GENDER AND HIGHER EDUCATION
IN AFRICA: EMERGING ISSUES
I
/
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL &
INTERDISCIPLINARY CONFERENCE
HELD AT THE
CONFERENCE CENTRE,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA.
(MARCH 12TH- 14TH2013)
EDITED BY
STELlA O. ODEBODE & MAT11-IEW M. UMUKORO
\
Published by:
Gender Mainstreaming Office
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria
Printed by:
Bukshi Prints and Publishing,
Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
ISBN: 978-978-52099-2-1
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
© GMO, University of Ibadan, 2013
No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the head of the Gender Mainstreaming Office (GMO), University of
Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
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EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Stella O. Odebode (Editor-in-Chief)
Matthew M. Umukoro (Editor)
M. O. Olagunju
OkaObono
Ifeoma Isiugo-Abanihe
Demola Lewis
Alero Akeredolu
A. O. Lawanson
S. O. Oyewumi
DEDICATED TO:
Professor Abiola Odejide,
Professor Bolanle Awe,
&
All Gender-focal persons.
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1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
GENDER: UNIBADAN, MARCH 12TH_14TH, 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A: GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL & RESEARCH
INSTITUTIONS
1a. Vice-Chancellor's Message VI
lb. FOREWORD by the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) VB
2. EDITORS' PREFACE V111
3. HIV/AIDS and Gender in Higher Education-
Patience Nwabunkonye Ugwuegede 2-10
4. Gender and HIV/AIDS Mitigation in Nigerian
Tertiary Institutions - E.
Ememandu, E. O. Mbanaso, & E. Chinaka 11-27
5. Influence of Mentorship Experience and its Gender
Issues on the Academic Performance of Students in Tertiary Institutions -
O. O. Adepoju & A. O. Olaseni 28-43
6. Gender Equity in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions: Lessons from two
Institutions in Enugu State, Nigeria -
Ogochukwu Chinelo Okanya 44-58
7. Gender Stereotype in Science, Technology and Mathematics
(STM) in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria: A Challenge to National
Development - Ame Festus Okechukwu 59-65
8. Gender Audit of Student Union Elections of the University of Ibadan:
Implications for future political role of women - Christian C. Ubani 66-79
9. Mainstreaming Gender into Universities in Engineering Discipline-
Seunfunmi Olutayo 80-93
10. Gender Leadership and Governance in Higher Education -
Joy Nonyelum Ugwu & Jude Arinze Onuigbo 94-110
11. The Dilemma of Skewed Knowledge in Nation Building
and its implications for Women - Funke C. Ifeta, 111-117
Olawumi Ogunmola & Oluwadamilola Ifeta
12. The Ivory Tower's Glass Ceiling: A Study of Senior Female Academics -
Adepeju Olaide Oti 118-131
13. Relative Impact of Contextual Teaching Strategy and Gender on
Students' Cognitive Outcome in Basic Science in Oyo-West
Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria -
S. O. Raimi, O. A. Bolaji & A. E. Adesina 132-139
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14. A Historical Analysis of Women's Studies Education in
Africa and Asia, 1970-2010 - Mutiat Oladejo 140-149
15. Gender and the Theatre: A Critical Perspective -
Matthew M. Umukoro 150-160
16. Organisational Climate Predictors of Female Academics'
Career Growth and Leadership Position in some Nigerian
Universities - Adepeju Olaide Oti & Sikiru Adekola Babarinde 161-177
.17. Influence of Gender on Accessibility and Competence
in the Use of Computer- Mediated Learning (CML) Among
Medical Undergraduates in Three South-Wester Nigerian Universities
Adekunle Olusola Otunla, Joshua Odunayo Akinyemi,
& A. Oladele Afolabi 178-189
18. Gender Inequality: African Feminist Fiction Reflecting
Scientific Data - Wumi Olayinka 190-207
19. Teaching Gender Studies in an African University:
Prospects and Challenges'- Rhoda Asikia Ige and Iyabode Ogunniran 208-21-5
20. Workings of Gender in Physical Planning Education in Nigeria
Olusola Olufemi 216-239
21. Reflections on the Islamic Perspectives of Gender Equity in
Higher Education - Adamu Isah 240-250
22. "She is Intellectually Weak": On Islam, Education,
and Gender Identity - Habibat Oladosu-Uthman 251-261
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SECTION B: GENDER ISSUES IN AGRICULTURAL & ALLIED
INSTITUTIONS
23. Capacity Building and Skill Development Among Female
Entrepreneurs in Ido Zone, Nigeria: Implications for
Adult Education - Oluwatoyin Dorcas A lese 263-270
24. Literacy Programmes Participation and Socioeconomic Empowerment
Among Women in Oyo State - Stella O. Odebode and T.AAdetunji 271-282
25. Gender differences in crop farmers' knowledge and adaptation
strategies related to climate change in Mbaise, Imo State, Nigeria-
O.M. Adesope, A. C.Agumagu, C. C. Ifeanyi-Obi, L L. Madu,
& o.C. Alocha 283-293
26. Constraints to Gender Participation in Cassava Production in
Nnewi South Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria-
R. N. Nwakwasi, L P.Asiabaka & E. C. Chinaka 294-305
27. The Roles of Women in Postharvest Handling, Storage and
Processing of Pepper (Capsicum Frutenkens)-
L. A. Babatola & O. B. Adewoyin 306-311
28. Comparative Analysis ofthe performance of Women- in-Agriculture (WIN)
programme in Ogun and Oyo States, Nigeria-
S. o.Odebode&ArimiKayode 312-321
29. Empowering the rural women inNigeria: The Journey so far and the
Way Forward-O. B.Adewoyin,A.Adeeko,A. L Ogunyinka & E. E. Esiet 322-331
30. Gender Involvement in Rice Production in Ekiti- West Local Government
AreaofEkiti State-S.A. Tijani & G. T.Babalola 332-338
31. Gender Differentiation and Livelihood Diversities Among
Farming Communities in South Western Nigeria: Complementary
Roles of Tertiary Institutions - Edwards AdeseyeAlademerin 339-348
32. Seafood Processing Among Women in Ibeju-Lekki Local
GovemmentAreaofLagos State, Nigeria-
S. A. Tijani, M. R Oyewole & M. T. Uranta. 349-354
33. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 355-357
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1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
GENDER: UNIBADAN, MARCH 12 TH_14TH, 2013
Gender Inequality: African Feminist Fiction
Reflecting Scientific Data
Wumi Olayinka
Abstract
When one mentions the situation of women anywhere in the world today, certain
issues inevitably come to mind. Issues such as oppression of women, feminism
and women 's struggle for liberation, woman ..as liberated-subaltern in
organisations, sexuality and sexism, among others. These are issues that have
often trailed humanity. Available answers do not yet adequately address the
woman question. Weare in a complex situation, a complex world that smacks of
gender war in the midst of gendered rhetoric.
