EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP IN HIGHER EDUCATION PROJECT ON WELFARE STATUS OF RURAL WOMEN PROCESSORS IN OYO AND OSUN STATES, NIGERIA BY Mojisola Fauziyah OYEWOLE (MATRIC. NO. 149779) B.Ed. Home Economics (Ekpoma), M.Sc. Agricultural Extension and Rural Development (Ibadan) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRITURACULL EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN. SEPTEMBER, 2016 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ABSTRACT Women are responsible for the bulk of agricultural processing activities in rural areas. Dearth of effective processing facilities has limited their productivity, thus predisposing them to low welfare status. Development Partnership in Higher Education (DELPHE) intervention sought to enhance women processors‟ capacity, however, its effect on their welfare status is yet to be ascertained. Therefore, the effects of DELPHE project on welfare status of rural women processors in Oyo and Osun states were investigated. A three-stage sampling procedure was used to select respondents for the study. Four and two Local Government Areas (LGAs) from Osun and Oyo states, respectively where DELPHE project was executed were purposively selected. Two participating and two non-participating communities were randomly selected from each of the LGAs. Ninety six (Oyo) and 120 (Osun) beneficiaries were proportionately selected from the participating communities. Using same structure for non-beneficiaries, registered processors from non-participating communities were selected to give 32 (Oyo) and 56 (Osun) respondents. Structured interview schedule was used to collect data on respondents‟ personal and enterprise characteristics, knowledge of processing activities, participation in DELPHE project activities, benefits derived, attitude of participants, constraints to processing activities and welfare status. Indices of participation (0-18: 0-8 low, 9-18 high), benefits derived (Low 0-6, high 7-14), attitude towards the project (Unfavourable 49-62, favourable 63-84 ) and welfare status ( Worse ₦750-₦5,836, better ₦5,837-₦16,500) were generated. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation, t-test, ANOVA and multiple regression at α0.05. Respondents‟ age and household size were 43.9±12.0 years and 6.0±2.0 person, respectively. Majority (87.0%) were married, while 52.7% of beneficiaries and 55.7% of non-beneficiaries had primary education. More beneficiaries (63.4%) had high level of participation in project 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY activities, 65.7% highly benefitted from the project, while 56.7% had favourable attitude towards the project. Weighted mean of most important benefits derived were skill acquisition (0.84), enterprise expansion (0.78) and increase in yield (0.76). Most severe constraint to beneficiaries on their processing activities was lack of credit facilities (0.60), while high cost of processing equipment (1.54) was identified by non-beneficiaries. Welfare status of beneficiaries (₦7,629.53±1,710.60) was higher than that of non-beneficiaries (₦1,437.60±721.59). Welfare status of Osun state beneficiaries (₦8,719±0.33) was significantly higher than Oyo (₦1,281±0.33). More beneficiaries (67.3%) in the better welfare status derived higher benefits, while 41.9% in the worse welfare status had low benefit. Determinants of welfare status for Osun beneficiaries were years of processing (β= 0.189) and income (β=0.123), while for non-beneficiaries were occupation (β=-0.847) and household size (β=0.251). Determinants of welfare status among beneficiaries in Oyo were years of processing experience (β=0.373) and income (β=-0.267), while for non-beneficiaries were household size (β=0.123) and occupation (β= 0.847). The Development Partnership in Higher Education improved welfare status of beneficiaries from Oyo and Osun states. Income and years of processing experience were major determinants of beneficiaries‟ welfare status in both states. Keywords: DELPHE project, Beneficiaries‟ welfare status, rural women processors, rural communities Word count: 469 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION This study is dedicated to Almighty Allah, Who destined and facilitated it; and to my late mother, Alhaja Risqat Ajoke Shelle, may Allah‟s mercy abide by her and grant her Aljanah Fridaus.. 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All praise and adoration be to Allah, the most gracious, the merciful, the cherisher, and the sustainer, of the entire universe. I acknowledge the inestimable favour of my Lord, Allah, Who brought me up to this extent. I sincerely express my profound gratitude and deep appreciation to my supervisor Professor Janice Olawoye for her inestimable support morally, academically, physically, and constructive criticism in ensuring that this thesis becomes a successful one. I wholeheartedly appreciate your effort ma. May God bless and strengthen you ma. To members of the supervisory committee; Professor Stella Odebode and Dr Kemisola Adenegan, the postgraduate committee, Prof L.A. Akinbile, Dr B.R. Olajide and O.T. Yekinni, for their careful scrutiny and guidance that ensured successful completion of this work. Your contributions and advice throughout this work are very much appreciated. May God prosper you all in your endeavours. My profound gratitude goes to my head of Department, Professor A.E. Adekoya and all my teachers, who have taken interest in the work since the pre-data seminar phase. The critical and constructive comments are well appreciated. I also appreciate the assistance rendered by Professor J.A. Farinde (Deputy Coordinator of DELPHE project) and Dr (Mrs) E.O.. Farinde for providing small grant for this thesis writing. May God bless you and your entire household. I specially thank Prof. J.A.I. Omueti, for his immeasurable support all through, may you live long to enjoy the fruit of your labour. I sincerely appreciate the contributions and concerns of all the academic staff in the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Professors A.A. Ladele, M.K. Yahaya, Nkiru Meludu, Stella Odebode, L.A. Akinbile, J.O. Oladeji, B.O. Oyesola, M.G. Olujide and Drs. Pippy Fawole, Sarafat Tijani, B.R. Olajide, O.T Yekinni, K.A. Thomas, O.I. Badiru and Mrs Olufolake Adelakun. I further acknowledge the contributions of the 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY administrative staff members, Mesdames Bose Ojo, Oyeyemi Joseph, Tope Oyawale, Tope Olaosebikan, Abiodun Adesina, Bunmi Morakinyo, Seyi Ikujuni and Mr Daniel Oghiangbe. I sincerely appreciate the contributions of Prof M.A.Y. Rahji, Prof. T.T Awoyemi, Prof. S.A Yusuf, Prof. V.O Okoruwa, Dr K.K. Salman, Dr B.O Adisa, Dr B. Bamigboye, Dr Grace Akanbi, Bayo, Mrs F. Oladejo, and Omonike Adesina. Similarly, I appreciate the contributions received through interactions with my fellow students, particularly Wale Adejumo, Okanlawo Oluwatoyin, Temitope Abdusalam, Seun Adeleke, Judamat Abu, Samson Oyegbile, Nathaniel Oluwategbe, Mudashir Hajarat, Favour Eferouku, and Odunuga Azeez. Thank you all and God bless. My parent, Alhaji Tairu Akanni- Shelle and Late Alhaja Risqat Akanni-Shelle deserve all the gratitude a child may ever show to her parents. I am indeed grateful for all your efforts right from my birth up to this moment. Mother, unfortunately you are unable to witness the successful completion of this research work for the reasons best known to Almighty Allah, despite all your moral and financial support. I pray Allah grant you Al- jannah fridaus. I say a big thank you to the Akanni-Shelles and my cousins: Soji, Wale, Segun, Monsurat, Jide , Kemi, Biyi , Tunbi , Bimbo, Ramat, Bola, Lanre, Muti, Taoreed, Salmat, Qudus, and also to my aunties, Alhaja Kudirat Gafar, Alhaja Ganiat Sanni, Alhaja Sarat Giwa, Alhaja Olaogun, Alhaja Subulade Etti, and Messrs Folashade Akinjohnson, Oluwatoyin Amosu and Monsurat Orekan, The same greetings extends to my uncles, Barrister Nasir Lawal, Alhaji Moroti Shelle, Mr Wasiu lawal, Mr Bolaji and Mr Kola Adigun and my cousins. I also want to extend my gratitude to my father and mother in-law, Alhaji and Alhaja Oyewole, may Allah grants you long life and sound health. My profound gratitude goes to my well- wishers and friends for their support, among them are Mrs Ramat 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Oyewole, Adenike Hamzat, Bose Onitiri, Yemisi Ogunimo, Bimbo Ibraheem, Biodun Adedoyin, Mama Fasoyin, Dr R. Asafa and all Aunty Ayo‟ Girls Comprehensive Secondary School Students 92 set. I wish to appreciate my beloved husband, Yusuf Olayinka Abiodun Oyewole, for his, encouragement, endurance and for providing enabling circumstances throughout the period of this programme. I also appreciate my wonderful children, Nimotalai Omodolapo, Nasrah Oluwadamilola and Toheebah Omoteniola, Oyewole for their cooperation, understanding and endurance throughout the period of this programme. I pray Allah make you greater in all facets of goodness than I will ever be able to achieve. Oyewole, Mojisola Fauziyah. (2016) 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I certify that this was carried out by Mojisola Fauziyah Oyewole, a PhD candidate in the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. ................................. ........................................................ Date Professor Janice E. Olawoye B.S, M.S (Iowa State) PhD (Ibadan) Professor of Rural Sociology Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan. 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE Title 1 Abstract 2 Dedication 4 Acknowledgement 5 Certification 8 Table of contents 9 List of tables 15 List of figures 18 List of appendices 19 List of plates 20 List of acronyms 21 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 23 1.1 Background to the study 23 1.2 The DELPHE project in Nigeria 24 1.3 Statement of research problem 26 1.4 Objectives of the study 28 1.5 Hypotheses of the study 28 1.6 Justification of the study 29 1.7 Scope of the study 30 1.8 Limitations of the study 30 1.9 Definition of terms 30 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 33 2.1 The Concept of Community Developmoent 33 2.1.1 The Importance of Community Development 34 2.1.2 The need for Development Project in Nigeria 34 2.1.3 Capacity Building for Sustainable Development 36 2.1.4 Rural Women in Development 37 2.1.5 The Role of Women in Agriculture and Community Development 43 2.2 The Impact of Women Participation In Community Development 44 2.3 Beneficiaries‟ participation in Development Projects 45 2.4 Challenges and Opportunities facing women participants in Development Programme 46 2.5 Empowerment efforts for Women in Agriculture 49 2.6 Efforts of Non-Governmental Organizations to Improve Rural Women Activities in Nigeria 51 2.7 Women-In-Agriculture (WIA) efforts in women empowerment 53 2.8 The DELPHE Project in Nigeria 55 2.9 Rural Women and Processing Activities in Nigeria 56 2.9.1 Oil Palm Processing 57 2.9.2 Production of Palm Oil 57 2.9.3 Moringa Processing Activities 60 2.9.3.1 Leaf harvesting 61 2.9.3.2 Draining, drying and grinding of Moringa 62 2.9.4 Soybean Processing Activities 64 2.9.5 Cassava Processing Activities 67 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.9.5.1 Processing Techniques and Reduction of Cyanide in Cassava 69 2.9.5.2 Fermentation in Cassava processing 69 2.9.5.3 Processed products and Processing Equipment of Cassava 72 2.9.6 Storage of Cassava processed products 75 2.9.7 Utilization of cassava processed products 76 2.10 Impact Assessment of development project 76 2.11 Propensity Score Matching 77 2.12 Measures of Household Welfare Status 78 2.12.1 Asset Indices as an Alternative Measure of Welfare Status 82 2.12.2 Consumption as a Measure of Welfare Status 83 CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 86 3.1 Theoretical Framework 86 3.1.1 Knowledge Gap Theory 86 3.1.2 Women Empowerment heory 87 3.1.3 Sustainable Theory 88 3.2 The Conceptual Framework 89 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 91 4.1 Area of study 91 4.2 Population of The Study 94 4.3 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size 94 4.4 Instrument for Data Collection 98 4.5 Validity and Reliabilty of Instrument 99 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.6 Measurement of Variables 99 4.7 Data Analysis 103 4.8 Test of hypotheses 105 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 106 5.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents 106 5.1.1 Age 106 5.1.2 Marital status 108 5.1.3 Religion 110 5.1.4 Educational status 112 5.1.5 Household Size 114 5.1.6 Household head 116 5.1.7 Membership of groups 118 5.1.8 Position as wife 120 5.1.9 Income generating activities 122 5.1.10 Monthly income on processed products 124 5.2 Enterprise characteristics of respondents 126 5.2.1 Processing activities engaged in 126 5.2.2 Processing experience (years) 128 5.2.3 Land acquisition 128 5.2.4 Sources of labour 128 5.2.5 Sources of finance 129 5.2.6 Sources of information 129 5.3 Respondents‟ knowledge on various processing enterprise activities 131 5.4 Categorisation of respondents knowledge on various processing activities 134 5.5 Participation of beneficiaries in DELPHE project activities 141 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.5.1 Level of participation of respondents in DELPHE project 144 5.6 Benefits derived by beneficiaries of DELPHE Project 146 5.6.1 Level of benefits derived from DELPHE, Fadama and NPFS 148 5.7 Attitude of the beneficiaries towards the DELPHE project 150 5.7.1 Categorisation of beneficiaries‟ attitude towards the project 152 5.8 Constraint faced by respondents on various processing activities 154 5.9 Socio Economic Status (SES) 157 5.9.1 Respondents possession of Socio- Economic status 157 5.9.2 Socio Economic Status before and After DELPHE project 161 5.10 Welfare Status of Respondents 163 5.10.1 Monthly Household and Actual Per Capita Expenditure 163 5.10.2 Percentage Contributions of Beneficiaries and Non- Beneficiaries 165 5.10.3 Categorisation of Respondents by welfare status 167 5.11 Contributions of Independent variables to welfare status of beneficiaries 170 5.12 Contributions of Independent variables to welfare status of beneficiaries in Osun State 172 5.13 Contributions of Independent variables to welfare status of beneficiaries in Oyo State 174 5.14 Hypotheses Testing 176 5.14.1 Hypothesis 1 176 5.14.2 Hypothesis 2 180 5.14.3 Hypothesis 3 182 5.14.4 Hypothesis 4 184 5.14.5 Hypothesis 5 186 5.14.6 Hypothesis 6 189 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.7 Hypothesis 7 191 6.0 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 193 6.1 Summary 193 6.2 Summary of major findings 194 6.3 Conclusions 197 6.4 Recommendations 198 6.5 Contribution to Knowledge 199 6.6 Areas for further research 199 References 200 Appendices 209 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGES Table 4.1: Sampling of respondents 96 Table 4.2: Number of matched respondents after PSM 97 Table 5.1: Distribution of respondents on their educational status 113 Table 5.2: Distribution of respondents by membership of groups 119 Table 5.3: Distribution of respondents on their income generating activities 123 Table 5.4: Distribution of respondents by their monthly income 125 Table 5.5: Distribution of respondents on their processing activities 127 Table 5.6: Distribution of respondents on their enterprise characteristics 130 Table 5.7: Respondents‟ response to knowledge statements on Moringa processing enterprise 136 Table 5.8: Respondents‟ response to knowledge statements on Soybean processing enterprise 137 Table 5.9: Respondents‟ response to knowledge statements on Oil palm processing enterprise 138 Table 5.10: Respondents‟ response to knowledge statements on Cassava processing enterprise 139 Table 5.11: Categorisation of respondents‟ level of knowledge on various processing enterprise 140 Table 5.12: Distribution of beneficiaries on the level of participation in DELPHE project 143 Table 5.13: Categorisation of respondents by participation in DELPHE project activities 145 Table 5.14: Distribution of beneficiaries on benefits derived from DELPHE project 147 Table 5.15: Categorisation of respondents by benefits derived from DELPHE activities 149 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.16: Distribution of beneficiaries by attitude towards DELPHE project 151 Table 5.17: Categorisation of beneficiaries‟ on their level of attitude towards the project 153 Table 5.18: Distribution of respondents on constraints faced by respondents on various processing activities 155 Table 5.19: Distribution of beneficiaries by possession of socio- economic indicators before and after DELPHE project 158 Table 5.20: Socio-economic status of the DELPHE project beneficiaries 162 Table 5.21: Mean expenditure on household basic items by beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of DELPHE project 164 Table 5.22: Percentage contribution of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries‟ 166 Table 5.23: Mean expenditure of respondents at different levels of welfare categories 168 Table 5.24: Categorisation on the respondents‟ level of welfare status 169 Table 5.25: Contributions of independent variables to welfare status of the respondents 171 Table 5.26: Contributions of independent variables to welfare status of Osun state beneficiaries 173 Table 5.27: Contributions of independent variables to welfare status 175 of Oyo state beneficiaries Table 5.28: Relationship between socio economic characteristics and welfare status 178 Table 5.29: Relationship between socio economic characteristics and welfare status using PPMC 179 Table 5.30: Relationship between beneficiaries‟ attitude towards the project and welfare status using PPMC 181 Table 5.31 Relationship between benefits derived from DELPHE project and welfare status 183 Table 5.32: Relationship between constraints and welfare status 185 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.33: Difference between welfare statuses of beneficiaries across processing enterprise categories 187 Table 5.34: Post-hoc test for the differences observed in welfare status of rural dwellers among various processing enterprise categories 188 Table 5.35: Independent t-test analysis showing the difference in welfare status among beneficiaries‟ and non-beneficiaries‟ 190 Table 5.36: Independent t-test analysis showing the difference in welfare status among Osun state beneficiaries and Oyo state beneficiaries 192 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGE Figure 1.1: Conceptual frame work on effects of DELPHE project 90 on welfare status of rural women processors Figure 4.1: Map of Oyo state showing Local government Areas 92 Figure 4.2: Map of Osun state showing Local government Areas 93 Figure 5.1: Distribution of respondents based on their age group 107 Figure 5.2: Distribution of respondents based on their marital status 109 Figure 5.3: Distribution of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries based on their religion 111 Figure 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on their household size 115 Figure 5.5: Distribution of respondents on the type of household head 117 Figure 5.6: Distribution of respondents based on position as wife 121 Figure 5.7: Result of Problem Tree Analysis by respondents on constraints faced on their processing activities 156 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDICES PAGE 1. Guide for Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 209 2. Interview schedule 211 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF PLATES PLATES PAGE Plate1: DELPHE Project Signpost in Iyanfoworogi Community Ife East LGA, Osun State, Nigeria. 222 Plate 2: FGD with Moringa women processors at Iyanfoworogi Community, Osun State. 223 Plate 3: Researcher with Cassava processors at Omi Adio, Ido LGA, Oyo State. 224 Plate 4: Soybean Processor at Ojo Community, Egbedore LGA, Osun State. 225 Plate 5: Researcher with Oil-palm Processors at Akufo Community, Oyo State. 226 Plate 6: Interview Session with Respondent at Ayeso Community, Obokun Local Government Area of Osun State. 227 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADP – Agricultural Development Projects ANOVA – Analysis of Variance BLP - Better Life Programme CMP - Cassava Mutipliers Programme DELPHE- Development Partnership In Higher Education DFID – Department for International Development FAO- Food and Agriculture Organisation FSP – Family Support Programme FEAP – Family Economic Advancement Programme IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development IITA - International Institute of Tropical Agricultural LGA - Local Government Areas NAERLS- National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Services NAFPP- National Accelerated Food Production Programme NFDP – National Fadama Development Project NFSP – The National Food Security Programme NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation MDG – Millennium Development Goal OAU – Obafemi Awolowo University OFN - Operation Feed the Nation PPMC – Pearson Product Moment Correlation PSM - Propensity Score Matching SES- Socio-Economic Status WIA - Women In Agriculture 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNESCO - United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation UN - United Nations UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNIFEM - United Nations Development Fund for Women 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study Human development is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in structure, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, which results in the reduction of inequality and poverty (Okiy, 2012). According to Agbamu (2006), development is a gradual change that helps to improve the competence of people. It entails improvements in the socio-economic and technological systems that operate in a given community. It consists of resource generation process, efficient utilisation of resources, and resource conservation. It is an increase in outputs in all sectors of economy and the distribution of outputs in such a way to enhance the quality of life of the general population (Goshit, 2002). Development programmes can be in different fields such as education, health or agriculture (UNESCO, 2010). For instance, in education, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) which was introduced in 1999 by the Federal Government of Nigeria as a reform programme aimed at providing greater access to, and ensuring quality of basic education throughout Nigeria. In the health sector, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) programme in Nigeria, in harmonization with other development partners, has increased the efforts to align their programme with the plans and priorities of the Federal Government particularly in the National Health Sector Developmental Plan (NHSDP). In the agricultural sector, the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GES) embarked upon by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development provides subsidised farm inputs directly to farmers. In addition, the Ministry developed the Electronic Wallet system which allows both male and female farmers to receive subsidized electronic voucher for their seeds and fertilizers on their mobile phones. All these developmental projects are interrelated as they focus on the marginalized persons, including the rural women. 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Many development agencies are increasing their emphasis on assisting rural women to secure income through their own efforts. Such approaches are often categorised as income generating activities and initiatives, co-operative undertakings, job creation scheme, credits - saving groups and capacity building for sustainable development. Development programmes specific to the needs of women have also been implemented in Nigeria. These programmes include the Women in Agriculture (WIA) programme of the Agricultural Development Projects (ADP) and the Better Life for Rural Women (BLFW) programme. Zaid and Popoola (2010) asserted that the concern for increasing the standard of living of rural women in Nigeria can be seen in the general concern to alleviate poverty in the rural households. Many programmes have been designed by the government in the past to improve the standard of living of the rural women in Nigeria. In recognition of the past government‟s efforts, some development intervention programmes stepped up efforts to improve the welfare status among rural women in Nigeria. One of such programme is the Development Partnership in Higher Education (DELPHE) development intervention programme 1.2 The DELPHE Project in Nigeria The DELPHE entrepreneurial development project was funded by Department for International Development (DFID), United Kingdom between August, 2009 and September 2012. It was designed to exploit the inherent entrepreneurial capability of African women by motivating them to be aware of the immense possibilities open to them to start-off thriving rural enterprises in the areas of natural resource utilization, and on and off-farm wealth generation activities through certain objectives. The DELPHE project trained 420 rural women in Osun and Oyo states on selected enterprises which include:  Cassava processing with value addition to improve nutritive quality and market acceptability, 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  Oil palm processing and marketing,  Moringa production and utilization,  Soybean processing and value addition products,  Bio-gas production and utilization,  Organic fertilizer production and utilization,  Sheep and goat rearing and marketing, and  Capital generation and management. The project was an intervention that sought to identify and develop the women‟s innate characteristics for entrepreneurial development for improved welfare status. It was a collaborative intervention project between Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Moor plantation, Ibadan Nigeria and the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom (DELPHE, 2008).The project started in September 2009 and ended August 2012. The project‟s thematic area in business and enterprise development had the main objective as enhancing increased rural household income and improved rural standard of living in the study areas. The specific objectives included:  To develop appropriate social survey methodologies for discovering rural people and community potentials in rural enterprises;  To identify rural women and community potentials in various rural enterprises:  To build capacity of 25 academic staff, 50 technical/field staff and 20 graduate students in the design and management of rural enterprises;  To establish 15 strategic development centres where about 75 rural entrepreneurs are trained yearly;  To transform rural women entrepreneurs to facilitators (75) who will be training other rural entrepreneurs (5 people per entrepreneurs = 375 entrepreneurs per year) and 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY train 20 Young Women Enterprise Fellows (YWEFs) in practical business management;  To bridge town and gown knowledge gap to improve rural economy through university resources utilization at local level; and  To develop new curriculum in business and enterprises studies as certificate course for potential entrepreneurs. 1.3 Statement of the research problem According to World Bank (2008), about 1.4 billion of people live on less than $1 per day. In Nigeria, 54.1% of the population lived in multidimensional poverty while 17.8% were vulnerable to multiple deprivations. Nigeria‟s Human Development Index in 2012 was 0.471; which is below the average (0.504) for countries in sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP, 2013). Rural poverty studies revealed that the number of women living in absolute poverty in developing countries, including Nigeria increased from 400 million in 1995 to 600 million in 2010 (IFAD, 2011). Many programmes such as Better life for Rural Women, Family Advancement Programme sponsored by either the Federal Government or international agencies have been designed to improve the standard of living of the rural women in Nigeria. However, most of these programmes have failed to ameliorate the living conditions of rural women, because women in rural areas for which such programmes were meant, lagged behind in terms of socio economic advancement. The missing link however has been due to absence of an effective training system for mobilizing and stimulating them into action with a view to improve their welfare status. Minniti and Arenius (2003) asserted that despite the growth of women in professional and managerial jobs, the gender gap in entrepreneurship remains significant. In order to ameliorate the situation, there is need for concerted efforts from the government and 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY development partners in form of interventions. One of such interventions is the DELPHE development project. Since the conclusion of the project in 2012, there has been no organised study to evaluate its effectiveness in achieving its main objective which is enhancing increased rural household income and improving rural standard of living in the study areas. The effect of any programme on welfare status of beneficiaries depend a lot on their participation in the project activities, their knowledge, attitude towards the project, the constraint faced and the benefit they derived from the project. One of the ways to ascertain the contribution of the project towards welfare of the women is to confirm if beneficiaries achieved better welfare status than non beneficiaries. It therefore became imperative to assess the extent to which DELPHE project has improved the welfare status of rural women processors‟ in Oyo and Osun states, Nigeria. Therefore, the following research questions were addressed in this study 1. What are the enterprise characteristics of beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in the study area? 2. What are the respondents‟ levels of knowledge on their various processing activities in the study area? 3. What is the level of participation of beneficiaries in DELPHE development activities in the study area? 4. What are the attitudes of the beneficiaries towards the DELPHE project in the study area? 5. What are the benefits derived by beneficiaries in the DELPHE projects in the study area? 6. What are the constraints faced by the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in their processing activities in the study area? 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7. What is the welfare status of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries across the four processing groups of the DELPHE project in the study area? 1.4 Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to evaluate the effect of DELPHE project intervention on welfare status of rural women processors‟ in Oyo and Osun states of Nigeria. The specific objectives are to: 1. examine the enterprise characteristics of beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in the study area; 2. assess the respondents‟ levels of knowledge on various processing activities in the study area; 3. ascertain the beneficiaries‟ level of participation in the DELPHE project activities in the study area; 4. determine the attitude of beneficiaries towards the DELPHE project 5. find out the benefits derived from participating in the DELPHE and other intervention projects in the study area; 6. identify the constraints faced by the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in their processing activities in the study are; and 7. compare the welfare status of project beneficiaries and non beneficiaries across the four types of processing groups in the study area . 1.5 Hypotheses of the study The hypotheses of the study, which are stated in null form, are as follows: H01: There is no significant relationship between the rural women processors‟ socio economic characteristics and their welfare status 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY H02: There is no significant relationship between beneficiaries‟ attitude towards the project and their welfare status Ho3: There is no significant relationship between benefits derived by respondents and their welfare status. Ho4: There is no significant relationship between the constraints faced by the respondents in their processing activities and their welfare status. H05: There is no significant difference in the welfare status across the rural women processing groups in the study area. H06: There is no significant difference in the welfare status of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries of DELPHE project in the study area. H07: There is no significant difference in the welfare status of Osun state beneficiaries and Oyo state beneficiaries in the study area. 1.6 Justification for the study This study is imperative because of the call for improving the welfare status of rural women. Consequent upon the benefits derivable from developmental programmes, the need then arises for community members to organize themselves into groups. This would not only assist them to jointly participate in identifying and executing their development needs, but would also serve as an opportunity to determine the effects of the development programmes on the community members. This study will no doubt unfold the extent to which the goal of poverty reduction of the DELPHE project has been achieved. Information on rural women socio economic characteristics such as income, education, which contributes to their welfare status, will guide the executing bodies to adjust the projects in such a way that there is overall improvement in the welfare status of the rural women. It will also serve as source of information to 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY community developers, so as to know steps to take in reducing the existing high degree of discontentment and dissatisfaction among community members with their living conditions and their perceived neglect by the government at all levels. Results of the study will add to the available information for the use of researchers, Non-Governmental Organisations, executors, organisations and government agencies involved in the area of agriculture and rural development. This study will also be of significance to the Ministry of Women Affairs in the nation, as they would use it to improve on their services to women in rural and urban areas. It will also help in formulation of policy by government at all levels. 