EDITORIAL ADVISERS/ CONSULTANTS Professor Jimmy Colloway (Georgia, U.S.A.) Professor J.A. Ajala /Ibadan, Nigeria) Professor William Chen (Florida,.U.S.A.) Professor E.O. Ojeme . (Benin City, Nigeria) Professor Gudrun Doll-Tepper (Berlin, Germany) Professor S.A. Adeyanju ' (Ile-Ife" Nigeria) Professor M. Kamil Ozer (Antalya, Turkey) Professor L.O. Amusa (South Africa, Africa) Professor L. Zaichkowsky (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) ISSN 0189 904X UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Editorial Content This edition of the West African Journal o f Physical and Health Education (WAHOPHE) contains stimulating and illuminating Part 1: Human Kinetics articles in the areas of physical and health education, recreation, 1. Curricular Review of Environmental Courses in Integrated sports and dance and related disciplines. I want to place on record Science: A Case for Indigenous Environmental Education the unalloyed support of the current head of department and editor- C.B. Idowu 1 in-chief of the journal. Professor James A. Ajala and members of the editorial board in making the publication of this edition possible. 2. Postoperative Management of Amputees for Personal Fulfilment Special thanks also go to the various contributors for their educative O. Oduyale and A. Okundare 9 articles and prompt response to the corrected manuscripts. 3. Socio-physiological Factors of Sports Participation by the Differently Able Adolescents O. Ezomoh and P. Achugu 17 B.O. Ogundele, PhD Managing Editor 4. Effects of Interval Training on Body Composition of Adolescents in Nigeria E.S. Adeyanju, K. Venkateswarlu and C.E. Dikki 25 5. Enhancing Women Empowerment in Sports in Africa: The Role of Women in Sports in Nigeria C.O. Odejide 35 6. The Introduction of Practical Examination in Physical Education in School Certificate Examination and its Implication for Physical Education Teachers and School Principals E.O. Morakinyo 45 7. Comparison of Flexibility Characteristics of University Physical and Health Education Majors A. Ahass and M.O. Moses 55 8. Corporate Sponsorship of Sport Programmes in Lagos State A. Onifade, I. Keinde and. D. Olanle 60 Part 2: Health Education 9. University Athletes in Nigeria Smoking Behaviour and Perceived Health Consequences of Environmental Tobacco Smoke O.A. Moronkola and A. Onibokun 70 10. Social Practice of Violence Against Women as Predictors of Health Status of Women in Suburban Areas of Lagos State, Nigeria B. O. Oladipupo-Okorie 79 iii \ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY WEST AFRICAN 1 JOURNAL K OF PHYSICAL and HEALTH EDUCATION VOLUME 9 No. 2_____________July 2005 Editorial Board Editor-in- Chief Professor J.A. Ajala University of Ibadan, Ibadan Managing Editor B.O. Ogundele, PhD Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan Members A.O. Adegbesan, PhD Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan K.O. Omolawon, PhD Department of Human Kinetics University of Ibadan, Ibadan l Editorial Advisers/ Consultants | | Professor Jim m y Colloway (Georgia) Professor W illiam Chen (Florida)) Professor Gudrun Doll-Tepper (Berlin) Professor M. Kamil Ozer (Turkey) Professor L. Zaichkowsky (Massachusetts) Professor J.A. Ajala (Ibadan) Professor E.O. Ojeme (Benin City) Professor S .A Adeyanju (Re-Ife) Professor L.O. Am usa (South Africa) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY WAJOPHE, 2005, 9, No.2, 69-78 9 Smoking Behaviour and Perceived Health Consequences of Environmental Tobacco Smoke among University Athletes in Nigeria j i O.A. Moronkola’ and A. Onibokun* * Abstract This study investigated tobacco smoking behaviour and the perceived health consequences o f environmental tobacco smoke by university athletes in Nigeria and to determine whether the philosophy of the Nigerian Universities Games Association (NUGAJ, resting on the objective o f development o f the physical, emotional and mental ideals o f students, is still in vogue. The descriptive survey research method was used to collect data, through the use of self-developed and validated questionnaire (of r=0.80 reliability) o f randomly selected university athletes that participated in the 19th biennial NUGA Games 2002, held between 11 and 21 December 2002, at the University o f Ibadan. Out o f the 159 respondents, 61 (38.7%) were smokers - consisting of 51 (83.6%) male and 10 (16.4%) female athletes). The reasons given fo r smoking included the influence o f friends, and fo r relaxation purposes. The response level on knowledge o f items about health consequences of tobacco smoking ranged between 65.4% and. 91.8%, while the level o f knowledge o f the health consequences o f environmental tobacco smoke ranged between 38.5% and 64.8%. With these findings, we suggest educational intervention programmes to empower athletes say ‘No’ to smoking and quit smoking. We also suggested the need fo r sports councils to call health professionals to put in place tobacco smoking cessation programmes, develop IEC * Department o f Human Kinetics and Health Education. University o f Ihaclan. ** Department o/Nursutg. University o f Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY O.A. Moronkola and A. Onibokun University Athletes in Nigeria Smoking Behaviour ... 