The matter of Sub-Saharan African women 's evolution calls to mind
immense, complex and culturally multifarious questions that surround women
in the region and thefast changing world of African culture, relating to issues of
family, education, work and lifestyle. The compass of women development in the
region is therefore multidirectional. This necessitates knowing her pre-colonial
past, her colonial status and her post- or neo-colonial condition. This paper
therefore looks at the African woman under the three stages above, with
particular attention on the Nigerian woman of today.
Introduction: Pre-colonial African an institution through which woman
Woman becomes a producer of producers.
The traditional African Society is can Control over women legitimises
agrarian society predominantly and control over the reproduction process.
socially organised around production. The control over African woman
The woman in this society is therefore implies some sort of social
controlled through gender stratification that brings the woman
discriminatory practices and under some sort of male authority.
exploitation such as sexuality control, However, there are divergent views on
girl-child commodification, marriage the status of the African woman. Some
(e.g. forced marriage), motherhood, researchers hold the view that African
and widowhood. Of all these gender- women are subordinated to men while
discriminatory practices, marriage, is some emphasise the independence of
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women and their own control over has afforded women the opportunity to
. their own lives and resources. compete with men in fields such as
There are historical insights into the engineering, medicine and all other
fact that African women play prominent fields, proves, that women perform no
roles in African societies. For example,
women in Nigeria are central to the nation's worse than men and are not
politics, culture and economy. In intellectually inferior as philosophers
Yorubaland, for example, the Iyalode such as Rousseau, Otto Weininger,
, traditionally heads the women's councils in Anthony Storr, Boccacio, Freud,
. their respective localities and participates in Strindberg, John Stuart and Sir John
,I decision making processes. She settles Newson (Eva Figes, 1986) have
disputes in her wards and compounds, and
equally helps to maintain law, order, peace claimed. The trends have also indicated
and harmony in her community. She also that men are found in professions
plays crucial roles in the appointment of classified as 'effeminate'. For centuries,
Obas (kings). For example, the Lobun of men have been 'seen occupying so-
Ondo town is responsible for the installation called 'effeminate' positions" in
ofthe Osemawe (the king of Ondoland) and organisations as nurses, chefs, cooks,
in Ilesa, the Arise is one of the kingmakers
(Bolanle Awe, 2005). Their offices are at par cake bakers, tailors and hair dressers.
with those of the rulers of both towns. Furthermore, during the colonial era,
Queens are also influential in state affairs certain influential women in Nigeria such as
(Raji, 1998). Madam Efunroye Tinubu, the first Iyalode
Looking beyond the Yoruba state, of Egbaland, were active opponents of the
.one notes that generally in West Africa, British Colonialists in Nigeria. As a result of
women are associated with governments of Madam Tinubu's activism, she was banished
their different ethnic groups (M. Kolawole, from Lagos to her native Abeolcuta. She built
1998; Bolanle Awe, 2005). There exist the her financial empire through her endeavours
institutions of the Queen Mother of the- in trading in arms and salt. She even got
Ashanti in Ghana and the Edo in Benin, involved in slave trade. However, when she
Nigeria, the female heads of the Mende in realised the differences between' domestic
Sierra Leone, the Sagi and Sonya ofNupe in slaving and the inhuman treatment of slaves
Nigeria, and the Royal' Princesses of the in Europe and the Americas, she became an
Kanuri in Northern Nigeria (Bolanle Awe, active opponent to all slave trade activities.
2005). These are proofs that the widely She is considered an important figure inNigerian history due to her political
acclaimed oppression of women is not significance as a strong female leader.
conclusively cosmopolitan in nature. Efunsetan Aniwura, the Iyalode of
Instead, what we witness in regard to Ibadanland, was another woman that was
that is that through the weight of reckoned with during her life time. History
traditions, women have been forced has it that she had strong business acumen and
into socially constructed gender succeeded in her business enterprises to theextent of holding men in her society to
stereotypes, and traditionally ransom. She audaciously confronted male
assigned gender-defined roles. But the warlords of her time and conquered them
changing trend in women's work during several conflicts. Notably, the Aba
today through formal education that women, in 1928-1930, rose against the
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colonial government (Simidele Dosekun, the public and private "domain came
2007). Aba women became unhappy with the into existence in West African history
arbitrary and excessive taxation of their
husbands and sons which they felt was (Niara Sudarkasa, 2005). West African
pauperising them and causing economic women, from studies conducted, were
hardship for the entire community (Van in charge of their own worlds. The
Allen, 1972). They also resented imposition same can be said about women in other
of abusive and extortionist tendencies of parts ofAfrica.
