Editor-in-Chief Editor VOLUME 27 WINTER 2010 NUMBER 1
Ali Mazrui Zakyi Ibrahim
Managing Editor
Halil Yenigun
Copy Editors
Jay Willoughby / Soha Srour
Book Review Editor AlVIERICAN JOURNAL
Mahdi Tourage
OF
Associate Editors . ISLAMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES
Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad Marcia Hermansen 2~
Mehmet Asutay Haifaa Jawad
Ahf11Jd Yousif
International Advisory Board A double blind peer-reviewed
and interdisciplinary journal
Ibrahim Abu-Rabi IV!. Kamal Hassan
Khurshid Ahmad Aziza Y. al-Hibri
Akbar Ahmed Mohammad H. Karnali
Manzoor Alam Enes Karic
Taha J. ul-Alwani Clovis Maksoud
Zalar Ixhaq Ansari Seyyed Hossein Nasr
Kh.ilcd Blankinship James P. Piscatori
Charles Butterworth Anne Sofie Roald
Ahmad Davuioglu Tamurn Sonn
John L E'f1l1Si10 Antony Sullivan.
Mchdi Golxhuni Sayvid IVI. Syeed
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p:.:'. :,Y!; publication ill any format and language. are not accepted. Islamic Legal Perspectives on Genetically Modified Food
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h':~.;~. ":1 SOO-I.OfJ() words: The Role of the Chularajtnontri (Sharkh a/-h/(I/7/) in Resolvi ng
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Gender. Identity. and lslum: .-\11Overview
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K l.uisu GUlld,,//i! . . . . IIl~
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Arguing the Just War in Islam Editorial
(by John Kelsay)
Sojjad H. Rizvi , , ' , , , , , , , , ' , " "., ,.,', ,." .. ,." 127
International Treaties (:\Iu 'ahaddt) in Islam: Theory and Practice in Light
of Islamic International Law (Siyarl according to Orthodox Schools
(by Labeeb Ahmed Bsoul)
vloliannnad Fadel. ' , . , ... ' , , 130
Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Evil and Islamic Theodicy
Prophetic Traditions in Islam
(by Aisha Y. Musa) On 12 January 2010, the world witnessed the complete devastation of Haiti, this
Devin J. Stewan. ........ , . . . . , , , 132 hemisphere's first black independent nation. That this is evil in its nature is disputed
Forum by none (Plato uses evil to refer to poverty, disease, pain, sickness, harm, injustice.
Three Decades of Iran's Policy of Exporting the badness, discord, chnos.idisorder, ugliness. weakness. deformity, and other things 1_:
Islamic Revolution: Politics. Ends. and Means 'What is deliberated, however, are the causes, effects, and what to do next. More
B,dIrUIII Xavcccni. , , , , ' ......... , , . , 136 appropriately, the international community rallied to help the innocent and helpless
and Haitians instead of trying to justify I\hy this particular earthquake OCCLllTCd,In thisReligion. the Public Good. the Research University
icharc! .~. 1·-19 editorial. I seek to provoke philosophical debate and refocus theological attention onR R(}.I'(,II~'II'I"II.
evil in the world, while hoping to raise more pointed questions about those who
Conference, Symposium, and Panel Reports attempted to provide absolute answers for this particular earthquake.
Glob:Lliz:nion: lIS Impact 011 and Challenges to The very next day. the infamous televangelist Pat Robertson of the "700 Club"
Educ.uion in the vluslim World
1:'6 dared to offer an apparent jusrification and cause of this earthquake.' Much has been,i/II/;UIIlIllCt/ Huron . stated about his insensitivity and the fabricated story he cited. But the absurdity of his
Tcrror.cdu: Terror and EdllL·"I;Cl11 in the l .S .'\ argument and the underlying ideology arc even more troubling, He concluded th.u
i. !'/'illd,'J' slchuu. ' , , . , , .. ' 1St) God lias punishing the Haitians because their ancestors had made ~1"pact \lith the
Devil" to help them gain independence from France, Thus. God hns cursed all gCII-
erations of Haitians.
Setting aside his lack of consideration of how this p~lct could have been made.
the underlying conclusion is rhat.the Haitians ancestors abandoned Godin t~ll\lr ot
the Devil (who had become effective in their quest 1(,)1' independence) and since then
God has been taking revenge upon them. even on those citizens who follow other
religions and thus have nothing to do with that alleged sin. either then or noli'. \\'Ipt
does that say about God and I~is omnipotence and just ice? Phi losophcrs and thcolo-
gians have long struggled with these questions.
Other serious questions have to do with the issue otwhv God chooses to punish
people continuously through natural disasters or why. given His fairness. Cod docs
~ not punish-other nations that commit the graves: forms of such sins.
. There ,HC different ways to address these questions in the context 01' 1'I~lil1'~
carthquuke. What Robertson said makes no sense; !Jt)\I·CICr. it Ill<ly be understood
theologically in the context Of:1 direct. narrow. and fanatical reading of the Bible. In
sociopolitical terms it is uncrly wrong. in philosophical tel111S it is depressingly child-
ish, and in scientific terms it is absolutely absurd. Since Illy problem \I'it!J his idcol-
ogy lies in his theological assumption. I would rather address that directly But first.
I will briefly touch on the other ways.
Sociopoliricully, Haiti could not hale been cursed. While:- there is no sociopolit-
ical evnlnnntion for the earthquake itself. there arc mallY cxplunations for \\ hy it \\:I~
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UliUlltllL jVJU;)llItl,) CJ,lIU·•..."•'/I ...••·_.••
by the caliphs because they were true universal scholars who had mastered
many physical, natural, human, and revealed sciences.'
They were also guided by ethical considerations, the very ones that are
missing from the development of contemporary scientific, engineering,
biomedical, financial, and other disciplines. One result of this absence has
Muslims and Science: Contributions been numerous man-made problems, as will be detailed in the next see-
tion. As suggested by Mohamad Shamsher, since "ethical behavior is not
of Islamic Universities to inherited but must be instilled and nurtured through systematic training
Professional Ethics programmes that must beimplemented consistently in the most objectiveway," the failure of tbe current educational system at the global level calls
for an in-depth investigation as to why it produces professionals and
Ibrahim Olatunde Uthman experts who, despite having not imbibed the "character" or "discipline" of
Abstract , their educational curriculum.nre nevertheless awarded degrees for having
It is sad and paradoxical that 1\luslims. who were once the precursors been founci "worthy in both learning and character" or "knowledge and
and torchbearers of the scientific knowledge that culminated in modem discipline."
civilization, are today wallov, ing in a state ofbackwardness, ignoranc These systematic training programs must begin at the pre-primary level.