7170 materials on environmental tobacco smoke and peer education cigarette that emitted less irritating and less biologically active side programmes targeting university athletes to ensure their wellness. stream smoke (Bamess et al., 1995). Athletes must be in good state of health within healthy Introduction environment prior to and during competition period for optimum Tobacco smoking is a preventable cause of death in many parts of performance. Whether directly or indirectly, the immediate and the world'. People smoke voluntarily and involuntarily. Some of those long term effects of tobacco smoke to athletes, like every other who smoke voluntarily do so to please themselves, succumb to peer individual, may include tachycardia, high blood pressure, bronchial pressure, feel a sense of maturity, to be like a role model, to relax, contraction, carboxyl haemoglobin, eye and nose irritations; arid accomplish a task, etc. Tobacco smoke is believed to contain about these lower athletic performance. Moronkola, Adesipo and Abayomi 4,000 chemicals, mostly carcinogenic, which lead to incidence of (1995) affirmed that since research are lifelong processes, research cancer and other diseases, especially those relating to the efforts on athletes are not only essential but must also be respiratory and circulatory systems (Moronkola, 2003). highlighted to ensure optimal performance of athletes at national The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council and international competitions. Thus, this study was designed to (1997) and The United States Environmental Protection Agency find out about tobacco smoking behaviour, reasons for smoking, (1992) affirmed that environmental tobacco smoke, also known as knowledge of the health consequences of tobacco smoking and ‘second-hand smoke’, originates from a mixture of side stream environmental tobacco smoke among university athletes that smoke (smoke diffusing directly from burning tobacco into the participated in the 19th biennial Nigerian Universities Games, held atmosphere) and mainstream smoke (smoke exhaled by smokers). at the University o f Ibadan in 2002. However, tobacco smoke present in the surrounding environment Specifically, the researchers found answers to the following contains side stream smoke, which has higher levels o f toxic research questions: compounds than that found in mainstream smoke. 1. Will university athletes in Nigeria smoke tobacco? Tobacco smoking generally leads to physical and social health 2. Why do university athletes in Nigeria smoke? problems, such as heart disease, cancer, nutritional problems, poor 3. Do university athletes in Nigeria have knowledge of the health strength, cerebro-vascular diseases, discoloured teeth and lips, consequences of tobacco smoking? offensive body odour, and so on. Leonard (1996) recorded that 4. What are the perceived health effects of environmental tobacco excess morbidity and mortality from tobacco-related illnesses, smoke on university athletes in Nigeria? including cancer, chronic bronchitis, emphysema and heart diseases are expected to be prevalent in Africa, as tobacco Methodology companies are aggressively targeting markets in Africa. Population: The study population includes all registered athletes at Tobacco smoking is a gateway/recreational drug; and smoking is the 19th biennial Nigerian Universities Games Association held from popular among urban youths in Nigeria. Environmental tobacco 11-21 of December 2002, at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. smoke (ETS), otherwise known as second-hand tobacco smoke, affects non-smokers in proximity to smokers. There are scientific Research design: The descriptive survey design was adopted for the and medical literature that link ETS to a number of adverse health study. outcomes, including carcinogenicity, cardiovascular, developmental, and reproductive and childhood respiratory effects. Research instrument: A self-developed questionnaire, validated by Although the tobacco industry publicly denies that ETS is experts in health education and promotion, nursing and medicine, dangerous to health, some of its private consultants have, with a test retest reliability of 0.80, served as the research nevertheless, privately acknowledged that this is not so. Some of instrument. these privately-conducted internal researches supported the conclusion that passive smoking is dangerous to health. The industry" research related to ETS in the 1980s was to develop a new UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY University Athletes in Nigeria Smoking Behaviour ... 