1946 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 Energy-cost analysis of alternative sources to electricity in Nigeria Simolowo Oluwafunbi Emmanuel1* and Oladele Samuel2 1*Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 2Department of Mechanical Engineering; Olabisi Onabanjo University. Ogun State, Nigeria. esimmar@yahoo.com* Abstract In this work, a comparative analysis of alternative energy sources has been carried out to ascertain their suitability in terms of availability, cost, advantages and disadvantages among other factors. The selected energy alternatives are solar and inverters. The first case study-site was an office suit located in government reserved area and the second a medium house unit within Lagos the most commercial city in Nigeria. Practical surveys and data collection were carried out for the selected sites coupled with their energy auditing to obtain the total energy consumed. An energy sizing analysis helped in determining the energy specifications and installation-cost of the alternative energy sources in the surveyed sites. The results obtained presented guiding principles among other solutions on how homes and offices can be powered by applying the method of selective-loading to reduce energy cost. Keywords: Alternative energy sources; cost-analysis; electricity; energy auditing, Nigeria Introduction  Pollution of the environment: Noise and air pollution The development of any society is anchored on the caused by the use of generating sets as energy steady supply of power which is an elixir to manufacturing sources creates immeasurable level of health hazards companies. It is therefore a matter of utmost importance to all forms of life in the environment. to analyse other means of energy supplies in term of  High cost of commodities: There is existing relationship cost-effectiveness, reliability, availability and between the price of commodities and energy. Energy environmental compatibility so as to alleviate the energy is part of cost of production; exorbitant expenditure on crisis prevalent in some developing countries. Alternative energy will eventually lead to high cost of the product. energy sources such solar cells and battery-powered  Increase in overhead costs of production: Overhead inverters as researched in this work have become cost is the money spent on rent, insurance, electricity increasingly popular subjects (Mohan et al., 1995; and other things to keep the business running. Huge Abdulkarim, 2004; Sarah & Douglass, 2005; Zane, 2006; amount is spent of fuelling generating sets for Iran, 2006; Nwokoye, 2006; Ezekoye & Ugha, 2007). production of goods and services, this tends to increase Many of these reorts show that global warming has the overhead cost. rapidly increased from anthropogenic causes. The general objective of this work is to minimize the Various energy resources are available in Nigeria. adverse effects of over dependence on national electric The hydropower resources which can be explored in energy generation which is unreliable in many developing Nigeria are over 11,000MW per annum (average capacity countries. In attaining this general goal some specific is more than 40,800GWh). The main sources of energy in objectives were considered. Namely; ascertaining the Nigeria at present are mostly from Power Holding positive and negative aspects of alternative sources of Company of Nigeria (PHCN). The installed capacity is energy; analysing the effectiveness, feasibility and 5296MW. However, about 99.5% of Nigeria power viability of other alternatives energy to electricity; requirement come from the various power stations with determining cost-implication of choosing alternative 0.5% coming from other sources (Nwokoye, 2006). Thus, sources; reducing dependence on PHCN electricity the 0.5% is purchased by private companies. Some of the supply; discovering the possibility of powering a portion of problems faced by people in developing countries such a household with alternative energy sources; prescribing as Nigeria which has been reported in this study and in likely solution to energy crisis in Nigeria; giving the urban earlier works (Akarakiri, 2002; Akin Iwayemi, 2008) and rural dwellers in Nigeria an improved living standards include: for a better quality of life (Oladele, 2009).  Inadequate electricity supply to household, offices and Theoretical concepts: Inverters and solar cells industries: It is increasingly becoming difficult to get The inverter is the heart of all but the smallest power energy for domestic utilization. People now depend on systems. It is an electronic device that converts direct generating set for their energy supply. current DC power from batteries or solar modules into  Low industrial productivity: For many industries, alternating AC power to operate lights, appliances or technical changes are found to increase the shares anything that normally operates on power supplied by the relative to those from other inputs of production. utility grid. The electrically-rechargeable-battery-powered Changes in electrical inputs contribute to notable inverters which have been considered in this work come alterations in output values. The unavailability of this in many varieties, sizes and qualities and offer various crucial requirement of production has hampered features that specialises them for particular applications. production of goods and services. There have been a large number of articles written Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1947 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 concerning power conversion in recent years. This can be greater the voltage loss. Ventilation is also an important attributed in part to the rise in popularity of high voltage factor to consider when installing inverter. Inverters DC transmission systems and their integration with generate a fair amount of heat, and therefore use cooling existing AC supply grids. There is also a consistent fans and heat dissipation fins to prevent overheating. demand for high efficiency inverter devices for lower More so, the unit must not be allowed to come in contact power applications like houses, caravans, UPS and with any liquids or condensing humidity. Here in, the rules developing countries of the world. The resulting AC for choosing an inverter based on the load selection are converted by inverters can be at any required voltage and discussed. frequency with the use of appropriate transformers,  The first step in selecting an inverter is to match the switching and control circuits. Due to the higher operating inverter to the voltage of the battery that will be used to frequencies, inverters yield higher, more economical power the system. output power. This increased power source efficiency  The devices to be powered with the inverter must be translates to decreased utility costs. Virtually all the determined. The wattage rating of the inverter must inverters used with alternative power systems are exceed the total wattage of all the devices to be run transistorized, solid state devices (Ezekoye & Ugha, simultaneously. For instance, running a 600-watt 2007). Solid-state inverters are preferred for their higher blender and a 600-watt coffee maker at the same time efficiency, ease of maintenance, and infrequency of needs an inverter capable of a 1,200-watt output. repair. Important output specifications to consider when  It must be ascertained that the inverter's peak rating is searching for DC to AC inverters include maximum higher than the peak wattage of the device you intend voltage, maximum steady state current, maximum power, to power. and frequency range.  The final specification to look for is the wave output of There are two general types of inverters: True-sine the inverter. If there is the need to power any of the wave and Modified-sine wave (square wave). Compared equipment that is sensitive to square waves, an inverter to the modified-sine wave, the true-sine wave inverters with a "perfect sine" wave output should be used. produce power that is either identical or sometimes Solar energy can be used to generate power in two-way; slightly better to power from the public utility power grid solar-thermal conversion and solar electric (photovoltaic) system. The other divisions of inverters are: (i) Off-Grid conversion. Solar-Thermal is heating of fluids to produce Inverters or standalone inverters: These are the types steam to drive turbines for large-scale centralized considered in this evaluation study and are available in generation. Solar-Electric which is considered in this sizes from 100watts, for powering notebooks computers study is the direct conversion of sunlight in to electricity and fax machines and cars, to 60kilowatts, for powering a through a photocell. This could be in a centralized or commercial operation. (ii) Grid-tie inverter: This is a sine decentralized fashion. Energy payback time (EPBT) is the wave inverter which has a higher cost, but can operate length of deployment required for a photovoltaic system almost anything that can be operated on utility power. A to generate an amount of energy equal to the total energy grid-tie system uses an external utility company, in effect, that went into its production. Roof-mounted photovoltaic as its storage battery. When more power is needed than systems have impressively low energy payback times, as the system can supply, the utility makes up the difference. documented by recent engineering studies. The value of This type of system makes the most sense in most cases EPBT is dependent on three factors. Namely, the where there is utility power, because there are no conversion efficiency of the photovoltaic system; the batteries to maintain or replace. Unfortunately, if the utility amount of illumination that the system receives (about power goes down, this type of inverter will go off, too. 1700 kWh/m2/yr average for southern Europe and about These inverters are designed to run at voltages up to 600 1800 kWh/m2/yr average for the United States); The VDC and faster to install, more efficient and allows the manufacturing technology that was used to make the use of smaller gauge wire. photovoltaic (solar) cells. Load-selection and Installation of Inverters A good place is chosen at home or certain cabin such A key consideration in the design and operation of that it is out of the way or main path of activity. It is on this inverters is how to achieve high efficiency with varying basis that most people choose to mount on a roof, hence power output. It is necessary to maintain the inverter at or protection is ensured. There is a need to tap as much near full load in order to operate in the high efficiency sunlight that can be reached. The more intensity of light region. However, this is not possible. Some installations received by the solar modules, the more power they will would never reach their rated power due to deficient tilt, produce. The