and domination. Despite their global numerical strength ofover on· d- when one is still a child and in the formative years, The rationale for this can
lion people.' only a tC\\' Muslim countries art' currently making, . sig- . / be seen in the story of Luqrnan and his son (31: 12- 18), which deals with eth-
nificant strides in shaping COntCI1lIXlI'JI"}' civilizatiou ~Ul~ the ~ , te ofthe IV ical conduct in all aspects of life. Yet it would appear that whatever ethical
world. ThIS paper exanuncs how U1Clslamic concept 01" kh £7ja/7 (vice- behavior is instilled and nurtured via systematic training programs during
gcrcnc~ ) can be employed to revive Islamic science so iat it can sus- those years is gradually lost at the tertiary school level because those stu-
rain human and other creatures in a wholesome man er, It nrgues that dents must be trained and taught in the most objective way and with "sin-
lC;ldlillg sccukrr sciences ~lccl1\"dillgIII lslumic 11riciplcs, as is being
done Ilk' lntcnurional Islamic L'ni\cl.·' .;. i'vl~1Iaysia cere efforts to uphold the desired code of eth ics and conduct that transcendsllXI;I\' :-11-- (IIUI\'I);lIld Univcrsitv, :\k(lkula ( U,-\ 1will reverse such the political. social. religious and racial b,miers,"-><i'-2L'I"ia's CI1':SCCIllncg;ili\L'trcnds, . ' The failure ofrcruarv institutions ofleurning 10 susrnin and nurture the
code -of ethics and conduct instilled during childhood must be located
lnrroduction here. because any attempt to divorce religious teachings from codes of
ethics and conduct cannot succeed Terti ary education plays a significant
In :1 recent paper. I argued that srudx ing secular sciences according to role in employing logic and reason to help students conform to acccpruble
lsl.unic elhiell principles can make them lslamic. This is what distin- ethical behavior 01'. for those already working. to further enhance their cth-
guishes lslnmic civilization. which reached its zenith during Europe's ical beliefs and actions. In this respect. Islamic uni , crsitics like the
\ liddlc Ages. from its European counrcrpart.: Its remarkable achievements. International Islamic University. Malaysia (HUlvl) and Nigeria's Crescent
, ~bnoted by Bernard Lewis. shook Europe out of its centuries-long slumber,' . University. Abeokuta (CUA) are making large contributions. Given this .
.-\ceording to D, N, Dunlop. these scholars contributions to modern cduca- the remainder olmv article will examine what has caused scientific Knuwl-
tiou began appearing ill Europe during the tenth century, LInd by the thirteen edge to stagnate ill the Muslim world against the background of its classical-
century their works in almost all brunches of knowledge could be found era scholars' vast contributions to science, After this, it will explore Isbill's
throughout Europe.' Known as IIl1l1u/I/(7' (wise men), they were patron izcd philosophy of education and how Islamic universities arc helping impart
professional ethics to their students based on IIhih7/ilh (vicegerency) and eth-
ThL' .uuhor is a lecturer in the Department lli" ..\rabic' and Islamic Studies. L!ni\'cr,ily lll-
Ibad;lIl. :\igeri;1. I lc call be COIlI;IC\c'd ;11 ibr:lhiIl111111l1WIl'iyI ahoo.com. ical teachings.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
'.' rile ,\I11LTiC;1I1 ./('[11'11;11"rlsbl11ic: "';"c'i;iI Sc'iel1(c''; 27: I [ 111111;1;1\:Iu,i,!!:, ;1I'r\Si l'lc'J1e,' "::ll
riun ot.scicncc. described :tI-~3iI1I11ai::. n grc,lI scientist ~1I1done orthe greatest n)r:, 1'01' his experiments. and. ccruuric.: before /sS,lC ;\ •.\..\. ton. JPplied the rcc-
usrronomcrs or all times who ga\'e minute mathematical culculutionxculcn- t:lllgle or vclociuc-, at the surface uf rc/'raGtion using the principle or icast
dars, .md IUI1"r suuions about the Indian subcontinent ami other peoples of rime. 8:--: placing :1 graduclteli cylinder in water to measure the <Ingle ui'
antiquity. Some reg:ml him :15the founder ,)" geodesy because or his detailed i'ei'r:1Clilln nnd used chordx above sine function, he uncovered what later
and svstcmatizcd measurements of the features of Earth's surface and accu- b~'C:1I11eSllell"s 1:1\\- ifonly Ior small ~lngks where Ihe angles could be sub-
rate accounts of landforms anti features. I-Ie and other Muslim astronomers ~litLlled tor the sine. , lbn llayth.u» nlso studied I'L'I'r<ll'liull through gl:ISS
uncovered eastern and western lands previously unknown or the locutions of cylilllicrs and spheres, Iril'd to determine the Plano-convex lens' m;lgnifyillg
which had been confused as a result oferrors in longtitudinal calculations, AI- dlCl.'t. determined the ;m1111lIllof atmospheric refraction by measuring the
Biruni also discovered the sedimentary nature ofthe Ganges Basin along the Lbtancc of a fixed Sl:ll" lrorn the pole at the time 01' ih rising .uul at its zenith
Indian Ocean, conducted studies on the chcm ica) composition of IIIinernls. witl: the help of an <11111illaa. nl1ly7.cci thc phenomena l~rdawn alld twilight
and combined the sulfur-mcrcurv rhcorv.ofmctals with the theories of Axis- nml the apparent chanc-e ill the size of the Sun ~lI1dthe Moon 011the horizon,,
torlc and Thcophrustus. He l~uited Peripatetic pl~;s'i:s-~~~;I~~-q~';cst-I~~l--oT' ;1I1l1dctcIClliincclTI'i'5[ t\\iliglir clids whcrr thc Sun is 10t' below the horizon."