British colonialists which the warrant chiefs During the colonial era, the
imposed on their communities; for instance,
the practice of obtaining wives without traditional West African family system
paying the full bride wealth and engagement was eroded and became disrupted
in seizure of properties. Funmilayo leading to the forced evolution of
Ransome-Kuti, a teacher, political traditional societies into a capitalist
campaigner and women's rights activist, was economy. Hence, the need for
also a woman of repute in Nigeria. Her geographical mobility of the West
political activities led to her being described
as the doyen of female rights in Nigeria and, African labour force to urban centres
today, is still regarded as The Mother of arose, as well as the birthing of the
Africa. She was a very powerful force in nuclear family alien to the traditional
advocating for women's right to vote. She West African family setting. The
was described in 1947 by the West African interference of the colonial system in
Pilot as the "Lioness of Lisabi" for her the affairs of the traditional West
leadership of Egba women on. a campaign
against arbitrary taxation of women. African setup has serious implications
Eventually, that struggle led to the abdication for the West African woman (Sam Ojo
of the then Egba King, Oba Ademola II in, Ade, 2000)."The greatest of this is her
1949. The Inkpi of the Igala associated with marginalrsation in the socio-political
the land cult, Moremi of the Yoruba who and economic system. With denial of
rescued the people of Ife from Tho invasion
th th access to Western education at thebetween 7 and 9 centuries, and Daura of
the Rausa who ruled before the io" Century same time as the African man, West
A.D. (Bolanle Awe, 2001) were all women African women lost their position on
activists. All these instances provide the social ladder. They could no longer
additional proofs that African women before actively participate in public domains
and during the colonial era did not absolutely of economic and political activities as
lack a voice inAfrican societies. " dictated by the white inan. The only
rightful place reserved for them was in
Colonial African Woman the home front where they served as
With what has been discussed above, housewives, producers and minders of
one can infer that the public domain in children.
West Africa was one in which men and This change in the West African
women played important roles. It was woman's condition has been described
not until the advent of colonialism that as a passing phase, although traumatic
distinction of who functioned or not in (Awe, 1989). The intrusion of the
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colonial master did not only have husband. Therefore, when West
negative connotations for the West African female children had access to
African woman, but also meant for education .at all, it was. only in the
her, alleviation of stultifying domain of domestic arts of cookery
traditional patriarchal practices such and home keeping, unlike their male
as widowhood rites, widow counterparts who had access·to higher
inheritance, levirate, forced marriage, academic training. For example,
female genital mutilation, among female students were less than 10 per
others. Positive impact of colonial cent of the overall student population
settlement in WestAfrica of women is of the University College when it was
also noticeable in economic domains founded in Ibadan by the' British
which translated into greater wealth administration in 1948. One other
for them. For a large number of West factor that saw the Nigerian woman
African women, however, colonialism retreating from the public domain back
and colonial administration meant a into the hearth was the need she
lowering or total loss of means of perceived to supplement the_
livelihood because they lacked the inadequate subsistence wages her
skills to cope with mechanised husband earned from the formal sector
farming introduced by the white man.' created by the colonial master
Many women also lost their political (Ekejiuba, 2005). '
statuses tomen as they could no longer The notion, sold to us by the
participate in the hybridised colonial White man, that the family unit inWest
political system of governance. African society comprises the father,
In the area of Western mother, and children, and that he is the
education, the West African woman sole breadwinner is diametrically
also lost out as little or no attention was divergent from the reality of traditional
paid to the education of the girl-child. African family setting. It has since then
However, a minute percentage of g r a d u ally e n g end ere d the
forward-looking and forward- transformation of gender ideology in
thinking families seized this the region. Having thus redefmed the .
opportunity to send their daughters to typical African family setting, the
school. The usual accusation was that family concept in West Africa and in
the white man did not encourage the Nigeria today no longer reflects the
education of the girl-child in West true status of the father and mother in
Africa. since he was believed, rightly the African society. Ironically, it has
or wrongly, to discountenance informed policy-making decisions
education of girls in his Western embarked upon by African
society. This was premised on the governments. For example,policies on
belief that a girl-child would naturally salaries and taxes in Nigeria have
end up playing supportive role to her favoured men as 'head of households'
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to the detriment of women in the sense and their role in processing and
that the financial, social, emotional distribution of products through trade"
economic contributions of the (42).
Nigerian woman to her family's well-
being are regarded as being Neo-colonial Nigerian Woman
inconsequential. Another important In the post-colonial era, the
fador that these policy makers tend to myth of the invisibility and silence of
ignore is the fact that in West Africa the West African woman persists as
and, by implication, in Nigeria, there can be observed from statistical data
are female heads of households who on global gender gaps in all significant
play the roles that men would play in spheres of human endeavour. Many
their households. Another instance of theories have failed to reflect the
discrimination against woman is the reality of the West African woman
extant law that stipulates that for a because they have continued to be
Nigerian woman to obtain an biased and to lend credence to the
international passport, the written super ordination of man over woman;
consent of her husband is required. especially through marriage. In this
These phenomena have far- regard, Sanusi and Olayinka (2012)
reaching consequences for the socio- note:
political and economic situation of the
Nigerian woman. It meant that during In patriarchal African societies,
the colonial era, women, who formed marriage is the key space wherethe woman has no rights of her
more than half of the population, own and where she is expected
became marginalised in the various to be reduced to a productive
processes of decision making and in body. Marriage is the
the different professions. The African psychological and physicalspace within. which power
woman's position became inferiorised relations between man and
to that of the African man as she is woman are acutely pronounced,
displaced from her position within the man being the dominator and
traditional African social structure woman the dominated. It is aspace where woman is supposed
(Sanusi and Olayinka, 2011/2012). As to be blindly devoted to her
Ekejiuba (2005) notes, despite the husband and children, (without
challenge posed by some West African a life of hers), and her sexualitysubdued (204).
