vocabulary skills as a result of improvement of attitudes. Moreover, the two school subjects used for the study, that is English Language and Biology, are compulsory for the J.S.S. III examination. This in itself is an important factor capable of increasing the subjects' commitment to any psychological treatment involving the two compulsory subjects. * Such commitment is capable of enhancing subjects' attitude towards the treatment and of ensuring consequent post­ treatment gain in attitude. The achievement of such post­ treatment attitude gain contradicts Mitchell & Simpson (1982) 202 who found that while gains in scores in Biology were significant beyond the 0.01 level of probability, changes in attitude scores were not; that is, only students' cognitive behaviour was changed during a planned introductory biology course while their attitudes either stayed the same or became slightly more negative. It is remarkable, however, that no significant inter- act'ion effect between the rows and the columns was obtained. This is because attitude comes under the affective domain which operates independent of the intellectual capacity of the subjects. Affective gain can be achieved without any recourse to mental ability as an important factor. This aspect of the findings, however, contradicts Kalejaiye (1977) who reported that brighter children tended to have more positive attitudes towards school subjects than weak ones . Hypothesis 4 : There will be no significant difference in the English Comprehension ability of subjects exposed to the SQ3R and Summarization techniques. The data presented in Tables 10, 11 & 12 indicate that the subjects exposed to the SQ3R technique scored higher in 203 English Comprehension than those exposed to Summarization technique. One possible way of explaining the SQ3R subjects' better performance over the Summarization group is tied up with the difficulty often reported in the act of summarizing. Even though the therapist broke down the activities involved into small Steps and applied behaviour modification techniques and reinforcement to ease subjects' dif-ficulty, the subjects still found Steps 3 & 4 of Summarization rather tasking. "Searching for the key points" and "Formulating concise Statements with the points" were not very easy tasks to accomplish. Carr & Ogle (1987) reported that many secondary school readeri are unaware of basic techniques such as identifying key ideas w^hich is basic to summarizing. Also Unoh (1982) identified as one of the reading problems typical of secondary school students, the difficulty in distinguishing main ideas from relevant or irrelevant deails and difficulty in reading for gist. This Situation may explain the advantage which the SQ3R had over the Summarization group. Concerning the SQ3R technique, even though Step 2 "Question" and Step 4 "Recite" are also somehow difficulty to accomplish, the comprehension - enhancing capacity of Step 2 204 tended to compensate for the difficulty. Questioning, on its own, and at any point during readingjhas been known to inprove comprehension (Fräse, 1967). The quality and the rate of comprehension were improved through the use of questioning (Brüning, 1968). Miles (1967) and Fräse & Schwarts (1975) reported that questioning activities produced higher comprehension rate than just studying. Students’ self-generated queations were discovered to be very important in enhancing reading comprehension (Singer, 1978; Dreher & Cambrell, 1985), Adejumo (1972) found that the use of students* guide questions aid comprehension and extention. The effectiveness of SQ3R in improving English Comprehension corroborates Anyaegbunam's (1979) finding that many students who used the SQ3R method of stydying gain much from their reading assignment. The finding is also in consonance with Jacobowitz's (1988) confirmation that the SQ3R technique is used for §.Qmewhat difficult learning task requiring in-depth processing. In line with the present finding is the report that the SQ3R technique was particularly helpful in the oase of inadequate study effort (Mcreynolds & Church, 1973). The finding in this study is similar to the finding of Briggs, Tosi & Morley (1971) that subjects exposed to the SQ3R study technique demonstrated higher GPA. In the same vein, students receiving lessons in the use of SQ3R method showed significant gain in GPA for three semesters following the study (Beneke & Harris, 1972). The present report about the effectiveness and superiority of SQ3R contradicts Bailey's 1988 verdict that he had tried the SQ3R approach without much success, and that students were reluctant to try it because they thought that it looked difficult and involved much work. It is noteworthy that low mental ability subjects gained more from the SQ3R technique than medium mental ability subjects in the same treatment group. This bit of the finding corroborates Williamson's (1935) report that good students necessarily study no more but usually slightly less than poor students. It is also in consonance with the report that many of the good study habits examined were repeatedly being followed more exactly by inferior students than by better ones (Cuff, 1937 ). Hypothesis 5 : There will be no significant difference in the Biology comprehension ability of subjects exposed to SQ3R 206 and Summarization techniques. The data showing the results of the test of Hypothesis 5, shown in Tables 13, 14 & 15, show that the subjects exposed to Summarization performed better in f Biology comprehension than those exposed to SQ3R. A possible explanation for this finding is that since the study of Biology involves diagrams, it might be easier to -apply the various steps of Summar iz at ion to it. Step 3 "Search for key points" and Step 4 "Formulate concise Statements" might not prove as difficult to apply as they were under English Comprehension since some of the Statements to be formulated will necessarily be replaced by labelling or reproducing some diagrams. Moreover, the- subjects might have realized the special advantage which summarization has for note-taking subjects like Biology. Lengthy notes could be studied and reduced to manageable itemized points which will be found very useful for revision during examination. Summarization is also very useful to students when they read various textbooks and attempt to have a synopis of the points read. This is highly essential these days when many students do not possess personal copies of many of the textbooks read, and they,more often than not,have to depend 207 on the libraries or on borrowing books from friends. Uwakwe and Aworh (1989) described summarizing as the process of condensing the essential Information from a piece of writing into a unified group of sentences, containing the maln ideas of the original selection. The present findings about the effectiveness of summarization tallies with the finding of Dy.er £jt ^ (1979) who discovered that more substantive Information was acquired by the group who summarized as opposed to the group that completed a spatial relations task. The results of the present study also corroborates the finding that presenting summaries, and listening to oral summaries and comprehension aid recall (Ross e_t a_l, 1976), The finding is also in line with Garner's (1982) discovery that summary writing aids comprehension since he regarded what is included and what is omitted in a Student1s written summary as a mark of what has been understood from the text. Also, similar to the present finding is Brown & Day's (1983) report that making a summary helps to improve comprehension. The finding also falls in line with the result of Hare et al's (1984) study in which two versions of summarization Inter­ vention programmes (inductive and deductive) were designed 208 and the school students instructed about their use performed better than the other group. Taylor (1982) recorded similar success with his students who learned to improve their comprehension and recall of content material when they were trained to use a hierarchical summary procedure which directed students' attention to the Organization of ideas in content textbook selections. r The present flnding about the effectiveness of summarization over another study technique (SQ3R) contradicts Arnold (1942) who discovered no difference in the effectiveness of the techniques he used among which were underlining, out- lining, simple re-reading and summarization. Hypothesis 6: There will be no significant difference in the attitude to English Comprehension and Biology of the subjects exposed to SQ3R and those exposed to Summarization techniques. The result of the test of the above hypothesis showed that the subjects who were exposed to SQ3R exhibited better attitude to English Comprehension and Biology than those exposed to Summarization (See Tables 16, 17 & 19). The better attitude which the SQ3R subjects showed toward their 209 school §.ubjects can be explained in terms of the technique’s applicability as noticed among the subjects. As earlier explained, the SQ3R technique was somehow easier and more practical for subjects to apply to both English Comprehension and Biology than summarization which many subjects found a bit tasking, and only the diagrams made its application to Biology a bit practical for the subjects. Even though checked and discouraged by ,the therapist, some lazy SQ3R subjects tried applying Step IV of the technique ("Recite") mentally, without writing down the points whereas it was not possible at all under Step IV of Summarization ("Formulate concise Statements with the key points") to dodge writing. As a result,the SQ3R subjects were better disposed to the technique and the school subjects than their summarization counterparts, This Situation may explain why the SQ3R subjects exhibited better attitude than the Summarization subjects. Another remarkable aspect of the result is that only the high and medium mental ability SQ3R subjects showed the noticed superiority in attitude in SQ3R over Summarization; the low mental ability subjects in the two treatment groups exhibited equal attitude. This shows that the attitude of the low mental ability subjects in the two study techniques was the 2 IQ same once the general improvement in the attitude of the treated subjects over the untreated (control) was achieved. This aspect of the result corroborates Kalejaiye's (1977) finding that brighter children tended to have more positive attitudes toward school subjects than weak ones. The general acquisition of a more positive attitude to academic work as a result of exposure to study techniques is in consonance with Akinboye (1974) who found that subjects whose study habits were modified changed their belief that academic task was difficult. ln line with the finding is the report that contract method of teaching with a study, skills course proved more effective as students who were exposed to the study skills course reported positive attitude change toward study (Goldman, 1978). Ogunlade's (1986) finding is similar to the finding of the present study: giving experimental and control groups pre-and post-tests of attitude, Ogunlade found that the obtained improvement came as a result of the group counselling given to assist students to improve their attitude to "dreaded" and "difficult" subjects. The general improvement of students* performance in academic, subjects as a result of improvement of attitude to 211 the subjects corroborates other studies which reported significant positive associations between attitude and achievement (Gross, 1962 ; Nielson, 1978). Similar lŷ Fenneman (1973) used attitude toward courses as one of the variables that consistently predicted achievement levels of high school Mathematics and language students. Also in line with the present result is the discovery that learning Economics is significantly associated with students' performance on test of underStanding Economics (Johnson and Adams, 1974). The present finding also agrees with Oyetunde (1986) who found some correlation between attitude to and achievement in English. A study whose finding contradicts present finding is Johnson's (1968) report that significant difference in total recalled comprehension could not be traced to differences in attitude. Implications of Findings: The study has found out that exposure of students to study techniques improved their comprehension ability. The subjects who were exposed to SQ3R and Summarization improved significantly in English Comprehension and Biology. 212 The treated subjects also exhiblted better attitude to their academic work than the control group. To achieve these results, reinforcement and some other behaviour modification techniques like shaping, modelling, rehearsal and active directive teaching were employed. The results of the study have directed attention to some gaps that need to bebtidged in oureducational System. First and foremost, there is the great need to provide secondary schools with some educational guidance which will have as the core of its Programme improvement of students* study skills. Akinboye (1977) found out that most students need some sort of psychological Support in order to overcome their study habit problems. The rationale behind this has been proved by the present and various other studies: if students possess good study habits, they will use the time spent on their studies very wisely and achieve betterresults Possessing effective study skills can lead to improved attitude towards academic work, and to improvedperformance still. In fact, courses on how to study proved so positive that it was recommended to be part of the curriculum (Azpurua-Arrillaga, 1966). Such a recommendation is also 213 relevant to the Nigerian educatlonal Situation. There is a great need to train teachers, not only to understand the relevance and need for improved study skills but also be able to take students successfully through study skills programmes. Teachers should actually be practically involved and possess positive awareness which goes beyond knowing the steps of a strategy to attaining a deeper understanding of why it works in terms of cognitive theory (Jacobowitz, 1988). Faculties of Education in Universities and Colleges of Education really need to emphasize the study, improvement aspects of their educational guidance programmes so that teachers will be able to give the necessary assistance to students in secondary schools. Also, the teaching of comprehension in secondary schools deserves some focus. Since efficient comprehension is needed for good academic performance (Longe, 1979) and slow reading comprehension rate was one of the reading problems typical of secondary school students (Unoh 1980; 1982), it then goes without saying that steps should be taken to improve students' comprehension ability, Much of what goes on in the schools in the name of comprehension has come under heavy criticism. Comprehension is not achieved through the common question and 214 answer sessions usually embarked upon by some teachers and textbooks. At best such can pass for assessment of how much the students have comprehended rather than comprehension instruction and strategies. More recent views of teaching comprehension emphasize actlve Student involvement and participatlon such as retelling, recalling, locating, pre— dicting, summarizing and paraphraslng (Rakes and Smith 1987). Most teachers ask direct literal comprehension que- stions rather than inferential or interpretive questions. Students. too get used to an^wering such questions which only scratch comprehsnion on the surface. Teachers should not assume that students already know how to read and study for comprehension. They should be able to take students through comprehension-enhancing techniques like the ones used in the present study and some others like Tussings (1962) PAT, Unoh's (1969) 3S3R, and Bailey's (1989) S-RUN. Fowler (1982) suggested using frames to guide students' responses to comprehension questions and to help them provide better answers and develop independent comprehension skills. Paragraph frames which provide a structure for organizing a students' written response to a variety of content materials have been recommended (Nichols, 1980). To 215 promote story comprehension and enjoyment among smaller children, Galda (1982) suggested discussion and dramatic plays. The present study finds that improved attitude to a subject leads to better performance in the subject. It seems relevant, therefore, to endorse a practical approach to the teaching of Science so as to improve students' attitude to Science subjects. It has been pointed out that mucn more effort needs to be concentrated on fostering desirable attitudes toward Science and the teaching of Science (Lucas, 1982). Charts and diagrams should be used to stinulate students' interest and aid comprehen- sion. This becomes more pertinent if the present-day emphasis on develop­ ment of Science and technology is to be worthwhile. There is the great need to inculcate useful general reading skills in students right from the priroary school so that by the time they get to the Junior Secondary School it will be easy to train them in the use of study techniques. The preparation of the teachers who will train tne students should emphasise both the academic and psychological areas of leaming. Teachers should possess some skills in the application of behaviour modification techniques and reinforceroent which will aid their students to leam more effectively. Adesemowo (1987) suggested that teachers should be exposed to In-Service Training and workshop experien- ces where they can acquire simple behaviour modification techniques and psychological strategies to assist students to leam more effectively. 216 Emphasis should also be placed on the important role which parents can play in ensuring that students show positive attitudes to hone assignments. As far back as 1916, Brooks found that children generally do well when their parents are capable of guiding them and are also inclined to supervise the hone study; he also found that children with disinterested parents in poor hone environ­ ments tended to have trouble in their school work. Parents should show interest in their ward's study activities and provide them with time and suitable environment to accomplish their study tasks. In conclusion, the findings of the present study should be of interest to teachers, parents, guidance counsellors, educationist generally, and policy-makers, as it called attention to the part each can play in helping students improve their academic performance through improvement in their study techniques, Suggestion for Further Researches The study looked into the improvement of students' comprehension ability through the acquisition of two study techniques: Robinson's SQ3R and Summarization. SQ3R attracted the researcher because of the often reported difficulty which 217 previous researchers had in using the techniques on students and because studies involving SQ3R and a Science subject is very scarce. Summarization was studied because of the scarcity. of studies involving the technique. Further researches could be done by. comparing the effectiveness of SQ3R or Summariza­ tion with any of the other study techniques like Pauk's 0K4R, Tuss-ing' s PAT, Unoh's 3S3R, The ERICA Programme, Bailey's S-RUN and Simon's PSRT, Also, a fertile area for further research is to look into any possible sex difference that exists in the use the of Robinson's SQ3R and Summarization, an aspect which /present study, did not cover, It is also possible to see what general effect is created on subjects' academic performance as a result of the use of any. of the two techniques to improve comprehension. 218 REFERENCES Adejumo, J .A. (1972). Use of guide questions as post organizers in verbal learning - a retrieval mechanism. West African Journal of Education, XVI, 3, 285-293. Adesemowo, P.O. (1987). Behavioual Management of School ph, obi a&. .Benin Journal of Educational Studies,6 1 2 Ad kins, D. C. & Ballif, B.L. (1967). Exploration of motivation to achieve in pre-school children. 