73 72 O.A. Moronkola and A. Onibokun Sampling techniques In a study by Torabi, Johnson and Crowe (2001), a higher percentage of female students smoked cigarette than their male The simple random sampling technique was used to recruit study- counterparts. participants among the athletes during the 2002 NUGA competition. One hundred and fifty-nine athletes (159) eventually constituted the Research question 2: What were the reasons for smoking by sample size. university athletes in Nigeria? Data collection Table 1: Reasons university athletes in Nigeria smoke (n=61) Contingent leaders, captains and sport coaches of various Items (reason) Percentage institutions served as research assistants. They helped to To show that maturity 5 (8.2%) administer the copies o f the questionnaire on their athletes; some To Imitate a role model - athletes were willing to wait and fill the questionnaire and promptly Because members of mv family smoke 2 (3.3%) return same. Because mv friendsfs) smoke 25 (40.9%) To avoid boredom, loneliness 7(11.5%) Data analysis To relax 20 (32.8%) To cope with stress 17 (27.9%) Copies of the questionnaire administered were collated and found NB: Respondents could give more than one reason useable for data analysis. Frequency counts of items in the questionnaire for each respondent were done and the data were In table 1, respondents gave different reasons why they smoked. described through the use of percentage. Among the 61 respondents who were smokers, 40.9% smoked because their friends did so, 32.8% to relax, 27.9% to cope with Results stress, 11.5% to avoid boredom and loneliness, 8.2% to show they Demographic data: Out of the 159 respondents, 90 (56.6%) were were mature and 3.3% smoked because members of their families male athletes, while 69 (43.4%) were female. With regard to age smoked. However, none smoked to imitate a role model. brackets, 4 (2.5%) o f the athletes were less than 18 years old, 60 Ndom and Adelekan (1996) reported that correlates of drinking, (37.7%) were 18-22 years old, 69 (43.4%) were 23-27 years old, 8 cannabis and tobacco smoking among undergraduates in Ilorin (5%) were 28-32 years old, 4 (2.5%) were 33-37 years old, 6 (3.8%) include peer influence. Senah (1980) also reported that reasons were 38-42 years old, while 8 (5%) were 43 years old and above. It is given by students for abusing drugs included the desire to get along pertinent to say that athletes from 23 universities across the with friends (21%), to induce a feeling of well-being (99.0%) and to country participated in the study. Also, 25 (15.7%) were in 100 level, satisfy curiosity (4.98%), while Moronkola and Onuoha (1997) 46 (28.9%) in 200 level, 50 (31.4%) in 300 level, 35 (22.0%) in 400 reported that reasons given for smoking by University o f Ibadan level and 3 (1.9%) in 500 level. student smokers included relaxation (29.58%), as a feeling of well­ being (9.01%) and curiosity (4.98%). Research question 1: Will university athletes in Nigeria smoke tobacco? Out of 150 respondents, 61 (38.7% - i.e., 51 (83.6%) male Research question 3: Do university athletes in Nigeria have and 10 (16.4%) female) respondents reported that they smoked knowledge of health consequences of tobacco smoking? tobacco products within the last three months. Also, as to brands of cigarettes, 18 (29.5%) smoked Rothmans®, 8 (13.1%) Benson and H edges® , 2 (3.3%) Moore®. 3 (4.9%) Three Rings®, 6 (9.8%) Aspen®, 3 (4.9%) Camel®, 20 (32.8%) Marlboro®, while 1 (1.6%) smoked o th e r types of cigarettes. This finding was not in line with that of .Leonard (1996), with 174 respondents, in which only 42 (24.1%) of - th e respondents were smokers. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 O.A. MoronkolaandA. Onibokun University Athletes in Nigeria Smoking Behaviour ... 75 Table 2: Knowledge of bealtb consequences of tobacco smoking by university athletes in Nigeria (n=159) second-hand smoke nearly doubles the risk of coronary artery Item Knowledgeable Not knowledgeable diseases. Passive smoking is also believed to cause heart damage in Tobacco is a silent killer 146 (91.8%) 13 (8.2%) the same way as primary smoking, by causing vascular endothelia Tobacco smokers usually have poor 114(71.7%) 45 (28.3%) appetite damage, lowering high density lipoprotein cholesterol and increasing Tobacco smokers are likely to have 128 (80.5%) blood viscosity. The study also showed strong association between 31 (19.5%) oral health problems second-hand smoke and heart disease. Smokers usually have poor body 117 (73.6%) 42 (26.4%) Hackshow, Law and Wald (1997) and Law, Morris and Wald odour (which affects social health) (1997) documented that ETS is associated with mild physiological Tobacco smokers are susceptible to 