1.7 Scope of the study This study investigated the effect of DELPHE project on the rural women processors‟ beneficiaries‟ and the non-beneficiaries‟ welfare status in Oyo and Osun states. The study did not cover similar projects in the study area. 1.8 Limitation of the study The Development Partnership in Higher Education project covered only two states in Nigeria. If more states were involved, special consideration would have been given to the zone in sampling. 1.9 Definition of terms The main concepts of this study are the following 1. Effect: This refers to the degree to which executed project in the community satisfy its goal, that is, meet the beneficiaries‟ desires and needs: for example how the beneficiaries‟ members‟ welfare status has been transformed. 2. Participation: Any activity or actions which enable individuals of different economic and social status have an input into decision making process and to play a role in improving the quality of lives in the community. 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3. Development: A multidimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty. 4. Project: A planned undertaking requiring concerted efforts towards the improvement of living conditions of the people in the community. 5. Rural Women: Women living in community of low population with characteristics of lack of basic infrastructure such as water, electricity, health care and transportation. 6. Welfare Status: State in which the living condition of the people in such matters as social security, health, education, housing and working improve. 7. Intervention: is an act or set of activities aimed at improving the existing condition of a set of persons concerned 8. Activity: An act or acts target towards a particular goal. 9. Processors: Person involved in converting fresh agricultural produce into a finished product 10. Poverty: It is a state of being poor, lacking of certain amount of material possession or money. 11. Beneficiary: recipient and participants of an intervention programmes (DELPHE) 12. Non Beneficiary: non-recipient or non-participants in of an intervention programmes (DELPHE) 13. Community: This is a geographical location or social entity, urban neighbourhood, villages or groups with common interest such as women‟s group, market women‟s association. 14. Group: A number of people having the same characteristics that comes together to achieve similar objective. 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 15. Enterprise: is a particular business venture such as poultry enterprise, processing enterprise. 16. Partnership: People having joint interest or investment in a project. 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The concept of community development Yunusa, (2008) regards community development as a process concerned with the improvement as well as the transformation of the social, mental, economic, institutional and environmental conditions of the rural dweller. This is achieved through the mobilisation and rational utilization of their human material and institutional of their human material and institutional resources as to enhance their capabilities to cope with the daily tasks and demands of modern times. Development is about the quality of life of people, their capacity to improve the conditions of their existence, to reach, control and utilize their resources for greater productivity. Nwangboso and Duke (2012), reported that community development involves a lot of multi-sectoral activities such as the improvement in agriculture, the promotion of rural industrial activities as well as the establishment of appropriate decentralized structures in order to allow for mass participation in the development process. Rural development also requires citizens‟ participation, increase in their productive capacity and attitudinal change leading to their desire and ability to manipulate their environment so as to shun their sense of dependence on their environment. Ogunowo and Oderinde (2012), posited that objective of rural development should not only be increased agricultural production but also provision of socio- economic infrastructure that that will make life worthy of living in those areas. It is the view of these that rural development should be able to provide employment opportunities so that the underemployed labour resources of the area can be productively utilized. 2.1.1 The importance of community development Rural development is aimed at improving and expanding physical infrastructural facilities towards enhancing the quality of life and standard of living of the people, hence it is 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY people and infrastructural oriented with inter-governmental linkage. The importance of community development is summarised as follows: 1. It improves the income generating capacity and living standard of the rural masses by satisfying their basic security, food, shelter, clothing and employment needs. 2. It involves the rural masses generally in governance especially in initiations and executions of integrated rural development programmes on a continuing and self- sustaining basis. 3. It increases employment opportunities in rural communities and make them more productive and less vulnerable to national hazards, poverty and exploitation. 4. It ensures more equitable distribution of income and narrows the gap between the urban rich and the rural poor, by upgrading the skills and earnings capacities of rural dwellers. 5. It stems the tide of rural urban migration and its attendant problems. 6. It improve data collection and statistics on rural situation and on demographic variable relevant to the planning, executive, monitoring, and evaluation of integrated rural development programmes on a continuing and self sustaining basis. 2.1.2 The need for development project in Nigeria There is no doubt that many people in Nigeria cannot meet the basic needs of life showing a high level of poverty in the country. Okunmadewa (2001) observed that despite Nigeria‟s physical and human resources, there had been progressively worsening welfare and poverty of less than three hundred and twenty naira pre capital per month, which will barely provide for a quarter of nutritional requirements for healthy living. The low educational attainments and rural character of people are minored in geographical distribution of poverty. Considering the pronounced poverty in the country and especially with the women in the rural areas in Nigeria, 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DFID sponsored a development project titled (DELPHE) intervention for the country. According to (DFID, 2006), the aim intends to emphasise economic growth, self-help, capacity building, equity and empowerment. Development assistance to alleviate poverty and improve the economic situation has always been in an uncoordinated initiative with little or no impact at the grassroots level. Tokula and Apu (2007), observed that opportunities for sustainable agriculture could be created through the use of locally available locally available resources. This is intensified using the micro environment in farm systems, diversification by using new technologies, social participatory process leading to group act, human capital building through continuous learning programmes, access to affordable finance (credit and subsidies), and adding value through processing and increase returns and adding value through direct or organised marketing to consumers. It is evident that sustainable agricultural systems can be economically, socially, environmentally viable and contribute positively to local livelihood. Nevertheless, any policy to that effect should be formulated with the rural women in mind as contributors to national development. An important thing to do in development project is empowering the community to feel involved and be together in any development project planning and execution. Madavo (2000) identified beneficiaries‟ participation as an integral part of effective poverty reduction strategies that can improve their standard of living. Standard of living is generally used to describe the quantity of goods and services actually consumed by individual and his family. This includes the ownership and use of such items as radio, television, refrigerator, cooker, eating of balanced regular meals, being well clothed, living in a descent house, owning some means of transportation and payment of bills. (Ekong, 2003). When all modern household facilities, goods, and services are considered, it is obvious that people in the rural areas enjoy lower level of standard of living than their counterpart in the urban areas. In terms of level of economic development, quality of life, 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY access to opportunities, facilities and amenities and standard of living, the gap between the urban and rural areas in Nigeria is very wide (Ogidefa, 2010). Inability of the rural people to easily provide those abilities is not farfetched from the fact that poverty is hitting hard on rural dwellers. (John, 2010). Development assistance to alleviate poverty and improve the standard of living of people is necessary and should be evaluated to determine its effect on the people. 2.1.3 Capacity building for sustainable development According to Agunyai (2015), capacity building often refers to strengthening the skills, competencies and abilities of people in societies, so that they can improve on their weak innate potentials to attain better level of standard of living. Capacity building, also referred to as capacity development, is a conceptual approach to development that focuses on understanding and removing the obstacles that inhibit people, governments, and other entities from realising their developmental goals, while enhancing the abilities that will allow them to achieve measurable and sustainable results. Capacity building is included in the programmes of most development organisations because of its importance in the attainment of their goals. Such organization include: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Department for International Development (DFID). The components of capacity building include the following:  Human resource development - the process of equipping individuals with the understanding, skills and access to information, knowledge and training that enables them to perform effectively;  Organisational development – the elaboration of management structures, processes and procedures, not only within organizations but also the management of relationships between the different organizations and sectors at public, private and community levels and 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  Institutional and legal framework development, making legal and regulatory changes to enable organizations, institutions and agencies at all levels to enhance their capacities (UNDP, 2006). 2.1.4 Rural women in development According to Ekong (2003), development process in pre-industrial societies generally involved the participation of women in various spheres of activities including weeding of farms, growing of „women crops‟, processing of crops, clearing of compounds, child care, socialization, animal rearing, weaving, pottery-making, harvesting and marketing of minor products such as pepper, vegetable and so on. However, the possibility and degree of their participation in these activities depended partly on ecological circumstances and partly on the cultural definition of sex roles in their societies. One of the major attributes of such societies was the division of roles along the lines of sex. The social, economic and political opportunities enjoyed by women were limited in various degrees of cultural norms and values. In many societies women were denied certain rights ranging from that of land inheritance to that of participating in some important matters affecting their societies. All over the world, women‟s participation in development programmes is influenced by the prevailing norms, culture, religious beliefs and gender- related issues which cut across industrialised cities to the grassroots (Salawu, 2011). In modern times, the trend is changing, as women now play increasing and divergent roles in different societies and more so in advanced industrial societies. Today, women play significant roles side by side with men in almost all spheres of activities. Such activities include politics, trade and commerce, the military, teaching, medical practice, tailoring, modern agriculture and public services. Ekong (2003) reported that divergent views have been expressed about women generally, and rural women in relation to development. The contributions made by rural women in national development, especially in developing 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY societies such as Nigeria, are made at individual and group levels and are paramount in the areas of agriculture. When women control additional income, they spend more of it than men do on food, health, clothing and education for their children. This has positive implications for immediate well-being as well as long-run human capital formation and economic growth through improved health, nutrition and education outcomes. There is need for development projects in Nigeria. Rural women are active agents of the economy promotion of social change and environmental protectors in many ways. They play crucial roles in ensuring food and nutrition security, eradicating poverty and improving the well being of their families. They are constrained in their roles as farmers, producers, processors, investors and caregivers as a result of gender discrimination that deny them equitable access to opportunities, resources, assets and services. The procedure of capacity building of women should be increased particularly in the developing countries through access to capital, resources, credit, land, information on technical assistance and training. Rural women access to education and training can have a major impact on their potential to access benefits from income generating opportunities and improve their overall wellbeing (United Nations, 2012). In order to achieve these, rural women should be involved in development. Rural women‟s involvement in development has been the focus of intensive debates at most international forums in the past years. Among those forums that recognised the plight of the Third World women‟s involvement in development process are the 1995 Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for advancement of women, the 1995 Beijing Declaration and the United Nations Development Fund for Women. These forums expressed that each member state was expected to promote women‟s economic independence, including the creation of 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY employment, access to resources and credit, the eradication of the persistent and increasing burdens of poverty, malnutrition, poor health and illiteracy (Kongolo, 2009). Although such declarations increased an awareness and understanding of the problems facing rural women and their needs, it has not yet resulted in significant development priorities in terms of their expectations and aspirations. Women are very important in rural development practices. Given their position at the domestic and resource management levels, rural women constitute potential and critical agents for rural transformation. The rural women command a diversity of experiences in their daily management of resources. Despite these contributions, their voices are hardly heard, while their efforts and contributions are never mainstreamed in national and local development policies and practices in Nigeria. Several challenges militate against their integration and mainstreaming at any level of development. These include unfavourable cultural tradition, inadequate policy and institutional structures for capacity building; absence of rural infrastructures, limited awareness and access to social network and opportunities. The importance of woman in development has been underscored through provisions of some international resolutions and agenda and their subsequent domestication at national government levels, including Nigeria. The United Nations General Assembly‟s resolution on Women‟s Rights and International Peace sets aside March 8 of every year as International Women‟s Day. The Beijing Declaration and Action Platform was adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995. The platform and action re-affirm the fundamental principle that the rights of women and girls are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. The platform strongly opposes inequality and all forms of violence against women. Consequently, all national governments were required to develop strategies or national plans of action to implement the platform locally. In June 2000, the 39 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY United Nations General Assembly adopted a political declaration reaffirming member States‟ commitment to the objectives set forth in the Beijing declaration and platform for action. The Beijing platform actually influenced some elements in the United Nations Development Goals which specifically addressed gender related issues such as achieving universal education (Goal No. 2); promoting gender equality (Goal No. 3), and improving maternal health (Goal No. 5). International declarations and resolutions focusing on gender right and women empowerment have always guided the Nigerian government actions on gender and women related issues over the years. Policy commitments and some programmes specifically directed at women especially in the rural areas include: 1. Some policy commitments to achieving women participation in political activities. Women campaign groups on this issue have flourished helping to pressurize governments to concede some political positions for women. Although statistics related to gender mainstreaming in national politics and bureaucracies are hardly available, there have been progressive policy pronouncements, sometimes with political promises of 30% positions for women in national governments. Progress at streamlining women participation at States and local levels have been rather slow, and complicated by the absence of useful statistics. 2. Universal Basic Education. National interest in guaranteeing universal basic education has been spurred by the Millennium Development Goals. Ensuring the implementation of universal basic education has been a tool strategically directed at enforcing girl child education at the grass root level. Offshoots of some programmes have been developed specifically to reach out to girls. For instance, the Girl Education Project (GEP) of the federal government of Nigeria was designed to improve and increase girl enrollment and retention in schools, with target supports from the Governments Conditional Cash Transfer 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (GCCT) for the girl child. Various State governments have pursued similar or related projects and programmes over the years beginning from 1999 when Nigeria transited to a democratic government. 3. Subsidy Reinvestment Program (SURE-P) was launched in 2012 as a social safety net, aimed to alleviate the impact of the oil subsidy removal on vulnerable populations. The programme was to engage 10,000 women and youths in public works across each State in Nigeria. The SURE-P, not only sought to mitigate the immediate impact of partial petroleum subsidy removal on the population, it was equally to serve as a tool for empowering the rural women by involving them in some occupational activities aimed to better their lives and improve on their livelihood activities. 4. There have also been some targeted financial services to rural women across Nigeria through Micro-Finance Banks (MFB) and the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). These financial services are run under the umbrella of Nigeria‟s Vision 20: 2020 specifically aimed to redress rural gender inequalities and subordination through some forms of financial empowerment programmes. These programmes have been very useful in principle. In practice, there is a paucity or complete absence of relevant statistics to assess their utility and relevance in enhancing the empowerment of rural women. It is also important to note that the existence of these programmes hardly receive solid institutional back up in the forms of legislations, etc. They exist, more or less, as ad hoc and regime-based programmes whose utility and existence are tied to politics and the longevity of a specific regime. Hence the rural women still face critical challenges in relation to participation in development activities. To strengthen the contribution of the rural women in development activities, the following critical areas for policy and implementations are recommended: 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY a. There is urgent need to focus on developing strong institutional supports for gender mainstreaming. Nigeria has not made significant progress in domesticating relevant international agenda through local legislations. This challenge also applies to virtually all aspects of gender and women development issues including property inheritance, violence and other forms of abuse against women, universal education and gender equality. Many of the programmes and actions at the moment exist as administrative pronouncements, which rarely outlive changes in regime. The critical policy priority at the moment remains the need to achieve foundational empowerment of the present generation through quality education for the girl child and economic empowerment for the women in general. There is an urgent need to streamline girl education within the legislative framework to make it a compulsory enrollment with appropriate penalties for defaulting parents/guardians. b. Nigeria‟s rural areas lack critical infrastructures of roads, functional schools, hospitals, functional markets and credit systems. Agriculture still forms the mainstay of the rural women, which are organized under subsistent basis. Absence of basic infrastructures for the rural women undermines whatever efforts put forward to build their capacity. Complicating the absence of critical infrastructures are traditional barriers including absence of the proprietary and inheritance rights, gender biases in access to opportunities, etc. Policy priorities should be focused on developing the rural areas, while critical infrastructures that connect the rural women to urban markets and opportunities should be in place. These are certainly going to lead to some considerable empowerment and capacity building for the rural women as well as position them to contribute effectively to the development of the rural areas. c. Cultural and Religious Barriers: Nigeria‟s rural women still suffer enormous cultural barriers including inferiority status, discrimination in relation to opportunities, priority for 42 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the male child over the female, and restricted position as „home makers‟ and domestic managers, as well as „women in purdah phenomenon common among Muslim women. These barriers impoverish women, disempowered them and subject them to all forms of abuses. Eliminating these barriers require bold policies, legal, legislative and administrative actions and reforms. These should form an urgent agenda for policy consideration. 2.1.5 The role of rural women in Agriculture and community development According to Musa (2011), who stated that rural women are the largest group whose participation should receive special consideration in the design and implementation of agricultural development projects. In most agricultural development projects, women participate unequally in decision making, implementation of new technologies, benefits and evaluation. Raidimi (2015) pointed out that the economic contribution of women is known to be substantial. They play an important role in storage, processing and marketing of food and cash crops. Community development cannot succeed if it does not involve rural women and take advantage of their potentials. According to the United Nations (2012) in Africa, a larger number of the populations are dependent on agriculture. Thus women contribute consistently and considerable to the family sustainability. Women‟s fundamental contributions on their households‟ food production and national economic are increasingly acknowledge within Africa. This is due to part of African women‟s own energetic efforts to organize and articulate their concerns and make their voices heard. At both the grassroots and national levels, more women associations have been formed since the 1990s taking advantage of the new political opening to assert their leadership roles. They are also pressing for an expansion of women‟s economic and social opportunities and the advancement of owns right. Many rural women belong to all women mutual- aid societies, benevolent groups in churches, mosque and co-operatives 43 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ventures. These co-operatives societies have provided women access to resources. Women have contributed their quota to give room for development. Their activities were in agriculture, poultry making, and health care service. Current literature provides ample evidence for the assertion that women in Africa play a major role in small scale agricultural production of crops for home consumption and for sale. According to the report of the United Nation Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM, 2003) the contribution of women to agricultural production and household food security is substantial. In some countries women perform laborious and repetitive tasks around the year, whereas men‟s works are limited to ploughing and threshing periods. In several cases irrigation, pest control and fertilizer application are the exclusive tasks of men, while threshing and marketing are the exclusive tasks of women. They work in all aspects of cultivation including planting thinning, applying fertilizer and harvesting. They are actively involved in post harvest activities and livestock production, particularly small animal and dairy production. Damisa and Yohanna (2007) have both described the various contributions of women to agricultural production in Nigeria as cited in Ogunlela and Mukhtar (2009). As much as 73% of women sub Saharan African countries are involved in cash, arable and vegetable gardening, while post-harvest activities had 16% and agro forestry, 15%. Abdullahi (2000) and Afolabi (2008) reported that in some states of Nigeria rural women have virtually taken over the production and processing of arable crops, being responsible for as much as 80% of the staple food items. Small ruminant production is an important source of meat, milk, organic manure and income but with no attention to the rural women‟s development. 2.2 The impact of women participation in community development The impact of development on rural women differs from that of women in urban areas. Substantial evidence suggests that rural women have been consistently neglected in the 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY process (World Conference on Women, 2011).There is also overwhelming evidence that development policies and projects were formulated without the involvement of rural women in most African countries (Hunger Project 2000). The majority of population in developing countries lives in rural areas, where they play the role of food producers. Development is a process by which people are awakened to opportunities within their reach. Development, therefore, starts with people and progresses through them (Zosuls et.al.2011). About 55% of women live in Africa communal areas where they constitute almost 60% of the farmers and provide approximately 70% of the labour essential for food security (Ohman et.al.2015). This is the reason why rural women should be involved in development initiatives, because they are the most marginalized group of people. The patriarchal nature of Nigeria‟s societal structures imply that women continuously remain subordinated to men, which tend to narrow their spaces of opportunities and limit their participation in development activities. 2.3 Beneficiaries’ participation in development projects It is through participation that beneficiaries of any development programme have input into the priority setting, planning implementation, consumption and evaluation of development programme. Hence, participation is any activity, or action which enables individual to have an input into the decision making process and to play a role in improving the standard of living of people. Peoples‟ participation is deeply inherent in the very concept of community development which enjoins that whatever is done to improve the welfare of people must endeavour to elicit the enthusiasm in the whole- hearted participation of such people. The idea of participation as it applies to community development strongly implies that success is ensured where efforts of local community is supplemented by the direction of government policy. The idea of people‟s participation implies that people are involved in the planning, execution, utilization and assessment of the social amenities designing to improve 45 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY their welfare. Participation enables development to be built on the strength, tradition, beliefs and values of the community. If any development projects should contradict the beliefs and values of a community, it could end up being abandoned (Ikpe, 2000). So for any development programme to meet the objective for which it is organized, active participation of people is necessary. With active participation of people in any development programme, they will have pride of ownership of the facility resulting from the programme. Another important outcome of participation is that it increases knowledge and builds confidence in the people. By taking part in decision-making, planning and implementation of a development programme, people become more effective in rational decision-making and knowledge of their situation and how best to solve their problems with available resources. 2.4 Challenges and opportunities facing women participants in development programme The root of the marginalized position of rural women is the fact that they are least educated. Another impediment to progress in agricultural development is the high rate of illiteracy among women farmers. Although these days, African primary schools have as many female pupils as male, the rate of illiteracy among women is still above 90% in 28 African countries. According to Ugboh (2006) illiteracy diminishes self confidence, aggravates inferiority complex and stifles the actualization of one‟s potential for development. Women participation in decision making is gradually becoming an issue of importance in African agriculture. In a study of socio-economic status of women farmers, Gurung, (2009) made an interesting finding. He reported that when major decisions involved money, those decision domains were men‟s, but when money was not involved, such as farm activities and food sharing, decisions were made entirely by women or jointly with men. 46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The implication is that the male members of the family solely do the financial activities, while the women have a greater input in household decision making, Gender inequality and discrimination against women farmers in sub-Saharan Africa is common. It is common knowledge that gender inequality is one of the most pervasive forms of inequality particularly, because it cuts across other forms of inequality Franklin, (2007). Lack of access to land remains a major constraint for women farmers in Africa and land reform programmes have led almost exclusively to the transfer of land rights to male heads of households. Sreekumar (2001) added that even in countries where ownership and inheritance laws have been reformed in favour of women, in practice women do not necessarily have more rights to land, as local customs and lack of information act as barriers. In the same vein, as land holdings, women have less access to credit than men. Women receive as low as 5% of agricultural loans in Burkinfaso to as high as 32% in Zimbabwe. Several studies on women‟s status and problems have shown that gender discrimination exists throughout the world (Ogunlela and Mukhtar, 2009) but that its intensity is felt more in the daily lives of women and children in developing countries. Many factors have militated against women‟s participation in community development programmes. They include the following: (a) Access to land The first of these constraints is access to land across Africa, agricultural intensification; population growth and economic change have led to substantive shifts from common property systems of tenure towards more centralized resources control. In the process, women and poorer people have lost out. Women rarely own land and when they do; their holding tends to be smaller. (Kumar and Agnes, 2015). 