motion and place, the conrinuitv and discontinuity of matter and space, and Perhaps the poet. philosopher. und mathematician CihiY:llh al-Din Abul-
the elliptical shape ofthe heavens." Fath Umur ibn Ibrahim al-Nisaburi nl-Khayyurni. \\11L1 became known ill
Ion Sina, \\'hLJ wrote on mathematics. geology. philosophy. physics, and Europe as Ornar KlwYY:11ll, the author ofthe Rllh(i'Tl't/r, sllLluid also be men-
medicine, made ~1deep study of physics, One section of his second monu- tioned, His Ic\V' \\Titing::; were on science and philosophv. such as ,,1/-.1(//11:
mental work I":irab ol-SIIIN' (The Book of Healing), which was translated which deals with cubic and quadratic equations and criticizes Euclid's the-
into Latin as SII(licienriu, discusses medicine: physics. mathematics, logic, ory of parallels and ratios. His criticism of Euclid's theory of parallels In;
mineralogy, and other natural sciences. He agrees with his contemporaries been \\'idcly acclaimed as his most important work. ,-\s noted by Osman
that light travels from the object to the eye, Although he W<lS a universal Bakar, David Eugene Smith \\'ns the American historian of mathematics
scholar, his magnum opus is his Canon ot Medicine. in which he summa- who first brought attention to the importance of these' works on parallel lines
rized. for the first time. the principles of medical theory and practice <IS well when he stumbled on them while searching for the relationship between
as a description of meningitis and psychometric medicine. It was the chief mathematics and poetry',
medical text used in Europe for over five hundred years, as its author reigned According to Smith, al-Khuyyam presented the first criricnl investiga-
as the continent's supreme medical authority until the seventeenth century." tion of Euclid's theory of parallels in comparison with that of Girolamo
Ibn Haytham. described by some modern authorities as the greatest Saccheri. whose work is considered the first significant step in non-
medieval student of physics, wrote about two hundred works on physics, Euclidean geometry. Smith establ ished that Saccheris first couple of theo-
astronomy, medicine, and mathematics, His most outstanding and remark- rems are essentia!ly the same as some of al-Khayyarn 's propositi~ns, Not I
able work is Optics, which Roger Bacon used as the basis of his experiments only are the prootsand purpose for which they were put to use identical, but
in optics, He made significant contributions [Q the study of motion and dis- ~ they even have the same way of lettering some figures. Al-Khayyam reex-
covered the principle of inertia, as well as carried out experiments on the rec- t amines the fifth postulate of Euclid's theory of parallel line, which he
tilinear motion of light, the properties of shadows, the use of the lens, and f describes as, the "greatest doubtful matter in Euclidean geometry that has
f
:he cam,era obscura. In addition, he studie~ spherica,l ab~ITation and para-J never been proved," and then attempts to justify it by proposing and prov-
Dolle murors an~ reah~ed that all ~he rays in parabolic m,lITors ,are concen- ,& ing altogether eight theorems. In doing so, he criticized Ibn al-Haytham,
trated at one pomt, which makes It the best type of burning mnrors. Later:~ I who introduced the concept of motion of a straight line segment, which he
on, he became interested solving the problems of two points in a plane of/- regarded as a "more evident" postulate that employs the property of equidis-
circle with lines meeting at a point at the circumference and making equal, :'![I' , tance. Al-Khayyam rejected this concept because, according to him, there
angles that le~~ to fO,illth-degr~e eq~ations. H,e solved the equation with t~e"rJ : Was a clear distinction between Ibn Haytham's idea of motion of a line seg-
-,- --~ ~,~ •..l.p m rl'ltnntncs .made curved lens and mlf-",,'--'~: ment and Euclid's category of motions , He also questioned the possibility of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
r,o The ,'\I;l,Ti',lll Journnl o!' "1;lInic Social SciC:llces 27: I LIIIIll;lIl: '\11I,111ll' ;llld :-;cIClll': hi
(1 whole line moving .uul yet remaining normal to a given line and thus the ,li~Liplillecl global scholar) recognizes the proper places or thillgs ill tile
possibility of such :11I idcu of motion serving as a basis for uny proof of ,lilil1e ~cheille and has the ability to relate to all thillgs rh.u exis: ill ,I jllst
Eucl id 's lamous postulate. iil;II1I1Lr(ul- '(/(11) and with just and appropriate COlllPUI11llC:Illt al-adab; '
/,lIhuugh al-Kh:IYY:U11 faults some of lbn al-Haythams ideas, whell The above explanation indicates that the Islamic educational structure
dealing with the theory of ratios and proportions, he nevertheless borrowed ,,-'ek~ to produce a refined. cultured, and disciplined individual, one \\ ho 1::111
(rom the latter's icicas und made several contributions to this theory, which ;',' il1srnllllenl~d in restoring Islamic leadership and scientific. 11101·al.allli spir-
includes the development ofa new and more generalized concept OfilUlllbcr ;1lI,d I:ilue:; The definition of al-oclib or ,t!- '(11111/ (the learned and \\ ell-
by expanding the definition of Eudoxos through the Lise of continuous frac- !L'lilled scholar) can therefore be located in the qualities and l'iwrilclCl'isrics 01
tions :1:; a means 01' expressing a ratio. Hc explains that irrational ratios ,I \!uslilll scholar. According to al-Ghaza!i. the scholar's autonomy and indc-]
(those with nOll-:tcj·l1JinatiLlg_conti[luQu"'i_fractiQ\Y~.L(lJld_ tnll'_ 11Ull1p_Cr{~PQS.i.- pLnJelll;c .c1tego1izcs him/her as: an '(71111/ u/~,I'{I' (the evil LInd uncultured'
rive integers) can be placed on the same operational scale and, thus, almost ,c'illliar) or not. He upholds the scholars commitment to knowledge rcganl-
admits the irrational to the status of a number." :C'~~()t'reillunerl'ltion, love for teaching, nrtuchmcnt to nsccticisrn, anddisdain
Bused upon this small sampling of scholars. it is clear that Muslim ,;'r worldly attractions as sound qualifications of Islamic intellectualism.'
involvement in science h:lS a long history, Against this background, it is use-
tul here to examine rhe Islamic philosophy of education ami see whether The Islamic View of Education
what separates Islamic education from western education is the fact that one
Ihc goal of education, according to the Islamic understanding. i~ to icilL!
is religious and the other is secular. Or it is because one emanated from the
Muslim world while the other emanated from the western world? It is also humanity to become true '//1£ld.-I/I(lh (servants ofAllah). which is then trans-
;:Ill'd into khikltah. Thus the: search for knowledge is not essentially ti.w
not really the contents of the syllabi and the curricular that make one Islamic
and the other un-Islamic. Rather, the real difference between the two lies in m.ucrinl pursuits, but rather tor divine pursuits and the attainment of pcrfec-
their goals, epistemological foundations, principles, and philosophies. uon. orderliness, and balance: in creation. Knowledge. therefore, is meant to
According to Hisharn Nashabi. the various te1l11Sused by Islamic schol- -crvc humanity as part of creation."