women to some colonial policies of
women exclusion, by organising A major factor for this is. the
cooperative credit and work groups, considerable discrepant gap that exists
"the colonial denial of women's active in male and female education. The
. participation in socio-economic and consequence of this is that women are
political processes prevails, despite often excluded from planning and
the reality of women's active execution of development
economic production in agriculture,
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programmes that affect their lives. this basis that West African women were
This is a plague that eats deeper than idealised by Negritude writers like Leopold
cancer into the socio-political and Sedar Senghor, Camara Laye, Birago Diop,
economic fabrics of the nation. and David Diop. This idealisation is oneargument usually advanced to support the
Research has shown that women view that the African woman occupies a
hardly have access to productive revered position in the society and does not
developmental resources (Awe, 1989) need to be liberated because she is already
because they are denied equal free. For this category of male West African
educational opportunities with the writers, African women occupy a pre-
Nigerian male children.. . eminent status in their societies (Brown,1975). This view must belong to the era
. In view of the foregomg, Afncan before technological advancement and pre-
feminist movements have emerged in the colonial era of the African past when
region to protestthe invisibility of women. women's and men's roles were said to be
Nigerian women are not left out of these
struggles for the emancipation of the female complementary despite overt and covertcultural practices that subjugate women.
folk. These efforts have not yielded adequate Even a feminist deconstructive reading of
result because there have not been consistent Senghor's Femme nue, femme noire (16) -
and concerted efforts by various Nigerian readily depicts phallocentricism. The kind of
governments to address the s~t.us quo (The African women Senghor paints are those' that
Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow are subjugated, exploited and disrespected.
Report, 2008; World Economic Forum, The imageries used to represent woman
2010). One may be cajoled into believing typify Spivak's dark continent (Andrade,
that the situation of the Nigerian woman has 1992). An analysis of the verses below from
changed in the face of modemisation and Leopard Senghor's Femme nue, femme noire
more access to education. It is important to proves this:
note that opportunities have not been equally
shared to Nigerian men and women. More Femme nue,femme noire
males still do have greater access to Vetue de ta couleur qui est vie,
education than females (The Nigeria de taforme qui est beaute
CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Report, J'ai grandi d ton ombre; la
2008). Moreover, in Nigerian organisations douceur de tes mains je te
and behind the curtains, the Nigerian woman decouvre,
still very much finds herself caught in the Terre promise, du haut d'un haut
web of hierarchies dominated by men (The col calcine
Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Et beaute me foudroie en plein
Report, 2008). Coeur, comme l'eclair d'un
The African version of feminist aigle.
uprising raises questions about and against Femme nue,femme obscure
male domination. Therefore, the roles played Fruit mur d la chair ferme,
by African women to oppose colonialists and sombres extases du vin noir;
male domination in general tell of the fact Bouche 'qui fait lyrique ma
that women in these communities must have bouche
enjoyed autonomy and had a voice in the Ta voix grave de contralto est le
traditional setting. It also confirms that chant (Adebayo, 1996: 40)
women were able to take their destinies in
their own hands; albeit not absolutely. It is on
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[Naked woman, black woman woman as a suffering woman, an exploited
Clothed in your colour that is woman, who dwells in the sun perpetually
life, of your fonnlstature that is belaboured by marriage, motherhood, social,
beautiful
I grew up under your shadow; I and economic exigencies on her life.
discover you with. the Saying the black woman is "obscure
succulence of your hands, woman" goes a step further to confirm that
Land of promise, from height to the African woman is not a visible being. She
height your sun-scorched neck exists to validate men from behind the scene,
.And beauty strike (thunder a subaltern who acts incognito. Referring to
strike) me down to my heart, the woman as a ripe fruit tells us that the black
like the greased lightning of an wom.an is a being ready for consumption, be
eagle. it as a wife, a mother and, in other cases, as
daughters. Exploitation is the brick wall that
Naked woman, obscure woman surrounds her. She is exploited for her beauty,
Ripe fruit with a firm skin,
sombre/dark ecstasies of black her emotional, spiritual and physical
wine strengths and the natural resources that she
Amouth that brings lyrics to my possesses. The black woman is presented as a
mouth "sombre ecstasies of black wine". Of a truth,
Your deep contralto voice is wine causes ecstasy. But for Senghor to refer
melodious. ] to the black woman as sombre ecstasies calls
(Translation mine) to mind the fallacious claim that the black
woman is a doom-causing agent (Yisa YUsUf
Agreed that Senghor claims in this Kehinde in Kolawole, 1998), the unfortunate
seemingly epical poem that the African fatal being!
woman is beautiful and that her complexion In music, contralto means pitched
portrays life, but contrarily, her image as a below. The woman's voice is pitched below
naked woman, her burnt or sun-scorched that of man. When her voice is pitched below
neck, and her beauty that strikes like thunder that of man, then the woman is automatically
in the poem cited above are connotations overshadowed. This is akin to the
reminiscent of the image attributed to the voicelessness that feminists cry out against.
African woman in pre-colonial cultural Why can the woman's voice not be heard like
practices and colonial tradition with that of the man? Why should her voice be
patriarchal undertone. Referring to Visa pitched below that of man? It is this subdued
Kehinde Yusuf's claims (in Kolawole, 1998), existence of the black woman in a patriarchal
hidden behind the imageries used by world that African feminists challenge. Her
Senghor are pictures of the African woman voice, of course, in patriarchal societies, is
who is destructive, oppressed, subaltern and only melodious when it does not contradict
exploited. It is a fact that thunder strikes that of the African man and when it is
cause calamity; in essence, one can as well subdued underneath the man's voice as the
interpret that line to mean that the beauty of Other, the subaltern, and the angel in the
the African woman strikes the heart of man house. Applicable here is Eva Figes' (1986)
like thunder capable of bringing about man's argument that "woman had no public voice"
electrocution .and; .ultimately, his death. (152) and she is excommunicated from
Senghor's poem simply tells us that the public affairs.
