Malthouse
Foundations
of the
Social Sciences
, 0 o'"
*
Edited by
Ilufoye S. Ogundiya
&
.Iimoh Amzat
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Contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
Contributors
CHAPTER GENERAL SECTION
1. Elements of social scientific thought - 1
- Olusegun Moses Temilola
2. Social sciences: philosophy, thematics and methods - 21
- Sulaiman Y. Balarabe Kura and Hauwakulu M. Dantake
3. Fundamentals of health social sciences - 37
- Jimoh Amzat and Ali A. Abdullahi
4. Introduction to conflict studies - 57
- Gbemisola Abdul-Jelil Animasawun
5. Issues in population and development - 73
- Maimuna Bintu Hussain
SOCIOLOGY
6. Introduction to formal organizations - 89
- Dejo Abdulrahman
7. Introduction to demography and population studies - 115
- Ezebunwa E. Nwokocha
8. Realist and Nominalist traditions in sociological theorizing - 137
-Jirnoh Amzat, Femi Omololu & Ali A. Abdullahi
9. Social change: an introduction - 149
- Tukur A. Muhammad-Baba and Muddassir Ahmad Gado
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10. Political sociology - 173
-Ayokunle Olumuyiwa Omobowale, Olayinka Akanle,
Peter Damilola Adegoke and Isaac A. Adedeji
11. Social movements - 193
- Dejo Abdulrahman
12. Social policy, planning and administration: models and conceptual
perspectives - 207
- Hauwakulu M. Dantake
13. Social inequalities and social stratification - 235
- Tukur A. Muhammad-Baba and Hauwakulu M. Dantake
14. Introduction to social psychology - 257
- Muhammad T. Dansabo, Vincent Y. Akubor &
Muhammad B. Muhammad
:ake
POLITICAL SCIENCEAND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION -
15. History of political thought: conceptual scope, methodological
approaches and briefs on selected thinkers - 285
- Sulaiman Y. Balarabe Kura
16. Fundamentals of political behaviour - 323
- Ilufoye Sarafa Ogundiya
17. African political thought: approaches, context and themes - 351
- Sulaiman Y. Balarabe Kura
18. Introduction to comparative politics - 371
- Garba Bala Muhammad
19 Political Ideas: an introduction - 387
- Luqman Saka, Ebenezer E. Lawai, Adebola R. Bakare &
7 Oluwashina, M. Adebiyi
20 Introduction to Nigerian foreign policy - 407
- Mashood Omotosho
21 Introduction to public finance - 423
Gado
- Bayero B. Kasim
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22 Foundation of personnel management - 451
- Yahaya T. Baba and Abubakar Abdullah!
GEOGRAPHY
23 Introduction to geographic thought - 473
- Ibrahim Mustapha Dankani & Murtala M. Badamasi
24 Introduction to geosciences - 499
- Ibrahim Mustapha Dankani and Bayode Nathaniel
Eniolorunda
25. The synopsis of spatial organization of human society - 525
- Bolanle Joel Ajibuah & Olasunkanmi Gabriel Jeje
26. A concise introduction to biogeography - 543
- Ismaila Alfa Adamu
27. Environmental health and sanitation - 577
- Musa, Y. Fakai and Isah Hamisu
ECONOMICS
28. Introduction to micro-economics - 593
- Adegoke I. Adeleke & Adebowale M. Adeleke
29. Inflation, unemployment, stagnation and Phillips curve - 613
- Ekundayo Mathew Rotimi, Femi Modeyin & Ameh Itodo
Idoko
30. Principles of finance - 633
- Mika'i1u Abubakar
31 Elasticity and price mechanism - 655
- Ekundayo Mathew Rotimi, Obasaju Barnabas Olusegun
and Adedoyin Isola Lawai
32. Comparative economic systems - 689
- Rasheed Oyaromade
Index - 705
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Chapter 7
Introduction to demography and population
studies
- Ezebunwa E.Nwokocha
Introduction
Perhaps at no other time in history than now is the study of population more crucial.
The world population has hit the seven billion mark, and counting, despite the
&pletion of human communities through HIV/AIDS, high maternal and infant
mortality rate and conflicts in its several manifestations, particularly in Africa
(Population Reference Bureau 2012; Nwokocha, E.E. 2012a; Isiugo-Abanihe and
Nwokocha 2008)). The contradiction wherein high mortality-regime is occasioned by
increasing population suggests some in-built mechanism sustaining the fertility
momentum that readily diffuses the effects of mortality and emigration.
Understanding changes in population is essential for effective planning, allocation of
resources, determining population trends and making informed projections into the
future.
Yet, demography and population studies as a sub-discipline of sociology is either
less emphasized or not part 'of the curricula of most universities in Nigeria. This
indifference towards the discipline is partly due to the conception of population, in
some parts of Africa, as synonymous with fertility, which should not be discussed in
order not to violate the transcendental connotation of divine providence related to
child bearing. Indeed, it is quite difficult to state the precise date on which the formal
study of population began, but as Kammeyer and Ginn (1986:21) noted, the interest
in population issues generally is timeless:
It is fairly safe to guess that concerns about population and population size
predate historical time by hundreds of thousands of years. As soon as early
humans began to identify with their groups, tribes, or bands, they probably
started to have some concerns about the size and the future existence of
the group.
The early Chinese, Greeks and Romans attempted to understand the causes of
population growth or decline and its influence on society largely in terms of the
desired values. Thus initial approach of investigating population situation was crude
and devoid of validity and reliability. The scientific study of population was embraced
by seventeenth century scholars such as John Graunt and William Petty. Graunt for
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116 Foundations of the social sciences
instance took weekly reports of all deaths, arising from plagues, from churches in
London, number of births and the statistics of houses in England's capital for
estimates and projections (Kammeyer and Ginn 1986). With that came a paradigm
shift from un predictability to predictability, haphazardness to development planning.