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The relation of self-concept and reading achievement in first grade children. Journal of Educational Research,66, 378-380. Williamson, E.G. (1935). The relationship of number of hour of study to scholarship. Journal of Educational Psychology, 26, 682-688 257 Willmore, D.J.A, (1967). A comparison of four methods of studying a College textbook. Dissertation Abstract International, 27, 2413-2414. Winborn, B. & Schmidt, L. (1962). The effectiveness of short-term group counselling upon the academic achievement of potentially superior but underachieving College freshmen. Journal of Educatlonal Research, 55, 169-173. Wittmaure, B.C. (1972). Test anxiety and study habits. Journal of Educatlonal Research, 65, (8), 352-354. Wittmaier, B.C. (1976). Low test anxiety as a potential indicator of underachievement. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 9, (3), 146-151. Wittroch, M.C. (1963). Effect of certain instructions upon conceptually mediated learning. Journal of Educatlonal Psychology, 54, 85-88, Wittrock, M.C. (1981). Reading comprehension. ln F.J. Pirozzolo & M.C. Wittrock (Eds), Neuro- Psychological and Cognitive Processes in reading. New York: Academic Press. Wofford, J.C. (1968). Attitudes and Scholarstic behaviour. The Journal of Educatlonal Research, 61, (8), 360-366. Yager, R.E. & Wiek, J.W. (1966). Three emphases in teaching Biology - A Statistical comparison of results. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 4, 16-20. Zajonc, R.B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 9, (2), 1-27(a). 2-5 8 .APPENDIX A : THE SQ3R TREATMENT PROGRAMME (FOR GROUP I). WEEK 3: SESSION 3 (FOR WEEKS 1&2 SEE TREATMENT PACKAGE GENERAL PRIEMT ATI ON -1- 1% HOURS UNDER CHAPTER 1. Awareness and Motivation It has been observed that many of you students achieve low in your academic work. It may not be correct tp say that this happens because you are lazy. Many of you address yourself squarely to your books but yet you achieve poorer results than you expect. A major cause of such poor outcome after much input is defficient or inappropriate study habit. One may read for several hours; without applying the correct study technique, little will be achieved. Yet everybody knows the importance of success to a student's life. For example, you would love to be gradually promoted to higher classes so that at the end of your secondary school course, you can gain admission into higher institutions of learning, and pursue a career of your choice. This is the more reason why you have to be helped to maximize achievement and get positive results from any effort you make. One way of doing this is to acquire 259 training in the use of effective study techiques which, if well mastered and applied to your studies, will make learning more interesting to you, and yield good results. One of such techniques is Robison'6 SQ3R which can be used to handle all your subjects to make them more meaningful and easy for you to learn, understand, remember and pass very well during examinations. I have no doubt, that you would want to acquire the technique to benefit from its advantages. All that will be necessary for you to do is to be ready to learn the technique and persist until you master it very well so that you can apply it to all your subjects. As of now, training in the use of SQ3R will be given you in English Comprehension and the Biology aspect of Integrated Science. After mastering the technique, it will not be difficult for you to transfer the knowledge tö other subjects. You will then be proud of having learnt a fruitful and rewarding study technique. On my own part, I shall be ready to give all the training required and make everything as interesting as possible. 260 2, Rationale The SQ3R study formula is designed by F.P. Robinson in 1961 to make study more effective. Going carefully through each of the five Steps of the technique ensures good understanding of what is read. You will agree with me that understanding is basic to the acquisition of kno.wledge and in ensuring success in any study assignment. Moreover, questioning which is a major sub-skill in the SQ3R technique has a special advantage; it usually makes examination questions look familiär since some of the headings turned into questions are usually the ones emphasized in examinations. Are you ready to learn the study technique? Explanation: What is SQ3R? Each letter of the word Stands for each Step involved in the techiques . Survey, Quesion, Read, Recite and Review. (The therapist writes the formula and its meaning on the chalkboard). These Steps are abbreviated as SQ3R to make it easy for you to remember. In short, the five Steps - survey, question, read, recite and review - should be applied to any work you wish to study. Let us go through 261 the steps: Step I: Survey:- The first thing to do to any reading piece or study material/ is to have a general survey of the piece by glancing through the main heading, the first paragraph, the sub-headings, the underlined or italicized words, if any, and the concluding paragraph. If it is a book, you should first flip through the pages especially the preface, the content pages, the introductory pages, the chapter headings, and the concluding pages. In this way you will have a general idea of what the assignment contains, it will also be possible for you to get prepared to organize the ideas as you later read them. This length of the assignment. Mind you, this is not the actual reading of the passage but a mere quick estimate of what it is all about. Step II: Question:- You now have to form questions in your mind about what you have glanced through. Turn the main heading and the the sub-headings into questions. Ask how?what? where? and why? about what you have glanced through. This will help 262 to fire your curiosity and lead to increased comprehension. You can also read through the questions asked at the end of the, assignment so as to direct your readlng later to certain key points. This Step will demand conscious effort on your part. However, with training it can be done with ease. Having done this you are now ready for the actual read ing. Step XII: Read(RI) You will now do the intensive reading of the assign­ ment. This is not just reading, it is reading with full concentration. You have to read with an inquiry mind to answer the questions you have raised in Step II. This type of reading is different from the way you read novels or story books. You really have to address your attention and effort to the work at hand so as to ensure full and lasting comprehension. Do such reading where you know you will not be disturbed at all. You are free to use a dictionary, a map, diagrams, or any reference book to aid your reading. Don't skip graphs, diagrams and illustrations you have to master them very well. In your reading, enter fully into the world of the writer and be so much highly involved that it becomes a 263 part of you. You should really comprehend the reading to the extent that you can refer to the content and talk about it freely even after the reading is over. This is how to read efficiently for examination purpose. Pay particular attention to italicised words, phrases,and clauses which are usually used to emphasise important terms and concept, Step 4; Recite (R2);- Having completed the thorough reading of the assignment you will now turn away from the passage and recite the facts read. Can you teil yourself the substance of the section you have just read? A very useful way of testing how much you comprehend what you have read is to teach it to someone eise. Recitation in this context does not mean verbatim repetition of what you learn; it is the recalling of the substance of the passage, as much as possible in your own words. Don't be tempted to recite mentally only» your brain may deceive you; it is better to jot down the points in outline form. Note there is usually the tempta- tlon of wanting to read on and on without reciting. However, it pays to take each headed section or paragraph one by one and recite. Failure to stop and recite usually leads to 264 poor comprehension and poor memory later. If there are questions at the end of the assignment, this is the stage to attempt answering them. Reciting makes you know the points you have missed or the portion not understood. Note that this is an important step that should not be omitted otherwise your study technique will be ineffective and your comprehension inadequate. Inability to recite the facts is an indication that Step III (Reading) has not been thoroughly done. Step 5: Review (R3):~ This involves looking over the assignment or the note made to get the point that you could not recite. These are the points that have not been thoroughly understood. To review,go through the four steps of survey, question, read and recite taking the outline of the chapter or the various headings one by one. Go over the question you formed for each heading or the questions accompaying the passage and see if you can answer them, Re-read the part that you are unable to re-state or understand. Review should be done immediately after reading, and it should not be left until the examination period. This is the time to go through past examination questions based on the chapter 265 read in order to see how many of the questions you can answer. Any opportunity to discuss what has been read with other people should be seized. 4. Self-Reinformcement Subjects should be made to reinforce themselves by making the following positive Statements aloud: "I need to improve in my academic work and pass my examinat ions. I shall learn the SQ3R study formula. I shall not give up until I master it thoroughly. THB SQ3R TRAINING SESSIONS (Weeks 4-6: l-l1s“hours for each sessions) Week 4 Session I: English Comprehension: SQ3R Stops I & II: Survey and Question (English Comprehension) The therapist revised the five Steps of SQ3R with the subjects: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. Step I : Survey : - The therapist trained the subjects in the act of surveying by giving out to the subjects copies of The Forest Is Our Playground by M, Murphy and 266 K.O. Onadipe, and The Voice by G. Okara. - The therapist showed the subjects how to flip through the first book and she pointed out the different sections to survey, e.g., - The title of the book - The author of the book - The Publisher - Date & place of publication - The content page - Number of pages - Number of chapters/sub-headings under chapters. - Structure/Arrangement of the book - Questions/Question position - Conclusion - References etc. - The therapist also led the subjects to survey the second book and note the different sections. - The therapist then gave out copies of the passage to be surveyed: "Louis Pasteur" chapter 6, Pp. 37-39 of Secret Formula by McCallumJ, 267 Louis Pasteur Jack Martin went to his room immediately after the meet­ ing with Mr. Tyne and went to bed. He wnated to be up early the following morning to begin studying. So the next day he went to the library and picked up a biography of Lious Pasteur, the one that the librarian had recommended to him. Luckily, Perry Simpson, who shared his room and who was almost always there, had gone out for the day and would not be there to disturb him. More important, Perry would not see Jack take the spoonful of Mr. Tyne's secret formula. If caught, Jack had thought he might say it was cough syrup, but as he did not have a cough and as Perry was a very suspicious fellow, he feared that he would not be believed. Jack carefully poured a spoonful of the brown liquid and swallowed it. Then he turned to the first page of the biography and began to read. That night he read the handwritten pages which were the notes he had taken that day. They read as follows: Louis Pasteur, who made some of the wogt valuable discoyeries in the histöry^of Science, was a French chemist. He was born on Decy 27th, 1822 at Dole,Jura in France.Shortly after his birth his family moved to Arbois, which was where Louis attended elementary and 268 secondary school, Later he went ot the Royal College of Besancon where, ln 1840, he obtained hls degree, although he had the words "mediocre in chemistry" written on his d ip1oma. As a Student Pasteur made an obervation that was to be a guide for him the rest of hls life: "There are three things - will, work, and success - which fill human existence," Later, as a Professor, he was constantly telling his students, "You have to work,” In 1843 Pasteur entered the Ecole Normale and attended the lecures of Jean Baptlste Andres Dumas, who inspired him to study chemistry, Four years later, in 1847, he received his doctor's degree. Düring the next few years he taught physics in various universities but it was in Lille, where he was dean of the new Faculty of Science, that he was able to apply his special Interest, which was fermentation, to the manufacture of alcohol from grain and beet sugar. In 1857, as director of scientific studies at the Ecole Normale, he made the important Statement that fermentation is the result of tiny organisms found in the air, Düring the 1860s Pasteur was proclaimed the leading chemist of his day and received many great honours from 269 France and from other countries. From his experiments France and from other countries. From his experiments with fermentation came pasteurization, which was the process of the sterilization of food by controlled heat. In June, 1865, Pasteur, as an official representative of the government, went to the south of France to investigate a disease which was attacking silk worms and ruining the entire silk industry, After performing many experiments he was able to find the cause of the disease and prevent its spread, thus saving the industry. He continued to teach physics and Chemistry in differ­ ent universities and at the same time to experiment with fermentation. In many instances he worked alone. He did have one faithful assistant, however - his wife Maire, whom he had married in Lille while teaching there. Marie was a woman who devoted her life to her family and, with her husband in his experiments. Men from all over the world came to Pasteur for assis- tance. In 1877 he was asked to do something about anthrax, a disease that was killing the cattle and sheep of France. In 1880 he worked on chicken Cholera; an epidemic was destroying ten per cent of the chickens of France. He soon 270 discovered the cause and eure of the cholera and then returned to anthrax and applied to it some of the methods he had used in the chicken disease. He produced a successful inoculation material which brought on a mild attack on anthrax, making an animal immune against a stronger attack. Pasteur called this method vaccination. One of the most important of Pasteur's discoveries was the preventive treatment of rabies. He experimented with an inoculation material taken from dogs with rabies. In 1885 he successfully tried it on a nine year-old boy, Joseph Meisler, who had been bitten by a rabid dog. In 1888 the Pasteur Institute was opened in Paris and Pasteur was made director. This institute, which was con- structed by international public funds, was dedicated to the investigation and prevention of rabies. Pasteur died near St. Clud on September 28th, 1895. He was one of the greatest scientists in history. All his life he remained a man of modest means and set an example of simplicity in living. It was now twenty past ten. Jack was tired but he had found that the time had gone very rapidly and, instead of being bored, he had thoroughly enjoyed reading the 271 biography of Louis Pasteur. The librarian had been right, it was indeed a good book, Or, he wondered, had he enjoyed it because of "Frankenstein's" secret formula?. - The therapist led the subjects to survey the passage. - Verbal Reinf orcement: Whenever subjects made correct points the therapist issued encouraging remarks like: "Very Good',' "Excellent," "Welldone," "Nice point" etc. Step II: Question:- - The therapist led the subjects to turn the points surveyed in the books and the passage into quest ions e.g. , - What is the title of the book? - Who is the author? - When and where was it published? - Who was the publisher - How many pages has the book? - How many chapters has the book? - How is the book arranged? - Are there questions at the beginning, middle or 272 the end of each chapter? - The theraplst also led the subjects to do the same thing with the passage. She gave them SQ3R Worksheet I (See Appendix Ci) to assist them in surveying and raising questions. - Seif Reinforcement; The theraplst encouraged the subjects to make the following positive Statements aloud so as to boost the morale: "I need to improve in my academic work and pass my examinations. I have been introduced to the SQ3R study formula 1 shall not give up until I master it thoroughly Session II: Biology SQ3R Steps I & II: Survey & Question (Biology). The theraplst informed the subjects that she would be actively involved in teaching them some Biology topics, on which they would base the use of the new study formula. - The theraplst undertook an active teaching of Biology Study Content I: Digestion (1) using chart I (See Diagram I) to make necessary explanations. 27 3 Study Content I DIGESTION (I) Digestion is the process by which large molecules of food are broken down into simple absorbable form. Digestion and absorption take place in the alimentary canal (See Diagram I and Chart I). Digestion is brought about by means of Chemical Compounds called enzymes. Absoption is the process through which the broken-down food enters the blood vessels. As the food passes through the alimentary canal it is broken in stages until the digestible material is dissolved and absorbed. MoVememt of 'Food Through the Alimentary Canal Ingestion: the process of taking in of food. Digestion: the process of breaking the food down into simple, soluble form which the body can use. ^Egest.ion: the expulsion through the anus of undigested remains of food. 1. Digestion in the Mouth: In the mouth, the starch in the food is mixed with saliva which issecreted by the salivary gland and the process of breaking the starch down into simpler molecules is 274 started. The changes from starch to glucose is brought about by the enzymes in the saliva. 2. The Gullet or Oesophagus: From the mouth the food passes into the gullet which is a narrow tube which connects the mouth to the stomach. While the muscles above the food contract, those below it relax. Thus, the food is pushed down towards the stomach. 3. The Stomach: The stomach is a large pear-shaped, sac-like organ. It is made up of connective tissues which hold the organ together. There are also muscle tissues that contract and relax. The food which has been softened and mixed with saliva in the mouth passes down the gullet into the stomach where the gastric Juice, acidic in nature, act&on it. The stomach retains the food for three to four hours, and as a result of muscular contractions, it churns the food and reduces it to a thick creamy acidic fluid referred to as Chyme. 4. Digestion in the Duodenum: The digestive Juice from the pancreas and the bile from the liver are poured into the duodenum. The pancreas is 275 a eream-coloured gland lying below the stomach. Its cells make enzymes, and three of these enzymes act on carbohydrates, protein, and fats. Carbohydrate or Starch is broken down to glucose, protein is broken down into reptides and amino acids, while fats are split up into fatty acid and glycerol. The bile is a green, watery fluid made in the liver, stQred in the gall bladder and conducted to the duodenum by the bile duct. The bile helps to break up. fat into tiny droplets. 