African woman's beauty spells calamity. This analysis is only at the literary
That he describes the African woman's neck domain dominated by males before women
as burnt or sun-scorched typifies the African like Mariama Ba of Senegal; Flora Nwapa,
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Buchi Emecheta of Nigeria, and so many Shadow Report, 2008). Moreover, Goal 3 of
others, gained their feminist voice and seized the World Bank Gender Action Plan (GAP)
pen and paper to counter the negative image aimed at economic empowerment of women,
of women portrayed by West African male among others, isyet to be fully achieved (The
writers in the fictions. African fictions Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow
written by males before the advent ofAfrican Report, 2008). There is also the double
feminist consciousness are best described as jeopardy that denies a Nigerian woman
prototypes of what obtains in different facets married to an indigene of another state, other
ofthe Nigerian society. In essence, therefore, than that which she hails from, employment
whatever happened in academia, business, or appointment into political offices. This"
and the professions, were replicas of what denial is based on the argument that she is
male WestAfrican writers produced as being deemed to have acquired .the right to claim
epitomic of the African woman until the her husband's indigeneship by the reason of
latter began to produce her own history, her marriage, whereas, she is not socially and
culture, and literature. politically recognised as an indigene in her
One should therefore bear in mind husband's state. (The Nigeria CEDAWNGO
that to totally agree with Negritude writers Coalition Shadow Report, 2008). This sort
who romanticise and idealise African of denial is classified as a type of gender-
women will mean engaging in a one-sided, if based violence in the 1993 UN General-
not myopic, enterprise. Senghor's Femme Assembly Declaration on the Elimination of
nue, femme noire merely places the Black Violence Against Women (Baumgarten and
woman" on an "artificial" pedestal and Erdelman, 2003). Nigerian Women should
relegates her to the lowest rung of the social not be lured away with the praise songs of
ladder at the same time. It is the "common Negritude writers, but should read the deeply
ploy employed by misogynists (emphasis" buried and pungent connotations of the
mine) to disarm the woman with flattery and imageries, metonyms, and metaphors
get her safely out of harm's way by placing portrayed in the writings of Negritude
her on apedestal" (Eva Figes, 1986:29). It is writers.
indeed an idyllic view and an illusion that the The fact that Nigerian women,
Nigerian woman should not allow herself to especially the educated ones, are aware of
get carried away with. This is because recent the wretched state ofthe majority ofNigerian
data, which I will talk about shortly, have women and have been crying out against
proved that the Nigerian woman is far from gender inequality and discrimination, from
being equal to the Nigerian man (Gender which they seek emancipation, shows there
Equality Team, 2007; Sanusi and Olayinka, are obvious traits of oppression they are
2011/2012). Paradoxically; the adoption of reacting against. Nigerian women are still
the National Gender Policy by the Nigerian largely regarded as sexual objects and tools
government in 2006 for the purpose of exploited by men for their natural
comprehensively addressing all issues that" endowments to meet the selfish ends of the
border on discrimination against women latter in most cases. A quick look at the way
remains amirage because the language ofthe theNigerian government uses women during
Nigerian constitution is highly insensitive political campaigns and dumps them soon
and .unfavourable to women. In reality, "after their political agenda is achieved, is a
poverty is still highly feminised in the typical example. This phenomenon reflects
country with women forming 65% of the why.the proportion of women who actively
70% who subsist on less than US$l.OO/day participate in the legislative process is a far
(The Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition cry from the number ofNigerian men.
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Available data prove this fact. The Nigerian woman, the stack reality has been
2011 Human Development Report (HDR), presented to us by the 2010 Gender Gap
claims that Index (GGI).
The GGGR 2011 sub-indexes of
Beyond the Millennium
Development Goals, the world Economic Participation and Opportunity
needs a post-2015 development (see Table I) are sub-divided into: Labour
framework that reflects equity force participation; Wage equality for similar
and sustainability; Rio+20 work, Estimated earned income; Legislators,
stands out as a key opportunity senior officials, and managers; Professional
to reach a shared understanding
of how to move forward. . .. and technical workers. On the Educational
shows that approaches that Attainment divide (see Table II): you have
integrate equity into policies Literacy rate; Enrolment in primary school;
and programmes that empower Enrolment in secondary education; and
people to bring about change' in Enrolment in tertiary education. In the area of
the legal and political arenas
hold enormous promise. Political Empowerment (see Table III), you
Growing country experiences have on the list: Women in parliament;
around the world have Women in ministerial positions; Years with
demonstrated the potential of female head of state. These measures and.
these approaches to generate indexes, indicate that Nigerian women, the
and capture positive synergies
(iv-v). half of the population of county, rank
, kilometres behind the Nigerian men,
The Nigerian nation state, based on the 20 I0 especially in the area of political
Global Gender Gap Report (GGGR), is yet to empowerment. This in essence is to say that
eradicate gender inequality going by the when compared with her counterparts in the
recommendations of the 2011 HDR. The West, the opportunities are not fully there yet
GGGR clearly demonstrates that the gender for the Nigerian woman, despite indications
. gap between the Nigerian man and Nigerian that more Nigerian women are making
woman in all spheres of life is disparately
distant. Out of the 134 countries sampled for progress on the march to equality with
gender gap in 2010, Nigeria ranked 118th. Nigerian men. For instance, Nigeria ranked
The country ranked 94th in 2006; 107th in 120th with a score of 0.6011 out of 135
2007; 102Ddth in 2008 (a slight improvement);
countries surveyed in the 2011 GGGR.