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (b) Labour bottleneck Excruciating manual labour is also bottleneck for female farmers as men have left rural economic in search of more viable livelihoods. The only means for most women to increase their yield is through harder work. (c) Credits and other inputs In addition to land, labour, women face problems of access to other inputs including credit, technology, extension services, agricultural training and marketing. Many credits associations and export-crop marketing co-operatives limit membership to household heads in many countries, thereby excluding most women. Bank demands collateral in the form of landed property and male approval before making loans to women, while men have been reluctant to support women‟s application. Most resources and technical assistance have been channelled to men, growing export crops, with improved seeds and tools going to larger commercials farmers. (d) Women‟s employment Analysis of women employment in Africa is constrained by unreliable data, as well as by problem in defining what constitutes economic activity for women, particularly in the agricultural and informal sectors. Women face greater vulnerability in the labour market because of the relative lack of education and training, the tendency to channel women into certain occupation, and the continuous heavy burdens of unpaid domestic work, child-bearing and child care, which restrict the time and energy available for income earning activities 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (e) Educational training Lack of access to formal education and training has been identified as a key barrier to women‟s employment and advancement in the society in many African countries. Parents still prefers to send boys to school, seeing little need for education for girls. In addition, factors such as adolescent pregnancy, early marriage and girls greater burden of household labour act as obstacles to their schooling. Also few women are found in technical education where they could develop better skills to secure better paying jobs. (f) Health and sanitation Inadequate potable water, sanitation and waste disposal in rural areas leave populations to water borne diseases. These conditions are compounded for women by some unhelpful or even dangerous religious practices and norms centred on their reproductive and productive functions. 2.5 Empowerment efforts for women in agriculture A lot of women are known to be participating in the programmes of several governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations geared towards economic empowerment through farming and food security across the continent of Africa and even beyond (World Bank, 2003). In Nigeria, Government and non-governmental organizations interventions for instance in the cassava subsector have led to a number of measures that support the production, processing and marketing of cassava, dating back to the 1970s. However in recent times, some of the government programmes such as the National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Better Life Programme (BLP) and Family Support 49 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Programme (FSP) have faded out for several reasons including lack of funding and policy reversal (Sabo, 2007). Some of the vigorous agencies now in existence include the Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs), National Agricultural Research Systems, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and other international agricultural research centres and large-scale planting material multiplication and distribution facilitated by the IFAD-assisted Cassava Multiplication Programme (CMP) and activities of oil companies and church organizations. At present the operations of the IITA is notable. Its first enormous success is the breakthrough it achieved in cassava production through the improved variety version of cassava stems known as TMS, which requires only about 15 months for maturity unlike the traditional type which takes about 24 months. The improved variety was introduced in Nigeria from the mid-1970s. Since then, the Ibadan institute has continued to endow the staple with other desired features, making new genotypes available to national programmes throughout sub-Saharan Africa from which selections are made of varieties suitable for local growing environments. The second as well as recent achievement of the institute is the effort at facilitating training workshops on cultivation and processing methods, and providing cassava stems to plant, as well as processing equipment. Women farmers and their families are benefitting from higher crop yields and higher earnings from the sale of cassava products. In recent years, export of cassava products constitutes a buoyant source of income to those involved. The network of partners involved, from the local to the international level, are helping women in Nigeria gain a brighter future. However, this cannot be said to be true for rural women, as they are not often reached by such organizations (von Braun, 2007). 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.6 Efforts of Non-Governmental Organizations to improve rural women activities in Nigeria The attempt to boost agriculture in Nigeria has not been left in the hands of the government alone. Some vibrant organizations have extended their generous hands to exist. The following NGO is notable: The Better Life Programme for the African Rural Women. The Better Life Programme for the African Rural Women was initiated in September 1986 by Dr. (Mrs.) Maryam Babangida when, as the wife of the Head of State, she championed women issues vigorously. She sought to improve the quality of life and status of the rural women: by creating awareness in women and encourage them to realize, utilize and develop their potentials for a more fulfilling life. The programmes of the organization are in the framework of rights-based approach within the MDG‟s. It is has as its main focus improving the earning opportunities and alleviation of poverty and elimination of ignorance among rural women. While the primary target group of this programme remains the women, the recent phenomenal increase in the incidence of poverty in developing countries particularly the sub Saharan Africa, has necessitated the widening of the programme‟s scope to accommodate other vulnerable groups in the society. The United Nations Decade for Women (1975 – 85) served as a catalyst in focusing attention on issues confronting women world-wide. In Nigeria, the decade meant very little to the teaming majority of women especially those in rural areas. It was clear that there need to address the situation of rural women. Increasingly and diverse dimensions, poverty was becoming feminized. The alleviation of poverty has generally been the cornerstone of economic policy of successive administration in Nigeria. Over the years government at all levels has conceived and implemented several socio economic policies and programmes to eliminate rural poverty and to create prosperity with varying degree of success. The Better Life Programme for the Rural Women was one of the 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY numerous strategic institutional approaches put in place to solve some of the identified challenges facing a considerable portion of our population. The Better Life Programme for the African Rural Women was initiated in September 1986 by Dr. (Mrs.) Maryam Babangida when, as the wife of the Head of State, championed women issues vigorously. She sought to improve the quality of life and status of the rural women: by creating awareness in women and encourage them to realize, utilize and develop their potentials for a more fulfilling life. The programmes of the organization are in the framework of rights-based approach within MDG‟s. It is has as its main focus improving the earning opportunities and alleviation of poverty and elimination of ignorance among rural women. While the primary target group of the BLFRW remains the women, the recent phenomenal increase in the incidence of poverty in developing countries particularly the sub Saharan Africa, has necessitated the widening of the programme‟s scope to accommodate other vulnerable groups in the society. The basic tenets of the programme then were to enhance the economic, social, political and psychological well being of the rural women through a coordinated strategy and partnership with Government and Non Governmental agencies, organized private sector as well as gender sensitive individuals worldwide. The programme was envisioned to harness the creative energies and innate potentials of the rural womenfolk and unemployed youth in Nigeria for concrete and achievable goals both as individuals and as a group. The main goal was not only to empower these potential beneficiaries, but also to mainstream these formidable units of action in national development. The programme‟s design and development is located in the gender and development as well as the human rights approach. The two approaches are complimentary and are important for ensuring that women understand the context in which their rights are located as well as what their rights are and what they can do to access and claim these rights as citizens of their country. Having effectively established the programme in Nigeria, it was repositioned as 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the Better Life Programme for the African (Rural) Women on April 2004, and registered with the Corporate Affairs Commission. The 2004 Way Forward Workshop held in Minna, Niger State provided the high level consultation with members and other relevant stakeholders, which was required for consolidation. This is the foundation of the second phase of the work. The programme has a wide network and astute connection with policy makers and parliamentarians which is one requirement to facilitate advocacy and gender mainstreaming. There are functional offices on almost all the states of the federation and efficient outreach in most countries of the West African sub region, in Europe and America. With the legendary impressive track records over the years in quality service delivery at the grassroots in Nigeria it has always been an attractive platform for other local and international NGOs to operate and achieve their mandate. The fight against rural poverty, youth unemployment and other related socio-economic issues is multi- dimensional and hence required strategic partnership. 2.7 Women-In-Agriculture (WIA) efforts in women empowerment Women-In-Agriculture in Nigeria is a branch of the Agricultural Development Projects (ADP). Report has shown that they have made important progress different States of the Federation in incorporating gender in agricultural extension, by modifying the ADP system midstream to provide for women farmers through the creation of programmes in the department of Extension Services of the affected States with a gender focus (Onyibe 2001; Odurukwe, et al, 2006). The WIA program sought to improve agricultural extension services for women. It involved the retraining of existing home economics agents in agriculture and extension methodologies, placing special emphasis on women's activities. WIA program ensured that extension services in every state in Nigeria have female extension workers at every level of operation from state headquarters in the capital, down to the villages. The structure of the WIA program itself is also decentralized and integrated into the 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY extension service (Odurukwe et al, 2006). This programme was established not essentially for soil cultivation but mainly to mobilize women in gender specific activities, which includes post- harvest activities like processing, utilization, storage and marketing of agricultural products. According to Odurukwe, et al (2006), the major activities of WIA still remain to form women group and assist them establish group-farms. It is through these groups that WIA extension agent transfers recommended technology to the women for adoption. However the WIA programme places much emphasis on off-farm activities of the women and has concentrated in the transfer of the following home economic technology as: • Cassava processing and utilization- pancake, flour and odorless fufu • Processing and storage of maize garri, cassava flour, tapioca, maize flour, malted maize drink, corn meal, pap (wet and malted maize flour). • Processing and utilization of soybean into soymilk, flour paste and soy meal • Processing and storage of fresh tomatoes into tomato paste. • Rabbit meat processing and utilization • Processing and storage of melon • Cocoyam processing and utilization into cocoyam flour for soup thickening and cocoyam chips • Dry season vegetable gardening • Harvesting and storage of paddy rice. According to the study carried out by Odurukwe, et al (2006), on the impacts of the women-in-agriculture (WIA) extension programme on women's lives in Imo State, positive result has been recorded from the adoption of this programme by women, as these women are now able 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY to improve in such areas as family food security and increased financial contribution to household needs. Impact in children‟s education has also recorded positive response. It however shows that the impact was more on rural women than their urban counterpart. In the same vein the study conducted by Sabo (2007) on the impact of WIA in Borno showed a positive result. In recognition of the past government efforts, some development intervention programmes stepped up efforts to improve the welfare status among rural women in Nigeria. Example is the Development Partnership in Higher Education (DELPHE) development intervention programme. 2.8 The DELPHE Project in Nigeria The Development Partnership in Higher Education (DELPHE) entrepreneurial development project was funded by Department for International Development (DFID), United Kingdom between August, 2009 and September 2012. It was designed to exploit the inherent entrepreneurial capability of African women by motivating them to be aware of the immense possibilities open to them to start-off thriving rural enterprises in the areas of natural resource utilization, and on and off-farm wealth generation activities through certain objectives. The Department for International Development (DFID), United Kingdom sponsored training programmes for rural women under the Development Partnership in Higher Education (DELPHE) project on rural entrepreneurship development. The DELPHE project trained 400 rural women in Osun and Oyo states on selected enterprises which include:  Cassava processing with value addition to improve nutritive quality and market acceptability,  Oil palm processing and marketing,  Moringa production and utilization,  Soybean processing and value addition products, 55 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  Bio-gas production and utilization,  Organic fertilizer production and utilization,  Sheep and goat rearing and marketing, and  Capital generation and management. The project was an intervention that sought to identify and develop the women‟s innate characteristics for entrepreneurial development for improved welfare status. The project was a collaborative intervention project between Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile- Ife, Nigeria, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Moor plantation, Ibadan Nigeria and the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom (DELPHE, 2008).The project, started in September 2009 and ended August 2012. The project thematic area in business and enterprise development had the main objective as enhancing increased rural household income and improve rural standard of living in the study areas particularly with the rural women processors. 2.9 Rural women and processing Activities in Nigeria The Agro-foods industry plays a fundamental role in the creation of income and employment opportunities in developing countries. The agro-processing sector is by far the most significant component in the agro-food industry and covers a broad area of postharvest activities, packaged agricultural raw materials, industrial and technology intensive processing of intermediate goods and the fabrication of final products derived from agriculture (Olaoye, 2014). Rural women farmers not only play a vital role in food production; they also carry out agricultural activities beyond crop production. Women take active part in farming, processing and marketing. The role women play in agriculture and the rural society is fundamental to agricultural and rural development in Nigeria and sub Saharan Africa. Women in Africa are 56 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY said to make up more than one-third of its entire workforce (Ezeihe et.al, 2014), most especially in processing activities. 2.9.1 Oil palm processing Palm oil comes from the fruit of the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, which is most commonly found in one of the following three varieties: Dura, Pisifera, and Tenera, a hybrid cross of Dura and Pisifera that is the most commonly planted today (Vanisheni et.al.,2002) The trees reach a height of about 60 feet and produce fruit bunches that weigh between 10 and 25 kg and contain several hundred fruitlets. The round fruitlets are orange-red and ripen to dark purple (Malaysian Palm Oil Council, 2008). On average, two or three bunches are harvested from each tree. The trees produce fruit for thirty years, although it is more difficult to harvest the trees as they grow. The fruit is composed of an outer skin called the exocarp; the fleshy mesocarp from which the palm fruit oil is squeezed; an inner nut called the endocarp; and a kernel inside the nut from which palm kernel oil is squeezed (Kwaski, 2002). Crude palm fruit oil is bright orange-red in color and is semi-solid at room temperature. Each palm fruitlet is composed of about 61% crude oil by weight, and a fruit bunch contains about 17-20% oil by weight. The oil palm produces about 2.7-2.8 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches per 0.16 hectares annually (Kwaski, 2002). 2.9.2 Production of palm oil The production of crude palm oil includes a series of phases beginning with harvesting the fruit and ending with storing the oil, each using different methods and machines. Oil palm fruit can be processed in batch, continuous, or semi-continuous systems. A batch system extracts oil from consecutive batches of fruit, while in a continuous system, each step in the oil extraction process feeds into the next. In a semi-continuous system, there may be pauses if some steps take longer than others do. The crude palm oil production 57 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY process requires a large set of equipment, which can range from crude, manual mechanisms to advanced, automated machinery. Regardless of the types of machines used to produce crude palm oil, there are still a set of basic steps needed to produce palm oil. The first step in palm oil production is harvesting the palm fruit bunches. A harvester cuts the fresh fruit bunches from trees and allows them to fall to the ground. The fruit may be allowed to ferment, or fully ripen, in order to loosen the base of the fruitless from the bunches and to make their removal easier. The fruitless are removed from the bunch during the threshing process. Threshing can either be done by hand or with a mechanical thresher, which rotates or vibrates to separate the fruit from the bunch. The sterilization process uses heat to partially cook the fruit. This process also stops enzymatic reactions that lead to oxidation and disrupts the cells in the mesocarp, allowing for easier oil extraction (Kwaski, 2002). Wet processes use water to sterilize the fruit by either steaming or boiling the fruit, producing wastewater as a by-product, while dry processes sterilize the fruit by smoking or roasting it. When implementing a wet process, the fruit is sterilized before the threshing process. In a dry process, the fruit is sterilized using dry heat after the threshing process. The digestion process crushes the fruit before extraction and warms the pulp to maximize oil yield. Facilities that use the wet process remove the nut from the pulp before pressing to yield grade A oil. The pulp is then pressed, which bursts the oil-containing cells, releasing the palm oil. There are several types of presses that may be used to press the fruit pulp, including manual presses, hydraulic presses, and screw presses. The screw press is the most commonly used press because it yields the most oil when pressing the mesocarp (Baryeh, 2001). Next, the oil is heated and filtered to remove impurities. Palm oil production is a relatively clean procedure with minimal CO2 emissions – the only greenhouse gases emitted are from the burning of fuel for heating during the sterilization, digestion, and filtering procedures (Rosenthal, 2007). However, at the end of the 58 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY palm oil extraction process, there is a substantial amount of waste material from the processing procedure, including empty fruit bunches, palm kernel shells, palm press fiber, and wastewater. Although a great deal of waste is produced, much of this waste can be used for other applications. The empty fruit bunches can be compressed into blocks used for fertilizer, mushroom cultivation, or animal feed. Using the empty fruit bunches and shells as a fuel source often results in higher smoke emissions due to incomplete combustion. The smoke emitted often exceeds the maximum of 400 mg/m3 set by National Quality Standards. Facilities can burn the empty bunches to heat the sterilization process, or they can incinerate the empty bunches and use the ash, which contains a great deal of potassium, to fertilize the palm trees (Kwaski, 2002). Palm press fiber can also be used as fertilizer for plants. The fiber is combustible, making it useful as a secondary, although inferior, fuel source. Its ash contains phosphorous, potassium, and calcium, making it a good source of fertilizer. The wastewater produced from palm oil processing contains high levels of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and magnesium, all of which are essential nutrients to the growth of oil palm trees. Thus, it is also ideal as a fertilizer for oil palm trees (Chavalparit, 2003). After the kernels are used in the production of palm kernel oil, the empty shells can be processed to manufacture active carbon, which is useful for water filtration. They can also be used in the production of concrete and bricks (Chavalparit, 2003). In the wet process, the overall water intake can be reduced through the reusing of wastewater and the collection and reuse of water condensate. Many processing facilities practice a form of co-generation, where electricity is generated to run their own machinery using waste press fiber as fuel. Simply collecting and reusing boiler water can save 30 m3 of water for every tonne (1000 kg) of fruit bunches processed (Chavalparit, 2003). 59 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.9.3 Moringa processing activities Moringa oleifera is a multipurpose and exceptionally nutritious vegetable tree with a variety of potential uses. It is a sub-tropical species that is known by different regional names as benzolive, drumstick tree, kelor, marango, mulangay, nébéday, saijhan, mooringai and sajna. It has very high nutritional properties that would be useful as a food supplement, especially in those relegated communities. Besides its nutritional and medicinal applications, M. oleifera is very useful as an alley crop in the agro-forestry industry. It is useful not only for human beings but also for animals and also in various industrial applications. Besides Moringa oleifera being processed into a medicine, it contains acetone which can be prepared into herbal formulation which is an effective anti-malaria bio agent (Patel et.al, 2010). Such trees have the potential to be a source of new drugs (Singh et al 2012). It is also an effective water clarifier using the seed, thus providing millions of people with clean drinking water (Francis, 2009). The leaves, fruit, flowers and immature pods of this tree are used as a highly nutritive vegetable in many countries, particularly in India, Pakistan, Philippines, Hawaii and many parts of Africa .It is originated initially in the Northern part of India some 5000 years back and soon moved into the Southern parts as well, where it was known as „Murungaikeerai‟ (Moringa leaves) and „Murungaikaai‟ (Moringa vegetable). In the northern part of Nigeria it was referred to as Zogale, in eastern part it is known as odudu oyinbo while in the western part it is called Igi Ile. The Moringa tree had spread to most part of Asia, nearly the whole of Africa, South America, southern part of North America and some pockets in Europe. Moringa has been used as a traditional medicine around the world, for anemia, skin infections, blackheads, anxiety, bronchitis, catarrh, chest congestion, asthma, blood impurities, cholera, glandular, swelling, headaches, conjunctivitis, cough, diarrhea, eye and ear infections, fever, abnormal blood pressure, hysteria, pain in joints, pimples, psoriasis, respiratory disorders, scurvy, 60 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY semen deficiency, sore throat, sprain, tuberculosis, for intestinal worms, lactation ,diabetes and pregnancy. The healing properties of Moringa oil have been documented by ancient cultures. Moringa oil has tremendous cosmetic value and is used in body and hair care as a moisturizer and skin conditioner. Moringa oil has been used in skin preparations and ointments since Egyptian times (Monica, 2005). The leaves possess remarkable nutritional and medicinal qualities (Singh et.al, 2012).They contain high amount of vitamin C, which fights a host of illnesses including colds and flu; vitamin A, which acts as a shield against eye disease, skin disease, heart ailments, diarrhea, and many other diseases; Calcium, which builds strong bones and teeth and helps prevent osteoporosis; Potassium, which is essential for the functioning of the brain and nerves, and Proteins, the basic building blocks of all our body cells. Another important point is that Moringa leaves contain all of the essential amino acids in a good proportion, which are the building blocks of proteins. These leaves could be a great boon to people who do not get protein from meat. Moringa even contains argenine and histidine. two amino acids especially important for infants, who are unable to make enough protein for their growth requirements. The micro-nutrient content is even more in dried leaves; (ten times the vitamin A of carrots), (17 times the calcium of milk), (15 times the potassium of bananas), (25 times the iron of spinach) and (nine times the protein of yogurt (Manzoor et.al, 2007). Therefore it is necessary to increase the utilization of Moringa leaves consumption by the different communities. It should be consumed either fresh or dry. Dried leaves can be stored for a long time and can be used regularly. Many companies across the world manufacturing various products of Moringa leaves such as Moringa Tea, Moringa Tablets, Moringa Capsules, Moringa leaf Powder, Moringa Soaps and Moringa Face 61 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY wash. Some beverages are also available in market prepared by Moringa leaves. So it is necessary to hygienically drying and processing of Moringa leaves for further uses. In this paper we have described processing of fresh Moringa leaves into dry form for consumption purpose. 2.9.3.1 Leaf harvesting Young and old leaves both are suited to making dried leaf powder. Morphology of leaf can be identified as they are 20-70 cm long, greyish-downy when young, long petiole with 8-10 pairs of pinnae each bearing two pairs of opposite, elliptic or obviate leaflets and one at the apex, all 1-2 cm long; with glands at the bases of the petioles and pinnate . Moringa leaves can easily lose moisture after harvesting, therefore, harvest early in the morning and complete the initial phase of processing in the same day, if possible. Selection of healthy leaves Fungi like Cercosporaspp and Septorialycopersic causing brown spot in the leaves and further turning the leaves yellow and killing them. Apart from fungi the most common pests on the leaves are grasshoppers, crickets and caterpillars (Moringanews, 2010).Therefore diseased and damaged leaves are discarded manually just after the collection of fresh leaves. Washing Collected leaves are washed in running tap water till the removal of dirt. After this leaves are soaked in 1% saline solution (NaCl) for 5 minutes to remove microbes. Leaves are further washed with 70 % ethanol followed by twice washing with distilled water. This step plays a substantial role in removal of dust, pathogens as well as microbes present on the leave surface. 2.9.3.2 Draining, drying and grinding The excess water can be removed by spreading the leaves in sunlight for a brief period till the removal of water present on the leaf surface. It is estimated that only 20-40% of vitamin A will be retained if leaves are dried under direct sunlight, but that 50-70% will be 62 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY retained if leaves are dried in the shade. High temperature may lead down to the breakage of protein present in the leaves (Martin, 2002). Therefore shade dry is recommended for the drying process. Spread the leaflets on the sterile clean green net in a well-ventilated room. Mosquito net may be used for this purpose because these materials give a space between the floor and the leaves. This room should be insect, rodent and dust proof. Air circulation can be improved by using ceiling and floor level vents protected with a clean filter to keep the sun and dust out. If it is possible to use a fan, but the air must not be directly oriented towards the leaves, as it can increase contamination with germs in the air. It is advisable to turn the leaves over at least once, with sterile gloves, to improve uniform drying. Leaves should be completely dry within a maximum of 4 days. The loading density should not exceed 1 kg/m; all persons involved in this step must ensure that, while on duty, personal cleanliness and hygiene are maintained. Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as head caps, nose masks, disposable gloves, etc. must be used at all times. Moringa leaf powder immediately absorbs moisture and the product can reabsorb humidity during or after grinding. For this reason, Moringa leaf powder should be dried at 0 50 c for 30 minutes to reduce moisture content. If stored powder is exposed to heat or light it will degrade and the nutrient content will be reduced. Moringa Leaf Powder can be stored for up to 6 months under the following conditions: clean, dried powder stored in air-tight containers, protected from light and humidity, and kept below 24°C (75.2 °F). In small scale dried leafs can be grinded by mortar and pestles or pulmonizer machine can be used for fine grinding. Commonly 0.5 mm – 1.0 mm pore size screen is used for the separation of the fine grinded leaf powder. 