This is the crux of the mattt'r.because Islamic education is a means 0t'
ars to refer to Islamic education are vague and do not reflect any Islamic the-
ory of knowledge. 1-' This debate is very important, because the entireIslamic .n.hieving a type of human development thur is indispensable tor eliruinar-
educational structure rests upon it. Muslim scholars have used different ing backwardness and ignorance and must. while maintaining its essence
terms to refer to Islamic education, such as 'allama (be taught), rabba (he ,lilt! values from the Quran and Sunnah, also be rooted in acquired knowl-
nurtured), and adabba (he trained), Such terminology retlects the compre- ,'Jge. Ishaq Farhan notes this point when he observes that Islamic education
hensiveness and richness of the Islamic science or theory of knowledge a~ld ~ i~ comprehensive and not synonymous with religious education alone, In
explains the holistic perspective of knowledge as well as the process of other words, Islamic education does not refer to an educational system thatIts ,
transmission. In Islam, 'allama is used in reference to God and revealed 1 lrJins the body just for its survival, but to a system that trains the body and
knowledge to reflect the divine purpose in instructing and guiding hwnan- ! the soul in line with Islam's moral ethics. The Islamic educational system,
ity so as to ensure success in this world, f. Iherefore, seeks to impart all courses and branches of knowledge, whether
The term rabba, on the other band, implies nurturing and grooming a _ f they are secular (understanding the universe, human society, or nature) or
that, o~:·:;~ti religious (understanding the revealed sciences, which are based on Islamicperson from the stage of nothingness, weakness, and incapacity to
I prinCiples, philosophies and objectives)."maturity, power, and competence. Hence it is used in the Qur'an in relatlo.?:i~~
to raising up children through their formative years to adulthood (17:24 aI1~21~.d Sayyid Ali Ashraf, first secretary of the 1977 Makkan Conference on
26: 18), Adab, however, reflects the culmination learning and the transrni~~ Islamic Education, described this as the Islamic character of all branches of
thp np,-fprt man (ol-insdn al-kdmili, in the words-:ij~ l~aming.~J According to Tetsuya Kitaji, the objective of the Islamic educa-~;~~ ~f.' lm,.m,l"rlC'Tp _
-.\ .... tion::!] """.",..., ;" tA h,,,,..,,,f,..,.....,, " dllrlpnt inrrv an Ixlarrrir; individual throuzh the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
h2 ThL' .vmcrican Journal of Islalllic 'Sll(ial ~(icl1n:s 27: I l 1i1!1l,1Il: \ 111,;1im. ~lIld SCiCIlL'C' h.~
process or il1lparting knowledge." For instance. when we talk of Islamic Based on what hus been ~aid abcx e. iuunanity is duty-buun.! l(l \\U;·" lor
banking ,IS a brunch of knowledge, we are, in ctlccr. referring to illlpal'ling rhc sustainab!c development ofull naturul. human, and non-humnn rcsourcc-,
the knowledge of ,1 modern bunking institution rh.u follows Islamic teach- .uul to ensure that none 01' them is clcgr;ldcd. wasted, or exploited. In short,
ings, such as the principle of not dealing with interest. Likewise. wheli we Islal11cnjoil1~ the lype 01' ~lIst,lin,lbk development uuu can b,~ ,1li,lilh:d 0111:'
talk or Islamic, geology. ecology, or environmental science. we (Ire dis- \\'Ill'n people mow beyond physical ;lI1d material development ill orderto
cussing the study ofthese secular sciences tron: Islamic perspectives. include moral and ethical development. Th is means thut material ndvuncc-
Islam stares rh.u Allah created human beings ;lS His k17I1/(//(I' (rcpresen- mcnr must not be just un end in itself: rather, rc,lIi/illg and promoting moral
t.uivcx) III work for the sustainable development of the universe. their and c~hical values ill all material and physical dcvelnplllelllllH/:,tl;,e 11lJI11'"~!
11111111(/11(commuoiry). and other IIIII/Jloh.\', The concept of /;/11)(7/017 .cl,ictates irys fundamental objective when It comes to usrng <JnL!expklrlllg nature .
that ,1/1people engender the wellbeing and happiness at' humanity. animals, resources, . . ,.,' . '
and other constituents of this world's biodivcrsuy to ensure their happiness The rejection or ncglect of this philosophy. upon which Islamic science
in the Hereafter. In creating this sustainable development. the ecosystem is based. has precipitated the ongoing crisis, chaos. and sutlcring ill IhIC
must be protected and its natural resources and creatures must be sustained world despite our scientific ;1I1c1technological advancement RL'\.'\lgnil.illg
ill a wholesome 111;1I1nu,Hence' . John Esposito opines that Islam's view of this truth and its connection with Islamic science and lsi.uuic cducuuon.
11l1l11,lnresponsibility is cosmic in proportion and that. as a result, people wil] i'vluslill1 scholars agreed on the need to cstublisl: international l-Iarnic uni-
be judged on the cosmic consequences of their actions." According to a versities for the academic study of Islam so th:u the dilemma created by
prophetic hadirh: "There is none among the believers who plants a tree, or the current bifurcation in science and education e,1I1be nddresscd as a whole.
So\I5 a seed, and then a bird or a person or animal eats of it, except that it is This bifurcation had led to gr,ldu;ltes of secular institutions \Ihl) C:1Ilnrticu-
regarded as all act of charity, ..:,' Thus each Muslim is responsible for the sus- late such modern concerns as human rights. pluralism. giL1b,1Iiz<ltion, and
tainable use and cultivation of the ecosystem. The proper use of natural equality without having any knowledge of the traditional Islamic sciences.
resources (e.g .. water. land, trees. and air), as \\,\,:11as the proper disposition as well as graduates of traditional institutions who are well-: erscd in the tra-
and utilization of the benefits 0'0111animals, plants. birds, insects, fish, and ditional sciences but hale 110 grasp the intricacies of the nbox e-mcruioncd
other mammals in the ecosystem. is a religious obligation. All of these crea- modem concerns. In an attempt to end this bifurcation, the: "Islamization of
tures use the ecosystem like human beings, since' they constitute Ifl}IIlIO/7S in knowledge" school sought to overcome the inadequacies otborh institutions
their own right (6:3 8). so that no more half-baked intellectuals and westernized \[uslims who
ThiS responsibility is not limited only to humanity's benefit, for it is also became authorities on Islam would be produced."
a right of all other members of creation. Thus the Prophet commands Mus- , According to Fazlur Rahman (d. 1988), these epistemological inadequa-
Iims to sustain growth even if they can see no benefi ts coming from .suc h [ cies can be overcome bv nurturing the growth ofa zenuine. encinal. and a}e-
actions. As one prophetic hadith states, when the Day of Judgment comes, I quate Islamic intellect1.~alis111,:' a~l int~lectLialism ~hat is the product of 1C
the person who 'has a palm shoot in his/her hand should plant it, and who- I now WIdely accepted "Islamization of knowledge' school. Such an Isla 11-ever brings a piece of dead land to lite will receive a reward, All of the I ization seeks to bring modern science's epistemological and philosophicalecosystem's natural resources and creatures contribute to nature's growth in foundations in line with Islam's teachings and principles by calling for an 311-one way or another, For instance, the sailor the land that Allah has laid down embracing study of secular sciences and their applications based on revealed
(55:10) is undoubtedly a source of life for everything and everyone. Just as knowledge - in other words, the integration of revealed and acquired knowl-
water is both pure and an agent of purification, it is also a source of life for edge, Many Muslim scholars who have combined both types of knowledge
dead land and a drink for animals (25:48-50 and 80:24-32). It is the same are now 011 the scene. Described as "new intellectuals," they are distinct from
,:.L -:- •••t..:nt.. ;r )..."th nllrp ~nrl an agent ofourification, as well as a source the traditional ulama and the westernized Muslim intelligentsia. In their new
, r-: .• :";~- ~+ ,,..,,,r/prnitv hence of education and Islamic studies, all knowl-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
h..j lhe .vmcricun Journ.r] or 1,;1:lIllic S<lci:!1 SCiL'IlCCS 27: I L 1/1111:111: \lil:" im-, :llld SCi\,'IlCL' h5
Out of this. us claimed by Amidu Snnni, came the idea to create a new purer science. banking and finance, actuarial science, and other subjects.