276 DIAGRAM I DIGESTION IN MAN MOUTH SALIVARY GLAND OESOPHAGUS (GULLET) STOMACH GALL BLADDER LIVER BILE DUCT DUODENUM PANCREAS ILEUM (SMALL INTESTINE) LARGE INTESTINE APPENDIX RECTUM ANUS 277 - The therapist then handed over to each subject a copy of study content 1 as home assignment for the subjects to apply the first two Steps of SQ3R: Survey and Question, in preparation for studying the content. The subjects were told to get a notebook each where they would do assignments given on SQ3R. Week 5 Session I: English Comprehension - The therapist opened Week 5 with a discussion about the assignment given in Biology and their application of the first two Steps of SQ3R. She asked if they had any difficulty and she ensured that the two steps were correctly applied - The therapist explained to the subjects that the next Step in the SQ3R technique is "Read" and they should really be prepared to read carefully t and deeply because real concentrated reading was involved. The therapist then explained reading in behavioural terms: (a)Always set aside a particular place and time for study-reading. 2 78 (b) Avoid procastination. (c) Ensure that the reading environment is suitable: airy, quiet, well-lit etc. (d) Keep all materials needed for the reading by you e.g. dictionary, the Reading Book, your jotter, a map, the four-figure table, the Mathematical set (if Science is studied). Then keep away other irrelevant materials that may distract your attention. (e) Keep a completely free mind. (f) Avoid other sources of distraction. (g) Read with full concentration. (h) As you read on, have a p.encil nearby to underline Strategie words and any relevant references. The therapist gave out to the subjects copies of the passage to be read: "Louis Pasteur" (See Session 4a). Modelling: With a pencil in hand and her table cleared of irrelevant materials, the therapist modelled/ demonstrated how to read deeply with full concentra­ tion and she got the subjects to watch. Rehearsal: The therapist then got the subjects to rehearse how to read, they cleared their tables leaving only the materials needed for the work at hand. They 279 sit right with their pencils in hand, ensuring that the classroom environment is free from distraction or disturbance. The therapist went round to give assistance where necessary. She told the subjects to quickly repeat the first two steps: Survey & Question before commencing the reading. - Verbal Reinforcement: Each time the subjects performed the right actions, the therapist issued encouraging remarks: "Quite goodM, ^Excellent", MFine", "Weldone", "That1s right". Session II: SQ3R Step III; Read (Biology) - The therapist again undertook an active teaching of Biology Study Content II. (Digestion II) explaining thoroughly Diagram II, Chart II: "Cross Section of the Small Intestine": Study Content 2 DIGESTION (II) Before the therapist taught more facts about digestion, she revised the main stages of digestion learnt during the last lesson: digestion in the mouth, the oesophagus (gullet), the stomach, and the duodenum. 280 The processes of digestion continue as the food already broken down passes into the: 5. Small Intestine or the Ileum: The small intestine is a long narrow tube measuring about 2.5 centrimetres in diameter and 6 metres long. The digestion is continued and completed here by the intestinal juice produced by the small intestine. By now the starchy substances (carbohydrate), the fats, and the proteins in the food have been broken down into smaller molecules of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids respectively. The body can readily use those substances because they can pass through the walls of the small intestine directly into the blood stream, This happens through the structure called VILLI in the walls of the small intestine (See Diagram II and Chart II). The Villi are fingerlike structures at the intestinal wall which provide a large surface area for the food to be absorbed into the body through the hapatic portal vein. DIAGRAM II CROSS SECTION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE MUSCULAR WALL CENTRAL CAVITY LIQUID CCNTAINING DIGESTED FOOD VILI 281 6. The Large Intestine: The large intestine is about twice the diameter, but less than one-third the length, of the small intestine. The part of the food reaching the large intestine is waste material which is useless to the body. As this waste material passes on, the large intestine absorbs any extra water it contains. The waste material thus becomes hard; and it is passed out from the body through the anus. Storage of Food in the Body Carbohydrate or starch digested into simple sugar in the alimentary canal is absorbed through the small intestine into the blood. Some of the absorbed sugar combines with oxygen to produce water, carbon dioxide and energy. Some of the unused sugar is however, converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and the muscles until when needed by the body. Some excess carbohydrate is changed by a complicated process into fat. Excess fat is deposited in the fat depots of the body, for example around the thighs abdomen and the buttocks. Excess protein is usually not stored in the body; it is changed into urea and excreted. 282 The therapist handed to the subjects a copy each of Study Content II and she told them to study it from home, applying the first three Steps of the SQ3R technique which they had learnt. Week 6 S e s s ion I : SQ3R Steps VI & V: Recite and Review (English Compre- hens ion) . - The therapist asked the subjects their experience at home as they tried to apply the first three Steps of the SQ3R technique. Subjects were encouraged to dis- cuss freely any difficulty they encountered to ensure correct application of the steps. They were also reminded that the diagrams too should be read and studied carefully. - Subjects were then told to bring out copies of the reading passage ("Louis Pasteur"). Subjects were led to read through the passage again. - The therapist then told the subjects that the next step "Recite" which is Step IV involved keeping aside the passage and jotting down the important points read. She told the subjects that this step provided 283- a test of the understanding of what was read, and she also hinted them that here the tendency to want to recite orally/mentally was great but that it would pay better to jot down the points so as to use 1t for revision toward examination period. - The therapist then gave out the SQ3R Worksheet II (See Appendix Cii) and she trained the subjects how to use it to recite point by point using the underlined words or phrases. - Token Reinforcement: The therapist went round to assist the subjects as they listed down the important points read, and she put a tick beside each point correctly recited. Step V : Review; - The therapist then trained the subjects how to review by bringing out the passage again and looking through to see. how well they have recited and the points left out or not well understood. - The therapist went round to help subjects as they added some points and corrected their jotting. 284 - Verbal Reinforcement; The therapist gave enouraging remarks whenever the subjects performed well. - Seif Reinforcement: The therapist got the subjects to make the following positive Statements: "Now, I have been introduced to the SQ3R study t echnique. I shall master it thoroughly and apply it to all my assignments',' Session II: SQ3R Steps IV & V; Recite and Review (Biology) - The therapist engaged in an active teaching 0f Biology Study Content 3 "Reproduction," giving a thorough explanation and using diagrams lila & Illb and charts III & Illb.* Study Content 3 Reproduction What is Reproduction? Reproduction refers to the process of bringing forth off-spring into existence thereby bringing about a natural increase. 285 Types of Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction: This involves the fusion of male and female sex cells to form a zygote that will later develop into an off-spring. It takes place during mating or copu- lation between male and female. Asexual Reproduction: This happens when an organism can produce two or more organisms of its own kind without involving any other organism e.g., amoeba, a unicellular organism found in water, can divide into two by asexual method of reproduction. Reproduction in Human Beings The Female Reproductive Organ: (The therapist uses Diagram m ( a ) and Chart III(b) to explain the organ to the subjects). The eggs are produced in the ovaries, of which there are two. Every month one of the ovaries releases one egg (occasionally two) which passes along tne oviduct to the uterus, or womb. The egg is tiny, and the journey takes about five days. During this time the inside wall of the uterus becomes thickened, with an extra supply of blood vessels. If the egg happens to be fertilized by a male sperm, it sticks to the wall of the uterus and begins to 286 grow. If it is not fertilized the egg dies. The extra blood supply to the uterus wall is not needed, and the cells break away , together with some blood, which leaves the body through the vagina. The bleeding which thus occurs is called menstruation, and it usually takes place every twenty-eSghth:day (roughly every month) and it lasts for about five days. The Male Reproductive Organ: The male sex cells are called sperms and are produced in the pair of testes and epididymis surrounding them. (See diagram III(b) & Chart HI(b).They pass through a long narrow tube, the sperm duct, where they are stored. Düring mating or copulation the penis fills with blood, supplied by the spermatic cord, which makes it larger and stiff. This makes it possible for it to be inserted into the vagina. Its movement in the vagina causes the sperm fluid to pass through the penis into the vagina. Before the sperms pass into the vagina, however, they mix with the secretion of Prostate and Cowpea's glands which makes it possible for the sperms to swim very well. Each sperm has a head and a tail which enable it to swim into the uterus, and on into the oviducts. If they meet with an egg they gather round it and one sperm may entfet 'arf egg and fertilize it. 287 DI AGRAM IIIA THE FEMALE REPROHJCTIVE ORGAN 288 DIAGRAM -r.HB THE MAT.B REPRODPCTIVE ORGAN 289 (ii) Subjects were encouraged to participate fully and ask questions on any point not understood. - Copies of Biology Study Content 3 were distributed to the subjects to study from home, applying the SQ3R technique. Subjects were encouraged to re­ produce and review the diagrams,too. - Seif Reinforcement: Subjects were encouraged to make the following positive Statements: "Now I have mastered the SQ3R technique. I shall always apply it to all my assignments." - Subjects' SQ3R note-book were collected and marked during the week in readiness to give the subject some feedback for the next SQ3R session. THE (SQ3R) PRACTICE SESSIONS (WEEKS 7 TO 9: 1 to 1^ HOURS FOR EACH SESSION) WEEK 7 Session I: English Comprehension - The therapist opened session 7 with a revision of the five steps of SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. - The therapist distributed to the subjects, Practice Passage I: 290 Eze Learns a Lesson This passage is taken from Eze Goes to School by Onuora Nzekwu and Michael Crowder. It is the story of a village boy and his determination to get an education at a time when it was not so easy as it is today. He had many difficulties to overcome. Many of them were caused by other people but in the following passage Eze has to face a different kind of problem. In Obodo Central School young Eze came first in the dass in all subjects except Mathematics. His closest rival was Chinwe. On the sports field Eze did well, though he could never compete In skill at football with Dede and Belu, his class-mates from Ama. Belu himself was so good that he had become captain of the school's junior t eam. There was only one thing wrong with Eze. That was his conceit. His mother had noticed it when he bullied the boys in Ohia village. Mr. Okafor had managed to eure him of it at the time, but now that he was doing so well in school, he began to talk down to many of his class-mates, especially the town boys like Onu and Nwafor, who came regularly at the bottom of the dass. Eze never tired of 291 showing off his own Cleverness at their expense, and on more than one occasion referred to them openly as thick- heads. He began to be disliked ln the dass, and even Belu and Dede found his conceit unbearable. If it had not been for the approaching examinations for Standard VI, the dass would undoubtedly have done something about Eze's pride. But the examinations were upon them before they could do anything about it. The old saying that pride goes before a fall was never truer than in Eze's case. He went in for the examinations with complete confidence that he would come first, not only out of all the people in the dass, but out of all boys taking the examination in Obodo District, which had four schools. In fact he did not even bother to study very had before the examination. That same month the result of the examination was published. Heading the list from all the four schools was the name CHINWE. Eze looked at it in horror and had to go down as far as fifth place before he found his own name. He thought of his father's warning: 'My son, you must never never let the girl, Chinwe» beat you in school.1 When Eze reached Ohia his mother flung her arms around him embracing him closely, and congratulating him on his 292 success, for, as always happens in Africa, news. travels fast; and the whole village had heard that Eze had gained fifth place out of all the boys in Obodo. Everyone came to congratulate him as the first fruit of their scholarship scheine. Chickens and a special soup were prepared for dinner that night. But Eze did not eat much. His mother could not discover why., in the midst of his success he looked so unhappy. But she did notice he was a little humbler, a little more respectful than she could remember him being for a long time. - The subjects were led to apply the SQ3R technique step by step, carrying the whole da s s along, at the same pace and ensuring that each step was correctly applied. - Token & Verbal Reinforcement; The therapist went round to put a tick beside each point correctly recited in their SQ3R notebook and to reward each subject's effort by making encouraging remarks. - Seif Reinforcement: Subjects were encouraged to make positive self-statements. Session II: SQ3R Practice; Biology - Feedback: The therapist gave back to the subjects their SQ3R notebook? so that knowing their performance will reinforce further interest. 293 - A general discussion about the subjects' assignment and performance was undertaken. Subjects were reminded that diagrams should also be studied, and they should attempt reproducing the diagrams under Step IV, "Recite". - Active Teaching: The therapist taught the subjects Biology - Study Content 4 using Charts IVä & IVb on which ' the application of SQ3R will be based. Study Content 4 Fertilization/Sex Determination Fertilization: Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gamete during copulation or mating; it takes place in the female oviduct. (See Diagram & Chart IVa). Millions of sperms are produced but only one fertilizes the egg. Each parent, therefore, contributes an equal share, in the form of sex cells to the formation of a new baby. After fertiliza­ tion the egg moves into the uterus and attaches itself to the uterus wall. The egg then divides to form the embryo which Starts developing to form the baby. The embryo develops a rootlike growth called placenta which is closely 294 joined to the uterus wall. Through the placenta the embry.o obtains all it needs to grow into the full-sized baby. Note that the mother and the baby have separate blood Systems. It takes about nine months for the embryo to grow to the size it will be when it is born. The time it takes the child to grow in the womb between fertilization and birth is called the GESTATION PERIOD. Düring thi$. time the mother is said to be pregnant. When the baby is ready to be born, the muscles of the uterus contract pushing the baby out through the vagina. Immediately the baby is born it Starts to breathe, using its lungs, and it soon Starts to suck milk from its mother. (See Diagram IVa for Reproduction Cycle). Sex Determination: A woman's sex cells consist of a pair of X chromosomes (xx). (Use Diagram IVB on Chart IVB to explain this) and those of a man releases X and Y chromosomes and the woman releases her own XX chromosomes. If the female egg is fertilized by the X Chromosome of the man, a baby girl will be born. If, on the other hand, the female egg is fertilized by the Y chromosomes of the man, a baby boy will be born. 2 95 The male 1s therefore the determining factor of whether a boy or a girl will be born. (Discuss the relevance or the day-to-day application of this fact about sex determinat ion with the subject): some men accuse and victimize their wives for bringing forth female children all the time as if the vornan alone carries the blame. Such people should be enlightened about how a baby's sex is determined. (For Diagrams IV(a) & IV(b) see pages 296 and 297. - A copy of study content 4 was then given to each subject to study from home applying the SQ3R technique. Week 8 Session I; SQ3R Practice (English Comprehension) - The therapist gave subjects Practice Passagen, "The Great Elephant Bird." The Great Elephant-bird (This is the title of the first story in a collection of twenty tales by the famous Nigerian author, Cyprian Ekwensi. If you like reading traditional stories, handed down from one generation to another for hundreds of years, 296 DIAGRAM 5A FERTILIZATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS IN MAMMALS .FERTILIZ ATION \ ZYGOTE QVIDUCT PLACENTA CLEAVAGE OF THE ZYGOTE VAGINA DIAGRAM 5B 298 then this is the book to read. But as you read them, remember what the author teils us in the introductory note: 'If the reader wants to capture the traditional atmosphere of these tales, he must remeber that they used to be told only at night', for it was believed that the narrator's mother would die if they were told by day). The envy of his fellow-men forced a certain man to move into the forest to live with his wife and seven children. It was such a lonely spot that the woman had to set off at dawn for market and never got back before dark. Whenever she left a great Elephant-bird used to come and look round the settlement, watching the children with hungry eyes. The man had seen this Elephant-bird kill all sorts of animals, and he was not happy about these visits. He warned his wife to be careful where she walked. There was no knowing what the great bird was capable of doing. One market-day the man said to his wife: 'You'll have to feed the children now. You're going to market and may not return tili late, and I have to go into the bush. I want to get some poisoned arrows made to destroy this Elephant-bird. I am getting really afraid of him As soon as the woman had paddled her canoe across the river and the man had disappeared into the forest, the 299 great bird emerged. 'My son, where is your mother?" 'She's gone to Amagu market.' 'And where is your father?' 'He's gone to get sQme arrows made.' 'What will he do with the arrows?' 'He wants to kill the great Elephant-bird.' 'Does he?1 • The Elephant-bird looked down at the little boy, and with one peck swallowed him. Every market-day the father went to meet the man who was making the arrows and the mother went to market. The bird never failed to come, and on each occasion it swalloed another of the seven children. On the seventh market-day the father returned to find the bird threatening the last of his sons. 'He's gone to get arrows, has he?' ' Yes.' 'What does he hope to do with them?' 'He hopes to kill the great Elephant-bird.' 