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.9.4 Soybean processing activities Soybean (Glycine max L.) is one of the major leguminous crops cultivated all over the world today with Nigeria as the largest producer in both Western and Central Africa, since its introduction in the early twentieth century. Soybean is widely known to be cheap, easily available and a good source of protein compared with expensive animal protein when purchased as Soybeans to be only about 10-20% of the cost of protein from meat, eggs, fish or milk. Soybean is now widely consumed and readily used in the production crude vegetable oil, soymilk, soy yoghurt and dawadawa. In addition to that, a local but good seasoning is also produced from soybean. Soybean is a stable food of great nutritional value. Its importance ranges from milk production, oil processing livestock feeds, industrial uses and human consumption of soybean. Soybean has been recognized to be an ideal grain for meeting protein and energy requirement of both man and animal. Soybean is probably the world‟s most valuable crop, used as feed by billions of livestock, as a source of dietary protein and oil by millions of people, and in the industrial manufacture of thousands of products. Soybean is such an extremely rich source of protein and fat, and such a good source of energy, vitamins and minerals with an average production cycle of 90-110 days from planting to harvesting. Complete utilization of soybean includes in addition to post-production aspects, the application of a range of technologies and including food processing technology, food science and nutrition, food technology, commercial soya foods production, marketing, and nutritional and health factors. When the pressing needs to alleviate poverty and malnutrition and to improve the welfare of poor people are considered, issues relating to high quality protein food, greater income opportunities for male and female are of paramount importance. Protein content is approximately 40% and fat 20% with considerable variations depending on the cultivars. Soybean is regarded as equal in protein to animal foods. It has 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY been found to be excellent for a number of different conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes– related diseases and many others. According to Olatunji et.al. (2011), soybean can be as a nutritional supplement for pregnant women, lactating mothers and children. The household use of soybean is targeted to suit local dishes for Nigerians and communities all over the country. About 140 soybean products are now available (Okoruwa, 2002). A key problem associated with soybean is that it contains some anti-nutritional factors, which inhibit the availability of the desirable elements such as protein. Fortunately most of these anti-nutritional factors can be destroyed through processing and boiling. Major processing of these products includes cleaning, soaking, de-husking, milling, sieving, boiling, roasting and fermentation, further processing depends on the type of products to be produced. Soybean is reputed to be able to several institutions responsible for creating awareness lower total cholesterol levels by 30% (Desroches et al., 2004). Beneficial effects of soybean on cholesterol these include Agricultural Development Project (ADP), concentrations have recently culminated in the U.S. Food IITA, National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Services (NAERLS) and others. Health Benefits from Soybean consumption: content of soybean can cause expansion of the consumption of foods containing soybean and peripheral blood vessels thereby helping to decrease soybean constituents has been associated with blood pressure to prevent hypertension (Lijuan, et al., 2000). Men which were at risk of developing coronary osteoporosis, alleviation of menopausal symptoms, and heart disease consuming soybean in diets have been reduced cancer risk and in a limited number of studies found to have significant reductions in both diastolic and reduced diabetes. It also helps people to stay lean systolic blood pressure (Sagara et al., 2014). Isoflavone compounds found in Soybean can be very beneficial to diabetic patients‟ soybean; especially genistein may help to stay lean by particularly Non-Insulin Dependent 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Diabetes Mellitus causing us to produce fewer and smaller fat cells. Soybean works in the prevention or protein and fibre in soybeans can prevent high blood minimizing the conditions through controlling sugar level and help in keeping blood sugar levels cholesterol, blood pressure, and vascular function and direct under control. It is also now known that the proportion of it is also now known that the very high magnesium potassium to sodium (ratio 3/1 – 11/1) makes soybean an ideal food for diabetes mellitus patients (Lijuan et al., 2000). Soybean has also been shown to promote serum insulin production (Fukushima, 2000). It has been demonstrated that soya protein helps persons with diabetes prevent kidney diseases and improve the cholesterol profile (Teixeira et al., 2000). There is evidence that soya foods may help reduce bone loss that typically occurs after menopause. Soya is of lavone can help women with low bone mineral content prevent hip fractures in postmenopausal years (Chen et al., 2003). Soybean is thus particularly important in postmenopausal years because it prevents hip fractures, reduces fat development especially abnormal fat and blood pressure (Anderson, 2003). It is also known to inhibit cancer development the second leading cause of death, which in the U.S is responsible for the death of about 552,000 people in 2000 (1,500 death per day) . High fibre soybeans are able to help reduce the risk of colon cancer. In areas of the world where soybeans are eaten regularly, rates of colon cancer, as well as some other cancers including the breast cancer tend to be low. Soybean contains relatively high amounts of glucosycermide, which may be the reason for the cancer-preventive effect of eating soya foods (Symolon et al., 2004). Soybeans may be the most practical means of relief from kwashiorkor (Protein Calorie Malnutrition), which is increasing in prevalence among children in many parts. Processing of soybean seeds into soybean curd (Grewal, 2000). It may be concluded from the foregoing account on nutritive and health values that with soybean the house wife can vary 66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY her dishes by replacing meat, fish, cow‟s milk etc. partly or entirely with the low cost food Steaming at 100 C inactivates the anti-nutritional factors of in raw soya flour, thus rendering a maximum protein efficiency ratio. Soya milk should always be boiled for 5 to10 minutes before consumption, so that no active inhibitor and no active haemagglutinins will be present. According to Olatunji et.al (2012), reported that the more the degree of processing of soybean, the higher the digestibility. Major processing methods include soaking, dehusking, roasting and milling. It could be milled into paste or flour depending on the type of food preparation method to be used. 2.9.5 Cassava processing Activities Cassava is one of the most important staple food crops grown in tropical Africa. It plays a major role in efforts to alleviate the African food crisis because of its efficient production of food energy, year-round availability, tolerance to extreme stress conditions, and suitability to present farming and food systems in Africa. Traditionally, cassava roots are processed by various methods into numerous products and utilized in various ways according to local customs and preferences. In some countries, the leaves are consumed as vegetables, and many traditional foods are processed from cassava roots and leaves. Improvement of cassava processing and utilization techniques would greatly increase labour efficiency, incomes, and living standards of cassava farmers and the urban poor, as well as enhance the- shelf life of products, facilitate their transportation, increase marketing opportunities, and help improve human and livestock nutrition. Fresh cassava roots cannot be stored for long because they rot within 3-4 days of harvest. They are bulky with about 70% moisture content, and therefore transportation of the tubers to urban markets is difficult and expensive. The roots and leaves contain varying amounts of cyanide which is toxic to humans and animals, while the raw cassava roots and uncooked leaves are not palatable. Therefore, cassava must be processed into various forms 67 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in order to increase the shelf life of the products, facilitate transportation and marketing, reduce cyanide content and improve palatability. The nutritional status of cassava can also be improved through fortification with other protein-rich crops. Processing reduces food losses and stabilizes seasonal fluctuations in the supply of the crop. Traditional cassava processing methods in use in Africa probably originated from tropical America, particularly north eastern Brazil. The processing methods include peeling, boiling, steaming, slicing, grating, soaking or seeping, fermenting, pounding, roasting, pressing, drying, and milling. These traditional methods give low product yields which are also of low quality. Rapid urbanization in tropical Africa increased mobility in both rural and urban areas and the changing roles and status of women have resulted in an unprecedented demand for convenience foods. Added to these factors is the high cost of fuel for cooking in urban areas at a time when fuel wood is not only inconvenient to use but is becoming increasingly scarce. Therefore, cassava processing and utilization technologies for the future should improve traditional methods and develop low cost equipment with low energy demands. Improved processing and utilization technologies should address issues related to farmers' (producers') and consumers' needs (particularly urban needs in future), and also to economic factors and nutritional values. Knowledge of the current traditional processing and utilization methods and of present urban patterns of consumption and changing urban needs will guide future strategies for cassava processing and utilization. Improvement of nutritional values of processed products also requires special attention from policymakers and researchers. Cassava is frequently denigrated because its roots are low in protein. However, protein may be supplemented from other sources, particularly legumes; for example, fortification of cassava flour or gari with protein-rich soy flour can be achieved. Such fortified products will be nutritionally advantageous, and thus economical and acceptable to 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY consumers. Although cassava is regarded as subsistence crop of low-income families or as a "famine-reserve crop". 2.9.5.1 Processing techniques and reduction of cyanide in cassava Cassava contains the cyanogenic glucosides, linamarin and lotaustralin which are hydrolyzed after tissue damage, by the endogenous enzyme, linamarase to the corresponding cyanohydrins and further to hydrogen cyanide [HCN]. The hydrogen cyanide is responsible for chronic toxicity when inadequately processed cassava products are consumed by humans and animals for prolonged periods. Therefore, traditional processing procedures must aim at reducing cyanide and improving storability, convenience and palatability. Cassava processing procedures vary, depending on products, from simple processing (peel, boil and eat) to complicated procedures for processing into gari, for example, which involve many more steps, namely peeling, grating, pressing, fermenting, sifting, and roasting. Some of these steps reduce cyanide more effectively than others. Processing techniques and procedures differ with countries and localities within a country according to food cultures, environmental factors such as availability of water and fuelwood, the cassava varieties used, and the types of processing equipment and technologies available. The most important traditional culinary preparations of cassava in Africa are "boiled or roasted roots", "fufu" (cassava flour stirred with boiled water over a low-heat fire to give a stiff dough), "eba" (gari soaked in hot water to produce a thick paste) and "chickwangue" (steamed fermented pulp wrapped in leaves). 2.9.5.2 Fermentation in cassava processing Fermentation consists of two distinct methods: aerobic and anaerobic fermentation. For aerobic fermentation, the peeled and sliced cassava roots are first surface-dried for 1-2 69 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY hours and then heaped together, covered with straw or leaves and left to ferment in air for 3-4 days until the pieces become mouldy. The fermented mouldy pieces are sun-dried after the mould has been scraped off. The processed and dried pieces (called "Mokopa" in Uganda) are then milled into flour, which is prepared into a "fufu" called "kowan" in Uganda. The growth of mould on the root pieces increases the protein content of the final products three to eight times. This fermentation method is also very popular in other parts of East Africa such as Tanzania, Rwanda, and Zaire. In anaerobic fermentation, grated cassava for processing into "gari" is placed in sacks and pressed with stones or a jack between wooden platforms. Whole roots or pieces of peeled roots for processing into "fufu" are placed in water for 3-5 days. During the first stage of gari production, the bacterium Corynebacteria manihot attacks the starch of the roots, leading to the production of various organic acids (such as lactic and formic acids) and the lowering of substrate pH. In the second stage, the acidic condition stimulates the growth of a mold, Geotrichum candida, which proliferates rapidly, causing further acidification and production of a series of aldehydes and esters that are responsible for the taste and aroma of gari . The optimum temperature for the fermentation for gari processing is 35°C, increasing up to 45°C. For "lafun" production in Nigeria, peeled or unpeeled cassava tubers are immersed in a stream, in stationary water (near a stream) or in an earthenware vessel, and fermented until the roots become soft. The peel and central fibres of the fermented roots are manually removed and the recovered pulp is hand mashed or pounded. The microorganisms involved in "lafun" production include four yeasts: Pichia onychis, Candida tropicalis, Geotrichum candida, and Rhodotorula sp.; two molds:Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp.; and two bacteria: Leuconostoc sp. and Corynebacterium sp. Moisture, pH and temperature 70 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY conditions are critical for the growth of these microorganisms in roots and thus for fermentation. During or after fermentation of roots for gari production, the grated pulp is put in sacks (jute or polypropylene) on which stones are placed or jacked-wood platforms are set to drain or press off the excess liquid from the pulp. In Zaire, the cassava pulp is taken out and heaped up on the racks in the sun for further fermentation and draining of the excess moisture. In this way, much of the cyanide is effectively lost with the liquid. The following are the steps in cassava processing: • Drying Drying is the simplest method of processing cassava. Drying reduces moisture, volume and cyanide content of roots, thereby prolonging product shelf life. This processing is practiced primarily in areas with fewer water supplies. Total cyanide content of cassava chips could be decreased by only 10-30 percent through fast air drying. Slow sun-drying, however, produces greater loss of cyanide. Sun-dying the peeled cut pieces of roots gave a HCN concentration lower than 10 mg/100g and loss was more effective than oven drying. Drying may be in the sun or over a fire. The former is more common because it is simple and does not require fuelwood.  Boiling Boiling the peeled roots did not effectively remove HCN. Pounding the boiled roots into "pounded fufu" decreased the HCN concentration by only 10 percent. Therefore, only cultivars containing low cyanide are recommended for this method of preparation. 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  Milling The dried root pieces and fermented/dried pulp are milled into flour by pounding in mortar or using hammer mills. Milling with hammer mills, done at village level, may also reduce cyanide. The dried cassava roots (both fermented and unfermented) are often mixed in a ratio of 2-3 parts cassava with one part of sorghum, millet and/or maize and milled into composite flour. Mixing cassava with cereals increases food protein, and enhances palatability by improving consistency. 2.9.5.3 Processed products and equipment of cassava  Gari Fresh roots are peeled and grated. The grated pulp is put in sacks (Jute or polypropylene) and the sacks are placed under heavy stones or pressed with a hydraulic lack between wooden platforms for 3-4 days to express excess liquid from the pulp while it is fermenting. Fermentation imparts an acidic taste to the final product. The dewatered and fermented lumps of pulp are crumbled by hand and most of the fibrous matter is removed. The remaining mass is sieved with traditional sieves (made of woven splinters of cane) or iron or polyethylene mesh. After being sieved, the fine pulp is then roasted in an iron pan or earthen pot over a fire. If the sieved pulp is too wet, it takes longer to roast resulting in a finished lumpy product with dull colour. Palm oil may be added to prevent the pulp from burning during roasting and to give a light yellow colour to the gari. When palm oil is not added, a white gari is produced. Palm oil contains substantial quantities of vitamin A, therefore, yellow gari is 10-30 percent more nutritious and expensive than white gari. The garification or conversion rate of fresh roots into gari is 15-20 %. This value varies with cassava varieties, time of harvesting, age of plant 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and other environmental factors. Gari is very popular in Nigeria and less so in Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. In Brazil, this method is used for the production of "farinha de madioca". Peeling is done mainly by women and children. The peeled roots are grated by women, using a simple traditional grater, but it is done by men if a power driven grater is used. Pressing is done by women in the traditional way but done by men when a hydraulic presser is used. The sieved fermented pulp is roasted almost exclusively by women in a pan or pot on the fire with fuel wood as the energy source.  Fermented and dried cassava pulp "Lafun" in Nigeria, "cossettes" in Zaire and Rwanda, "kanyanga. and "mapanga. in Malawi, and "makopa" in Tanzania are various names for fermented and dried cassava products. The processing method to ferment and dry cassava pulp is very simple and does not require much labor. It is thus widely used for processing high cyanide cassava varieties in many parts of Africa where water for soaking is available. Whole or peeled roots are immersed in water for 3-4 days for fermentation and softening the tissues. The fermenting roots are then removed and broken into small crumbs, sun-dried on mats, racks, fiat rocks, cement floors or roofs of houses. Drying the fermented roots takes 1-3 days, depending on the prevailing weather. The dried crumbs are then milled into flour.  Wet pulp The processing procedures for "wet pulp" and of fermented and dried pulp production are similar except for the drying. The wet pulp may be moulded into balls, 3-5 cm diameter, put in boiling water and stirred thoroughly to obtain a stiff Wet pulp of about 0.5-1.0 kg is packed in a plastic or polypropylene bag and marketed in cities in Nigeria, Ghana and 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Cameroon. Urban dwellers therefore do not need to buy fresh roots for processing into wet pulp to prepare wet fufu.  Smoked cassava balls ("kumkum") Cassava is processed into smoked cassava balls in the same way as fermented and dried pulp is produced except that the fermented wet pulp is pounded and molded into round balls of about 4-7 cm diameter. These balls are then smoked and dried on a platform above the fire place in a special structure hung above the hearth. The dark coating caused by smoke is cleaned off and the cleaned balls are milled into flour before reconstitution into fufu.  Starch Cassava roots are peeled, washed and grated. The grated pulp is steeped for 2-3 days in a large quantity of water, stirred and filtered through a piece of cloth. The filtrate stands overnight and the supernatant is then decanted. The starch sediments are air-dried under shade.  Dried cassava The roots are peeled, sliced into small pieces and sun-dried on racks or roofs for 4-5 days or sometimes up to 3 weeks, depending on the weather and the size of pieces. Later, sun-dried pieces are milled into flour. This processing system is very simple but the processed products contain considerable amounts of cyanide. This method is widely used in many areas in Africa, particularly where water supply for fermentation is seriously limited. Traditional cassava processing does not require sophisticated equipment. Processing cassava into gari requires equipment such as grater, presser and fryer. The traditional cassava grater is made of a flattened kerosine tin or iron sheet perforated with nails and fastened onto 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY a wooden board with handles. Grating is done by rubbing the peeled roots against the rough perforated surface of the iron sheet which tears off the peeled cassava root flesh into mash. In recent years, various attempts have been made to improve graters. Graters which are belt- driven from a static 5 HP Lister type engine have been developed and are being extensively used in Nigeria. Its capacity to grate cassava is about one ton of fresh peeled roots per hour. For draining excess liquid from the grated pulp the sacks containing the grated pulpy mass are slowly pressed down using a 30-ton hydraulic jack press with wooden platforms, before sieving and roasting into gari. Stones are used in traditional processing to press out the excess moisture from the grated pulp. Tied wooden frames are used for this purpose in places where stones are not available. Pans made from iron or earthen pots are used for roasting the fermented pulp. Fuel wood is the mad or source of energy for boiling, roasting, steaming and frying. Fuel wood may not be easily and cheaply obtained in the future because of rapid deforestation. Slight changes in the equipment used in processing can help to save fuel and lessen the discomfort, health hazard, and drudgery for the operating women. The economic success of any future commercial development of cassava processing would depend upon the adaptability of each processing stage to mechanization. However, the first step to take for improvement of cassava technologies should be to improve or modify the simple processing equipment or systems presently used, rather than to change entirely into a new, sophisticated, and expensive equipment. 2.9.6 Storage of cassava processed products Processing, particularly drying and roasting, increases shelf life of cassava products. Good storage depends on the moisture content of the products and temperature and relative 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY humidity of the storage environment. The moisture content of gari for safe storage is belong 12.7%. When temperature and relative humidity are above 27°C and 70% respectively, gari goes bad. The type of bag used for packing also affects shelf life depending on the ability of the material to maintain safe product moisture levels. Jute and hessian bags are recommended in dry cool environments because they allow good ventilation. When gari, dried pulp and flour are well dried and properly packed, they can be stored without loss of quality for over one year. 2.9.7 Utilization of processed cassava products Utilization in this paper includes cooking or preparation, and consumption. Cooking cassava consists of boiling, steaming, roasting and pounding. The peeled fresh cassava roots are eaten raw or eaten boiled and roasted. The fresh roots are boiled and pounded to obtain "pounded fufu". This is most popular in Ghana, and to some extent, in Nigeria and Cameroon. The processed cassava, either in the form of flour, wet pulp or gari is cooked or eaten in three main food forms: "fufu", "eba" and „lafun‟. Gari can be eaten dry or it may be soaked in cold water to which sugar is added. "Eba" is a very popular food in Nigeria and is gaining popularity in Cameroon, Benin, Ghana, Liberia and Sierra Leone because of its fast and easy reconstitution into a convenient food. 2.10 Impact assessment of development project Impact assessment is the process of identifying the consequences of an intervention. It is a means of measuring the effectiveness of organisational activities and judging the significance of changes brought about by those activities. It is used to ensure that project; programmes are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable. Impact evaluation can explore unintended consequences, whether positive or negative on 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY beneficiaries. Of a particular interest is the extent to which project benefits reach the poor and the impact of these benefits have on their welfare status. There are three interrelated challenges that impact assessment studies face – establishing a viable counterfactual (the predicted outcome in the absence of the intervention, that is, what would have happened to the beneficiaries if they had not participated in the project); attributing the impact to an intervention; and coping with long and unpredictable time lag (Salter and Martin, 2001). The crucial feature of the evaluation problem for an existing program is that the same person is not observed in both states (hypothetical and counterfactual). This is called the problem of causal inference by some statisticians. Therefore, to ensure methodological rigour, measuring programme impact on beneficiaries requires a strategy to estimate the counterfactual state of participants which is by definition unobservable, or what would have happened had the intervention not taken place. Due to the fact that the counterfactual is not observable, impact evaluations must include some form of appropriate comparison or control group. To determine the counterfactual, it is necessary to net out the effect of intervention from other factors. This can be solved using experimental and non experimental approaches. 2.11 Propensity score matching The idea behind matching is simply to select a group of non-beneficiaries in order to make them resemble the beneficiaries in everything. If such resemblance is satisfactory, the outcome observed for the matched group approximates the counterfactual, and the effect of the intervention is estimated as the difference between the average outcomes of the two groups. The fundamental assumption for the validity of matching is that, when observable characteristics are balanced between the two groups, the two groups are balanced with respect to all the characteristics relevant for the outcome. The larger the number of available pre- intervention characteristics, the better the chance that this assumption holds true. The 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY existence of a substantial overlap between the characteristics of beneficiaries and non- beneficiaries is another requirement for the applicability of this method. The method of matching has an initiative appeal because by constructing a control group and using difference in means, it mimics random assignment. The crucial difference with respect to an experiment is that in the latter the similarity between the two groups covers all characteristics, both observable and unobservable, while even the most sophisticated matching technique must rely on observable characteristics only. The estimated probability of being a beneficiary given observable characteristics. This reduces the matching from beneficiaries given observable characteristics. This reduces the matching from multi- dimensional problem (where the number of dimension depends on the number of available) to a one – dimensional problem. Intuitively, each beneficiary, where this probability is calculated on the basis of individual characteristics. Once the two groups are formed, the average effect is estimated for each outcome by simply corrupting the difference in means between the two groups. Also Propensity Score Matching (PSM) has some advantages over econometric regression methods since it compares only the comparables, it does not rely on parametric assumptions to identify the impact of projects. However, PSM is subject to the problem of “selection on unobservable characteristics‟‟, meaning that the beneficiary and comparison groups may differ in unobservable characteristics, even though they are matched in terms of observable characteristics. 2.12 Measures of household welfare status Household surveys are an essential source of information on economic and social conditions of households and individuals. Surveys data can be used to measure the welfare of households, poverty, and how equally distributed are living standards. Moreover, welfare measures allow investigating patterns in standards of living across populations and over time. Welfare is usually proxy by measures of consumption or income. However, in recent years, 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the use of asset-based wealth indices as an alternative metric measure of welfare has become increasingly prominent. Indeed, wealth indices represent the only way to investigate distributional aspects in uniquely detailed large-scale surveys – such as MICS (Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys) and DHS (Demographic and Health Surveys) – that lack information on income and/or consumption (Howe et al., 2010). The wealth index has more recently, been considered a theoretically and practically superior alternative measure of economic status to income and consumption (Rutstein, 2008). Wealth better reflects long-term welfare as it is less volatile than both income and consumption; it is considered more suitable to analyse multi-dimensional poverty (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001); and finally it is less data intensive and therefore easier to calculate (Azzarri et al., 2006). However, these features make the wealth index a specific indicator and as such it cannot be comparable to the conventional measures of economic status. Different studies report that the asset index is in fact a generally poor proxy for current household income or expenditure, while it may be a good proxy for long-term or permanent income. Furthermore, there are a number of conceptual and pragmatic reasons that limit the use of asset-based indices as alternative measures of welfare. The wealth index provides a relative measure of welfare – namely a household‟s wealth is measured relative to other households in the sample – but does not quantify the household‟s current levels of welfare or poverty (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001). The wealth index – as most commonly constructed – has also been found to have an urban bias and limited discriminatory power at the lower end of the wealth distribution Moreover, differences in price levels across regions are not taken into account in the asset- based approach (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001; Rutstein, 2008; Howe et al., 2010). In order to obtain a good measure of welfare, consumption should be comprehensive, the questionnaire should cover all components of consumption and all types of consumption. Collecting 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY information only on a subset of consumption could result in bias: as Deaton and Grosh (2000) put it “the relationship between the part and the whole can vary a great deal from one household to another and from one place or time to another”, therefore the omission of some components could affect the ranking. Consumption usually includes: 1) food consumption, 2) non-food items (including health, education and other non-food expenditures), 3) housing expenditures (including rent and utilities) and 4) consumer durables. Food consumption comprises food consumed inside the household from a variety of sources (food purchases, self-produced food, food received as gifts, remittances and payments in kind) and food consumed outside the household (restaurants etc.). In order to give a value to food consumption that does not go through the market (i.e. consumption from home production) household surveys need to collect information on prices. There are however a number of theoretical and practical challenges in doing so (Deaton and Zaidi, 2002). Deaton and Zaidi (2002) recommend the inclusion of education expenditures although they highlight that: - they could be considered an investment rather than consumption.. Non-food items refer to education (such as tuition fees, textbooks, etc.), health (medical care and health expenses) and a wide range of other non-food expenses (such as domestic fuel and power, tobacco products, clothing and footwear, transport, recreation, personal care, miscellaneous goods and services). A choice however has to be made in terms of the items to include. It is usually recommended to include education expenditures, and to exclude taxes and levies as well as gifts and transfers (Deaton and Zaidi, 2002). The inclusion of health expenditure is debated. As highlighted by Deaton and Zaidi (2002), it is difficult to measure the increase in welfare 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY from health expenditures, as information would be needed on the loss of welfare from illness on one hand and on the increase in welfare from its alleviation on the other hand. If health expenditures only are accounted for, then differences between two sick people – of whom only one is able to pay for treatment – are missed. The recommendation is to include or exclude these expenditures based on the analysis of the elasticity of health expenditures with respect to total expenditure (inclusion is suggested when the elasticity is high). The inclusion of lumpy and less frequent expenditures – ceremony-related such as marriages and dowries, births, and funerals – is also an issue when trying to capture consumption. These infrequent outlays are usually not included in the consumption aggregate given their „idiosyncratic nature and infrequency‟ (Beegle et al., 2010). Collecting this kind of expenditure is in fact likely to result in a bias as there will be households that have incurred this type of expenditure in the individual indicators are not grounded theoretically and the appropriateness of the wealth index is likely differ across sub sub-groups of the population. Depending on the purpose of the research, the indicators included in the index might have direct effects on the outcome of interest (Howe et al., 2008). Finally, substantial concerns emerged with regard to the use of the wealth index for welfare comparison over time and across countries. Although recent studies have proposed methodologies to allow for inter-temporal and intraregional comparisons (Booysen et al., 2008; Howe et al., 2010), they do not convincingly overcome the observed limitations. Therefore, for a series of theoretical as well as practical reasons, the wealth index cannot be used as a perfect substitute for income or consumption which, among other considerations, remain the most common and accepted measures of welfare. Researchers have debated intensely on the strengths and weaknesses of different welfare indicators with a quite clear consensus on favouring consumption over income, especially in a developing country context. In the first place, individuals derive material well- 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY being from the actual consumption of goods and services rather than from the receipt of income per se; therefore consumption seems to better capture the concept of „standard of living‟. Deaton and Zaidi (2002) argue that consumption better reflects long-term income as it is not closely tied to short-term fluctuations in income and is smoother and less variable than income. Income is more likely to be affected by seasonal patterns resulting either in an underestimation or overestimation of real income. Consumption is more stable especially in agricultural societies as it is smoothed over the seasons, therefore better reflecting (or approximating) the real living standard. 