For the most part, the standard of living among individuals in society is an index
of its level of development. Thus, knowledge of population issues related to size and
characteristics is important for adequate adjustment and re-adjustments that ought to
take cognizance of the resources available in the community in order to ensure
socioeconomic stability. It, therefore, means that collecting accurate data is essential in
achieving this. Although, the connection between reliable data and planning is well
established, most states in less industrialized parts of the world for ethno-cultural,
religious, political and socio-economic reasons undermine consistency of such data.
We note that information that is either suppressed or does not reflect the reality of the
context is almost as bad as information that does not exist.
To be sure, introducing a prospective population scientist to the field of
demography and population studies will enable him/her appreciate the forces and
dilemma that drive development and underdevelopment respectively. She or he would
likely quickly identify the pathways to contributing to the advancement of society on
one hand, and interventions that disentangle the contradictions of underdevelopment
on the other. Either way, population studies exposes individuals to a whole range of
insights necessary for development.
Basic concepts in population studies
This section examines five basic concepts in population studies. These include
demography, population studies, fertJHty. mortolity eivi migration.
Demography
Demography is defined as the scientific study of human population with respect to
size, structure and composition. Within this definition lie issues that require
clarifications. For instance, it is not sufficient to ascribe the scientific status to a
discipline or sub-discipline unless it employs the scientific methods of
experimentation, observation and fieldwork. It must emphasize the positivistic
outlook embedded in empiricism and discoverability. Achieving these scientific
virtues that abhor conjecture, intuition and introspection require focus on the modus
operandi for social scientists described by Isiugo-Abanihe (2000) as the norms of the
scientific community. These norms are universality, disinterestedness, orgenized
scepticism, comrnunslity eivi honesty.
The universality of the demographic science implies that given the same
conditions, the data collecting demographer will generate similar results irrespective
of the location of study. As a corollary, a trained demographer is not limited by space
but should have the ability to adjust effectively to different contexts without
compromising the quality of information to be collected. To be disinterested in what
becomes of the data collected for population analysis is to be steadfast and unbiased.
In that case, the data collector neither manipulates the data to be/or already collected
nor the persons from whom these data are to be elicited. She or he is not interested in
who becomes the respondent or participant and whether or not data affect 'significant
others' negatively. Rather, a sustained interest in ensuring validity and reliability of
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Introduction to demography and population studies 117
d ta must be a constant concern among fieldworkers notwithstanding misgivings,
:rsonal convictions and bias.
p The temptation among scientists to shout' eureka!' or 'I have discovered' is great,
especially due t? the recognition and respect acc?rded groun.d-b~eaking discovery in
the scientific CIrcles. However, demographers like other scientists are expected to
withhold approval until a claim to discovery has been thoroughly scrutinised and
accepted as valid. Before such scrutiny, practitioners of science should be sceptical or
ambivalent in responding to the claim simply by a gentle response 'Really?' In the
latter sense, the scrutinizer is supposedly open to the possibility of either confirming
the claim or discrediting it without apologies. The norm on communalism suggests
that a scientific discovery is a public good to be communicated to members of the
community through various means including publications, conferences, symposia,
workshops among others. The idea is to discourage seclusion, insulation, mischief and
falsity. Moreover, without experience-sharing among researchers, the tendency to
unwittingly re-invent the-will will be high with almost no further contributions to
knowledge. It is also inviolable to be honest in the course of scientific enterprise.
Honesty is required from the point of conceptualization, instrument-design, data
collection, analysis and report writing.
Other important elements in the definition of demography are size, structure and
composition. Population size refers to the specific number of people in a given state
like Nigeria estimated to comprise 170 million people (Population Reference Bureau
2012). Structure of population is mainly in terms of whether a population is young or
aged/aging. For instance, the 2006 Nigerian population census shows that about 42
per cent of the total population are children age 0-14; and more than half of all
Nigerians (52.4%) is age 0-19 years. The figure rises to over 60 per cent with the
extension of the age to 0-24 years (Isiugo-Abanihe, 2011). Population composition
involves variables like age, sex, marital status, education, occupation, religion and
place of residence among others that mainly act as independent variables in
demographic research.
Population studies
The focus on population size, structure and composition indicates the in-
exhaustiveness of demography in understanding the complex population issues in
relevant communities. Moving beyond such basic tripartite analytical description of
population features requires a deeper inquiry and explanation of why and how
identifiable characteristics are what they are in a given setting or in comparison to
other groups. For instance, instead of limiting an inquiry on population size at the
numbers say 170, 80 and 40 million for Nigeria, Ethiopia. and South Africa
respectively, a population scientist will rather be further interested in investigating the
reasons for these variations. The same approach goes for understanding the
differences among states in a country or local government councils within states.
These reasons may be related to cultural beliefs and practices, socio-economic,
religious, political and technological factors among others. A study by Isiugo-Abanihe
and Nwokocha (2008) among the Mbaise-Igbo, for instance, found that the Ewu-
Ukwu custom, which requires a prospective woman-inductee into their perceived
privileged group to have experienced at least ten pregnancies, was the single most
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118 Foundations of the social sciences
important factor responsible for high fertility in the area. Similar research is necessary
in explaining the structure and composition of populations.
Does it then mean that population studies is more important than demography?
No. It is rather appropriate to conceive of the two aspects of population knowledge as
complementary, as a part will present only an incomplete view of reality. Most times,
demography precedes population studies that, in turn, rides on the results of the
former as the basis of investigation. Indeed, a combination of these two components
contributes to a holistic understanding of the sub-discipline.