kind of school. a hybrid at' mudrusnh and universiry. the main goal of which Upon their graduation. they arc awarded combined honors dcgrees in
would be to produce homo /S/W1/;t'II.1', all educated modern ivluxlirn who, Islamic studies with any of the above-mentioned subject disciplines. These
whatever his/her field of expertise. would view what he/she sees and till' cOlllbinations arc designed to- produce scholars who possess <\ professional
knowledge thai he/she acquires through the lens of Islamic teachings and and basic knowledge of their secane! field of study. Consequently students
principles. Tile products of (his new movement would emerge as prorcs- who have registered Ill!' the 8.Sc. combined honors in Islamic studies will
sionuls who would be fully capable of showing Islam's excellence and capa- be exempted from ~dl genel';]I courses on the philosophy of [slam and begin-
bi luy to respond to the challenges of western-style modern ity. This approach ncrs Arabic. for they arc expected to study such subjects as part of their core
was adopted by llUi'vl: the International Islamic l.nivcrsity, Pakistan; CUll.: courses in Islamic studies. This brings us to the general courses on philoso-
a'ne! other Islamic universities 'and applied to the-scientific' study of Islam: phyof Islam and-beginners Arabic-that, in addition to the-above. have been
based on an adequate conceptualization of Islamic epistemology and gave taught at the nascent CLl:-\. for four academic sessions. In fact. the univer-
birth to the lslnmizntion of knowledge movement. sity has just graduated its first student class. "Philosophy of Islam I .md ~..
Based 011 the need to recapture Islamic intellectualism, as defined and and "Arabic for Beginners I und J," which constitute the cornerstone of the
articulated at the first and subsequent conferences 011 Muslim education. university'S vision, philosophy, and mission, are taken by all students 'I
IIUi\I, for instance, teaches traditional sciences (e.g.. usiil ul-diu. [iqh. In addition to attending classes, during which the students are exposed!
Qurun, and the Hadirh literature) and secular subjects in an integrated cur- to [slam's principal teachings ill order to develop the ski lls required for a
riculum. This resulting exposure to a broad, balanced. and holistic curricu- critical study of the Islamic texts and applying Islam in their everyday lives
IUI1lnot only orientates the students toward memorizing and reporting the and professions, the students, the majority of whom arc born-or-raised-in-
Islamic theoretical heritage, but also toward methodological gathering, ana- . Nigeria Muslims, are able to relate what they learn to what they experience
lyzing, q uestioning, and critiquing of Islami c texts and contemporary issues. in their various religious and cultural settings. Most of the recent graduates
The curriculum enables them to relate the sacred to the profane, theory to have related that the teaching and learning of this broad and intellectual
practice. and the rei igious to the secular. Islamic curriculum in the "Philosophy of Islam I and 2" classes grounded
At IlUM, the Islamization of knowledge methodology requires all sru- them in issues affecting Islam, modernity, and modem technology.
dents to major in one of the traditional sciences and minor in any of the In general, the courses provided them with a detailed study of Islam. its
social sciences or humanities. For example, they may combine Islamic law law andsources, Sufism, jihad, textual study of the Qur'anand Hadith. and
with common law or specialize in finance, which includes Islamic finance Islamic thought (focusing on major developments in Islam) from the time of
as part of the core courses. These major and minor courses constitute core the Prophetto the present day. The philosophy courses also exposed them to
university requirements designed to realize IllTiYl's well-defined goals, Islamic practices in a multicultural and multireligious setting. Students say
vision, and mission. The university seeks to become a center of excellence that they can now better engage with global issues affecting Islam and
that integrates revealed knowledge in all disciplines in order !o restore the Muslims by critically using the tools of philosophy, sociology, psychology,
rich Islamic heritage and its leading role in all branches of human knowl- theology and other multidisciplinary approaches that are essential for the
edge, as well as to commit staff members and graduates to revitalizing the study ofIslam and inter-religious dialogue, Muslim-Christian relations, fem-
Islamic concepts and traditions oflearning and seeking knowledge as an act inism, gender studies, Islamic history, and so on.
of worship. Its teaching and learning processes seek to inculcate moral, spir- The vast majority of CUA students are Muslim. They are mostly born-,
itual, and scientific values through integration, Islamization, international- or-raised-in-Nigeria individuals who, to use Seyyed Hossein Nasr 's cate-
ization, and comprehensive excellence." gorization, do not hesitate to break Islamic injunctions concerning such
The experience at CUA is similar, for it is currently teaching Islam both questions as sexual behavior or drinking alcoholic beverages and who, while
",1 .,
• + _ •• _1.:. __ ,,-,:_.__ {"\•...~...:i ....••..••.,.... rn"rlprn;'7f'n still concern themselves with Islam and its history." They study
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN L BRARY
h() The .'\I1lC'ril'~111 -"'llrnal ill' 1,lalllie Sociu] S,'i,'IICl':S 27: I I 111111:11.1\1:(hliI1b '111" :-;,'i~I1l'l' 117
lslarn in addition to their professional training, This expl:lins why their Ilicking: of i'viuslillls into one 1,1\'gegroup ,11' another ,11' ~Isingle pack,lge (,1~
uttachmcnt to Islam, again quoting Nasr, remains little more th:1I1a name and i:, currently prevalent in the \ISSN) contradicts the complexity of Muslim
is devoid or any intellectual and spiritual truth," l'I'~1l'i1ces wi tnesscd today."