2.12.1 Asset Indices as an alternative measure of welfare status The wealth index has more recently, been considered a theoretically and practically superior alternative measure of economic status to income and consumption (Rutstein, 2008). Wealth better reflects long-term welfare as it is less volatile than both income and consumption; it is considered more suitable to analyze multi-dimensional poverty (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001); and finally it is less data intensive and therefore easier to calculate (Azzarri et al. 2006). However, these features make the wealth index a specific indicator and as such it cannot be comparable to the conventional measures of economic status. Different studies report that the asset index is in fact a generally poor proxy for current household income or expenditure, while it may be a good proxy for long-term or permanent income. Furthermore, there are a number of conceptual and pragmatic reasons that limit the use of asset-based indices as alternative measures of welfare. The wealth index provides a relative measure of welfare – namely a household‟s wealth is measured relative to other households in the sample – but does not quantify the household‟s current levels of welfare or poverty (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001). The wealth index – as most commonly constructed – has also been found to have an urban bias and 82 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY limited discriminatory power at the lower end of the wealth distribution Moreover, differences in price levels across regions are not taken into account in the asset-based approach (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001; Rutstein, 2008; Howe et al. 2010). In order to obtain a good measure of welfare, consumption should be comprehensive, the questionnaire should cover all components of consumption and all types of consumption. Collecting information only on a subset of consumption could result in bias: as Deaton and Grosh (2000) put it “the relationship between the part and the whole can vary a great deal from one household to another and from one place or time to another”, therefore the omission of some components could affect the ranking. 2.12.2. Consumption as a measure of welfare status The measure of consumption usually includes: 1) Food consumption, 2) Non-food items (including health, education and other non-food expenditures), 3) Housing expenditures (including rent and utilities) and 4) Consumer durables. Food consumption comprises food consumed inside the household from a variety of sources (food purchases, self-produced food, food received as gifts, remittances and payments in kind) and food consumed outside the household (restaurants etc.). In order to give a value to food consumption that does not go through the market (i.e. consumption from home production) household surveys need to collect information on prices. There are however a number of theoretical and practical challenges in doing so (Deaton and Zaidi, 2002). Deaton and Zaidi (2002) recommend the inclusion of education expenditures although they highlight that: - they could be considered an investment rather than consumption; - they refer to a particular point in life time. 83 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Non-food items refer to education (such as tuition fees, textbooks, etc.), health (medical care and health expenses) and a wide range of other non-food expenses (such as domestic fuel and power, tobacco products, clothing and footwear, transport, recreation, personal care, miscellaneous goods and services). A choice however has to be made in terms of the items to include. It is usually recommended to include education expenditures, and to exclude taxes and levies as well as gifts and transfers (Deaton and Zaidi, 2002). The inclusion of health expenditure is debated. As highlighted by Deaton and Zaidi (2002), it is difficult to measure the increase in welfare from health expenditures, as information would be needed on the loss of welfare from illness on one hand and on the increase in welfare from its alleviation on the other hand. If health expenditures only are accounted for, then differences between two sick people – of whom only one is able to pay for treatment – are missed. The recommendation is to include or exclude these expenditures based on the analysis of the elasticity of health expenditures with respect to total expenditure (inclusion is suggested when the elasticity is high). The inclusion of lumpy and less frequent expenditures – ceremony-related such as marriages and dowries, births, and funerals – is also an issue when trying to capture consumption. These infrequent outlays are usually not included in the consumption aggregate given their „idiosyncratic nature and infrequency‟ (Beegle et al. 2010). Collecting this kind of expenditure is in fact likely to result in a bias as there will be households that have incurred this type of expenditure in the individual indicators are not grounded theoretically and the appropriateness of the wealth index is likely differ across sub sub-groups of the population. Depending on the purpose of the research, the indicators included in the index might have direct effects on the outcome of interest. Finally, substantial concerns emerged with regard to the use of the wealth index for welfare comparison over time and across countries. Although recent studies have proposed methodologies to allow for 84 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY inter-temporal and intraregional comparisons (Booysen et al. 2008), they do not convincingly overcome the observed limitations. Therefore, for a series of theoretical as well as practical reasons, the wealth index cannot be used as a perfect substitute for income or consumption which, among other considerations, remain the most common and accepted measures of welfare. Researchers have debated intensely on the strengths and weaknesses of different welfare indicators with a quite clear consensus on favouring consumption over income, especially in a developing country context. In the first place, individuals derive material well-being from the actual consumption of goods and services rather than from the receipt of income per se; therefore consumption seems to better capture the concept of „standard of living‟. Deaton and Zaidi (2002) argue that consumption better reflects long-term income as it is not closely tied to short-term fluctuations in income and is smoother and less variable than income. Income is more likely to be affected by seasonal patterns resulting either in an underestimation or overestimation of real income. Consumption is more stable especially in agricultural societies as it is smoothed over the seasons, therefore better reflecting (or approximating) the real living standard. Therefore, for a series of theoretical as well as practical reasons, the wealth index cannot be used as a perfect substitute for income or consumption which, among other considerations, remain the most common and accepted measures of welfare. 85 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER THREE 3.0 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Theoretical framework Theory is a coherent group of assumptions put forth to explain the relationship between two or more observable facts which can be used to provide a sound basis for predicting future events (Augustine, 2013). The following theories were considered relevant to this study. (1) Knowledge gap theory (2) Women empowerment theory (3) Sustainable development theory 3.1.1 Knowledge gap theory Tichenor, Donohue and Olien at the University of Minnesota proposed the knowledge gap theory in 1970. They believed that every member of the society does not evenly acquire the increasing information in the society. People that are better-off welfare status tend to have better access to information than those that are worse-off welfare status. This leads to a division of two groups: A group of better educated people knows more and a group with low education knows less. Lower welfare status of people defined partly by educational level have little or no knowledge on public affairs issues, are disconnected from new events and important discoveries, and usually are not concerned about their lack of knowledge. The knowledge gap theory is premised on the assumptions that knowledge gap can results in an increased gap between people that are worse-off in welfare status. The importance of welfare status in bridging the gap or at least reducing it stressed in this theory 86 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY makes the theory applicable to this study. If rural development project is able to improve the welfare status of the rural women processors, it means their processing business will experience a resultant development through closer access to relevant social and economic information, resources, and supports. This theory explains that when beneficiaries acquire knowledge through training, they will use the knowledge acquired to improve their standard of living. 3.1.2 Women empowerment theory The theory of empowerment is promoted in work environments that provide employees with access to information, resources, support, and the opportunity to learn and develop. Psychological empowerment includes feelings of competence, autonomy, job meaningfulness, and an ability to impact the organization. Employees who are empowered are more committed to the organization, more accountable for their work, and better able to fulfil job demands in an effective manner. This theory shows how structures within the workplace that facilitate access to resources can empower employees to accomplish their work in more meaningful ways. This study relates empowerment to commitment. The goal of this theory is to enhanced increase access to information, knowledge, and opportunities, so as to improve their standard of living. This model emphasises the need for women to increase their power and have control over productive resources and choices of their life. Power in this context is regarded as an exchange rather than domination and control as it is traditionally perceived. Through adequate control of productive resources women are expected to influence their social and economic progress. This model does not mean that as women gain, men will lose power but emphasises the need of women to increase their capacity and generate more income, so that they can improve their welfare status. 87 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.1.3 Sustainable development theory The Russian doll model upholds the basic principle that all economic activity should be bent towards social progress and that this must be achieved within environmental limits. There is, therefore, suggestion of a slight move away from the 'weak sustainability' model that was originally put forward by Brundtland towards a more eco-essential approach. The potential to achieve 'win-win-win' scenarios is increasingly being rejected as over-simplistic and practicably unattainable. Venn diagram to Russian doll explanations of Sustainable Development Venn diagram explanation Russian doll explanation 88 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.2 The conceptual framework for the study The conceptual framework of this study is an outline that shows the linkages between the variables of the study. The socioeconomic and enterprise characteristics of respondents influence the level of participation in the project. For example the higher the educational level of respondents, the better they participate in the DELPHE project. Also the more they earn higher income the more their regular payment of dues towards the project. The higher their years of experience, the better their participation in training activities of the project. Participation in the project training activities will make them acquire knowledge on their various processing enterprises. The respondents‟ enterprise characteristics influence knowledge on their various processing activities which in turn has a two way relationship with attitude of respondents towards the DELPHE project. Respondents with higher knowledge may have favourable attitude than others with low knowledge. Respondents‟ with favourable attitude benefitted in the project than those with unfavourable attitude towards the project. The constraints faced by the respondents on various processing enterprises influences the benefits derived from the project and a direct relationship with welfare status. 89 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Independent variables Dependent Variable Personal Participation in Benefits derived by Ch aracteristics of Welfare Status DELPHE project Beneficiaries of DELPHE $ respondents , other interventions Amount spent  Contribution in  Age decision making on basisc items  Skill enhancement  Education  Training such as:  Increase in yield  Religion  Meeting Enterprise expansion Intervening  attendance  Food variable High  Education Benefitted Low  Cultural  Health Not benefitted background  Govt. policies Better off  Environment Worse off Change in SES  High  Low Knowledge of Enterprise respondents Attitudinal disposition to; Constraints to Characteristics of on processing processing respon dents activities  DELPHE training activities facilitators  Inc ome  High  DELPHE training  Lack of credit  Sources of  Low Programme facilities fin ance  Benefits of DELPHE  High cost of  Sources of processing lab our Favourable equipments  Years of Unfavourable  Unstable processing price of experience processed products Figure 1.1: Framework on the effects of DELPHE project on welfare status of rural women processors in Oyo and Osun States 90 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.0 CHAPTER FOUR METHODOLOGY 4.1 Area of study The study was carried out in Oyo and Osun States of Nigeria. These are the two states selected for the project in Nigeria. Oyo State is located in the Southern geo-political zone. Oyo state is between latitude 8000′00″N 0 and longitude 4 00′00″E. The state capital is Ibadan and it has thirty three Local Government Areas distributed among three Senatorial districts. It is bounded in the North by Kwara State, in the South by Ogun State, to the East by Osun State and to the West by Republic of Benin. The total population of the state is 5591,589 (NPC, 2006) and land mass covers about 27249 sq km th Osun state was carved out of Oyo state on August 27 , 1991 with its headquarters in Oshogbo. S Osun State has 30 Local government areas.. The state lies in the southwest of the Niger valley in 0 0 the savannah and rainforest zones of the country. It lies between latitude 700 and 900 N and 0 0 2 Longitude 2.75 and 6.75 E. It covers a total area of approximately 37,680km . The state is bounded in the north by Kwara State and Ekiti state and west by Oyo state. The two states fall in the derived savannah ecological zone. The climates of the two states are wet and dry seasons. The rainy season lasts up to 9 months with two peaks in July and 0 0 September. The mean monthly temperature range is 18 C- 21 C. Oyo Most of the people in the areas are predominantly Yorubas. A large number of the people engage in agriculture, and processing of food crops for domestic consumption and for export. Large segments of the populace are also traders and artisans. 91 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.1. Map of Oyo state showing its local government areas 92 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.2: Map of Osun state showing its local government areas 93 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.2 Population of the study The study population comprised of all rural women processors in the two states where DELPHE project was executed. They include the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries of DELPHE project, who are involved in the processing of Moringa, Soybean, Cassava and Oil palm. 4.3 Sampling procedure and sample size Multistage sampling procedure was used to select respondents for the study. Oyo and Osun states were purposively selected for the project being the only two states where the project was implemented in Nigeria. Six LGAs; four from Osun namely: Ife East, Egbedore, Ede South, Obokun, LGAs and two from Oyo state ( Iddo and Akinyele (LGAs) ) were selected purposively being the local government areas where the project was implemented. Stratified sampling technique was used to select two groups from each of the communities in the local government areas based on the enterprise categories. The total beneficiaries for the Moringa processing enterprise were 95 women processors, comprising of 35 in Iyanfoworogi community, 30 in Olode comunity and 30 in Ayeso community. For Soybean enterprise, the total beneficiaries were 65 women processors, comprising of 30 and 35 women processors in Ojo and Aro communities respectively while the total beneficiaries in Cassava enterprise were 150 women processors with 40, 45, 35, and 30 in each of Owode, Sekona, Moniya and Idi-ose communities respectively. The total beneficiaries were 405. Proportionate sampling technique was used to randomly select 60% of the 405 beneficiaries, which is two hundred and forty three (243), representing the number of beneficiaries selected. 94 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Equal numbers of non beneficiaries were selected randomly from the non participating communities within the same LGA. The total processors for the Moringa processors enterprise were 90 in Ife east L.G.A, comprising of 30 women processors in Peregun community, 30 women processor in Omifufun and 30 in Ido oko. For the Soybean enterprise, total non- beneficiaries were 80 women processors, comprising of 35 and 45 in Ikotun and Awoye respectively while the total processors for palm oil enterprise were 100, comprising of 30 women processors in Ada owode community, 30 in Akufo community and 40 in Awotan. The total processors for cassava processing enterprise were 135 women processors with 45, 30, 30, 30, and 30 in each of Oke Egan, Ile Ato,Apete , and Omi adio communities respectively. This gives a total of 405. A proportionate sampling technique was used to randomly select 60% of the 405, which is 243, representing the number of non beneficiaries selected. The Kernel Calliper Method of Propensity Score Matching (PSM) test which reduces bias was carried out between the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries, and the total number of beneficiaries that matched was 216 for the beneficiaries and 88 for the non-beneficiaries. Therefore, after the propensity score matching, the total respondents sampled were 304, with 96 beneficiaries from Oyo state and 120 from Osun state, while 32 and 56 were non-beneficiaries from Oyo and Osun states respectively. The aim of PSM is to find the comparison group of sample of non beneficiaries that is closest to the sample programme beneficiaries so as to get the impact of the project on beneficiaries. 95 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.1: Sampling of respondents Beneficiaries Non-Beneficiaries State LGA Selected No. Of 60% 0f Selected non No of 60% of Communities Processors processors participant women women based on ent. in each selected comm. based on processor process Categories grp enterp in each or categories. comm. selected Osun Ife East Iyanfoworogi 35 21 Peregun 30 18 (Moringa) (Moringa) Isoya 30 18 Omifunfun 30 18 (Moringa) (Moringa) Egbedore Ojo 30 18 Ikotun 35 21 (Soybeans) (Soybean) Aro (Soybean) 35 21 Iwoye 45 27 (Soybean) Ede Owode 40 24 Oke-Egan 45 27 South (Cassava) (Cassava) Sekona 45 27 Ile Ato 30 18 (Cassava) (Cassava) Obokun Ayeso 30 18 Ido Oko 30 18 (Moringa) (Moringa) Afin Esa oke 30 18 Ada Owode 30 18 (Palm oil) (Palm oil) Oyo Iddo Omi Adio 30 18 Akufo 30 18 (Palm oil) (Palm oil) Awotan 35 21 Apete 40 18 (Palm oil) (Palm oil) Akinyele Moniya 35 21 Laniba 30 18 (Cassava) (Cassava) Idi ose 30 18 ajibode 30 18 (Cassava) (Cassava) Total 405 243 405 243 Total no. after 216 88 PSM 96 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.2: Number of matched respondents after the PSM Processin No of No of No of No of Non- No of No of Total no of g category beneficiaries beneficiarie beneficiaries beneficiaries beneficiaries beneficiaries respondent s (Oyo) (Osun) from Oyo from Osun s sampled State State Moringa 46 20 26 21 8 11 67 Soybean 30 13 17 10 5 8 40 Cassava 76 35 41 32 10 24 108 Palm oil 64 28 36 25 9 13 89 Total 216 96 120 88 32 56 304 97 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.4 Instrument for data collection Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect information. Structured questionnaire with various items was designed to elicit information from the respondents with respect to study objectives while Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was used to collect qualitative data. Eight FGDs were conducted in all from each of the beneficiaries processing groups (4 in Osun state and 4 in Oyo state). The FGDs were guided by the following questions: - Products that the women process and the number of years they have been involved in processing - Major alternative sources of income generating activities. - Awareness about participation in the DELPHE project. - The benefits derived as a result of participating in the project and other programmes - The training exposed to in processing activities and skill acquired after training sessions. - Income generation as a result of participating in the project. - Household type that is common in the community - The percentage contribution of women processors and their spouses to their household expenditure. - The problems women processors faced with in their various processing enterprise and their causes and consequences. (Problem tree analysis focusing upon the problems reported by the group was conducted). - The impact of the project on welfare status 98 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.5 Validity and reliability of instrument The instrument for data collection was validated using face validity with the help of experts in Agricultural Extension. The reliability of instrument was tested using the spilt – half method and reliability coefficient of 0.82 was obtained. 4.6 Measurement of variables Independent variables The independent variables of this study are: Socio economic characteristics 1. Age: Respondents were asked to state their actual age in years. 2. Marital status: Respondents were asked to indicate their marital status whether they are single, married, widowed or divorced. 3. Religion: Respondents were asked to indicate their religion from response option of Islam, Christianity and Traditional 4. Educational qualification: Respondents were asked to indicate the actual number of years they spent in formal school. 5. Household size: Respondents were asked to state the actual number of people in their households. 6. Household type: Respondents were asked to indicate whether they are male headed or female headed. 7. Membership of group: Respondents were requested to indicate whether they belong to any of the list of groups provide as Co-operative group, religious group, processors group 99 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY market women group, Fadama users group, DELPHE beneficiaries group, National programme for Food Security (NPFS). 8. Position as wife: Respondents were asked to indicate their position as wife as either only, first, second, third, fourth and fifth wives of their husbands. Enterprise Characteristics. Respondents were asked to state their enterprise characteristics from the list below: 9. Income generating activities: Respondents were asked to choose from the options that were presented on their primary and secondary income generating activities. These options include processing, trading, farming artisans and any other specified by the respondents. 10. Monthly Income: Respondents were asked to state their actual estimated monthly income in naira from the processed and other products. 11. Processing Activities engaged in: Respondents were asked to state the type of processing activities they engaged in, from the list of options that were provided: Moringa processing, Soybean processing, Cassava processing, and oil palm processing. 12. Processing experience: the processing experience of the processors was taken in years 13. Sources of labour: Respondents were asked to indicate their source (s) of labour choosing from the following options: family labour, hired labour and work exchange group. 14. Land acquisition: Respondents were asked to indicate their methods of land acquisition choosing from the options of Purchased, rented/lease, inheritance. 15. Sources of finance: Respondents were asked to tick their sources of finance from options of: Self, family, friends, cooperative society, and bank. 100 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 16. Sources of information on the processing activities: Respondents were asked to indicate their source(s) of information on processing activities from the list of possible sources: Extension agent, friends, radio, television, newspaper, and social group. 17. Level of knowledge on respondents‟ various processing activities Respondents‟ knowledge on various processing activities was measured by asking respondents to respond to a list of ten questions relating to each processing activity. They were asked to pick the correct answers from the list of options. Any wrong answer was assigned zero, while the right answer was assigned one point each. The highest possible score for each processing activity was ten while the lowest score was zero. On the basis of the mean score, respondents were categorized as having high or low score on knowledge of various processing activities. 18. Participation of beneficiaries in activities of DELPHE project Respondents were asked to indicate their level of participation from the lists of nine project activities presented to them. Respondents were asked to indicate the activities they participated in using a three point rating scale of always, rarely and never. Always was scored two, rarely one and never zero. The maximum score was 18 while the minimum score was 0. The mean score was used to categorize those above the mean as having high level of participation and those below the mean as low participation. 19. Benefits derived by beneficiaries from DELPHE and other interventions Respondents were asked to indicate the various benefits they derived from the list of eight items provided, using three point rating scale of to a large extent, to a lesser extent, and not at all. These were assigned the score two, one and zero respectively. The maximum scored obtained was 16 while the minimum score was 0. On the basis of the 101 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY mean score, respondents were categorized as having benefitted or not benefitted from the project. 20. Attitude of the beneficiaries towards the project Attitude of respondents towards the project was measured by presenting to the respondents eighteen attitudinal statements on the project. One half of the statements were positively worded, while the other half were negatively worded. The respondents were asked to respond appropriately to the statements using a five point rating scale of Strongly Disagreed (SD), Disagreed (D), Undecided (U), Agreed (A), and Strongly Agreed (SA). These were scored 5, 4,3,2,1 for all positive worded statements and reverse order for all negatively worded statements. The highest possible score was 90; while the lowest possible score was 18.The mean score was used to categorize those above mean as favourable and those below the mean as unfavourable. 21. Constraints faced by respondents on various processing activities: Constraints on various processing activities were measured by presenting to the respondents, an array of possible constraints on various processing activities. These constraints include high cost of processing machines, lack of credit facilities, lack of technical know-how, unavailability of land for processing activities, unavailability of market for processed products, and lack of good storage facilities. The respondents were asked to indicate the constraints they faced and the severity of the constraint. They were presented with three-point scale of severe, mild and not a severe. These were scored 2, 1, and 0 respectively. The mean was computed and ranked according to the order of severity, from the most severe to not a constraint. 102 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 22. Socio-Economic Status (SES) of beneficiaries: Socio economic status of the respondents was measured by asking the respondents to indicate the number of material possessed before and after DELPHE project. The mean score was then used to categorised the SES before and after the project. 23. Dependent variable The dependent variable of the study is the welfare status of the respondents which was measured by asking the respondents to state the actual amount they spend on households‟ basic items (such as food purchases, school fees, accommodation, utility bills, health etc.) within periods. The expenses were converted into monthly estimations. Thereafter, per capita expenditure was derived by dividing the respondents‟ household expenditure by the household sizes. The welfare categories were determined using National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2005) method. The highest Per Capita Expenditure (PCE) score was ₦16,500.00 while the lowest score was ₦750.00. The mean Per Capita Expenditures was derived as ₦5837.14. The categorisation of the PCE was done using the following criteria; Between the least value and below ⅔ of mean PCE = Worse off Between ⅔ PCE and the maximum value of PCE = Better off 4.7 Data analysis Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics include mean, frequency and percentage distribution. Inferential statistics used were Chi-square, Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), t-test and ANOVA. 103 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The Kernel Propensity Score Matching was used to identify the treated group ) ) ) ) ∑ ∑ ( ) ∑ ( ) Where eJ (x) denotes the propensity score of case j in the control group and eJ(x) denotes the propensity score of case I in the treated group and eJ (x)-eJ(x) represents the distance of the propensity scores. Multiple linear regressions was used to ascertain the contributions of independent variables such as years of education, years of processing activities, occupation income, constraints, household size and benefit derived index of DELPHE programme and other intervention programmes (Fadama programme and National programme for Food Security) to welfare status of the respondents. The model is expressed as: Y= a+βx1+βx2 + βx3 -------------------- βx9 + u Where Y = per capital expenditure a = Constant u = error term X1 = Years of education X2 = Years of processing experience X3 = Household size X4 = Occupation X5 = benefit derived index of DELPHE programme X6 = benefit derived index Fadama programme X7 = benefit derived index NPFS programme 104 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY X8 = Constraints X9 = Income 4.8 Test of hypotheses The hypotheses were tested as follows: Hypothesis 1: Chi square, PPMC Hypothesis 2: PPMC Hypothesis 3: PPMC Hypothesis 4: PPMC Hypothesis 5: ANOVA Hypothesis 6 and 7: t-test 105 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.0 CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This chapter presents the results of data collected for the study. It is divided into sub- sections which include, descriptive results of Focus Group Discussion (FGD), socio-economic characteristics of respondents, enterprise characteristics of respondents, level of knowledge on respondents‟ various processing activities, respondents‟ participation in DELPHE project activities, benefits derived from the project, attitude of the beneficiaries towards the project, constraints faced by the respondents in processing activities, the welfare status of the respondents and results of tested hypotheses. 