115 (72.2%) 44 (27.7%) obstructive pulmonary diseases symptoms, e.g., eye, nose and throat irritations, cough, chest Tobacco smokers are more likely to 104 (65.4%) 55 (34.6%) discomfort, lung cancer and ischemic heart diseases. Corbin, et al. consume Indian hemp later in life (2002) affirmed that non-smokers who must breathe second-hand smoke are, in fact, ‘involuntary or passive’ smokers and can suffer In table 2, with the ’ exception of the knowledge about the fact serious health problems, especially if they are repeatedly exposed to that tobacco smokers are more' likely to consume Indian hemp later tobacco smoke over a long period of time. Passive smoking has also in life (which was as high as 65.4%), more than 70.0% of the been found to increase the risk of heart attacks, causing 35,000- respondents had knowledge of other salient health consequences of 40,000 deaths per year in the United States. tobacco smoking, such as those relating to the lethal nature of tobacco, poor appetite and obstructive pulmonary diseases. Also Table 3: Perception of the health effects of environmental tobacco Corbin et al. (2002) affirmed that unhealthy effects of smoking smoke by university athletes in Nigeria (N=159) _________ ____________ include all forms of cancer (kidney, oesophagus, pancreas, Item Agee Not sure Efeagse leukaemia, etc), atherosclerosis, type II diabetes, stomach ulcers, People exposed to envinxirnentaltabaax) smdse 103(648%) 40 16(10.1%) chronic bronchitis and emphysema, pregnancy complications rmd (tobacco smoke in the area cne stays/waits) aie (253%) decrease in lifespan. Ekdy-to sufferficm asthma than the ncn- exposed This finding is consistent with findings of Leonard (1996), Envinximentaltdbacco smoke may increase the 99(623%) 34 26(16.4%) Moronkola (1995), Pela (1989), Senah (1980), Oviasu (1976) and riskcf death from all causes (21.4%) Cockerham (1975) that a significant proportion of smokers have EjqposuretoerMroxnenlaltcbaam smoke 99(623%) 29 31 (195%) knowledge of the health consequences of tobacco smoking. Also, The (182%) Royal College of Physicians (1992) recorded that many health The ride cfheart attack or deafh firm ccccnaxy 77 (48.4%) 51 31 (193%) problems develop quickly in young people who smoke. heart disease is higjier in non-smekeisvho stay (321%) with suckers than those wbodo not Research question 4: What are the perceived health effects of Curette smekirg is an enmtxrmenMrisktadrx 88(553%) 35 36(22.0%) environmental tobacco smoke by university athletes in Nigeria? for chronic obstructive puknonaiy diseases (22.0%) In table 3, 62.3% of the respondents had knowledge of health (COPD). effects of (ETS) on the upper respiratory tract, while 64.2% knew Fhsave smoking increases the ride of acute 93 (585%) 40 26(16.4%) that ETS can be linked with the increase in the risk of chronic respiratory iBness. (252%) 29 (182%) respiratory disease. The California Environmental Protection Agency Breathing other psopJes smoke is also an 93(58.5) 37important and avoidable cause of ischsrifc heart £233%) (1997) noted that authoritative investigations and reviews over disease decades provide substantial scientific evidence linking exposures to 102(64.2%) 9(5.7%) 48 (302%) ETS to a number of adverse health outcomes. associated with an increased risk cf chronic Also. Kehiro Kawachf o f the Harvard School of Public Health, | respiratory disease. according to Josefson (1997). revealed that regular exposure to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 76 O.A: M oronkola and A. Onibokun University Athletes in Nigeria Smoking Behaviour ... 77 Conclusion and Recommendations Tobacco smoke, in whatever, form, is dangerous to health and References Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, (1997). athletic performance, as it impairs the circulatory and respiratory The Health Effects o f Passive Smoking. Caberra: Australian Government systems of the body, which are vital to athletic performance. In this Publishing Service. study, 61 (38.7%) o f the 159 sampled respondents were smokers. Bamess, D.E., Hanauer, P., Slade, J., Bero, L.A.G (1995). Environmental tobacco smokes. The Journal o f the American Medical Also, there were more male (83.6%) smokers than female (16.4%) Association 274: 248-253. smokers. California Environmental Protection Agency (1997). Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Final Report, California: Office of Various reasons for smoking, according to the respondents, Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. included: peer pressure and the need to relax. It is significant to Corbin, C.B., Lindsey, R., Welk, G.J. and Corbin, W.R. (2002). Concepts o f Fitness and Wellness (4th ed) Boston: McGRaw Hill. note that none o f the smokers was motivated to smoke by a role Cockerhan, W.C. (1975). 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