Thro Igh the opportunities provided al the university, these modernized This elective approach must be employed to select from both the trudi-
Muslim students state that they can relate what they learn to what they expe- lillll,t! Islamic ethical principles and modem secular sciences that which i:~
rience in their various religious :1I1dcultural settings, They arc taught in the lll\1st sound and COITect, and then used to weld both types of kno\\\cdge
classrooms and also practically by experiencing Islamic rituals and practices [,)gerher to 1()!'In an Islamic intellectual structure. This approach. which will
in the university ;1I1dother communities. The "Philosophy of Islam" classes L\J1,,~e srudcnts to a broad, balanced, and holistic curriculum, \Viii inculcate
introduce them to Oricntalism. in which they examine the issues or otheriz- III :;ttlllcnls the ability to relate the sacred to the profane, theory to practice.
ing and insider/outsider problems associated \vi.th academic st1ldy oJ I;;Izj))L .uul th-e- .r.c- l_...i..u. io.n.-s to' . the ..s. ecu-lar...... The 'L- ;oalis to -i' ntcz•..r.. -nre . rev., ea-led - k_..now kdQ"- C
Against the background of the Muslim Students Society of Nigeria into :111disciplines in order to restore- Islam's rich heritage and leading role ill
(\·ISSN), which is very strong in Nigeria" and with which most students ~illbranches ofhurnan knowledge and its conunitmcnt to revitalizing 1s1,11ll'S
come into contact during: their academic career. students are taught to recog- l,thic~11concepts and traditions of learning ~11ldseeking knowledge as an act
nize popular assumptions ~1I1dstereotypes about Islamic teachings and the tli'Wl)rship, This is how Islamic univcrsuics can help modern science stop the'
difference between Islamic teachings and popular biases about them that degradation, destruction. ,1I1d exploitation of the environment. nnnuul
affect a non-Musl im 's perception of Islam, One such assumption that has resources, and other constituents of biodiversity. Given that many profcs-
been propagated among \.ISSN members is the non-importance of educat- sionals, despite their acclaimed technical, economic. and scientific achieve-
ing women." mcnts. have brought about such damage due to their unethical behavior,
The students. therefore, learn to use their insideroutsider perception of i instilling ethics within them wil] help solve these very problems,;
Islam and Muslims as a tool with which they can question cultural beliefs For instance. Abdul Kabir Solihu has shown that natural disturbances.
and lenses in order to see the positivity, of the other side, They learn to move which are erroneously depicted by some disaster analysts as "wicked" disas-
beyond their cultural. media, western. or traditional lenses of viewing tel'S, aside from alleviating the hunger and thirst of all creatures and endow-
Islamic teachings, not to mention their consequent biases, likes and dislikes, ing the universe with the capability to sustain human, non-human. and all
and to see the creativity. novelty, and diversity that can be brought to bear other constituents of the universe's needs. do not equal the death toll from
upon them by different practitioners, communities, generations, and age mall-made disasters, Even such occurrences as death. a di vine natural rneans
groups, In other words, they begin to perceive the dynamics and intricacies of maintaining balance in the world, do not equal the death toll from 1113n-
involved in interpreting what is liakil or haram, obligatory or voluntary, and made disasters, W11en hUI11:Jnbeings tamper with the natural means of main-
recommended or frowned upon in different contexts, Thus they learn how taining balance in the world and the sustainabiliry of all beings, catastrophic
stereotypical images of Islam and Muslims can be framed. as well as t disastersof unimaginable magnitude are intlicted on the entire environmentf
Orientalized and etherized. ~ and its differing and teeming communities, This CRn be seen in the fact that
One such image is that of Muslim women who wear the niqiib, hijab, or fr such man-made disturbances as war, weapons of mass destruction. toxic
even the ordinary Islamic scarf As aresult, students realize that it is wrong ~ waste, pollution, disease, global warming, desertification, soil degradation,
~'
to see a sea of Muslim women covered up, as there are Muslim women who ! and erosion are now gradually destroying the ecosystem's equilibrium, The
do not cover, The fact that some of them cover for non-political reasons emergence of modem technology and industrialization marked the beginning
reveals the error of interpreting any of these methods of covering as a polit- jt of the modem era's ecological problems, The inventions of science haveical, cultural, or religious statement. It is pure ignorance of the complexities made war, a potent medium of earth degradation, even more horrible and Iof Islamic practice to, imagine that women who cover do so for similar rea- destructive, as the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made clear.":
rAn" 1\T"t ""1,, ;C CIlf'h ~ nntinn pthnnrpntJir., a<; similar reasons could be "t3.i This unwholesome development for the entire biosphere is the fallout of
,'r- l' .t •. ..t::. :_l
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hl)
l,'cllJn~lll: \lu,;/iJ11s and Science
(1S The .vmcrican Journal of Isl:lIllie Sue :11 Sciences 27: I
ultcrance, and/or behavior that benefits creation at large (2: 177 and 1~():
industry. For example. the failure of large corporations can be traced to
3: 192), Based on these verses, goodncss implies that fuith and piety arc
financial tiascos or result in huge financial losses and the erosion of public
meaningless unless they cause a person to retrain from harmful. and there-
confidence in the financial system. The scandals that have rocked the finan-
cial markets have enabled many chief executive officers and managers or Illre undesirable, acts to lllleselfand to orhcrs. As a result ofthis ulldersl:1I1d-
various Iiuns to make huge fortunes at the expense of their clients, some of ing. averting harm takes prccedence over acqu iri ng bcncf t, ~lIld so :111human
:1Ctions that lead to the abO\'e-mcntioned problems and harm others (c.g.,
whom lost their life savings. All such things arc indications of unethical con-
economic fraud and scams. environmental damage, ami pollution) arc lor-
duct in financial murkets.' In addition, since these scandals have called the
ethics or top management's financial behavior into question, there is a seri- bidden regardless of the personal gains that accrue to their perpetrators.
ethical' behavior purr of Given that ethics asks value-laden questions and is gl'Ounded ill logicous need for 011 the professionals in the financial
industry, si nee it cannotfunctionwithout. uansparcncy.-j ustice. ' and- pru- al,lL! rC;1S0n" it.is.considered.a branch.of philosophy. Although many scholars
dence. For this reason, in the remaining sections I will assess Islamic teach- have argued that teaching ethics must be left to philosophy and not idcnti-
ings as they affect professional ethics. the svllabi's contents and contexts, tied with any religion, the unethical conduct of many pmkssion:1is today
and the curricula used in Islamic universities like IIUr-·! and CUA. show that it is very difficult to remain incorruptible and moral in moments
of conflict and selfish interests. No matter the regulations put ill place. many
people would refuse to cheat and defraud if they had even ~111iota of doubt
Ethics and Morality that they would be caught. Thus, moral precepts can best be illcuic:lted
\\'hilc the tenus ethics and moralitv are used interchangeably in daily con- through religion and faith.
versation. ethics (from the Greek ethos) refers to J set of behavioral precepts, Moreover, it is incorrect to claim that logical and critical methods are
principles, and concepts that are central to the life of a community, people, taboo in Islam. for while this might be the case in some P,1I1Softhe !\Iuslim
and race. Moraliry, on the other band, is derived from the Latin II 10 res , which world, it is not the case with Isl::l111itself Islamic scholarship has alwavs I
refers to the peoples' conduct, practice. and custom." Tn short, ethics is the upheld intellectual honesty, integrity. and objectivity as pans of its essentia]
theoretical study and reflection of morality: it asks value-laden questions so and core tradition. Therefore. contemporary Islamic scholarship must con-
as to establish normative concepts and precepts for morality or human front theological postulations on larger sociopolitical, economic, and envi-
behavior and conduct." ronmental issues (viz., feminism, peace and contlict studies. citizenship.