5.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents 5.1.1 Age Age distribution of respondents as presented in Figure 5.1 shows that 58.3% of the beneficiaries were within the age range of 41- 50 years with a mean age of 43.9±12 years while 57.0% of the non beneficiaries were within the age range of 41-50 years with the mean age 42.3±10 years. These age groups are within the productive age. This implies that majority of the respondents were in their economically active age, which means that their active participation in processing activities will bring about higher income for their improved welfare status. Mafimisebi (2007) asserted that most rural women in these economically productive age groups undertake various livelihood activities in their communities. 106 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 60% 50% 40% Beneficiaries 30% non-beneficiares 20% 10% 0% 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70 Figure 5.1: Distribution of respondents based on their age group 107 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.2 Marital status Marital status as indicated in Figure 5.2 shows that 87.0% of non -beneficiaries and 86.0% of the beneficiaries were married respectively, while 13.0% and 13.8% of non beneficiaries and beneficiaries were not married. The high percentage of married people is an indication that the respondents enjoy supports from their spouses and their children. This is in consonance with the findings of Hardie and Lucas (2010) that married couples enjoys family harmony as a result of better welfare status. 108 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 86% 87% beneficiaries non beneficiaries 5.50% 6.50% 4.60% 2.30% 6% 1.90% Single Married Divorced Widowed Figure 5.2: Distribution of respondents based on their marital status 109 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.3 Religion The results in Figures 5.3 and 5.4 shows that 58.3%, 39.4% and 2.3% of the beneficiaries were Christians, Muslims and traditional worshipers respectively while 56.0%, 38.0%, and 4.0% of the non beneficiaries were also Christians, Muslims and Traditional worshipers respectively. This shows that Christianity is prevalent in the study area. Akinola (2010) reported that most of the respondents in the study are actively involved in religious activities which give them peace of mind in participating in DELPHE project. 110 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 58.3% 56.0% 39.4%3 8.0% beneficiaries non beneficiaries 5.0% 2.3% Islam Christianity Traditional Figure 5.3: Distribution of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries based on their religion 111 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.4 Educational status Findings on Table 5.1 reveals that large proportion of beneficiaries (57.2%) and non beneficiaries (55.7%) had primary education, 33.9% non-beneficiaries and 29.4% beneficiaries had no formal education, 10.0% beneficiaries and 9.0% had vocational education, 3.4% beneficiaries and 3.0% of non beneficiaries had adult education while none of the respondents had secondary and tertiary education. This implies that the educational level of respondents is relatively low. This could have influence on the ability of respondents to take advantage of training in order to acquire new skill and knowledge from the project for expansion of their processing enterprise which brings about more income and better welfare status. This is consistent with the findings of Hussain (2013), that respondents‟ higher educational status is expected to influence positive growth and development in their community. 112 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.1: Distribution of respondents on their educational status ( n1=216, n2=88) Educational Status n1= Beneficiaries n2=Non Beneficiaries Frequency % Frequency % No formal education 64 29.4 30 33.9 Adult education 7 3.4 3 3.0 Vocational education 22 10.0 8 9 Primary 123 57.2 47 55.7 Secondary 0 0 0 0 Tertiary 0 0 0 0 Total 216 100 88 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 113 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.5 Household Size Results from Figure 5.4 shows that 51.0% of the beneficiaries had a household size of 5-8 persons with a mean household size of 6.0±2.0 while 53.2% of the non beneficiaries had a household size of 5-8 but with the mean of 6.0±2.0 members. High number of people in a household is likely to exert pressure on the household expenditure and consumption which may have negative effect on their welfare status. Household size is one of the factors that determine the welfare status of the respondents as asserted by Olawuyi and Adetunji (2013) in their study on assessment of rural household poverty in Nigeria, that poverty is high among rural household with large household size. The implication is that the DELPHE beneficiaries are able to cope with higher per capita expenditure on their household size as a result of better welfare status. 114 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 53.20% 51% 31% 31.80% 1 – 4 5 – 8 9 – 12 13 and above 12.50% 11.30% 5.50% 3.40% beneficiaries non beneficiaries Figure 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on household size 115 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.6 Household head The findings in Figure 5.5 reveal that majority (81.1%) of beneficiaries and 82.0% of non beneficiaries‟ households were headed by male while only 18.9% of beneficiaries and 18.0% of the non beneficiaries were headed by female. It can be inferred that most rural household are male headed and this is because of the cultural values that exist in the rural areas. This is corroborated by the findings of Sakataka and Namisiko (2015), who reported that most rural households are male-headed due to the cultural values that exist in rural communities. It can be inferred that most of DELPHE beneficiaries are not household-heads. 116 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 82 90 81.1 80 70 60 Beneficiaries 50 Non Beneficiaries 40 18 30 18.9 20 10 0 Male Female Figure 5.5: Distribution of respondents on the type of household head 117 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.7 Membership of groups The result of analysis as presented in Table 5.2 revealed that respondents belong to different groups in the study area. All of the beneficiaries (100.0%) belong to the DELPHE beneficiaries group while non beneficiaries (0.0%) were not members of this group. Majority of the beneficiaries (78.3%) and non beneficiaries (77.2%) were member of religious group. Thirty seven percent of the beneficiaries and 38.2% of the non beneficiaries belong to Fadama users group, 34.3% of beneficiaries and 33.1% of the non beneficiaries were members of processor group, while 30.5% of beneficiaries and 30.0% of the non beneficiaries belong to market women group and National programme for Food Security (NPFS) groups respectively. Membership of associations and groups (social capital) in rural area enhance people‟s access to resources and credit facilities, thereby contributing to household‟s welfare. This finding is consistent with Nguigi and Kariuki (2009) that membership of groups in the rural areas enhances people access to resources and credit facilities, thereby contributing to households‟ welfare. This implies that belonging to groups provide good background for the beneficiaries to became effective members of DELPHE. 118 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.2: Distribution of respondents by membership of groups* (n1= 216, n2= 88) Membership of groups n1=Beneficiaries n2=Non beneficiaries F % F % Co-operative group 103 47.7 *38 45.2 Religious group 169 78.3 *68 77.2 Processors group 74 34.3 29 33.1 Market women group 66 30.5 26 30.0 Fadama users group 80 37.0 34 38.2 DELPHE beneficiaries group 216 100.0 0 00.0 NPFS group 66 30.5 26 30,0 *Multiple responses Source: Field Survey, 2014 119 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.8 Position as wife The results in Figure 5.6 reveals that 23.6% of beneficiaries and 28.4% of the non – beneficiaries were the only wives of their husbands while 44.0% beneficiaries, 38.6 % non- beneficiaries, 14.8% beneficiaries,19.3% non-beneficiaries, 9.3% beneficiaries, 8.0% non- beneficiaries and nd rd th th 8.3% beneficiaries, 5.7% non – beneficiaries were 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 wives of their husbands respectively. This is because polygamy marriage is common in rural communities due to socio- cultural value attached to it. This is in agreement with the findings of Charsley and Liversage (2012), they reported that polygamous marriage is a common practice in the rural areas. The more the wives, the more they share the family resources of their husbands and this bring about the wives solely care for their wards. This could lead to low welfare status of women. 120 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 44.00% 38.60% 28.40% 23.60% Beneficiaries 19.30% Non beneficiaries 14.80% 9.30% 8.30% 8.00% 5.70% 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th and above k Figure 5.6: Distribution of respondents based on position as wife 121 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.9 Income generating activities The result of the analysis on Table 5.3 shows that majority of the beneficiaries (83.0%) and non beneficiaries (72.0%) were engaged in processing as their primary occupation, while trading (9.0% beneficiaries and 11.3% non- beneficiaries), farming (6.0% beneficiaries and 10.4% non beneficiaries) and artisan (2.0% beneficiaries and 6.3% non beneficiaries) were the secondary occupation engaged in by the respondents in the study area. The result revealed that processing as a major income generating activities had the highest percentage as their primary occupation. This shows that most rural women engaged in processing of agricultural produce in most developing nations as their primary occupation while they were also involved in other secondary occupation such as trading. This is in accordance with the findings of Mohammed (2014) that most rural women are into processing of agricultural produce and that the respondents engaged in other income generating activities such as trading, farming as their secondary income generating activities. The respondents affirms that engaging in income generating activities by participating in DELPHE project activities gives them rest of mind by using the income generated to care for their children. 122 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.3: Distribution of respondents on their income generating activities (n1=216, n2=88) Income generating activities n1= Beneficiaries n2=Non- beneficiaries Primary occupation F % F % Processing 179 83.0 63 72.0 Secondary occupation Trading 20 9.0 10 11.3 Farming 13 6.0 9 10.4 Artisan 4 2.0 6 6.3 Source: Field Survey, 2014 123 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.1.10 Monthly income on processed products The distribution of respondents according to their monthly income is presented on Table 5.4, it revealed that 89.0% of the Moringa beneficiaries processors, 80.0% soybean beneficiaries processors, 81.1% cassava beneficiaries processors, and 73.7% of the oil-palm beneficiaries processors realised N31,000 and above monthly, while the 52.0% of the cassava non beneficiaries processors, 53.1% of the oil-palm beneficiaries, 20.0% of the soybean non- beneficiaries, and 18.7% of the Moringa non- beneficiaries processors also realised #31,000 and above monthly. This implies more of the beneficiaries‟ processors generated more monthly income than the non-beneficiaries processors. Respondents generating higher income can afford basic necessity of life and meet households‟ needs for improved welfare status. This is in-line with Adu-Okoree (2012), who reported that beneficiaries of a programme generate more income than non beneficiaries and are able to contribute to their household basic item expenses such as education, health care services, and bills on utilities 124 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.4: Distribution of respondents by their monthly income (n1=216, n2=88) Monthly income on n1=Beneficiaries n2=Non – beneficiaries processed products F % F % Moringa processed products <₦10,000 1 2.2 4 18.7 ₦10,000 – ₦ 20,000 2 4.4 9 42.0 ₦21,000 - ₦ 30,000 2 4.4 4 18.7 ₦31,000 - ₦40,000 41 89.0 4 18.7 Total 46 100 21 100 Soybean processed products <#10,000 1 3.3 3 30.0 ₦10,000 – ₦ 20,000 2 6.7 4 40.0 ₦20,000 - ₦ 30,000 3 10.0 1 10.0 ₦31,000 - ₦ 40,000 24 80.0 2 20.0 Total 30 100 10 100 Cassava processed products <₦10,000 1 1.6 1 4.0 ₦10,000 – ₦ 20,000 4 6.4 2 8.0 ₦20,000 - ₦ 30,000 7 10.9 9 36.0 ₦31,000 - ₦ 40000 52 81.1 13 52.0 Total 64 100 25 100 Oil-palm processed products <₦10,000 5 6.6 3 9.4 ₦10,000 – ₦ 20,000 7 9.2 4 12.5 ₦20,000 - ₦30,000 8 10.5 8 25.0 ₦31,000 - ₦ 40000 56 73.7 17 53.1 Total 76 100 32 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 125 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.2 Enterprise characteristics of respondents 5.2.1 Processing activities engaged in Result of analysis on Table 5.5 shows that 35.0% beneficiaries, and 36.3% non- beneficiaries were into Cassava processing, 30.0% beneficiaries and 28.4% of non-beneficiaries engaged in Oil palm processing, 21.0% beneficiaries, 24.6% non-beneficiaries were into Moringa processing while 14.0% beneficiaries and 11.3% non beneficiaries were into Soybean processing. It can be deduced that the respondents were into four categories of processing activities. This might be because sample population were drawn across the four processing categories. 126 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.5: Distribution of respondents on their processing activities (n1=216, n2=88) Processing activities n1=Beneficiaries n2=Non- beneficiaries F % F % Cassava 76 35.0 32 36.3 Oil palm 64 30.0 25 28.4 Moringa 46 21.0 21 24.0 Soybean 30 14.0 10 11.3 Source: Field Survey, 2014 127 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.2.2 Processing experience (years) The result of the respondents‟ processing experience as shown on the Table 5.6 revealed that 50.8% beneficiaries and 47.0% of the non beneficiaries have been processing for at least 10years. This implies that most of the processors were experienced, which can influence increase in knowledge acquisition during the project training programme. This is consistent with the findings of Adegboye and Otuagoma (2015), that since most of the processors‟ were experienced, it is easier for them to detect any change brought into their business by the project. 5.2.3 Land acquisition From Table 5.6, results on land acquisition shows that 50.0% beneficiaries and 45.0% non beneficiaries acquired their land through inheritance, 40.0% beneficiaries and 40.0% non- beneficiaries acquired their land through rent or lease, 10.0% beneficiaries and 15.0% non- beneficiaries through purchase and no land was acquired through the government by the respondents in the study area. The problem of women not having access to land for production may hinder the respondents to expand their processing enterprises and this could have negative influence on their welfare status. Mabunda et al (2014) in a similar study asserted that women on their own do not have access to resources but only access land through males. 5.2.4 Sources of labour The result in Table 5.6 shows that 56.0% beneficiaries and 40.0% non-beneficiaries engaged the use of their children as family labour, 30.0% beneficiaries and 35.0% non- beneficiaries engaged the use of hired labour, 14.0% beneficiaries and 25.0% non-beneficiaries engaged the services of work exchange group. The implication of this is that the use of family labour will reduce labour cost translating to lower cost of production. The finding also highlights that of Darpreix et.al (2014) where family labour is found to substitute wage labour. 128 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.2.5 Sources of finance Result of analysis as revealed in Table 5.6 shows that 51.0% beneficiaries and 46.0% non-beneficiaries had their sources of finance from personal savings, 30.0% beneficiaries and 35.0% non-beneficiaries sourced for money through co-operative societies, 6.0% beneficiaries and 12.0% non-beneficiaries got money from Esusu, 10.0% of the beneficiaries received money from revolving loan scheme, while only 2.0% beneficiaries and 4.0% non-beneficiaries had their sources of finance from bank loans while 1.0% beneficiaries and 3.0% non-beneficiaries had their sources from family and friends. This is an indication that rural women have low access to bank loan for enterprise expansion which in turn brings about more income, this may probably because they do not have collateral to secure the bank loan. A study by Ayeni- Agbaje and Osho (2015) showed that women into small scale enterprises do not possess collateral for securing bank loans. 5.2.6 Sources of information The result in Table 5.6 further shows that 58.0% beneficiaries and 40% non-beneficiaries got information from social groups, 32.0% beneficiaries and 40.0% non-beneficiaries, received information from radio, 5% beneficiaries and 8.0% non-beneficiaries from family and friends while 3.0% beneficiaries and 5.0% non-beneficiaries received their information from television while only 2.0% beneficiaries and 5.0% non-beneficiaries got their information from newspapers. The higher percentage from getting information from social groups is effective way in information dissemination. 129 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.6: Distribution of respondents on their enterprise characteristics (n1=216, n2=88) Variables n1=Beneficiaries n2=Non –Beneficiaries F % F % Processing Experience (years) 1 - 10 110 50.8 41 47.0 11- 20 55 25.5 20 22.0 21 – 30 27 12.5 13 15.0 31 – 40 12 5.6 7 8.0 >40 12 5.6 7 8.0 Total 216 100 88 100 Land acquisition 21 10.0 13 15.0 Purchase 87 40.0 35 40.0 Rent/lease 108 50.0 40 45.0 Inheritance 216 100 88 100 Total 65 30.0 31 35.0 Source of labour 121 56.0 35 40.0 Hired labour 30 14.0 22 25.0 Family labour 216 100 88 100 Work exchange group Total 110 51.0 40 46.0 65 30.0 30 35.0 Sources of Finance 13 6.0 11 12.0 Personal savings 22 10.0 0 0.0 Co-operatives 4 2.0 4 4.0 Esusu 2 1.0 3 3.0 Revolving loan 216 100 88 100 Bank loan Family and Friends Total 12 5.0 7 8.0 125 58.0 38 42.0 Source of information 6 3.0 4 5.0 Family and friends 4 2.0 4 5.0 Social group 69 32.0 35 40.0 Television 216 100 88 100 Newspaper Radio Total Source: Field survey, 2014 130 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.3 Respondents’ knowledge on various processing enterprise activities Result of analysis on Table 5.7 shows that majority (76.4%) of the beneficiaries knew that Moringa oleifera can be planted with seeds and seedling while 64.8% of the non- beneficiaries do not know, 77.3% of the beneficiaries incorrectly answered that leaves of moringa plant cannot be eaten raw while 55.7% of the non-beneficiaries incorrectly responded. Majority (83.0%) of the beneficiaries response correctly that Moringa oleifera seeds germinates within 5-6days while 75.0% of the non-beneficiaries incorrectly response to the question asked, 75.0% of the beneficiaries do not know that processed moringa powder cannot be stored in air- tight container likewise 58.0% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Moreso, majority (92.0%) of the beneficiaries knew that Moringa oleifera leaves can be processed into powder with dryer while 55.7% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Eighty percent of the beneficiaries incorrectly responded that seeds part of Moringa oleifera cannot be processed into oil while 68.2% of the non-beneficiaries answered correctly to the question asked, 76.4% of the beneficiaries correctly response that drying is one of the steps involved in processing moringa into powder while 55.7% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. 90.0% of the beneficiaries do not respond correctly to the question asked that Moringa oleifera cannot be processed into moringa tea while 79.5% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Seventy five percent of the beneficiaries knew that seeds of moringa can be processed into oil while 87.5% of the non-beneficiaries knew, 82.0% of the beneficiaries incorrectly responded that Moringa oleifera is not a medicinal plant while 77.3% of the non-beneficiaries correctly responded. Table 5.8 reveals that majority (90.7%) of the beneficiaries correctly response that soybean cannot be added to other staple crops such as cowpea and cassava while 80.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded correctly. Beneficiaries (87.5%), incorrectly responded that soybean 131 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY moi-moi consists of soybean and soy-milk while 50% of the non-beneficiaries incorrectly responded to the question asked. Moreso, 86.1% of the beneficiaries incorrectly responded that milk cannot be extracted in soybean to produce milk while 60.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded correctly. About 90.7% of the beneficiaries do not respond correctly to the question that soybean cannot be processed into various products such as soymilk and cheese while 60.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. Most of the beneficiaries (87.5%) responded correctly that de-hauling is one of the processing steps in producing soy flour while 60.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly, 87.0% of the beneficiaries incorrectly responded that grating is not a step involved in soymilk processing while 70.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded correctly. Most of the beneficiaries (87.5%) incorrectly answered that overheating is the processing method that improves soybean nutrient while 60.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. About 87.5% of the beneficiaries correctly responded that soy flour can be added to wheat flour for soy cake production while 70.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. Beneficiaries (87.5%) knew that soymilk should be stored under room temperature while 80.0% of the non-beneficiaries answered incorrectly. Majority of beneficiaries (97.0%) responded correctly that soybean processing should be carried out under good hygienic condition. Result on Table 5.9 shows that majority (77.4%) of the beneficiaries knew that one of the steps in which oil palm can be processed is by cooking the palm fruit while 76.0% of the non- beneficiaries responded incorrectly. About 77.3% of the beneficiaries correctly responded that one of the steps in processing operations that differentiate the hard and soft oil is fermentation while 79.5% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. Most (87.0%) of the beneficiaries incorrectly answered that frying is a processing operation in palm oil processing and 83.0% of 132 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. Of all the beneficiaries, 77.3% of the beneficiaries knew that separation of palm fruit from the bunch is the first stage of processing while78.4% of the non-beneficiaries responded correctly. Most of the beneficiaries (79.0%) correctly responded that long and short processes are method of extracting oil palm while 85.2% of the non- beneficiaries responded incorrectly. 77.3% of the beneficiaries knew that the last stage of palm oil processing is oil clarification while 76.2% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. About 74.5% of the beneficiaries do not know that soft oil yield is very low while 73.9% of the non- beneficiaries correctly responded, 77.3% of the beneficiaries correctly responded that extraction or pressing of oil can be done in two ways while 83.0% of non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. Most of the beneficiaries (74.5%) of the beneficiaries responded incorrectly that palm oil is not gotten from palm fruit while 83.0% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. 77.3% of the beneficiaries correctly answered that palm oil can be stored in oil drums or kegs while 83.0% of the non-beneficiaries incorrectly responded. Result of analysis on Table 5.10 shows that majority (57.4%) of the beneficiaries knew that boiling is not involved in cassava processing while 55.0% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Most of the beneficiaries (72.1%) knew that grating is the next step of processing cassava into garri after washing and peeling the root while 87.5% of the non-beneficiaries do not know.72.1% of the beneficiaries knew that refrigerators cannot be used in processing cassava while 81.8% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Also, beneficiaries (68.2%) correctly responded that dewatering steps in cassava processing helps to improve shelf life while 68.0% of the non-beneficiaries responded incorrectly. About 72.7% of the beneficiaries incorrectly responded that increase in moisture content improve the shelf life of the processed product while 79.5% of the non-beneficiaries responded correctly. 70.8% of the beneficiaries knew that 133 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY fermentation is necessary step in cassava processing while 55.0% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. 72.7% of the beneficiaries knew that fermentation helps to get rid of cyanide while 54.0% of the non-beneficiaries do not know. Of all the cassava beneficiaries, 74.5% of the beneficiaries knew that sifted cassava flour is best packed in air tight container while 57.7% of the non- beneficiaries do not know, 68.5% of the beneficiaries and 54.4% of the non beneficiaries responded correctly that bakeries is one of the accessible market for cassava flour. About 60.0% of the beneficiaries and 70.0% knew that cyanide is a poisonous substance in cassava processed products. It can be concluded that of all the processing categories, moringa processors had more knowledge than others. 5.4 Categorisation of respondents’ knowledge on various processing enterprise activities Categorisation of respondents based on their level of knowledge as indicated in Table 5.11 revealed that the beneficiaries (76.0%) had higher knowledge in Moringa processing activities while none of non-beneficiaries were knowledgeable about Moringa processing activities, beneficiaries (98.6%) of the Cassava processing activities had higher knowledge than the non-beneficiaries (50.0%) with low knowledge of cassava processing activities, beneficiaries of Soybean processing activities (93.3%) were more knowledgeable than the non-beneficiaries (20.0%), beneficiaries of Oil palm processing activities (82.4%) had higher knowledge while none of the non-beneficiaries were knowledgeable of Oil-palm processing activities. Thus, beneficiaries were found more knowledgeable than non-beneficiaries. The probable reason might be that the training aspect of the DELPHE programme had helped them to acquire more knowledge through their participation. The high knowledge of the beneficiaries can be attributed to bottom-up approach method used by the project. This conforms to the findings of Collelt and 134 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Gale (2009) that training components of a project help beneficiaries of the project to acquire new skills and knowledge 135 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.7: Respondents’ response to knowledge statements on Moringa processing enterprise (n1=46, n2=21) Knowledge question n1=-beneficiaries n2=Non-beneficiaries Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Knowledge on Moringa F % F % F % F % 1. Moringa oleifera can be planted with 35 76.4 11 23.6 7 35.2 14 64.8 seeds and seedlings. 2. Leaves of moringa plant cannot be 10 22.7 36 77.3 9 44.3 12 55.7 eaten raw 3. Moringa oleifera seeds germinate 38 83.0 8 17.0 5 25.0 16 75.0 within 5-6 days 4. Processed moringa powder cannot 12 25.0 34 75.0 8 42.0 13 58.0 be stored in air-tight container. 5. Moringa oleifera leaves can be 42 92.0 4 8.0 9 45.0 12 55.7 processed into powder with dryer. 6. Seeds part of Moringa oleifera 9 20.0 37 80.0 14 68.2 7 31.8 cannot be processed into oil 7. Drying is one of the steps involved 35 76.4 11 23.6 9 45.0 12 55.7 in processing moringa into powder. 8. Moringa oleifera cannot be 5 10.0 41 90.0 4 20.5 17 79.5 processed into moringa tea. 9. Seeds of moringa can be processed 34 75.0 12 25.0 18 87.5 3 12.5 into oil. 10 Moringa oleifera is not a medicinal 10 18.0 36 82.0 16 77.3 5 22.7 plant Source: Field survey, 2014 136 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.8: Respondents’ response to knowledge statements on Soybean processing enterprise (n1=30, n2=10) Knowledge question n1=beneficiaries n2=Non-beneficiaries Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Knowledge on Soybean F % F % F % F % 1. Soybean cannot be added to other staple 27 90.7 3 9.3 8 80.0 2 20.0 crops such as cowpea and cassava 2. Soy moi-moi consists of soybean and 3 12.5 27 87.5 5 50.0 5 50.0 soymilk 3. Milk cannot be extracted in soybean to 5 13.9 25 86.1 6 60.0 4 40.0 produce milk. 4. Soybean cannot be processed into various 3 9.3 27 90.7 7 70.0 3 30.0 products such as soymilk and cheese. 5. De-hauling is one of the processing steps in 27 87.5 3 12.5 4 40.0 6 60.0 producing soy flour 6. Grating is not a step involve in soymilk 4 13.0 26 87.0 7 70.0 3 30.0 processing 7. Over heating is the processing method that 3 12.5 27 87.5 4 40.0 6 60.0 improves soybean nutrient 8. Soy flour can be added to wheat flour for 27 87.5 3 12.5 3 30.0 7 70.0 soy cake production 9. Soymilk should be stored under room 27 87.5 3 12.5 2 20.0 8 80.0 temperature 10. Soybean processing should be carried out 29 97.0 1 3.0 1 1.00 9 9.0 under good hygienic condition. Source: Field Survey, 2014 137 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.9: Respondents’ response to knowledge statements on Oil palm processing enterprise (n1=64, n2=25) Questions n1=beneficiaries n2=Non-beneficiaries Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Knowledge on Oil palm F % F % F % F % 1. One of the steps in which oil palm 50 77.4 14 22.7 6 24.0 19 76.0 can be processed is by cooking the palm fruit. 2. One of the steps in processing 50 77.3 14 22.7 5 20.5 20 79.5 operations that differentiate the hard and soft oil is fermentation 3. Frying is a processing operation in 8 13.0 56 87.0 4 17.0 21 83.0 palm oil processing 4. Separation of palm fruit from the 50 77.3 14 22.7 20 78.4 5 21.6 bunch is the first stage of processing. 5. Long and short processes are 51 79.0 13 21 3 14.8 22 85.2 method of extracting oil palm 6. The last stage of palm oil processing 50 77.3 14 22.7 6 23.8 19 76.2 is oil clarification 7. Soft oil yield is very low 16 25.5 48 74.5 18 73.9 7 26.1 8. Extraction or pressing of oil can be 50 77.3 14 22.7 4 17.0 21 83.0 done in two ways 9. Palm oil is not gotten from palm 6 9.3 58 74.5 4 17.0 21 83.0 fruit. 