solar modules are kept away from shade orientation or irradiation in the region (Mohan et al., between the prime hours of sunlight, 9.00 am to 3.00 p.m. 1995). Inverters are very easy to install. Most of them are shadows are known to reduce the module’s output. "plug and play" devices, especially smaller, low-wattage Shadow cast by telephone lines, trees, buildings, inverters. The selection of a location where the DC low electricity poles, parked vehicles all can affect the voltage cable is the shortest possible distance to the module’s output. Another factor given rapt attention is the battery is important as the longer a DC cable runs the angle of tilt for maximum exposure. The modules are Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1948 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 mounted at the best angles so as to get more sun. The operating parameters. A detailed financial analysis is best known tilt for a module is the one that puts it at right performed for each measure based on detailed angles to the noontime sun. implementation cost estimates; sites-specific operating Research methodology cost savings, and the consumer’s investment criteria. The research methodology of this study is presented Investment-Grade Audit: The investment- grade audit in three stages, namely, (i) Site selection; (ii) Energy alternatively called a comprehensive audit, detailed audit, Auditing and AC Sizing (iii) Energy-Cost Analysis. The maxi-audit or technical analysis audit expands on the reasons for selecting the case study sites and performing general audit described above by providing energy use energy audit for the sites, the different types of cost characteristics of both the existing facility and all energy analysis and phases of energy audits applied in the work conservation measures identified. The building model is are all discussed in this section. calibrated against actual utility data to provide a realistic Site selection baseline which is used to complete operating savings for The first site selected is an Engineering Consulting proposed measures. In a comprehensive or investment- firm located in a Government Reservation Area (GRA) in grade audit extensive attention is given to understanding Lagos the most commercial city in Nigeria. This office site not only the operating characteristics of all energy uses a diesel-generator and its organization offers consuming systems but also situations that cause load solution to infrastructure projects in the areas of water profile variations on both an annual and daily basis. Also supply, waste disposal and transportation. The building existing utility data is supplemented with sub-metering of has three general sections and two offices with kitchen major energy consuming systems and monitoring of and all other necessary facilities. The second case study system operating characteristics. is typical three-bedrooms flat in the same city of Lagos. Phases of energy auditing: The Phases involved in the The flat is one of the flats in a one story building. The energy auditing were: (i) data collection (ii) data most important reasons for selecting these sites are verification (iii) energy-saving opportunities (iv) energy because the locations are in an area where energy conservation opportunities (v) executive summary. In consumption is frequent and mostly unavailable and data collection, visitation was done on the two case hence the rate of diesel is on the high side due to the studies. The results of the data gotten are indicated in unsteady power supply figures 2-8. The results show the data collected for two Energy auditing and Ac sizing study sites the office suit and the three bedrooms flat. Energy audits carried out at the two sites were for the Data verification is the process of checking for the following reasons: (i) to ascertain the total energy accuracy and adequacy of the data collected. This consumed in the office and home (ii) to discover the procedure is carried out due to challenges that might appliances that consumes most energy (iii) to reduce have been faced while performing the study. Energy avoidable expenses on energy. Types of energy audits saving opportunities technique aids the selection of load considered in this work were (i) preliminary audit (ii) that were analysed and presented in figures 5-8. It general audit (iii) investment-grade audit. The preliminary indicates how some bulbs can be replaced by energy audit alternately called a simple audit, screening audit or saving bulbs. Energy saving opportunities identifies walk-through audit is the simplest and quickest type of cutting energy consumption to bearable minimum. Energy audit. It involves minimal interviews with site operating conservation opportunities is an avenue to identify the personnel, a brief review of facility utility bills and other ways energy can be conserved in the through the usage operating data, and a walk- through of the facility to of energy saving bulbs. This also involved reduction of become familiar with the building operation and identify the no. of appliances being used. It identifies and glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency. The general eradicates energy wastage in the house or office. audit alternatively called mini- audit, site energy audit or Executive summary is a report which indicates all the complete site energy audit expands on the preliminary aforementioned. It defines the details of the audit; cost audit