Muslim scholars have used different terms to. refer to both ethics and envirolUnentalisl11, inter- and intrareligious dialogue, and so on). This is in
morality: kliulq (conduct), tadrib (training). and adab (etiquete)." These line with the methods of deduction employed by those Muslims who first
words reveal the comprehensiveness, richness, and holistic perspective developed Islamic intellectualism. so many centuries ago. These methods
of ethics and morality in Islam. Khulq describes a person's innate character include jaded (debate and dialectics) and miuuicatali (disputation and intel-
and behavior, just as khalq denotes its outer attributes (e.g., shape and phys- lectual discussion), which provided the intellectual atmosphere for the
iognomy). In this sense, Prophet Muhammad used akhltiq, the plural form growth and proliferation of over a hundred schools of thought. Most of them,
of khulq, when be dec lared that part of the divine purpose in sending him as , however, died out when they ceased to produce scholars who could defend
a prophet was to perfect good morals by letting his people observe his per- their jmisprudential differences (khi16f).~; The sources of the Shariah imasti-
sonal conduct." Iadrib and adab, on the other hand, imply disciplining, dir al-SharL'ah or u:jii.l al-Shariaht include legal deduction (ijtihtic/) as sanc-
training, nurturing, and grooming a person in hislher mind, soul, and out- tioned by the Prophet himself when he appointed Mu' adh ibn Jabal governor
ward disposition. Hence Hamilton Gibb considers adab to be a synonym of of Yam an. In addition, Umar ibn alKhattab also gave the judge Shuray a~l
Sunnah," which accords with the hadith narrated by A'isha that the Prophet's Kindi a similar sanction when he ordered him to find what is obvious to hit
khulq represents the Sunnah as the Qur'an in practice." ",' in the Qur'an before ruling on any matter and not to ask anybody about it."
One of the fundamental teachings of Islamic ethical behavior is the con- ·c· t. t There is, therefore, a need to keep philosophy in the curriculum of th~
_.~ 4' ~ .' , .l: .•._. -l
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
slurnic L !~~;;L:!l:'.!.', ::I!' .lli',! -. •..1..·.1..1\ •iI 1";,,' \llll'ri<:~"1 .lourn.rl <Ii"l ~u<:i~1iSClc'I1,,', :-: I
CUllllHlInilies. These univ er:;ities must also enable :-.tutienh di:;cUI cr IIlh) they
with routing the philosophers, supported what can be termed {U/i'11" hi ct!- .rrc. where they live, aIll! how to live a life ol'godlincss. One important lac-
iSlillh(11 (the 1:lcililies of deduction or person:" opinion). which today are
tor noted in the teaching ofIslnmic ethics is the inclusion of ethics. I11U1"al-
I icwcd us the modernists prerogative. He upheld the deductive method ir.. logic, philosophy, and criticul lhinking in their curriculum, a~ such a step
because most ,)1' the sayings oflbn Abbas and Ibn Masud were bused on
11:\:; cl)(1tl"ibutcc.i to the students prokssional, mural. ami ethical training,
these two Iacilitic-; which caused them to sometimes hold irreconcilable
\ie\\s on various Yet the Prophet asked Allah to gr;lIIt Ibn Abbas a rcg:II'dJcss of their eventual prnlCssil)ll.\\~f·SCS. This approach affords students the opportunity ofbeing brought up \\itil
clear comprehension 01' Islam and knowledge or various methods of inter- bl:ll11ic ethics and immersing themselves in Islamic practice ,IS \\,~II ,I:;
prctaiion.' According to Nnsr, nl-Ghazul i used this same method io defcnd ~ollnd scientific, social science, bll~inesscducation, and other fields.
Islam against the philosophers themselves, and so they can be used to pro-
teet Isl~\Il1's truth .uul repel all attacks bunched against it."
Endnotes
Conclusion. I. Kjlliiil<.1ccil13~1/(igmi,"Ishiil :rild \\"orld Peace:' 41 st lnaugurul i:.eClure: (.-\gll-
i\luslim contributions to science, made during Europe's medieval age, have lwoyc: Olabisi Onnbanjo University. 20(6), -1--1O.
been 111,1I1Yand varied. The continuous - and laruelv man-made destruc- -, Ibrahim Olutundc Utlunan. '"Tl)\1:1I"d~i'vi<lking lslumic SCiCl1lilic worldvic.v>-
t .' '- ••• . Relevant to ContempLlrary \\'CSICIll Science and Technology," in CD Confer-
lion 01' both human and natural reSOLll"CCShas posed new challenges to cncc Proceedings of lnrcmarionul Seminar on Islamic Science and TCL'llIll)")g~
Islamic universities. One of the ways to meet such challenges, gi\"Cn their organized by Centre tor Islamic Studies and Social Development. Uni I cr~i\:-
status as specialized institutions with niche areas, is to focus on teaching Technologi iVi:llaysia, from I~-10 \ 1:\1". 20n~, pp. 1-7.
Islamic professional ethics. ,
-' Bernard Lewis, The vluslu» Discoverv o( Europe (!\CIY York and L,"\l1liL)IL.
The experience of IlUivl and CUA in the context of our interest in this \V.w. Norton and Co., 1982) Citcd in ibid.
article - the contribution of Islamic universities to ethics - shows how stu- -1-. See D. M. Dunlop, Arabic Science ill the J Iesl (Karachi: Pakistan H istorical
dents are being groomed to practice what they learn in a practical manner. It i· Society, 1958). Cited in ibid.
must be c learly stated, however, that off Cling ethical values in the curricula ). Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Scienc« uiu! Civilization ill Islam (Pakistan: Science
is only half of the solution; other factors that are required to make these eth- Academy, 1968). Cited ill ibid.