Fertility
Fertility is probably the most misunderstood concept among the three components of
population dynamics. The misunderstanding may be a function of the controversies
surrounding the definition of the term and the cultural conception of high or low
fertility among different people. More than that, in everyday usage, several individuals
conceive of fertility as the capacity to bear a child. However, a woman that is medically
certified as biologically or physiologically able to conceive a foetus is said to be Fecund
- not fertile. Demographically speaking, fertility is the actual reproductive
performance of a woman or a population - the number of live-births. Thus, stillbirths
and miscarriages are not inclusive in the definition. This definition also situates the
concept exclusively within the domain of feminity.
Attempts at expanding the meaning of fertility beyond its traditional conception
have since been made to include men, as literature now recognises both primary and
secondary infertility in both sexes (Adegbola 2007). To be sure, this extension focused
on biological capability and incapability to impregnate or conceive among men or
women respectively for which some forms of treatment were sought (Adegbola 2007).
While we are persuaded to accept the physiological conceptualizations that include
men, they are only related to fecundity or infecundity (Kammeyer and Ginn 1986).
The position of this chapter, however, is that the traditional definition that feminizes
fertility is most appropriate for proper understanding of the concept.
Determinants of Fertility
The determinants of fertility are relative to peoples and cultures and times in human
history. However, we adopt John Bongaarts' 1978 proximate determinants of fertility
thesis, which identified eight variables, as frame of reference. In what follows, we
present the factors.
a). Proportion of 111C1niedpeopJe - the assumption here is that couples in stable
relationships engage in frequent sexual intercourse that likely result in pregnancies
unless deliberate attempts are made to avoid conception. In other words, avoidance of
coitus or infrequent intercourse may undermine conception. This factor also assumes
that non-married people including never-married, co-habiting, separated, divorced,
widowed among other persons do not engage in regular coital activities. We note that
in some circumstances, individuals in other marital status categories engage in more
sexual intercourse than the manifestly married. With respect to adolescents and young
people, Munthali and Zulu (2007) observed that exposure to out-of-wedlock sex has
been on the increase and has accounted for high incidence of HIV in communities.
Nwokocha's (20 12b) study on youth culture using seven African countries and India
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Introduction to demography and population studies 119
corroborates high premarital sexual activities and low median age at sexual debut,
especially among females.
b). Contraception - described by Bongaarts as any deliberate attempt including
bstinence and sterilization to reduce the vulnerability to conception. Thus, any
aalculated practice that distorts the course of natural fertility is considered
~ontraception. We identify two types of contraception - the natural and artificial. The
natural methods include abstinence, billings and calendar rhythm (Centres for Disease
Control and Prevention 2000). The artificial methods include condoms, oral
contraceptives, injectables, norplant implant, female sterilization, vasectomy,
intrauterine devices (IUDs), lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), spermicides,
diaphragm among others (Hatcher, Rinehart, Blackburn, Geller & Shelton 2001; CDC
2000). According to the Population Reference Bureau (2012), the percentage of
women using all methods of contraception in selected countries include Nigeria 15,
Ghana 24, Niger 11, Cape Verde 61, South Africa 60, Afghanistan 23, USA 79, Canada
74, UK 84, Portugal 87, Malta 86 and China 85 among others.
c). Induced abortion - implies any deliberate act that interrupts the normal course
of gestation mostly undertaken due to unintended and unwanted pregnancy
experiences (Cu Le, Magnani, Rice, Speizer and Bertrand 2004). Yearly, an estimated
46 million women engage in induced abortion globally, with over 78 per cent of the
cases taking place in less developed societies. Most of these abortions are carried out
by quacks in unhygienic conditions (Nwokocha, Obono & Adedimeji 2007; Benson
2005; WHO 2004; Ahman & Shah 2002).
d). Lactational intecundebility' - before the normalization of ovulation and
menstruation following a pregnancy a woman will remain infecundable and unable to
conceive. The length of infecundity depends on duration and intensity of
breast feeding (Arkutu 1995;Bongaarts 1978).
e). Frequency of intercourse - the rate of sexual intercourse is strongly related to
the risk of pregnancy. Hence, temporary separation from spouses due to
circumstances like illness, official employment-related transfers and displacements
resulting from civil unrests and natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides,
famine among others impinge on the frequency of intercourse.
f). Sterility> normally, women are sterile before the onset of menstruation as well
as after menopause. In some cases, however, sterility may occur before menopause for
reasons not associated with contraceptive-related sterilization.
g). Spontaneous intrauterine mortslity - not all pregnancies end in live births.
Some result in a spontaneous abortion or stillbirth.
h). Duration of the fecund period - ovulation takes place for approximately two
days within the menstrual cycle. A woman is able to conceive only within this short
period oftime when both the sperm and ovum are viable (Arkutu 1995). Outside this
period, conception does not take place; therefore, a couple intending to bear a child
must recognize the importance of engaging in coitus at this appropriate time which
requires some measure of awareness to ascertain (McSweene 2006; Arkutu 1995).
Apart from these direct factors, socio-cultural variables such as poverty, level of
awareness of family planning methods, nutrition, access and use of maternal health
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120 Foundations of the social sciences
facilities, cultural beliefs and practices, low status of women among others contribute
significantly in determining fertility in relevant contexts (Nwokocha et sl. 2007).
Fertility concepts and measures
We now highlight some fertility concepts and their measurements. The concepts
include crude birth rate (CBR), general fertility rate (GFR), age specific fertility rate
(ASFR), total fertility rate (TFR), gross reproduction rate (GRR), and net
reproduction rate (NRR).
Crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of births per thousand in the population.
This rate is obtained by dividing the number of births in the population at a given
time of the year by the total population at that period (Newman & Matzke 1984):
CBR= Total live-births during a given period x K
Total mid-year population
The CBR does not consider specific characterizations within a population. It is
considered crude due to the emphasis on lumping of all aspects of birth together. Such
non-disaggregated measure indicates limitations in understanding variations that
could lead to important insights into the population situation of a community.