described above by collecting more detailed implication, energy saving opportunities etc. it is usually information about facility operation and performing a presented to the concerned organization on individual more detailed evaluation of energy conservation depending on the context. measures identified. Utility bills are collected for a 12 to Shown in Fig. 1 is the frame work of the energy audits 36 month-period to allow the auditor to evaluate the and AC sizing carried out in this work. As depicted in Fig. facility’s energy/demand rate structures, and energy 1 complete energy audits were firstly carried out for the usage profiles. Additional metering of specific energy- two sites and then followed by the Alternative Current consuming systems is often performed to supplement (AC) sizing at each site for three different energy utility data. In-depth interviews with the facility operating loadings, namely, (i) with complete load (ii) without personnel systems as well as insight into variations in heating equipment (iii) without heating and A/C. This daily and annual energy consumption and demand. This procedure was adopted to minimize cost for the cases of type of audit will be able to identify all energy solar power generation and Inverters. The results conservation measure appropriate for the facility given its obtained such as Total Connected Load (TCL), Total Daily Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1949 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 Load (TDL) and Total Amperes Needed (TAN) for the three cases and the two sites were compared in Tables 1 and 2. As presented in Tables 1 and 2, the Connected Load (CL) and Daily Load (DL) were obtained using equations 1 and 2 respectively where I WL is the Instant Watts per Load; Q is the quantity of items or appliances present in Where EF is the efficiency factor; DCV is the DC system the home or office and RT is the average hours the each voltage and DDOD is the Desired Depth of Discharge equipment is run daily. Energy-cost analysis There are several cost analysis methods that have been propounded such as: (i) Cost-of-illness analysis (ii) Also, the Watts required With Loss (W ); The Amps hrs Cost-minimization analysis (iii) Cost-effectiveness RL Required per Cycle (ARC); the Battery Bank required (B analysis (CEA) (iv) Cost-utility analysis (CUA) (v) Cost- BR) and PV Generating Amps needed (P ) were all pbtained consequence analysis (vi) Cost-benefit analysis (CBA). VG using equations (3), (4), (5) and (6) respectively. Cost-of-illness analysis is a determination of the economic impact of an illness or condition (typically on a given population, region, or country) e.g., of smoking, arthritis or bedsores, including associated treatment costs. Cost-minimization analysis is a determination of the least costly among alternative interventions that are Table 1. Alternative current sizing for office-energy consumption Loads Q IWL CL (w) RT DL (Wh) EF(%) WRL DCV ARC DDOD (%) BRR KW/Sq m/day PVG Fridge 2 78 156 12 1872 15 2153 12 179 33 542 4.25 42.2 Iron 1 1800 1800 1 1800 15 2070 12 173 33 524 4.25 40.6 Light Bulb 18 60 1080 10 10800 15 12420 12 1035 33 3136 4.25 243.5 Radio 2 100 200 8 1600 15 1840 12 153 33 464 4.25 36.1 Fan 5 80 400 12 4800 15 5520 12 460 33 1394 4.25 108.2 A/C 4 745.7 2982.8 12 35793.6 15 41163 12 3430 33 10394 4.25 807.1 Phone 1 9.6 9.6 12 115.2 15 132 12 11 33 33 4.25 2.6 Laptop 1 40 40 6 240 15 276 12 23 33 70 4.25 5.4 DVD 4 60 240 8 1920 15 2208 12 184 33 558 4.25 43.3 TV 4 90 360 8 2880 15 3312 12 276 33 836 4.25 65.0 Microwave 1 1200 1200 0.5 600 15 690 12 57.5 33 174.3 4.25 13.5 Blender 1 700 700 0.25 175 15 201 12 17 33 51.5 4.25 4.0 assumed to produce equivalent Fig. 1. Methodology frame work for energy auditing and AC sizing outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a comparison of costs in monetary units with outcomes in quantitative non-monetary units, e.g., reduced mortality or morbidity. Cost- utility analysis (CUA) is a form of cost- effectiveness analysis that compares costs in monetary units with outcomes in terms of their utility, usually to the patient, measured. Cost-consequence analysis is a form of cost-effectiveness analysis that presents costs and outcomes in discrete categories, without aggregating or weighting them. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) compares costs and benefits, both of which are quantified in common monetary units. The suitability of any of these methods depend upon the purpose of the assessment the availability of data and other resources. A flexible and Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1950 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 non-distinctive method which combines some of these presented in Tables 1 and 2 are those for complete methods was applied to this work. From Fig. 2 the four energy loadings i.e. with heating elements and A/Cs for different sources of energy analysed for the two selected the two case studies considered. However in figure 3, the sites were (i) Solar (ii) Inverters (iii) Electricity supply (iv) Total Connected Load (TCL), the Total Daily Load (TDL) Portable Generators. Load selections were done for the and the Total PV Generating Amperes Needed (TPVG) cases of solar and inverters and energy cost estimates were compared for all the three different loadings for the and were obtained and comparisons made based on this chosen sites. The values for the complete loadings were