'I see.' It was in the act of swallowing the boy when an arrow twanged through the air. The bird, pierced through the throat, feil shrieking to the ground and died. The father rushed towards it, cut it open and removed hi§. sons. From the bush he got a certain herb, and squeezed its juice into the eyes of his dead sons. Five of them sprang to their feet, but the last one was too far gone. From that day onwards the man andhis family lived in peace. - Subjects were allowed to go on at their own pace in the 100 application of the SQ3R Steps. The therapist, however, went round to give assistance where necessary and to apply Verbal and Token Reinforcements as in previous sessions. - The therapist asked the subjects how many of them were already applying the SQ3R technique to all their studies generally. Subjects were then given some hints to follow to be able to use the technique in natural context: (a) Avoid procas t inat ion : tackle your study assignments immediately they are given, t© a,void accuiwlation and consequent rushing, as the application of the technique takes scme time. (b) Keep a free mind so as to be able to concentrate on the correct application of each step. (c) Avoid distraction so as to spend your time at study wisely otherwise the application of the technique may look unnecessarily cumbersone. (d) If possible, cultivate time and place habits for study, and any time you are digturbed, look for a more suitable place of study. (e) Always apply self-reinforcement to boost your own ego and feel better disposed to apply the technique always. 301 Session II: SQ3R Practice: Biology. - Feedback: Subjects' SQ3R notebooks were distributed so that they could see how they performed in the last assignment. - The therapist went over the assignment, noted subjects' performance and helped them when they encountered any difficulty in the application of the technique. The therapist reminded the subjects not to leave out the diagrams but to reproduce them or label already drawn diagrams when they got to Step IV, "Recite'.' The therapist encouraged the subjects to ask questions and discuss any difficulty they had with the therapist. - The therapist then engaged in an Active Directive Teaching of Biology Study Content V: Study Content 5 (a) Secondary Sex Changes / Family Tree At a stage during the individual's growth some changes occur in the body to indicate that the individual is sexually mature and that he/>she has reached puberty. These changes are controlled by sex homoneg which are produced at sexual maturity. Hormones are Chemical substances which 302 help to co-ordinate the functions of the body. Sex hormones stimulate the growth of the sexual organj at the time of puberty.. Puberty occurs. tKQ or more years earlier in girls than in boys; it occurs in girls between 11/12-14 years and in boys between 13-15 years. Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics The first signs of sexual maturation in girls are: (i) the enlargement of the breasts. (ii) the enlargement of the pelvis (iii) the appearance of hair on the pubic regions and the arm-pits. Then follows the first menstraution. Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics The first signs of sexual maturation in girls are: (i) Pubic hair and hair in the arm-pits. (ii) the growth of facial hair i.e. the beard and the moustache. (iii) the breaking and the deepening of the voice. Then occurs increase in the size of the reproductive organs including the penis. 303 (b) FAMILY TREE Man reproduces and brings forth up-spring from genera­ tion to generation. This ensures the continuity of the family. The traits or characteristics feature transmitted and how they develop in an individual can be studied by making observations of similarities existing among members of a family. A method of doing this is by preparing a family tree. A family tree refers to lines of generation of parents and offspring and it traces the descendants of a man and his wife/wives. Note that where the man has more than one wife, each wife will make up one unit. (See Diagram V on page 304) - Subjects were given a copy of study content V to study from home applying the SQ3R technique. - The therapist collected subjects' SQ3R notebooks during the week for grading 304 DIAGRAM V A FAMILY TREE SHOWING THREE GENERATIONS 3RD GENERATION First generation is represented by a man & his wife. Second generation: their children-three sons and a daughter. Third generation: their grandchildren. . KEY 0 Culled from P. 14,Female STAN Nigerian Integrated Science Project Pupils* Male Textbook III,.Heinemann 1 Educ. Books (Nig.) Ltd. 1985. 1• Des Cendant s — Marriage lines Lines of generation 305 Week 9 Session I : SQ3R Practice (English Comprehension) (i) Ther therapist gave out to the subjects Practice Passage III: "The Wrestlers": The Wrestlers The drummers took up their sticks again and the air shivered and grew tense like a tightened bow. The two teams were facing each other across the clear space. A young man from one team danced across the the centre to the other side and pointed at whomever he wanted to fight. They danced back to the centre together and then closed in. There were twelve men on each side and the challenge went from one side to the other. Two judges walked around the wrestlers and when they thought they were equally matched, stopped them. Five matches ended in this way. But the really exciting moments were when a man was thrown. The huge voice of the crowd then rose to the sky and in every direction. It was even heard in the surrounding villages. The last match was between the leaders of the teams. They were among the best wrestlers in all the nine villages. The crowd wondered who would throw the other this year. Some said Okafo was the better man; others said he was not the equal of Ikezue. Last year neither of them had thrown the other even though the judges had allowed the 306 contest to go on longer than was the custom. They had the same style and one saw the other's plans beforehand. It might happen agaln this year. Dusk was already approaching when their contest began. The drums went mad and the crowds also. They surged forward as the two young men danced into the circle. The palm fronds were helpless in keeping them back. Ikezue held out his right hand. Okafo seized it, and they closed in. It was a fierce contest. Ikezue tried to dig in his right heel behind Okafo so as to throw him backwards in the clever ege style. But the one knew what the other was thinking. The crowd had surrounded and swallowed up the drummer§., whose frantic rhythm was no longer only a sound but the very heart-beat of the people. The wrestlers were now almost motionless in each other's grip. The muscles on their thighs and on their backs stood out. It looked like an equal match. The two judges were already moving forward to separate them when Ikezue, now desperate, went down quickly on one knee in an attempt to fling his man backwards over his head. It was a sad miscalculation, Quick as lightning Ok^fo raised his right leg and swung it over his rival's head. The crowd burst 307 into a thunderous roar. Okafo was swept off his feet by his supporters and carried home shoulder-high. They sang his praise and the young women clapped their hands. 'Who will wrestle for our village? Okafo will wrestle for our village. Has he thrown a hundred men? He has thrown four hundred men. Has he thrown a hundred Cats? He ha§. thrown four hundred Cats. Then send him WQrd to fight for us. - The therapist repeated the first three Steps of session I under week 8. - The therapist reminded the subjects to use the SQ3R technique in all their study assignment. While the therapist moved round the dass to help subjects where necessary, there was also great emphasis on subects' self-monitoring and self-management of the technique application. - Seif Reinforcement: Subjects were asked to make the following positive Statements: "Now, I have mastered the SQ3R study formula,I shall always apply it to all my studies." 308 Session II: SQ3R Practice: Biology - The therapist repeated the first three Steps °f session II under Week 8. - The therapist then taught the subjects study content 6: "Health and its Maintenance": Study Content 6 Health and its Maintenance Health is the state of total well-being of an individual, it is not merely the absence of disease or informity. Levels of Health: The health of an individual varies from time to time within three levels. There are: 1. Optimal level: The highest level of health where an individual is able to function beyond his normal capacity without any trouble. 2. Average level: This is the level when an individual is not able to function beyond his normal capacity. 3. Low level; This is a stage at which an individual functions below his normal ability e.g. when one is tired or during lllness. 309 Ways of Maintaining Good Health A person is healthy and lives a full life when he eats good food, and also does the following: (1) Wears clean clothes (ii) Maintains personal cleanliness. (iii) Lives in a clean environment (iv) Avoids bad habit such as smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol. (v) Stays away from drug abuse. (vi) Takes adequate rest. Good hygiene involves taking care of the body and this includes the following: (a) Food: A person must take food everyday in order to enjoy good health. The food should contain carbohydrates, protein, fats, Vitamins and mineral salts in reasonableproportion. These food items must be in sufficient quality and quantity. Also, there must be enough water taken daily. The meals must be enough water taken daily. The meals must be taken at regulär times, at least thrice daily because regulär meals will make the digestive System work efficiently. 3 LO (b) Exereise: It is necessary to take some physical exercises at appropriate times. Games and sports such as football, basket-ball, netball, running and jumping etc are necessary to keep the body fit. Violent or over-active exercises should be avoided since they way be dangerous. Effects of Exercises on Health: When exercises are taken regularly, adequately and in fresh air, their value and benefit are considerable: 1. The appetite is increased and easy digestion and free movement of the bowel occurs. 2. Mental work is done with greater ease because a sound body contains a sound mind. 3. Good muscle tone is developed. 4. The lungs are expanded, thus increasing the rate of respiration. 5. Excretory Organs work better as the skin sweats more freely. 6. The heart pumps more blood round the body to all tissues. The Common III-health Most of the diseases which make man ill are due to a particular organism which harbours itself in the body of 311 man, working places and play-grounds. They may enter the body through the mouth when man eats, through the nostrils when he breathes, and it may become parasitic on the skin. The raajor cau§.ative agents of diseases causing ill- health are bacteria, viruses, fungi and worms. The sources of infection may be by contact, infected air droplets, contaminated food or water, and insect vectors. Some diseases causing ill-health measles, small pox, Influenza, mumps, whooping cough, and tuberculosis. Prevention of Diseases Causing Ill-health 1. Avoid over-crowding especially in living, working and sleeping rooms. 2. Rooms must be well ventilated so as to en^.ure a good supply of fresh air. 3. There should be good hygiene of the body and environ­ ment . 4. All affected persons should be taken to the hospital and treated immediately. 5. Spitting in the public should be avoided. 6. Appropriate immunization and vaccination should be g iven. 312 - The therapist encouraged the subjects to study, from home the Biology lesson just taught. Subjects were also reminded to study all the other subjects using the SQ3R techniques; they were to report any difficulty encountered to the therapist for assistance. r Subjects' notebooks were graded during the week and returned to them for effective feedback of their performance. Weeks 10 & 11: Post - Tests The therapist gave the subjects post-tests in the same way pre-tests were organized (See Weeks 10 & 11 under 'Treatment Package' in Chapter II). 313 APPENDIX B THE SUMM ARIZ ATION TREATMENT PROGRAMME (FOR GROUP B) WEEK 3: SESSION 3 GENERAL ORIENTATION: 1 - 1% HOURS 1. Awareness and Motivation. It has been observed that many of you students achieve low in your academic work. It may not be correct to say that this happens because you are lazy. Many of you address yourselves squarely to your books but yet you achieve poorer results than your expected. A major cause of such poor outcome after much input is deficient or inappropriate study habit. One may read for several hours, without applying the correct study technique, little will be achieved. Yet every- body knows the iitiportance of success to a Student's life. For example, you would love to be gradually promoted to higher clas$.ses so that at the end of your secondary school Programme, you can gain admission into higher institutions of learning such a§ universities,Polytechnics and Colleges of Education where you can pursue a life career. This is the more reason why you have to be helped to maximize achievement and get positive results from any effort you make. One way of doing this is acquire training in the use of effective study techniques which, if well mastered and 314 applied to your studies, will malte learning more interesting to you, and yield good results. One of such techniques is summarization which can be used to handle all your subjects to make them more meaningful and easy for you to learn, understand, remember, and pass very well during examination. I have no doubt that you would want to learn the technique to benefit from its advantages. All that will be nec-essary for you to do i% to be ready to learn the technique and persist until you master it very well so that you can apply it to all your subjects. As of now, training in the use of Summarization will be given in English Comprehension and the Biology aspect of Integrated Science. After mastering the technique, it will not be difficult for you to transfer the knowledge to other subjects. You will then be proud of having learnt a fruitful and rewarding study technique. On my own part, I shall be ready, to give you all the training required and make everything as interesting as poss ible. 2. Rationale The Summarization technique is applied to make study more effective. Going carefully through each of the five steps of the technique ensures good understanding of what 315 is studied. You will agree with me that underatanding is basic to the acquisition of knowledge and in ensuring success in any study assignment. Moreover, searching for the key points which is a major sub-skill in Summarization will prove very useful for revision during examination because it brings the main points together and makes them easy to remember. Are you ready to learn the Summarization study technique? 3. Introduction What is Summarization? Summarization mainly involves the intensive and thorough reading of a study assignment to the stage that one under- stands it very well to be able to fish out the key points. Such key points are then used to build up some concise statementg. which will be representative of the whole content read . Thus, there are five main Steps involved in Summarization 1. Preview the passage. 2. Read inten^ively 3. Search for the key points 4. Formulate concise Statement. 5. Glance through the jtassage again. 316 (The therapist writes the five Steps on the chalk-board)• Step: Pre-vlew the passage:- The first thing to do to any study assignment is to pre-view it; look through to see its main features. You will note its main heading,its sub-headings, the underlined words, words italicized, the number of ptaragraphs, the length of the assignment etc. This is an essential step you must take before the actual reading commences. If it is a book, you should, in the same way, flip through the book to note the author, the publisher, the year of publication, the number of chapters and their titles. Stepp II: Reading intensively - You will first undertake an undisturbed and initerrupted reading of the assignment. This. type of reading should be done in a quiet environment where there will be no distraction. You ahould get so involved in the reading that you enter into the author's world and understand hig. megsage. You should be clear about the content of every paragraph in the reading assignment. Note that you are free to make ug.e of any material that will aid your reading. For example,you can make use of your dictionary if you wish, and you can check up relevant diagrams that will aid comprehension. 317 Step III; Search for the key points:- You now have to pick out the important points and write them down. Sometimes the key points are contained in the opening sentences of a paragraph. Sometimes they are here and there in the paragraph, and sometimes they are contained in the concluding sentences of the paragraph. Inability to search for the key points is a mark of poor comprehension. Step IV: Formulate consice Statements with the key points Here, you now use the key points to build up short direct Statements which, when put together will be representative of the passage. You need to note certain points: (a) Do not use too many words. In fact, the Statements need not be written in complete sentences. If, the summary is too long it will involve much waste of t ime. (b) Avoid Statements that are too narrow because such Statements will not contain all the main points. Step V ; Glance through the passage again:- This is the time to take out the passage and look through again to see how much of it has been understood. You should also read through the Statement and add the missing points. 318 Therapist once agaln went over the five steps of Summarization and she told them that ln subsequent sesslons, they would be taken through the practical application of the steps. 4. Self-Reinforcement: Subjects should be made to reinforce themsleves by making the following positive Statements.' "i need to improve in my academic work I shall learn the Summarization technique I shall not give up until I master it thoroughly\' THE TRAINING SESSIONS WEEK 4 Session I: Summarization Steps I & II English ComprehensIon Step I: Pre-view the passage Step II: Read intensively - The therapist trained the subjects to apply the first two steps ~f Summarization thus: Step I: (i) The erapist distributed to the subjects the two books on which the pre-viewing training activities were based: The Forest Is, Our Play-ground by M. Murphy & K. Onadipe. - The therapist led the subjects to flip through the books one after the other, taking note of the title, the 319 author, the publisher, the content page, the number of pages, the number of chapters and the chapter headings etc. - The therapist al$.o handed to the subjects the passage to be previewed: Chapter 6 "Louis Pasteur" by. G.P. McCallum (See Week 4, Session I, Appendix A) . The subjects were led to pre-view the passage. - - Token (Verbal Reinforcement): The therapist issued encouraging remarks e.g., "Very Good," "Excellent," "Weldone" etc each time the subject mentioned a relevant portion of the books and the passage pre­ viewed . Step II; Read intensively. - The therapist discussed with the subjects the psycholo gical preparations and the behavioural activities involved in reading intensively: (a) Set aside a particular time and space for s.tudy_ing. All the materials needed for the study should be placed on the table e.g., a dictionary, a map etc. (b) Keep away other items to avoid distraction. (c) Secure a quiet and conducive environment for the study (d) Keep your mind clear of all worries. (e) Read with full concentration. 