and 108 in 2009. Of the twenty-five Sub- Nigeria's Human Development Index score
Saharan African countries listed in the 2010 in 2011 was 0.459 bringing her to the 156th
GGGR, Nigeria ranked 19th, where the position out of 187 countries. It is to say also
Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, that the right environment for the positive
Cote d'Iyoire, The Gambia and. Ghana were synergies advocated in the 2011 HDR is a
among the first ten countries. This picture mirage that the Nigerian society may never
shows a disheartening slide in the condition achieve if concerted efforts are not made by
ofthe Nigerian woman. While we may think,
as I mentioned earlier, that the situation of the Nigerian government .and citizens.
the Nigerian woman is improving, that However, the GGGR 2012 presented an
policies have been and are being put in place improvement on GGGR 2011 on Nigeria
to checkmate the deplorable situation of the with an overall ranking of 11Othwith a score
of 0.6315 among 135 nations.
.•. - 198 -
Table I: Economic Participation and Opportunity
Rank Score Sample Female Male .Female-
average to-male
ratio
Economic 93 0.596 0.588 - - -
.participation
and
opportunity
Labour force 115 0.53 0.68 40 75 0.53
participation
Wage equality 14 0.77 0.65 - - 0.77
for similar
work
Estimated 112 0.41 0.52 1,283 3,119 0.41
earned income -,
(PPPUS$)
Legislators, - - 0.26 - - -
senior officials
and managers
Professional - - 0.64 - - -
and technical
workers
Table II: Educational Attainment
Rank Score Sample Female Male Female-
average to-male
ratio
Educational 125 0.809 0.928 - - , -
Attainment
Literacy rate 122 0.69 0.86 50 72 0.69
Enrolment in 125 0.90 0.98 58 64 Q.90
pnmary
education
Enrolment in 124 0.77 0.90 22 29 0.77
secondary
education
Enrolment in 111 0.70 0.86 8 12 0.70
tertiary
education
- 199-
I
Tabl e III ..P0l1itt caIEmpowermen t
Rank Score Sample Female Male Female-
average to-male
ratio
Political 121 0.038 0.185 - - -
Empowerment
Women in 124 0.04 0.22 4 96 0.04
parliament
Women in 90 0.11 0.18 10 90 0.11
ministerial
positions
Years with 52 0.00 0.16 0 50 0.00
female head of
state (last 50)
Source: Global Gender Gap Report, World Economic Forum,
2011. '
Furthermore, from the 2003 Nigeria enhancement of fertility and promotion of
Demographic and Health Survey, UNICEF child survival, better marriage prospects and
reports that Nigeria has a projected ease of child delivery. It is yet to be proved
population of 126 million, with a total of 61.5 that these factors set in place to justify this
million women. The practice of Female injustice done against the Nigerian female
Genital Mutilation (FGM), a cultural specie have achieved any of these purposes.
practice described by IGWG of USAID Rather, it does disservice to the Nigerian
(2006) as a form of gender-based violence, is woman, inhibits her sexuality, leads to death
rife in the country as it is one of the African as a result of excessive bleeding, trauma, and
countries with the highest number of females infections. FGM has also been positively
who undergo one form of FGM or the"other. correlated to high prevalence of HN /AIDS.
The South West has the highest rate of According to UNICEF, the negative health
genitally mutilated females while the South effects are numerous, cumbersome and
East has the lowest record. Although, these deadly. Failure of FGM to heal causes
facts are from a report released ten years ago, abscess formation, cysts, hepatitis, urinary
there is no proof that the phenomenon of tract infection, painful sexual intercourse,
FGM has been stamped out. Efforts in this reproductive tract infection, pelvic
direction are being made by various inflammatory diseases infertility, increased
international, national and non- risk of bleeding and infection during
governmental bodies namely: IAClNigeria, childbirth, susceptibility to HIV /AIDS,
DFID, WHO, UNDP, among others. Dattijo, among others (UNICEF, nd).
et al (2010), opine that, although there is a The eradication of FGM calls for
high rate of awareness and willingness for urgent attention in the context of all these
the practice ofFGM to stop in Nigeria, FGM diseases especially HN /AIDS because the
is still a prevalent phenomenon. use of contaminated instruments in the
Many reasons advanced for this process of FGM could be a mode of
obnoxious practice are culturally based transmission. This is due to the fact that the
ranging from psychosexual, sociological, operation is mainly carried out by quacks
hygiene and aesthetics, religious, who make use of insanitary knives and other
- 200-
'.