selection. Energy-cost analysis carried out on electricity highest and those for selected loading (without heating supply and generators entailed collection of data on and A/Cs) were lowest for two sites thereby confirming billing and usage of petrol (for the 3-bedroom site) and the ideal situations. Based on these data, the comparison diesel (for the office site) for a period of one year. presented in Fig. 4 was done. It entails selective loadings Comparisons were made of results obtained leading to (without heating and A/C) for the generators; with clear measurable cost-implications while predictive complete loadings (with heating elements and A/Cs) for recommendations on selection and usage of energy electricity supply. Despite the selective loadings, the sources were made possible from the work findings. The energy costs for the generators were still higher with the cost analysis for the inverter and solar (PVC) which gave cost for diesel-generator consumption highest for the rise to figure 8 were obtained after the load selections period considered. had been carried out and the total (TCL) of the connected In Fig. 5, comparison of all the sources of energy was load (CL) calculated earlier with equation (1). The total made. Fig. 5 compares (i) the total cost of setting up load (TL) in KVA is obtained by equation (7) where APP is inverters and solar units for selected loading (ii) running- same as (TCL). costs for diesel and petrol generators for selected loading (iii) cost of electricity supply for complete loading at the two sites considered. Results show that the cost required for setting up solar energy usage for the home is highest Also putting equation (8) into consideration, the despite the selective loading. The energy-cost variations selected inverter capacity (SIC) is obtained from equation for the inverter and solar presented in Fig. 6, presents a (9). Finally the inverter cost is evaluated based on SIC. guide for the choice and cost implications for solar or LMAX is the maximum load on inverter and TIP is Total inverter systems set up as energy sources for homes or Inverter Power offices. The figure combines the energy-cost analysis LMAX=80% (TIP)……………………………………………………………………(8) with selective loadings to predict home and office . . (80%) SIC = TCL ……………………………………………………………(9) requirements for different Connected Loads (CL) in KVA. Results and discussions Shown in Fig. 7 and 8 are the comparison of cumulative Three types of selective loadings as discussed in energy cost extrapolated over five years for office and section 2.2 and 2.3 were carried out. The results home use respectively. The cost for using solar and inverters are high initially but Fig.2. Methodology frame work for energy-cost analysis tend to be regular and stable over the years. The points CB1 and CB2 shown in Fig. 7 and 8 indicate the Cost-Benefit points for using the inverter at the office sites and home respectively. Beyond these points the cost of using inverters becomes lower (though for selected loading) than other alternatives for some period of time until major replacements or servicing are needed for the inverters. The comparison also takes into consideration the maintenance and re-charging cost of the inverter and the solar units. However, selected loading was used for all the other alternative sources of energy to electricity in this comparison. Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1951 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 Fig. 3. Comparison of AC sizing results (TCL, TDL, TAN) Fig. 6. Energy-cost variations for Inverters units for different selected loadings Inverter Rating Fig . 4. Energy-cost comparison for electricity, diesel and Fig. 7. Ccumulative energy cost extrapolated for over petrol generators five years for office use Fig. 8. Ccumulative energy cost extrapolated over five Fig. 5. Comparison of total energy cost for a year years for home use Edu.Sust.Devpt. “Cost analysis for alternate energy source” S.O.Emmanuel & O.Samuel Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1952 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 1 (Jan 2012) ISSN: 0974- 6846 Table 2. Alternative current sizing for home-energy consumption Loads Q IWL CL (w) RT DL (Wh) EF (%) WRL DCV ARC DDO D(%) BRR KW/Sq m/day PVG A/C 5 745.7 3728.5 13 48470 15 55741 12 4645 33 14076 4.25 1092.9 Fridge 1 78 78 24 1872 15 2153 12 179 33 542 4.25 42.1 Fluorescent 9 36 324 8 2592 15 2981 12 248 33 752 4.25 58.4 Light Bulb 12 60 720 8 5760 15 6624 12 552 33 1673 4.25 129.9 Radio 1 100 100 6 600 15 690 12 58 33 176 4.25 13.7 Fan 7 80 560 13 44800 15 51520 12 4293 33 13009 4.25 1010.1 Computer 2 350 700 10 7000 15 8050 12 671 33 2033 4.25 157.9 Stabilizer 1 2200 2200 10 22000 15 25300 12 2108 33 6388 4.25 496.0 UPS 4 600 2400 10 24000 15 27600 12 2300 33 6970 4.25 541.2 HP K7103 2 60 120 1 120 15 138 12 12 33 36 4.25 2.7 Out light 4 500 2000 10 20000 15 23000 12 1917 33 5809 4.25 451.1 TV 1 90 90 6 540 15 621 12 52 33 158 4.25 12.2 Laptop 7 40 280 6 1680 15 1932 12 161 33 488 4.25 37.9 Scanner 1 60 60 1 60 15 69 12 6 33 18 4.25 1.4 Backlight 3 40 120 8 960 15 1104 12 92 33 279 4.25 21.7 W/ Heater 2 1200 2400 .5 1200 15 1380 12 115 33 348 4.25 27.1 HP 1220c 1 90 90 1 90 15 103.5 12 9 33 27 4.25 2.1 HP F4180 2 65 130 1 130 15 150 12 13 33 39 4.25 3.1 Iron 1 1800 1800 1 1800 15 2070 12 173 33 524 4.25 40.7 References Conclusion and recommendations 1. 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