320 - Modelling; The therapist modelled how to read intensively while the subjects paid attention, interpreted the cues provided by the therapist and asked questions. - Rehearsal; Subjects were led to clear their tables of irrelevant materials capable of causing distraction, and to commence the real undisturbed reading with ' understanding. The therapist went round to give necessary assistance. - Seif Reinforcement: Subjects were encouraged to make the following positive self-statements: "I need to improve in my academic work and pass my examinat ions. I have been introduced to the Summarization study technique. I shall not give up until I master it thoroughly. Session II; Summarization Steps I & II: Biology - The therapist taught the subjects some Biology contents on which further practice in the use of Summarization Steps I & II will be based: using Chart I ("Digestion I") the therapist engaged in the active teaching of study 321 content I:"Digestions I" (See Week 4 Session II Appendix A for Study Content I). Subjects were encouraged to participate fully in the lesson and to ask questions. Subjects were given copies of study Content I and they were instructed to study the noteS at home, applying the first two Steps of the Summarization technique. WEEK 5 Session I; f Summarization: Step II:- Search for the key points English Comprehension - The therapist asked the subjects* their experiences with the assignment given during the last training session. Problems encountered in their application of the first two step.s of Summarization were discussed and solved subjects were encouraged to pay attention to the diagrams and study them thoroughly. - The therapist told the subjects to bring out the Reading passage: "Louis Pasteur" and she trained the subjects to go through again, still with a pencil in hand to really search for and underline the key points in the passage. The attention of the subjects was 322 called to the position of the key sentences/key points: sometimes they are located at the beginning, middle or end of the paragraphs. - Therapist applied Verbal Reinforcement each time the subjects located a correct key point. - Subjects were given the Summarization Worksheet I (See Appendix D) and they were trained to write down the key - points. The therapist carried along the whole dass at the same pace to ensure proper training. Session II: Summarization: Step III - Search for the key points - The therapist again engaged in an active teaching of Biology Study Content II: "Digestion II." With the aid of Chart II ("Digestion II"), the therapist gave a thorogh explanation of the topice and she encouraged the subjects to participate fully and ask question (See Week, Session II, Appendix A for the full detail of Study Content I) . - The therapist then distributed copies of Study Content II to the subjects to study from home applying the first three steps of Summarization. - Seif-Reinforcement: The therapist encouraged the subjects to utter some positive seif Statements as 323 Week 4, Session II. Week 6 Ses s ion I; Summarization Steps IV & V: Formulate Concise Statements and Glance through the passage again English Comprehension Step IV: Formulate Concise Statements. - The therapist asked the subjects to bring out their assignment - Summarization, Stepsl — III applied to Biology Study Content II. The therapist went round very quickly to inspect the assignment and to put a tick beside each key point correctly lis.ted (Token Reinforcement). Subjects were encouraged to discuss freely any. difficulty they had. - The therapist told the subjects that the next Step was to make some concise Statements using the key points listed. Subjects were encouraged to put the actual away passage/and the therapist distributed Summarization Workshett II (See Appendix D) to the subjects and she then trained them to make the Statements, calling their attention to the following hints: (a) The Statement should be concise to avoid boring and time-consuming write-upi 324 (b) Complete sentences need not be insisted upon always. (c) Avoid Statements that are too narrow because such sentences. will not take all the relevant points. (d) Avoid Statements that are too broad because such Statements would contain irrelevant and extraneous materials. - The therapist went through the worksheet and the sample Statements given she encourages ths. subjects to formulate their own Statements, with the key points. - The therapist applied Verbal and Seif Reinforcements as before. Step V : Glance through the passage again. - The therapist told the subjects that they were free to bring out the passage again to look through so as to check how correctly they have been able to summarize it, and to include the missing points. Session II: Step IV: Make concise Statements(with the key points) and Step V: Glance through the passage again. Biology - The therapist used Chart lila ("The Female Reproductive "Organ") and Chart Illb ("The Male Reproductive Organ") to teach the subjects Study Content III "Reproduction" (See Appendix A for details). She explained the topic 325 thoroughly and ensured subjects' full participation in the lessön. Subjects Here encouraged to ask questions as the lesson went on. The therapist then distributed copies of Biology Study Content III to the subjects for hoine assignment: they were to study it applying all the five Steps of Summarization learnt. The therapist collected the subjects' summarization notebook during the week to grade them for ready feed­ back during the next Session. THE PRACTICE SESSIONS WEEK 7 Session I: English Comprehension The therapist opened session 7 with a revision of the five Steps of the Summarization technique: (1) Preview the passage (2) Read intensively (3) Search for the key points (4) Formulate concise Statements (5) Glance through the passage again. 326 - The therapist gave out copies of Practice Passage I "Eze Learns a Lesson" (see Appendix A, Week 7(1) for the full text of the passage) the subjects, and led them to apply the five steps of Summarization. The therapist monitored the step by Step application of the technique and raade the whole dass go on at roughly the same pace. She provided assistance where necessary and ensured that each step was correctly applied. - Verbal Reinforcement: The therapist issued encouraging remarks to make the subjects put in more effort. - Token Reinforcement: The therapist went round to put a tick beside each correct application of the steps. Session II: Biology - The therapist gave the subjects some feedback from the last assignment done: the subjects were given back their summarization notebook to check through to see their performance. - The therapist actively undertook the teaching of Biology Study, Content IV - "Fertilization/Sex Determination (See Appendix A, Week 7(11) for full text of Subject, Content IV using Charts IV(a) 327 "Fertilization" and IV(b) "Sex Determination" to give thorough explanation of the content and the diagrams. Subjects were encouraged to actively take part in the lesson and ask questions where necessary, Assignment: The therapist distributed to the subjects copies of Study Content IV; they were to study it using Summarlzation technique. The therapist collected subjects' Summarization note­ book during the week for grading. W E E K 8 Session I: English Comprehension The therapist revised the five Steps of Summarization with the subjects. The therapist distributed Practice Passage II: "The Great Elephant Bird (See Appendix A, week 8(11) for full text of the passage) to the subjects and she got the subjects to tackle reading and compre- hending it using the Summarization technique. The therapist went round to give assistance when • necessary: subjects were allowed to go on independently at their own pace to encourage self-monitoring of the technique application. 320 - The therapist applied Verbal and Token Relnforcments (as in previous sessions) as she went roundto mark their work. - Subjects were encouraged to reinforce themselves by making some positive self-statements to boost their morale and pledge the determination to use the Summarization technique to study all their subjects. - The therapist then discussed with the subjects the strategies for maintaining this newly acquired technique in natural setting: 1. Always study where there are no distractions. 2. Maintain a place and time-habit of study. 3. Avoid procastination. 4. Keep a free mind.- 5. If you encounter any distraction at study, leave that place and look for a more suitable place. Session II; Biology - Feedback: The therapist distributed subjects' Summarization notebook and she engendered a general discussion about subjects' performance; she further encouraged them to persist in the use of the technique in all their subjects. 329 The therapist called the subjects' attention to the fact that they should try their hands at reproducing the diagrams or at labelling already drawn diagrams when they came to Step IV of techniqüe. Active Teaching: The therapist taught Biology study content V: "Secondary Sex Characteristics (See Appendix A, teek 8(11) for full text of the study content to the subjects making use of Chart V "Family Tree" for full explanation of the content and the diagram. The therapist then distributed copies of Study Content V to the subjects as their assignment; they were to study it from home applying the Summarization technique. Subjects were to submit their Summarization note-books during the week for grading and ready feedback during the next session. WEEK 9 Session I: - The therapist distributed Practice Passage III to the subjects ("The Wrestlers." See Appendix A, Week 9 9(II)for full text of the passage). - The subjects were encouraged to study the passage using the Summarization technique. Subjects were allowed allowed to apply the technique Step by Step 330 at their own pace. This was to ensure self-monitoring and self-sustenance at using the technique. - The therapist, however, went round to give assistance and encouraging remarks in appreciation of subjects' efforts (Verbal Reinforcement). Token Reinforcement: The therapist put a tick beside each step of the technique correctly applied. Session II: Biology - The therapist repeated the first two Steps of tfeek 8, Session II. - The therapist undertook the active teaching of Biology Study Content VI: "Health and its maintenance "(See Appendix A, Neek 9(11), for full text of Study Content VI). Subjects were encouraged to participate fully in the lesson and to ask relevant questions. - Subjects were given copies of Study Content VI to study from home using the Summarization technique. Subjects were also remlnded to use the new technique when studying all the other school subjects. They were encouraged to refer any difficulty encountered to the therapist. All the diagrams, tables and figures they 331 came across in their studies should be handled under Step IV. - Subjects' Summarization notebooks were collected during the week and returned to them. Weeks 10 & 11 Post Tests The therapist gave the subjects post-tests in the same way pre-tests were given, (See Weeks 10 & 11 under 'Treatment Package' in Chapter II). 332 APPENDIX C(i) SQ3R WORKSHEET I Step I: Survey___________________ _____Step II? Question (i) Title/Heading of the passage What is the title/heading of Ui) Sub-headings passage? ( i ü ) Length of the passage Are there sub-heading? (iv) .Number of paragraphs (v) Type of passage: Prose, Play, Poetry (vi) Form of writing Conversational expsitory (vii) Words in italics, bold face, words underlined Cviii) Question position 333 APPENDIX C (ii) SQ3R WORKSHEET II Step IV: Recite Points read in the passage: Ist page (i) Jack went to the library (ii) Borrowed a book on Louis Pasteur (iii) Louis Pasteur, achemist, born Dec. 27th 1822. (iv) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2nd page (i) Pasteur stressed "Will, work, success" (ii) Pasteur stated; Fermentation is the result of tiny organism found in the air. (iii) ------------------------------------------------------ (iv) ----------------------------------------------------------- 3nd page (i) Found the cause and eure of cholera (ii) ------------------------------------------------------ (üi) ------------------------ -------------------- -------- (iv) ------------------------------------------------------ 334 APPENDIX D (i) Summarizatlon Worksheet I Step III: Search for the key points Page I: Library, Book on Louis Pasteur,a chemist, Page II; Pasteur's guide words. Fermentation, silk worms etc. Page III: Cause and eure of cholera; rabies-preventive treatment, Pasteur Institute ---------------------------------------- 335 APPENDIX D (ii) SummarizatIon Worksheet II Step IV: Make concise Statements Page I; Jack Martin went to the library. Borrowed a book on Louis Pasteur w h o ----------- ------------------------------------- Page II: Pasteur's guide words were: Will, work and success. Stated that fermentation is the result of tiny organisms in the air— Page III: Pasteur discovered (i) Cause & eure of Cholera (ii) Preventive treatment of rabies. Became the Director of Pasteur Institute, Paris. -____________________________ 33 6 APPENDIX E (i) RAVEN'S STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATKICES KEY . _________ ______&_______ ______c_______ E. --JL . t - l 2 i ft i 3 1 7 2 5 2 6 2 1 2 rt- 2 e 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 & 4 2 4 2 4 8 4 7 4 z 5 6 5 1 5 5 8 57 l , 6 3 6 3 6 tl 6 6 6 5 7 6 7 5 7 7 5 7 1 8 2. 8 6 8 81 3 4- 6 9 1 9 .4 - 9 7 9 1 9 3 10 3 10 3 10 6 10 2 40 1 11 11 11 1 11 5 11 4- 12 5 12 5 12 s 12 G 12 5 337 STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES ANSWER SHEET E(ii) Name .. Age..... . ... Date of Birth Sĉ ooi Class...................................... Town Home Address Father's Job Yourown Job < F ....... ; a i V X ^ ]B ? c . D E | 1 1 1 5 1 12 2 2 • 2 2 3 3 3 ! 3 3 4 4 4 4 i- ^ 5 5 5 t 5 ; 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7/ € \ 7 8 8 8 8 ' 8 ! 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 V 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 Time * Total Grade T*st*r! hv. 338 APPENDIX F English Comprehension Test Instructions: Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions at etid of the passages. Write down only the letters of the correct answers. DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS QUESTION PAPER. PASSAGE I Efficiency in reading is not acquired overnight. It is something one develops over a long period of time, with practice. While the practice continues, it is essential that one shakes off a number of practices which lower reading speed and reduce comprehension. Let us examine a few of such practices in this passage. To Start with, a person who whispers the word to himself, moving the lips as he reads, cannot read fast. Why? For the simple reason that he is very much like the person reading the words aloud. Both are similarly moving the lips, only that one is pronouncing them inaudibly. Now, a person who is speaking can never cover as many words as another who is reading entirely silently. Pronoucing the words reduces the number of words one can possibly cover at a time, because it makes one to focus on one word at a time - the one being 339 pronounced. This happens whether one is reading aloud or whispering to one's seif. Moreover, tracing the lines with one's finger reduces the rate of reading considerably. The reason is simple - the finger can touch one word at a time. And this tends to limit one to a word at a time. It is exactly like a person fixing his eyes on one word at a time. This trait of tracing the lines with the finger is much similar to what a child learning to read does. He tries to recognise one word at a time. Sometimes he has to struggle with the word, spelling it and thinking about it before he can proceed to the next word. Very old people with poor eye-sight often do it too. Now you are not learning how to read. So you have no cause to pronounce a word silently before you grasp its meaning. The eyes and the brain, and not the lips, should do the reading. You are neither a beginner, learner nor a very old reader. So- you have no cause to trace the lines with the finger. Stop moving your lips, stop moving your finger across the page, Then you will read fast. When reading a book, we need to ask ourselves whether we are reading with the eyes or with the head. This question 340 is crucial because a number of people have cultivated the practice of moving the head from the left to the right as they follow the words from the left to the right across the page. The practice does not encourage fast reading because it tends to fix one's head and eyes to soie specific words, and the head does not move on to other words until the mind has thoroughly digested the words one after the other. It is very much like what happens with tracing the lines with the finger. Equally bad is the practice of stopping on some difficult or stränge words to check up the meaning in the dictionary, come to think of it. It takes about a whole minute even for a mature reader to check up the meaning of a word in the dictionary. That is much precious length of time. And if you have to check up the meanings of two or more words from the dictionary while reading a short passage, then you waste very many precious minutes. The ideal is to try to deduce or reason out the meaning of a difficult word. If you have been following the passage carefully, you should be able to reason out the meaning of a word from the way it is used in the passage. 341 Finally, think of the so many minutes a person wastes by going back to consider a word one has passed over earlier on. This is called regression, and it ls a mark of immaturity in reading. While it may be conceded that one has the natural tendency to look at a stränge word a second time, when one does this too often, it becomes an incurable habi-t, something one does with almost every key word. It is ideal to train one's seif to resist the urge to go back to any important word in a passage. Just let your mind absorb it, reason out its possible meaning, and leave it alone. To sum up, a good reader should hold the head in one constant position, do an intelligent guessing of the meaning of difficult words, and resist the urge to go back to a Strange or difficult word. Ques t ions : 1. From the opening paragraph, we can say the writer's Intention in this passage is to (a) analyse a number of dos and don'ts about reading. (b) discuss how to practise fast reading techniques. (c) analyze factors that reduce reading efficiency. 342 (d) analyze factors that promote reading efficiency. (e) inform readers about various forms of reading. 2. Why does a person moving the lips read much more slowly than one whose lips never move? (a) Readers pronouncing the words internally or externally deal with one word at a time. (b) A person moving his lips is held down by difficult words (c) A person moving his lips tends to focus on stränge words (d) A person whispering to himself tends to disturb himself with his own whispering. (e) ' All of the above. 3. Why does tracing the lines with the finger reduce reading rate? (a) The finger stays longer on stränge words. (b) The finger cannot be as fast as the eyes. (c) The finger often stays to the wrong line. (d) The finger tends to make one focus on one word at a time (e) The reader becomes tired and unable to read. 4. In what way is a child learning to read much like an old person trying to read? (a) Both have poor eye-sights. (b) Both aid their comprehension with the finger. (c) In both caseŜ much of spelling of words is done. (d) Both cannot go to the next word until they have finished with one. (e) Both are very inexperienced. 5. What assumption does the writer make about the reader of this passage? (a) That the reader is in-between a child and an old man. (b) That the reader does not practise any of the poor reading habits. (c) That the reader is already a fast reader. (d) That the reader has achieved so much in life. (e) That the reader has achieved so little in life. 343 6. What does a person fixing his eyes on words have in common with a person tracing the words with his fingers? (a) They read at a considerably reduced rate. (b) They undertake simple reading always. (c) They are limited to a word at a time. (d) 'b' & 'c'. (e) ' a ' & ' c ' . 7. Efficient reading involves mainly (a) . the brain and the lips.- (b) the eyes and the brain.- (c) the fingers and the brain* (d) the eyes and the fingers. (e) the eyes and the lips. 8. By saying 'reading with our head' the writer means (a) following the ideas very closely.