~ygienic instruments. The risks are higher Woman is considered to be a
m the case of infibulations because of the flower, not a worker. Woman is
need to cut open the infibulated area for s1:lpposedto be relegated to the
c.hildbirth. Use of crude ' unsterilised
gilded cage; she is not the
lllstrum~nts wit~o.ut administering contributor to, the creator of a
anaest~esIa to the 'Ylctlm, during reopening civilization (158). '
operation causes mtense pain and could
res~lt in infection and heavy bleeding .. In furtheran~e. of the foregoing
(rambo.org, 2009). Vesico- Vaginal Fistula pOSItIOn that a feminist deconstructionist
(VVF) can also occur in infibulated women interpretation of Senghor's Femme noire
as well as Recto-Vaginal Fistula (RVF) i~ reveals that African women are not
under~ge pregnant girls because their pelvis ~ecessa:ily idealised by Negritude writers, it
and birth carnal are not mature enough to IS pertment to note Adebayo's (1996)
suppo~ reproductive activities (UNICEF, argument that the African woman has
nd). LIttle wonder then that mother and child descended from the position of power to that
mortality rat~s. are high in the country, and of an underdog as opposed to the claims of
female infertility rate notorious (UNICEF the ~egritude writers cited above. Truly, the
~d). Unfortunately for the poor creature, sh~ A~c~ woman and, by implication, the
IS blamed for being unable to bear her Nigerian woman, has lost her lofty position
husb.and a child, especially, a male child, to of power and privilege. One should not be
contmue the lineage. She is blamed for a too excited when Adebayo (1996) comments
problem she most certainly did not cause. on Sembene Ousmane's La Mere that the
The Nigerian woman is indeed a troubled AfI:ican mother is the liberator, the ~ymbol of
specie. resistance to oppression,' the purveyor of
Villainous images of African women truth and justice even when and where men
are painted' in African male chauvinist are subdued by circumstances they should
fictions. Such images succinctly reflect s~d up to. To my mind, and in my view, the
androcentric notions about women as Afric~ woman these days is simply being
pa~ders used in securing landed property. exploited to play these roles; for, as soon as
ThIS, to any truly African citizen is not the she accomphshes these roles, she is dumped
true I.mage of the African woman.' To them, and not compensated for her heroic
African women are fatal, accursed and fickle contributions to the society. This trend
beings who smack of evil omens. Sanusi and largely.accounts for the wide gulf between
Olayinka POll/2012) remark that Ojo-Ade the African man and the African woman in
(1983) nghtly condemns African male the Nigerian society of today.
writers' tendency to portray negative images The question then is: what is
of African women as quoted below: res~onsible for this relegation and lack ofequity of th~ ~exes in 'present day Nigeria?
African literature is male- Has the POSltIO~of Adeleke (in Adebayo,
created, male-oriented 1996) that African women have attained
chauvinistic art. Male is th~ ~mancipa~i?n to a certain degree been proved
master; male constitutes m the wntmgs of African feminist writers
majority. The fact is well contrary to Adebayo's (1996) view above? In
documented in our colonial the .course of history, African women have
histor.y. The white civilizer' as attamed som~ degree of emancipation in thecunmng as ever, carefully chose . sense that WIth Western education, African
his black counterparts to run the
affairs of the "Dark Continent." women have become exposed and are betterable to engage in writing about the
- 201 -
oppressive conditions under which they live basis of her biology. The life of the Nigerian
(Adeleke inAdebayo, 1996). It has also been woman resonates that of Adah, Nnu Ego,
proved that Nigerian women are gaining Aku-Nna, Ojebeta and Nko of the Nigerian
more access to the professions and are feminist, Buchi Emecheta, in Second Class
making classical headways in businesses of Citizen, The Joys of Motherhood, The Bride
their choice. However, the glass ceiling Price, The Slave Girl, and Double Yoke
syndrome and the social castigation that respectively; her daily life typifies that of
women have to live with because they dare to . Philomena Bassek's Mama Ida in La Tache
break the yoke of subaltemity indicate that du sang, and Ka Marga's Rokheya and
Nigerian women are not fully emancipated Rabiatou inLa Voiedu salut, to cite but a few
yet. The Nigerian woman is still more often examples. The voices of these characters are
than not ostracised for breaking the silence clearly echoed in the following painful
imposed on her; that silence which outcry by Nnu Ego in The Joys of
impoverishes her psychologically, socially, Motherhood:
economically, and politically.
Examples reflecting the deplorable God, when will you create a
conditions of African women abound in woman who will be fulfilled in
African Literature. The domain is herself, a full human being, not
consequently a fertile ground for obtaining anybody's appendage? After all,
data on gender inequality in the continent. I was born alone, and I shall die
The unscientific nature of Literature makes alone. What have I gained from
it more accessible by lettered and unlettered all this? Yes, I have manychildren, but what do I have to
Nigerian women out there. For instance, feed them on? On my life. I have
before you care to go to psychiatric hospitals to give them my all. And if I am
anywhere in Africa, you read of her in adult lucky enough to die in peace, I
and children literature books. Replete in even have to give them my soul.
these literatures are sexism and images of They will worship my dead
women battered emotionally, economically, spirit to provide for them; it will
socially and politically. The Nigerian be hailed as a good spirit so long
woman is not any different from these as there are plenty of yams and
women portrayed in fictions. She is, in fact, children in the family, but if
the one being fictitiously presented to us. anything should go wrong, if a
She is the neurotic being that we seem not to young wife does not conceive orthere is famine, my dead spirit
pay attention to yet, until she takes to the will be blamed. When will I be
street naked. Even when she takes to the freed? ... The men make it look
street naked, what her other neurotics do is as if we must aspire for children
laugh at her.What her family members do is or die. We women subscribe to
ostracise her and call her a witch suffering that law more than anyone.
for her witchcraft. The Nigerian woman is Until we change all this, it is still
the woman psychologically beaten and a man's world, which women
raped by her lawfully wedded husband, who will always help to build (186-
for the sake of self-preservation and culture, 187).