General fertIlity rate (GFR) is measured by the number of live-births per thousand
women divided by the number of females age 15-49:
GFR= Total live-births during a given period x K
Total number of females age 15-49
It is a more refined measure than the CBR because it relates births to an age-
specific group with a likelihood of giving birth. Thus, it is more indicative of changes
in behaviour than the CBR.
Age specific fertility rate (ASFR) is a relatively refined measure of birth rate. It
deals with the number of live-births among females of definite age groups in a given
year divided by the total number of females in the same age category per thousand:
ASFR = Total live-births to females age 25-29 at a given period x K
Total number offemales age 25-29
Total lertili(v rate (TFR) is the summation of age specific fertility rates of women
in all age specific cohorts. It is the number of live-births per 1000 women would have
if they experience a given set of ASFR during their reproductive period (Bongaarts
1978). According to the Population Reference Bureau (2012) the TFR for selected
countries in 2012 include: Nigeria 5.6, Ghana 4.2, Niger 7.1, Cape Verde 2.5, South
Africa 2.4, Afghanistan 6.2, USA 1.9, Canada 1.7, U.K 2.0, China 1.5, Taiwan 1.1,
alllong others.
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Introduction to demography and population studies 121
Gross reproduction rate (GRR) relates to female births only. It measures the total
number of girls that a group of women will have. Thus, it deals with the number of
dauahters expected to be born to 1000 females during their reproductive years.
Acc~rding to Jhingan et aJ(2006) GRR is calculated thus: .
GRR= No of female births x Total Fertility Rate
Total number of births
Net reproduction rate (NRR) measures the number of girls that a category of
newly born daughters will bear during their lifetime. It is calculated by dividing the
number of girls expected to be born to 1000 newly born daughters over the same
fiozure. 1000: -
NRR= No. of females expected to be born to 1000 newly born girls
1000
The limitation of NRR is its unrealistic assumption that both birth and death rates
will remain constant within a generation. Thus, some scholars have argued that it
should not be used for projections into future population dynamics (Ihingan et aJ
2006).
Mortality
Simply stated, mortality which is an important element of population dynamics is
defined as the occurrence of death in a population. Although the rate at which people
die in different places is not the same, mortality is a common feature of all societies
irrespective of the level of development. Three causes of death are easily identifiable:
degeneration, diseases and death arising from socio-economic activities. However, we
have included maternal and infant mortality in this analysis due to the very high rate
of its occurrence not only in sub-Saharan Africa but also Nigeria.
Degeneration
Refers to death resulting from deterioration of the biological system. As people get
older, their body organs become weak and continue to depreciate until death. All
things being equal, such age-related death not only allows for predictability but also
described as naturaL Arguably, it is 'the best cause of mortality' compared with others
particularly communicable diseases and accidents. Ailments related to age include
arthritis, hypertension, diabetes, stroke among others. We note that degeneration
although biological is also indirectly determined by socioeconomic and environmental
factors given the variations across countries and times. For instance, data indicate that
life expectancy for Nigeria in 2005, 2011 and 2012 was 44, 52 and 51 years
respectively. At the same time, other countries have different statistics, as shown in the
sample table below:
Table Showing Selected Countries by Life Expectancy at Birth in two Successive years
SIn Country 2011 2012
1. Hong Kong 80 years 83 years
2. Spain 82 82
3. Sweden 82 82
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122 Foundations of the social sciences
4. Swi~erland 82 82
5. New Zealand 81 81
6. Austria 80 80
7. Belgium 80 80
8. United Kingdom 80 80
9. United States 78 79
10. Ghana 64 64
11. South Africa 53 54
12. Nigeria 52 51
13. Afghanistan 44 49
Sources: PRB 2011 & 2012
,Communicable diseases
These include conditions such as chicken-pox, diarrhoea, small-pox, lass a fever,
tuberculosis, among others. The contagious nature of these diseases makes them non-
age specific as every member of the society is prone or vulnerable to the risk of
infection. In severe cases, deaths occur while moderate conditions are successfully
treated with adequate medical care. However, most of these infectious diseases can be
prevented through awareness campaigns, vaccination, personal and environmental
hygiene practices among others.
Deaths as a result of socioeconomic activities
In Nigeria like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa where poverty levels are extreme
high, people engage in activities that expose them to avoidable life-threatening
vulnerabilities. Hazardous jobs and activities such as commercial motorcycling and
commuting, travelling long distances in deserts of North Africa in order to migrate to
Europe, travelling in rickety vehicles, drunk-driving and concomitant road accidents,
communal conflicts and restiveness, ritual killings, suicides, homicides among others
are included in this category.
Maternal and infant mortality
It is estimated that 529,000 women die of maternal related causes each year, with
99 per cent of these deaths occurring in less developed countries, especially sub-
Saharan Africa (Nwokocha 2012a; Gipson, Koenig & Hindin 2008). Nigeria alone
accounts for 10 per cent of this total (Nwokocha 2007). Some of these deaths
needlessly occur and could have been prevented with access to necessary maternal and
basic health care services (UNICEF 2009; Sweidan, Mahfoud & Dejong 2008).
Similarly, under-five mortality rate is highest in sub-Saharan Africa (Amouzou and
Hill 2004), where in 2006 the rate was 160 per 1000 live births, which was more than
double of the worldwide rate of 72 per 1000 (UNICEF 2007). Nigeria is thus among
the countries that contribute substantially to these infant mortality statistics
(Nwokocha & Awomoyi 2009).
Factors affecting mortality
Age: is an important factor affecting mortality. Ordinarily, this variable is related to
degeneration discussed earlier under causes of death. However, deterioration of
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Introduction to demography and population studies - 123
biological systems cou~d also be a func~ion of lifestyle as young p~ople h~ve also been
f; nd to experience diseases such as diabetes, lung cancer, and kidney failures due to
o~essive exposure to certain types of food, cigarette and alcohol among others.
ex Sex the connection between gender and mortality is well established. Identifiable
disparities between males and females are usually related to cultural beliefs and
practices that unwittingly expose a group to more dangers than another. Literature,
for instance, shows that females live longer than males (PRB 2011; 2012) due largely to
stress arising from strenuous activities experienced in pursuit of economic survival of
the family. In some instances, women are prevented, by their spouses, from engaging
in paid jobs thereby undertaking the entire responsibility of fending for the family.