- (b) storing the prints in the reader's head. (c) saying the words as one reads them. (d) reading with one's head correctly balanced, (e) moving the head as one reads the words. 9. Moving the head across the page and tracing the lines with the finger are much alike because (a) in each of them, something is moving, (b) both tend to make one whisper one word at a time, (c) each one makes one study words too closely, (d) both fix one's attention to one word at a time. (e) both the head and the fingers are parts of the body. 10. Checking up words' meanings in the dictionary does not encourage rapid reading because (a) it takes time to check words from the dictionary. (b) dictionaries often give imprecise meanings. (c) it is often not easy to find a word in the dictionary. 344 (d) this makes a reader focus his attention on two books at a time. (e) the dictionary may not be available all the time. 11. What does the writer recommend regarding difficult or stränge words? (a) Ignore them entirely. (b) Skip such words and rely on other words. (c) Replace such words with other words .• (d) Suess the meaning of such words , (e) Deduce the meanings as used in context. 12 . What do you think is the most import factor responsible for regression? (a) Indulging one's seif with the use of the dictionary. (b) Finding a word difficult or stränge. (c) Fixing one's eyes on a word 4 (d) Believing that one cannot reason out the meanings . (e) Wanting to use words within their context. 13. Regression in reading is common with (a) people who are very experienced at reading. (b) people who do plenty of reading. ( c) people whose reading is disturbed . (d) people who have little to read, (e) people who are inexperienced at reading. 14. According to the passage, efficient reading is hindred by (a) tracing the words with one's finger. (b) whispering the words to oneself as one reads on . (c) moving one's head from left to right, (d) all of the above .• (e) none of the above. 345 PASSAGE 2 The conditions under which you read are often as important as your habits of reading. To read under very poor light is to strain your eyes. Often, when the light is too dim, you may have to Interrupt the reading and move to an area where there is more light or you adjust the angle at which the book is turned towards the source of light. The strain on the eyes caused by the poor light, is often similar to the strain suffered when one has bad eye- s ight . Moreover, for a person with normal eye-sight to read with glasses could be disastrous. If a person with normal eye-sight tries on a pair of glasses normally used by a friend, then he would not see properly, or he may suffer a lot of strain. Similarly, to read with dark glasses under the shade is to create some problem for the eyes. The fact is that one should read under conditions much similar to what the eyes are normally used to. Music, we know, is a stimulant to many human activities. Some people work better when there is some form of soft music from a recorder. But music of any kind does not seem 346 to help the exercise of reading. Much as the brain is a most versatile organ, it allows a man to cope with only one activity at a time. If you try to listen to music, or worse still news, while you are reading, then you will find yourself either coping with the reading and not the music, or with the music and not the reading. _ Also, it has been established that a person's reading rate and comprehension level vary according to the stage reached on a reading task. When a person is just starting a new book, the enthusiasm for the book makes the reading smooth and fast. But when the initial enthusiasm drops, after the first chapter or so, then the reading be- comes more tedious and slower. This persists tili one is approaching the end. At about a chapter or two to the end, the reading rate picks up, and the reading is much smoother. These facts account for why a person tends to remember facts from the beginning and end of a novel much more than those from the middle. To some extent, this is what happens with a passage, especially a long one. The efficient reader does not only read quite often, he also reads with an alert mind. As he reads along, he 347 allows himself to communicate with the author. He does not read passively but actively. So, he discusses the ideas as he reads along. For instance, as he reads a detective story, he constantly asks questions. "Will the robber be caught by the policeman?" "Oh, why should a man say such a thing to an officer of the law?" He also tries to predict and judge. So, he could say to himself, "No man ever does this kind of thing and gets away." "Well, that serves him right." "I suppose this chap is being prepared for the gallows; he has no other place to end up." In this matter, with a lot of anticipation for what is to happen, the mind is kept eternally active. Anticipation quickens the pace of reading, and also sharpens comprehension. This is why it has been claimed that the faster reader com- prehends more. It is because the mind is fully opened to allow ideas flow in unhindered; because the mind is made to use the ideas; and because the thinking ahead allows the mind to analyse the relationships between one thing and another. The active reader will never complain about what materials there are to read. Perhaps he has to read and establish what the theme of a novel is before the next literature dass; he 348 also wants to read about a football match as reported in the day's papers; and he has to read his economics text- book to find out what the law of diminishing returns is all about. Yet, he has only a very limited time at his disposal. He would carve out the time to read everything all the same, only that he has to zoom through some, trot through some, and wade through others. An efficient reader, then reads meanings and ideas rather than individual words. He deals with the totality of the words rather than focus on individual words. He is too busy reacting to the reading to be able to see individual words. Ques t ions 15. The effect which poor light has on one's reading (a) results in one suspending the reading ; (b) causes one to go back to words already passed over* (c) makes one not to comprehend the passage* (d) leads to disgust for the reading. (e) is similar to the problem caused by bad eye-sight. 16. Using a friend's eye-glasses (a) could promote reading efficiency. (b) makes one to stumble over the printed pages* (c) reduces one's comprehension ability» (d) could cause strain similar to that caused by bad eye-sig (e) could create some Problems for the owner of the glasses. 17. Why should one not read while listening to music? (a) The brain cannot cope with two things at a time. 349 (b) One enjoys reading partially and music partially. (c) One enjoys neither the music nor the reading, (d) Music may make a person doze off while reading. (e) One enjoys the reading and the music equally. 18. Why do a person's reading rate and comprehension level reduce when getting half-way with the passage or a book? (a) The middle is usually the most difficult. (b) The concepts in the middle are most complex. (c) Enthusiasm drops at that stage. (d) The middle is usually the least interesting. (e) The middle is usually the most interesting and difficult. 19. What effect does reduction in reading rate and comprehension level (when getting half-way with a book or passage) have on one's performance? (a) One often reads the beginning and the end only. (b) Many people often read the end more carefully in order to remember the facts. (c) Many people often remember facts more from the middle. (d) Many people often dodge reading the middle. (e) One often remembers facts more from the beginning and the end. 20. The best conditions recommended for reading are (a) those newly created during the reading. (b) those the eyes are accustomed to, (c) those specially arranged for the reading. (d) those made brighter to aid the reading. (e) those slightly shaded from the bright sun. 21. Reading with dark glasses under the shade (a) is the best condition for reading. (b) assists the eyes to focus right.- (c) keeps the eyes in good state always. 350 (d) cannot be done for a long time« (e) gives the eyes a difficult task to do. 22 . What does the writer mean when he says the efficient reader communicates with the author? (a) He discusses directly with the author, (b) He tosses up the writer1s ideas in his mind. (c) He intentionally decides to disprove the author1s ideas. (d) He readily accepts everything the author says. (e) He exchanges ideas with the author. 23. The fast reader may comprehend more because he (a) covers more words. (b) makes his mind to use the ideas in the passage* (c) thinks ahead and analysis the author's ideas* (d) anticipates what is to happen, and it very active* (e) keeps his mind open always. 24. What does the word "anticipation" mean? (a) Elaboration (b) premonit ion (c) Forestalling (d) Prediction (e) Expectation 25. When the writer says the good reader will never complain, what do we understand the reader will never complain about? (a) H aving to read for too long, (b) H aving to read difficult material? (c) H aving to read uniteresting materials* (d) H aving too much to read* (e) H aving too little to read. 351 26. What does the author mean when he says the reader has to zoom through some materials, wade through some, and trot through others? (a) That he has to be prersistent at reading the materials (b) That he has to Vary his reading speed according to the content (c) That he has to read the same way no matter how different the materials are, (d) That he has to vary the kinds of materials that he reads .- (e) That he has to vary his interest for the different kinds of materials he reads. 27. What does the writer mean by saying that a reader reads meanings and ideas rather than words? (a) The reader has next to nothing to do with individual words. (b) The reader focuses more on the section where the meanings and ideas are,* (c) The reader emphasizes overail meaning and ideas rather than individual words.' (d) The meanings and ideas are more glaring to the reader than the words, (e) No word can be read unless the reader attaches the meanings and ideas. 28. The active reader would carve out the time to read everything suggests that (a) the active reader flnds time out of his tight schedule to attend to all his reading work. (b) the active reader sets aside a particular time for reading; (c) the active reader can read everything within a specific time.- (d) the active reader reads everything he comes across, (e) the active reader can do plenty of reading within a minimum time. 352 PASSAGE 3 It was barely five in the morning. Right from outside the window nearest his pillow, the sound of someone sweeping filtered through. An incurably late sleeper, Mr. Sola Adeola normally slept soundly tili daybreak. But the stubborn sound of the broom filtered through and disturbed his sleep. At first he assumed it must be his niece Lola; but then he remembered that Lola hardly ever got up before six. Who eise could it be then? Ukechi? He peered at the other bed; she was on bed all right. Yet the sweeping continued until it faded away. Whoever the person was, she (or could it be he?) must have finished sweeping. Lola it must be, he con- cluded. He feil back on to his pillow, sleeping again, tili Ukechi woke him up. "Sola, morning, ready for school." "Oh-h-h, Ukechi, morning," Sola greeted his wife. "Yes, dear." "Was 'Lola sweeping outside before day-break?" "Lola? Oh yes. She normally sweeps; but that's when I'ra cooking." 353 "Somebody was sweeping, before day break." "You were dreaming perhaps?" "No, I heard someone sweeping." "Can't be. I woke Lola up when I was going to the kitchen; at six." "Well, maybe I was... all right, Ukechi. Bye." "Bye bye." The following morning, at half past five, Sola woke her up "Listen carefully, Ukechi." "What's it, Sola?" "Oh, talk quietly . Listen carefully. Who's that sweeping ?" For long minutes, the couple feit a stränge sense of fear. Gingerly stealthily, they seached through the house. Lola was on bed, snoring. For the next half hour, they listened helplessly until the sweeper finished with her (or his?) work, and walked away. That day, Sola decided to build a fence with a strong gate, or employ a nightguard. They had continued to put the two issues forward for the past eighteen months since they moved into their then half completed house. However, a 354 block fence is not a structure one puts up over-night. Not, at least when a large plot of half an acre is to be covered. Not if you want a very strong, structurally flawless work. And not if you need to bargain with the bank manager for a loan or an overdraft. Sola settled on engaging a night- guard, at least meanwhile. But he discovered night-guards were difficult to come by. One after the other of the polytechnic's night guards consulted merely promised to be on the look-out for any yet unengaged guard. Promises, promises, and yet more promises. The day ended without any hope of having a night guard within the next few days. A strong matchet, a long club, and the sharp kitchen knife. Sola readied everything within his reach before going to bed. He wished he had had a pistol. This night, he swore, he would catch and possibly maim the stränge person who constantly called to sweep. But then, Sola reasoned, the stränge sweeper might not be malicious. Whoever she (or he) could be had been coming for days and leaving quietly. Nothing had been found missing nothing was tampered with. And, indeed, sweeping could not be regarded as an idea of a malicious mind. Sola reasoned he must handle the intruder cautiously. But, resolved he, catch 355 her he must. When, the following morning, he heard the sweeping, he looked at his weapons, got up and dressed. It was half past five. He assured himself that this was not another dream. Dressed,matchet and club ln hands, he marched into the sitting room. About to open the entrance door, his hands failed him. Fear gripped him. This time it was not the reasoning about the intent of the weeper that stopped him. It was a stränge fear of the unknown. He walked back into his room, and woke up Ukechi. They both listened, but couldn't act. They heard the sweeping ended, and the sweeper walking away. None talked. "When Ukechi had left for school, Sola ate his break­ fast quietly. Sadly, he pondered over this development about which he seemed helpless. Sola then developed the habit of terminating his sleep a little after five in the morning. While not leaving his bed, all his senses would be at alert. Tamed by the stränge sweeper who came regularly, he had thought of and dismissed, numerous explanations for the development. Gradually, Sola had built up in his mind a fearful Image of the sweeper as a powerful fiend. This fiend of a sweeper must be caught, 356 he decided, even if he died in the process. He opened his eyes wide, and watched the seconds of his watch tick by. Then half past five. No sound yet. Perhaps the devil knew she (or he?) was being awaited today. Soon, however, the sound filtered through the window pare. Sola carefully peered through and saw the figure. He carefully opened the door and teasured his Steps towards the outside. Nearer he went. By now, only a few Steps separated him from her. He decided to hold her from behind, descending like lightening on her. One step, then another. Then, up stood the figure, looking back. The tall slender frame transfixed Sola. He stood still and surveyed her. "Good morning, Sir." "Yes, morning." He was at a loss as to what next to say. So was she. Apparently he had not expected this civil turn of events. Here was she talking in human language, and, from what he could see, she was smiling. At last, Sola heaved. "Who are you?" he asked. "Elizabeth, Sir." "I don't know you. 357 "Your wife knows me," she said. "I am her Student." "Student? Student?" It was almost incredible to him that the flend could turn out to be a Student. QuestIons ; 29. Mr. Sola Adeola was dlsturbed by the thought of someone sweeping his compound because (a) of its timing , (b) no one in the house usually swept that way. (c) none in the household could be sweeping. (d) he reacts to sweeping done at any time, (e) no one in the house told him to expect such a favour. 30. After waking up from his sleep, he listened and then slept again, because (a) the sweeping was done far away from him. (b) he was particularly tired the previous night, (c) it was a very cold night. (d) the sweeping sent him back to sleep. (e) he normally slept late and woke late. 31. When Ukechi was leaving for school, her husband was (a) ready for breakfast. (b) also ready for work. (c) still sleep in g. (d) still in bed- (e) getting ready to call for help. 32. Although the couple was sure a stranger was sweeping outside the house, Mr. Adeola could not act because he (a) did not fully decide on what to do. (b) was somewhat afraid of the stränge sweeper , (c) had decided to leave the sweeper alone. (d) had not got enough weapons to fight the sweeper. (e) was indifferent about the sweeper. 358 33. He did nothing to keep the sweeper out, though he wanted to because (a) he was unable to build a fence quickly. (b) the night-guards were afraid of sweeping in such a house. (c) he had decided to leave the sweeper alone. (d) he could not get builders to erect a fence. (e) the fence was not strong enough. 34. Why had Mr. Adeola thought of attacking the sweeper? (a) He thought the person had bad intentions. (b) -He thought the person was a spirit. (c) He thought the person was a thief. (d) He thought of teaching the sweeper a lesson. (e) He didn't reason about it. 35. Which is not a reason for Mr. Adeola's inability to build the fence? (a) He had no money. (b) A fence takes some time to build. (c) Mr. Adeola wanted to fence a large area of land. (d) Mr. Adeola wanted a thoroughly built fence. (e) Mr. Adeola could not get any approval to build the fence. 36. In the passage the Impression created about night guards is that (a) their Job is very risky* (b) people respect them a lot* (c) they are always in high demand* (d) they always make promises that are not fulfilled.- (e) they are always unengaged. 37. Mr. Adeola wanted to use the matchet to (a) fight off the possible attack by the sweeper. (b) provoke the sweeper into a fight« (c) kill the devil* (d) frighten the sweeper*, (e) cut off the devil's neck. VI 359 38. When the girl, who had been throught to be a fiend appeared, Mr, Adeola was (a) angry« (b) amused« (c) surprised* (d) please* (e) happy. 39. Each time his sleep was disrupted, Mr. Adeola stayed in - bed (a) praying and watching. (b) listening and watching« (c) dosing and praying« (d) whispering and praying. (e) whispering and talking. 40. Which word leöst describes Mr, Adeola's movement towards the devil? (a) Sadly, (b) Carefully. (c) Quietlyt (d) Slowly. (e) Gently. 41. The best way to describe the mood of the sweeper is (a) sad and surprised. (b) sorrowful and sympathetic. (c) surprised and sympathetic. (d) pleasant and cheerful. (e) happy and surprised. 