will not speak out her chagrin, be she a
market woman in Bodija or an Executive The palpable denial of the Nigerian
seated with fellow male board members girl's/woman's fundamental right to love and
(Odimegwu, 2006). The Nigerian woman is be loved is what Aku-nna voices out in
the schizoid woman who still has all her Emecheta's Bride when she declares:
fundamental human rights denied her on the
- 202-
\
A girl belonged to you today as The effects of the inequality that exists
your daughter, and tomorrow, between African male and female is what
before your eyes, would go to Patrice Gahungu Ndimubandi (2009)
another man in marriage. To succinctly captures as debilitating
such creatures, one should be
wary of showing too much love psychological and physical conditions of
and care, otherwise people Calixthe Beyala's female protagonists in his
would ask, "Look, man, are you classic titled Angoisses nevrotiques et mal-
going to be your daughter's etre dans Asseze l'Africaine de Calixthe
husband as well?" (Bride, 17). Beyala. In his words,
The Nigerian woman is counted De fait, s'il existe un theme
among the African women that African f e d e r a t e u r de Pce u v r e
feminist writers and critics sympathise with romanesque de Calixthe Beyala,c'est bien Ie my the de la
and struggle to liberate when Awa Thiam decheance, de la degradation. Si
(1986) writes in protest: cette corruption de l'etre et de
l'univers beyalais se revele dans
As far as we are concerned, this la decadence sociale et des
human race consists of social mceurs, dans une Afrique et un
classes and two categories of Cameroun en pleine
individuals: men and women, deliquescence, dans un climat
whose relationship to each other atmospherique deregle, ou des
is that of dominating and being pluies intempestives se
dominated. But that is not all. dechainent en pleine saison
People, or rather men, have seche et des chaleurs mortelles
often reduced the problem of en celie de la pluie, c'est surtout
women to a problem of a travers le corps et la psyche
complementarity. Who defines des acteurs, eternels zombies
this complementarity? The men errants, en mal de vivre, dans eet
who prescribe it for us. This espaee aux horizons
complementarity has been tragiquement plombes, qu 'elle se
systematized, giving excuses devoile Ie plus dans tout son
for all the forms of oppression horr~ur(6).
and exploitation that the
patriarchal system imposes on a [De facto, if there exists a unifier
woman, by virtue of her sex, theme of Calixthe Beyala's
both in the family and in novels, it is the myth of decline
organized labour. Should this and degradation. If this
complementarity not only be corruption of the beyalian being
challenged but also and universe comes to light in
REDEFINED? (13). social and moral decadence, in
an Africa and a Cameroon falling
Underscoring the unifying theme of into utter decline, in an unsettled
gender gap between the African male and atmospheric climate, where ill-
female that pervades the works of African timed rains rage during dry
feminist writers, Sanusi and Olayinka (2012) season and deadly heats during
note that feminist texts do not only "reveal rainy season, it is particularly
the male-oppressor/female-victim dynamics through the body and psyche of
but, they also show cultural and patriarchal the actors, perpetually
dominance women are subjected to" (185). wandering zombies, yearning
for life, in this space with
- 203 -
tragically leaden horizons.] made by both the Nigerian populace (male
(My translation) and female) and the Nigerian government.
As earlier mentioned, there is the On the part of the Nigerian woman,
tendency to claim that Western intrusion she needs to overcome her low self-esteem
through the colonial system came to and poor image of herself as lesser, weaker,
accentuate the Nigerian woman's dilemma. passive, more trivial, incapable of coping
However, we fail to recognise the fact that with men and other women as equals;
the white man left us alone to our destiny incapable of getting big jobs done; and her
more than half a century ago. Looking tendency for approval-seeking from others.
inwards, the truth should be faced, for it is In essence, she should transcend "patriarchal
inadequate to pass the buck to the white man pedagogy" (Sanusi and Olayinka, 2012: 185)
and blame him for the utter backwardness of by stopping others from defining her roles
the Nigerian woman. It is rather the neo- and personality in the office, the society, and
colonial situation of the Nigerian state that the home for her. She is required to
we should begin to investigate, while not endeavour to reach for equalio/ wit~ men a!lY
losing sight of history. The Nigerian the rewards of her capacities In SOP10-
government has not been consistent with its political and economic arenas oflife in order
policies on women. Consequently, gender to attain equitable position with men.
equality in Nigeria remains and will remain On the part of Nigerian men, it is
a mirage if the Nigerian state fails to be suggested that they erase from their minds
sincere with herself. the myth that women are inferior, passive,
and incapable of achieving big things. The
idea that women lack ideas and creativity
Conclusion: should become a thing of the past because
these claims cannot be substantiated where
Charting the Pathway for Nigerian women and men have equal opportunities to
Woman's Total Emancipation prove themselves. Men should disabuse their
Nigeria was a signatory to the U.N. minds of the notion that women in offices,
Convention on the Elimination of all forms government, and industry should holdhousekeeping and office-wife related jobs.
of Discrimination Against Women As for the Nigerian Government,
(CEDAW) signed in 1979. In the 2012 since gender equality is a perquisite for
GGGR, Nigeria ranked 110 out of 135 development (Johnson-Latham, 2007), this
countries. This means that the journey to the should be seen as the most propitious time to
total liberation of the Nigerian woman and focus on UN charters, resolutions and
her equality with the Nigerian man is not far- policies, geared towards the realisation of
reaching yet, 34 years after. It reveals that the human rights and fundamental freedom for
Nigerian woman is yet to be at par with her all, without discrimination on the basis of
white counterparts. Nonetheless, the race, sex, language, religion, or any other
journey of a thousand years begins with one matter concerning human rights (Acholonu,
step one day. This step has been taken 1999). More specifically, the Nigerian
already in terms of government policies, government should ensure that female
proclamations and. efforts. There is still 'children :are given equal opportunities to
much to be desired, even at that. education with males. Policies that
Constructive and definite efforts need to be discriminate against women in the Nigeriansociety should be annulled and reformulated
- 204-
to favour women aswell asmen as stipulated assigned to women have contributed largely
by the UN in order to actualise and enhance to constraining them to the hearth and have
.- equal rights and access to socio-political and prevented them from' making use of
economic participation of both genders. It is opportunities when such are available and
expedient that Nigerian government practicable (Tamale, 2005). It is only with
transforms the Nigerian concept of these, among others, that meaningful
masculinity and femininity to facilitate development can take place in Nigeria; that
socio-political empowerment of Nigerian is, when half the population, the women,
women in housework, child care and general formerly excluded, are included in all issues
care-giving activities. These gendered roles that border on human rights and the right to
live.
- 205 -
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