6. \lohamad Sharnsher, The Chartered Secretarv.' orMalun. ia (Austrnl ia) 5-1-,11l1.ical elements effective and work in the university, which have yet to be I
addressed, include the commitment of the university's staff members and 7 (March :2005).iYlohammau Shamseher, Jouruul or Chartered SecrefOries (Australia) 5-1-, no.
managers. For instance, all students are expected to paI1ake in various lead- 7. 7 (August 2002).
ership and training sessions dealing with how to apply what they have been 8. Karnil K. 01050, "Contributions of Muslim Scholars to \\'~Sle\ll Education"
taught in real life. But because these are extra-curricular activities, the atti- (paper presented at the Uv[A0iA:VlIS Education Conference at the Islamic
tudes of the university's staff members and managers will determine the Mission for Africa Centre, Abeokuta. 24-25 Feb. 2006).
extent of their success. Each staff member and manager can playa signifi- 9. A. Mustapha, "Sabotage ill Patronage: Islamic Education under Colonial Rule
cant role in encouraging students to behave ethically in all of their academ- in Nigeria," Journal of the Nigerian Teachers of Arobic and Islamic Studies 6,
ic, formal, and official, as well as extra-curricular, unofficial, social, individ- no. 2 (2001).
ual, and informal, interactions with fellow students, by ensuring strict and 10. See Muhammad Iqbal, The Construciion of Religious Thought ill Islam
firm development and the continual cultivation of allethical codes. (Lahore: Sheikh Muhammad Ashraf, 1975),
II. Maurice Bucaille, TIle Bible, the QlII" 'an, and Science (Indianapolis: American
The first step of Islamic universities in this direction, therefore, is to Trust Publications, 1979).
educate the students' hearts and minds in order to awaken their Allah- 12. Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam.
consciousness and awareness of their responsibilities to humanity's welfare 13 . See ibid and N. Ahmed, Muslim Contribution to Geography (Lahore: Muharn-
and human civilization starting with their selves, families, relatives, and .d mad Ashraf, 1947).
""
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fi
t
Ltlun.m: .\ t:lu,llllb ;Illd SeIL'II':e
7~ The: ..vmcric.ru .Il)lIl"11:iIof "Iallli.: SU':I:!1Sciences ~7: fI tr, I
,f" 'iu,';I,lin,lblc Dc\'eillpillellt." "IIIIt'J'iCU/I .lournct! ,,1/I/Ull/it' .)·()ciul'Scil'IICL'.I' 2-1.
I-L Osman Hakar, 71I.I J'hid <II/(/ Science: Essavs Oil the Historv (/1/(/ Philosoph.\' oj ,
lslani«: Science' (Kuala Lumpur: Secretariat Ill!' Islamic Philosophy and Sci. " 1111. I (II inter 20(7). -10-72.
cncc, University of Mnlaysia, 1991) and N'N. Science aucl Civilizution, 212. 'iil:lilbiler. ThL' Churt''/'L'd Sccrciarv o!'.\/u/tn:"i".
;.l, Ihclhilll OI;lluncie Uthman. "The Conrributiun- nl'I:-;lalllic LJnil'crsilics to Prof-
1.5. IbiLi.
c~,ill\wl Ethics: f\ elSC Study of the hucnuuiunul hlamic University \1;iI,ly~i'l
1(, Ibid. ;llld CrC~L:L:llt Uni\'crsity ,-\bcukut;l," in CIIII/tn'IICt' Pmcl'l"lill,'.!,.I' III' inter-
17. Ibid. .'Iol
IS. 1-li~Il<11lN1 ashabi. "Islam and the Liberal Tradition," in The l.iberal Ans and io
/lul C(}/I/i!rl:!lIcl' 11I1 tslumic Pm/t'ssio/llil Crllics aiul Ed/lct/lilill ::I){IS
(llEN-E'OS) organized bv Kultiyynb of EngiIOccring, International Isl:i\llic
IIII:' Future ofHighc: Education ill the .\Iidd/,' E<I.I'I tBcirur: American Univer-
sity of Beirut, I 3-1, L:nilcrsity Malaysi« held from 13-15. ~I,IY 2()n~.97l)),
.;11, T. P.Hughes .. -1Oicuonarv (I//swm (Lahore: Premier Book House. I~~~) ;IIlJ
19. i'vluh<lll1ll1:1d Naquib al-Attas, The Concept 0( Education ill Islam (~lIala
-f\.,lull<lllll.md ,aL-.Gh'l7.;JJi ,al-lvlisri. ,l/lISlilll Clluructer (Jeddah: l\'il1'g Fuhd
l.unipur: ISTAC. 199H 22.
20, Cited in Ibid. N,ltion;ll Library, ::'00 I)
21. Ibid. -II, Ibid.
11 lshuq Farhan, "Towards the Construction ora Contcmpornry Educational The- -l~. Ibid.
ory," in Education Cnl1/2'reIlCL' Book (Amman: Islamic Studies and Research, -t..'', Ibid.
1(91), 15-16. i-t. Ibid,
-I~. G. Makdisi. The Ris« ot Colleges: lnstinuion« oj'LL'lIl'11illg ill lslcnn "lid tl/('
23. Sayyid Ali Ashraf "Islamic Education: Evaluation of the Achievements of
ll~'sl(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 19::;1). 105-33. -t.
Previous Conferences." ibid" 74.
-Ih. Muhammad Abu Zahrah. Uy/71 ai-Fiqh. as quoted in Mustapha Hussain
2-1. Tetsuya Kitaj i, Is/all lit' Iersus Modern II es/L'I'II Education (Japan: Institute of lsmail. Shari'ah Sources and th« Dctcnc« uj' l/iJ/IIl'!7.~ Rights, cd . Jibrin
ididdle Eastern Studies, International University of Japan, 1990). Ibrahim. ShariaPcual and FOIl1ih' [£III'S ill .VI~\!I!/'iu and in the vtuslin: l/i}/'/d
25. John L. Esposito. Islam: The Straight Path (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
199-1). (Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Pr~S5 LLd., 200-10, 1-13.
-17. l\.l. Amin Abdullah. "Unilersity Teaching Islamic Studies. Humanities and
26. Sa~Ii~1 al-Bukluiri cited in Uthman, Towards Making Is/tunic Scientific
/I orldview. Social Sciences at the International Level: All Intcg:r;lt~d Perspective" (paper
T], Onud Sari, ed. Progressive Muslims at the International Seminar on Universirv Teaching of lslumic Studies, Prince011 Justice, Gender. and Pluralism
(Oxford: Oneworld. repr, 2004), 19-20. ofSongkla University. Thailancl, 19-20 ;-"lar. ::'005).
28. Fazlur Rahman, Is/am and Modernity (Chicago: -IX. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Troditionul Islam ill tiu: sluslun ll()/'(d (London: KeganUniversity of Chicago Press, ;
1982), 1. ! P<lulintemationaL 1987),204-24. '
29. Amidu Sanni, "Rethinking and Repackaging Islamic Studies" (paper present- !
ed at the International Conference on New Horizons in Islamic Area Studies, ' ~
Malaysia 2008'., f,
30. IIutvI, Undergraduate Prospectus (2004), 9· ~O. f
31. See Crescent Universitv Students Handbook (2006). ~
32. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam and the Plight cf Modern Man, rev. and enlarged i
ed. (USA: ABC International Group, Inc. 20'01), 137 and 186. i'
33. Ibid. ~,
34. Ibrahim Olatunde Uthman, Muslim Women a/Nigeria and the Feminist Dis- t
course of Shaykh al-Albani (Malaysia: Intemational Islamic University, 2008)"
5,114, and 115. ':1i
35. Ibid.~"
36. Ibid. ;~. "
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