360 PASSAGE 4 Mr. Sola Adeola was on eighty kilometres an hour, through the narrow streets of Ibadan. Although the clty slept at that dark hour, the road welcomed anything but speed. He heard his wife groaning at the rear seat, his mother comforting her. He wanted to look at the two women, but restrained himself. Rather he looked into the lirror to spy them. It was less than half a second, but the result was almost disastrous. The car ran into a deep gully right in the centre of the road. He swerved. The resultant skid nearly proved too costly. Recovering from the near mishap, he resumed the race. The car drove through the open gate of the hospital and pulled up at the entrance to the emergency ward. As he jumped down and joined his mother to help Ukechi out, some hospital ward assistants stepped out to help. It was two in the morning. As she was placed on the stretcher, Ukechi was still bleeding. From the intermittent squeezing of her face, the hospital hands knew she was under labour. They knew which doctor to call on phone. Meanwhile, the staff midwife ordered her wheeled off into the labour room. At the door, 361 Sola and his mother were stopped while Ukechi was wheeled in. Soon after, the nurse came back to collect her hospital card from Sola. A little later, the senior midwife stepped out. Sola looked at her hoping to be re-assured by her appearance. But one couldn't decide anything from her look. She asked, "How-many months is she?" "Months? oh, I see, seven and half, almost eight." "Was there any particularly striking incident before this started?" she continued, "I mean, something like a fall, f ight, or ..." "Oh, nothing of the sort; nothing at all." She turned towards the room. Just then, Sola snapped after her. "Please, is the doctor coming?" "The doctor, well, he has been informed on the phone. He should be here very soon." "Is she all right?" Sola's mother asked. "Don't worry, mama." And the midwife went away, apparently eager to nip further questions in the bud. Mother and son were once again in a world of cold silence. Sola debated with himself various 362 actions he could possibly take - go for the doctor him- self, walk in and comfort his wife whose sobs he could hear from outside, go to the nearby chapel and pray - but he dismissed each one and remained still. It was much later that someone walked quietly in. "Good morning." Sola started up, surpised at the suddenness of the greeting. He stared wide-eyed at the figure. It was the doctor. "Morning, doctor." He wanted to say many things, make a thousand request, narrate what had happened as vividly as he could. But the doctor glided away into the labour room as quietly as he had appeared. Somehow, Sola feit greatly snubbed. An hour later, nurses dashed out and rushed back, taking with them one instrument or the other. Not one of them seemed in the mood to entertain any questions. They merely nodded when Sola and his mother greeted. It was agonising experience, this method of keeping him in the dark. He was however continually reassured by Ukechi's groans. That way he knew she was still struggling. 363 By day break, he was allowed into the labour room. To his dismay, the doctor was no-where to be found. It then occurred to him that the doctor had not stayed long with his wife but had left by the other door. Ukechi said she was assured by the doctor that she would soon be alright, that she had had an injection after some examinations, and that the doctor had been coming and going apparently shuttling between his Office and the labour room. However, the groan- ing continued as did her profuse tears and moans that she was losing her baby which had chosen to come prematurely. Utterly at a loss as to what to do, fearing lest the worst might happen, Sola himself dropped his tears. It was then the doctor came back. He looked at Sola who bent his head. The doctor didn't like what he saw. Tears shed by patients' relatives never helped. He would not allow this show where the patient needed encouragement and re-assurance. Gently, he showed Sola the door and bade him goodbye. Alone, he walked home. Questions: 42. Although the road was narrow, Mr. Adeola could drive fast because (a) the road was a new one» (b) the road was fairly smooth. 364 (c) the people there stayed away from the road, (d) he didn’t care if he had an accident, (e) there were no other vehicles or people on the road. 43. Why did Mrs. Ukechi Adeola have to be helped out of the car? (a) She probably could not stand, (b) She was probably unconscious, (c) He child was halfway out, (d) She could not Step out smartly enough, (e) She was somehow dying away. 44. Düring the time between the admission of Ukechi into the labour room and the stepping out of the senior midwife, the later was probably (a) writing prescriptions for Ukechi, (b) taking delivery of Ukechi's baby, (c) examining Ukechi and asking questions, (d) discussing with the doctor, (e) taking instructions from the doctor. 45. The words of the midwife apparently (a) were fully comforting to Mr. Adeola , (b) were totally disheartening to Mr. Adeola. (c) did not fully comfort Mr. Adeola, (d) did much to kill Mr. Adeola’s spirit, (e) annoyed Mr. Adeola. 46. Mr. Adeola feit defeated when the doctor went into the labour room because (a) the doctor rejected his requests, (b) he couldn't express himself before the doctor left. (c) he was slighted by the doctor, (d) the doctor left before Sola could recognise him. (e) the doctor did not understand his request. 365 47. Why was Mrs. Adeola sobbing? (a) Her pains were too severe. ' (b) The labour was not progressing well. (c) The doctor told her something terrible. (d) she remembered something terrible. (e) Her pregnancy was not fully ripe. 48. Ukechi squeezed her face (a) when she wanted to breathe in properlyt (b) when other people were around. (c) to warm the hospital stafft (d) r when she was in pain. (e) to make her husband tremble, 49. How best can one describle Mr, Sola Adeola as he waited outside? (a) Annoyed. (b) Confused. (c) Happy. (d) Embarrassed. (e) Sorrowful. 50. The doctor walked quickly in before Sola could greet him because (a) he was pursued, (b) he did not want anybody to see him. (c) doctors don't like greeting people. (d) he was in a hurry to see a patient. (e) his friend was wanting for him in his Office. 366 APPENDIX G ITEM ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH COMPREHENSION TEST ITEM SCORING DIFFICULTY DISCRIMINA- ITEM SCORING DIFFI­ DISCRMINA- KEY INDEX TING POWER NO KEY CULTY TING NO INDIX POWER % % 1 C 48 0.56 26 B 48 0.46 2 A 52 0.49 27 C 52 0.53 3 B 54 0.60 28 A 49 0.48 4 D 49 0.53 29 C 54 0.54 5 A 50 0.58 30 E 49 0.57 6 E 53 0.47 31 D 46 0.60 7 B 47 0.58 32 B 51 0.49 8 E 51 0.42 33 A 50 0.55 9 D 49 0.57 34 A 52 0.50 10 A 52 0.46 35 E 47 0.59 11 E 54 0.61 36 C 45 0.65 12 B 48 0.55 37 A 51 0.49 13 E 46 0.52 38 C 48 0.56 14 D 53 0.48 39 B 48 0.61 15 E 47 0.50 40 A 54 0.45 16 D 52 0.45 41 D 53 0.56 17 A 49 0.59 42 E 49 0.62 18 C 54 0.66 43 D 52 0.58 19 E 48 0.52 44 C 54 0.47 20 B 51 0.57 45 C 45 0.56 21 E 54 0.49 46 B 52 0.53 22 B 46 0.47 47 E 48 0.49 23 C 49 0.53 48 D 46 24 0.60E 50 0.56 25 49 B 53D 0.4553 0.58 50 D 51 0.48 Mean Difficulty of the test - % 1 Mean Discrimination r 367 APPENDIX H BIOLOGY COMPREHENS ION TEST Instructions: Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions at the end of the passages. Write down only the letters of the correct answers. PLEASE, DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS QUESTION PAPER. Passage 1 Reptlies Reptiles are an important group of vertebrates in the tropics; they include lizards, snakes, tortoises, alligators and crocodiles. They have dry, scaly, water proof skin. The dry scales which completely cover their bodies prevent them from drying up. In this way, lizards are provided with suitable external covering for life on land. Most of them, except snakes, have two pairs of limbs, ending with claws on the digits and located at the sides of the body. Reptiles wriggle on the ground since support for their bodies above the ground is usually difficult to achieve. They have lost nearly all traces of adaptation to water. Reptiles are cold- blooded hence their body temperature is poikilothermal, varying according to the temperature of the environ­ ment. They bask in the sun during most of the day, except at the hottest time of the day when they seek the shade. 368 The lizard, of which the Agama type is the most common in Nigeria, is a reptile worthy of consideration. Lizards often live in groups of up to ten, and they are very active during the day time. The male lizards is usually more brightly coloured and bigger than the female or the young one s. The lizard has a distinct wedge-shaped head separated from the trunk by a neck. Its tail, extending from the hind part of the cylindrical trunk,is about one and a half times as long as the remainder of the lizard. Brightly coloured, horny, overlapping scale, capable of colour change for disguise, cover the body in diagonal rows. The mouth can be I opened wide to reveal identical conical-shaped teeth used for crushing mosquitoes, ants and bettles trapped on its sticky tongues before swallowing them. The lizard uses its lungs for breathing and so its nostrils, situated above the mouth, remain permanently open. It has slightly protruding eyes protected by upper and lower movable eyelids, blinking membrane, and a ridge of scales. The eardrums are found behind and below the eyes in shallow depressions on the skin. During attack a lizard can detach a protion of its long tail which goes on wriggling for some 369 time while the lizard makes its escape. However, in time, a new tail, which is shorter than the original one, grows. The legs of the lizard are bent outwards at an angle to the body, and this makes it difficult for it to raise its body from the ground. The inability to Support its body constantly above the ground accounts for the swift forward dash which the lizard makes along the ground, up tree trunks, ceilings and walls. The claws at the end of the limbs are used to hold family to the surface climbed. When the lizard is not moving its whole body rests on the ground. Lizards live in colonies containing about thirjry females, many young immature lizards of both sexes, and a dominant male which attracts more female lizards into its territory but fights off any intruding adult male lizard. Düring courtship, adult female lizard attracts the male by posturing before the brightly coloured male. The male respond by chasing and mounting the female and then introducing its gamete to fertilize the eggs in the female. The eggs later develop and the female lizard digs a hole in the soil, lays between five to seven eggs there, and covers them with soil. The eggs increase in size by absorbing water from the surrounding soil and swelling to 3 70 several times their original size. There is normally no parental care, but after about six to seven weeks, the eggs hatch into young lizards and crawl to the surface of the soil to live normal life. The young lizards grow rapidly and by eighteen months they are fully matured. Que s t ions: 1. Which of the following Statements is true of lizards? (a) The male lizard is stronger than the female. (b) The female lizard shows more parental care than the male, (c) The male lizard is bigger than the female. (d) The male lizard is fatter than the female, (e) The female lizard is bigger than the male. 2. Reptiles live successfully on land because (a) they have long tail covered with scales, (b) they are vertebrates. (c) they have dry scaly digits» (d) they have two pairs of scaly limbs. (e) they have dry scales on their bodies, 3. Which is the best reason for the lizards nostrils remaining open always? (a) It breathes with its lungs, (b) The lungs and nostrils are near. (c) 1t has narrow lungs. (d) The lungs and nostrils are far, (e) It does not use the lungs. 4. Raising the body above the ground is difficult for the lizard because (a) its movement is akways swift. (b) the lizard is heavy, (c) the ground is usually rough, (d) the temperature of the ground is suitable^ (e) its legs are bent outward. 371 5. In order to disguise a lizard (a) runs quickly to a short distance * (b) ceases to be brightly coloured * (c) covers up its body (d) changes the colour its horsy scales (e) climbs, quiety up a tree trunk 6. Which Statement best describes a lizardk movement? (a) Jumping, climbing and running, (b) Running, wriggling and jumping, (c) Hopping, wriggling and climbing, (d) Running, climbing and hopping, (e) Wriggling, running and climbing. 7 . A male lizard does all of these, except (a) admitting an adult male into its territory, (b) attracting more female lizards. (c) fertilizing the female's eggs, (d) running quickly up ceilings and walls. (e) chasing and mounting the female. 8. Which is true about courtship in lizards? (a) The male attracts the female, (b) Both the male and female attract each other. (c) The female lizard attract the male. (d) Many male lizards attract the female. (e) None of them attracts each other. 9. In a colony of lizards one is likely to find (a) many female lizards and the young ones . (b) many female lizards, young lizards and one male lizard. (c) many male and female lizards. (d) many male lizards, one female lizard and young lizards . (d) many male lizards and the young lizards. 3 72 10. In lizards (a) fertilization is internal. (b) fertilization is external. (c) fertilization is both internal and external« (d) fertilization is niether internal nor external» (e) fertilization does not take place. 11. The body of a lizard is divided into (a) head, trunk and tail. (b) head, tail, trunk and neck, (c) trunk, head, neck and tail. (d) head, neck, trunk and tail, (e) head, tail and trunk. 12. A lizard's tail is (a) as long as the remainder of the lizard. (b) shorter than the remainder of the lizard, (c) longer than the remainder of the lizard. (d) neither longer nor shorter than the remainder of the lizard. (e) longer and thicker than the remaining of the lizard. 13. After laying the eggs (a) the male lizard shows parental concern. (b) lizards generally do not show parental concern. (c) the female lizard shows parental concern, (d) both male and female show parental concern. (e) young lizards show parental concern. 14. Lizards' food consists mainly of (a) small leaves. (b) seeds and leaves. (c) insects and small leaves. (d) seeds. (e) insects. 15. The body temperature of the lizard is (a) constant. (d) neither variable nor (b) variable and constant. constant. (c) variable. (e) occasionally constant« 373 Passage II Fishes Fishes are vertebrates specially adapted for life in water; they are found in rivers, lakes and Coastal waters. They have stream-lined bodies covered with overlapping, waterproof scales. Fishes are cold-blooded since their body temperature is variable and it depends on the temperature of the environment. There is no external division between the head, body and tail of fishes, which makes it easy for them to move in water. The colouring of their scales allows for Camouflage against enemies: their dark dorsal surface blends with the dark sea floor making it difficult for enemies from above to see them while their white ventral surface makes it difficult for enemies approaching from below to detect them. There are two main groups of fishes, the cartilagious and the bony fishes. The cartilagious fishes (i.e sharks and rays) have skeleton made of a soft, flexible tissue called cartilage. The bony ones are the fishes whose skeleton is made of bone e.g., sardine, cod herring and tilapia. Fishes breathe by means of gills and this makes it impossible for them to breathe outside water. The gills 374 are heavily supplied with blood vessels, and are protected by the operculum. Water containing oxygen rushes into the gills and the oxygen is absorbed by the blood vessels of the gils, from where 1t is carried to the tissues. Beside the gills, some fishes have "lungs" which are actually swim bladders. Such fishes are able to float or sink by inflating or deflating the swim-bladders which are thin-walled gas-filled sacs. Fishes have two eyes, each one lying on either side of the head. They have no eyelids, their eyes are protected by a transparent membrane. They have nostrils which are used for smelling only,since the ability to smell is very important to a fish. The nostrils are never used for breathing. Fishes can select their food by taste. Some fishes, which are carnivorous, eat other fishes smaller than themselves. Others which eat plants are herbivorous while those feeding on both plants and animalS : are omnivorous. They detect sounds and vibrations in the water by means of lateral lines which are sense organs. The fins of fishes are modified into limbs which are used to swim as well as to guide themselves through the 375 water. They are three median unpaired fins: a dorsal fin on the back of the body, a caudal fin at the end of the tail and an anal fin below the tail. There are also the two apired fins: the paired pectoral fins behind the gill­ cover, modified as fore-limbs; and the paired pelvic fins modified as hind-limbs, fishesmove in water by swimming, brought about by the rhythmic contractions of the body muscles, For rapid movement, the paired fins are folded close to the body while the anal and the dorsal fins help to stabilize the body by preventing it from rolling sideways. Fishes undergo sexual reproduction. Although most fishes reproduce by laying eggs, there are some which bear their young alive. In the first group, called oviparous, the male and female shed their spermatozoa and ova respectively into water where fertilization takes place externally. Such fishes usually leave the fertilized eggs to develop by themselves. With the second group, called ovoviviparous, fertili- zation is internal; the female fishes retain the eggs within their bodies until they develop into young fishes. Fishes are important sources of proteinous food to man. Some fishes are also used as fertilizers in the form of 376 nitrogenous compounds while some contain oils that are very rieh in vitamin A & D e.g., cods, some adult fishes protect themselves by using weapons provided them by nature for attack and defence. For example, the shark has very sharp teeth, and the sword, fish can attack its enemies by using its long mouth which is modified to form a long sword. Ques t ions : 16. Fishes use their swim bladders for (a) moving fast in water. (b) protecting the young ones. (c) attacking their enemies. (d) floating or sinking in water. (e) rolling from side to side. 17. The omnivorous fishes feed on (a) plants and animals, (b) plants, stones and weedsi (c) plants only. (d) weeds and insects, (e) animals only. 18. Fishes use their lateral lines (a) to detect Vibration. (b) to digest their food. (c) to eat other smaller fishes t (d) to increase their weight» (e) to protect themselves. 19. The oviparous fishes do all the following except (a) shed their spermatozoa and ova inti water • (b) produce young ones• (c) provide a source of proteinous food for man« (d) Stay by the fertilized eggs until they develop • (e) engage in external fertilization* 377 20. Which is modified as fore-limbs? (a) Pelvic fins. (b) Pectoral and analf ins. (c) Pectoral and pelvic fins. (d) Anal fin. (e) Pectoral fins. 21 The body temperature of fishes (a) governs that of the environment. (b) changes according to that of the environment. (c) 1S reduced by that of the environment. takes 0ver the functions of the temperature in the environment. (e) constant all the time. 22. Fishes' eyes are protected by (a) the upper eyelid. b) the lower eyelid. (c) a transparent membrane. (d) both the upper and lower eyelids. (e) höhe of the above. 23. The unpaired fins are the (a) dorsal, caudal and anal fins. (b) pelvic, dorsal and caudal fins. (c) pectoral, caudal and anal fins. (d) dorsal,oectoral and pelvic fins. (e) pelvic, anal and pectoral fins. 378 24. Fishes breathe by using their (a) nostrils« (b) opercula. (c) f ins. (d) gills. (e) nostrils and gills. 25 . How do fishes achieve rapid movement in water? (a) By breathing deeply . (b) By stabilizing their bodies. (c) Through the rhythmic contractions of the muscles . (d) By folding the paired fins close to the body. (e) By rolling sideways. 26. What helps fishes to Camouflage against enemies? (a) The temperature of their bodies . (b) The colouring of their scales . (c) Their stream-lined bodies . (d) Their cartilaginous and bony bodies. (e) None of the above , 27 . The gills are covered and protected by (a) the swim bladders (b) the blood vessels (c) the oper culum. (d) gas--filled sacs. (e) the f ins. 28. In fishes fertilization (a) is internal, (b) is external. (c) is both internal and external. Cd); is neither internal nor external. (e) does not take place. 379 29. Which best describes fishes' usefulness to man? (a) They are a source of food. (b) They are used as fertilizers. (c) They contain useful oils, (d) They contain plenty of protein. (e) All of the above. 