10. Palm oil can be stored in oil drums 50 77.3 14 22.7 4 17.0 21 83.0 or kegs Source: Field Survey, 2014 138 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.10: Respondents’ response to knowledge statements on Cassava processing enterprise (n2=76, n2=32) Questions n1=-beneficiaries n2=Non-beneficiaries Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Knowledge on cassava F % F % F % F % 1. Boiling is not involved in cassava 44 57.4 32 42.6 14 45.0 18 55.0 processing 2. Grating is the next step of processing 55 72.7 21 27.3 4 12.5 28 87.5 cassava into gari after washing and peeling the root 3. Refrigerators cannot be used in processing 55 72.7 21 27.3 6 18.2 28 81.8 cassava 4. Dewatering steps in cassava processing 52 68.2 24 31.5 10 32.0 22 68.0 helps to improve Shelf life 5. Increase in moisture content improve the 21 27.3 55 72.7 25 79.5 7 20.5 shelf life of the processed product 6. Fermentation is necessary step in cassava 54 70.8 22 29.2 14 45.0 18 55.0 processing 7. Fermentation helps to get rid of cyanide 55 72.7 21 27.3 15 46.0 17 54.0 8. Sifted cassava flour is best packed in 57 74.5 19 25.5 13 42.3 19 57.7 airtight container 9. Bakeries is one of the accessible market for 52 68.5 24 31.5 17 54.0 15 46.0 cassava flour 10. Cyanide is a poisonous substance in 54 60.0 21 39.6 24 74.0 8 26.0 cassava processed products. Source: Field Survey, 2014 139 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.11: Categorisation of respondents on their level of knowledge on various processing enterprise Enterprise Score Beneficiaries Non-beneficiaries Mean SD range F % F % Moringa 9.57 0.85 low 0 - 9.00 11 24.0 21 100 High 9.01 - 10.00 35 76.0 0 0 Total 46 100 21 100 Soybean 3.19 1.97 Low 0 - 3.18 2 6.7 8 80.0 High 3.19 -10.00 28 93.3 2 20.0 Total 30 100 10 100 Oil palm 9.78 0.50 low 0 – 9.77 11 17.6 25 100 High 9.78-10.00 53 82.4 0 0 Total 64 100 25 100 Cassava 3.50 1.31 Low 0 - 3.49 1 1.4 16 50 High 3.50 -10.00 75 98.6 16 50 Total 76 100 32 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 140 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.5 Participation of beneficiaries in DELPHE project activities The result of findings on Table 5.12 reveals that majority of the respondents always participate in contribution to decision making (0.86), meeting attendance (0.85), participation in training (0.84), regularity of payment of dues (0.83), participation in group formation (0.82) provision of required information at meeting (0.81), while respondents had low participation in obtaining revolving loan (0.63), procurement of processing equipment (0.59) and distribution and handing over of processing equipment (0.55). The high percentage of respondents participation in training is because training ensures being exposed to some new processing practices that is expected to improve their processing skill, which will in turn improve their standard of living, participation in the meeting attendance may be because they are aware of the benefits from the project, thus they are eager and ready to participate in meeting attendance. Obtaining revolving loan is as a result of low business enterprise of women as reported by Dutt (2014) that women had low business enterprise, and their inability to secure bank loan to expand their business enterprise, they have to employ the available means of credit facilities such as revolving loan from their group to expand their business enterprises. Low participation in revolving loan might be because of limited amount of loan available, making it not enough for distribution among the members. Participation in the procurement of processing equipment will assist the beneficiaries to procure processing equipment on their own. Due to the high cost of processing equipment, they are not affordable by the respondents individually, hence the need for cooperation by all group members to purchase the equipment and consequent rotation of the equipment among members for utilisation. Women are known for regularity of dues, they are law abiding and since it is the decision of the whole group that certain due is to be levy on members, it becomes imperative for them to comply. The implementation of project was made possible because it has been observed 141 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY by Oniye (2003) that semi illiterate women tends to co-operate among themselves by showing some level of responsibility thereby contributing their quota to the development of the group. 142 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.12: Distribution of beneficiaries on the level of participation in DELPHE project activities (n=216) SN Participation in DELPHE Always Rarely Never Mean Rank activities F % F % F % th 1. Participation in group formation 176 81.5 29 13.4 11 5.1 0.82 5 nd 2. Meeting attendance 185 85.6 28 13.0 3 1.4 0.85 2 th 3. Regularity of dues payment 188 87.0 10 4.6 18 8.3 0.83 4 towards the project th 4. Provide required information at 182 84.3 18 8.3 16 7.4 0.81 6 meetings st 5. Contribution in decision making in 193 89.4 14 6.5 9 4.2 0.86 1 DELPHE projects rd 6. Participation in training of 187 86.6 20 9.3 9 4.2 0.84 3 processing activities th 7. Obtaining revolving loan 132 61.1 31 14.4 53 24.5 0.63 7 th 8. Procurement of processing 119 55.0 37 17.1 67 30.0 0.59 8 equipments th 9. Distribution / handing over of 111 51.0 38 17.6 67 30.0 0.55 9 processing equipment Source: Field survey, 2014 143 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.5.1 Level of participation of respondents in DELPHE project activities The result of analysis of the level of participation is revealed in Table 5.13.The participation mean score was 9.16.The mean was used to categorise the respondents into two groups of low and high using the mean score. The result shows that more than half (63.4%) of the beneficiaries had high level of participation while the remaining 36.6% had low level of participation. This is reflected in a response during the FGD as follows: „‟My participation in DELPHE project activities had helped to improve my relationship with other people in a group. Also the money given to me as a revolving loan was used to expand my processing business which makes me generate more income‟‟ Based on the findings, it can be concluded that appreciable percentage participated in various activities of the project, which could be attributed to their having basic education. This is corroborated by the study of Nour (2011) that participatory development pointed out that the better educated the members of the community, the higher their participation in development project. 144 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.13: Categorisation of respondents by participation in DELPHE project activities Level of Frequency % Min Max S D Mean score participation Low (0-8) 79 36.6 0.0 18.0 4.92 9.16 High (9-18) 137 63.4 Total 216 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 145 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.6 Benefits derived by beneficiaries of DELPHE and other projects Benefits derived by beneficiaries of DELPHE, project is shown in Table 5.14. The respondents who participated in the intervention programme had significant benefits in skill enhancements, with the benefit from DELPHE project having the mean of 0.84. Also, beneficiaries who participated in DELPHE project had more benefits in terms of increased in yield with a mean of 0.76. Moreso, most of the respondents who participated in DELPHE project had more access to resolving loan with the mean of 0.49. Beneficiaries who participated in DELPHE project benefited more on training empowerment with a mean of 0.78. In addition, majority of the respondents who participated in DELPHE project had their enterprise expanded with a mean of 0.78. Standard of living of majority of the respondents who participated in DELPHE project was improved with a mean of 0.82. Beneficiaries who participated in DELPHE project had more benefits in term of increased in processing equipment with a mean of 0.66. Majority of the respondents who participated in DELPHE project had more self employment opportunity with a mean of 0.78. Also, majority of the respondents who participated in DELPHE project had better use of available resources with a mean of 0.71. It can be concluded that most of the beneficiaries derived more benefits from DELPHE project. This conforms to the findings of Adamu et al (2013), they posited that benefits derived from project through community driven approach is centred on the beneficiaries of that project. 146 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.14: Distribution of beneficiaries on benefits derived from DELPHE project (n=216) To a great To a lesser Not at all Mean Rank extent extent S/No Benefits derived F % F % F % st 1. Skill enhancement 190 88.0 13 6.0 13 6.0 0.84 1 th 2. Increase in yield 173 80.0 10 5.0 33 15.0 0.76 6 th 3. Access to revolving loan 97 45.0 33 15.0 86 40.0 0.49 9 rd 4. Training/Empowerment 176 81.5 13 6.0 27 12.5 0.78 3 rd 5. Enterprise Expansion 175 81.0 16 7.4 25 12.0 0.78 3 nd 6. Improved standard of 184 85.2 14 6.5 18 8.0 0.82 2 living 7. Increase in processing th equipment 137 63.4 35 16.0 44 20.0 0.66 8 8. Self employments rd opportunity 169 78.2 27 12.5 20 9.0 0.78 3 th 9. Better use of available 153 70.8 24 11.0 39 18.0 0.71 7 productive resources Source: Field survey, 2014 147 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.6.1 Level of benefits derived from DELPHE project The result of benefits derived by the beneficiaries as revealed in Table 5.15 shows that the mean score was 7.12 and this was used to categorise the level of benefit derived into high and low level of benefits derived. The results shows that most of the beneficiaries (65.7%) had high level of benefit while 34, 4% had low level of benefits derived. The high level of benefits by the beneficiaries is corroborated by the result of FGD where a discussant (Cassava processor) stated that: “I paid money to other owner of cassava grinding machines to grind my cassava roots because i didn‟t have enough money to purchase one, but now i am a proud owner of cassava grinding machine procured through the DELPHE project. I have indeed benefited a lot from the project” Implication of this result is that beneficiaries have benefited well in DELPHE project than other intervention programmes they were involved in. 148 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.15: Categorisation of respondents by benefits derived from DELPHE project activities Level of benefit Frequency percent Min Max S D Mean score Low (0-6) 74 34.3 0.0 14.0 4.45 7.12 High (7-14) 142 65.7 Total 216 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 149 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.7 Attitude of the beneficiaries towards the DELPHE project The result as obtained in Table 5.16 shows the beneficiaries response to attitudinal statements towards DELPHE project. The favourable disposition of processors towards the DELPHE project is not in doubt as they responded positively to most of the issues raised. For instance, majority (83.0%) were affirmative that the project was life changing, 81.0% agreed that the project increased their income, this is simply because the beneficiaries have learnt new processing skill better, which help also help to increase their scale of production which in turn increase income. This is in agreement with the findings of Hussain (2013) that beneficiaries have favourable attitude towards a project that increase their income. Also, most of the beneficiaries (78.0%) agreed that the project had helped to improve most of the beneficiaries‟ network and this possible because through group activities, there is always development of social capital in which they rendered some assistance to one another and also information dissemination through this medium is not left out, while 76.0% confirmed that the training programme of the project was not too demanding. Perhaps, this was reinforced by the conviction of 73.6% of the beneficiaries that the project enhanced the skill of beneficiaries. In all, it can be safely concluded that most beneficiaries are favourably disposed to the DELPHE project. This result is consistent with report of Muhammad et.al (2011) on beneficiaries having favourable towards a project. 150 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.16: Distribution of beneficiaries by attitude towards DELPHE project (n=216) Statements SA A U D SD F % F % F % F % F % Mean 1. The facilitators‟ conduct of training activities was not encouraging 1 1.0 11 5.0 28 13.0 36 16.0 140 65.0 2.25 2. The training programme was not too demanding in terms of energy 165 76.0 26 12.0 5 2.0 1 1.0 19 9.0 1.94 3. The project left most of the beneficiaries better 156 72.0 34 16.0 9 4.0 1 1.0 16 7.0 4.45 4. Participation in the project had helped to improve most of the 169 78.0 23 11.0 7 3.0 1 1.0 16 7.0 4.56 beneficiaries network 5. Most of DELPHE project activities are waste of time 20 9.0 36 17.0 3 2.0 1 1.0 156 72.0 1.58 6. Identification of members problem was deficient 30 14.0 48 22.0 5 2.3 7 3.2 126 58.3 1.92 7. The DELPHE project enhances the beneficiaries processing skill 159 73.6 28 13.0 4 1.9 2 2.0 23 9.3 4.38 8. It is a life changing project 179 83.0 11 5.0 5 2.3 18 8.3 3 1.4 4.50 9. The DELPHE project had not helped most of the beneficiaries to 125 57.9 45 20.8 4 3.0 3 2.1 39 18.0 2.01 acquired new knowledge 10 Participation in the project is too demanding 25 11.6 43 19.9 5 2.3 18 8.3 125 57.9 1.96 . 11 The project helped beneficiaries to discover new things 161 74.5 15 6.9 4 1.9 10 4.6 35 16.2 4.23 . 12 The general welfare status of beneficiaries was not improved by the 117 54.2 50 23.1 4 1.9 1 1.0 35 16.2 2.06 . project 13 Communication was not effective in the execution of the project 98 45.4 70 32.4 6 2.8 5 2.3 37 17.1 2.13 . 14 Participating in DELPHE project had increased my assets 158 73.0 23 10.6 8 3.7 5 2.7 22 10.2 4.39 . 15 DELPHE project had not strengthened membership co-operation 50 23.0 56 26.9 3 1.4 7 3.2 100 46.3 2.31 . 16 The achievement of the project are not visible 3 1.4 5 2.3 53 24.8 4 19.4 112 53.3 1.91 . 17 The project requires low investment 107 49.5 41 19.0 5 2.3 24 11.0 39 18.0 3.71 . 18 The project has increase my income 175 81.0 15 6.9 5 2.3 18 8.3 20 9.3 4.47 . Source: Field survey, 2014. Grand mean: 3.04 151 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.7.1 Categorisation of beneficiaries’ attitude towards the project From the result on Table 5.17 which revealed that the attitude of beneficiaries towards the DELPHE project was favourable (56.0%) while 44.0% of the beneficiaries had unfavourable attitude towards the project. The maximum score was 84 while the minimum score was 49 and the mean score of 62.9±6.44 .This implies that beneficiaries had favourable attitude towards the DELPHE project. The Higher percentage of favourable attitude of beneficiaries towards DELPHE project is an indication that the project is successful and the beneficiaries will not hesitate to participate in future. ( Innih, and Dimelu 2013). 152 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.17: Categorisation of beneficiaries’ on their level of attitude towards the project Level of attitude/Score Frequency Percentage Minimum Maximum Mean Standard range deviation Unfavourable (49 -62) 95 44.0 49 84 62.90 6.44 Favourable (63- 84) 121 56.0 Source: Field Survey, 2014 153 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.8 Constraints faced by the respondents in various processing activities Result on Table 5.18 presents the constraints faced by beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries on their various processing activities. It revealed that, high cost of processing equipment was st ranked 1 based on their mean by non-beneficiaries (1.68) and lack of credit facilities by beneficiaries (0.60) as the most serious constraint faced by the respondents. Lack of credit nd facilities was ranked 2 by non-beneficiaries (1.54) and unstable price of processed products nd rd was also ranked 2 by beneficiaries (0.56), unstable price of processed products was ranked 3 by non-beneficiaries (1.28) while the beneficiaries (0.46) ranked high cost of processing rd th equipment as the 3 , lack of technological knowhow was ranked 4 by non-beneficiaries while th th beneficiaries ranked it 5 (0.33), inadequate storage facilities was ranked 5 by non- beneficiaries (0.91) while beneficiaries ranked it 4th (0.63). Unavailability of land for processing th activities was ranked 6 by both non- beneficiaries (0.54) and beneficiaries (0.18). It can be deduced from this finding that the respondents were faced with constraints in their processing activities and which may hinder their processing activities. This is confirmed by Fabiyi et al. (2007) that rural women are faced with constraints in their processing activities, and this reduces their productivity, which may bring about poor welfare status Result of the problem tree analysis shows that the consequences of constraints faced in processing activities were poor storage facilities, reduction in products shelf life, low income from processed products, low contribution to household expenditure and poor welfare status. 154 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.18: Distribution of respondents on constraints faced by respondents on various processing activities (n1=216, n2=88) n1= Beneficiaries n2= Non- beneficiaries S/N Constraints Severe Mild Not a Mean Rank Severe Mild Not a Mean Rank constraint constraint % % % % % % st nd 1 Lack of credit facilities 55.1 20.0 25.0 0.60 1 53.0 30.2 16.8 1.54 2 nd rd 2 Unstable price of processed products 51.9 18.0 30.1 0.56 2 43.5 26.0 30.5 1.28 3 rd st 3 High cost of processing equipment 41.2 16.5 42.1 0.46 3 60.0 28.0 12.0 1.68 1 th th 4 Inadequate storage facilities 27.3 16.0 56.5 0.33 4 30.0 20.0 50.5 0.91 5 th th 5 Lack of technological know how 25.0 12.3 62.5 0.30 5 28.2 15.2 56.6 0.98 4 th th 6 Unavailability of land for processing 14.0 10.0 75.0 0.18 6 18.0 12.0 70.0 0.54 6 activities Source: Field Survey (2014) 155 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Result of Problem Tree Analysis Poor Welfare Status Low contribution to household Low income expenditure from process products Poor Improper storage packaging facilities facilities Processing Activities Unstable prices of High cost of Lack of credit Lack of processed products processing facilities technological know equipment how Figure 5.7: Result of Problem Tree Analysis by the respondents on constraints faced on processing activities and the consequences on their processing activities 156 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.9 Socio-Economic Status (SES) of the respondents 5.9.1 Respondents’ possession of socio- economic status indicators Result on Table 5.19 reveals that majority (54.1%) of the beneficiaries possesses one item of television before DELPHE project but increased to 66.2% after the project. Also, majority (62.1%) of the beneficiaries also possessed one radio item before DELPHE but increased to 72.0% after DELPHE project. Most of the respondents (45.0%) had one cell phone before DELPHE project but increased to 57.0% after DELPHE project. Furthermore, majority (25.4%) of the beneficiaries who possess one umbrella before DELPHE project increases to 56.0% after the project likewise majority (29.0%) of them who possessed one leather shoe/slippers before DELPHE project increased to 56.0% after the project. In addition, majority of the beneficiaries who possessed one dozen of breakable plates before DELPHE project increased to 55.4% after the project. Moreso, most of the beneficiaries (24.0%) who possessed one poultry bird before DELPHE increased to 48.0% after the project likewise majority (25.4%) of the beneficiaries who possessed one sheep and goat before DELPHE project increased to 54.0% after the project. This implies that DELPHE project in the study area had a significant influence on the owned by the respondents. 157 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.19: Distribution of beneficiaries by possession of socio- economic indicators before and after DELPHE project (n=216) Socio-economic status indicators Number of Possession before DELPHE Possession item after possessed DELPHE F % F % Children that has gone through school 0 3 1.4 3 1.4 1 11 5.1 11 5.1 2 28 13.0 21 10.0 3 34 15.7 36 16.4 >4 140 64.8 145 67.1 Children in tertiary Institution 0 28 13.0 18 8.3 1 37 17.1 25 12.0 2 41 19.0 31 14.0 3 42 19.5 54 25.0 >4 68 31.4 88 40.0 Ownership of cement house 0 143 66.0 100 46.4 1 69 32.0 80 37.0 2 4 2.0 26 12.0 3 0 0 7 3.2 >4 0 0 3 1.4 Processing equipment 0 156 72.2 70 32.4 1 46 21.2 125 58.0 2 11 5.1 16 7.2 3 2 1.0 3 1.4 >4 1 0.5 2 1.0 158 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.19: Distribution of beneficiaries by possession of socio- economic indicators before and after DELPHE project (con’d) (n=216) Socio-economic status indicators Number of Possession before DELPHE Possession item after possessed DELPHE F % F % Television 0 85 39.3 55 25.4 1 117 54.1 143 66.2 2 11 5.1 14 6.5 3 2 1.0 3 1.4 >4 1 0.5 1 0.5 Radio 0 67 31.0 43 20.0 1 135 62.1 156 72.0 2 10 5.0 12 5.5 3 3 1.4 4 2.0 >4 1 0.5 1 0.5 Refrigerator 0 156 72.2 122 56.5 1 46 21.2 66 30.5 2 11 5.1 24 11.1 3 2 1.0 3 1.4 >4 1 0.5 1 0.5 Cell phone 0 71 33.0 33 15.3 1 97 45.0 123 57.0 2 34 16.0 52 24.0 3 9 4.0 5 2.3 >4 5 2.0 3 1.4 Electric iron 0 127 59.0 54 25.0 1 50 23.0 118 55.0 2 29 13.3 26 12.0 3 8 3.7 10 5.0 >4 2 1.0 8 3.0 Umbrella 0 127 59.0 52 24.0 1 55 25.4 121 56.0 2 16 7.4 18 8.0 3 10 5.0 15 7.0 >4 8 3.0 10 5.0 Wristwatch 0 195 90.1 101 47.0 1 15 7.0 75 35.0 2 3 1.4 23 10.0 3 2 1.0 11 5.0 >4 1 0.5 6 3.0 Jewelleries 0 210 97.1 180 83.3 1 3 1.4 23 11.0 2 2 1.0 10 5.0 3 1 0.5 2 1.0 >4 0 0.0 1 0.5 Leather shoes / slippers 0 97 45.0 36 17.0 1 63 29.0 127 56.0 2 32 15.0 36 17.0 3 18 8.0 16 7.0 >4 6 3.0 6 3.0 159 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.19: Distribution of beneficiaries by possession of socio- economic indicators before and after DELPHE project (con’d) (n=216) Socio-economic status indicators Number of Possession before DELPHE Possession after item DELPHE possessed F % F % Breakable plates 0 131 61.0 62 29.0 1doz 27 12.0 120 55.4 2doz 36 17.0 20 9.2 3doz 17 8.0 11 5.0 >4doz 5 2.0 3 1.4 Cooking pots 0 81 37.5 39 18.0 1 38 17.5 51 23.6 2 40 18.5 48 22.2 3 31 14.3 48 22.2 >4 26 12.0 30 14.0 Poultry birds 0 60 28.0 21 10.0 1 52 24.0 103 48.0 2 50 23.0 35 16.0 3 34 16.0 21 10.0 >4 20 9.0 36 16.6 Sheep and goat 0 71 32.8 33 15.0 1 55 25.4 116 54.0 2 36 17.0 35 16.0 3 31 14.1 21 10.0 4 23 11.0 11 5.0 Source: Field Survey, 2014 160 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.9.2 Socio Economic Status (SES) of before and after DELPHE project of beneficiaries The result as indicated on Table 5.20 reveals the mean SES of beneficiaries before the project which is 28.09 while the mean SES after is 64.34. The difference in the mean SES before and after confirmed that the DELPHE project had positive impact on the beneficiaries of the project. This finding is related to the study of Okoruwa et.al. (2015) on project improving the welfare status of beneficiaries. 161 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.20: Socio-economic status of the DELPHE project beneficiaries Mean Standard deviation Standard error SES before 28.09 17.79 1.13 SES after 64.34 42.17 2.68 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 162 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.10 Welfare status of the respondents 5.10.1 Monthly household and actual per capita expenditure The result of findings of revealed the respondents per capital expenditure which is derived by dividing the household expenditure by the household size of the respondents. The result of analysis on Table 5.21 revealed that households of beneficiaries of DELPHE project spent ₦12,091.45 on food purchases while the households of non beneficiaries spent ₦1,607.28 monthly, households of beneficiaries in a month spent ₦27,688.53 on education, while household of non-beneficiaries spent ₦4,826.86, household of beneficiaries spent ₦1,216.00 on health while household of non beneficiaries spent ₦994.13 monthly. The expense incurred on clothing in a month by households of beneficiaries is ₦2725.59 while households of non beneficiaries incurred ₦837.83 on clothing in a month. The table further reveals the average mean household expenditure of beneficiaries to be ₦41,730.90 and that of non beneficiaries to be ₦12,411.74. This shows that the household of beneficiaries of DELPHE had high purchasing power than the households of the non beneficiaries. This might be due to the fact that the beneficiaries generate more income than the non beneficiaries. This is in agreement with the findings of Singh et .al (2015) that beneficiaries generates more income from their enterprises than the non-beneficiaries. 163 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.21: Mean expenditure on household basic items by beneficiaries and non- beneficiaries of DELPHE project Household basic item Beneficiaries Non-Beneficiaries Household Per capita Household Per capita expenditure (₦) expenditure(₦) expenditure(₦) expenditure (₦) Food purchases 12,091.45 1,677.39 1,607.28 178.78 Imputed own consumption 1,977.64 274.29 722.67 80.38 Education 27,688.53 3,840.29 5,067.56 563.68 Health 4,826.86 669.46 994.13 110.58 Bills on utilities (Water, electricity) 1,216.00 168.65 804.05 89.43 Clothing 2,725.59 378.02 837.83 93.19 Rent (actual or imputed) 1,500.00 500.43 800.00 88.98 Household maintenance 1,338.21 185.60 548.22 60.98 Ceremonial expenditure 1547.56 214.64 426.40 47.43 Transportation 1531.70 212.44 780.00 86.76 Taxes 266.00 36.89 243.00 27.03 Communication and Telephone 2116.09 293.49 300.00 33.37 Remittance 888.53 123.23 000.00 00.00 Mean: household expenditure of beneficiaries= ₦41,730.90, Std. = 42637.97 Household expenditure of non beneficiaries = ₦ 12,411.74, Standard deviation = 4114.55 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 164 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.10.2 Percentage contribution of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries and their spouses to monthly household expenditure This assessment is necessary so as to ascertain whether the expense in the household was due to the women enterprises. Result of findings as presented in Table 5.22, shows that the beneficiaries contributed 42.7% while their spouses contributed 57.3% to monthly household expenditure. The non beneficiaries contributed 66.5% while their spouses contributed 33.5 % to the monthly household expenditure. However, the study went further to determine the average mean amount contributed by the beneficiaries which is (42.7% of ₦41730.90) ₦17,819.09 and the non beneficiaries which is (66.5% of ₦12411.74) ₦8253.80. It can be inferred that the beneficiaries‟ contribute more than the non beneficiaries to household expenditure. This might be because rural women beneficiaries were empowered, and they generate more income, so they are able to contribute their quota to the household expenditure. (Adu-Okoree,2012). 165 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.22: Percentage contribution of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries’ Respondents categories N Percentage Percentage Mean amount Std contribution of contribution contributed by deviation respondents of spouse respondents Beneficiaries 216 42.5% 57.5% ₦17,819.09 33.81705 Non- beneficiaries 88 66.5 33.5% ₦8253.80 27.42585 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 166 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.10.3 Categorisation of respondents’ welfare status The mean of expenses of the respondents at the different welfare categories on Table 5.23 revealed that those at the worse-off category spend ₦1,490.93 per month while those in the better-off category spend ₦11,998.31 per month. The welfare status of respondents was categorised using the ⅔ of households‟ per capita expenditure (₦5837.13) as the benchmark between the better-off and the worse-off categories. The results on Table 5.24 showed that majority (83.3%) of beneficiaries were better off while only 31.8% of non-beneficiaries were worse off. This implies that beneficiaries had a higher welfare status than non-beneficiaries. Hence, DELPHE had helped improved the welfare status of beneficiaries. 167 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.23: Mean expenditure of beneficiaries of DELPHE project at different levels of welfare categories Welfare level Score range Mean Standard Standard deviation error Worse off ₦1,500 - ₦5,836 ₦1,490.93 661.8 36.2 Better off ₦5,387 - ₦16,500 ₦11,998.31 21414.4 1698.2 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 168 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.24: Categorisation on beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of DELPHE project level of welfare status Welfare Score range Beneficiaries Non-beneficiaries Mean status (n=216) (n=88) Freq. Percent Freq. Percent Better off (N5,837- N 16,500) 180 83.3 28 31.8 N 5,837 Worse off (N 1,500- N 5,836) 36 16.7 60 68.2 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 169 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. 11 Contributions of the independent variable to welfare status of DELPHE beneficiaries The welfare status model was estimated using multiple linear regression and the results of the estimated model is presented in Table 5.25. An R value of 0.60 showed that there was a correlation between the independent variables and welfare status. The independent variables that contributed significantly to welfare status were: income (β=0.123, p=0.000), occupation ((β=0.125, p=0.030), implying that income and occupation increases the probability of respondents‟ welfare status. It also shows that benefits derived in DELPHE (β= 0.847, p=0.000) significantly influenced welfare status of the beneficiaries. The table further revealed that, year of education ( β-0.003), years of processing experience (β=-0.006), household size ((β =-0.044), constraints ( β=-0.483) had inverse relationship implying that the increase in household size, education, experience, benefits derived from Fadama programme, and constraint resulted in decreased welfare status. This implies that contributors to welfare status were constraints to processing activities, years of education, household size, and income. Benefits derived in DELPHE project ((β = 0.847, p=0.000) also contributed to welfare status of respondents. The implication is that DELPHE project had a positive impact on the welfare status of the beneficiaries. 170 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.25: Contribution of independent variables to welfare status of the beneficiaries of DELPHE Source SS df MS F P- value Between 21.732 8 2.716 19.644 0.000 Within 40.795 216 0.138 Total 62.526 216 R = 0. 60 2 = R 0.360 Adjusted= 0.330 Std Error of the Estimate= 0.37187 Variables Β Standard t P-value error Constant 8.317 0.66 12.57 0.000 Years of education -0.003 0.03 -0.12 0.908 Years of processing experience -0.006 0.09 -0.65 0.093 Household size -0.044 0.23 -1.69 0.093 Processing as primary occupation 0.125 0.57 2.18 0.030* Benefits derived from DELPHE programme 0.847 0.18 4.69 0.000 * Income 0.123 0.56 2.14 0.000* Constraints to processing activities -0.483 0.27 -1.78 0.077 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 171 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. 12 Contributions of the independent variable to welfare status of the beneficiaries in Osun state The welfare status model of Osun state beneficiaries was estimated using multiple linear regression and the results of the estimated model is presented in Table 5.26. The independent variables that contributed significantly to welfare status were: year of processing experience (β=0.189, p=0.000), income ((β=0.123, p=0.000), implying that year of processing experience and income raises the possibility of increasing the welfare status of beneficiaries in the state. 172 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.26: Contribution of independent variables to welfare status of Osun state beneficiaries Source SS df MS F P-value Between 2.629 9 O,292 2.687 0.006 Within 24. 247 110 0.109 Total 26.876 R = 0. 313 2 = R 0.98 Adjusted= 0.61 Std Error of the Estimate= 0.32974 Variables β Standard error t-value p- value Constant 0.989 0.16 6.22 0.000 Years of processing experience 0.189 0.05 2.65 0.000* Income 0.123 0.56 2.14 0.000* Household size 0.003 0.05 0.04 0.970 Occupation 0.037 0.17 0.55 0.583 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 173 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. 13 Contributions of the independent variable to welfare status of Oyo state beneficiaries The welfare status model of Oyo state beneficiaries was estimated using multiple linear regression and the results of the estimated model is presented in Table 5.27. The independent variables that contributed significantly to welfare status were: year of processing experience (β=0.375, p=0.002), income ((β=0.267, p=0.000), implying that year of processing experience and income rises the chance of increasing the welfare status of beneficiaries in the state. 174 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.27: Contributions of independent variables to welfare status of Oyo state beneficiaries Source SS df MS F P-value Between 2.629 9 O,292 2.687 0.006 Within 24. 247 96 0.109 Total 26.876 R = 0. 313 2 = R 0.98 Adjusted= 0.61 Std Error of the Estimate= 0.32974 Variables β Standard error t-value p- value Constant 0.011 0.16 0.07 0.944 Years of processing experience 0.375 0.02 7.41 0.002* Income 0.267 0.02 5.48 0.000* Household size 0.003 0.01 0.40 0.970 Occupation -0.037 0.02 - 0.55 0.583 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 175 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14 Hypotheses Testing This section presents the findings from test of hypotheses to determine whether any significant relationship or difference that exists between independent and dependent variables used in the study area. 5.14.1 Hypothesis 1 2 The results of Chi-square analysis in Table 5.28 shows that education, (p= 0.030), χ = 2 2 3.372, primary occupation (p=0.00), χ = 56.679, and secondary occupations (p=0.00), χ = 31.575 of the respondents had significant relationship with their welfare status. This implies that literate respondents tend to have more improved welfare status than illiterate respondents. This corroborates the findings of Lareau (2003) that education had relationship with welfare status. Table 5.23 shows the result of PPMC analysis that respondent‟s age had significant correlation with their welfare status at r- value of 0.264, (p= 0.05). This is possible because higher per capital expenditure is a continuous variable that increases with age. Similarly, the results show a correlation between the household size and their welfare status at r- value of 0.580, (p< 0.05), which implies that the larger the household size, the higher the welfare status. Increased household size in the rural settings leads to more family labour which brings about more income that translates into better welfare status. Also, Table 5.29 shows that respondents‟ monthly income has significant correlation with welfare status at r-value of 0.483, (p<0.05).This implies that income is an important welfare status indicator because income would provide most of the needed fund for investment which translates into improved welfare status. It can also be inferred that the primary and secondary occupation engaged in by the respondents influences their welfare status. 