Yet, others due to limited education are not eligible for any type of formal
employment. Moreover, females hardly partake in wars, communal clashes and
sundry civil unrests. Without maternal mortality which is exclusive to women, the gap
in male-female death ratio would have been wider than it is. Data from the Population
Reference Bureau for some countries in 2012 show the differences in life expectancy at
birth for each of the sexes: Nigeria 48, 54; Ghana 63, 65; Niger 56, 60; Cape Verde 69,
77; Egypt 70, 74; USA 76, 81; Canada 79, 83, UK 78, 82 (PRB 2012). We note that
following these examples, women have higher life expectancy than men in the eight
instances above.
Social class
Karl Marx identified two competing classes in society - the bourgeoisie and proletariat
(Ritzer 2008). This distinction is more visible in some groups than others; in Nigeria
for instance, the middle class hardly exists anymore, rather a polar society of rich and
poor people (Nwokocha 2012b). The implications of poverty for nutrition, household
environment, access and use of health facilities as they relate to mortality cannot be
overstated (Nwokocha 2006).
Marital status
Emile Durkheim's study on suicide among different groups in society revealed that
lack of integration is the main driving force for suicide (Ritzer 2008; Labinjoh 2002).
As a corollary, high level of integration translates to social support, especially in the
face of difficulties. Hence, all things being equal, married people are less vulnerable to
engaging in suicide given that their frustrations are shared by spouses who are willing
to extend hands of assistance, unlike in situations of singleness such as among the
never-married, separated, divorced and widowed. The assumption is that singles are
alone and that frustrations would likely lead to aggression including suicide, especially
for altruistic purposes. We note, however, that there are instances where marriages
have led to stress, frustration and aggression as observed by Aderinto, Nwokocha,
Bankole and Obemeata (2006). Therefore, any of the statuses could be an indirect
cause of death.
Residence
Examined in terms of rural and urban dichotomy, each has potentials to account for
deaths. Studies show that rural communities in Nigeria are disproportionately
disadvantaged in terms of infrastructures such as electricity, roads, health facilities and
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124 Foundations of the social sciences
access to portable water among others (Nwokocha 2009; 2012c). Although, these
facilities are supposed to mark urban centres out from rural settings, these
infrastructures have broken down in most Nigerian cities. Yet, rural to urban
migration in Nigeria has remained persistently high. Consequently, these cities are
overcrowded, with implications for human and vehicular congestion, high crime rate,
pollution, road accidents and high rate of unemployment among others.
Cultural beliefs and practices
Cultural practices such as female genital cutting (FGC), widow-inheritance and body
scarification account for vulnerability to HIV/AIDS which remains a major killer in
Africa (Aderinto, Erinosho, Nwokocha & Adesanmi 2009). At the centre of African
culture is patriarchy that embeds gender inequity exemplified in female subjugation
and marginalization. Nwokocha in two separate studies (2007; 2012a) found that male
domination in household decision-making processes including on reproductive health
is one of the main factors responsible for high incidence of maternal mortality in
Nigeria. As Allendorf (2007) noted, women who partake in decision-making, resource
control among others have higher capacities at using health care and family planning
services, taking care of their children and engaging in healthier practices generally.
Mortality concepts and measures
We have selected some mortality concepts and their measurements for no specific
reasons. They include crude death rate (CDR), age specific death rate (ASDR), cause
specific death rate (CSDR), infant mortality rate (IMR) and maternal mortality rate
(MMR).
Crude death rate (CDR)
This is the number of deaths per thousand in the population. This rate is obtained by
dividing the number of deaths in the population at given time of the year by the total
population at that period:
CDR= Total number of deaths during a given period x K
Total mid-year population
The CDR is crude to the extent that all types of death are lumped together. It does
not allow for contextual analysis of mortality by age, sex and causal variations. As
such, important information is lost within the analytical corridor.
Age specific death rate (ASDR)
This is a more refined measure of death rate. It shows the number of registered deaths
for a particular age in a given year divided by the total number of deaths among
people of the same age per thousand:
ASDR = Total no of registered deaths among people age 75 at a given period x K
Total population of people age 75
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Introduction to demography and population studies 125
Cause specific death rate (CSDR)
It is a measure that indicates the specific cause of death per thousand population by
the total population:
CSDR= Total number of deaths from malaria x K
Total mid-year population
Infant mortality rate (IMR)
This focuses on deaths of infants under age one. Both neo-natal and post neo-natal
deaths are included here. It is measured thus:
IMR= Total number of deaths among infants x K
Total number oflive-birth
The Population Reference Bureau (2012) reveals IMR for countries: Nigeria 77,
Ghana 47, Niger 81, Cape Verde 24, Egypt 24, South Africa 38, Afghanistan 129, USA
6, Canada 5, UK 4, Sweden 2 among others. On the average, IMR for the most
developed countries is 5 compared to 72 for the least developed regions of the world
particularly sub-Saharan Africa.
Maternal mortality ratio (MMR)
This is a measure of deaths related to pregnancy and child-bearing divided by the
number of women of child-bearing age (15-49 years):
MMR= Total number of maternal deaths x K
Total number of women age 15-49
In this case 'K' equals 100,000 unlike in other instances where it represented 1000.
The reason is that such deaths are not as high as in other cases, thus using a smaller
figure will not result in meaningful data. Thus, ratio is used.
Migration
Migration is the geographic movement of people across a specific political boundary
for the purpose of establishing a new permanent or semi-permanent residence
(Kammeyer & Ginn 1986; Ihingan et al. 2006). Therefore moving from one location
to another does not necessarily translate to migration insofar as such a movement was
not with the intent of residing in the new location for some period of time. Length of
time in this case is relative to societies and periods, but most times a six-month
duration is legally approved. It is important that we clarify four basic migration
concepts - in-migration, out-migration, immigration and emigration.
Both in-migration and out-migration relate to internal or local migration. The
former implies entry into a new location and the latter indicates movement out of a
place for another destination. For instance, a migrant that leaves Benin City for Lagos
would be considered an in-migrant in Lagos, while at the same time described as an
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126 Foundations of the social sciences
out-migrant at origm. At the international level, immigration is the entry into a
country other than the place of birth or location of residence. Emigration means the
departure from a migrant's place of abode for another location. Similar to the earlier
example, a Nigerian entering the United States for instance will become an immigrant
as far as the new location (destination) is concerned. The same migrant will be known
as an emigrant in Nigeria (Origin).
Types of migration
.Two types are easily identifiable - voluntary and forced migrations. While
voluntary/free migration derives from individual choice having considered the likely
merits and demerits of the decision. We illustrate these two types of migration
diagrammatically.
Voluntary migration
~
Perception Decision Action
The above diagram shows that for voluntary-migrants, perception of the possibility of
migration translates to decision to act which eventually leads to action (migration). It
suggests that between perception and decision, the prospective migrant experiences
some level of crises due to the uncertainty about the future at destination. The waves
represent the psychological disposition of the intending migrant - some times, she or
he conjures a mental picture of a bright future, but at other instances low morale is
experienced due to factors like thought of losing friends and networks built over time,
property and positions among other likely worries. At each low stage in the wavy-
corridor, the actor adduces justifications to sustain the quest for planned relocation.
This back-and-forth emotional dilemma continues until the point that the decision is
made. The waves then disappear because these two points (B and C) are not
characterized by tension. We note that for the most part, the crisis of migration is
latent and only explainable by the would-be migrant.
Forced Migration
In this case, the migrant is compelled to depart his/her location as a result of
unforeseen circumstances such as wars and conflicts, natural disasters like
earthquakes, famine and so on.
Perception Decision Action
In such situations the perception of the feasibility to migrate is natural and a short
interval exists between that perception and the decision to act, and the eventual
migratory action. Due to the dangers inherent in not moving including death, battery,
injuries and assault among others, the prospective migrant maintains a stable
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Introduction to demography and population studies 127
psychological disposition towards intended migration throughout the contemplative
period.
Patterns of migration
In this section we discuss horizontal and vertical patterns of migration. When
migration is described as horizontal, it means that the migrant would not have a
significantly different experience at destination from what exists at place of origin. As
such, the level of development, particularly infrastructure, between origin and
destination would not be markedly different. Thus, she or he can cope and/or adjust
quickly to the new location and the question of culture shock will not arise. Rural to
rural and urban to urban migrations are examples of such migration. -
Vertical migration on the other hand is such that the migrant will have a
significantly different experience between former and new locations. The likelihood of
culture shock is high, especially in terms of development. Rural to urban and urban to
rural migrations are typical examples of this type of migration. On one hand, it will
take most typical rural dwellers some time to adjust to cities like Abuja, Lagos, Calabar
and Kaduna among others. On the other, moving back from these urban centres to
rural communities (return-migration) also poses a great challenge for the migrant
who may find it quite difficult to adjust to rural life.
Migration measures
Unlike fertility and mortality, few measures exist for migration analysis. Three are
easily identifiable:
Immigration rate (IR) is arrived at by dividing the number of immigrants with the
total population at destination per thousand:
IR= Number of immigrants x K
Total population at destination
Emigration rate (ER) is calculated by dividing the number of emigrants with the total
population at origin multiplied by a thousand:
ER= Number of emigrants x K
Total population at origin
Net migration rate (NMR) entails subtracting the number of immigrants from the
number of emigrants divided by the total population, per thousand:
NMR= Number of immigrants - number of emigrants x K
Total population
Causes of migration
People migrate as a response to push and pull factors that in turn shape perception,
decision and action as earlier discussed. We conceive push factors as those things that
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128 Foundations of the social sciences
make individuals quite uncomfortable in their places of abode to the extent of
contemplating relocation to another location (Kammeyer & Ginn 1986). It is
important to note that these factors are relative to individuals and times, especially
given that motivations, goals, aspirations, taste and fashion are usually different
among persons and periods. Push factors include but not limited to harsh economic
environment, poor infrastructure, insecurity, boredom, war, natural disasters among
others. To be sure, one or a combination of factors could become push factors for a
migrant; the same factors may be regarded as normal by another individual.
Pull factors on the other hand are those things that attract a prospective migrant to
a new location. Again, these factors are relative, however, what makes an individual
uncomfortable in a place ought to be remedied by the potential intended destination.
If for instance the single push factor is insecurity, it would be irrational for a migrant
to relocate to another destination characterized by the same problem. Rather, she or
he is expected to identify a location where migrant's security is or will be guaranteed
(Kammeyer & Ginn 1986; Ihingan et al 2006).
Sources of population data
There are several means through which population data can be collected. We shall
restrict our discussion to census, vital registration, population registers and sample
survey.
Census
The UN (200 1), defines population census as the total process of collecting,
compiling, evaluating, analysing and publishing or otherwise disseminating
demographic, economic and social data pertaining, at a specified time, to all persons
in a country or in a well delimited part of a country. Normally, population census
should take place every ten years, but due to the huge cost implications the exercise is
not as regular. For instance, the Nigerian census that preceded the 1991 headcount
took place in 1973 (18 years after) and the last census exercise till date was that of 2006
(15 years later).
There are two known methods of census taking - de facto and de jure. When the
De Iscto method of enumeration is adopted, individuals are meant to be counted
anywhere they are found within the census period irrespective whether these people
are found in their known places of residence or not. While the major advantage of this
system is high coverage of the population, its major demerit is the likelihood of double
or multiple counting. Diversely, using the de jure method requires that individuals
are counted only at their original places of abode. Thus, persons outside their primary
areas of residence are excluded from the exercise. For instance, if for any reason a
Lagos resident travels to Sokoto during the census period, she or he would be
excluded. The main advantage of this method is that it limits the likelihood of double
or multiple counting; the major demerit, however, is the danger of low coverage
resulting from ineligibility of people outside their residential communities. We note
that none of the two methods of enumeration is better than the other; the choice,
therefore, should be dependent on the situation on hand at a particular period.
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Introduction to demography and population studies 129
Vital registration
This involves registration of vital events such as births, deaths, migration, marriages,
divorce and other important occurrences in society. Through this registration vital
tatistics are generated for population analysis. It is not a substitute for censuses but
:ather used to complement census data, especially in a society like Nigeria where
several factors affect validity and reliability of figures derived from censuses. The
major limitation of this method of data collection is that some of these vital events are
not recorded. For instance, some women give birth with the aid of Traditional Birth
Attendants (TBAs),. in religious centres and their homes and hardly report such event
for recording. In addition, many deaths take place in unorthodox facilities and are not
recorded; divorce cases are handled by communities among other examples.
population registers
Very much like vital registration documents which contain information on all
persons involved in vital events, population register involves the keeping of a
register/document for each member of the population for the purpose of recording
names, age, sex, addresses among other data on every citizen. For the purposes of vital
registration, just one document will contain all the births recorded in a facility,
another for deaths that occur and yet another for marriages activities. However,
population registers are individualized documents keep for each citizen. Where this is
appropriately maintained, data are readily available on request and the issue of waiting
for ten years, as is the case with census, for an update does not arise. Countries that
like Switzerland, Sweden, Israel, and Belgium among others maintain population
registers.
Sample survey
Due to the limitations related to finance, research personnel and time, population
scientists and indeed researchers in other humanistic disciplines, undertake sample
surveys to represent a population. Thus, a sample is a sub-set or microcosm of a
particular population or universe usually selected through the sampling process. The
procedure involves the adoption of probability or non-probability techniques or a
combination of the two. Triangulation of methods of data collection has become
increasingly fashionable in social science research due to the complexity of
Phenomena in a changing society (Ihingan et al. 2006).
Theories of population
A few population theories are examined in this section. They include malthusianism,
neo-malthusianism, Marxism and demographic transition theory.
Malthusianism
Malthusianism is named after Reverend Thomas Malthus that propounded it. His
thesis was based on a pessimistic observation of the imbalance between population
and resources. He noted that population was doubling while food production was at
the same time, just increasing arithmetically. His findings were basically rooted in the
laws of diminishing returns wherein agricultural yield keep depreciating as times
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130 Foundations of the social sciences
rolled by. His apprehension, therefore, was that if nothing was done, humans will
starve to death.
He identified preventive and positive checks as two factors that could account for
decrease in population. By preventive checks, he meant those activities that derive
from conscious human actions targeted at reducing population size such as Moral
restraint, delayed marriage, celibacy and vices which included abortion and
contraception. His view is that couples ought to bear the number of children they
would be able to cater for sufficiently; it is thus immoral to give birth to a number
beyond couples' carrying capacity (Ihingan et al 2006). It is important to note that
Rev. Malthus never supported the use of vices for reducing population given his
calling. But as a researcher he needed to reveal his findings completely.
The positive checks are natural disasters and calamities that humans do not have
much control -over (if any) such as earthquakes, famine, Tsunami, pestilence,
hurricanes and epidemics among others. Although Malthusianism was criticised as
pessimistic and not to have timeless validity due to the influence of technology that
led to increase in agricultural yield, the theory has remained valid, especially among
less industrialized societies (Newman & Matzke 1984).
Neo-malthusianism
Scholar of this tradition were as pessurnstic as Malthus about the dangers of
geometrical population growth without a corresponding improvement in food supply.
They also agreed that something needed to be done, a point of view that characterizes
these two groups of theorists as anti-natalists. However, the issue of divergence
between the two perspectives was at the point that the Neo-Malthusians supported the
use of vices as a population reduction strategy probably because they were not clergy
men and women (Kammeyer & Ginn 1986; Jhingan et a12006).
Marxism
Karl Marx, who was classified as a Pro-natalist, as always saw the call for population
reduction as one of the ploys of the bourgeoisie to cut down the number of potential
protester that could challenge their domination, alienation and subjugation. For him,
it is easier for more people in the population to form an army for revolution than with
fewer individuals who would hardly go beyond a class-in-itself. He argued that
resources are sufficient to go round the populace but that the seeming scarcity of these
resources is artificial to the extent that very few individuals control the wealth of the
nation through surplus values generated through rugged exploitation. He noted for
instance that population growth is not the cause of poverty but rather the internal
logic of capitalism (Ritzer 2008; Hughes & Kroehler 2008).
Demographic transition theory (DTT)
Focuses on the interaction of fertility and mortality in determining the population
situation of a given society. It identifies three stages of transition among communities
- pre-modern, beginning of modernization and modern.
Pre-modern
This stage was characterized by high fertility and high mortality rates resulting in a
relatively stable population. Indeed, lack of awareness about family planning and high
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Introduction to demography and population studies 131
ill'teracy levels accounted for lack of fertility control measures in relevant societies
(~ughes & Kroehler 2008). Moreover, as predominantly subsistent farmers, parents
eded to have large numbers of children to enable them undertake massive
n~tivation of farmlands. Mortality was high due to poor medical technology that
~ou1d not lead to prevention and/or treatment of the many diseases that afflicted
humans.
Beginning of modernization
At this stage of the transition, fertility remained fairly high while mortality declined as
a result of improvement in housing, nutrition, sanitation, and above all medical
science. This decrease in death rate was mostly attributed to reduction in infant
mortality rate (Hughes & Kroehler 2008). The interaction of fertility and mortality
dynamics at this stage resulted in marked increase in the rate of population growth
(Newman & Matzke 1984).
Modern
Both fertility and mortality declined. With availability, awareness and use of birth
control measures and the assurance that infants will survive, parents were encouraged
to bear fewer children. Moreover, medical science and technology led to the discovery
of vaccines, antibiotics and immunization therapies to take care of diseases that
hitherto accounted for increase in mortality rate (Kammeyer & Ginn 1986; Ihingan et
el. 2006). This stage was characterized by a fairly stable population size (Hughes &
Kroehler 2008).
The DTT although insightful in explaining population situations of societies was
criticised as unable to present a complete picture of population dynamics due to its
non-inclusion of the migration factor. It is also said to be mechanical based on the
assumption that every society will experience the transition through the stages
religiously. To be sure, there is also a possibility for a society to move from stage one
to stage three without experiencing stage two. In addition, some groups may begin
their transition from stage two without having to experience stage one and yet, some
others may never get to stage three.
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132 Foundations of the social sciences
Mortality
Mid-point between high
t---------"t''''"------+---~--+-an--r low rates
\
o . I" 2fld 3rd
This diagrem illustrates the stages of demographic transition
Challenges of studying population in Africa
Undertaking population studies in Africa particularly Nigeria is characterized by
difficulties. The limitations impinge on validity and reliability of data collected for
population analysis which in turn undermine development planning. Where reliable
demographic information is lacking, governmental programmes and activities would
be based on baseless projections that hardly reflect the reality of the context. We
present some of the difficulties and limitations of studying population among African
societies.
High rate of illiteracy/lack of awareness
High rate of illiteracy, especially among rural dwellers, who constitute a large majority
of the African population has implications for the study of population in the
continent. Data indicate that 39 per cent of people in Africa reside in urban centres,
and in sub-Saharan Africa, only 37 per cent (PRB 2012). The immediate consequence
of low literacy levels and lack of awareness of population issues is the inability of a
sizeable number of individuals to give informed responses to population related
matters. Thus, demographic data are subjected to various forms of manipulations.
Ethnicity
According to Otite (2000), Nigeria is made up of over 380 ethnic groups. Hence,
ethnic rivalry is (1 constant feature of the socio-political-landscape which continues to
give impetus to what Ekeh (1983) described in his 'Two Publics' as primordial and
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Introduction to demography and population studies 133
·vie. Contention for social, economic, educational and developmental supremacy
over other groups has accounted for persistent distortion of demographic statistics as
a strategy to attract more attention and funds to certain ethnic groups than others.
Apathy . . . . .
We discuss indifference here at two levels. FIrst, as a result of high level of frustration
occasioned by the inability to realize inherent potentials in the midst of plenty, a lot of
people in the continent and Nigeria in particular are apathetic towards government
programmes. In extreme cases, these frustrations crystallize into sabotage of
aovernment programmes including those that relate to population issues such as not
~artaking in census exercise, vital registration among others. Second, as noted earlier,
many higher institutions in Nigeria are yet to prioritize population studies as a sub-
discipline; it is rather taught as an elective course and in some cases not included in
the curricula.
Cultural beliefs and practices
Customs and traditions of some African societies prohibit divulgence of certain
information pertaining specific cultural traits. Therefore, collecting demographic data
on certain events are extremely challenging and at times un achievable. Extending the
principle of anonymity to certain ways of life of a people is usually undertaken when
viewed as sacrosanct and needed not to be distorted by intrusions and 'unnecessary
diffusion (Nwokocha 2012b).
Religious factors
The influence of religion on population studies cannot be overstated. Related to belief
system, religion like culture not only prescribes the way of life for adherents but also
proscribes what must be avoided. If for instance, a religious programme coincides
with a population activity, most people would likely forgo the latter in order not to
incur the wrath of God. The consequence of the alternative forgone is that population
data will lack robustness that makes for comprehensive analysis and recommendation.
Poverty
A large majority of people in sub-Saharan Africa are extremely poor. In Nigeria for
instance, despite the abundance of human and material resources, several individuals
live on less than two Dollars per day. Consequently, corruption, fraud and criminality
have becomes pervasively normative; rugged individualism and the quest to survive at
all cost are institutionalized. It is thus easy to buy false data, from unsuspecting
dubious Field Assistants that do not reflect the population situations in relevant
contexts.
Politically based data manipulation
Desperate politicians exploit the poverty scenario of African commumties to
manipulate demographic data for their selfish political ends. Unfortunately, these data
are usually not reversed after the political process. Thus, the problem of false and
inconsistent data is critical in understanding the dilemma of undertaking population
analysis in Africa.
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134 Foundations of the social sciences
Conclusion
This work has clearly established that population studies are central to planning and
development of societies and that apathy towards prioritizing it is embedded in
ignorance. Indeed, considering the importance that its awareness holds for individuals
and groups, it is recommended that critical population issues be fused into family
socialization packages to make it an integral part of the growth process. We are
persuaded to also suggest that primary demography be introduced into the secondary
school curricula not only to bolster young people's interest in the subject but also to
complement efforts of parents at young people's home-orientation in this study area.
The above strategy will make for mass education and community acceptance of a
paradigm shift that will in the long-run reverse the adverse African demographic
landscape. It is only a demographic transition from high to moderate fertility and low
mortality and migration rates that will resituate sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria in
particular on the right side of development. Achieving a moderate population will
entail appreciable drop in poverty levels, improvement in the employment situation
and attainment of sustainable development. Without a deliberate effort at prioritizing
population knowledge at micro-household and macro-society levels, being listed
among the twenty largest economies by year 2020 will remain a tall order.
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