30. Fishes find it easy to move in water because (a) there is no external division between the head, body and tail. (b) their bodies are light. (c) they are both cartilaginous and bony. (d) their gills are supplied with blood vessels. (e) the colouring of their scales help them. PASSAGE III FRUITS AND SEEDS Fruits and seeds are formed as a result of pollination and fertilization in flowers. The fruit of a flowering plant is the fertilized and ripened ovary containing fully developed ovules or seeds. However, in certain plants e.g., banana and pine-apple, «asexual reproduction takes place and so fertilization is not necessary for fruit formation. Such fruits are often seedless. In fruit formation, the wall of the ovary, or the fruit wall becomes the pericarp. In most fruits, the pericarp is made up of three layers: an outer epicarp, a 380 middle mesocarp and an inner endocarp. A fruit which develops entirely fron the fertilized ovary is known as a true fruit while a fruit which develops not only from the ovary but also from the calyx, corolla and the recep+acle is called a false fruit. Fruits can be classified as simple, aggregate and compound fruits. A simple fruit e.g. the bean pod, banana, tomato, is formed from a single flower. An aggregate fruit is formed from a single flower with an apocarpous pistil so that each carpel becomes a fruitlet. A compound or multiple fruit is formed from a bunch of flowers which are very close to one another, and all the fruitlets fuse together to form a single large fruit e.g., pine-apple. Another possible Classification is to group fruits into two: the succulent or fleshy ones and the dry ones. This Classification depends on the nature of the fruit wall; fleshy fruits have soft and juicy walls while the walls of the dry fruits are dry, fibrous and woody. Fleshy fruits störe large quantities of tissues. Dry fruits can be dehiscent or indehiscent. ln a dry dehiscent fruit, the fruit wall breaks open to liberate the seeds e.g., bean, rubber, okro. In the dry indehiscent frui-t -the dry pericarp 381 are non-splitting; no matter how dry the fruit wall may be, the pericarp does not break open at all. Fertilized ovules which have undergone growth and development produce seeds. Provided with the correct conditions, a fully developed seed grows into a seedling which later becomes a mature plant. Düring its development into a seedling, the seed is usually independent of the parent plant, and it must therefore have a störe of food in it. Most seeds, however, contain a sufficient störe of food to give the seedlings a good Start in life. A typical seed coat consists of two layers'. the outer testa, and the inner tegamen. These two layers protect the seed from bacteria, fungi and other organisms which may do harm to it. The seed coat enclosesan embryo which comprises a radicle (embryonic root) , a plumule (embryonic sheet) and one or two cotyledons. A seed has a single scar or hilum at the point at which the funicle or ovule stalk was attached. The seed is attached to the placenta of the fruit by means of the seed stalk. The micropyle is a tiny pore situated near one end of the hilum. Through the pore water, and air are supplied to the embryo. The most important part of the fruit is the seed for it contains the embryo which later grows into the mature 382 plant. The process during which the embryo develops into a seedling is known as germinatIon. Seeds that remain alive in a dry condition for long periods without germinating still have the power to germinate under favourable conditions. While some seeds oan germinate immediately after being shed from the parent plants, some have to pass through a dormant period lasting for weeks, months or even years before germinating. Water is a highly essential factor for germination; it is usually absorbed into the seed through the micropyle, and the entire seed then becomes swollen. The cells of the cotyledons become inflated and active as they Start to make use of the water to digest the food substances stored in them. The food substances are then transported to the growing plumule and radicle. Besides water, enzymes, produced by the cells of the cotyledons, are also required for the digestion of the stored food products. Other are also required for the digestion of the stored food products. Other necessary conditions for permination of seeds include air with an adequate amount of oxygen, and suitable temperature. It is also important that the seeds sown should be viable; only seeds that have life and are healthy will be able to 383 germinate and grow well. After flowering, the frults and seeds ripen, and fall from the parent plant to the ground. If conditions are favourable and all such seedlings develop close to the parent plant, they soon become over-crowded. To prevent this the fruits and seeds of most plants are variously adapted to ways by which they can be scattered for away to ensure the wide distribution of the seeds and the survival of a good number of seedlings. Such dispersal Vegetation. The common agents by which dispersal of seeds and fruits is carried out are explosive mechanisms in the fruits themselves, animals, and water, and man. Quest ions ; 31. A suitable description for the pericarp is (a) the true fruit, (b) the compound fruit. (c) the false fruit, (d) the fruit wall, (e) none of the above, 32. One of the following is a major characteristics of succulent fruits. (a) large storage of water in the tissues, (b) Splitting pericarp, (c) fertilized ovary. (d) Asexual reproduction, (e) little or no water in the tissue. 384 33, Which is an appropriate explanation for some fruits Splitting open to release their seeds? (a) They mature earlier than other fruits, (b) They have very thin covering. (c) They are indehiscent fruits, (d) They lack adequate water for growth. (e.) They are dehiscent fruits. 34. All the following are true of a typical seed coat except (a) it encloses the embryo, (b) it is fibrous and dry. (c) it has an outer layer. (d) it protects the seed from bacteria( (e) it has an inner layer. 35. For its growth into a seedling, the seed (a) is dependent on the parent plant for food supply, (b) needs little food supply, (c) does not need a störe of food. (d) needs no food, supply at all, (e) is independent of the parent for food supply. 36. The following is a necessary condition for the formation of a compound fruit* (a) A bunch of flowers. (b) A mature flower. (c) A bunch of flowers with one carpel. (d) A single flower with many carpels. (e) None of the above. 37, In asexual reproduction in plants (a) both pollination and fertilization are present. (b) only pollination is present. (c) both pollination and fertilization are absent. (d) only fertilization is present, (e) pollination takes place before fertilization. 385 38. When you plant a seed and it germinates (a) the plant dies off, (b) the embryo grows into a seedling. (c) the seed remains buried in the soil, (d) the seed is shed from the parent plant, (e) the seed remains active. 39. Dispersal of fruits and seeds has all the following advantages except (a) ensuring that seeds are widely distributed. (b) preventing over crowding. (c) ensuring the growth of certain fruits and sees in specific areas. (d) covering sterile areas with plants. (e) making the survival of many seedlings possible. 4 0. A true fruit develops from (a) the calyx, (b) the calyx and the receptacle. Cc) the receptacle. (d) the ovary. (e) the ovary and the calyx. 41. The following are necessary conditions for seed germination. (a) Water and air. (b) Air and enzymes, Cc) Enzymes and water. Cd) Suitable temperature and air. Ce) All of the above. 42. A bean seed had contact with water up. How did the water get into the (a) Through the micropyle , Cb) Through the cotyledons . Cc) Through the plumule . Cd) Through the radicle. Ce) Through the hilum. 386 Passage 4 B ir d s Birds are the only group of vertebrates which have covering of feathers. They are warm-blooded, unlike fish, amphibians and reptiles which are cold-blooded. Their fore-limbs are modified as wings for flight while the hind lim&s are modified for walking. Birds can be grouped into two types: the flying birds and the flightless birds, even though there are only a few flightless birds. Some birds have beautiful colours and voices attracting so rauch attention that some people engage in watching birds as a form of hobby. A bird has a streamlined body with light feathers specially arranged so that air passes over the body easily. The skeleton of a flying bird is rigid and provides a firm framework on which the flight muscles are attached. The bones are light, hollow and thin, making the whole body light. Flying requires a lot of energy hence a lot of oxygen raust be supplied for respiration. To meet this demand for oxygen a number of air sacs are connected to the lungs so that a large amount of oxygen is circulated to all parts 387 of the body at any given time, Birds depend on the Ir sense of sight for f in ding food, and therefore have well-developed eyes, There is a third eye-lid which cleans the eye and keeps it moist, Birds have no external ear, but just below and behind the eye lies the eardrum which is covered by feathers, The bird detects sound by the Vibration of the eardrum, Its inner ear is well developed including the parts concejrned with the sense of balance which is very important in flight. The mouth is modified to form a tough pointed beak which serves a number of functions. The beak is used for feeding, building of nests and protecting the eggs. Birds’ beaks are specially adapted to suit the type of food they eat. Birds may be herbivorous, carnivorous or omnivorous. Birds that eat seeds have short, thick beaks which are used for picking up the seeds; those that feed on insects have long, slender, pointed beaks while the flesh-eating birds have strong, curved beaks for killing their prey and tearing the flesh, Birds have no teeth, so they swallow small stones or grit which are stored in the gizzard and are used to grind the food into smaller particles before the food is digested. 388 There is an oil gland at the tail which secretes oil to grease the feathers and prevent them from getting wet easily. The wings of a bird-; when fully spread out, are not flat but slightly curved so as to allow air to pass more rapidly over the wings. The greater pressure of air thus created under the wings provides a lifting force. Birds' flights can be categorized into soaring, glinding and flapping, Once a year, birds usually lose their old or damaged feathers and grow new ones to replace the lost ones. This process ensures that no portion of the bird is left bare at any time, and that flying is not difficult. When the bird is at rest the wings are folded over the sides of the body so that they do not disturb the bird when walking or hopping. Most birds have the ability to produce calls, special notes, or songs. The parrot, for example, has the power of imita- ting vö'ices of people while the fowl produces notes to call its young, or warn them of any possible danger around. Birds exhibit some courtship before mating. The male attracts the female by dancing and displaying the beauty of its plumage. When the female is won over, the male mounts her and discharges its spermatozoa to fertilize the soft eggs are incubated for about twenty-one days to provide some warmth 389 to the embryo inside the egg. The embryo gradually develops into young bird which later eierges from the Shell Questions: 43. Which of these is actively used when a bird is flying (a) Hollow bonesf (b) Fore limbs. (c) Hind limbs. (d) The scales. (e) All of the above. 44. A bird becomes sensitive to sound and Vibration by using the (a) pinnas. (b) ear. (c) ear drum. (d) feathers. (e) oil gland. 45. Which of these gases is abundantly used by birds during flight? (a) Carbon dioxide (b) Oxygen. (c) Nitrogen. (d) Carbon monoxide. (e) None of the above. 46. John spends his leisure taking active interest in the behaviour and activities of live birds. What type of hobby is he engaged in? (a) Bird catching. Cb) Nest building. (c) Bird saving. Cd) Bird watching. (e) Bird sparing. 390 4 7 . The fused, light and hollow bones of birds enable it to (a) become light in the air. (b) become heavy in the air. (c) increase in size. (d) decrease in size. (e) engage in flapping. 48. Birds lose old feathers annually and grow new ones (a) to attract fellow birds. (b) to make flying easy. (c) to increase their weight. (d) to decrease their weight (e) for all the above reasons. 49. The beak of a bird is used for all of the fo1lowing except (a) for feedingt (b) for building nests. (c) for protecting the eggs. (d) for flying. (e) for picking up food. 50. Of what use are the small stones swallowed by birds? (a) They help to grind birds' food. (b) They provide greater pressure. (c) They make birds carnivorous. (d) They make the wings light. (e) They provide greater force for flying. 391 APPENDIX I Scori ng key and Item Analysis of Bio logy 3omprehension Test ITEM SCORING DIFFICULTY DISCRIMINAT- ITEM SCORING DIFFI­ DISCRI- NO KEY INDEX % TING POWER NO. KEY CULTY MINATIN INDEX POWER % 1 C 49 0 56 26 B 49 0 . 56 2 E 52 0 49 27 C 53 0 . 63 3 A 50 0 57 28 C 47 0 . 49 4 E 48 0 53 29 E 45 0 . 60 5 D 53 0 56 30 A 50 0 . 55 6 E 47 0 51 31 D 52 0 . 61 7 A 51 0 48 32 A 48 0 . 52 8 C 52 0 . 55 33 E 51 0 . 45 9 B 45 0 . 50 34 B 48 0 . 58 10 A 54 0 . 58 35 E 46 0 . 54 11 D 52 0 . 48 36 A 54 0 . 59 12 C 46 0 . 53 37 C 49 0 . 60 13 B 48 0 . 57 38 B 53 0 . 50 14 E 51 0 , 61 39 C 48 0 . 57 15 C 49 0 . 49 40 D 52 0 . 62 16 D 4 6 0 . 52 41 E 50 0 . 49 17 A 53 0 . 48 42 A 47 0 . 46 18 A 47 0 . 59 43 B 51 0 . 58 19 D 45 0 . 54 44 C 49 0 . 44 20 E 54 0 , 57 45 B 47 0 . 56 21 B 49 0, 60 46 D 53 0 . 56 22 52 0 . 48 47 A 50 0 . 48 23 A 48 0 . 56 48 B 48 0 . 51 24 D 53 0 . 58 49 D 46 0 . 61 25 D 46 0 . 63 50 A 51 0 . 47 Mean difficulty of the test = 49.54% Mean Discrimination = 0.54 392 APPENDIX J English Comprehension Attitüde Scale Please read each of the following Statements carefully. Circle the number on the alternative that best describes your feeling. 1 * STRONGLY DISAGREE 2 = DISAGREE 3 = UNDECIDED 4 = AGREE 5 = STRONGLY AGREE 1. I am always under a terrible strain in an English Comprehension dass 1 2 3 4 5 2. I do not like English Comprehension, and it scares me to have to study it 1 2 3 4 5 3. English Comprehension is very interesting to me. I enjoy comprehension courses 1 2 3 4 5 4. English Comprehension is fascination and fun 1 2 3 4 5 5. Comprehension makes me feel secure and at the same time it is stimulating 1 2 3 4 5 6. My mind goes blank, and I am unable to think clearly when studying English Comprehension 1 2 3 4 5 393 I feel a sense of insecurity when attemp- ting English Comprehension. 1 2 5 English Comprehension makes me feel uncomfortable, restless and Irritable and impatient. 1 2 5 The feeling that I have towards English Comprehension is a good feeling. 1 2 5 English Comprehension makes me feel as though I am lost in a jungle of words and can?t find my way out. 1 2 5 English Comprehension is something which I enjoy a great deal. 1 2 5 When I hear the word English Compre­ hension I have a feeling of dislike 1 2 5 I approach English Comprehension with a feeling of hesitation, resulting from a fear of not being able to study Com­ prehension. 1 2 5 I really like English Comprehension 1 2 5 English Comprehension is a subject in school which I have always enjoyed studying. 1 2 5 39 4 16. It makes me nervous to ever think about havlng to study English Comprehension. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I have never liked English Compre- hension and it is my most dreaded subj ec t. 1 2 3 4 4 18. I am happier in an English - Comprehension dass than in any other d a s s . 1 2 3 4 5 19. I feel at ease in English Comprehension classes and I like it very much. 1 2 3 4 5 20. I feel a definite positive reaction to English Comprehension it is enj oyable. 1 2 3 4 5 395 APPENDIX K Biology Attitüde Scale Please read each of the following Statements carefully. Circle the number on the alternative that best describes your f eeling. 1 = STRONGLY DISAGREE 2 = DISAGREE 3 = UNDECIDED 4 - AGREE 5 - STRONGLY AGREE 1. I am always under a terrible strain in a Biology dass 1 2 3 4 4 2. I do not like Biology, and it scares me to have to take it. 1 2 3 4 5 3. Biology is very interesting to me. I enj oy Biology courses. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Biology makes me feel secure and at the same time it is stimulating. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Biology is fascinating and fun 1 2 3 4 5 6. My mind goes blank, and I am unable t o think clearly when working Biology. 1 2 3 4 5 7 . I feel a sense of insecurity when attempting Biology. 1 2 3 4 5 396 Biology makes me feel uncomfortable restless and irritablea nd impatient 1 2 3 5 The feeling that I have towards Biology is a good feeling. 1 2 3 5 Biology makes me feel as though I am lost in a jungle of diagrams and can't find my way out. 1 2 3 5 Biology is something which I enjoy a great deal. 1 2 3 5 When I hear the word Biology, I have a feeling of dislike. 1 2 3 5 I approach Biology with a feeling of hesitation, resulting from a fear of not being able to do Biology. 1 2 3 5 I really like Biology. 1 2 3 5 Biology is a subject in school which I have always enjoyed studying. 1 2 3 5 It makes me nervous to ever think about having to study Biology, 1 2 3 5 I have never liked Biology, and it is my most dreaded subject. 1 2 3 5 397 18. I am happier in a Biology dass than in any other dass. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I feel at ease in Biology classes and I like it very much. 2 3 4 5 ................................ < ? ? ' 20. I feel a definite positive reaction to Biology, it is enjoyable. 1 2 3 4 5 ....... .......... ........../.... ^' 398 APPENDIX L (i) Department of Guidance & Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ib ad an. 15 th June, 1989 Dr. S.O. Ayodele, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Dear Dr. Ayodele, Permission to Use Passages From Faster Readlng For Better ComprehensIon. I hereby seek permission to reproduce some passages from your book: * FASTER READING FOR BETTER COMPREHENSION to build one of my Instruments, English ComprehensIon Test, for my Ph.D thesis. Please, note that I shall necessarily need to merge some of the passages to sult my purpose. I may use some of your questions but I shall definitely set many more questions and change the multiple-choice questions to five alternatives instead of the four alternatives originally used. I shall quite appreciate it if the permission is granted. Thank you. Yours faithfully, Adesemowo, P. Oluremi (Mrs.) * m »»; 399 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION TELEGRAMS: UNIVERSITY IBADAN DIRECTOR INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION TELEPHONE; Director IBADAN 400550/1888 E. A. YOLOYE. B.Sc.,Dip. Ed. (Lond.) LONDON OFFICE: 3.GOWER STREET. W.C. I M>.,Ph.D. (Columbia, N.Y.) OUR REF.:........ HEAD. BICEES. T. AJAH. B.Sc., (Lond.) Dip. Ed. YOUR REF.:..... (Oxon) M.A.. Ed.D (U.S.D.) A.R I.C. Institute of Ec.’ucr-.tion Univ r.:ity of Iba-'an Ibadan. 14th March, 1990. Krr; F.O. Adesemowo Dep.rtment of Guidance & Counselling Faculty of Sducation University of Ibadan. Occ^r Krs Adesemowo P^rmirsion to Use Passates from "Fas cor Feading for Better Comprehension" Sequel to your letter on the topic stated above, I want to state that permission is hereby granted you to use the desired passages for your Ph.D. study. I am eure you will acknowledge this permission in your vvork. Yours, 400 APPENDIX M LIST OF SCHOOLS USED FOR THE EXPERIMENT A . Validation of Instruments: 1. Oke-Ado High School, Oke-Ado, Ibadan 2. Community Grammar School, Oluyole Estate, Ring Road, Ibadan. B . Pilot Study: 1. United Christians High School, Ijokodo, Ibadan. 2. Eleyele High School, Eleyele, Ibadan. C. Main Study: 1. Urban Day Grammar School, Ring Road, Ibadan. 2. Eleyele Secondary School, Eleyele, Ibadan.