176 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The results in Table 5.29 also revealed that respondents‟ processing experience had correlation with welfare status at r-value of 0.396. (p=0.05). This implies that the more the processing experience of respondents the higher their welfare status 177 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.28: Relationship between socio economic characteristics and welfare status 2 Variable χ Df p-value Decision Marital status 2.976 4 0.562 NS Religion 2.117 3 0.548 NS * Primary occupation 56.679 6 0.000 S Secondary occupation 31.575* 4 0.000 S Education 3.372* 4 0.030 S df= Degree of freedom 2 χ = Chi square P= probability level *= Chi square is significant at < 0.05 178 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.29: Relationship between socio economic characteristics and welfare status using PPMC Variables r-value p-value Decision Age 0.264 0.000 Significant Household size 0.580 0.032 Significant Monthly income 0.483 0.000 Significant Processing experience 0.396 0.001 Significant r= Correlation p= probability level ** Correlation at 0.01 levels (2-tailed) 179 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.2 Hypothesis 2 The result of PPMC analysis in Table 5.30 shows that there is significant relationship between beneficiaries attitude towards DELPHE project and welfare status of respondents at r- value of 0.424, (p=0.000). In case of DELPHE project, the degree of like or dislike for the project‟s activities will definitely influence their level of participation in the project activities and consequently leads to improved welfare status. This implies that more favourable attitude respondents have towards the activities of the project, the more improvement in their welfare status. 180 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.30: Relationship between beneficiaries’ attitude towards the project and welfare status using PPMC Variables N r-value p-value Attitude of beneficiaries and welfare status 216 0.424 0.000 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Source: Data Analysis, 2014 181 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.3 Hypothesis 3 The results of PPMC analysis in the Table 5.31 shows there is a significant relationship between the benefits derived from DELPHE project and welfare status at r-value of 0.014 ( p= 0.017). The implication of this result is that beneficiaries of the project are expected to have improved welfare status as a result of the significance of their benefits derived. 182 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.31: Relationship between benefits derived from DELPHE project and welfare status using PPMC Variables N r-value P-value Benefits derived 216 0.014 0.017 by beneficiaries and welfare status **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Source: Data Analysis, 2014 183 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.4 Hypothesis 4 The results in the Table 5.32 using PPMC analysis, shows there is a significant relationship between the constraints faced by respondents on various processing activities and welfare status at r-value of -0.153 (p= 0.009).The negative correlation suggests that as constraints faced increases, the lower the welfare status. This implies that when the respondents are faced with a lot of constraints such as high cost of processing machines, they become limited in terms of enterprise expansion, thus leading to reduction in welfare status. 184 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.32: Relationship between constraints and welfare status Variable r p Decision Constraints -0.153 0.009 Significant Source: Data Analysis, 2014 185 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.5 Hypothesis 5 The result in Table 5.33 and 5.34 using ANOVA shows the difference in the welfare status among respondents across processing activities. It reveals that there was a significant difference in the welfare status (F= 2.696, p=0.46) of respondents across various processing activities. Post hoc test by Duncan revealed that the difference in welfare status was from the cassava processors. Cassava (3490.62), Oil palm (3638.42) and Soybean (4489.50) were significantly the same, while Moringa processor had higher welfare status than other processors. This implies that there was a significant difference among the various processing categories in the study area. 186 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.33: Difference between welfare statuses of beneficiaries across processing enterprise categories df Sum of square Mean square F P – value Decision Between group 3 1714318833.21 571439611.1 2.696 0.046 Significant Within group 304 63578801802.9 211929339.3 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 187 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.34: Post-hoc test for the differences observed in welfare status of rural dwellers among various processing enterprise categories Processing enterprise categories N 1 2 Cassava 108 3490.62 Soybean 40 4489.50 Moringa 67 8726.25 Oil-palm 89 3638.42 Significant 0.036 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 188 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.6 Hypothesis 6 Difference in welfare status between beneficiaries and non beneficiaries The result of t-test analysis in Table 5.35 shows that there is a significant difference (p=0.001) in the welfare status of beneficiaries and non beneficiaries. From the mean, it can deduced that beneficiaries (₦7,629.53± ₦1,710.60) in DELPHE project were better off than non- beneficiaries (₦7,629.53± ₦1,710.60). (₦1,437.60±₦721.59) This implies that the beneficiaries had higher welfare status those non-beneficiaries. Hence, DELPHE programme significantly contributed to the welfare status of women processors who participated in the programme. 189 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.35: Independent t-test analysis showing the difference in welfare status among beneficiaries’ and non-beneficiaries’ Variable N SD Mean Mean T df P difference Welfare Non- 88 721.59 1437.60 6191.92 3.39 302 0.001 status beneficiaries Beneficiaries 216 1710.60 7629.53 Source: Data Analysis, 2014 190 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.14.7 Hypothesis 7 Difference in welfare status between beneficiaries of Osun state and Oyo state beneficiaries The result in Table 5.36 using t-test analysis, shows that there is a significant difference (p=0.000) in the welfare status of Osun state beneficiaries and Oyo state beneficiaries. From the mean, it can deduce that Osun state beneficiaries (₦8719±0.66779) in DELPHE project were better off than Oyo state beneficiaries (₦1218±17097.60). This implies that Osun state beneficiaries had higher welfare status than Oyo state beneficiaries. Hence, DELPHE programme significantly contributed to the welfare status of women processors who participated in the programme from Osun state than those in Oyo state. 191 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5.36: Independent t-test analysis showing the difference in welfare status among Osun state beneficiaries and Oyo state beneficiaries Variable N SD Mean Mean t Df P difference Welfare Oyo state 95 0.3349 1281 74380 -17.275 216 0.000 status Beneficiaries Osun state 121 0.3349 8719 Beneficiaries Source: Data Analysis, 2014 192 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6.0 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The summary of the preceding chapters and highlights of the major findings are presented in this chapter. Also presented are the conclusions, recommendations, contributions to knowledge and areas for further study. 6.1 Summary The study investigated the effect of Development in Higher Education (DELPHE) on the welfare status of the rural women processors in Oyo and Osun States, Nigeria. This was necessitated by dearth of effective processing facilities that has limited rural women processors‟ productivity. Despite many programmes sponsored by either Federal government or international agencies to improve the welfare status of rural women, they still lag behind in terms of socio economic advancement. Specific objectives used in addressing this issue were; socio economic and enterprise characteristics of respondents, knowledge on various processing activities, participation in the project activities, benefit derived and attitude towards the project, constraints faced by the respondents in their various processing activities and the welfare status of the rural women processors in the study area . Hypotheses were formulated and tested to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Also, tests of difference were carried out to assess the disparity in welfare status across the various processing enterprise categories and among beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of DELPHE project in the study area. The major concept upon which the study rests is on welfare status. The framework assumed the welfare status is determined by the independent variables. The population of the study consisted of the beneficiaries and the non beneficiaries of DELPHE project in Oyo and Osun states. Multi- stage sampling procedure was used in selecting respondents for this study. 193 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Purposive and proportionate sampling technique was used to select 243 respondents each from the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was carried out and the numbers of matched respondents after PSM were 216 beneficiaries and 88 non-beneficiaries which gave a total sample size of 304 respondents Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaire while qualitative data were collected through Focus Group Discussion (FGD). A total of eight (8) FGDs were conducted. The data collected were analysed using both descriptive (frequency, percentages, and charts) and inferential statistics tools used were Chi-square, PPMC, t-test and ANOVA. The results of the inferential statistics were determined at 0.05 significance level. The contributions of the independent variables to welfare status were determined using regression analysis. 6.2 Summary of major findings The finding of the study reveals that more than half of the respondents were within the age range of 41-50 with an average age of 43.9 years. Respondents were mostly married (87.0% beneficiaries and 86.0% non beneficiaries). The highest educational attainment was primary school education as indicated by respondents (30.0% beneficiaries and 27.3% non-beneficiaries) while 58.3% beneficiaries and 56.0% non beneficiaries were Christians. The modal household size was 5-8 people (60.2% beneficiaries and 60.0% non beneficiaries) with an average household size of six people. Majority of the respondents (81.1% beneficiaries, 82.0% non- beneficiaries) households were headed by a male, and most of the respondents (76.0% beneficiaries, and 72.0% non beneficiaries) married more than one wife. Out of all the groups the beneficiaries belong to, the beneficiaries of DELPHE (99.0%) benefitted from training progamme of the project, Processing was their primary occupation (83.0% beneficiaries, and 72.0% non beneficiaries) while they engaged in trading, farming and 194 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY artisan as their secondary occupation (i6.7% beneficiaries and 28.2% non-beneficiaries). Majority of the processors, 88.3% of the Moringa beneficiaries processors, 83.3% Soybean beneficiaries processors, 81.8% Cassava beneficiaries processors, and 74.6% of the Oil-palm beneficiaries processors realised # 31,000 and above monthly, while the 55.3% of the cassava non beneficiaries processors, 52.0% of the oil-palm beneficiaries, 20.3% of the soybean non- beneficiaries, and 17.6% 0f the Moringa non- beneficiaries processors also realised #31,000 and above monthly. About 35.0% beneficiaries, and 36.3% non-beneficiaries were into cassava processing, 30.0% beneficiaries and 28.4% 0f non-beneficiaries engaged in oil palm processing, 21.0% beneficiaries, 24.6% non-beneficiaries were into moringa processing while14.0% beneficiaries and 11.3% non beneficiaries were into soybean processing. About 50.8% beneficiaries and 47.0% non-beneficiaries have been processing for at least 10years, while 50.0% beneficiaries, 40.0% non-beneficiaries acquired their land through inheritance, 56.0% beneficiaries and 40.0% non-beneficiaries engaged the use of their children as their family labour, 52.0% beneficiaries 46.0% non-beneficiaries had money from their personal savings while 58.0% beneficiaries and 40.0% non beneficiaries received information from social groups as their source of information. Generally, across the four categories of processing activities, the Moringa processors were more knowledgeable than other processors. Level of participation in the project activities was high as indicated by 63.4% of the beneficiaries while 65.7% had high level of benefit. Analysis of attitudinal disposition towards the project showed that 56.0% of the beneficiaries had favourable disposition towards the project. Mean attitudinal score was 62.9±6.44. Generally, lack of credit facilities was ranked the major constraints as indicated by 55.1% beneficiaries and 53.0% non beneficiaries. Moringa processors were better-off in their 195 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY welfare status than other processing groups while the beneficiaries of the DELPHE projects (83.3.0%) were also better off in welfare status than the non-beneficiaries (31.8%) of the projects. Socio- economic and enterprise characteristics variables that contributed to welfare status were years of education (β=-0.003), occupation (β=0.125), years of processing experience (β=-0.006), household size (β= 0.044) 2 Significant relationship existed between the respondents‟ welfare status and education (χ = 2 3.372), primary occupation (χ =56.679). There was a correlation between welfare status of the respondents and age (r= 0.264), household size (r=0.580), Monthly income (r=0.483) and processing experience (r= 0.396). Welfare status was significantly influenced by attitude (r=0.424), benefits derived (r=0.014), and constraints (r=- 0.153). Significant difference existed between the welfare statuses of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. 196 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6.3 Conclusions The findings revealed that the respondents (beneficiaries and non beneficiaries) are not different in terms of characteristics such as age, marital status, religion, education, year of processing experience; however, DELPHE project beneficiaries generated more income than their counterpart. The implication of this is that more income may improve the welfare status of beneficiaries. The beneficiaries of DELPHE project were found to be more knowledgeable than the non-beneficiaries and Moringa oleifera processors had more knowledge than all entrepreneurs of other processing categories. This is attributable to skill acquired during the training programme activity of the project which enhances their production level and in turn improve their welfare status. Of all the activities the beneficiaries of the project participated in, contribution to decision making ranked first, followed by meeting attendance, participation in training activity and obtaining revolving loan. The beneficiaries of DELPHE project had better welfare status basically because the project offered more benefits in terms of skill acquisition which informed beneficiaries‟ favourable disposition towards the project. Sustained high level of welfare status among beneficiaries of DELPHE project is expected to address the major constraints of the processors which is lack of finance. The project beneficiaries had higher SES after participating in the DELPHE project. DELPHE project evidently improved beneficiaries‟ welfare status as they had better welfare status than the non beneficiaries. The findings of this study had shown that the beneficiaries had high level of knowledge, probably because of their high level of participation in the project activities. Also beneficiaries 197 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY derived benefits from the DELPHE project in the study area and they have favourable attitude towards the project. 6.4 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: 1. They study recommends that the project beneficiaries should be monitored in order to concretise the benefits derived from the intervention 2. As lack of credit was identified as a major constraint facing the respondents in their processing activities due to insufficient revolving loan as start up capital, there is a need for provision of loan at a reduced interest rate by financial institution such as micro- finance for the rural women to expand their processing business. 3. Given the fact that skill acquisition is one of the components that can take rural women out of poverty. This strategy should be incorporated into development interventions programme addressing women welfare status. 4. DELPHE project or similar interventions should be replicated in other states of Nigeria, so that standard of living of other rural women. 5. Government and NGOs should focus on programmes that enhance the skills of rural women especially in the area of their enterprise 6. Organisers of programmes should provide incentives during training in order to increase participation in programmes 7. Given that income contributes significantly to welfare status, agricultural policy formulated should target increased income generated from enterprise of rural women. 198 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6.5 Contributions to Knowledge The study contributes to the body of knowledge in the following ways: 1. DELPHE beneficiaries had higher better welfare status compared to non-beneficiaries. 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The project was implemented in Oyo and Osun States, Nigeria. The project goal is to reduce poverty by improving living conditions of women by empowering and supporting them to effectively manage their own development. Since successful implementation supposed to improve welfare status of the beneficiaries, so we encourage you to give accurate and comprehensive information as possible. Thank you. Mojisola F. Oywole. 209 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1. How did you first hear about DELPHE?___________________________________ 2. How would you rate the level of Development in this community before the introduction of DELPHE? High______________, Average _______________ Low_________________ 3. In which of the project areas have you participated? ___________________________________________________ 4. What are the benefits you derive from participating in DELPHE? _______________________________________________________ 5. What are the challenges confronting beneficiaries of DELPHE projects? _______________________________________________________ 6. What are the problems facing you in your processing activities that can lead to poor standard of living? ____________________________________________________ 7. What are the ways you have ever tried to solve these problems? ________________________________________________________ 8. How can you compare your welfare status in terms of amount spent on household expenditure now with what you are spending before participating in DELPHE project activities? Better off ___________, Worse off__________________, No difference_____________ 9. Would you like to continue participating DELPHE project? _______________________________________________________ 10. Suggestions ways we can improve on future developmental projects?_______________ 210 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 2 EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP IN HIGHER EDUCATION (DELPHE) PROJECT ON WELFARE STATUS OF WOMEN PROCESSORS IN OYO AND OSUN STATES, NIGERIA INTRODUCTION This interview schedule is designed to solicit information from beneficiaries and non- beneficiaries of DELPHE project in OYO and Osun states, Nigeria. Kindly provide answers to the raised items as the information gathered shall be kept confidential for research purpose only. Thank you, M.F. Oyewole Respondent No ____ Name of community ________ Local government area_________ State_________ Date_________ SECTION A: Socio- economic characteristics 1. Age (in years)__________ 2. Marital status: (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Divorced [ ] (d) Widow [ ] 3. Religion: (a) Islam [ ] (b) Christianity [ ] (c) Traditional [ ] 211 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. Education: (a) No formal education [ ] (b) Adult education [ ] (c)Vocational education[ ] (d) Primary education [ ] (e) Secondary education [ ] (f) Tertiary education 5. Household size: (a) 1 – 4 [ ] (b) 5 – 8 [ ] (c) 9 – 12 [ ] 6. Household type: your household is headed by ______ (a) Male (b) Female [ ] 7. Membership of group: Please indicate your group membership from the options provided: (a) Co-operative group [ ] (b) Religious group [ ] (c) Processors group [ ] (d) Market women group [ ] (e) Fadama users group [ ] (f) DELPHE beneficiaries group [ ] (g) NPFS group [ ] st nd rd th8. Position as wife: (a) 1 position [ ] (b) 2 position [ ] (c) 3 position [ ] (d) 4 position th [ ] (e) 5 position and above [ ] SECTION B: Enterprise characteristics 9. What is your primary occupation? (a) Processing [ ] (b) Petty trading[ ] (c) Artisan [ ] (d) Civil servant [ ] (e) others specify ________ 10. What is your secondary occupation? (a) Processing [ ] (b) Petty trading[ ] (c) Artisan [ ] (d) Civil servant [ ] (e) others specify ________ 11. Income: Please indicate your actual income on your processed products_______ in a month/ naira 12. What type of processing activities do you engaged in? (a) Moringa processing [ ] (b) Soybean processing [ ] (c) Cassava processing [ ] (d) Oil-palm processing [ ] 13. Processing experience (in years)__________ 212 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14. Source (s) of labour _________ (a) Hired labour [ ] (b) Family labour [ ] (c) Work exchange group[ ] 15. Land acquisition: (a) Purchase [ ] (b) Rent/lease [ ] (c) Inheritance [ ] (d) Government [ ] 16. Sources of finance: (a) Self [ ] (b) Co-operatives [ ] (c) Banks [ ] 17. Sources of Information on their processing activities: (a) Radio [ ] (b) Television [ ] (c) Family and friends [ ] (d) Newspaper[ ] (e) Social group Section C: Knowledge on various processing enterprise activities 18. Indicate the correct answers on the knowledge statements on various enterprise processing activities by responding appropriately. 213 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Knowledge questions on enterprise categories Moringa oleifera Production and Soybean Processing and Value Palm Oil Processing and Marketing Cassava Processing and Marketing for Sustainable Processing Enterprise Addition (1) One of the steps in which oil palm Livelihood (1) Moringa oleifera can be planted with (1) Soybean cannot be added to other can be process is by cooking the (1) The following steps are involved in cassava ---------------------- staple crops such as maize, cowpea, _____ processing except_______ (a) Seeds and seedlings (b) Grains and and cassava for value addition? (a) Palm fruit (b) Palm frond (c) Palm (a) Peeling (b) Boiling (c) Grating pods (c) Leaves and roots (a) True (b) false (c) I don‟t know. tree (2)The next step of processing cassava into gari (2) Moringa oleifera seeds germinate (2) Soy moinmoin consists of _____ (2) Oil palm can be processed into after washing and peeling is _________ within ----------- days. (a)Soybean and Cowpea, (b) Soybean ______ types of oil. (a) Grating (b) drying (c) sifting (a) 5- 6 days (b) 3 -4 days (c) 7- 8 days. and maize (c) Soybean and Cassava (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 2 (3)The following equipment are used in cassava (3) Seeds of moringa can be planted in --- (3) _____ can be extracted in Soybean (3) One of the steps in processing that processing except _________ ------ soil. to produce Soymilk. differentiate the Hard and Soft oil is (a) Hydraulic jack machine (b) Milling machine (c) (a) Loamy (b) Sandy (c) Clay (a) Meat (b) Milk (c) Oil ____ Refrigerator (4) Moringa oleifera leaves can be (4)Soybean cannot be processed into (a) Fermentation process in hard oil (4)Dewatering steps in cassava processing helps to processed into powder with the following various products such as Soymilk, Soy and boiling process in soft oil (b) ___________ of the product. equipment except -------- cheese, Soy cake etc.? Pressing out the liquid oil (c) (a) Increase the moisture content (b) Reduces the (a) Refrigerator (b) Dryer (c) Sifter (a) True (b) False (c) I don‟t Know Purification of the oil. temperature (c) Improve the shelf life (5)One of the steps involved in processing (5) Dehulling is one of the processing (4) The following are the processing (5) Fermentation is a necessary step in cassava Moringa oleifera leaves into powder is steps _______ operations in palm oil processing processing (a) True (b) False (c) I don‟t know by ---------- (a)Soy cheese (b) Soya gari (c) Soy except ______ (6) Fermentation process helps to _______ (a) Soaking of leaves (b) Drying of the flour. (a) Threshing (b) Frying (c) (a)Get rid of cyanide (b) get finer texture of product leaves (c) Boiling of leaves (6) The following are steps involved in Sterilization (c) add flavour to product (6) Moringa powder can be stored in Soymilk processing except ______ (5) The first stage of palm oil (7)Sifted cassava flour is best packed in ________ ______ (a)Boiling (b) Sieving (c) grating processing is ________ to improve its shelf life. (a) Dark cupboards (b) directly under (7) ______ is the processing method (a) Purification of oil (b) Separation (a) basket (b) Airtight container (c) tank sunlight (c) Air- tight container that destroy Soybean anti- nutrient of palm fruit from the bunch (c) (8)One of the accessible markets for cassava flour is (7) Moringa oleifera can be processed (a) Fermentation (b) Heating (c) Clarification of oil ___________ into the following except ______ Drying (6) ____ and ____ are methods of (a) Bakeries (b) Airports (c) Railway Station. (a) Moringa powder (b) Moringa Tea (c) (8) Soy flour can be added to wheat extracting oil from the oil palm fruit. (9)Cyanide is a poisonous substance in cassava Moringa Cloth. flour for __ production. (a) Long and Short (b) Dry and Wet product (8) ____parts of Moringa can be used to (a) Soy cheese (b) Soy cake (c) (c) Vertical and Horizontal (a) True (b) False (c) I don‟t know process into oil. Soymilk (7) The last stage of palm oil (10)There is readily available market for cassava (a) Seeds (b) pods (c) Root (9)Soymilk can be ______ to improve processing is ___________ processed products. (9) Leaves and seeds of Moringa oleifera its shelf life (a) Purification (b) pressing of oil (c) (a) True (b) false (c) I don‟t know cannot be eaten raw? (a) Refrigerated (b) Fermented (c) clarification of oil (a) True (b) False (c) I don‟t know Dried. (8) _____ yield is very high (10) Processed Moringa powder can be (10) Soybean processing should be (a)Hard oil (b) Soft oil (c) liquid oil stored in ________ carried out under_____ condition. (9)Extracting or pressing of the oil (a) Basket (b) Air tight container (c) (a) good hygienic (b) unclean can be done in __________ ways bowl environment (c) dirty (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 2 (10) Palm oil can be stored in the following except _____ (a) Oil drums (b) kegs (c) basket 214 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Section D: PARTICIPATION IN DELPHE PROJECTS 19. Please tick an option in front of each of the questions below about participation in DELPHE activities. Level of Participation in DELPHE project Level of Participation Always Rarely Never Project activities: Participation in group formation Attendance in all meetings called by the project facilitator Regularity Payment of community dues Contribution in decision making on DELPHE project Capacity building: Participation in training, seminars, or workshops Participation in field activities Empowerment: Participation in obtaining revolving loan Participation in procurement of equipment. 215 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Section E: Benefits derived in the project and other interventions 20. Indicates the benefits you derived from participating in DELPHE, Fadama and NPFS programmes Benefits derived from participating in DELPHE project Benefits To a large To a lesser Not at all extent extent Skill enhancement Increase in yield Access to revolving loan Training/Empowerment Enterprise Expansion Improved Standard of living Increase in processing equipment Self employments opportunity Others specify________- 216 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Benefits Derived from participating in Fadama project Benefits To a large To a lesser Not at all extent extent Skill enhancement Increase in yield Access to revolving loan Training/Empowerment Enterprise Expansion Improved Standard of living Increase in processing equipment Self employments opportunity Others specify________- 217 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Benefits Derived from participating in NPFS project Benefits To a large To a lesser Not at all extent extent Skill enhancement Increase in yield Access to revolving loan Training/Empowerment Enterprise Expansion Improved Standard of living Increase in processing equipment Self employments opportunity Others specify________- 218 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Section F: ATITUDE OF THE RURAL WOMEN TOWARDS DELPHE PROJECT 21. Please respond appropriately to the following statements. SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, U= Undecided, D=disagree, and SD= Strongly disagree. STATEMENTS SA A U D SD 1 The facilitators‟ conduct of training activities was not encouraging 2 The training programme was too demanding in terms of energy 3 The project left most of the beneficiaries better 4 Participation in the project has helped to improve most of the beneficiaries network 5 Most of DELPHE project activities are waste of time 6 Identification of members problem was deficient in the project 7 The DELPHE project enhances the beneficiaries processing skill 8 It is a life changing project. 9 The DELPHE project had not helped most of the beneficiaries to acquired new knowledge. 10 Participation in the project is too demanding 11 The project help beneficiaries to discover new things 12 General welfare status of beneficiaries was not enhanced by the DELPHE project 13 Communication was not effective in the execution of the project 14 The programme has no effect on my income 15 Participating in DELPHE has increased my assets. 16 DELPHE project has not strengthened membership cooperation 17 The achievement of DELPHE project are not visible 18 DELPHE project requires low investment 219 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Section G: Constraints faced on various processing activities 22. Please tick options in front of each constraints and rank appropriately. Constraints Serious Mild Not a Rank constraint constraint High cost of processing machine Lack of credit facilities Lack of technical know how Unavailability of land for processing activities Unavailability of market for processed products Lack of good storage facilities Others specify 220 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Section H: Welfare Status 23. Please kindly indicate the amount of money you spend on the following basic items at intervals indicated Categories Basic Items Amount Expended (₦) Weekly Monthly Food Food Purchases Imputed own consumption Education School fees School books Uniforms Extracurricular activities Transportation Other school related expenditure Health Consultations Medication Hospitalisation Transportation Other health care expenditure Bills and Utilities Bills on utilities such as: water, electricity, etc. Clothing Household maintenance Transportation Communication e.g. telephone Imputed self-produced non-food Rent (actual or imputed) Expenditure on small appliances Excluded Ceremonial expenditure Taxes Transfers/Remittance Please specify others 221 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 1: DELPHE Project Signpost in Iyanfoworogi Community, Ife East LGA, Osun State, Nigeria. 222 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 2: FGD with Moringa Women Processors at Iyanfoworogi Community, Ife East LGA Osun State. 223 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 3: Researcher with Cassava Processors at Omi Adio, Ido LGA, Oyo State. 224 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 4: Soybean Processor at Ojo Community, Egbedore LGA, Osun State 225 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 5: Researcher with Oil-palm Processors at Akufo Community, Oyo State. 226 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate 6: Interview Session with Respondent at Ayeso, Obokun LGA, Osun State. Plate 9: Researcher with Garri processors at Peregun community, Ife East LGA, 227 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY