MULTI-ANALYTIC FACTORS PREDICTING ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AMONG PERSONNEL OF NIGERIA SECURITY AND CIVIL DEFENCE CORPS IN THE SOUTHWEST, NIGERIA By AREMU SAMSON OYEBISI MATRIC. NO: 111657 NCE, English Language/Political Science (Ilorin) B. Ed, Counselling and Human Development Studies (Ibadan) M. Ed, Counselling Psychology (Ibadan) A Thesis in the Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADANN, NIGERIA. MAY, 2016 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ABSTRACT Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) implies acting beyond the formal job description for the purpose of corporate and individual benefits. This is waning in the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC). This scenario has been rendering the commitment of the NSCDC towards the combat of vandalism, protection of critical national assets, supervision of private guards and management of disasters to be less effective. Past studies on OCB among para-military personnel were only on the organizational factors and with no consideration of the NSCDC. This study, therefore, investigated the predictive strength of multi-analytic factors (creativity, leadership behaviour, social innovation, social intelligence, religiosity, age, job tenure, marital status, gender, educational level, organizational tenure and job cadre) on OCB among personnel of the NSCDC in the Southwest, Nigeria. The Social Exchange Theory provided the study framework, while descriptive survey design of the ex-post facto type was adopted. Using multistage sampling technique, a random sample of 1,696 personnel (966 males) were selected from 24 divisional offices (DOs) of the NSCDC. The DOs were randomly selected from the three area commands and three state commands respectively in Ogun (5), Osun (10) and Oyo (9) made up of officers and men. Organisation Citizenship Behaviour (r=0.83), Multifactor Leadership (r=0.87), Religiosity (r=0.93), Tromso Social Intelligence (r=0.90), Creativity (r=0.86) and Social Innovation (r=0.91) scales were used for data collection. Data were analysed using Pearson product moment correlation and Multiple regression at 0.05 level of significance. The personnel average age was 31.6. Other socio-demographic factors (in %) were: job tenure: the number of years spent on the job ranged from 8.32-10.7 years, gender: male (58.3), female (41.7), educational level: SSCE/WAEC (13.4), Trade Test (7.7), OND (11.3), NCE (14.0), HND (27.2), University Degree (18.7), Master (6.7), Ph.D. (1.0), job cadre: Corps Assistance (26.5), Inspectorate (55.4), Superintendent (18.1), marital status: Single (27.3), Married (68.0), Divorced (2.0), Separated (1.7), Widowed (1.0) and organisational tenure: 1-5years (38.1), 6-10years (23.8), 11-15years (38.1).The OCB of NSCDC personnel correlated positively with leadership behaviour (r=.648), social intelligence (r=.339), social innovation (r=.548) and job cadre (r=.062). There was a significant joint prediction of the independent variables on OCB (F(12, 1562)= 230.03; 2 R =0.639) and this accounted for 63.9% of its variance. However, job cadre (β=-.038), organisational tenure (β= -.189), leadership behaviour (β=-.001) and religiosity (β=-.008) were found to be negative predictors of OCB. Social innovation (β=.691); age (β=.389); gender (β=.274); educational level (β=.212); marital status (β=.005); creativity (β=.005); job tenure (β=.072) and social intelligence (β=.037) contributed positively to the prediction. Creativity, social intelligence, social innovation, age, job tenure, gender and educational level positively influenced organisational citizenship behaviour among the personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps while older, experienced, female, highly educated, junior and transferred service personnel were found to engage more in organisational citizenship behaviour. Hence, counselling and organisational psychologists should take into cognisance these multi-analytic factors found to be significant in the effective management of the personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps as whole. Key words: Organisational citizenship behaviour, Multi-analytic factors, Nigeria security and civil defence corps, Southwest Nigeria Word count: 484 i i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My inestimable gratitude goes to the Lord Almighty, from whom all mercy, wisdom, knowledge and understanding flow, who has given me sound health, strength, enablement and ability to complete this doctoral degree programme despite all odds and huddles. My sincere appreciation also goes to my amiable, indefatigable and ever creative supervisor, Dr. Rotimi Animasahun, for his attention, patience, understanding, dedication and encouragement, throughout the course of this programme. All these have gone a long way in making my dream a reality. His suggestions and takes on several occasions have immensely contributed to the success of this great task. I also express my heartfelt appreciation to my incomparable parents: Late Pa James Oyeyiola Aremu and Madam Dorcas Ogunyemi Aremu, who accepted the responsibility and risk of bringing me to this world. My gratitude also goes to my rare gem, caring and resilient wife, Mrs Florence Oyefemi Aremu, for her support and prayers and for creating a conducive atmospheric condition at my home front. I register my warm appreciation my son, Daniel Oyedamoye Akoriogo AkinlOluwa Aremu, who has always been a source of joy in my family life. I must also thank my parents-in-law, Late Inspector Samuel Oyetunji Oganla and Madam Rachael Adejoke Oyetunji, for giving me a rare gem as wife. I must also acknowledge the invaluable contributions of both academic and non-academic staff of the Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies, University of Ibadan, I am grateful to the HOD, Prof, J,O, Osiki and others, Profs, C.B.U. Uwakwe, Ajibola Falaye, D.A. Adeyemo, Ayo T. Hammed and S.O. Salami. I also express my gratitude to Prof Oyesoji Aremu, Jp, cwf, who is a mentor and renowned scholar, for his scholastic contributions. I thank Drs. A.E. Awoyemi, C.C. Asuzu, D.A. Oluwole, A.M. Jimoh, M.O. Ogundokun, J.O. Fehintola, Fatai Owodunni, Adenike Busari, Buchi Opara, Bukola Taiwo, Bunmi Alade and Olabisi Adeyemi. They are all worthy of appreciation. ii i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I also thank my colleagues in the PhD class whose laudable contributions cannot be under-stressed, most especially the 2009/2010 set of Ph.D students academic session who we laboured together to bag PhD almost at the same period. They are Drs Komolafe Beatrice, Olayiwola Ojo and Ojo Agnes Olakunbi. Others are Mrs Ala Unice Folusho and Olanrewaju Elinah Yemisi. What a unique set! I salute your courge and heroic gesture. We will all reap the fruits of our labour. I equally want to thank Dr Fakolade of Special Education for his immeasurable contributions during the course of this study. Worthy of mention is the encouragement and prayers I enjoyed from Revd Dr Supo and Pastor (Mrs) Toyin Ayokunle, the Nigeria Baptist Convention‘s President/CEO and the National CAN‘s President since the commencement of this course, I am grateful sir/ma. I am also indebted to my mentor, father and guide, Dcn Michael Adewuyi Adekunle, whom I drink from his fountain of knowledge and wisdom, I appreciate sir. To my colleagues and superiors, ACCs Paul O. Shomide, Dele Adesanya, Dele Momoh and Abdulkareem Zubair, I say a big thank you for your support and understanding all through this course of study. I also thank CSC Omon Agbon, ASCI Adewale Oluwakemi and IC Taiwo Nurudeen Adebare who served as my research assistants during my field work. You are all wonderful. Samson Oyebisi AREMU iv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION This research work is dedicated to God Almighty, who made me to sail through despite all odds. v UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Samson Oyebisi AREMU in the Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies, University of Ibadan. …………………………….. Supervisor Dr. Rotimi Animasahun Lecturer, Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria v i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENT Tittle page……………………………………………………………… i Abstract………………………………………………………………… ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………. iii Dedication………………………………………………………………. iv Certification……………………………………………………………. v Table of contents………………………………………………………. vi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………… 17 1.3 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………… 19 1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………..... 19 1.5 Scope of the study…………………………………………………………. 20 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms…………………………………………. 21 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Theoretical Background…………………………………………………. 22 2.1 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB)…………………………. 22 2.2 Theories of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour…………………….. 37 2.3 Leadership Behaviour……………………………………………….….. 43 2.4 Creativity…………………………………………………………………. 49 2.5 Social Innovation…………………………………………………….….. 60 2.6 Social Intelligence…………………………………………………..…… 73 2.7 Religiosity………………………………………………………………... 86 2.8 Job Tenure………………………………………………………………... 89 2.9 The Theoretical Foundation for this Study……………………………... 90 2.10 The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in perspective…………………………………………………………….. 93 2.2.0 Emperical Review……………………………………………………….. 94 2.2.1 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCBs)………………………… 95 2.2.2 Leadership behaviour and OCBs……………………………………….. 97 2.2.3 Creativity and OCBs……………………………………………………. 105 2.2.4 Social innovation and OCBs…………………………………………… 106 v ii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.2.5 Social Intelligence OCBs……………………………………………….. 110 2.2.6 Gender and OCBs……………………………………………………… 115 2.2.7 Educational level/status and OCBs……………………………………. 118 2.2.8 Job tenure and OCBs…………………………………………………… 119 2.2.9 Employees‘ Age and OCBs………………………………………..…... 125 2.2.10 Job cadre/seniority/ranking and OCBs…………………………………. 129 2.2.11 Religiosity and OCBs……………………………………………………. 130 2.2.12 Organizational tenure and OCBs………………………………………. 137 2.2.13 Marital status and OCBs………………………………………………... 138 2.2.14 The Conceptual Model…………………………………………………. 139 2.2.15 Research Questions…………………………………………………….. 140 2.2.16 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………… 141 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………. 142 3.1 Design…………………………………………………………………… 142 3.2 Population………………………………………………………………. 142 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique……………………………………….. 143 3.4 Instrumentation…………………………………………………………. 143 3.5 Description of Research Instruments………………………………….. 144 The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS)………………………….. 144 Religiosity Measure by Rohrbaugh and Jessor (1975)…………………. 145 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 6S 1995………… 145 Creativity Scale by Animasahun (2007)…………………………………. 146 Organization Citizenship Behaviour Questionaire ( 2012)…………… 147 Social Innovation Scale………………………………,……..………..… 147 3.6 Procedure for Data Collection………………………………………….. 148 3.7 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………….. 148 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS……………………………………………………. 149 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………… 157 5.2 Discussion…………………………………………………………… 157 vi ii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.3 Conclusions from the Findings…………………………………….. 181 5.4 Implications of the Findings………………………………………… 181 5.5 Recommendations of the Study…………………………………… 184 5.6 Peculiarities of the Study…………………………………………... 185 5.7 Limitation of the Study……………………………………………… 186 5.8 Generalizability of the Study……………………………………….. 186 5.9 Contributions to Knowledge…………………………………………. 187 5.10 Suggestions for further Studies………………………………………… 188 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………… 190 APPENDIX I The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS)………………………………… 228 Religiosity Measures Questionnaire (Self)…………………………………… 229 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 6S………………………. 230 Creativity Scale of Success Potential Battery (SPB) (Animasahun, 2007)…… 232 Social Innovation Scale…………………………………………………………… 233 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) (2012)………………………….. 235 APPENDIX II……………………………………………………………………... 236 ix UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.7 Background to the Study Security challenge is posing a serious threat to the survival of Nigeria. It ranges from personality abductions, kidnapping of Chibok girls, Niger-Delta militia, Niger-Delta Avengers, Boko Haram insurgency, socio-religious and political unrest, etc. The army is busy fighting for Nigeria territorial integrity on land, the navy on the sea, the Air Force in the air, Immigration and Customs overseeing the borders to forestall influx of illegal immigrants and goods, etc. while the Police focus on civil activities. Unfortunately, the rate of crime among the citizens has gone beyond the control of the police. In fact, many criminal cases indicted the police as being culprits. This made a non-governmental organization, Nigeria Governance and Corruption Survey Study (2003), concluded that Nigerians, across the board, rated the integrity of the Nigeria Police as the lowest of all public institutions in Nigeria. The police organization‘s corruption index was rated 68.4 percent in the survey. In a more recent survey conducted in 2005 by the same organization, the corruption rate in the Nigeria Police was put at 96 percent. Aremu (2006) further remarks that in Nigeria, there is no security outfit that is always condemned for its corrupt act as the Nigeria Police (not even the military). He therefore, concludes that this is as a result of the police insatiable passion for corruption, which according to him is unequalled. The emergence of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps stemed out of voluntariness era having played a significant role in restoring peace into the nation after the end of civil war. It has also played an important role in resuscitating the lost glory of the security agencies in the country as well as complementing others especially in the area of pipeline vandalism, private guard registration, training and regulation, protection of critical national assets and disaster management. Security, worldwide, is a serious business that requires urgent attention. The maintenance of law and order is, therefore, mainly the responsibility of the government and professionally, the responsibility of the security agency (Aremu, 2014). In an organized society, one cannot ignore the state of things that enable people to go about freely without disturbance, either to satisfy their personal needs or to preserve the corporate entity and integrity (Messing, 2011). He is of the opinion that the development of civilization is fundamentally based on the desire to establish 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY peace and security. According to Messing, it is the substratum of socio-political, economic and cultural development of contemporary societies. Robert Peel, the founder of modern policing avers that security is absence of police (security agencies). The fulcrum is that peace and development are interwoven and are essential ingredients for the development of the society and wellbeing of the citizen (Aremu, 2014). The current security challenge which dated back to the kidnapping saga in the eastern part of Nigeria and mediated by the militancy in the South-South, various vandalism cases and aggravated by the insurgency of Nigeria own-brand and home- grown terrorism such as Boko Haram sect, has increasingly and embarrassingly put the country in the world map of unsecured country. Corporate security is the absence of crime and wellbeing of unhindered facilitation of social responsibility of corporate organization like NSCDC. In this wise, corporate security engenders free movement and interaction of people and delivery of services. It is a microcosm of the entire gamut of security network of a country. This makes Aremu (2014) asserts that when the entire security network of a country is not threatened, the corporate security is easily facilitated. For over a decade now, the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) has been in existence in Nigeria and therefore the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) of its personnel requires proper evaluation for better service delivery and performance in all areas. The highly committed members of any organization are likely to be willing to contribute much effort on behalf of such organization. Strong attachment of the individual to an organization enables better adoption, capabilities and higher responsiveness to changes in customer demands (Sanchez,Kraus, White & Williams, 1999). To adapt to environment constraints, executives try to promote employees‘ behaviour that demonstrate identification with and commitment to the organization (career), behaviours that will ensure better and dedicated efforts from their workers (Spector, 1986). In many organizations, the employees constitute a major factor that influences the efficiency, effectiveness and professional functioning of the organization (Becker & Martin, 1995). However, to function successfully, each organization is interested in promoting employees who are committed to the organization and its goals (Ashforth & Lee, 1990). When the rate of turn-over among organizations is high and still increasing (Carson, Carson, Roe, Birkenmeier & Philips, 1999), it is important that managers 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY succeed in creating an environment of commitment in order to reduce the possibility of turnover in their particular company (Gunz, 2002). The commitment on the manager‘s part needs not take the form solely of financial rewards but can include forms of ―caring‖ e.g. subsidies in health care, informal get-togethers with employees, and similar indications that the company has the workers‘ welfare at heart (Reichman & Sterling, 2002). The empirical literature suggests various strategies for checking employees‘ qualities mostly based on assessing the efficiency of the employees and their contribution to the organization‘s performance usually gauged by standard measures such as profitability and economic effectiveness (Ferris, Judge, Rowland & Fitzgibbons, 1994). At the worker‘s level, this means high output and greater commitment to his/her job/career and to the organization. Other strategies examine informal aspect of employees‘ relationship with their work and organization by measuring attitude and behaviours (Brass & Burkhardt, 1993). Yet, other thoughts have suggested including dimensions that extend beyond the formal role of the worker (Katz, 1964). These include workers‘ contributions to the organization and to other employees, for instance, helping a new employee to feel part of the organization, supporting organizational tasks, and preserving the organization‘s resources (Katz, 1964). Later, this informal strategy was defined and termed organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB). This phrase serves to describe and examine employee‘s informal behaviours in an organization, namely those that are not directly identified with formal job functions (Smith, Organ & Near, 1983). Currently, the reward plans of many public corporations do not include an estimation of (OCB) Organizational Citizenship Behaviours; however, in many private organizations, there is more support for OCB (Matthew, Dennis, Christina, & Keith, 2001). Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) reflects employees‘ behaviours that are beyond their formal job definition and are not required by the regular reward system (Organ, 1988). Such behaviour supports the organisation‘s goals. Organization citizenship behaviour was also found to apply to an employee‘s attitude toward other members of the organization (Becker, 1992). It can also involve caring for others in the organization, even at the worker‘s own expense, for example, relinquishing certain job benefits to prevent redundancies (Puffer, 1987). Expressed as employee‘s readiness to contribute beyond the formal demands of the job, OCB helps the work teams and the social systems operating within the organization (Bateman & Organ, 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1983). It creates a positive atmosphere, encouraging others to continue to devote personal resources to the organization as an informal contribution. All this is perceived as an organizational behaviour that has a positive impact on the organizational productivity (Organ, 1990). This literature dates back to Becker‘s (1960) ‗concept of accepting authority‘; this required that the overall policy be for the good of the organization. In addition, the worker is expected to show greater flexibility and co-operation within the organization (Goulet & Frank, 2002). In addition to the above, organizational citizenship behaviour leads to greater freedom of operation among the employees themselves, as they assist one another. Such behaviours should also influence the degree of the organization‘s flexibility within its environment, a capacity that is necessary if the organization is to fulfil its tasks in a dynamic environment. An example of higher OCB, indicating a worker‘s greater flexibility and willingness to work beyond the formal limits of his/her job (Matthew, et al, 2001) is his/her readiness to volunteer for team activity though this is not specified in his/her formal work contract. In general, OCB has been described as consisting of two directions. One is behaviour to the members of the organization, for example, supporting and assisting another team member, or helping a new worker (Organ & Paine, 1999). This direction has been referred to as ―OCB Altruism‖. The second type of behaviour is directed towards the organization as a whole i.e treating it as an extension of one‘s own possessions. Example of this would include a very high work ethic beyond the formal expectations very few absences from work (Williams & Anderson, 1991). This direction of responsible citizenship behaviour toward the organization as a whole has been termed ―OCB Compliance‖ (Organ, 1990). These two behavioural directions could help employees gain added recognition, since it is easily identified by organization administrators. However, as mentioned, many administrators currently have no authority to control, supervise, or reward such behaviours (Cohen & Vigoda, 1997). On the other hand, more recent research has indicated that although OCB is not a formal requirement of the job, it is very influential on work attitudes and therefore it is an element which is receiving more and more consideration (Coyle-Shapiro, 2002). Moreover, Morrow (1993) shaped five major commitments that in her view influence one another. She maintains that at the end of this influence path, are the job results. The five meaningful commitments are: Protestant work ethic, career 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY commitment, job involvement, continuance and affective commitment (Morrow & McElroy, 1986). These five commitments can be divided into two major groups: the first group, personal commitments, examines commitments that influence employees‘ job attitudes without relating to the particulars of the organization, and includes protestant work ethic, career commitment (Greenhaus, 1971), and job involvement (Blan, 1985). The second group is that of organizational commitments which includes commitments that are influenced directly by the organization to which the worker belongs and includes continuance commitment and affective commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1993). A few studies have shown that organization citizenship behaviour is positively related to indicators of individual, unit and organizational performance (George & Bettenhausen, 1990; Karambayya, 1994; Podsakoff, Ahearne & Mackenzie, 1997; Walz & Nichoff, 2000). If these behaviours are significant antecedents to real firm performance, then managers will need to pay close attention to them and learn to reinforce them appropriately. If their effects are applicable to many organizations, then appropriate managerial actions that increase organizational citizenship behaviours should be brought to such organizations. From the foregoing, it is presumed that if OCB is effectively adhered to by workers, their productivity would increase. Perhaps, this makes Organ (1998) to simply note that organizational citizenship behaviours should impact on the effective functioning of the organization. Theorists (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983) have noted that ―organizational effectiveness‖ may be assessed using internal or external measures, and that these indicators often do not correlate with each other. For example, an internal measure such as efficiency, or outputs produced relative to inputs utilized, may have little relationship with customer satisfaction and an external assessment of effectiveness. However, several factors have been identified as contributing or predicting organizational citizenship behaviour. This study focuses on the following as probable predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour. They include creativity, social intelligence, leadership behaviour, social innovation, age, gender, religiosity, job tenure, educational level, organizational tenure, marital status and job/seniority/ranking cadre. Therefore this study intends to examine the predictive influence of each of these variables on organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) which are explained below. 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Mulgan (2006) defines social innovation as ‗innovative activities and services that are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need‘. Mulgan suggests that the drivers of social innovation are rooted in discontent or an apparent need; the cultural basis of social innovation can be considered a combination of exclusion, resentment, passion and commitment. Phills, Peiglmeier and Miller, (2008) present another useful definition, that social innovation is ‗a novel solution to a social problem (menace) that is more effective, efficient, sustainable or just than existing solutions and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals‘. They argue that social innovation is the most appropriate concept to understand and produce lasting social change. Mumford (2003) uses the term to mean ‗the generation and implementation of new ideas about how people should organize interpersonal activities, or social interactions, to meet one or more common goals. This could involve creating new social institutions or movements on the one hand, or head for new social or business processes and practices on the other. Marriage, money, laws, schools and a free national health services were once radical social innovations. Even excluding the commercial examples mentioned, this is clearly a too broad definition for the purposes of this work. Mumford‘s definition is broad and includes groups of people from small-scale, interpersonal interaction settings to entire societies. The definition thus includes goals that are common to groups of people from small groups or communities to entire countries or indeed the global community. It is less clear whether the private gain of a business group is to be included. For the purpose of this work we focus primarily on non-commercial social innovation. The term ‗social‘, when used in conjunction with innovation, has a very broad meaning in the literature. It is referred to as two things: 1. The ‗benefits‘ stemming from the innovation, which accrue primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals / businesses, etc. 2. The ‗means‘ used to solve the problem. We are interested in innovations that are NOT technologically-focused, but which revolve primarily around new social practices, behaviours, and institutions (hence technology may have a secondary role). Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby and Herron (1996) argued that creativity by individual and teams is a starting point for innovation, and all innovation begins with the creation and development of creative idea. In other words, creativity is the seed of innovation. In the fields of strategic and marketing management, the most widely used 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY definition of creativity focuses on the meaningful novelty of new products and their associated management products relative to conventional practice in the market domain to which it belongs. Amabile et al(1996) argued that both dimensions (i.e. novelty and meaningfulness) must be included in the construct of creativity, because the target customers may recognize creative idea as bizarre if they are novel or unique but transfer no meaning or use for the customers. In this study, creativity is perceived as the extent to which employees‘ services are perceived as representing unique and meaningfulness different from competitors/counterparts services as to the degree to which organizations‘ programmes are perceived as representing novelty and being of use to the publics. The quality of the relationship between a subordinate and a leader is often called Leader Member Exchange (LMX). Another component of leadership that is positively related to OCB is the leaders' contingent rewards behaviours, such as expressing satisfaction or appreciation for good performance (Podsakoff et al., 2010). Leadership apparently seems to have a strong influence on an employee's willingness to engage in OCBs. Though, somewhat than being associated with a specific leadership style, the quality of an employee's relationship with his or her leader that plays the role and is keyed to better performance (Podsakoff et al., 2010). In addition, leadership roles and dispositions play an important role in the st Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in any given organization in this 21 century. Without positive daily interaction with the employees or the human side of the work, the other aspects of a leader‘s responsibilities will suffer (Cangeni, Burga, Lazarus, Miller &Fitzgerald, 2008). Leadership is a two-sided engagement between leaders and employees to achieve a common goal (Antelo, Henderson, & St. Clair, 2010). This engagement actuates leaders to influence their employee‘s behaviour while simultaneously influencing their employees‘ perceptions. This leads to expectations of appropriate conduct that becomes ingrained in the organizational job competence (Grojean, Risick, Dickson & Smith, 2004). Social intelligence is the capacity to effectively negotiate complex social relationships and environments. Humphrey and Einstein (2003) believe that it is social intelligence, rather than quantitative intelligence, that defines humans. Moreso, these researchers also believe that social intelligence is an aggregated measure of self- and social-awareness, evolved social beliefs and attitudes, and a capacity and appetite to manage complex social change. A person with a high social intelligence quotient (SQ) 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY is no better or worse than someone with a low SQ, but they have different attitudes, hopes, interests and desires. The original definition, ―the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations‖ (Thorndike, 1920 pg 40) refers to the ability of humans to interact effectively among one another. It has been applied for many years to the process that societies and large complex human groups go through to become better and grow together. The employee‘s age and their perceptions towards themselves and their work are different and this phenomenon is not a new paradigm in OCB researches. The younger employees align their needs with organizational needs easily and prove to be a little more flexible as compared with their elder counterparts. In contrary, the older employees tend to be more rigid in adjusting their needs with the organizational needs. Therefore, younger and older employees differ in their orientations toward self, others, and their work. These differences although complex, but lead to observing different important motives for OCB among different age groups of employees. Wagner & Rush (2000) explained that early years (20-34) are the years of establishment and settling down; later years (35-55) are strong sense of self and location in comparison with life and work among the peers. The study of Kashif, Khan & Rafi (2011) confirms that the age of employee has a negative and a marginally significant effect on OCB. In terms of employee‘s level of education, probably fresh graduates are much welcomed in competitive agencies like NSCDC and others due to the challenge of offering the reliable services to the consumers. The results of the studies in social sciences vary with a change in context, culture and economic conditions). Be this as it may, educational status of personnel plays a significant role in exhibiting helping behaviour in the work place. Moreover, employee‘s gender is also germane in that it is evident that gender has appeared to be an important explanatory factor for the citizenship behaviour. In various studies, it has been argued that some dimensions of OCB are found in male (civic virtue) while some dimensions (altruism) are more exhibited by female counterparts (Heilman & Chen, 2005). Additionally, it is also clear that the gender has a significantly strong relationship with citizenship behaviour. However it is also asserted by the literature that gender has more moderation effect in organizational studies. Literature provides 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY evidences that females are more likely to exhibit OCB than males (Farrell and Finkelstein, 2007) but Farooqui (2012) study reveals that men are more likely to engage in extra role behaviours than female. The relationship may vary with the type of the organization an employee is working in. Although it would be interesting to note that on which of the dimensions of OCB men are more inclined. This may be due to the reason that there are more men in the public sector. Employment/job tenure is defined as the amount of time that a worker has spent working for the same employer, even if the person‘s job within the firm has changed. It is an indicator of the stability of an employment relationship and is measured as the response to either of the following questions: ―When did you start working for this employer or as self-employed?‖ or ―How long have you been working continuously for your present employer?‖ For Europe, this information comes from the European Community Labour Force Survey, for the US and Japan, comparable national sources provide this information. Fem (1963), in an encyclopedia of religion, defines religiosity to be a set of behaviours or meanings which are connected to the actions of a religious person (p. 647). Religion is such an integral part of life and culture that the essential role it plays in human behaviour has inspired researchers to investigate the potential relationship between various forms of religiosity and social behaviour. This relationship has intrigued both earlier (Allport, 1953) and contemporary researchers (Ntalianis & Darr 2005; Lynn, Naughton & Vander Veen, 2011). For example, religious commitment and participation have consistently emerged as significant contributors in Quality of Life (QOL) indicators such as life satisfaction, happiness, and meaning in life (Poloma & Pendleton 1990). Poloma and Pendleton‘s comprehensive review of the literature indicated that religiosity was an important predictor of general life satisfaction, existential well-being, and overall happiness. Additionally, it has been linked with outcomes including physical health and psychological well-being (Hayward & Elliott 2009), fewer depressive symptoms (Kutcher Bragger, Rodriguez- Srednicki, & Masco, 2010) and workplace accident frequency (Gyekye & Salminen 2009). Organisational Tenure is a demographic variable which plays a significant role in management and psychological research (Cohen, 1993; Griffeth, Hom & Gaertner, 2000). It is often believed that employees who remain in an organization for longer time period obtain more competency of their job, and therefore, perform at a higher 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY level of OCB than employees/organizations with less tenure. Levinson, Oppermann, Levintow, Varmus & Bishop (1978) argued that people and/or organizations with different career and backgrounds pass through specific career stages characterized by different activities and psychological adjustments. According to this theory, it is assumed that individuals/organizations with high tenure will perform higher than those with low tenure. Sturman (2003) argued that organizational knowledge obtained through organizational tenure have unique positive effects on job performance and thereby improves the employees‘ OCB. Cohen (1991) postulated that since employees accumulate relevant job experience as tenure increases, their performance and OCB also grow. In a recent meta-analysis of the relationship between organizational tenure and job performance, Ng and Feldman (2010) reported that organizational tenure would be favourably related to various forms of employees‘ OCB and job performance. Their findings generally confirmed that organizational tenure is favourably associated with performance and OCB. In fact, there are research efforts exploring the moderating impact of tenure in job-related associations (Bradley, 2007; Moser & Calais, 2007; Shirom, Toker, Berliner, Shapira & Melamed, 2008; Wright & Bonett, 2002). This study attempts to identify organizational tenure as a possible predictor of OCB. Moreso, research indicates that organizational tenure is positively related to organizational commitment which is the heart of OCB (Kushman, 1992; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 2000). Although empirical evidence suggests that there is a positive link between organizational commitment and tenure, it is still not clear how this link operates. According to Meyer and Allen (1997), as an individual‘s/organization‘s length of service with a particular organization increases, he or she may develop an emotional attachment with the organization and vice versa that makes it difficult to switch jobs. Meyer and Allen (1997) also suggest that the results of a positive relationship between tenure and OCB might be a simple reflection of the fact that uncommitted employees leave an organization and don‘t exhibit OCB, and only those with a high commitment remain and do elicit high OCB. In the light of this evidence, a positive relationship between organizational tenure and organizational citizenship is hypothesized for this study. Organizational citizenship and the employees‘ marital status are two inseparable entities due to the fact that being single or married does have influence on 1 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the exhibition of helping, altruistic, pro-social as well as loyal behaviour in an organizational context. Job ranking is also perceived to be closely related to citizenship behaviour due to the category where the employees found themselves and their job descriptions. In essence, the researcher hypothesises that job ranking would have influence on the exhibition of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. The assumption of this study is that, if workers are sufficiently provided with conducive environment where their knowledge of creativity, social intelligence, social innovation, religiosity and relational and/or positive leadership behaviour are maximally explored, the organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) would be enhanced. But if organizational citizenship behaviour is the totality of extra efforts beyond the formally defined role an average worker puts in, then high productivity would be boosted. In essence, it is assumed that organizational citizenship behaviour could affect workers‘ commitment and job performance. However, to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge, no much studies have been carried-out on multi-analytic factors predicting Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC), focusing on creativity, social intelligence, leadership behaviour, social innovation, religiosity, age, gender, educational level, job tenure, organizational tenure, marital status and job cadre/rank/seniority; and this is what necessitates and makes this work relevant. 1.8 Statement of the Problem In many public organizations (MDAs-Ministries, Departments and Agencies), it is heart-aching to note that organizational leaderships are marked with negative emotional reactions toward the subordinates, and this could lead to the low level of organization citizenship behaviour, which could lower the organizational productivity and job performance of the personnel. Efficient, effective, committed, socially intelligent and creative employees who determine the success and survival of st organizations in this 21 century are becoming weary and lukewarm on daily basis. This behavioural disposition may not be unconnected to the fact that their extra-role behaviours are not being reinforced and rewarded by their immediate supervisor and/or the organization they work for. This, in essence, has dampened the morale of others in going extra mile to help other co-workers through their job challenges. Therefore, the organizational set goals and success are at stake. 1 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Either overtly or covertly, the level of creativity, social intelligence, social innovation, relational leadership behaviours and religiosity in the workplaces are being discouraged. Workers have been found to have poor approach to solving job challenges that arise every day. Possibly due to lack of creativity, social innovation, poor social intelligence, poor leadership behaviour, weak religiosity, etc which tend to predict OCB in organizations. From the foregoing, the productivity of the organization will definitely be hampered, interpersonal relationship will be wailing, the spirit of team work and synergy will be killed, antisocial behaviour such as malice, gossip, witch-hunting, rancour, etc will be in vogue in the world of work and as such all sort of social menace will abound. In order to tackle these multi-faceted challenges in the workplace, it is pertinent that workers go beyond their normal work roles to assist other co-workers and also to be sensitive to one another‘s needs and aspirations. In the same vein, leaders are expected to put up an altitude that embraces the subordinates outside the work roles such as organizing social outings. OCB will therefore be enhanced if the tenet of creativity, social intelligence, relation-oriented (positive) leadership behaviour and social innovation are encouraged in the workplace. The attitude and behavioural dispositions towards one another during the formal/ informal work roles in the organization tend to affect the organizational productivity. Consequently, the negative attitude and behaviour tend to lower the organizational productivity. Therefore, if the altruism, sportsmanship, courtesy, conscientiousness, civic virtue and generalized compliance of the organizational members are not properly harnessed towards positivity, it may lead to winding up of such organization. OCB will therefore be enhanced if the ideology of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence and social innovation are adhered to by workers. Equally, when positive behaviours are rewarded, workers are happy, socially adjusted and intelligent, creative and consequently pro-social behaviours such as ‗helping others‘, sportsmanship, altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, which are dimensions of OCB will be enhanced and facilitated. Furthermore, the inability of the individuals to be creative and lack of practical solutions to the societal problems which permeate into the work place affects job performance, efficiency, effectiveness and commitment but more importantly job satisfaction which invariably culminate into Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. 1 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY That people don‘t challenge statusco (existing protocol) in order to be creative affect OCB. Equally, the culture of not finding lasting and practical solutions to social problems in the work place also go a long way in affecting organizational productivity and its OCB. Hence, it is necessary to investigate the multi-analytic factors predicting the organizational citizenship behaviour of the personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in South-West, Nigeria. 1.9 Purpose of the Study This study investigated leadership behaviour, social innovation, creativity, social intelligence, religiosity and some demographic factors such as age, educational level, job tenure, job cadre, marital status, organizational tenure and gender as predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) among the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) staff in South-West, Nigeria. The study integrates previous findings to empirically form the framework upon which further knowledge on organizational citizenship behaviour will be advanced. Specifically, the study: 1. identified the pattern of relationship between each of the independent variables (creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, social innovation, age, religiosity, educational qualification, gender, job cadre/ranking/seniority, marital status, organizational tenure, and job tenure) and the dependent variable ( Organizational Citizenship Behaviour) of NSCDC staff in South- West, Nigeria. 2. determined the joint contribution of all the independent variables to the dependent variable (OCB) of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) as a full-fledged para-military organization (agency) in Nigeria. 3. determined the relative contribution of each of the independent variables to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among the NSCDC staff in South- West, Nigeria. 1.4 Significance of the Study This study has some significance with respect to the following areas: The findings of this study have a great significance to the leadership of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps which is saddled with the responsibilities of recruitments, promotion and discipline of corps members (personnel of Nigeria 1 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Security and Civil Defence Corps). And more importantly to ensure that on-the-job policies are strictly adhered to in order to boost the officers‘ and men‘s pro-social behaviour in the workplace as well as improving the organizational productivity. It is also useful to counselling psychologists in that it would further enhance their understanding of the psychology of workers in public agencies, and help them to fashion out research-based capacity building programmes. Similarly, the study becomes a reference point to researchers, policy makers and planners on how to improve Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) in the workplace through creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation and be of immense value to personnel in the organization in that it helps them to appreciate and improve workers Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB), and thereby increase productivity. Moreover, the findings of the study also have far reaching implications for the psychologists, social workers, policy makers and other security professionals whose calling has to do with security to ensure proactive approach to security threats in our society thereby improving workers‘ commitment and as a result boost the organizational productivity as well as OCB. The government at various levels equally see the need to put in place strategy of enhancing workers‘ OCB through various MDAs (Ministries, Departments and Agencies) in form of practically educating workers on creativity, leadership behaviour, religiosity, social intelligence and social innovation hence training and retraining to human capital comes to play. Those in the helm of affairs in public organizations also become more effective in the use of creativity, relation-oriented leadership behaviour, social intelligence and social innovation training to improve the OCB of workers. Thus, the findings of this study go a long way in understanding the importance of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation among workers in NSCDC and other organizations. And this tends to improve the economy of our country. However, paradventure all these measures have been existing, there is always room for injecting creative and dynamic ideas into the existing status quo. 1.5 Scope of the study This study covered the empirical investigation of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, social innovation, religiosity, age, gender, educational 1 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY level, organizational tenure, marital status, job tenure and job cadre as predicting the organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in South-West, Nigeria. The rationale for chosen South-West, Nigeria includes amongst others available resources, security threats in the Northern part of Nigeria, an attempt to follow the existing status quo (trend) in research; it could also serve as a litmus test to other geo-political zones in Nigeria, etc. 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms The following terms are operationally defined as used in the study: Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) - This means the personnel‘s extra role behaviour that goes beyond the formal work roles to assist other colleagues without formal reward apart from the administrative roles. Leadership behaviour – This is the behaviour/interactive dispositions put up by the NSCDC leaders at various levels in the workplace which tends to influence the operational behaviour of personnel of Civil Defence. Social innovation – These are innovative skills embedded in the personnel of Civil Defence that attempt to find practicable and enduring solutions to societal vices and problems. It refers to any skilful performance that proffers solution to social or societal challenges which can accelerate the process of positive and radical change in the NSCDC and the general public. Creativity – This is the ability of personnel of Civil Defence to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives or possibilities that may be useful in enhancing organizational citizenship behaviour which will definitely boost the productivity of NSCDC. Social intelligence – This is the ability of the NSCDC personnel to manage both intra and inter-personal relationship in the workplace and to negotiate complex social challenges/relationships in the workplace. Religiosity – It is the religious inclination of personnel of NSCDC as it affects their workplace behaviour in all areas. Personnel- This refers to the entire staff of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps. Job Tenure – This is the number of years Civil Defence personnel has spent at the current job as an officer. Organizational tenure – This refers to the number of years the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps has been existing. Job Cadre – This is the category of job status being operative in NSCDC such as Corps Assistance, Inspectorate and Superintendent cadres. 1 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to serve as the foundation upon which theoretical and empirical postulations of all the variables (Dependents and Independents) of the study are expanded with a view to conceptualizing the study. This will be categorised into two, thus; theoretical and empirical backgrounds. Theoretical Background Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) Creativity Leadership Behaviour Social Innovation Social Intelligence Religiosity Job Tenure The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in perspective Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) is accepted as vital subject to survival of an organization and meets personal goals and needs (Bahrami, Montazeralfaraj, Hashemi & Dehghani, 2013; Unal, 2013). Although the term organizational citizenship behaviour was used firstly by Dennis Organ (1983) and his colleagues, but its meaning could be found in Bernard‘s (1938) concept of willingness to corporate (Mehboob & Bhutto, 2012). So far, numerous definitions of organizational citizenship behaviour have been presented. According to Organ (1988), OCB is the ‗behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that in aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization‖ (Khaola, 2008). Helping others, loyalty, and organizational compliance are forms of OCBs (Lee, Kim & Kim, 2013). OCB is not a job requirement and is not part of a formal contract, but it‘s a personnel choice (Mehboob & Bhutto, 2012; Vazifeh, Rahnama, Lotfi, & Dorosti, 2013). Also, many constructs have been developed to conceptualize the term OCB since Organs‘ (1988) construct 1 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY such as prosocial behaviour, extra role behaviour, civic organizational behaviour and contextual performance behaviour. Although there are some differences among these constructs, but the logic behind these constructs are same which have been investigated and put forward in different connotations and labels (Mehboob & Bhutto, 2012). Indeed, different authors have been suggested that organizational citizenship behaviour has different dimensions from which Organ‘s (1983) five dimension taxonomy of OCB construct have been used by many researchers across the world in different contexts. In his viewpoint, dimensions of OCB include Altruism, Courtesy, Sportsmanship, Civic- virtue and Conscientiousness (Philip, Kumar & Choudhary, 2012). Beyond the different definitions and constructions, organizational citizenship behaviour is an important issue in the field of management and organizational behaviour sciences. It is fulfilling the belief that OCB is an important component of organizational effectiveness (Philip, Kumar & Choudhary, 2012). Therefore, it seems that the research on organizational citizenship behaviour could be useful and important. In general, studies on OCB have focused on 2 issues. These issues include the consequences of OCB on the one hand and it‘s determinants on the other hand. In terms of outcomes, many studies in various contexts have indicated that OCB can affect different individual and organizational outcomes and performance. Also, in terms of determinants, different researchers have examined various determinants of the human behaviour in the work environment. Chowdhury identified key determinants of OCBs, including sustainability culture, leadership support, and organizational commitment (Khaola, 2008). Higher level of OCB results in more productivity and profitability (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). And researchers are proposing that OCB be used as a broader and truer measure of performance (Farahbod, Azedehdel, Rezaei-Dizgah & Nejhadi-Jirdehi, 2012). More specifically, the term ―citizenship behaviour‖ refers to the extra role put up by the employees beyond formal work roles to assist other co-workers. Bateman and Organ (1938) conducted a study on the relationship between affect, respectively job satisfaction, and employee citizenship. The study tried to find empirical evidence for the link between job satisfaction and performance through taking into account not only the quantity of output but also those gestures of supra role behaviour that are often taken for granted but are necessary to make the social machinery of an organization well-functioning. (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 1 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2006). Examples of such behaviour are: Helping colleagues with job-related problems, communicating a positive image of the organization to outsiders, accepting a temporary overload of work without complaint, avoiding interpersonal conflicts and protecting organizational resources. (Katz & Kahn 1966, cited in Bateman and Organ 1938). Bateman named these gestures ―citizenship‖ behaviours. Citizenship behaviours are a suitable way to compensate the organizational officials, when one is unable to produce more quantitative output. (Adams 1965 & Blau 1964, cited in Bateman & Organ 1983). Another way to justify the hypothesized linkage between satisfaction and performance is through affectivity. If it is claimed that satisfaction reflects a positive affective mood, therefore it is likely that a person, who is more satisfied, engages more in pro-social behaviour, thus, performing better on the job (Bateman & Organ 1983). In the study, the researchers measured job satisfaction, behaviour and attitudes of employees at Indiana University. In addition, supervisor ratings of the subjects‘ behaviour at work were collected. The results were surprising: Not only was the correlation between earlier job satisfaction and later citizenship behaviour significantly positive, but also the correlation between earlier citizenship behaviour and later job satisfaction was positive too. From the foregoing, the researcher is of the opinion that being excited and happy about one‘s job has influence on how often such will exhibit helping, altruistic and prosocial behaviour in the world of work. Furthermore, the significance between qualitative (citizenship) and quantitative (performance) was higher than hypothesized. (Bateman & Organ 1983) Summing up the results of the study conclude that there is a link between OCB and job satisfaction in both ways which means that the two variables influence each other, in other words, one might weaken or enforce the other one. Assuming that job satisfaction is not fully dependent on personality and subjective assumptions, but can be influenced from the outside as well, one can consequently argue that OCB as well can be influenced by external factors, most probably through the mediator of job satisfaction, but probably even directly. The positive results of this study might have been the reason why researchers have sticked to the topic of OCB. The conclusion of findings within these studies might give an answer to the question whether managers are able to influence the occurrence and the intensity of this behaviour. 1 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine and Bachrach (2000) in their new conceptualization of OCB analyzed the broad variety of different dimensions and conceptualizations of OCB and provided in their paper an integration of different interpretations. They drew up a new structure of the previously described dimensions. Some of the dimensions have been given new names in order to embody more than one meaning. Others integrated several dimensions of similar content into a single dimension. Furthermore, Podsakoff et al. (2000) added two dimensions to the concept of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. The dimensions listed by Podsakoff et al. (2000) are as follows: ―Helping behaviour‖ includes Organ‘s ―altruism‖,―peacemaking‖ and ―cheerleading‖, which are all forms of citizenship behaviour intending to help another person or group. Additionally it includes also ―courtesy‖, as it is interpreted a kind of helping in terms of preventing problems. (Podsakoff et al. 2000). ―Sportsmanship‖, ―organizational compliance” (initially called ―generalized compliance‖ or ―conscientiousness‖) and ―civic virtue‖ do not change in denomination and interpretation. According to Podsakoff et al. (2000) the nature of ―conscientiousness‖, should be included into the dimension they referred to as ―individual initiative‖, as it includes all engagement in task-related behaviour that goes beyond minimally required levels. The two dimensions added by Podsakoff et al. (2000) are ―organizational loyalty‖ and ―self-development‖. ―Organizational loyalty‖ means ―promoting the organization to outsiders, protecting and defending it against external threats, and remaining committed to it even under adverse conditions.‖ (Podsakoff et al. 2000, p. 517) ―Self Development includes voluntary behaviours employees engage in to improve their knowledge, skills and abilities.‖ (Podsakoff et al. 2000) Summing up, there are seven types of OCB according to each of the authors (Organ and Podsakoff et al.), but only five of them are commonly used for empirical findings: ―altruism‖ (respectively ―helping‖), ―compliance‖ (respectively ―conscientiousness‖), ―sportsmanship‖, ―courtesy‖, and ―civic virtue‖. The researcher will therefore continue to use these five most prominent types of OCB and the researcher will use the initial as well as the new denominations synonymously (in order to summarize both the findings of recent studies, but also those of elder ones). Although interest in the theory and research on OCB is on the increase, the rapid growth on the OCB research has produced some unfortunate consequences (Podsakoff et al., 2000). For example, people from different cultures will not 1 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY necessarily conform to similar sets of beliefs and values, and will have different views or interpretation with the situations or preferences for outcomes (Adler, Campbell, & Laurent 1989). Accordingly, these citizenship dimensions with a cultural component are organization-specific (Turnipseed & Mrukison, 2000). Thus, while investigating the socially-based citizenship behaviour, researchers should examine the contextual dimensions of OCB under certain societal culture and economic institutional framework (Farh, Zhong, & Organ, 2004). Hofstede also emphasized the assertion that when making any comparisons across cultural lines, cultural differences must be taken into consideration (Hofstede, 1980). In accordance with the assertion, Podoskaff et al. (2000) suggested that research was needed on the potential impact that cultural context might have on citizenship behaviour. Usually a single occurrence of OCB is a small gesture of one person towards another one, such as helping a colleague, which is likely to remain unrecognized by others, especially by supervisors who may take it for granted. The triviality of a single occurrence is most probably the reason why it is not (or cannot) be recognized by formal reward systems. (Organ, Podsakoff and MacKenzie 2006 ) A formal reward system can factually not take into consideration every single altruistic action or extra- effort of each co-worker. Nevertheless, it will not remain unrecognized if some employees engage in different OCBs again and again in an extended period of time. In this case, OCB becomes part of one‘s behaviour and can in the aggregate benefit the whole organization. So far the link to the relevance of OCB in organizational practice is obvious as OCB positively affects an organization‘s effectivity and efficiency. The aggregation of individual OCB leads to increased performance of an organization, as proved by several studies (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997). Summing up the results of different empirical findings, Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997 ) found strong support for the hypothesis that OCB is related to organizational performance. Despite its positive influence on organizational performance OCB is, per definition, unrewarded in terms of physical return (but it might be rewarded with appreciation). Putting the above mentioned components of OCB‘s definition together leads to the following conclusion: assuming that managers are able to influence this behaviour, or to predict which personalities will most certainly engage in OCB, they will consequently hire more of OCB-favourable personalities and respectively provide the employees with OCB favourable working conditions. Referring to the part of the definition that says that OCB has an effect on organizational effectiveness and 2 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY efficiency, an organization is likely to perform even better (without any extra- expenses), if people are hired and are more likely to engage in OCB than others. If one wants to influence OCB, it is indispensable to understand OCBs‘ determinants and their significance. With respect to the assumption made above, the question is what such OCB-favourable personalities and working conditions might be. Research on OCB‘s dispositional determinants (e.g. personality or affectivity) and contextual determinants (e.g. working conditions) has found its way into many studies conducted since the beginning of OCB research in 1983. In addition, the researcher will examine relevant studies in relation to this and consequently connect them in order to try to give an answer whether there are certain types of personalities which are more likely to engage in OCB than others. The question is why organizations should focus on OCB and why it is important for them to know whether OCB is influenced to a significant extent by disposition. ―Employees provide organizations with unique human resource capabilities that can create a competitive advantage, and OCB is one type of behaviour that may contribute to that advantage.‖ (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, Bachrach 2000, p.46). As a consequence, organizations have to find ways to benefit from human resources, and subsequently have to make sure that their employees contribute to their competitive advantage. OCB can be an important factor that might distinguish the employees from one organization and those of another one. The researcher would like to argue why organizations should particularly now, in times of economic difficulties, focus more on their employees generally and on OCB in particular. Especially nowadays, in times of fast changes, security challenges and economic difficulties many organizations have to cope with a decrease in revenues. As a consequence, competition among similar organizations is growing even harsher. Wouldn‘t it be desirable to find a competitive advantage that contributes to an increase in performance without requiring any financial investment? Finding a way to making employees engaging in OCB or to choose the right personalities, who will predictably engage in OCB might represent such a competitive advantage. That is why it seems very obvious to me that a large number of managers should be interested in profiting from OCB. The first research on OCB conducted by Organ in the 1980s was influenced by the theories and research in social psychology and pro-social behaviour. Pro-social behaviour includes similar facets of behaviour as OCB, despite some differences in the definition of the two terms. 2 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Prosocial behaviour focuses on helping an individual without compensation, but it distinguishes itself from OCB in a way that individuals involved in pro-social behaviour are often unknown to each other, whereas in OCB people involved are working together in the same organization. Furthermore, the concept of OCB includes also other, more impersonal dimensions besides helping, such as high levels of conscientiousness and involvement in work beyond the general requirements. Although OCB can express itself in the form of altruism, the two concepts are not the same, because the motives are different: altruism is always selfless, whereas OCB can have various motives. Even if the motives are often unconscious, OCB might be driven by ego-centric motives as well. Therefore, we have to look first at the motives to decide whether a certain type of OCB is altruistic or not. (Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie 2006). Having now presented the development of the dimensions of OCB, the following part of the review will proceed with a short description of each dimension by providing a list of examples of each dimension. In order to avoid confusions, the researcher wants to sum up in short the conceptualization of the various dimensions according to the most recent findings. Helping This dimension was initially labelled ―altruism‖. It was given a new name, because ―altruism‖ was criticized to imply selflessness as a motive behind the behaviour and limited the dimension thereby to those gestures which were driven by selfless motivators (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 2006). The new conceptualization is defined as ―voluntarily helping others with, or preventing the occurrence of, work related problems‖ Pg 78 (Podsakoff et al. 2000). Regardless of its denomination (helping or altruism) this type of OCB is in its nature ―…directed at a specific individual- usually a co-worker, but sometimes the supervisor or a customer. In other words, the target of the behaviour, the immediate beneficiary, is a person. This factor includes items such as helping a new worker learn the job or helping an overloaded worker catches up with the workflow or solve a problem.‖ (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 2006). Podsakoff et al. (2000) argued that Organ‘s dimensions of ―peacemaking‖ and ―cheerleading‖ were also included in ―helping‖. Furthermore, those behaviours of ―courtesy‖ intended to avoid problems were also included, according to Podsakoff et al.,(2000) as they also constituted some sort of helping-behaviour. 2 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Courtesy Although this dimension is according to the most recent conceptualization included in the dimension of ―helping‖ (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 2006), The researcher will treat it within his review as a separate dimension. Doing so is due to the fact that earlier dated studies will as well treat it separately from other dimensions as the linkage to certain factors of personality might differ from other dimensions of OCB. It is therefore not reasonable to summarize several different facets of OCB under one dimension. Organ (1988) initially labelled ―courtesy‖ as a specific form of OCB, whereas Podsakoff et al. (2000) later argued that it was included within the dimension of ―helping‖ (as mentioned in the description of “helping‖). ―Whereas helping pertains to mitigating or solving a problem confronted by a colleague, courtesy consists of actions that help prevent those problems from occurring. The basic idea is to avoid practices that make other people‘s work harder and, when you have to add to their load, to give them enough notice that they‘ll be prepared to deal with it.‖ (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 2006). Sportsmanship Employees who engage in sportsmanship are described as ―people who do not only complain when they are inconvenienced by others, but also maintain a positive attitude even when things do not go their way‖ (Podsakoff et al. 2000). This implies the ability of the worker to absorb insults from others without complains. Compliance This dimension consisted, according to its initial definition, of ―…items that did not have the immediate effect of helping a specific person but rather contributed in a more impersonal and generalized fashion to the group, department, or organization. For example, punctuality in arriving at work or at meetings, exemplary attendance (i.e., very low absenteeism), and refraining from unnecessary breaks and idle conversation do not appear to help any specific individual (although one could make the case that such behaviour does, at least indirectly, help the supervisor or manager). What these behaviours exemplify is a particularly high order of compliance with constraints upon individuals necessary to make a cooperative system.‖(Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 2006). Although this dimension was initially labelled ―conscientiousness‖, it was later renamed ―compliance‖ in order to avoid confusions with the personality factor labelled ―conscientiousness‖. (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 2006). A shorter definition is provided by Podsakoff et al. (2000) who 2 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY described an employee engaging in ―compliance‖ as: ―…an employee who religiously obeys all rules and regulations, even when no one is watching…” The dimension of ―conscientiousness‖ is included in the dimension of ―individual initiative‖ described by Podsakoff et al. (2000), which are ―…task-related behaviours at a level that is far beyond minimally required or generally expected levels…‖ In this review, The researcher will sum up all the task-related, impersonal types of OCB that are defined as extra-role according to the level of engagement within the category of ―compliance‖ rather than as a matter of nature. Civic Virtue Podsakoff et al. (2000) describe civic virtue as “…a person‘s recognition of being part of a larger whole in the same way that citizens are members of a country and accept the responsibilities.” Organizational Loyalty This dimension of OCB, which consists - according to Podsakoff et al. (2000) of behaviours that protect and defend the image and good reputation of the organization towards the external environment is of minor importance in the research of multianalytic factors and their linkage to OCB. Self-Development Self-development is characterized as “… voluntary behaviours employees engage in to improve their knowledge, skills, and abilities.” (Podsakoff et al. 2000) This dimension will not be further mentioned in my work, as empirical research on this dimension of OCB in reference to its link to personality traits is rare up to now. So far I have defined in a detailed manner those dimensions of OCB that will be of relevance for this study (altruism, compliance, civic virtue, sportsmanship and courtesy) and additionally have provided a short definition those dimensions that have been added later and are consequently less often mentioned in studies on OCB and personality. Dimensions of OCB Organizational Citizenship Behaviours directed toward the Individuals (OCBI) OCBI refers to the behaviours that immediately benefit specific individuals within an organization and, thereby, contribute indirectly to organisational effectiveness (Lee & Allen, 2002). Podsakoff et al. (2000) labelled this dimension as helping behaviour and defined it as voluntarily helping others with work-related 2 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY problems. While other researchers have addressed this category of behaviour in a number of ways, all are similar to Williams and Anderson's (1991) definition of OCBI. This implies that the individual‘ creativity, leadership skills, social innovation, religiosity and social intelligence would be boosted having enjoyed help from the co- worker(s) one time or the other. Organizational Citizenship Behaviours directed towards the Organization (OCBO) The second dimension of OCB includes behaviours benefiting the organisation without actions aimed specifically toward any organisational member or members (e.g., adhering to informal rules, volunteering for committees). Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine & Bacharach (2000) labelled this organisational compliance as it involves an internalisation of a company's rules and policies. Furthermore, Williams and Anderson (1991) defined it as behaviours that benefit the organisation in general. These behaviours include giving prior notice regarding an absence from work or informally adhering to rules designed to maintain order. All these behavioural dispositions on the part of the organization would definitely improve its productivity and effectiveness. Global OCB Dimension For the purpose of this, seven common themes or dimensions on OCB are presented by Podsakoff, et al. (2000): Helping Behaviour, Sportsmanship, Organizational Loyalty, Organizational Compliance, Individual Initiative, Civic Virtue, and Self Development. Based on three sources of the partitioning and measurement of OCB (i.e., the original article by Katz (1964), interviews with lower level managers, classic Greek philosophy perspective), Farh, et al. (2004) categorized nine major dimensions of OCB: Altruism, Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Courtesy, Civic Virtue, Functional Participation, Advocacy Participation, Loyalty and Voice. Nevertheless, these two categorizations of OCB dimensions originate in a Western social cultural context. Antecedents of OCB in a Non-U.S. Context According to Organ and Rayan‘s meta-analytic review of 55 studies, job attitude is a robust predictor of OCB and satisfaction, fairness and organizational commitment are the only correlates of OCB in a considerable number of cases. Podsakoff et al., (2000) concluded that empirical research has focused on four major 2 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY categories of antecedents of OCB: individual (or employee) characteristics, task characteristics, organizational characteristics and leadership behaviours. They further pointed out that among these antecedents, job attitudes, job satisfaction, perceptions of fairness, organizational commitment, task variables and various types of leader behaviours appear to be more strongly related to OCBs than the other antecedents. These findings correspond to what is found in Staufenbiel‘s and König (2010) literature review on the antecedents and consequences of OCB. Staufenbiel (2000) found positive relationships between OCB and job satisfaction, fairness perceptions, organizational commitment and leadership behaviour. By using meta-analysis, LePine, Erez and Johnson (2002) concluded that job satisfaction, organizational commitment, fairness, trait conscientiousness and leader support are the highly- examined predictors of OCB in most empirical studies. Based on the available data, the antecedents of OCB could be categorized as job satisfaction ( Mason & Griffin, 2002; Spiess,2000), perception of fairness ( Folger & Skarlicki, 1999; Charness & Levine, 2000; Pillai, Schriesheim & Williams, 2000; Staufenbiel, 2000; Naumann & Bennett, 2002), trust, organization commitment and leadership (Bruins, Ellemers & Degilder, 1999; Cunningham & Macgregor, 2000; Rogelberg, Luong, Sederburg & Cristol, 2000; Staufenbiel, 2000; Mackenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Goodwin, Wofford & Whittington, 2001; Bierhoff & Spanke, 2002; Maurer, Pierce & Shore, 2002; Wong, Wong & Ngo, 2002; Dirks & Ferrin, 2002; Maamari, & Messarra, 2012) and task variables ( Hui, Law & Chen, 1999; Somech & Drachzahavy, 2000; Chattopadhyay & George, 2001; Ryan, 2002). These antecedents are, to a great extent, consistent with what is found in the related studies. Turning attention now to the antecedents of OCB in non-U.S. contexts, research reveals that job satisfaction, perception of equity, organization commitment, trust, and procedural justice or distributive justice all have positive relationships with citizenship behaviours (Farh, Early & Lin, 1997; Ang, Van Dyne, & Begley, 2003.; Menguc, 2000; Paine & Organ, 2000; O‘Connell, Doverspike, Norris-Watta & Hattrup , 2001; Alotaibi, 2001;; Kuehn & Al-Busaidi, 2002; Chen & Francesco, 2003). Podsakoff et al. (2000) categorised organizational citizenship behaviour into four major categories of antecedents, which are the following: 1. Individual (or employee) characteristics 2 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2. Task characteristics 3. Organizational characteristics 4. Leadership behaviours The earliest research on OCB‘s antecedents focused on attitudes, disposition and leader supportiveness (e.g. Bateman and Organ, 1983). According to these authors, studies analysing leadership, as well as task and organizational characteristics as possible antecedents of OCB followed later. (Podsakoff et al., 2000) Podsakoff et al., 2000 also listed several subordinated types for each category of antecedents that had been examined within other studies and had proved to have linkages with one, several or all types of OCB. They focused only on those types of OCB that had received the most attention in research literature, namely altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, civic virtue, sportsmanship and generalized compliance. They measured the average impact of the various variables on the sum of all dimensions and called it ―overall OCB‖. Among individual characteristics one can find employee attitudes, including traits such as satisfaction, fairness, and commitment. Furthermore, there are dispositional variables, including two dimensions of the big five personality factors (namely conscientiousness and agreeableness) and affectivity. Additionally, role perceptions and demographic variables are also part of employee attitudes (Podsakoff et al. 2000). It is more likely that dispositional antecedents influence OCB in an indirect rather than direct way. This is due to the fact that dispositional factors, such as the personality factors of conscientiousness and agreeability, as well as positive or negative affectivity ―predispose people to certain orientations vis-à-vis coworkers and managers.‖ As a consequence, those orientations might increase the probability of feeling treated in a fair, supporting and satisfying way that is worth being reciprocated and therefore increases and intensifies OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Moreso, certain dispositional factors can provide an explanation why some people might be more likely to engage in OCB than others. The second category- task characteristics - include, for example, task routinization and task feedback. The category of organizational characteristics includes, for example, formalization, organizational support, and inflexibility. The last category, referred to as ―leadership behaviours‖ lists, for example, transformational leadership, articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model and leader-member exchange. (Podsakoff et al., 2000). While some of the variables mentioned above 2 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY have proved to be significantly correlated with OCB, others have not. Employee satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceptions of fairness, and perceptions of leader supportiveness all have proved as being significantly linked to OCB and thus ―appear to be important determinants of citizenship behaviours‖. Among dispositional factors, agreeableness, conscientiousness and positive affectivity seemed to have the strongest effects, according to Podsakoff et al. (2000). Factors Influenced by OCB Some recent empirical studies have found that employee citizenship was positively associated with indicators of both product quantity and product quality (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997) identified some positive outcomes enhanced by OCB including coworker productivity, managerial productivity, and the organizational ability to attract and retain the best people by making it a more attractive place to work and a stable organizational performance. Bolino et al. (2003) found that when a firm is comprised good organizational citizens, it is likely to accumulate higher levels of social capital i.e. social innovation skill. OCB assists the development and maintenance of social capital within the firm, which in turn produces higher levels of organizational performance. OCB may also contribute to the development of trust, mutual obligations, expectations, and identification among the employees in organizations. Now that we understand the importance of OCB in increasing organization performance (effectiveness by enhancing product quality and quantity, social capital, employee productivity, etc.), it is important to note the factors that determine or affect OCB. The Determinants of OCB Shapiro, Kessler, and Purcell (2004) have two explanations for why employees engage in OCB. The first explanation views OCB as a form of reciprocation where employees engage in OCB to reciprocate fair or good treatment from the organization and the individual. The second view is that employees engage in OCB because they define those behaviours as part of their job. The researcher discusses a few other determinants of OCB. Job satisfaction. Shapiro, Kessler and Purcell (2004) have found that the relationship between job satisfaction and employee citizenship behaviour is strong. It 2 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY was seen to be more than twice as strong as the relationship between job satisfaction and employee productivity. Interesting work and job involvement. Shapiro et al. (2004)) also found that citizenship levels are markedly lower when employees are engaged in very repetitive and highly standardized tasks. Individuals who are highly involved in their work, in fact, are more likely to engage in OCB. Trust, organizational justice and psychological contract fulfillment. As per Shapiro et al. (2004), employees who trust their supervisors and their organizations are also likely to exhibit higher levels of citizenship. Conversely, employees who perceive a violation of their psychological contracts often respond by decreasing their citizenship behaviour and do not believe in working beyond enforceable standards. Chen, Lam, Naumann, and Schaubroeck (2005) found that OCB emerges, transmits, and persists through the actions of members of the group. Thus, organizational justice is one of the key determinants of OCB. Organizational support. The extent to which employees feel supported and taken care of by their employers predispose them to likelihood to repay the organisation by engaging in constructive behaviours. As per Shapiro et al. (2004), OCB is perceived as organizational support, which captures an employee‘s perception of how well he or she feels about how he or she is being treated by the organization. Employee characteristics. Highly conscientious individuals are generally more likely to engage in citizenship behaviours (Shapiro et al., 2004). In addition, employees who are outgoing and generally have a positive outlook on life are often more inclined to exhibit citizenship in the workplace. Likewise, individuals who are empathetic and altruistic are also more inclined to initiate citizenship behaviours at work. Finally, certain individuals tend to define their jobs more broadly than others do. For these individuals, engaging in citizenship behaviour is simply an integral aspect of their jobs. Other factors. Chen, Lam, Naumann and Schaubroeck (2005) found that highly cohesive groups are more likely to exhibit high levels of OCB. Confirming this, Shapiro et al. (2004) also found that individuals who are team oriented engage in more citizenship behaviours. As per Bolino and Turnley (2003), the findings of several studies indicate that Transformational Leader is especially relevant in eliciting employee citizenship behaviours. That is, employees who work for transformational 2 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY leaders are frequently motivated to go beyond the call of duty for the benefit of their organization and the individual. According to Paine and Organ (2000), factors affecting OCB are organizational structure, power distance, cultural group norms, and nature of work, collective contextual factors, and the level of commitment. A rigid mechanistic structure might constrain spontaneous, extra-role behaviour while the more open organic structures actually foster initiatives beyond job descriptions. Power distance influences the perception of OCB as well as whether other employees are inclined towards demonstrating OCB. As mentioned in the previous paragraphs, there are three essential attributes of the OCB construct: discretionary, no formal rewards associated, and its contribution to organizational effectiveness. However, its discretionary and non-contractual reward attributes have become the target of critics (Morrison, 1994). Morrison (1994) critiques Organ‘s (1988) OCB definition on the basis of its emphasis on the discretionary characteristic. According to Morrison, employees may hold different views about their job responsibilities and may differ from each other while defining the boundary between what is in-role and extra-role behaviour. That is, while coming to work early is extra-role behaviour for an employee, the other employee may see it as in-role behaviour. Therefore, engaging in OCB depends on how the employee defines his/her job. Morrison (1994) also reported that 18 out of 20 OCB items were perceived as in-role behaviours by the majority of the respondents of her study. Therefore, from Morrison‘s point of view, OCB is ―ill-defined and varies from one employee to the next and between employees and supervisors‖. Organ (1997) evaluated Morrison‘s criticism and concluded that like roles, jobs are changing due to downsizing, flattening, team-based and flexy form of organizations. Therefore, the definitions of jobs may be whatever is required in the workplace. For this reason, Organ (1997) preferred to avoid giving reference to extra-role behaviours. Another criticism directed to the OCB construct is based on the issue of rewards. According to MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Fetter, (1991), some OCBs might be monetarily rewarded as if they are in-role performance elements. Organ (1997) admitted the correctness of these criticisms and concluded that ―of the three essential conditions for OCB, we are left with one- that it contributes to organizational effectiveness‖ (p. 89). As a result, Organ (1997) redefined OCB ―as contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that 3 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY supports task performance‖ without referring to the ―extra-role‖, ―beyond the job‖ and ―unrewarded by the system‖ characteristics of OCB (p. 91). Therefore, the current study follows the redefinition of OCB stated by Organ (1997). Theories of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Some researchers described types of behaviour, similar to OCBs, a long time before OCB was first mentioned in scientific articles. This fact supports the suspicion that OCB is based on the ideas of Barnard‘s (1938) concept of ―willingness to cooperate‖, Locke‘s (1976) ―informal collaboration‖ and Katz and Kahn‘s (1967) ―patterns of individual behaviour‖. Research on OCB and related constructs dates back the 1980ies. Still, this does not mean that the 1980ies were the years when OCB was discovered. There are some fields of Organizational Theory that have had an influence on the phenomenon we nowadays call OCB. Theory of the “cooperative system” by Chester Barnard (1938) The first concept to present is Chester Barnard‘s (1938) theory of the ―cooperative system‖. Barnard‘s view of an organization was different from the theories of other researchers at that time, which put more emphasis on the formal structure and control of organizations. Barnard defined the essence of an organization differently. He argued that the ―willingness of persons to contribute efforts to the cooperative system is indispensable‖ (Barnard 1938). According to Barnard, the willingness to contribute went beyond the execution of specified functions in exchange for contractual compensation. In order to make the organisation work, as a cooperative system, every participant is required to behave in a certain way and to show some commitment. It results in a shared understanding that these spontaneous contributions of every single member result in a benefit for the whole organization. The term ―willingness‖ points out in a clear manner that authority cannot enforce this kind of behaviour, it is up to the participants to contribute to the community or not (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 2006). The essence of the term ―willingness‖, as well as its determinants shows similarities to the latterly developed concept of OCB and its determinants. Barnard saw the roots of the willingness to cooperate in the general satisfaction of a person and the compatibility of the person (respectively his/her education and experience). The executive‘s function was to maintain this cooperative effort. Summing up, 3 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Barnard noted that spontaneous contributions beyond contractual obligations are of vital necessity for an organization as a cooperative construct. (Organ, et al., 2006). If one compares the nature of both OCB, defined by Organ (1988), and the so called ―willingness to cooperate‖, defined by Barnard (1983), it is clear that both types of behaviour are voluntary ones. This voluntariness, which is the essence of Barnard‘s ―willingness to cooperate‖, was what Organ called ―discretionary behaviour‖ half a century later, when he described the concept of OCB. Having presented one possible root of the concept of OCB, the researcher would like to proceed by analysing the roots of other parts of OCB‘s definition. Another concept of organizational theory similar to OCB is described in the chronicle of the Hawthorne studies by Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939). The Hawthorne studies began in 1924 in the Hawthorne Works in Chicago, which was at that time the biggest production plant of the Western-Electric-Company. A number of researchers, among them Roethlisberger and Dickson, conducted experiments of different content between 1924 and 1932. The first experiments intended to establish a relationship between illumination and productivity. Another series of experiments should have found out about the effects of rest, pauses and schedules of work, followed by studies, which concentrated on the factors of work-satisfaction. The last study examined the influence of teamwork on performance. The Hawthorne studies represented a new era, as they found out that leadership has to focus not only on efficiency and effectiveness in an economic sense, but has to take into account socio-psychological conditions of leadership as well. The results of the Hawthorne studies made clear that besides technical processes, especially social dynamics, as well as appreciation of work and acceptance doubtlessly affect productivity (Heinrich 2002, Kasper & Mayrhofer 2002). Summing up the results, the researchers, who conducted the Hawthorne studies, found that increases in productivity did not only depend on the arrangement of pauses, hours of work or favourable working conditions. Instead, changes in supervisory treatment and unpredictable cooperation within the working groups seemed to have a strong influence on performance too. (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 2006). Previous researchers provided in their work ―Management and the worker‖ a coherent picture of all the studies involved in the Hawthorne studies and interpreted the results with reference to behavioural science. They made a distinction between the formal and the informal organization. The first one was marked by the system of rules 3 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and policies regulating the workers‘ tasks, the latter one described the informal differentiation and integration of the individuals. The informal system should not be misinterpreted as construct opposing the formal organization; it should rather be understood as a necessary condition for collaboration making the formal organization work better. (Organ, et al., 2006). A similarity to the concept of OCB was found in the interpretation of the ―informal collaboration‖, which is a system of unpredictable cooperation within individuals that ensures a better functioning of the formal organization. Another similarity of this concept of collaboration and OCB can be seen in the way job satisfaction seems to have an effect on both types of behaviour. Roethlisberger and Dickson- just like researchers on OCB- concluded that the quality of collaboration is positively linked to job satisfaction. Thus, co-workers in a good mood collaborate in a way that goes beyond the formal level required. (Organ,et al., 2006). Appraisively, both the commitment beyond formal job requirements, described in the concept of OCB, and the so-called ―informal collaboration‖ positively contribute to the organization‘s performance. Just like ―the willingness to cooperate‖ described by Barnard (1938), ―informal collaboration‖ can be seen as one possible root of OCB. Behavioural Analysis of Organizations (Open System Model) by Katz and Kahn’s (1967) Another concept dated prior to OCB but dealing with similar content is Katz and Kahn‘s (1967) behavioural analysis of organizations based on the open system model. The two authors argued in their book, published in 1966, that there were three types of ―patterns of individual behaviour required for organizational functioning and effectiveness‖(Katz & Kahn 1967).The first category of behaviour, they focused on, was to join the organization and to stay within the system. It is obvious that in order to make an organization well-functioning, a certain number of employees is needed. As high turn-over rates are costly for an organization, it is desirable to bind the workers to the organization so that they ―stay within the system.‖ (Katz & Kahn 1967) The second category of behaviour refers to the role-requirements and was called ―dependable behaviour‖. ―Dependable‖ in this sense was understood in a way that employees‘ behaviour should be restricted to predictable patterns, depending on the working context. This type of behaviour demands of each individual to fulfil its role requirements, respectively to meet or even to exceed quantitative as well as 3 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY qualitative standards of performance (Katz & Kahn, 1967). The last type of behaviour was defined by the authors as ―innovative and spontaneous behaviour: performance beyond role requirements for accomplishments of organizational functions.‖(Katz & Kahn 1967) It includes all those gestures that promote a positive climate for the organization in the external environment, but also cooperation with colleagues and actions to maintain a favourable working climate. (Katz & Kahn, 1967). The system of an organization would be too fragile and would break down without these spontaneous, unpredictable cooperative actions. On one hand, each action taken singularly is unimpressive and thus might be taken for granted or even neglected. On the other hand, summing up the contributions of all participants, the result can have a significant impact on the performance of the whole organization (Katz & Kahn 1967). A similarity to OCB is the unpredictability of these contributions, thus showing parallels with the OCB feature of being discretionary. Any action that is a product of a person‘s intrinsic motivation, guided by his/her own willingness to do something or not to do it, is unpredictable and uncontrollable to a certain extent. Another resemblance is that both behaviours are described as going beyond role requirements and as being essential for the functioning of an organization, respectively contributing to the overall performance of an organization. Leader-Member Exchange Theory There are some other more theories that share some common points with OCB. One of them is the Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX), which analyzes leadership types that are suggested to result in a certain kind of behaviour of the group members. The members‘ behaviours seem to reflect the way they are managed. In contrast, there are also exchange theories which describe the relation in the other way round, thus the leader behaviour becomes a function of subordinate behaviour (Lowin & Craig 1968 and Hart, Greene & Brush, 1997). In reference to OCB, the LMX theory includes also some sort of extra-role contributions offered by the employees in exchange for extra-offers from the leader (Organ, Podsakoff & MacKenzie 2006). Even though, there might be some factors of OCB included in the extra-role contributions of the LMX theory, the researcher argue that the motives behind are different to those behind OCB. As OCB is per definition unrewarded, the dominant motive for OCB subsequently cannot be any kind of material compensation. To the researcher, it seems that OCB is to a certain extent more voluntary and selfless than 3 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY similar actions in the LMX theory, as the latter one describes behaviour in the context of exchange, thus as a reaction to the behaviour of someone else. As soon as there is some sort of compensation, the motives behind the extra-role behaviour might change from a selfless other-oriented to a kind of ―give and take‖ arrangement. It predicts that under certain conditions people try to compensate those who benefit them. If an employee, for instance, feels that he is treated in a fair manner by his supervisor, he will try to compensate him in some way and might therefore, for example, engage in citizenship behaviours. If one claims that a person‘s satisfaction results from the effort of organizational officials, the person will try to reciprocate those efforts. Citizenship behaviours are a suitable way to compensate the organizational officials, when one is unable to produce more quantitative output. (Bateman & Organ, 1983) In order to distinguish these two forms of commitments one has to look more in detail at the motives behind. So far there has been given insight into three different organizational theories where similarities to OCB up to a certain extent can be found. The fact that other researchers, who worked separately and totally independently from research and papers on OCB that were conducted later on, came to similar conclusions is a strong support for the concept of OCB. It supports the fact that OCB is not something constructed in a person‘s mind and afterwards defended by empirical prove. On the contrary, it is something that had been observed a long time before it was given a name. Even if there are still questions open on influences on OCB and its determination by numerous factors, there is no doubt about its relevance in organizational theory. Social Exchange Theory (SET) by Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) According to Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005), ―social exchange theory (SET) is among the most influential conceptual paradigms for understanding workplace behaviour.‖ SET explains the regulation of social relations based on a powerful and general premise: the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). While the reciprocation ideology seems to be widely shared among individuals, levels of mutuality, however, differ, depending on individual orientation (Eisenberger, Cotterell, & Marvel, 1987; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Contrary to economic trade, social exchange is discretionary, and the form, degree or time of reciprocation are neither specified nor enforceable (Blau, 1964). Although the norm suggests equivalence in terms of help received and returned, the value placed on the exchange 3 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY relationship is idiosyncratic. This means that a person will feel obligated to a donor (e.g., an organization, supervisor or colleague) only when he or she is freely provided with something he/she cares about (Schaninger & Turnipseed, 2005). In short, people tend to reward volitional and positive dispositions toward themselves, by returning the benefits they perceive having received. Given these considerations, work experiences fostering employee perceptions of support, trust and justice have been found to contribute to the social exchange dynamic (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Stinglhamber, de Cremer, & Mercken, 2006). Of most importance is perceived organizational support (POS): through reciprocity, it promotes desirable work outcomes such as commitment or citizenship behaviour. In other words, the greater the POS, the more likely are employees to identify with, and make voluntary extra efforts on behalf of the organization (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Support has also been examined at the supervisory (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, 2002) and colleague level (Pearce & Herbik, 2004; Paillé, 2012), providing similar results. While a considerable amount of research has been conducted on organizational and supervisor foci of support, the colleague entity is in need of greater attention (Bishop, Scott, Goldsby, & Cropanzano, 2005; Howes, Cropanzano, Grandey, & Mohler, 2000). Similarly, studies on social exchange theory have been limited in the generational context (Benson & Brown, 2011; Hess & Jepsen, 2009) and the present review fills a gap in this respect. With the core ideas that comprise SET succinctly introduced, we can now turn to a review of the generational literature. Social exchange provided a mechanism for the intuitive link between attitudes and performance. The idea was that many acts in the workplace are not strictly regulated by contractual obligations, but through a more implicit and discretionary exchange of resources, including those more social in nature (Blau, 1964). According to this perspective, employees might perform OCB‘s out of a sense of obligation to return any number of perceived material or social benefits they have gained from the organization (Organ, Podsakoff. & MacKenzie, 2006). Social exchange has received a great deal of credit during the last three decades for linking employee attitudes and OCB performance, yet as Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) point out, many ambiguities remain. The precise motive prompting employees to perform OCB‘s and logistics of the process are not always clear. 3 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leadership Behaviour In the 21st Century business environment, companies have found it necessary to transform from a business that simply earns a profit to a business that looks for ways to maintain a competitive advantage. Leaders are now not only tasked with strategizing to come up with profit-earning activities, but leaders are also tasked with strategizing to motivate and engage employees to give more back to the organization in order to achieve desired results. Leadership is specifically identified as a key element of service firm success due to the importance of cooperation, learning, and customer relations in this environment. The subject of leadership is complex, and one of the main issues facing organizational leaders today is how to motivate employees to actively participate in the efforts that lead to accomplishing organizational goals. The servant leader is constantly trying to find out what his or her people need to be successful. This may be the rationale behind the position of Abolurin, (2012) who perceives leadership behaviour as the behavioural skills of transformational leadership components which leaders must learn for exceptional performance outcomes. To achieve this, leaders need to be aware of these transformational leadership behaviours and apply them as at when necessary for effective organizational growth. Dimensions of Transformational Leaders Bass and Avolio (1993) proposed that the four dimensions that comprise transformation leadership behaviour are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Individualized influence Individualized influence occurs when leaders earn the trust and respect of their followers by doing the right thing rather than ensuring that the subordinates do things right. When the leaders focus on doing the right thing, which they usually do by using stories and symbols to communicate their vision and their message, they serve as role models. Humphreys and Einstein (2003) have found that transformational leaders operate out of deeply held personal value systems that include qualities like justice and integrity. By expressing these personal standards, transformational leaders unite their followers. But, more importantly, they can change their followers‘ goals and beliefs for the better. 3 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Intellectual stimulation According to Shin, Shung, Zhou, and Jing (2003), inspirational motivation is related to the formulation and articulation of a vision and/or challenging goals. Intellectual stimulation promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem-solving abilities. It also involves engaging the rationality of the subordinates, getting them to challenge their assumptions and to think about old problems in new ways. Leaders who engage in intellectual stimulation do not answer all their employees‘ questions; instead, they make them seek the answers on their own. Individual consideration Individual consideration is concerned with treating the employees as individuals and not just members of a group. Leaders exhibit this trait by being compassionate, appreciative, and responsive to the employees‘ needs and by recognizing and celebrating their achievements. Inspirational motivation Conger and Kanungo (1988) have found that inspirational motivation and charisma are companions. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to accomplish great feats by communicating high expectations by using symbols to focus efforts and by expressing important purposes. Transformational leaders tend to pay close attention to the inter-individual differences among their followers and often act as mentors to their subordinates, typically coaching and advising the followers with individual personal attention. Since charismatic leaders have great power and influence, the employees have a high degree of trust and confidence in them and want to identify with them. Charismatic leaders inspire and excite their employees with the idea that they may be able to accomplish great things. Influence of Transformational Leaders on Followers Shin et al. (2003) found that Transformational Leader positively relates to follower creativity, followers‘ conservation, and intrinsic motivation. TL boosts intrinsic motivation and provides intellectual stimulation; the followers are encouraged to challenge the status quo and the old ways of doing things. Kark and Shamir (2002) have found TL to be a multifaceted, complex, and dynamic form of influence in which leaders can affect followers by highlighting 3 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY different aspects of the followers‘ social self-concept and change their focus from one level to another. This is likely to determine whether the followers see themselves primarily in terms of their relationship with the leader or in terms of their organizational group membership. They suggested that different leadership behaviours could account for priming these distinct aspects of followers‘ self-concept and followers‘ identification. Furthermore, these different forms of influence are important because they can lead to differential outcomes. Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, and Spangler (2004) posited that by means of individualized consideration, a leader addresses issues of competence, meaningfulness and impact with each team member, and encourages continued individual development. Kark and Shamir (2002) found that TL behaviour such as intellectual stimulation increases the followers‘ feeling of self-worth because they transmit the message that the leader believes in the followers‘ integrity and ability. Followers of transformational leaders who are willing to focus on their relational self would be motivated to enhance the well-being of the leader by being cooperative, loyal, and committed. The most significant effect of TL is that of influencing followers to transcend self-interests for the sake of the welfare of the organization. Jung, Chow, and Wu (2003) indicated that TL has significant and positive relations in terms of both empowerment and fostering an innovation-supporting organizational climate. Dvir et al. (2002) have found TL to have a positive impact on the development of followers‘ empowerment in terms of their engagement in the task and specific self-efficacy. They confirmed the hypothesis that follower development can influence performance to show that TL affects development, OCB as well as performance. Kark and Shamir (2002) suggested that transformational leaders can have a dual effect, exerting their influence on followers through the creation of personal identification with the leader and social identification with the work unit, and that these different forms of identification can lead to differential outcomes. 3 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leadership Styles Leadership is defined as the ability to influence others to get things done. It reflects influence relationship behaviour between leaders and followers in a particular situation with the common intention to accomplish the organization end results (Bass & Stogdill, 1990). Generally, leadership researchers suggest that an effective leader should be able to articulate vision, instil trust, belief, and loyalty and lead employees‘ talents directly towards achieving the organizational goals (Strange & Mumford, 2002; Levin, 1999; Bennis, 2002). There are several well established dichotomy approaches to the classification of leadership styles. Stogdill (1974) proposes a leadership dichotomy as ―consideration leadership‖ and ―structure leadership‖, likewise Fiedler (1967) suggests ―task orientation‖ versus relationship orientation‖ and Hersey and Blanchard (1977) recommend ―concern for people‖ and ―concern for task‖. However, this study focuses on the transactional and transformational leadership style. Past investigation proposed the dichotomy methods of transactional-transformational leadership may be applicable in the study of phenomenological-based leadership styles (Misumi & Peterson, 1985), in addition to the insights exploration of leaders-subordinates communication patterns (Penley & Hawkins, 1985) that shape both parties influence behaviours. The following section specifically discusses the transactional and transformational leadership styles. Transactional Leadership Past researchers have studied on transactional leadership as the core component of effective leadership behaviour in organizations prior to the introduction of transformational leadership theory (Burns, 1989; House, 1996). Exchange relationship is the key element reflected by the transactional leadership. Transactional leaders demand their subordinates to agree with, accept or comply with their request if the subordinates hope for rewards and resources or avoidance of punitive action (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman & Fetter, 1990). This dyadic exchange process of leadership style has been linked with contingent reward and punishment behaviour and termed as transactional leader behaviour by Bryman (1992). The typical manager who is a transactional leader tends to identify employees lower level needs by determining the goals that subordinates need to achieve and communicate to them on how successful execution of those tasks will lead to receive of desirable job rewards (Avolio, Waldman & Yammarino, 1991). In fact, this process only helps employees to 4 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY meet their basic work requirements and maintain the organizational status quo. Moreover, the transactional leader also limits the employees‘ effort toward goals, job satisfaction and effectiveness (Bass 1985). Bass (1986) suggests that transactional leadership is acceptable as far as it goes, but fundamentally is a prescription for organizational mediocrity. Appraisively, transactional leadership could be viewed as being too formal and restrictive as it gives no room for informal and/or social interaction between the duo (leader and follower) and therefore may hamper OCBs in the organizational setting which tends to lower the organizational productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership refers to leader transformation process involving individuals, group and organization. It involves creating substantive change in the attitude of employees, moral elevation and organization direction. Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) highlighted that transformational leadership ―is made possible when a leader‘s end values (internal standards) are adopted by followers thereby producing changes in the attitudes, beliefs and goals of followers‖. Similarly, Bryman (1999) has stated that ‗transforming leadership entails both leaders and followers raising each other‘s motivation and sense of purpose‘. This higher purpose is one in which the aims and aspirations of leaders and followers congeal into one. Both leaders and followers are changed in pursuit of goals which express aspirations in which they can identify themselves‖. It is no doubt that transformational leadership is of great interest of the study due to its popularity and attractiveness of this leadership style found to be consistently associated with superior performance (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003; Dvir,Eden, Avolio & Shamir, 2002), increased morale-related outcomes such as self-efficacy (Kirkpartick & Locke, 1996), affective commitment (Barling et al, 1996), intrinsic motivation (Charbonneau, Barling & Kelloway, 2001) and trust in the leader (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Positive relationships have also been consistently reported between individual, group and organizational performance. Typically, these findings have been explained as showing that leader behaviours cause basic values, beliefs and attitudes of followers to align with organizational collective interests (Podsakoff, et al, 1990). 4 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Therefore, it is highly germane to note that in transformational leadership style, both leader and follower develop together due to the social and cordial informal relationship that exists between the duo. In fact, a transformational leader tends to change their belief and value systems through his or her informal relationship with his/her followers and vice versa. Therefore, both the leader and follower have the tendency to exhibit prosocial and citizenship behaviour in the world of work. Charismatic Leadership Charismatic leaders emerge when social situation is stressed (Weber, 1922). Elaborating about conditions for the emergence of charismatic leaders, Shamir, House, & Arthur (1993) identified four situations as follows: (1) when situation threatens some important values, (2) when relationship between performance and goal accomplishment is unclear or ambiguous (3) when the situation is unstable, and (4) when the situation requires exceptional efforts. Avolio and Gibbons (1988) described charismatic leaders as those who influence followers through their use of symbols, images, stories and rhetoric to perform at extraordinary levels. They are leaders who typically stood for some cause, had a vision of a better future, and are most of times willing to sacrifice everything to prove to their followers how committed they are to achieving the vision. Charismatic leadership has an interwoven relationship with transformational leadership, of which some writers present them as one thing. Specifically, in view of the reviewed literature, there are few studies that examined charismatic leadership, independently not as a subset of transformational leadership with OCBs (Babcock-Roberson, &Strickland, 2010; Johnson, 2008; Sosik, 2005). Ethical Leadership The organizational crises and ethical scandals in business, government, sports, non-profits and even religious organizations have increased the motivation for research in ethics and ethical leadership (Brown, & Treviño, 2006). In attempting to define ethical leadership, Brown, Trevino and Harrison, 2005, p. 120, defined ethical leadership as ―the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making‖. Piccolo, Greenbaum, Hartog and Folger, (2010) explain that ethical leaders focus on moral values and fairness in all their decisions, consider the impact of organizational 4 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY decisions on the external parties and clearly communicate to employees how their actions at work contribute to the attainment of the overall goals of the organization. Ethical leadership therefore is about properly and morally influencing people in the right direction towards attaining organizational objectives. Such kind of leadership forms the foundation of effective performance and practices in organizations (Bambale, 2008). Research results (Adebayo, 2005; Bobek, & Hatfield, 2003; Epstein, 1998) reveal significant negative relationship between unethical attitudes and pro-social behaviour. More recently, Piccolo, Greenbaum, Hartog and Folger, (2010) found that employees in jobs rated high in task significance who perceives their leaders to be ethical put more efforts in their jobs and engage more in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs). Servant Leadership Greenleaf (1970) defines servant leadership as ―a practical altruistic philosophy which supports people who choose to serve first, and then lead as a way of expanding service to individuals and institutions. Servant leadership encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the ethical use of power and empowerment. De Sousa and Van Dierendonck, (2010) proposed that servant leadership is particularly suited for knowledge driven organizations because of its worker-centred and growth-oriented approach. Servant leaders have been found to be effective because the needs of followers are so looked after that they reach their full potential, hence perform at their best (McCrimmon, 2010). Furthermore, previous research findings have found significantly positive relationship between servant leadership and employee OCB (Ehrhart, 2004; Liden, Wayne, Zhao & Henderson, 2008; Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts & Chonko, 2009; Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010; Vondey, 2010). Despite the positive aspects of servant leadership, it was not without observed weaknesses. Bambale (2008); Bowie and Werhane (2005); McCrimmon (2010) concurred that serving people's needs alone in any social group creates the image of being slavish or subservient, not a very positive image, because people‘s interest is seen as an end in itself not a means to an end. Creativity Creativity research has a long history in psychology, focusing on individual differences in personality, cognitive abilities, and problem-solving styles. However, 4 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY recent theoretical and empirical work has looked at creativity as something the brain does naturally. That is, creativity is an adaptive feature of normal cognitive functioning that evolved to aid problem solving under conditions of uncertainty. Under such circumstances, novel approaches and invention are highly advantageous (Simonton, 2006). Animasahun, (2002), in his book, ‗Success Key: A Handbook of Creativity for All‘ perceives creativity as a concept that stands for generation of new ideas, new concepts, new designs and new perceptions. He also asserts that creativity is what we need now for total liberation from the bondage the society has been plunged into. He expressed further that evidences abound that creativity is the bedrock of success of successful organizations and developed nations and therefore, the variegated challenges of life can be successfully handled with creativity skills. Creative abilities, for instance, help the individual in ideative originality, ideative flexibility, ideative frequency, ideative fluency and creativity motivation, which ultimately lead to innovations in confronting challenges in life and work place (Animasahun, 2013). Within every individual, creativity is a function of three components: expertise, creative-thinking skills, and motivation. Can managers influence these components? The answer is an emphatic yes – for better and for worse – through workplace practices and conditions (Amabile, 1998). On the other hand, creativity in an organizational context is the conceptualization and development of novel ideas, products, processes or procedures by individuals or a group of individuals working together (Shalley, 1991). An understanding of organizational creativity will necessarily involve understanding (a) the creative process, (b) the creative product, (c) the creative person, (d) the creative situation, and (e) the way in which each of these components interacts with the others (Ruppel & Harrington, 2000). This study will investigate only the role of creativity in organizations especially as it predicts citizenship behaviour among the target population. Study about creativity and its elements were begun by social science of one century but main motive of study was offered by Gilford in 1950. Gilford knew that creativity has some meaning with different thing. Creativity in the point of view of psychology is determined new ideas by making evidence from now resource (Khanifar, Nazari, Emami & Soltani, 2012). Bruce and Bessant (2002) define innovation as the successful application of new ideas in practice in the form of new or improved products, services or processes. 4 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Additionally, creativity is a concept that we encounter every day. We do hear about creative people, admire original art objects or read original books. However, in spite of our capacity to admit, there is a high level of confusion pertaining to the meaning of creativity. The rapid growth of competition in business and industry is often used as a motivation of the desire to better understand the creative process. Thus, many organizations are forced to improve their old system and products. Managers/leaders in NSCDC must also find new methods and better problem solving ways. And even greater number of problems have little or no precedent, hence the conclusion that there are less tested methods of approach, in this way some positive results being anticipated. Therefore, having a creative ability is an essential skill of each leader. In other words, the creative leaders look for new problems and are successful especially in approaching new challenges. Generally, creative action has two criteria that are newness and suitable. Also, another definition of creativity means presenting new and different idea. In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: ―Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products‖ (Mumford, 2003). Beyond this general commonality, authors have diverged dramatically in their precise definitions; with Peter Meusburger claiming that over a hundred different versions can be found in the literature (Meusburger, 2009). In terms of origin, the term ‗creativity‘ originated from Latin word ―creare‖, which means ―to conceive‖,‖ to build‖, ―to create‖, ―to born‖. The very etymology of the word shows that this term defines a process, a dynamic act which is developing and perfecting itself and includes both the origin and the purpose. The generic term and concept were first introduced in 1937 by the American psychologist G.W. Allport, who felt the need to transform the adjective ―creative‖, by suffixing, in ―creativity‖, broadening the sphere of the word‘s semantics and implementing it as a noun with full rights, as it appears later in the technical literature and dictionaries. In the 1970s, the neologism taken from English was imposed in most international languages (―créativité‖ in French, ―Kreativität‖ in German, ―creativita‖ in Italian, etc.), replacing the occasional terms used so far (according to the German, the term of ―das Schӧperifische‖ was made use of = ―creative force‖). Creativity is one of the most complex human activities. It is often conceived as being a structure exclusively related to intellectual skills, i.e. imagination, thinking 4 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and intelligence. Creativity is conditioned by a degree of their development; a creative person looks at something and sees how it can be changed, in what it can be used or how to combine its components. But creativity is not a mere collection of intellectual abilities. It implies the presence of a certain attitude, a certain way of considering life and the surrounding world and of relating ourselves to it: motivation and interest, enthusiasm, optimism and positive attitude, tolerance against the change and its acceptance, the embracing of the elements of novelty, ambiguity, thinking flexibility, self - reliance and the courage to walk new-found paths and overcome prejudices and habits. Creativity stands for human mind system‘s peculiarity by means of which a person or a group of people may generate a product which should at the same time be original as well as adequate. This product might be a mere idea, an academic communication, an advertising article or any other form of creation. In general, a new product must be original and unforeseen. This must be different of what the author himself/herself or other people have obtained until that particular moment, in the field at issue. A brand – new solution cannot yet pass for creative unless it is adequate, i.e. it does comply with the different requirements of a problem. The importance granted to these two criteria pertaining to the judgment in creativity, i.e. novelty and appropriateness, vary among different individuals and on the nature of the considered problems or tasks. According to Khanifar, Nazari, Emami and Soltani, 2012, the main aspects referring to approaching creativity – oriented problems are: - Knowing the human nature of the subjects – which assumes that the creative person has: assimilating capacity, information keeping capacity, the ability to substantiate judgments, and the imaginative capacity. - Designing a methodology and a structure of the creative process; which should simultaneously observe the following conditions: be clear, be complete, be appropriate, and be effective. Also, creativity involves taking into account several characteristic elements of the human nature: - Receptivity: a good part of what is normally called imagination consists in being receptive to the possibilities ignored by most people. The people who are psychologically receptive have a special mental ability and do not allow the censoring of their ideas. 4 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - Acumen: creative people do not tolerate ambiguity and disorder. - Judgment: the inclination to build conceptual systems which allow them to see something extraordinary in common situations and create simple relationships with multiple connections, where others see only confused complexities. - Interdisciplinary competence: these individuals possess a great deal of knowledge and concerns in many areas. - Independence: creative people are independent in their own way of thinking, this attribute often generates conflicts. - Perfectionism: creative people very often have precise standards in assessing certain situations - Fairness: they can say ―don‘t know/you‘re right/ I was wrong‖, and when they set a target to focus their efforts on, they are almost certain to succeed through using their arguments. Creative thinking includes two processes of thinking: convergent and divergent (Meusburger, 2009). A divergent thinking means to start a certain problem or idea and generate different perspectives. The purpose of the divergent thinking is to ignore extant constraints and approach all possibilities. Convergent thinking follows the divergent one and serves to restraining available options, in the purpose of obtaining a certain number of satisfying solutions for a problem or decision. Who thinks in convergent terms starts from a broad outlook of a particular problem and continues through focusing on particular issues. Each step of the solving creative problem process contains a set of divergent and convergent activities. It means there is an initial search for information, followed by a restriction of the information. During the convergence process, subjects are being searched for to be very close to the topic under consideration, or sufficiently close to ensure further attention. Therefore, creativity is an important human reserve and organizations should try to use this resource by creating an environment where creative talents can flourish. In another dimension, Torrance (1965) defined creativity as: The process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions, making guesses or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies; testing and retesting them; and finally communicating the results. In an overview of creativity and what it entailed, Rhodes (1961) described four overlapping themes: 4 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  Characteristics for personal creativity (e.g.curiosity, openness),  Creative process (e.g., properly defining problem or opportunity),  Outcomes or products (e.g., focus on clients‘, donors‘, ultimate users‘ needs).  Context or climate (e.g., workplace that encourages individual, group, and organizational creativity) (Mayson & Barrett, 2006). Individual creativity as dependent variable consists of: 1) Need for achievement; 2) Locus of control; 3) Encounter to ambiguity conditions; and 4) Creativity-related skills (Shilling, 2012). So, creativity has been studied from different perspectives and is associated with a number of defining factors and elements. As stated by Unsworth (2001), ―These perspectives range from Royce‘s discussion of inventions in 1898 to Guilford‘s call for creativity research in 1950; research into creativity in classrooms to research into creativity in organizations; and Freudian accounts to cognitive accounts; personality accounts, sociological accounts, interactionist accounts, and psychological accounts‖. According to conventional wisdom, creativity is something that creative people have or do (Amabile, 1997). Creative individuals have several features that distinguish them from their less creative peers, that is, they have a rich body of domain-relevant knowledge and well-developed skills; they find their work intrinsically motivating; they tend to be independent, unconventional, and greater risk takers; and they have wide interests and a greater openness to new experiences (Simonton, 2000). On the other hand, Creative climate has extensively been studied just in the last ten or fifteen years. Ekvall (1996) appoints 10 dimensions of climate which are characteristics of climate in a way they reflect the possibility for certain, creative behaviour that enables change/innovation: 1. Challenge (How emotionally involved, and committed are employees to the work). 2. Freedom (How free employees are to decide how to do their job). 3. Idea time (The amount of time employees have to elaborate ideas). 4. Trust and openness (Do employees feel safe speaking their minds and offering different points of view). 5. Dynamism (The eventfulness of life in the organization). 4 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. Playfulness (How relaxed is the workplace). 7. Debates (To what degree do people engage in lively debates about the issues) 8. Conflicts (To what degree do people engage in interpersonal conflicts). 9. Risk-taking (The promptness of response to emerging opportunities and fear of failure). 10. Idea support (Are there resources to give new ideas a trial) (Bavec, 2009). The Need for Creativity in Contemporary Management Today, in a world with broad democratic openness, recognition and promotion of creativity is not just a desideratum, yet a real and urgent necessity. Two decades ago, the psychologist Morris Stein announced this threshold of wonderful opening for creativity and creative spirits: ―A society that stimulates creativity provides its citizens with four basic freedoms: freedom of study and training, freedom of exploration and investigation, freedom of expression and freedom to be themselves‖. The period that we run through is dominated by mutations, which occur in our domains of interest: - Accelerating the process of changing at micro and macro-economic level; - Increasing the role and value of the information; - Emphasizing the creative side of decision-making process in which organization‘s problems are solved; - Diversifying the set of methods and techniques used by the managers to solve problems. An increasing number of problems have a single or few precedents; hence there are less tested methods to anticipatively approach to obtain some positive results; - Increasing the degree of flexibility in designing the useful structures (Puiu, Zotic & Alexandru, 2005). All these processes can positively influence the activity of the organization, if managers understand the necessity to emphasize the creative side of management. In other words, management functions must be exercised in a different manner, relying on the creative and entrepreneurial spirit. Practising a creative management, the manager must think in terms of the future management structures that ought to be introduced so as to ensure the organizational framework that is optimal to the development of present and future activities. Managers in NSCDC must also realize that the most valuable asset of any organization is the individual, with his/her creative 4 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY potential, and be convinced that only the money, equipment or information cannot be turned to the best account in the absence of creativity. The necessity to promote creativity in the Security agencies is determined by the need for change and for adapting. The adapting of Security agencies to the security threats e.g. ‗Boko Haram Insurgency‘ involves profound changes at the management‘s level. In such conditions, the variety, dynamism and efficiency must become basic characteristics of the Security Agencies‘ Management in Nigeria. Therefore the security situation calls for the focus on predicting dynamism and flexibility in the development of management processes, and managers with high creative potential be able to coordinate the activity of the organization in question, to train the staff and to control the way in which objects have been achieved. It is necessary, particularly in this period, to produce major changes in managers‘ way of thinking, understanding and acting in terms of considering socio- psychological aspects. The necessity to innovate, to set up the ―new element‖ in management implies that, at the level of each Organizational structure/level, innovating strategies oriented towards promoting the newness should be adopted. One of the main objectives of managers has got to be the discovery and assimilation of the brand new domains of activity in the organization with approaching in an open spirit all change suggestions. This calls for managers‘ high professionalism in identifying, understanding and acknowledging the necessity of change, on one hand, and their strife to implement it on the other. Priorities which are having in view the implementing process of the change and adapting the management instrument in Security Agencies to transition conditions: - Implementing a creative type management; - Emphasizing the interdisciplinary character of management; - Professionalizing the management; - Enhancing the flexibility degree and receptivity of managers towards the mutations that occur in the internal and external environment; - Passing from the empirical to the scientific management; - Emphasizing the participative character of management; - Developing a strategy and management policies with a pronounced creative feature; - Increasing the flexibility degree of the organizational structure; 5 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - Increasing the methods and techniques‘ contribution to stimulating creativity; - Emphasizing the innovative feature of the plan of gathering, recording, processing and transmitting information. If these priorities are taken into account, the creative side of management can definitely be enhanced in this particular period. In other words, the implementation of a new type of management can be built (Proctor. 2000). Methods of Stimulating Creativity In order to stimulate creativity, there are used several methods and techniques to trigger the innovation skills of individuals and groups and to remove the psychosocial barriers that prevent, through inhibition, the manifestation of the existant skills. The methods of simulating creativity do observe a set of rules: considering the individual in his/her entirety; accepting statements‘ relativity; defeating the routine and prejudices; not barring the too daring opinions. The technical literature has recorded over 50 methods capable of stimulating creativity. These methods were grouped in intuitive methods and analytical methods. Intuitive methods use intuition, imagination and fantasy to stimulate creativity; as particular methods there can be used: the crushing, the play upon words and the analogy. Crushing is the (mental) breaking of a whole in its component parts and recomposing it in a good manner. The play upon words is mainly used in organizing the commercial activity, in establishing the name of the new products. The analogy consists in transferring some characteristics of a known phenomenon to another phenomenon that is unknown, on the bases of the similarities between them. The crushing, the play upon words, the analogy, the weighing against and other procedures can be used together in the some intuitive complex methods of stimulating creativity, such as: brainstorming, 6/6 discussion (Philips method), Delphi method, brain writing (or the 6/3/5/) method and the synectics. - Brainstorming: is one of the most popular and appreciated methods of stimulating the creativity of a group, which consists of the group leader‘s logging brand-new ideas during the session. The group members are invited to expose their ideas about the problem. The purpose is obtaining as many ideas as possible. The ideas are never assessed during the generating process. Due to the fact that they can meet the ideas of others, the participants can find new combinations. 5 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - Related with the brainstorming is the 6/6 Conversation-Philips Method-applied in stimulating the creativity of some larger groups. The method consists in dividing the large group in smaller units, each composed of 6 persons who are to discuss during 6 minutes a problem to which they are seeking solutions. Each group has a coordinator that animates the conversation and notes the proposals. After all the group members‘ conveying their ideas and opinions, the leader reads the recorded proposals and invites the group to rank them. - Delhpi Method-is an intuitive method that allows the capitalization of a larger volume of scientific and technical information held by a group of experts. A number of questions relating to a particular domain are fixed, a number of experts in the examined problem are chosen, and one or more coordinators must be appointed. - Synectics-this method allows mixing the imagination and fantasy with the critic, rigorous thinking. It assumes putting a problem in a discussion, in which 5-7 persons are participating, and an animator of the discussion is picked, who takes care to avoid the partiality of some opinions or mocking others. Other two members of the group have the role of producing ideas, and the others are participants in the synectics group. Group members must have a similar cultural level, but they have to come from different interest areas. - Delbecq-it aims at obtaining a new idea, at solving some problems based on maximizing the participation of group members, and combines the individual creation within the group. The problem lies in the difference between the actual situation and the ideal situation imagined by these persons. Solving the problem is to reduce as much as possible this lag by the participants‘ expressing in writing their ideas, associated with oral interventions within the gathering. - MESA (Manager-Economist-Sociologist-Armenia) - involves the participation in a meeting of a group of maximum 15 persons, including: managers, economists, lawyers; two informal leaders and two experts in the management of human resources and sociology. The analytical methods stimulate creativity based on the presentation and treatment of various data, pieces of information, ideas, and solutions in prescribed and logical form. The more frequently used analytical methods of stimulating creativity are questionnaire-based, surveys of some specialists, the function analysis, the morphological function, the heuristic analysis. (Androiceanu, 1998). 5 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Organizational Creativity Despite a majority of research attributing creativity to individualized efforts, a focus on creativity at the organizational level has appeared in the literature. The subject of managing creativity is important for all organizations with the desire to stay competitive. In this reasoning, a creative organizational climate is a prerequisite for innovation. Therefore, it is interesting to assess the creative climate of an innovative organization, especially in relation to the growing concept of open innovation (Gassmann, Enkel & Chesbrough, 2010). Organizational requirements for innovation include: creativity, experimentation, internal communications and learning. It will be shown that the formation of close feedback loops between designers, developers and users can contribute significantly to the identification of new ideas and the discovery of new concerns from experimentation. As well as designers and developers, non-specialist actors such as users and intermediaries play an active role in providing knowledge to increase creativity by fitting products to their purposes and imparting significance. The product is considered 'unfinished', evolving and acquiring its meanings in its implementation and use (Williams, Slack & Stewart, 2000). There are various definitions of organizational creativity. The outcomes of organizational creativity should be new and useful, i.e. be valuable to the organization (Isaksen & Ekvall, 2010). Williams and Yang (1999) defined organizational creativity as an adaptive entity ―highlight(ing) the need for … (greater) employee autonomy, intrinsic motivation and commitment‖ (p. 389). Majaro (1991) defined the creative organization as encompassing factors concerning the removal of barriers demonstrating managed innovation, idea evaluation procedures, motivational stimuli, communication procedures, development of idea sources, and evidence of the creative planning process. Paulus and Yang (2000) who define organizational creativity as the creation of a valuable, useful new product, service, idea, procedure, or process by individuals working together in a complex social system. As mentioned earlier, creativity, in an organizational context, refers to the generation of novel and potentially useful ideas (Paulus & Yang, 2000). Both novelty and usefulness are necessary conditions for an idea to be considered creative. Employee creativity differs from organizational innovation in that creativity is the generation of new and useful ideas by individual employees, whereas innovation 5 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY involves the successful implementation of creative ideas by the organization. Thus, employees' creativity often provides the starting point for innovation in organizations. Previous research has alluded to the possibility that employees‘ creativity may be an important form of voice (Farrell, 1983; Hirschman, 1970; Withey & Cooper, 1989). For example, Kay (1989) conducted a study in which she asked three groups of participants to describe prototypical voice behaviours. She found that the prototypical voice behaviours identified by the participants included: "propose new ways of doing things" and "make suggestions on how to improve things" both of which are consistent with commonly used definitions of employee creativity. While creativity is a type of voice behaviour, few studies have investigated the conditions under which employees engage in creative performance as an expression of voice. Social Innovation Innovativeness has been considered one of the survival elements in the modern business environment. In the closed innovation environments innovations and inventions have been generated inside a company by their engineers and researchers. When competition has become global, it has forced companies to open up their innovation activities. Knowledge diffusion has accelerated enormously through the revolution of the Internet and during the last decade knowledge and the skills to use it has become the most important resource for companies. Open innovation philosophy (Chesbrough 2007; Dodgson, Gann, & Salter, 2006) stress that the innovative ideas can come also from outside the organisation. The changing environment requires every organisation skills to observe proactively inside and outside of organization to spot the useful signals. As for creating conditions for effective innovation, Bessant and Tidd (2007) come up with three critical phases. Firstly, a company needs to have effective ways of searching the signals to generate innovation possibilities. Secondly, the selecting of the good ideas with which to proceed needs to be strategic choices. Thirdly, the implementation of ideas should be realised with balance of creativity and control. West & Altink, (1996) define innovation as the intentional introduction and application within a role, group, or organization of ideas, processes, products or procedures new to the relevant unit of adoption designed to significantly benefit the individual, the group and organization. 5 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Myers & Marquis (1976) defined innovation as a complex activity which proceeds from the conceptualization of a new idea to a solution of the problem and then to the actual utilization of economic or social value. Innovation is not just the conception of a new idea or the invention of a new device nor the development of a new market. It is the process of bringing any new problem solving idea into use (Kanter & Summers, 1994). It is the embodiment, combination and synthesis of knowledge in novel, relevant valued new products, process and services (Leonard, Scholl, & Kowalski, 1999). Many innovations are the result of recognizing creative opportunities and acting on them. (Swap, Leonard, & Mimi Shields, 2001). A business with an attractive product line, close relationship with suppliers, culture of responsiveness to customers and the capability to produce a continuing stream of product innovations is not easy to copy (Argote & Ingram, 2000). On the other hand, social innovation is an emerging field of inquiry. As such, there is no commonly accepted definition, which makes for lively discussions among academics and practitioners over how social innovation should be defined and just what terms are to be used. Yeung (2007: 3) commented that ―Developing a working definition for social innovation is no easy endeavour. … the relatively recent emergence of the term has resulted in little consensus over the topic (and the concept) is often used interchangeably with a number of different ideas including, but not limited to, social entrepreneurship, social enterprise and social impact.‖ Goldenberg (2004) defined social innovation as ―the development and application of new or improved activities, initiatives, services, processes, or products designed to address social and economic challenges faced by individuals and communities.‖ That definition allows for private sector involvement, even though Goldenberg‘s focus was non-profit organizations or the voluntary sector. He noted in passing that the private sector can be involved, and quoted Tim Draimin‘s observation that non-profits ―borrow from the for-profit world‖ and that ―the three spheres, government, private sector, and voluntary sector, should interact productively and in appropriate equilibrium to engender and sustain a healthy and sustainable economy, social system, and physical environment‖ (Goldenberg, 2004: 18). In recent years, many social policy experts, researchers, and other observers have developed different definitions of social innovation, some being very broad and others more narrowly focused. A French Research Centre- CRISES (2004) says that 5 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY by ―social innovation, we mean new organizational and institutional forms, new ways of doing things, new social practices, new mechanisms, new approaches and new concepts that give rise to concrete achievements and improvements.‖ Monitoring, Analysis and Response System (MARS) (2007) uses social innovation to refer ―to a new set of creative solutions to unmet social needs-from environmental degradation and homelessness to global poverty.‖ Special Interest Group (SIG) defines social innovation as ―an initiative, product or process or programme that profoundly changes the basic routines, resource and authority flows or beliefs of any social system‖ (Berkes, 2009). Westley, Zimmerman, & Patton, (2009) further defines social innovation as ―a complex process of introducing products, processes or programmes that profoundly change the basic routines, resource and authority flows or beliefs of the social system in which they arise. Such successful social innovations have durability and broad impact‖ (Westley et al, 2009). The extent to which the private sector is seen as being involved in social innovation is often a key factor in how the concept is defined. Some commentators explicitly include the private sector in their definition of social innovation. Phipps, and Stan Shapson (2009: 5), for example, define social innovation as: … a process by which value is created for individuals and communities through public and private organizations. SI transforms new knowledge and technologies into policies and services for local, national and global application. A high rate of innovation in turn contributes to more intellectual capital, social capital, economic growth, and enhanced quality of life and cultural engagement. And as such if all these are in place, OCB tends to increase in an individual in the world of work. Another expert, Brian Guthrie of Stantec, a company striving to balance economic, environmental, and social responsibilities, suggests adapting. The Conference Board of Canada‘s definition of innovation to read … a process through which social value is extracted from knowledge – through the creation, diffusion, and transformation of ideas – to produce new or significantly improved social, economic or environmental processes. Canadian practitioner and thinker Tonya Surman would broaden the definition further. For Surman, social innovation is a very broad concept that has to do with ―how ideas are making change to make the world a better place‖ or ―an idea that 5 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY works for the public good.‖ Social innovation is ―a movement that is about altering how we function …‖ and that needs to be democratized to be very broadly inclusive: Every one of the 161,000 non-profits and all businesses in Canada need to feel they are social innovators if they implement a new idea that helps to improve a system, service or product or something that benefits the public good (Kamoji, Orton, & Williamson, 2009). Besides singling out the role of the private sector, definitions reflect varying emphasis on social relationships. This definition, for example, places social relations in a central position: Social innovation refers to new forms of social relations, including institutional and organizational innovations, new forms of production and consumption, and new relationships between economic and social development (Neamtan & Downing, 2005). The most recent definition put forward in 2008 by the Centre for Social Innovation at Stanford University is also germane in this review because it has influenced other thinkers and researchers in the social innovation field. In 2003, Stanford had defined social innovation as ―the process of inventing, securing support for, and implementing novel solutions to social needs and problems‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 36). Five years later, Stanford redefined and broadened the term. The latest approach involves ―dissolving boundaries and brokering a dialogue between the public, private, and non-profit sectors‖ (Phills, Deiglmeier & Miller, 2008: 36). The current Stanford definition of social innovation is … a novel solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable, or just than existing solutions and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals. A social innovation can be a product, production process, or technology (much like innovation in general), but it can also be a principle, an idea, a piece of legislation, a social movement, an intervention, or some combination of them (Phills, Deiglmeier & Miller, 2008: 39). While there may not be consensus on a universal definition for social innovation, there is agreement, however, on its potential, if successfully implemented, to bring about transformative change in addressing societal challenges. At the highest level, the goal of social innovation is to address the social challenges the world faces through innovative means. These challenges can be as large-scale as fighting global climate change and reducing poverty, or as small-scale as creating a community garden. The concept of social innovation has been the subject of investigation and 5 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY practice in the last 8 to 10 years as evident by the establishment of research institutions such as the Social Innovation Generation at the University of Waterloo. Furthermore, several efforts have been made by foundations to advance understanding on social innovation. A review of recent literature on social innovation indicates a highly diversified set of interdisciplinary research approaches that encompasses a wide variety of terms and concepts relating to the subject. The headings in this section of the review reflect the issues, terms, concepts, and findings most frequently referenced in the literature: the non-profit sector, including social entrepreneurship and social enterprises, and the social economy; the for-profit sector; social finance; social capital; and recent trends and developments internationally. The terms ―social enterprise,‖ ―social entrepreneurship,‖ and increasingly, ―social finance‖ are often used interchangeably with ―social innovation.‖ It is clear, however, that any sophisticated understanding of how novelty transforms complex systems requires great conceptual precision. A social enterprise, though it may respond to social needs, is a privately owned, profit-oriented venture which markets its own products and services, blending business interests with social ends. The Canadian Centre for Social Entrepreneurship considers social enterprises as fitting the notion of ―hybrid‖ organizational models which ―fuse innovative, entrepreneurial practices with a commitment to both social and economic return on investment.‖ Whereas the concept of social enterprise is primarily focused on organizational form and mission, social entrepreneurship is a human-centred concept that highlights the personal qualities of a person who starts a new organization (Phills et al., 2008). Martin and Osberg (2007, p. 30) note that ―any definition of the term ‗social entrepreneurship‘ must start with the word ‗entrepreneurship‘. The word ‗social‘ simply modifies entrepreneurship.‖ Consequently, the emphasis on profitability is one difference between social enterprise, social entrepreneurship, and social innovation. Social innovation does not necessarily involve a commercial interest, though it does not preclude such interest. More definitively, social innovation is oriented towards making a change at the systemic level. As Phills et al. (2008, p. 37) explain, ―unlike the terms social entrepreneurship and social enterprise, social innovation transcends sectors, levels of analysis, and methods to discover the processes-the strategies, tactics, and theories of change – that produce lasting impact.‖ 5 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Undoubtedly these three notions are closely related to each other. For example, a social entrepreneur can be a part of a social enterprise and, at the same time, can contribute to the promotion of social innovations. As Westall (2007, p. 2) notes, each of these terms reflects different cuts, or perspectives, on reality.‖ Whereas social entrepreneurship focuses on an individual and social enterprise addresses organizations, social innovation strives to change the way a system operates. Consequently, social entrepreneurship and social enterprise operate within the larger framework of ―wider trends of thought and practice‖ (ibid.). As Leadbeater (2007) suggests, the policy on social enterprise should be developed within the boundaries of a wider strategy on social innovation. Moreover, inventions will hardly achieve a significant impact unless they are supported within the frameworks in which they operate (Westall, 2007, p. 11). Similarly, Antadze, & Westley (2010, p. 13) consider that successful innovations must be viewed within the larger setting of ―industrial and national systems and structures‖ in which they unfold. Of particular interest in this review are those innovations that address seemingly intractable social problems such as homelessness, poverty, security threats, and organizational challenges/lapses as they directly affect OCBs in NSCDC. In these domains, the social sector struggles often with band-aid solutions which address the immediate symptoms but not the underlying causes. So, for example, social service organizations struggle to find financial support for those suffering from mental illness without addressing the economic system that excludes them from the mainstream economy. Indeed it can be argued that the ―established‖ institutions-those taken for granted in the community-are often the source of such intractable problems. Real innovation without change in these institutions is therefore unlikely. When a social innovation has a broad or durable impact, it will be disruptive and catalytic (Wettstein, 2012); it will challenge the social system and social institutions that govern people‘s conduct by affecting the fundamental distribution of power and resources, and may change the basic beliefs that define the system or the laws and routines which govern it. While many smaller innovations are continually introduced at all scales, it seems most important to consider those innovations that have the potential to disrupt and change the broader system. To do so, a social innovation must cross multiple social boundaries to reach more people and different people, more organizations and different organizations, organizations nested across scales (from local to regional to national to global) and linked in social networks. 5 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Levels of innovation Staw (1984) category of innovation involves three levels namely individual, group and organization. Organization innovation is the adoption of an idea or behaviour that is new to the adopting organization (Daft 1982). Organizational level innovation revolves on three factors VIZ behaviour of the organizational members, characteristics of the organization and the extra organizational factors. Possible antecedents of innovation brought about by characteristics of the organization include the size, structure resources, knowledge of innovation and age. Shepard (1977) argues that the greater the participation that results from a decentralization structure allows more viewpoints to be brought into consideration and is likely to produce greater diversity of ideas. Zaltman (1973) however, suggests that formalization is an inhibitor of innovation initiation because rigid rules and procedures may prohibit organizational decision makers from selecting new sources of information. Patti (1974) also suggests that the relationship between resources and innovation is critical in determining the degree of innovativeness in an organization for example the more resources an organization has previously invested (Sank costs) in an existing arrangement the less like change is what Tiger (1980) called "too- much invested to quit phenomenon" . Organizational structures that permit relative autonomy for lower level and relative interdependences for various functional groups at the same level in the organization have been found to be associated with high levels of innovativeness (Kanter 1983). Miles and Snow (2007) contend that strategy is also an important determinant of the level and type of innovation. However, they stress that there is no one ideal strategy for innovation. Types of Innovation Daman pour and Evan (1984) identified two types of innovation; these are technical innovation and administrative innovation. Technical innovations are those directly related to the primary work activity of the organization that includes such things as new products and service. Administrative Innovation are those concerned with relationships between people interacting to accomplish work tasks and goals and those rules, roles procedures and structures that are related to the communication and exchange between people and between the environment and people. They are only 6 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY indirectly related to the basic work activity of the organization and are more immediately related to its management (Kimberly 1981) More so, Staw in Organ (1990) categorized innovation into three levels namely individual, group and organization. Organization innovation is the adoption of an idea or behaviour that is new to the adopting organization. Organizational level innovation revolves on three factors. These are behaviour of the organizational members, characteristics of the organization and the extra organizational factors. Possible antecedents of innovation brought about by characteristics of the organization include the size, structure resources, knowledge of innovation and age. Specifically on social innovation, a more comprehensive definition of social innovation is therefore needed. Social innovation refers to a group of strategies, concepts, ideas and organizational patterns with a view to expand and strengthen the role of civil society in response to the diversity of social needs (education, culture, health). The term covers, inter alia: new products and services, new organizational patterns (e.g. management methods, work organization), new institutional forms (e.g. mechanisms of power distribution by assignment, positive discrimination quotas), new roles and new functions, or new coordinating and governance mechanisms. The OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) LEED (Local Economic and Employment Development Committee) 2003 Forum on Social Innovations has endeavoured to clarify the situation and provide a common understanding of innovation to address social challenges. The key principle of this definition is that social well-being is a goal, not a consequence. Thus, there is social innovation wherever new mechanisms and norms consolidate and improve the well- being of individuals, communities and territories in terms of social inclusion, creation of employment, quality of life. Key actors in this early period where social innovation is still weakly institutionalised are so-called ―social entrepreneurs‖. A social entrepreneur is someone who: • Intends to create systemic changes and sustainable improvements with a view to sustain the impact. • Assesses success in terms of the impact she/he has on society. • Identifies a social challenge and has stepped up to make social change with social mission, to find innovative, immediate, small-scale and large-scale solutions that produce sweeping and long-term change, transforming the system, spreading the solution and persuading entire societies to take new leaps. 6 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • Is encouraged to produce social impact with a selfless, entrepreneurial intelligence and innovative drive. • Can simply manage to apply an existing idea in a new way or to a new situation, simply need to be creative in applying what others have invented (designed). On the funding side, social entrepreneurs look for ways to ensure that their ventures will have access to resources as long as they are creating social value. • Intends to provide real social improvements to their beneficiaries and communities, as well as attractive (social and/or financial) returns to their investors. Social Innovation refers to traditional innovation in terms of ‗value creation‘. Its ultimate goal is: not only create economic value but also enhance social institution. Therefore, NPO, civil society are to be involved, which are rather low key in field of traditional innovation as ‗Actor‘ in charge of leading innovation. To this end, the rise of Social Entrepreneur who plays a role of leading to explosive diffusion is notable. Social Innovation refers to new strategies, concepts, ideas and organizations that meet social needs of all kinds- from working conditions and education to community development and health- and that extend and strengthen civil society. Alternatively, it refers to innovations which have a social purpose- like microcredit and distant learning. The concept can also be a means of innovation and it also overlaps with innovation in public policy and governance. Social innovation can take place within the government, within companies, or within the non-profit sector between the three sectors. The different types of platforms need to facilitate such cross-sector collaborative social innovation. The prevailing of new concepts and new ideas plus new technology methods seeds for new values, which steers the change of whole society. In this globalized age, we really have to compete and deliver the seeds of things to the market place; that requires social encouragement of entrepreneurial activities which is the essence of those entrepreneurs who changed the system of society that they are completely passionate to make society, world better. How to provide stuff and service in what vision, what concept is crucial? Normally, the economic meltdown is supposed to trigger the demand of radical change and it attributes the economy recovery. This wave contributes to the economic growth. A proliferation of organizations is working on the boundaries of research and practical action. Such currents have converged in 6 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY this area including social Innovation which refers to various waves of change which triggers the ripple effect as output of innovation. Additionally, social invention abounds in communities across the world; individuals daily come up with new ideas, large and small, for improving their lot and the lot of those around them, in response to locally perceived problems or social needs. Such inventions may thrive locally without any attempt at scaling up or generating a broader impact. Sometimes, however, they spread to other individuals or organizations, whether as the effect of a deliberate strategy or simply through a process of diffusion. More rarely, such inventions succeed in having a lasting or revolutionary impact: they challenge and change the very institutions that created the social problem which they address. When this happens it can be argued that social innovation has occurred. Social innovations involve institutional and social system change, they contribute to overall social resilience, and they demand a complex interaction between agency and intent and emergent opportunity. Each of these three aspects will be considered in turn. Social innovation is a complex process of introducing new products, processes or programmes that profoundly change the basic routines, resource and authority flows, or beliefs of the social system in which the innovation occurs. Such successful social innovations have durability and broad impact. The researcher perceives the concept of social innovation as a process of providing creative, dynamic, efficient and effective alternative solutions to both organizational and societal problems and challenges in order to generate an improved employees‘ citizenship behaviour. Distinguishing the Meanings of Social in Social Innovation It is another great merit of the Bureau of European Policy Advisers (European Commission) report that it differentiates social innovations according to their scope. The report distinguishes between social, societal and systemic (Richez-Battesti, Petrella, & Vallade, 2012). • Social is defined as ―social demands that are traditionally not addressed by the market or existing institutions and are directed towards vulnerable groups in society‖ (ibid.: 43). • Social innovations of societal scope, i.e. concerning the society as a whole, will not only make boundaries between ‗social‘ and ‗economic‘ blur, in the context 6 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of society. Such boundaries may not even exist, since economy is part of the society. When such a fundamental social innovation, like old age retirement system, was introduced into our societies, 6 H.-W Franz et al almost in the nineteenth century, they affected the social as well as the economic spheres of society just as well as the individual citizen or employee, depending on the respective national system. And any fundamental change of such a system, for example from a labour-based funding scheme of retirement like the German one to a citizen-based funding system like the Swiss one, a fervent debate in Germany, will affect the whole of our societal balance. And such a change would be a top-down social innovation, by the way, politically induced, decided by parliament and implemented top down. And it would be a social, a societal and a systemic change at the same time. • Finally, regarding social as systemic, the system need not necessarily be the whole society. All societal systems, e.g. organisations, are they for profit or not for profit may undergo systemic social innovation. A good example across all social spheres is the ever wider spread of total quality management systems in organisations (Franz 2010) which indeed installs an on-going process of reshaping these organisations towards more empowerment and learning, ―leading to sustainable systemic change‖ which also in the BEPA report is considered as the ―ultimate objective of social innovation‖ (Richez-Battesti, Petrella, & Vallade, 2012). Whether at the end of the day it will lead to more well-being, is a question of evidence and hence of research. The field of social innovation has grown up primarily as a field of practice, made up of people doing things and then, sometimes, reflecting on what they do Hochgerner (2011a; 2011b) There has been relatively little attention to theory, or to history, and although there has been much promising research work in recent years, there are no clearly defined schools of thought, no continuing theoretical arguments, and few major research programmes to test theories against the evidence. But to mature as a field, social innovation needs to shore up its theoretical foundations, the frames with which it thinks and makes sense of the world. 6 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Concept of Social Innovation Foreign Service Institute‘s (FSI‘s) first achievement was the definition of social innovation. The FSI stakeholders, through a consultative process with international experts carrying out field analysis in several countries to identify its main features, agreed upon a working definition which was used to identify the different social innovations to be analysed within the Forum‘s framework. This definition was the first ever provided by an inter-governmental organisation and, more generally, amongst the first to be produced. Its elements have been taken into account by other, later definition. For the OECD, social innovation implies changes in concept, process or product, in organisation and in financing, and can deal with new stakeholder and territorial relationships: ―Social innovation seeks new answers to social problems by: identifying and delivering new services that improve the quality of life of individuals and communities; identifying and implementing new labour market integration processes, new competencies, new jobs, and new forms of participation, as diverse elements that each contribute to improving the position of individuals in the workforce. Social innovations can therefore be seen as dealing with the welfare of individuals and communities, both as consumers and producers. The elements of this welfare are linked with their quality of life and activity. Wherever social innovations appear, they always bring about new references or processes. Social innovation is distinct from economic innovation because it is not about introducing new types of production or exploiting new markets in themselves but is about satisfying new needs not provided for by the market (even if markets intervene later) or creating new, more satisfactory ways of insertion in terms of giving people a place and a role in production. The key distinction is that social innovation deals with improving the welfare of individuals and communities through employment, consumption and/or participation, its expressed purpose being to provide solutions for individual and community problems.‖ (OECD, 2003). LEED (Local Economic and Employment Development‘s Committee, 2003) Forum on Social Innovations (www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/forum/ socialinnovations).‖ What is distinctive about this definition is that it clearly links social innovation to local development. 6 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Social innovation is, in fact, essentially seen as a way of improving the welfare of individuals and communities. Moreover, the definition makes explicit reference to the new relationship with territories as a social innovation feature. In spite of this reference to the local dimension, the so-called ―global challenges‖ - even if not explicitly mentioned in the definition - are not excluded from the field of social innovation, the final aim of which is to provide social change for improving people‘s quality of life. ―All innovation involves the application of new ideas – or the reapplication of old ideas in new ways – to devise better solutions to our needs. Innovation is invariably a cumulative, collaborative activity in which ideas are shared, tested, refined, developed and applied. Social innovation applies this thinking to social issues: education and health, issues of inequality and inclusion.‖ Leadbeater (2007). The Need for social innovation Social innovations are innovative responses to unsolved social problems and needs, which have not been successfully tackled by the State or the market. Social innovation is needed because many social challenges are resistant to conventional approaches to solving them. They require novel approaches, inventive actors and new forms of co-operation among them, thus bringing together different kinds of expertise, skills and tangible and intangible assets. Social innovation‘s major aim is therefore to tackle complex social challenges by providing innovative solutions. Social innovations may be complex yet at the same time simple: sometimes new ideas just needed to be conceived! The whole idea of micro-finance, which is certainly one of the most well-known and successful social innovations, is a simple one-lending small amounts of money to poor people without demanding collaterals- but nobody had thought of it before Yunus. The same applies to the ideas such as that of social business (a well-known example is Grameen Danone Foods). The concept is simple but its implementation requires innovative thinking and processes. It is the result of the hybridisation of different actors (in this case a joint venture between a community development bank and a large multinational) and approaches (the business approach used to meet social goals without personal enrichment). Social innovation is addressing several challenges and having positive impacts. One of the most important is that of contributing to the modernisation of public services. Innovative actors, such as the so-called social enterprises, are doing so by delivering new welfare services at both national and local levels, often in 6 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY partnership with the public sector. They are shaping new processes and services-a more tailored approach-thus enabling increased public sector efficiency. In addition, users are increasingly involved in the design of these services and user-driven social innovation is undoubtedly better suited to meeting user‘s needs. Social innovation is also directed at producing social change. The change can be of different intensities: incremental or radical. Changes are incremental when they build on what already exists and are radical when they produce a total change compared to the past. Obviously not all social innovations can be radical and evidence shows that the majority of them are incremental. The Context of Social Innovation Social innovation can take place everywhere, at national and local levels, but it does not simply ―happen‖. It is the result of joint effort, creativity and a shared vision: that of a sustainable and people-oriented future. Social innovation is not one sector‘s monopoly. Some innovations appear in the public sector, others in the private sector and others again in the non-profit sector. Social innovations are sometimes absorbed by a sector different from the one in which they were created. For social innovation to proliferate, cross-pollination is needed; to spread and upscale social innovations, ―bees and trees‖ are required. The ―bees‖ are …. ―small organisations, individuals and groups who have new ideas and are mobile, quick and able to cross-pollinate to find big receptive ‗trees‘, i.e. big organisations such as governments, companies or non- governmental organisations which are generally poor at creativity but good at implementation and have the resilience, roots and scale to make things happen. Much social change is a result of a combination of the two‖. (Crespi, & Geuna, Nesta, 2007). Connecting ―bees‖ and ―trees‖ is often a problem, which is why ―intermediaries‖ are needed. There is, however, a notable absence of these and this is certainly an area to be addressed by policy makers. Social Intelligence The idea goes back to Thorndike (1920), who defined social intelligence as ―the ability to understand and manage women, boys and girls-to act wisely in human relations‖ (p. 228). As noted by Landy (2005), Thorndike did not build a theory of social intelligence but he only used the notion of social intelligence to clarify that intelligence could manifest itself in different facets (e.g., abstract. mechanical, social). Social intelligence has a checkered history. Early studies tried to distinguish social 6 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY intelligence from academic intelligence (Lievens, & Chan, 2010; Keating, 1978). However, these research efforts were unsuccessful. The problem was that measures of social intelligence did not correlate highly among themselves and that academic intelligence and social intelligence formed one factor. Methodologically, it was troublesome that both intelligences were measured with the same method (paper-and- pencil measures). The early research led to the conclusion that the ―putative domain of social intelligence lacks empirical coherency, at least as it is represented by the measures used here‖ (Keating, 1978, p. 221).Two advancements led to more optimism. The first was the distinction between cognitive social intelligence (e.g., social perception or the ability to understand or decode verbal and nonverbal behaviours of other persons) and behavioural social intelligence (effectiveness in social situations).Using this multidimensional definition of social intelligence and multiple measures (self, teacher, and peer ratings), Ford and Tisak (1983) were able to distinguish social intelligence from academic intelligence. In addition, social intelligence predicted social behaviour better than academic intelligence (Marlowe, 1986). The second advancement was the use of multitrait-multimethod designs(and confirmatory factor analysis) to obtain separate and uncompounded estimates of trait and method variance (Jones & Day, 1997; Wong, Day, Maxwell, & Meara, 1995). These more sophisticated multitrait-multimethod designs have brought further evidence for the multidimensionality of social intelligence and for its discriminability vis-à-vis academic intelligence. For example, the aforementioned distinction made between cognitive social intelligence and behavioural social intelligence has been confirmed (Wong et al., 1995). Similarly, a distinction is often made between fluid and crystallized social intelligence. The fluid form of social intelligence refers to social-cognitive flexibility (the ability to flexibly apply social knowledge in novel situations) or social inference. Conversely, a term such as social knowledge (knowledge of social etiquette, procedural and declarative social knowledge about social events) denotes the more crystallized component of social intelligence (Jones & Day, 1997). Despite these common findings, the dimensions, the definitions, and measures of social intelligence still vary a lot across studies. Along these lines, Weis and Süss (2005) recently gave an excellent overview of the different facets of social intelligence that have been examined. This might form the basis to use a more uniform terminology when describing social intelligence sub dimensions. 6 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In recent years, interest in social intelligence has also known a renaissance under the general term of social effectiveness constructs. According to Ferris, Perrewé, and Douglas (2002), social effectiveness is a ―broad, higher-order, umbrella term, which groups a number of moderately related, yet conceptually-distinctive, manifestations of social understanding and competence‖ (p. 50). Examples are social competence, self-monitoring, emotional intelligence, social skill, social deftness, practical intelligence, etc. The value of social skills has been especially scrutinized. Similar to social intelligence, social skills are posited to have a cognitive component (interpersonal perceptiveness) and a behavioural component (behavioural flexibility) (Riggio, 1986; Schneider, Ackerman, & Kanfer, 1996). A key distinction between social skills and personality traits is that the former are learned (i.e., an ability), whereas the latter are relatively stable. Research has found that they are only moderately (.20) correlated (Ferris, Witt, & Hochwarter, 2001). However, both constructs are also related in that social skills enable personality traits to show their effects (Ferris, Witt, & Hochwarter, 2001; Hogan & Shelton, 1998). Research has indeed confirmed that social skills moderate the effects of personality traits (conscientiousness) on job performance (Witt & Ferris, 2003). Social skills were also found to have direct effects on managerial job performance, although personality and cognitive ability were not controlled for in most studies (Semadar, Robins, & Ferris, 2006). In addition, from the viewpoint of the problem of social intelligence, to which the attention has been paid for almost a hundred years, a very significant contribution was provided by Thorndike (1920) according to whom it is possible to define several factors within the structure of intelligence, each of which represents a certain detailed ability. Ruisel (2008) claims that contrarily to Stern and Spearman, Thorndike rejected the concept of intelligence as a single general ability and he defined three sets of these abilities: 1. Abstract intelligence, as an ability to understand and manipulate with the verbal and mathematical symbols. 2. Social intelligence, as an ability to understand people and cooperate with them. 3. Concrete intelligence, as an ability based on the manipulation with objects. Similarly to Thorndike (1920), social intelligence is defined by Marlowe (1986), who regards it as an ability to understand other people and social interactions, 6 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and apply this knowledge in leading and influencing other people for their mutual satisfaction. He starts from the two-factor concept of social intelligence, highlighting the mutual satisfaction, benefit, and thus the pro-social aspect of social intelligence. However, the generally accepted definition of social intelligence and therefore also confirmation of validity of existence of this area of knowledge meets various problems (Silvera, Martinussen & Dahl, 2001). Conceptualization and the subsequent operationalization of social intelligence draw the attention of authors to at least four sets of issues (Frankovský, Lajčin, & Sláviková, 2012): 1. Social intelligence and the related areas of knowledge. 2. Structure of social intelligence. 3. Personality and psychometric concept of social intelligence. 4. Ethical concept of social intelligence. In other numerous studies that have been conducted since that time of Thorndike, problems encountered in the research on social intelligence can be collected under four headings. The first one is related to the definition of social intelligence. Thorndike (1920) defined social intelligence as (i) the ability to understand and manage people and (ii) the ability to act wisely in human relations. Subsequent research has been generally based on Thorndike‘s above definition. However, a generally accepted definition of social intelligence has not been agreed upon. Marlowe (1986) stated that ―social intelligence or social competence is the ability to understand the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of persons, including one‘s own, in interpersonal situations and to act appropriately upon that understanding.‖ According to Walker and Foley (1973), social intelligence is the ability to deal with people, understand the feelings, thoughts and intentions of others, judge correctly the feelings, moods and motivations of individuals. On the other hand, Wedeck (1947) concentrated upon the cognitive aspect of social intelligence and defined social intelligence as correctly judging the feelings, moods, and motivations of people. In some of the studies carried out on the subject, the concepts of social competence and social skills were sometimes used instead of social intelligence. In line with the difficulties confronted in defining social intelligence, the second problem relates to the aspects of social intelligence comprises of (Goleman, 2007). In spite of the fact that social intelligence had been analysed in early studies on 7 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the base of two aspects, namely cognitive (understanding people) and behavioural (managing people) aspects, later studies put forth the fact that it has a multiple aspect structure. However, different arguments have been suggested about the aspects within the scope of social intelligence. In his social intelligence model, Marlowe (1986) proposed a four-dimensional construct: (i) Social interest (to be interested in others) (ii) Social self-sufficiency, (iii) Empathy skills (the ability to understand others cognitively and emotionally), and (iv) Social performance skills (observable social behaviours). Dogan & Cetin, (2009) stated that social intelligence is made up of seven constituents: (i) to sense the internal conditions and moods of others (ii) a general ability of establishing relationships with persons (iii) knowledge about social theories and life (iv) social intuition and sensitivity in case of complex social circumstances (v) use of techniques in order to manipulate others (vi) empathy and (vii) social adaptation. Silberman (2000) examined social intelligence and the traits of individuals having social intelligence on the basis of eight aspects: (i) Understanding people (ii) expressing one‘s own feelings and ideas (iii) expressing one‘s own needs (boldness) (iv) giving/receiving feedback to/from the person contacted (v) influencing, motivating and persuading others (vi) offering innovative solutions to complex situations (vii) working cooperatively instead of individualistically being a good team member, and (viii) adopting the appropriate attitude in the event relationships come to a deadlock. According to Buzan (2002), social intelligence comprises eight factors: (i) reading persons‘ minds: understanding and knowing people by making use of their body signals and verbal and nonverbal communication data (ii) active listening skill (iii) sociability (iv) influencing others (v) being active in social medium (popularity) (vi) negotiation and social problem solving (vii) persuasion, and (vii) knowing how to behave in different social mediums (Buzan, 2002). The third problem is whether social intelligence is an independent structure different from general intelligence. Even though Weschler (1958) regards social intelligence as a dependant structure being the application of general intelligence to social circumstances and the use of general intelligence in social medium (as cited in Somazo, 1990), many studies have been conducted in order to prove that social intelligence is an independent structure. Early studies did not produce satisfactory results. Inadequate distinctive properties of 7 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY social intelligence scales were influential in this situation as well. On the other hand, recent studies have revealed the fact that social intelligence and academic intelligence are two distinct structures independent of, yet supporting each other (Barnes, & Sternberg, 1989; Lee, 1999). The final problem faced in social intelligence studies is related to the measurement of the structure. Various scales have been used in order to measure social intelligence. Early-developed scales concentrated primarily on the cognitive aspect of the structure. Later, some scales were developed based on the evaluations and judgments of others (teacher-mother-father, etc.), the interpretation of photographs and video records and the self-report. Uncertainties regarding the definition and aspects of social intelligence were reflected on scales as well and scales which produced inconsistent results were developed (Frederiksen, Carlson, & Ward, 1984). The definition of the construct of social intelligence is closely interconnected with the issue of the structure of social intelligence. This structure itself, as it was already mentioned, is one of the essential issues to which the attention is paid within the studies of this problem. Several authors define the social intelligence structure inductively on the basis of the results of a factor analysis. These approaches are included in the studies of Schneider, Ackerman and Kanfer (1996). A group of examined persons assessed the degree to which the individual ways of behaviour characterized their typical behaviour in social situations. The factor analysis extracted seven factors of social intelligence: extraversion, heartiness, social influence, social insight, social perceptiveness, social adequacy, and social adjustment. 7 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Definitions of Social Intelligence Extracted from the Literature Cognitive Cognitive Components Behavioural Requirements Components Reasoning Insight into the moods or personality traits of Get along with others strangers (Vernon, 1933) and ease in society Judge correctly the feelings, moods, and motivation (Vernon, 1933) of individuals (Wedeck, 1947) Ability to get along Ability to judge people with respect to feelings, with others (Zaccaro, motives, thoughts, intentions, attitudes, etc. Gilbert,Thor,&Mumf (O‘Sullivan et al., 1965) ord,1992) Understand the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours The ability to deal of persons, including oneself (Marlowe, 1986) with people and the Judgment in social situations (Moss et al., 1955) applications of means Recognition of the mental states behind words and to manipulate the from facial expressions (Moss et al., 1955) responses of others Role-taking ability (Feffer, 1959) (Ferris, Perrewé, & The ability to interpret social cues (O‘Sullivan & Douglas 2002) Guilford, 1966) Act appropriately The ability to predict what will happen (O‘Sullivan upon an & Guilford, 1966) understanding of the The ability to identify the internal mental states feelings, thoughts, (O‘Sullivan & Guilford, 1966) and behaviours of Decoding of social cues (Barnes & Sternberg, persons, including 1989; Buck, 1976; Sundberg, 1966) oneself (Marlowe, Ability to comprehend observed behaviours in the 1986) social context in which they occur (Wong, Day, The ability to Maxwell, & Meara, 1995) manipulate the Memory Memory for names and faces (Moss et al., 1955; responses of others Sternberg et al., 1981) (Weinstein, 1969) Perception Sensitivity for other people‘s behaviour (Orlik, Attainment of 1978) relevant social goals The ability to perceive the present mood of other (Ford, 1992) people (Orlik, 1978) Ability to speak 7 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Creativity The ability to create recognizable categories of effectively, to be (Fluency) behavioural acts (Hendricks et al., 1969) appropriately The ability to imagine many possible outcomes of a responsive to the setting (Hendricks et al., 1969) interviewers Knowledge Knowledge of social matters (Vernon, 1933) questions, to display The capacity to know oneself and to know others appropriate nonverbal (Gardner, 1983) behaviours (Ford & Individuals fund of knowledge about the social Tisak, 1983) world (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987) Effectiveness in Social problem solving (Cantor & Harlowe, 1994) heterosexual Knowledge of rules of social interaction (Orlik, interaction (Wong et 1978) al., 1995) Knowing the rules of etiquette (Wong et al., 1995) Social problem solving (Cantor & Harlowe, 1994 Thorndike (1920) defined Social Intelligence as ―the ability to understand others and act wisely in human relations‖. It is a key element in what makes people succeed in life. Social intelligence is the capacity of the individual to interact effectively, with his environment. The interpersonal relations in various work, environment, is itself reflection of social intelligence. It is the capacity to know oneself and to know others is an inalienable a part of the human conditions as is the capacity to know objects or sounds, and it deserves to be investigated no less than these other ―less charged‖ forms, Gardner (1983). According to Cantor and Kihlstrom (1987), Social Intelligence is specifically geared to solving the problems of social life, and in particular managing the life tasks, current concerns or personal projects which the person selects for him or herself, or which other people impose on him or her from outside. Greenspan (1979) proposed a hierarchical model of Social Intelligence, in which Social Intelligence consists of 3 components: Social Sensitivity, Social Insight and Social Communication. Liff, (2003) revealed in his article ‗Social and emotional intelligence: applications for developmental education‘ the very real, if not causal, relationship between social and emotional intelligence and success in college. Student 7 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY needs and faculty capacities to address those needs are the focus. Six components of the social and emotional intellectual paradigm, gleaned from the literature and merged with the voices of college educators, are reviewed and pragmatically applied to campus life and learning. Traditionally not a pedagogic focus of higher education beyond a variety of developmental enhancements, it will be shown how sensitivities and learning within the affective domain are strongly linked to the efficacy of a successful collegiate experience for all students. Reader and Kevin (2002) in a study entitled social intelligence, innovation, and enhanced brain size in primates‘ revealed an empirical link between behavioural innovation, social learning capacities, and brain size in mammals. The ability to learn from others, invent new behaviours, and use tools may have played pivotal roles in primate brain evolution Social intelligence consists of the ability to act in different social situations; to discover other people's feelings and interests; to organize groups and negotiate solutions; to establish personal relationships with others; to express one‘s feelings to others to interact and participate with others in various events; to recover from embarrassing situations with the least possible losses; to recognize one‘s errors and failures and them; to adapt quickly to any medium one is placed in; and to persuade others of one‘s personal view (Darwish, 2003). Social intelligence has two domains: 1) the instinctive domain a desire God placed in man to help him establish social relationships with other individuals and communicate with those around him to share benefits and experiences; and the acquired domain, which is learned through practice and contact with others. Accordingly, one may encounter individuals who can easily make relationships with others, influence them, and be affected by them. They can also express themselves without being shy or afraid (Garcia et al., 2005) The definition of social intelligence is still being debated in the literature. One of the most famous definitions of social intelligence is the original definition of Thorndike (Thorndike and Stein, 1937), who defined social intelligence as "the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations". Whereas Phatak and Habib (1996) defined it as: "an individual's ability to behave in social situations, distinguish the psychological conditions of others from their facial expressions, judge human behaviour, remember names and faces, understand jokes, participate with others in their free time and have knowledge of proverbs and wisdoms.‖ Abdallah and Al-Badri (2011) defined it as "the ability to understand the feelings, intentions and ideas of others or comprehend social situations 7 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY faced by the individual through his relationships with others." Also, Driver defined social intelligence as a type of intelligence that is used by individual in their interaction with others and in social relationships, and he indicates that high social intelligence is synonymous with the concept of tact (Al-Mutairi, 2000). The researcher proposes that social intelligence may be defined as the ability to build successful relationships, display empathy toward others and their feelings, and act wisely in different situations. Social intelligence includes many fundamental manifestations; Zahran (2000) classified them as follows: First: The general manifestations of social intelligence: social adjustment, social competency, appeasement, and moral ethics. Second: The specific manifestations of social intelligence: the efficiency of interaction in social situations, comprehending the psychological state of the speaker, social cognition, understanding social behaviour, and understanding human expressions. Gubrium (1997), presented a model of social efficiency (social intelligence) which relieved the concepts used in the study of social intelligence and social competency. The model provided detailed behaviour, cognitive processes, and cognitive structures. On the other hand, Ford and Maher (1998) pointed out the presence of five different dimensions referring to the concept of social intelligence; situational awareness, impact, originality, clarity, and compassion. The combination of these dimensions reflect the individual's ability to deal with others through verbal and non- verbal behaviours, judge them in different situations, sympathize with them, and express ideas to them very clearly. Moreover, mental abilities and skills affect the composition of the behavioural characteristics of students because these capabilities direct individuals toward their concerns and strengths, and emphasize their self-concept. The existence of such capabilities leads to make students better in social situations than their peers. Some psychologists demonstrate the general shared characteristics of personality which consists of several factors. Cattell (1990) studied the personality through the theory of traits. The general sense of trait, is any property, innate characteristic or acquired characteristic that distinguishes the individual from other individuals. Hackworth (2001) asserts that the Impact of Social Intelligence upon Social Influence‘ reveals the relevance of social intelligence to social influence. Consistent 7 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY with but extending past research, recognizing situational influences i.e., discriminative facility was associated with effective social interactions. In particular, individuals high in discriminative facility demonstrated greater flexibility when considering influence tactics than individuals low in discriminative facility. E. L. Thorndike has divided intelligent activity into three types: 1. Social Intelligence or ability to understand and deal with persons. 2. Concrete Intelligence or ability to understand and deal with things as in skilled trades and scientific appliances. 3. Abstract Intelligence or ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols. Scholars began to shift their attention from describing and assessing social intelligence to understanding the purpose of interpersonal behaviour and the role it plays in effective adaptability. This line of research helped define human effectiveness from the social perspective as well as strengthened one very important aspect of Wechsler‘s (1958) definition of general intelligence: ―The capacity of the individual to act purposefully‖. Additionally, this helped position social intelligence as part of general intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). The original definition, “the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations” (Thorndike, 1920) refers to the ability of humans to interact among each other. It has been applied for many years to the process that societies and large complex human groups go through to become better and grow together. Until now, it has not had a practical application in the world of business with few exceptions. A case can be made for massively-large organizations like GE, IBM and Microsoft – since the scale was there to justify the concept. However, as businesses become more social and their sphere of influence and group size goes from only employees to a mixture of employees, partner, consumers, and customers in very large communities we find the concepts and theories of Social Intelligence apply to these larger groups. Until now, we had not had the need to automate them or provide tools and technologies to use them – they were simply a place to exchange views and knowledge. As the social business evolves, it needs to leverage the value in these communities to fuel its understanding of how to do better. Social Intelligence, as applied to these business groups, refers to the tools and practices used by organizations to aggregate social data (gathered via social media 7 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY monitoring tools and social analytics engines) with existing data and integrate with systems of records and real-time analytics engines. The results are actionable insights that provide brands with new information on their customers, their products, and even their campaigns that they can use to improve what they do and how they do it. Using this information to proactively predict and anticipate customers‘ needs, and deliver on their specific wants and desires, is the value of Social Intelligence (Wikipedia, 2007). Taxonomic Foundations of Social Intelligence For the establishment of an intelligence construct, Cattell (1987) demanded classificatory principles in the form of taxonomies. Taxonomy includes classificatory principles comparable to facets in the context of academic intelligence models. Consequently, empirical discoveries about the structure of human abilities are easier to interpret. Academic intelligence research has already proven the theoretical and empirical significance of faceted models. For example, content-related ability factors are contained in Guilford‘s SOI and in Jäger‘s BIS-Model (Jäger, 1984). According to Cattell (1987), ―concrete discoveries will take on their due richness and meaning only when they are sifted and placed in perspective of classification‖ (p. 61). Taxonomic foundations can serve several purposes. From a theoretical perspective, they help to differentiate structure and extend existing theoretical models, especially of supposedly heterogeneous constructs, and may provide the basis for a faceted model of intelligence. From a methodological viewpoint, the taxonomy can be used for the construction of new and for the allocation of already existing tests. For existing tests and subtests, initially unstructured and confounded variance sources will be disentangled so that the pattern of covariance can be interpreted more profoundly. Thus, method-related variance related to the different elements of the taxonomic elements can possibly be balanced. When applied during test development, the representativeness of task material and thus, the content validity of the test can be enhanced. Besides the classificatory principles described in the context of the faceted models of Guilford (1967) and Jäger (1984), two further taxonomic approaches are apparent in literature, one in the context of academic intelligence models, one in the context of interpersonal perception. a) Cattell (1987) introduced a theoretical schema of ability dimensions that differentiated between ability actions (e.g., involvement of input information 7 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in perceptual abilities, involvement of storage and processing components in memory abilities, etc.), ability contents (i.e., contents provided by cultural dimensions and contents classified according to the usage of different physiological channels), and ability processes (e.g., demands on the ability in terms of the complexity, amount of retentive and retrieval activities, amount of speed activities, etc.). Contents provided by the cultural dimensions are, for example, ―verbal (semantic), numerical, spatial, and mechanical contents, social contents, arts, music, and science‖ (p. 72). Contents that enter processing via different physiological channels were subdivided, for example, into visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, and motor contents. Comparable to Guilford (1967), Cattell‘s (1987) classification sees a social content domain as independent from contents that are related to the type of cue representation. b) Cline, Atzet, & Holmes (1972) classified existing measurement approaches to interpersonal perception (i.e., social understanding) according to the stimulus information (e.g., photographs, motion pictures, live behaviour, tape recordings, test scores, written material, etc.), the types of instruments (e.g., trait-rating procedures, post diction of real life behaviour or test or item scores, etc.), the sources of the criterion information (e.g., self-provided information, group responses, associates, or experts), and the scoring procedures (e.g., number of correct predictions, difference scores, correlation statistic, quantified evaluations of open responses, etc.). Some of these differentiations are relevant rather for a classification of measurement approaches, but some will be included in the subsequent considerations. So far, the performance model of social intelligence differentiated only between the cognitive operations (i.e., understanding, memory, perception, creativity, and knowledge). Existing definitions of social intelligence already provide an approximation for some important further distinctions. Some taxonomic principles will be derived from models of academic intelligence. Moreover, taxonomies and empirical results from social psychological research will be introduced in the upcoming chapters. The taxonomic principles addressed are: process variables, outputs, contents and cues, contexts, and targets. The present passage is concerned with a more profound look into the cognitive operations that constitute social intelligence. 7 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Religiosity Since the end of last century, a kind of reintegration was happening between internal and external lives. An important area for such integration was the workplace of organizations. The entrance of concepts such as ethics, believe in Divine or a transcend, honesty, consciousness, trust, forgiveness, kindness, consideration, looking meaning in work, correlation with colleagues, encouraging colleagues, feeling of peace and altruism into managerial researches and initiatives have all indicated the emergence of a new paradigm. According to many researchers, this new paradigm in workplace which is in fact a reaction to modern inflexible and mechanical paradigm is spirituality paradigm. Marsh and Conley predicted that this new paradigm is the fourth wave after Alvin Toffler‘s third wave. The concept of spirituality and its applications in the world especially in West have found high importance so that concepts like God, religion, spirituality and etc. which considered as special issues have now entered into academic discussion and scientific researches. Particularly, the number of researches on this issue in psychology and management areas is highly increasing. Many conferences and workshops are organized in this regard. A concept emerged from such meetings and conferences are spiritual intelligence. In line with raising a new paradigm on spirituality in workplace, the concept of spiritual intelligence was also considered since 2000. In fact, in addition to increasingly interest in emotional intelligence, the combination of spirituality and intelligent in the new concept of spiritual intelligence is highly respected. Both theoretically and empirically, studying spirituality in organization, trading and business especially the impact of spirituality in workplace and employees‘ performance is undeniable. Huschek, De Valk, & Liefbroer, (2011) believed that organizations were more than ever changing to a location where they looked for giving meaning to their life. Likewise, Neal, Lichtenstein, & Banner (1999) said that workplace played a remarkable role in satisfying the needs of people. Judi Neal believed that such factors as economic crises, globalization trend, and lack of integration in organizations and so on in recent years have led to a serious need to a profound sense of meaning in work. Bein Bridge (1998) said that workplace was where most employees got their own perception. McCormick (1997) defines spirituality as an inner experience an individual has that can be evidenced by his or her behaviour. Gibbons (2000) discusses spirituality in 8 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the context of held values. Neck and Milliman (1994, p. 9) define spirituality as ―expressing our desires to find meaning and purpose in our lives and is a process of living out one‘s set of deeply held personal values‖. Dehler and Welsh (1994) explain that spirituality is an individual‘s inner source of inspiration. ―The basic feeling of being connected with one‘s complete self, others, and the entire universe‖, is how Mitroff and Denton (1999) define spirituality. Therefore, spirituality generally viewed as some internal substance, belief, attitude, or emotion, which influences people‘s behaviour (Moore & Casper, 2006). Marty (1997) state that, there will not and cannot be a universally satisfying nor even locally precise meaning to the designation of spiritual. Giacalone (2010) cites over 14 various definitions for spirituality. McGinn (1997) finds 35 different definitions which he classified into three categories: Theological or dogmatic, anthropological which emphasize human nature and historical-contextual approaching the accentuate experience in a particular community. As noted by Heaton., Schmidt- Wilk, & Travis, (2004), the struggle over operational consensus is partially due to: to the amorphous nature of spirituality; the definition is owned by various disciplines; and this field as an organizational science is beginning to develop. McGinn‘s classification is broad to cover the various academic disciplines, but considerably too broad for the purposes of codifying spirituality as an operationalized definition for use in workplace spirituality and faith at work. Present state of academic research in the field of workplace spirituality is in many ways serving to remind of where for example leadership research was some 50 years ago. Academics are still trying to define basic terms, determine standards for measurement and interpretation, and explore the interrelationships between various variables, and the impact on organizational behaviour, leadership, and performance (Miller and Ewest, 2013). Over the last decade, many literature reviews have been conducted (Moberg, 2006; Day, 2004; Lund Dean & Fornaciari, 2009). Workplace Spirituality and Faith at Work owes its existence to various motivations and interests. What obvious to be the the most important drivers for the growth of Workplace Spirituality include: Increasing ethnic and spiritual diversity, fresh recognition of religious resources; social and economic changes; a global emphasis‘ on human rights and a concern for global justice and finally; and a reactionary movement to archaic organizational structures (Miller & Ewest, 2011). The most important agents deal with workplace spirituality is: Benevolence, 8 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Generativity, Humanism, Integrity, Justice, Mutuality, Receptivity, Respect, Responsibility and Trust. Many social scientists prefer a single encompassing definition of religion, an essential definition. For example, Guthrie (2000) sees anthropocentrism as the essence of religion. He sees a projection of human attributes into the perceived world as the essence of religion. Kirkpatrick (2006) sees religion as psychological attachment, a powerful emotional relationship to things. Such essentialist authors do not confine themselves to discussing the narrow range of behaviour signified by their concepts, but they use the concepts as a way of organizing the information that they present, and they concentrate on those aspects of religion that support these conceptualizations. However lovely to the inquiring mind they may be, essentialist definitions such as these have not been very useful to scientific theory (Saler 2008:81). They confuse evolutionary models by lumping together traits that may have different evolutionary origins. Evolution does not create essences. It creates new genetic codes, not grand conceptions. The confusion of which Malinowski (1948:36) wrote was the result of other early anthropological theorists beginning with Tylor (1958) who defined religion as a belief in spirits. Spirits were gods, animating powers, animal-spirit companions, etc, all of which seemed to have a religious cast. He attributed the origin of these religious ideas to dreams rather than to cultural evolution. This was a back-door admission that religion had some sort of biological origin since dreams are produced in the central nervous system. Tylor spent time looking at world religions and reduced their fundamentals to his concept of animism. He theorized that human consciousness reached out to understand the world by projecting into it beings or souls with very human-like intentions. It was a logical way of thinking, based on the experience of dreams. Tylor saw humans as always improving their intelligences through rational thought. The primitives were basically rational in their idea of souls, but they had little scientific knowledge. Animism was rational but ignorant. Tylor believed that minds would improve as they acquired more scientific knowledge. Durkheim (2014) later followed this progressive tradition by declaring that science would eventually triumph over religion as the primary human representation of reality. 8 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Job Tenure Employment tenure is defined as the amount of time that a worker has spent working for the same employer, even if the person‘s job within the firm has changed. It is an indicator of the stability of an employment relationship and is measured as the response to either of the following questions: ―When did you start working for this employer or as self-employed?‖ or ―How long have you been working continuously for your present employer?‖ For Europe, this information comes from the European Community Labour Force Survey, for the US and Japan, comparable national sources provide this information. Pattern of Job Tenure across Countries Despite a general sentiment of increasing job insecurity, employment stability remains a salient feature of contemporary labour markets. In 2002, the average German worker was 10.7 years with the same employer, the average French worker was 11.3 years, the average British worker was 8.1 years, and the average American worker was 6.6 years. The country with the highest tenure is Greece, where the average worker stays with the same employer for 13.2 years, followed by Japan with 12.2 years of job tenure and Italy with 12.1 years. Overall in Europe, tenure averaged around 10.5 years during 1992-2002, with a slightly increasing trend.1 However, there is much country variation and among the countries with falling average tenure, Ireland, where average tenure declined by 1.1 years between 1992 and 2002, stands out in particular. In contrast, tenure increased by 1.3 years in Japan and 0.9 years in France. However, the pattern of job tenure in African Continent as a whole and Nigeria in particular is not known as at the time of this research. Tenure distribution, the percentage of workers with short as opposed to long tenure, also gives us a picture of labour market stability. In general, countries that have a lower percentage of long-term employment relationships have a higher percentage of short-term tenure. Though in general the degree of difference across countries can be notable, on average, 15.0 per cent of OECD workers have been with the same employer for less than one year and about 40 per cent have been with the same employer for more than 10 years, with noteworthy exceptions such as the United States, where 25 per cent of workers have less than one year of tenure and 25 per cent have more than 10 years of tenure. Also several European countries and most notably those that have seen labour market recovery such as Netherlands, Ireland and 8 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Denmark, have relatively high shares of short-tenured workers along with relatively low shares of long-tenured workers and have consequently relatively lower average tenure than countries with a high share of long-tenured jobs. Nevertheless, there do not appear to be any generalized trends in increased short-term employment across countries, with seven countries seeing a fall in this share of workers and nine countries experiencing an increase. The increase likely stems from both the decade‘s strong economic performance, which led to new job growth particularly in Ireland, as well as the increased use of fixed-term employment contracts in some European countries. Overall, the number of workers on fixed-term contracts in the 15 EU countries increased from 9.2 per cent to 11.4 per cent between 1992 and 2001, according to Eurostat data, and these contracts are associated with shorter job duration. For long-term employment, the overall share of workers with more than ten years remained constant at 40.6 per cent of workers. Ireland and Portugal had the largest fall in the share of long-term workers, partly as a result of economic restructuring. Other important determinants of changing tenure patterns are shifts in the composition of the labour force. For example, an ageing of the labour force will lengthen average tenure as age is highly correlated with tenure. Also, shifts in labour force participation, such as women‘s greater labour market attachment, can lead at first to a fall in average rates of tenure. These trends do not support the overall impression of stability of average tenure, as there seem to be neither a dramatic change in employment duration nor the disappearance of the long-term employment relationship; nor has there been a convergence towards the US model of notably shorter average employment duration. Increasingly, national and international studies confirm this apparent stability of the employment system (Erlinghagen & Knuth, 2004), which has also been noted in former analytical work of the OECD (1999). The Theoretical Foundation for this Study This work is hinged on the social exchange theory of Cropanzano & Michell (2005) because it portrays a dyadic relationship between the employees and the organization. It must be noted that the relationship should be beneficial to both parties. Therefore it is based on reciprocity principle whereby gestures of goodwill are exchanged between employees and the organization as well as between subordinates and their supervisors when particular action warrants reciprocity. This happens in two 8 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (2) forms i.e OCBO- behaviours that directly impact the balance of the social exchange between employees and the organization that is, OCB directed toward the organization. And the second one consists of behaviours that have an indirect impact and are directed toward individuals (OCBI). Social Exchange Theory (SET) by Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) According to Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005), ―Social Exchange Theory (SET) is among the most influential conceptual paradigms for understanding workplace behaviour.‖ SET explains the regulation of social relations based on a powerful and general premise: the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). While the reciprocation ideology seems to be widely shared among individuals, levels of mutuality, however, differ, depending on individual orientation (Eisenberger, Cotterell, & Marvel, 1987). Contrary to economic trade, social exchange is discretionary, and the form, degree or time of reciprocation are neither specified nor enforceable (Blau, 1964). Although the norm suggests equivalence in terms of help received and returned, the value placed on the exchange relationship is idiosyncratic. This means that a person will feel obligated to a donor (e.g., an organization, supervisor or colleague) only when he or she is freely provided with something he/she cares about (Schaninger & Turnipseed, 2005). In short, people tend to reward volitional and positive dispositions toward themselves, by returning the benefits they perceive having received. Given these considerations, work experiences fostering employee perceptions of support, trust and justice have been found to contribute to the social exchange dynamic (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Stinglhamber, de Cremer, & Mercken, 2006). Of most importance is perceived organizational support (POS): through reciprocity, it promotes desirable work outcomes such as commitment or citizenship behaviour. In other words, the greater the POS, the more likely are employees to identify with, and make voluntary extra efforts on behalf of the organization (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Support has also been examined at the supervisory (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, 2002) and colleague level (Bishop et al., 2000; Pearce & Herbik, 2004; Paillé, 2012), providing similar results. While a considerable amount of research has been conducted on organizational and supervisor foci of support, the colleague entity is in need of greater 8 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY attention (Bishop, Scott, Goldsby, & Cropanzano, 2005; Howes, Cropanzano, Grandey, & Mohler, 2000). Similarly, studies on social exchange theory have been limited in the generational context (e.g., Benson & Brown, 2011; Brunetto et al., 2011; Hess & Jepsen, 2009) and the present review fills a gap in this respect. With the core ideas that comprise SET succinctly introduced, we can now turn to a review of the generational literature. Social exchange provided a mechanism for the intuitive link between attitudes and performance. The idea was that many acts in the workplace are not strictly regulated by contractual obligations, but through a more implicit and discretionary exchange of resources, including those more social in nature (Blau, 1964). According to this perspective, employees might perform OCB‘s out of a sense of obligation to return any number of perceived material or social benefits they have gained from the organization (Organ & Paine, 1999). Social exchange has received a great deal of credit during the last three decades for linking employee attitudes and OCB performance, yet as Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) point out, many ambiguities remain. The precise motive prompting employees to perform OCB‘s and logistics of the process are not always clear. The Social Exchange Perspective As Cropanzano & Mitchell (2005) point out, social exchange can refer to a type of transaction, but has typically been conceptualized as a type of relationship by OCB theorists (e.g., Organ, 1988). In this view, organizations function partially through mutually desirable relationships in which parties give and receive a variety of benefits- including socio-emotional benefits. When trust has been developed to a critical level, employees can engage in behaviours beyond the minimum requirement, trusting that they will not be taken advantage of, but rather their needs will be met through this ongoing relationship. In this light, social exchange does not explicitly specify motives beyond the desire to maintain the exchange relationship. Further, OCB clearly falls within social exchange theory: it is based on choice and volition, and it constitutes a form of reciprocation for the benevolent dispositions and favourable treatments received (Organ et al., 2006). This means that support provided by the organization (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) and colleagues (Deckop, Cirka, & Andersson, 2003) is expected, separately, to directly influence the level of employees‘ discretionary efforts. 8 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in Perspective Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC), which is referred to, for brevity, as the CORPS, is a service organization in the Security and Defence Industry in Nigeria, making it potentially a paramilitary firm of government with the zeal to continuously grow and develop into full maturity and relevance in the scheme of national livelihood. Historical perspective illuminates that the Corps was originally introduced into the Nigeria system in May, 1967 during the then civil war within the federally controlled territory of Lagos District. It was formerly known as the Lagos Civil Defence Cmmittee and was later transformed into the current Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in 1970 to assist the victims of the Civil War raging at the time (Bodunde, Ola, & Afolabi, 2013). The organizational vision is to put to work efficiency, humility and integrity in service delivery with fresh zeal to bring credibility into whole concept of security thereby restoring the much needed confidence of Nigeria public, to justify the existence of the corps and to build a culture and create and identify for the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence corps (Civil Defence, Fire, Immigration and Prisons Services Board (CDFIPB), 2012). While the mission is to ensure the safety of life and properties of Nigerian and other countries‘ nationals residing within Nigeria, to stamp out crime and guarantee safety of all government properties especially where it concerns power transmission lines and oil pipelines and to rid Nigeria conflicts through intelligence report gathering. In accordance with the provisions of NSCDC Act 2003 amended via Act 6 no 2007, the NSCDC is statutorily charged with the following functions but not limited to:  To license, supervise and monitor operations of private guard companies.  To seal-up the premises of any private company which operate without a valid licence?  To arrest with or without warrant, detain, investigate and institute legal proceedings by or in the name of the Anthony-General of the Federation in accordance with the provision of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria against any offender under the NSCDC Act or is involved in: I. Criminal activity II. Industrial espionage or fraud. 8 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY  To combat chemical poisoning, oil spillage, nuclear waste, and any activity aimed at frustrating any government programme or policy.  Riot, civil disorder, strike or religious unrest.  Power transmission lines, oil pipeline, NITEL cable, NIPOST equipment, water board pipes or equipment vandalism;  Maintain 24 hours security surveillance over infrastructure, site and projects of the Federal, State and Local Government.  Monitor, investigate and take every necessary step to forestall any planned act of terrorism, including cult and ethnic militia activities,  Rescue and provide emergency medical services, shelter and rehabilitate disaster victims during period of emergency,  Evacuate the civilian population from danger areas,  Carry out rescue operations and control volatile areas, among other duties (CDFIPB, 2012). Empirical Review This section will be based on empirical literature of the independent variables vs dependent variables under the following headings Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCBs) Leadership behaviour and OCBs Social intelligence and OCBs Creativity and OCBs Social innovation and OCBs Religiosity and OCBs Gender and OCBs Employees‘ Age and OCBs Educational level/status and OCBs Job tenure and OCBs Job cadre/seniority/ranking and OCBs Organizational tenure and OCBs Marital status and OCBs 8 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Organizational Citizenship Behaviour The available empirical findings also support that these citizenship behaviours have a positive impact on enhancing organization performance (Podsakoff, Ahearne & MacKenzie 1997). As earlier mentioned, OCB has been regarded as an important concept in that it is thought to contribute to effective functioning of the organization, and consequently, its competitiveness (Podsakoff, Ahearne & MacKenzie 1997). Conceptually, there are several reasons why citizenship behaviours could enhance organizational competitiveness (Podsakoff et al., 1997). For example, as Podsakoff & MacKenzie (1997) summarized OCBs may contribute to organizational performance by enhancing productivity, utilizing resources more productively, helping to coordinate activities, enabling the organization‘s adaptation to changeable environment or strengthening the organization‘s ability by attracting best employees. Whereas, to our knowledge, it is surprising that this conceptual plausibility, compared with the interest in identifying the antecedents of OCBs, has received little empirical attention (Podsakoff, et al., 2000). And generally speaking, the empirical research supports Organ‘s assertion that the ―good soldier‖ syndrome is related to organization performance (MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Ahearne, 1996; Walz & Niehoff, 1996; Podsakoff et al., 1997). However, the findings are inconsistent. For example, helping behaviour was found to enhance performance in some research (MacKenzie, et al.,1996; Walz & Niehoff, 1996; Podsakoff et al., 1997) but also appeared to have a negative impact on performance (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994). Besides the effects of OCBs on organizational performance, research also examined the effect of OCBs on managerial evaluations of performance and judgments regarding pay raises, promotions, etc (Podsakoff et al., 2000). It showed that OCB has a positive impact on important personnel decisions made by managers and there is evidence to suggest that in-role and extra-role performance may interact when influencing managerial judgments and decisions (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Podsakoff & MacKenzie (1997) claimed that in terms of the effect of OCB on organizational success, citizenship behaviours have been hypothesized to influence organizational success through a wide variety of different mechanisms. This opinion makes us critically re-think about the existence of mediating mechanisms in the relationship between OCB and organization performance, especially facing the few findings on the impact of OCB on organizational performance. The researcher wondesr if it is with high possibility that the impact of OCB on organization 8 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY performance only exists at the presence of some mediating effect. Or is it the different mediating mechanism that results in different consequences? These wonderings on the knowledge on OCB need clarifying in the future research. Usually a single occurrence of OCB is a small gesture of one person towards another one, such as helping a colleague, which is likely to remain unrecognized by others, especially by supervisors who may take it for granted. The triviality of a single occurrence is most probably the reason why it is not (or cannot) be recognized by formal reward systems. (Organ, Podsakoff and MacKenzie 2006 ) A formal reward system can factually not take into consideration every single altruistic action or extra- effort of each co-worker. Nevertheless, it will not remain unrecognized if some employees engage in different OCBs again and again in an extended period of time. In this case OCB becomes part of one‘s behaviour and can in the aggregate benefit the whole organization. So far the link to the relevance of OCB in organizational practice is obvious as OCB positively affects an organization‘s effectivity and efficiency. The aggregation of individual OCB leads to increased performance of an organization, as proved by several studies (e.g: Podsakoff and MacKenzie 1997). Summing up the results of different empirical findings, Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997 ) found strong support for the hypothesis that OCB is related to organizational performance. Despite its positive influence on organizational performance OCB is, per definition, unrewarded in terms of physical return (but it might be rewarded with appreciation). Furthermore, studies have proved a significant correlation between role perceptions and at least some factors of OCB, which is not the case for demographic variables, for example no evidence has been found to prove a correlation between gender and OCB. Nevertheless, Podsakoff et al. pointed out that additional evidence was needed in order to totally exclude a relationship between demographic variables and OCB which this study will attempt to provide answer. Almost no employee characteristics (including ability, experience, knowledge in terms of social innovation skill, social intelligence, leadership behaviour, creativity and professional orientation) has a strong relation to OCB. This study will also attempt to fill this gap. On the contrary, task characteristics have a significant correlation with OCB. Among the last category of antecedents of transformational leadership behaviours and some forms of transactional leadership behaviours have proved to be consistently and significantly correlated to OCB (or at least to some forms of OCB) (Podsakoff et al. 2000). 9 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In appraisal, job attitudes, task variables, and various types of leader behaviours appear to be more strongly related to OCBs than the other antecedents. (Podsakoff et al. 2000). Nevertheless, the relation between OCB and its dispositional antecedents was examined in various studies even after the above mentioned study. Additionally, conclusions in accordance to these findings will be drawn, as I assume that Podsakoff et al.(2000) did not take all the findings on dispositional antecedents into account when they conducted their study. Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour A lot of researches from prominent leadership authors have found consistently that leadership affects the followers‘ attitudes and performance (Avolio, & Yammarino, 2002; Bass, 2008; Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995; Lord, & Maher, 1993). The objective of this section is to specifically synthesize leadership paradigms that have significant relationship with OCBs. Leadership behaviours have also been found to be an important predictor of OCB. These behaviours fall into four categories: transformational leadership behaviour, transactional leadership behaviour, behaviours having to do with the path-goal theory of leadership, and behaviours having to do with the Leader- Member Exchange Theory(LMX). Transformational leadership behaviours, including articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, and intellectual stimulation, have significant positive relationships with Organ‘s dimensions of OCB. Two types of behaviours representative of transactional leadership style, contingent reward behaviour and non-contingent punishment behaviour, have significant relationships with Organ‘s dimensions of OCB. Additionally, both the supportive leadership and leader role clarification aspects of the path-goal theory of leadership are positively related to OCB. Podsakoff et al. (2000) found that leader-member exchange was positively related to altruism and an overall composite measure of OCB. Empirical studies also showed that, when leaders experience positive emotions at work, this can contribute to several potential beneficial impacts, which in turn contribute towards the effectiveness of leadership (George, 1995). Cherulnik et al (2001) pointed out that a leader‘s behaviour has an impact on the subordinates‟ affective state. They found that, when the leader exhibited truly charismatic behaviour, this behaviour had an effect of emotional contagion, inspiring similar 9 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY emotional responses in the subordinates who were exposed to the behaviour. Thus, emotion is seen as a precursor of action, providing the schema on how individuals interact with their environment. Other studies also showed that people low in emotional/social intelligence had a lack of empathy (Constantine & Gainor, 2001). In this respect, it is therefore reasonable to expect that inviduals low in social/emotional intelligence are unlikely to recognise when help is needed while individuals who exhibit social/emotional intelligence may adapt themselves with others optimally and accommodate the needs of others. As such they would encourage others to exhibit behaviours that benefit organizational outcomes and enhance organizational members. Moreover, the earlier research in leadership focused on the leader alone but eventually developed a new approach that took into account that leaders and members always interact and that both contribute to the respective relationship (Schyns & Wolfram, 2008). Kang and Stewart (2007), argue that understanding of organizational outcomes through leadership research has progressed from consideration of leader attributes to recognition of the importance of the relationships that leaders have within a situation or with subordinates. Studies on EQ in an organizational context are limited, but scholars and writers in management are beginning to emphasize the importance of EQ on leadership effectiveness (Bass, 2002; Goleman, 1998; Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard, 1996). These theoretical contributions suggest that some aspects of EQ may be associated with effective leadership and OCB. Sosik and Megerian (1999) suggest that an intrapersonal aspect of EQ, such as self-awareness, which involves a strong leader–follower emotional relationship, is positively associated with transformational leadership and OCB. Taking lead from these contributions, we hypothesize that interpersonal dimensions of EQ, such as empathy and social skills are associated with transformational leadership and OCB. In other words, leaders who possess empathy and social skills aspects of EQ are likely to exhibit behaviours associated with transformational leadership and OCB. Researchers ( Bateman & Organ, 1983; Organ & Lingl, 1995; Penner, Midili, & Kegelmeyer, 1997; Tang & Ibrahim, 1998) have found that employee satisfaction, organisational commitment, organisational justice, career development, age, tenure, personality, motivation, leadership and leadership behaviour all impact and affect citizenship behaviour within an organisation. 9 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY More so, studies on OCB around the issue of interpersonal relationships have been driven by the conviction that sound superior-subordinate relationship is crucial to organizational success. Positive interpersonal relationship at workplace should enhance positive OCB among the employees. Subordinates with high levels of OCB are more likely to be committed to the organization (William & Anderson, 1991). Therefore, it is worthwhile for the superior to be aware of his/her leadership style in work situations and how it promotes subordinates‘ OCB. Graham (1988) and Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) have indicated that superior‘s leadership style and subordinates‘ OCB are inter-related. Inappropriate leadership styles may trigger negative consequences, which might further increase the sensitivity and susceptibility to misunderstanding that may lead to organizational dysfunction such as decline in work performances, absenteeism and high turnover (Lamude, 1994; Motowidlo, 2003). Thus, prevention of subordinates‘ negative outcome is important visa-vis the use of different leadership styles. The mismatch might precipitate an unending and potentially disruptive vicious cycle that many organizational leaders want to avoid and therefore, they might want to address their styles and the attendant consequences more rigorously. These behaviours can be divided into transformational leadership behaviours (―core‖ transformational behaviours, articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, and intellectual stimulation), transactional leadership behaviours (contingent reward behaviour, contingent punishment behaviour, non-contingent reward behaviour, non- contingent punishment behaviour), and behaviours identified with either the Path- Goal theory of leadership (role clarification behaviour, specification of procedures, or supportive leader behaviour), or the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory of leadership. Generally speaking, the transformational leadership behaviours had significant and consistent positive relationships with altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue (Lamude, 1994; Motowidlo, 2003). Two forms of transactional leader behaviour were significantly related to altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue; one positively (contingent reward behaviour), and the other negatively (non-contingent punishment behaviour). Of the Path-Goal leadership dimensions, supportive leader behaviour was found to be positively related to every form of OCB, and leader role clarification was 9 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY positively related to altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, and sportsmanship. Finally, leader-member exchange was positively related to altruism and ―overall‖ citizenship behaviours. In appraisal, job attitudes, task variables, and various types of leader behaviours appear to be more strongly related to OCBs than the other antecedents. Consistent with Organ and his colleagues (Moorman, Niehoff, & Organ, 1993), job satisfaction, perceptions of fairness, and organizational commitment were positively related to citizenship behaviours. Task variables also appear to be consistently related to a wide variety of organizational citizenship behaviours, although little attention has been given to them in the OCB literature (Pearce & Gregersen, 1991). This is interesting because it suggests a whole new category of antecedents that has not been previously considered. Finally, one very strong pattern in the findings reported is that leaders play a key role in influencing citizenship behaviour. Indeed, with a few exceptions, almost all of the leader behaviour–OCB relationships were significant. Supportive behaviour on the part of the leader was strongly related to organizational citizenship behaviour and may even underlie the effects of perceived organizational support on OCBs. Transformational leadership behaviour also had consistent effects on every form of citizenship behaviour. Perhaps this should not be surprising, since the heart of transformational leadership is the ability to get employees to perform above and beyond expectations (Kouzes & Posner, 1987), and this extra effort may show up in the form of citizenship behaviour. Leader-Member Exchange behaviour also was strongly related to OCBs. Thus, it appears that OCBs play a role in the reciprocal social exchange process hypothesized by Graen and Scandura (1987); Settoon, Bennett, and Liden (1996); and Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, (2002). Of course, whether the observed effects of job attitudes, task variables, and leader behaviours on OCBs are independent or not is impossible to determine using the bivariate correlations. For example, it may be the case that some of the task variables (e.g., intrinsically satisfying tasks or task routinization) influence OCBs through job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction); or that some of the leader behaviours (e.g., contingent reward behaviour or non-contingent punishment behaviour) influence OCBs through job attitudes (e.g., employee‘s perceptions of fairness). Alternatively, it is possible that some of these relationships would fail to be significant when controlling for the effects of the other predictors. 9 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Another pattern that emerged from the data of the research is that reward contingencies influence the frequency of organizational citizenship behaviour. From the foregoing, when employees are not indifferent to the rewards made available by the organization, when employees perceive that their leaders control those rewards, and when their leaders administer rewards contingent upon performance, organizational citizenship behaviour increases. This suggests at least two possibilities. First, it is possible that managers (either implicitly or explicitly) have a relatively broad conception of performance and view citizenship behaviour as a part of it. Consequently, when they administer rewards contingent upon performance, they reward OCBs as well as in-role aspects of performance, thus increasing the frequency of citizenship behaviour. Although the contingency between rewards and citizenship behaviours is inconsistent with Organ‘s original definition of OCBs (Organ, 1988), this interpretation is consistent with the findings reported by MacKenzie et al. (1999) and Werner (1994), among others. These findings indicate that managers do take OCBs into account when evaluating the performance of their subordinates, (e.g. APER form) while the findings of Parkand Sims (1989), and Allen and Rush (2001), indicate that managers administer rewards contingent upon citizenship behaviour. Another possibility is that employees have a broad conception of performance that includes OCBs. Thus, when they value organizational rewards, and believe that their leader administers them contingent upon good performance, they engage in citizenship behaviour as a means of obtaining rewards. This line of reasoning is consistent with Morrison (1994), who found that employees often view OCBs as an expected part of their job. With the exception of conscientiousness, dispositional variables generally were not found to be strongly related to the dimensions of OCBs after common method variance was taken into account. The same is true for demographic variables (e.g., organizational tenure and gender). Although on the face of it, this data contradicts the assertion of some researchers, (Organ &Ryan, 1995; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 2000), that dispositional variables are important antecedents of organizational citizenship behaviours, it is important to recognize that only a limited set of dispositions have been examined in the literature (Organ & Ryan, 1995). In another perspective, distributive justice deals with decisions taken or the content of fairness, whilst procedural justice is associated to the ways used to take those decisions, for instance, how decisions are made or the process of fairness. 9 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Distributive justice is considered to predict satisfaction with the outcome (i.e., pay satisfaction), while procedural justice influences the assessment of the organization and its authorities (i.e., trust in supervision) (Sweeney and McFarlin 1993). Fairness and justice is the work condition identified in the Maslach et al. (2001) engagement model. Saks (2008) stated that employees who have higher perceptions of procedural justice are more likely to respond with higher organization engagement. Hence, employees having higher perception of justice through their immediate supervisor in their organization are expected to feel gratified to be fair in performing their roles through greater levels of engagement in terms of OCBs. In addition, there is an increasing interest in the forms of positive leadership because of the evidence that supports the idea that positivity increases well-being and job performance (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Fredrickson, 2009; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). Thus, diverse investigations show that the greater the authentic leadership, the greater the employees‘ satisfaction with the supervisor, their organizational commitment, extra effort, and organizational citizenship behaviour (hereafter, OCB) (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009; Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, & Avolio, 2010, Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, & Oke, 2011). Taking into account the positive relation between the employees‘ attitudes and business results such as, for example, productivity, benefits, or client satisfaction (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002), the perceptions of authentic leadership not only positively affect employees‘ work attitudes and happiness, but they can also, at least indirectly, have a favourable impact on the performance of any company (Clapp- Smith et al., 2009). More recently, Iken (2005) conducted a survey entitled "servant leadership in higher education: studying the concepts of learners and employees in university" and suggested that servant leadership is understandable and can be measured by members of the organization. But opportunities for professional development require coordination, cooperation and communication that enhance more development in dimensions of servant leadership potentially. In his study entitled "studying the relationship among servant leadership with transactional leadership, transformational leadership, job satisfaction and organizational commitment", Washington (2007) showed employees' perception of their employers' servant leadership has a positive relationship with perception of 9 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY employers' transactional leadership and also their perception with employers' transformational leadership and interactive activity of leadership is exceptional. Also, in his study entitled "studying the relationship among attributes of servant leadership with job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees", Hill (2008) showed there is a significant statistical relationship between servant leadership and organizational commitment. Variables of demographic data regarding gender, age, education and work experience in organizations were used in data analysis. Mittal and Dorfman (2012) studied and analyzed degree of relationship among five aspects of servant leadership (equalitarianism, honesty, empowerment, empathy and humility) and efficient leadership in various cultures in their survey entitled "servant leadership across cultures". The results revealed there is a considerable diversity in degree of support and confirmation of servant leadership component across different clusters of the global culture. Parris and Peachey (2013) identified empirical studies which investigate theory of servant leadership and interaction of sample population in order to evaluate and combine the mechanism, results and effects of servant leadership in their research entitled "studying systematic literature of theory of servant leadership in organizational contexts". The results indicated that there is no consensus about definition of servant leadership; Theory of servant leadership is being studied in the context of various cultures and subjects; Researchers have employed several actions and tools in order to investigate servant leadership and servant leadership is a durable leadership theory that helps organizations improves their followers' welfare which will lead to prompt exhibition of OCB in the workplace. Current models of servant leadership focus on human incentives to join others and take part in improvement of the society. Emphasizing the motivation for service that is shown by empowerment and employees' development along with empathy and humility causes servant leadership to be different from other kinds of leadership which recognize working framework (House & Javidan, 2004). Concept of servant leadership has overthrown traditional models of management totally and has changed the philosophy of management and leadership (Hill, 2007). Serving others efficiently is to achieve group purposes. Great leaders act as a server in order to satisfy employees' needs. Servant leaders believe serving others is the most magnificent and the best reward for leadership (Afjeh, 2007). 9 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Greenleaf (1970) believes a servant leader is the one who depicts a common view of success. He is the one who emphasizes followers more than their interests and tries to develop his/her followers. They attempt to empower employees instead of using power to dominate them. Greenleaf believes that followers of such leaders will become servant leaders too (Buck, 2006). Today, followers are expected to have behaviours beyond job description and conditions of holding a job that are regarded as an inseparable part of performance management and are considered in various organizational aspects. Such behaviours have been considered with concepts of extra- role behaviours, spontaneous behaviours or organizational citizenship behaviour (Fattahi, 2006). According to Ahearne, Mathieu & Rapp (2005) it was hypothesized that leader empowerment behaviours would increase job satisfaction and sales team potency, subsequently resulting in more OCBs. They further found that encouraging autonomy, enhancing the meaningfulness of work, and expressing confidence in performance all had significant indirect effects on OCBs that accounted for 58% of the variance in group level citizenship behaviours. The effects on OCBs of enhancing the meaningfulness of work and expressing confidence in high performance was mediated by both perceptions of group potency and group job satisfaction. In contrast, the effect of encouraging autonomy on OCBs was mediated by job satisfaction only. Hackman & Oldman (1975) argued that participation in decision making is one of the characteristics of employee empowerment that has been found to lead to engagement in OCBs in various contexts. Participation in decision making is a joint decision making that is a product of shared influence by a superior and his or her employee (Koopman & Wierdsma, 1998). It was found to affect job satisfaction (Rice & Schneider, 1994) and as such, it is reasonable to assume that employees‘ satisfied with their jobs will, among others, exhibit more OCBs. For example, where there is presence of good superior-subordinate relationship has somehow increased bearing towards making the subordinates perform better OCBs (Buonocore, 2010). According to Bell & Mengue (1998), they perceived an empowered work environment as essential for the performance of OCBs. Wat & Shaffer (2005) also proposed that empowered employees are encouraged and enabled to exercise initiative and perform OCBs. Redding (2000) also supports the above notions and asserts that highly empowered employees are more opt to produce novel, creat solutions than 9 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY lower empowered employees. Empowerment increases task motivation resulting from individuals‘ positive orientation to their work role. Podsakoff et al; 2000; Tepper & Taylor, 2003 suggested that employees perform OCBs with greater frequency when they perceive as fair the means by which organization and their representatives make allocation of decisions. Cheng, (2004) also noted that the major factors influencing employees‘ OCBs are the quality of the relationship with the management of the organization, the degree of job support, the justice of rewards from the organization and the degree of job satisfaction. Thus employees who view their organization as behaving in their interest should not only experience greater job satisfaction, but also act to return the favour by exhibiting more OCBs. When employees are empowered, their individual efficacy expectations are strengthened, and they believe in their ability to exert a positive influence on organizational productivity by adopting new practices (OCBs). Empowerment enhances feelings of self-efficacy among organizational members (Conger & Kanungo, 1994), and organizational members may reciprocate by performing OCBs. Their opportunity to participate in the process of decision making enhances their sense of empowerment which in turn encourages them to engage in OCBs (Bogler & Somech, 2005). Creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizations are increasingly seeking to foster creativity, because it is an important source of organizational innovation as well as competitive advantage (Oldham & Cummings, 1996). Creativity has been defined as a judgment of the novelty and usefulness (or value) of something (Pirola-Merlo & Mann, 2004). Due to its undisputable relevance to individual, groups and organizations, the concept of creativity has been widely discussed over the last decades in a variety of disciplines including psychology, sociology, organizational behaviour, and information science (IS) (Styhre & Sundgren, 2005). Creativity has been studied from different perspectives and is associated with a number of defining factors and elements. Creative organization defined as encompassing factors concerning the removal of barriers demonstrating managed innovation, idea evaluation procedures, motivational stimuli, communication procedures, development of idea sources, and evidence of the creative planning process; and organizational creativity is as the creation of a valuable, useful new product, service, idea, procedure, or process by which individuals working together in 9 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY a complex social system. The creative climate encourages people to generate new ideas and helps the organization to grow and increase its efficiency and at the same time, it enables members to generate and implement creative ideas more effectively which in turn may tend to improve the exhibition of OCB in the work place (Styhre & Sundgren, 2005). Role of organizations are inevitable to improve any country, and according to Wall, a successful organization is one which could adapt itself to environmental changes during a long-term, create a purposeful management structure, and develop key competencies (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013); and human resource is one of those capital resources of an organization which not only increases the efficiency and the effectiveness of the organization but it acts as a sheer source of competitive advantage which is inimitable (Mosadeghrad, 2013). Considering this fact, creative employees have the ability to put up citizenship behaviour and organization‘s success is based on employee‘s creativity. As organizations become more complex and are confronted with increasingly difficult challenges associated with globalization, technology, risk management, and driving innovation, the entrepreneurial role emphasized by Drejer (2004) becomes more important than ever (Handfield, et al. 2009). Social Innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour The initial review focuses on the findings in the literature with respect to non- profit organizations, which had been a key focus of the Goldenberg (2004). This was also a prominent theme in the recent literature in both Canada and internationally. In communities, the non-profit sector plays a vital role in social innovation (Maxwell, 2006). Goldenberg notes that many different terms have been used to describe the social innovation skill in both public and non-profit sectors and its components. These sectors are often referred to as the ‗public sector‘, ‗voluntary sector‘ or the ‗charitable sector‘, although the degree of volunteer involvement in non-profit organizations varies considerably across the sector, and many non-profit organizations do not have charitable status. Goldenberg (2004) reported that the non-profit sector in Canada is vast and diverse. The sector comprises hundreds of thousands of organizations, employs almost 1 million people, and calls upon millions of volunteers who contribute 1 billion hours of time each year. The sector owns important assets, produces a vast array of goods and services, and generates significant revenues. 10 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Moreover, both public and non-profit organizations are active in almost every area of social, economic, and community life-in health care, education, economic development, social services, employment, training and skills development, financial services, the environment, culture, the arts, recreation, religion, and spiritual pursuits. A significant amount of empirical research on the sector has emerged in recent years, examining issues such as the size and scope of the sector, the economic impact of the sector to the national economy, primary areas of activity, sources of funding, patterns of volunteering, the sector‘s workforce, and challenges faced by organizations in the sector (Brisbois & Saunders, 2008). Recent literature largely confirms the findings of the 2004 Canadian Policy Research Network (CPRN) report. Non-profit organizations continue to foster and lead innovation at the community level. They bring to social and economic challenges their in-depth knowledge of the community, hands-on experience, flexibility, creativity and responsiveness, entrepreneurial skills, and a holistic approach-some of the very ingredients essential to ―social learning‖ and innovation. Even as the roles of various sectors continue to shift the non-profit sector plays a critical role in delivering services to individuals and communities, and to work with other partners to seek innovative solutions to complex social problems. In the current economic downturn, many organizations have no choice but to take on greater responsibilities, due to flat- lined or declining government funding and diminished resources from charitable giving. Canada‘s Economic Action Plan for 2009 addresses some of the needs of non- profit organizations under its $1.9 billion investment in training and skills development by helping primarily young people gain work experience in non-profit, community services, and environmental organizations. Some researchers and observers believe that the increasing involvement of private business and the for-profit sector in social innovation is one of the most significant developments in this area in the last few years. They believe that there has been an increasing move away from the financial bottom line to the ―triple bottom line,‖ which includes social, economic, and ecological indicators. None other than business avatar Bill Gates has recently said, ―The next generation of managers will be held responsible for decisions that have effects far beyond their corporations and the markets they serve‖ (Jarvis, 2009). Phills et al. (2008: 1) argue that ―most of today‘s innovative social solutions cut across the traditional boundaries separating non-profits (sic), government, and for- 10 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY profit businesses.‖ They note that, on the one hand, there has been both increasing devolution of public services to the private and non-profit sectors and ―an explosion in applications of business ideas and practice to non-profit and government works‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 1). On the other hand, they point out that ―(we) have also watched business take up the cause of creating social value under the mantle of corporate social responsibility, corporate citizenship, and socially responsible business‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 1). These authors argue that ―the free flow of ideas, values, roles, relationships, and money across sectors is fuelling contemporary social innovation‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 1): … non-profits, governments, and businesses have developed a better appreciation of the complexity of global problems such as climate change and poverty. Many have also come to understand that these problems require sophisticated solutions. As a result, we increasingly see the three sectors joining forces to tackle the social problems that affect us all…. like insurgency, vandalism, counter work productive behaviours, and other social vices in our public offices. A host of factors have eroded the boundaries between the non-profit, government, and business sectors. In the absence of these boundaries, ideas, values, roles, relationships, and capital now flow more freely between sectors. This cross- sector fertilization underlies three critical mechanisms of social innovation: exchanges of ideas and values, shifts in roles and relationships, and the integration of private capital with public and philanthropic support (Phills et al., 2008: 5). As noted by the Stanford authors, these developments build on the notion of corporate social responsibility (CSR), a term that has been in wide use since the 1960s. CSR reflects a view of business ―both as a vehicle to make money and as a means to improve society‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 40). The concept is generally understood to be the way that firms integrate social, environmental and economic concerns into their values, ethics, culture, decision making, strategy and operations in a transparent and accountable manner and thereby establish better practices within the firm/organization, to create wealth and improve society and employee‘s OCB (Basil, Runte, Easwaramoorthy, & Barr, 2009). It typically encompasses ―treating employees well, respecting the communities in which it operates, developing sound corporate governance, ensuring environmental preservation and supporting philanthropy, human rights and accountability‖ (McDonald, 2008). 10 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY According to the annual 2008 Ivey-Jantzi Report, CSR is expanding in Canada. Firms were generally more socially and environmentally responsible in 2007 than in 2006. Specifically, 65% of firms improved their CSR score between 2006 and 2007 and only 1% made no change at all (Mazutis, & Slawinski, 2008). Many leading businesses in Canada now produce annual CSR or accountability reports. As noted by The Conference Board of Canada in The National Corporate Social Responsibility Report: Managing Risks, Leveraging Opportunities, two-thirds of Canada‘s 300 largest corporations issue such reports. However, the numbers overall in some sectors remain low, for example in natural resources (oil) and telecommunication. A similar report produced by The Canadian Centre for the Study of Resource Conflict found that ―the current environment of adherence to CSR standards among Canadian oil, gas and mining companies remains remarkably low‖ (Kamoji, Orton, & Williamson, 2009). Some observers debate the extent to which the private sector is embracing social value or corporate social responsibility, and feel that many in the private sector still believe that, as Milton Friedman said, ―The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits‖ (Jarvis, 2009: 1). Whether the private sector truly is adjusting its ethics and values remains an open question for these observers. Some argue that, given enhanced public awareness of environmental and other social issues, businesses essentially have little choice but to pay attention to societal impacts. There is also concern that the social interest of the private sector is not in fact altruistic but rather a means to appeal to a more socially focused consumer. One expert distinguishes between social and private-sector innovation by emphasizing the end goal being pursued. Social innovations differ from business innovations in that the latter are generally motivated by profit while social innovations are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need and are predominantly developed and diffused through organizations that are motivated primarily by social purposes. (Eveleens, 2010). Phills and his colleagues at Stanford take a different view. They state that ―the difference between entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurs … (cannot) be ascribed simply by motivation,‖ with one motivated by money and the other by altruism, because motivations ―cannot be directly observed and … are often missed‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 38). The authors use social to describe ―a kind of value that is distinct from financial or economic value‖ and define social value as ―the creation of benefits or 10 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reductions of costs for society-through efforts to address social needs and problems-in ways that go beyond the private gains and general benefits of market activity‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 39). Some understanding of the role of the private sector in social innovation can be gained by considering the examples of social innovations found in the literature. For the Stanford group, microfinance is the ―quintessential‖ social innovation. They define it as ―the provision of loans, savings, insurance, and other financial services to poor people who lack access to the conventional financial system.‖ Other recent social innovations identified by the Stanford group include charter schools, community-centred planning, emissions trading (also called ―cap and trade‖), fair trade, habitat conservation, individual development accounts, international labour standards, socially responsible investing, and support employment (for disabled and disadvantaged workers). Internationally, some recent initiatives and events give weight to the argument that private business is moving in the direction of greater social responsibility. For example, the Global Corporate Citizenship initiative was launched at the World Economic Forum (WEF) of 2002. It challenged companies to endorse and implement the corporate citizenship statement. The purpose of the WEF initiative is to “improve the state of the world through business‘s engagement in partnerships that address key global societal challenges‖ (Blanke, & Chiesa, 2009). Similarly, in 1999 the United Nations developed the Global Compact (GC) as a strategic policy initiative for businesses that are committed to aligning their operations and strategies with ten universally accepted principles in the areas of human rights, labour, environment and anti-corruption. By doing so, business, as a primary agent driving globalization, can help ensure that markets, commerce, technology and finance advance in ways that benefit economies and societies everywhere (Compact, 2009). As of July 2009, 63 Canadian organizations have joined the Global Compact-a relatively modest number compared with the number of organizations that have joined in countries like France (606) and Spain (729). Social Intelligence and OCB It is difficult to lead a successful life in a society without social intelligence. Social intelligence helps an individual to develop healthy co-existence with other people. Socially intelligent people behave tactfully and prosper in life. Social 10 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY intelligence is useful in solving the problems of social life and help in tackling various social tasks. Thus social intelligence is an important developmental aspect of education. Several studies have shown that social intelligence is multidimensional and distinguishable from general intelligence domains (Weis & Sub, 2007). These concepts of social intelligence are incorporating internal & external perceptions, social skills and other psychosocial variables, (Taylor, 1990). Marlowe‘s (1986) model of social intelligence comprised five domains- personal attitude, social performance skills, empathetic ability, emotional expressiveness and confidence. Pro- social attitude is indicated by having an interest and concern for others, social performance skills is demonstrated in appropriate interaction with other, empathetic ability refers to one‘s ability to identify with others, emotion expressiveness describes ones emotionality towards others and confidence in social situations is based on one‟s comfort level in social situations Weis and Sub(2007) showed that social undertaking and social knowledge were separate constructs of social intelligence. Willimann, fedlt and Amelang (1997) viewed supporting harmony and restoring equilibrium between individuals as acts of being socially intelligent. Podsakoff, Ahearne and Mackenzie (1997) suggested that organizations that employ individuals who exhibit high levels of organizational citizenship behaviour are more likely to have effective work groups within their organization. Past research has found the quality of leader-member exchange to be positively related to OCB (Hofmann,Morgeson and Gerras, 2003; Lapierre and Hackett 2007; Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002; Deluga, 1998). Studies have also shown positive relationships between OCB and social intelligence (Sitter, 2005; Van Dyne et al, 1994). Individuals who exhibit social intelligence should be more likely to decipher the intentions of others to perceive situations in a more positive light (George, 1991). In addition, one might expect that individuals with positive emotions will foster OCB (Organ, 1990). People who are low in social intelligence are unable to perceive one emotion accurately (Salovey and Mayer, 1997). The review of related literature on social intelligence reveals that the construct of social intelligence has attracted many researchers. Success in academic performance of the students depends on their intelligence (Panigrahi, 2005) and it is positively related to social intelligence (Brown & Anthony, 1990). Bailey (1968) studied the assessment of social intelligence among the students of fifth grade using friendship rating which revealed that social intelligence (pear acceptance) co-varies 10 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY with academic achievement. Higher achievers score more on social intelligence (Saxena & Panigrahi, 2009). Singh (2007) found no significant difference in social intelligence between low creative & high creative adolescents and between high creative boys and high creative girls. Kaur and Kalaramna (2004) conducted the study to assess the existing levels of inter-relationship between home environments, social intelligence and socio- economic status and found that socio-economic status and home environment affect social intelligence. Vyrost and Kyselova (2006) investigated interconnections between social intelligence, wisdom, values and interpersonal personality traits. The result revealed close mutual relations between social intelligence and wisdom related knowledge. Chesnokova (2005) observed that the development of social intelligence with age goes through stages. Nagra, (2014) concluded that the social intelligence scores of the students differed significantly with respect to caste, mother‘s education and parent‘s income but did not differ significantly with respect to gender, father‘s education, mother‘s occupation or father‟s occupation. Saxena, & Jain, (2013) found that arts students are more socially intelligent than science students. Various studies have been conducted on social intelligence in relation to academic achievements. Effect of some other variables on social intelligence has also been studied such as creativity (Singh, 2007), home environment and socio-economic status (Kaur & Kalaramna, 2004), wisdom, values and interpersonal personality traits (Vyrost & Kyselova, 2006), age (Chesnokova, 2005), caste, gender, parents and parent‘s occupation (Nagra, 2014). On the other, research has shown that Emotional Intelligence is the common element that influences the different ways in which people develop in their lives, jobs, and social skills; handle frustration; control their emotions; and get along with other people. It has been found that the difference between a simply brilliant person and a brilliant manager is due to a person‘s EI/SI. Ultimately, it is EI/SI that dictates the way people deal with one another and understand emotions. Hence, EI and or social intelligence is considered important for business and organizational leaders because if they are insensitive to the mood of their staff or team, it can create frustration and, therefore, not get the best out of people and therefore hampering the employees from engaging in pro-social behaviour (Anonymous, 2004). Salami, (2007) also found that emotional labour components (surface acting, active deep acting and passive deep acting) were significantly related to 10 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY organizational citizenship behaviour of the workers in his study on Moderating Effect of Emotional Intelligence on the Relationship between Emotional Labour and OCB. This finding posits that the workers should be able to manage their feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display, that it is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value. More so, emotional intelligence has also been found to have a significant relationship with organizational citizenship behaviour in the workplace (Salami, 2007). This may be due to the fact that socially intelligent employees are likely to possess the required social skills and control of their emotions which may possibly assist them to cognitively evaluate the affective components of the job in order to have a less adverse reaction to enforce emotional display rules in the workplace. Turner (2014) stated that social intelligence is the softer component of total intelligence and that it contributes to both professional and personal lives. Traditional IQ is the ability to learn, understand, and reason. It is now thought to contribute only 20% to one‘s success, whereas emotional quotient (EQ), which is the ability to understand oneself and interact with people, contributes 80%. EQ is critical to effective leadership. IQ has been linked to job performance and is a key element in recruitment. However, EQ and/or social intelligence are evident in the leaders‘/managers‘ ability to retain their positions and be successful in their roles. The fact is that most firms hire for intelligence (IQ) and sack because of attitude (EQ). More so, social intelligence has recently received more attention through claims of its ability to predict successful individuals (Cote & Miners, 2006). Research evidence demonstrates a significant relationship between social intelligence and OCBs (Cote & Miners 2006; Jain, 2003; Singh, 2006; Sitter, 2004; Yaghoubi, Mashinchi, & Hadi, 2011). Social intelligence and OCBs have been identified as significant predictors of well-functioning individuals and organizations (Jain, 2009). Emotional intelligence had positive influence on OCB directed at the organization (OCBO), but not for the OCB directed at individuals (OCBI) (Cote & Miners, 2006). Solan (2008) has also found evidence of the linkages between emotional intelligence and OCB. Though, the relationship was not very strong. Yaghoubi, Mashinchi, and Hadi (2011) have also observed that emotional intelligence had positive impact on the OCB of followers. Similar results were also observed by Sitter (2004) who has found that leader‘s EQ had positive impact on employees‘ performance of citizenship behaviour. Why OCB will have positive relationship with social intelligence? The 10 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reason may be that it enables employees to comprehend their co-workers‘ feelings and to respond better than employees with low EQ because of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods (Abraham, 2005). Staw, Sutton, & Pelled (1994) has linked emotional intelligence with altruistic behaviour (one form of OCB) and suggested the following explanation. First, being in a good mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is rewarding in the sense that it enables employees to also maintain this state of mind. Second, people in good moods may be more socially interactive. Third, when employees are more satisfied (having positive emotional reactions to the job) they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behaviour. Similarly, social intelligence would help in keeping the positive attitude towards the organization and people even under adverse conditions. Research also shows that people with a high EQ possess clarity in thinking and remain composed in stressful and chaotic situations. A person who has good EQ can manage his or her own impulses, communicate with others effectively, manage change well, solve problems, and use humour to build rapport in tense situations. These people will have empathy, remain optimistic even in the face of adversity, and are gifted at educating and persuading in a sales situation (Abraham, 2005). Social Intelligence (SI), measured by your Social Quotient (SQ) is closely aligned; it is a measure of social awareness. SQ relates to a person‘s ability to understand and manage people and to act wisely in human relations. It is equivalent to interpersonal intelligence; as society becomes more complex, intellectual competences need to become more sophisticated. SQ is the intelligence that lies behind group interactions and behaviours. A person with a high EQ or SQ is no better or worse than someone with lower scores; they‘re just different and have different attitudes, hopes, interests and desires. However, having good EQ and SQ is what separates top performers from weak performers in the workplace. Traditional IQ on its own is fine for technical work but as a person moves into higher management roles, the ability to lead, manage and influence others becomes increasingly important. In addition, literature in organizational behaviour and industrial and organizational psychology generally acknowledge the inadequacy of intelligence as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. In reviewing the literature on intelligence and transformational leadership, Bass (2006) concluded that traditional conceptualization of intelligence is generally concerned with the analytical or academic aspect of 10 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY intelligence, but an adequate conceptualization of this construct comprises other aspects, such as emotional and social intelligences, as well. Sternberg (2006) suggests, "the predictive value of intelligence may have been flagged in various studies because these studies examined and measured aspects of intelligence that, however effective they may be in predicting academic and certain other kinds of performance, are not effective predictors of leadership performance" (p. 9). He suggests that there are other dimensions of intelligence-social intelligence, emotional intelligence, or practical intelligence or what scholars refer to as "street smarts"-which indicates that an individual is not limited simply because he or she has a below average academic intelligence or IQ-intelligence qoutient. Moreover, many studies on intelligence focused mainly on the adaptive use of cognition, but in recent years theorists such as Gardner (1999) and Sternberg (2002) have suggested more encompassing approaches to conceptualizing intelligence. Although Gardner did not use the term emotional intelligence, his concepts of intra- personal and inter-personal intelligences provided the basis for the conceptualization of EQ. Whereas, intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to be aware of and regulate one's own emotions (feelings, moods, and desires), interpersonal intelligence is associated with one's ability to understand others‘ emotions and to induce desirable responses in them. Boyatzis (2001) suggested that this intelligence is associated with social competencies, such as empathy and social skills. Empathy and social skills components of EQ are germane because the researcher believes that manifestations of empathy and social skills in an organizational context will have a significant influence on employees‘ perceptions of their supervisor's transformational leadership vs OCB. Gender and OCB Research on gender-role stereotypes has gone on for decades. It is widely accepted that certain behaviours are considered more feminine and certain behaviours are considered more masculine. Feminine behaviours have been characterized as interpersonal in orientation and focused on a concern for others. Masculine behaviours, on the other hand, are typically more aggressive and independent (Spence & Helmreich, 1982). In line with these ideas, the OCB dimensions of altruism, courtesy, civic virtue and sportsmanship can be divided by gender role. Altruism and courtesy, previously mentioned as OCBIs, are considered in-role behaviour for females, while civic virtue and sportsmanship, previously mentioned as OCBOs, are 10 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY regarded as more in-role for men. The dimension of conscientiousness, which includes attention to detail and adherence to organizational rules, is excluded, as this dimension does not seem to adhere to any particular gender norm (Kidder & Parks, 2001). In contrary, demographic variables (e.g., organizational tenure and employee gender) have not been found to be related to OCBs. The finding that gender is not related to citizenship behaviours is somewhat surprising, given that Kidder and McLean Parks (1994) discussed a number of plausible theoretical reasons why it ought to be. For example, they noted that empathetic concern and perspective taking should influence both helping behaviour and courtesy, and both of these traits are associated with females (Davis, 1983). Conversely, Kidder and McLean Parks (1993) argued that males are more likely to engage in conscientious behaviour than females, because ―this type of behaviour suggests an exchange orientation or an emphasis on quid pro quo, frequently associated with a male preference for equity over equality.‖ Thus, even though the existing empirical evidence has not been very supportive of the hypothesized effects of gender on citizenship behaviour, additional evidence is needed before this issue can be resolved conclusively which this work will look into. More so, the research that investigated the impact of gender on OCB found men and women differ in terms of engaging in OCB (Allen & Rush, 2001; Deborah & McLean Parks, 2001; LePine & Van Dyne 1998). Moreover, while LePine and Van Dyne (1998) reported the effect of the educational level on OCB, Morrison (1994) showed a positive relationship with tenure. On the other hand, the meta-analysis of Mathieu and Zajac (1990) revealed significant correlations between organizational commitment and age, sex, education, and organizational tenure. Furthermore variables such as age, tenure, education, and gender were found to be related to job satisfaction (Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1996; Lok & Crawford, 2004). The effects on the demographic variables on the prediction and criterion variables should not be ignored. When the association between demographic variables was considered, a significant relationship of age with job scope, affective commitment, normative commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviour was detected. Organizational tenure was positively related to only job satisfaction, whereas total tenure was positively related to job scope, affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviours. Besides, as expected, age was found to be positively correlated with organizational and total tenure. Another demographic 11 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY variable, gender, was significantly associated with job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviour. The investigation of the relationships among the job scope ( as the independent variable-IV), job satisfaction (mediator), affective commitment (mediator), normative commitment (mediator), and organizational citizenship behaviours (as dependent variable-DV) revealed that job scope was significantly correlated with all of the three mediators and the DV (OCB). Moreover, job satisfaction was found to be positively related with the other mediators and OCBs (the DV). The matrix also showed affective commitment‘s positive and significant association with normative commitment and OCB and normative commitment‘s significant and positive relation with OCB. It should be noted that age, organizational tenure, and total tenure were inter-correlated variables. According to the correlation finding, age was highly correlated with organizational tenure and total tenure. Moreover, organizational tenure was significantly related to total tenure. To sum up, age, gender, education, organizational tenure and total tenure, and the banking industry dummy were the variables that had significant association with the mediators and OCB. Although age, organizational and total tenure were significantly related to the mediators (i.e., job satisfaction, affective commitment, and normative commitment) and the dependent variable (i.e., organizational citizenship behaviour), it should be noted that these three demographic variables were highly correlated with each other. Also, research finding about the relationship between gender and OCB indicates that gender can be addressed as a demographic determinant of employees‘ OCB. In the examined hospital, males had OCB more than females. Iranzadeh et al, in their research among the employees of Mohagheghe Ardabili University (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009) and Yaghoubi et al, among the employees of selected hospitals of Isfahan city (Yaghoubi et al, 2010) have showed that sex has not had a meaningful relationship with OCB. Nevertheless, Dolan et al, in their study have pointed that gender has a positive and significant relationship with OCB (Dolan et al, 2013). Conclusively, empirical research has found links between both demographic variables (e.g., sex, ethnicity and highest education level) and negative affect, emotional labour (EL) (Gosserand & Diefendorff, 2005) and OCB (Messer & White, 2006). Demographic information (e.g., Sex, Ethnicity, and Education) and employees‘ Negative Affect were collected to enable control of these variables in the mediation analyses (Korpinen, 2000). 11 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Educational Qualification/Level and OCB Based on various theoretical frameworks, that ability beliefs have a reasonable influence on educational attainment level as well as extra role behaviour (Bandura, 1997; Connel, 1990). In addition, their results are in line with some empirical evidence on the relation between ability beliefs and persistence (House, 1992; Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). Because a high educational degree is related to healthy functioning (Keating & Hertzman, 1999) and because occupations with high literacy and cognitive skills registered the strongest increase in employment in both Canada and the United States (Herr, 1999), researchers and practitioners should design interventions to foster high levels of educational attainment in order to boost the workers‘ pro-social behaviour. The researcher believes that interventions designed to enhance OCB such as praise, feedback, and attribution training would be useful in this regard. Such interventions may plant the seeds of later organizational adjustment and healthy functioning. Moreover, human capital externalities may arise if the presence of educated workers makes other workers more productive. Alfred Marshall (1890) is among the first to recognize that social interactions among workers create learning opportunities that enhance productivity and organizational citizenship behaviour. A growing theoretical literature has since then built on this idea and proposed models where human capital externalities are the main engine of economic growth of any nation. On the contrary, Jack and Jone, (2013) research findings failed to approve the educational level as a determinant of employees‘ OCB. Based on the available results, there is not a statistical relationship between these 2 variables, education and OCB. To corroborate this, Yaghoubi, Mashinchi and Hadi, (2011) in their research have showed that educational status has no statistical relationship with OCB which approve their findings (Yaghoubi et al, 2011). Nevertheless, Dolan, Tzafrir and Baruch, (2009) in their study have concluded that there is a meaningful negative relationship between OCB and its dimensions with educational level (Dolan et al, 2013). Nadiri & Tanova, 2010) in their research have showed that educational status has a positive and meaningful statistical relationship with OCB (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). Level of education was expected to have a negative relationship with organizational commitment as well as OCB. The rationale for this prediction may be that people with low levels of educations generally have more difficulty changing jobs and therefore show a greater commitment to their organizations as well as exhibiting 11 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY pro-social behaviour in their workplace. Steers (1977) and Glisson and Durick (1988) have reported findings consistent with this rationale. Professional experience/Job Tenure and OCB Jack and Jone‘s, (2013) findings showed that professional experience has no significant relationship with OCB. Nadiri and Tanova, in their research have also showed that tenure has a positive and meaningful statistical relationship with OCB. (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). Also, Dolan et al, in their study have pointed out that tenure has a positive and significant relationship with OCB (Dolan et al, 2013). In general, Central role played by employees in services sector should be taken into account seriously. The service quality depends on employee performance. Employee performance was significantly explained by OCB. Therefore, in this review; the researchers in question attempted to make a clear image from some antecedent of OCB in an educational hospital because of it‘s important for organizational outcomes. Briefly, they found that some individual differences can influence the employees‘ OCB. Also, the organizational literatures suggest that employees‘ OCB can influence their behaviours, work-related attitudes; quality of work and many other outcomes which collectively make their job performance. Therefore, the research on this subject has both theoretical and practical values. From the theoretical perspective, it could be helpful for developing a new concept of OCB. Also, in practice, it can help the studied setting to make more appropriate policies for improving the OCB among its employees which, in turn will lead to more improved organizational performance. In another study among the employees of hospital which divided the staff into 3 categories including medical, paramedical and administrative staff, the results showed that there is a statistical relationship with the profession (work category) of hospital employees and their OCB. In contrast with the researchers‘ primary conception about the different work groups from OCB showed that administrative staff have most favourable OCB in the studied hospital which followed by paramedical and finally medical employees. Nevertheless Yaghoubi et al, have concluded that employment status has not a statistical relationship with OCB (Yaghoubi, Mashinchi & Hadi, 2011). Specifically therefore, the estimate differential returns on tenure and experience across women and men in the first decade and half of their careers within 11 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the framework of a standard human capital earnings informed this model. The National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY) are ideally suited for that purposes. The NLSY tracks a panel of 12,686 young women and men, first interviewed in 1979. The availability of work histories of early careers, including detailed information on job duration, labour market experience, earnings, and other individual and job characteristics, facilitate a rigorous analysis of returns on tenure and experience. Despite the growing attachment to the labour market mentioned earlier, women are likely to be relatively less attached to their respective employers and jobs compared to their male counterparts, especially during the early part of their careers. Women in their twenties and thirties experience life cycle events such as marriage, childbirth, and family care responsibilities that make them more prone to employment interruptions and gaps (Mincer and Ofek, 1982). A likely consequence is that expected job duration will be shorter for women than men. Different expectations about job duration and overall commitment to the labour market will have important ramifications for gender differences in strategic aspects of on-the-job training and job selection. If women are relatively less attached to firms because life cycle events lead to less durable employment relationships then women are likely to invest less in firm-specific skills and more in general labour market skills that are portable across employers. Light and Ureta (1995) find that returns on tenure are higher for women than men (though these estimated returns are very small for both women and men and use a different — work history — specification); Becker and Lindsay (1994), using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics from 1968 to 1987, find that wage-tenure profiles are steeper for women than men among a sample of stayers (those who stay with the same employer for more than 5 years). By contrast we find strong evidence that the returns on tenure are substantially higher for men than it is for women. Much of the early literature on job tenure concentrated on the extent to which workers would move between jobs until they found a satisfactory match (Stigler, 1962; Jovanovic, 1979). Freeman (1980) and Freeman and Medoff (1984) further argued that the presence of trade unions increase individual job tenure by providing a ‗voice‘ for grievances as well as increasing wages, both resulting in lower quit rates. More recent models argue that tenure is explicitly the outcome of the interaction of dynamic flows across both jobs and workers in the economy (Burgess et al., 2001). 11 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The empirical analysis of job tenure has been restricted by the nature of the available data sets which have typically provided little demographic and job-related information in addition to measures of individual tenure. In particular, none of the existing studies employ substantive linked workplace information. A more complete explanation of the distribution of individual and workplace tenure contains both labour supply and demand elements. Thus, the inclusion of workplace effects in addition to the labour supply determinants that feature in the work following Freeman (1980) may play an important role. The researcher explicitly consider the role of changes in workplace labour demand on job tenure by incorporating features of the Cabellero and Hammour (2000) model of job reallocation into the analysis at the workplace level. There is an obvious link between higher job reallocation rates and lower average tenure in a workplace since factors which increase (decrease) new hires will decrease (increase) average tenure ceteris paribus. In this study, the researcher proposes to concentrate on the determination of individual worker tenure given knowledge of the average tenure and characteristics of the workplace where they are employed and see whether workers‘ tenure will predict the elicitation of OCB in NSCDC. In particular, the interest is in discovering if low tenure individuals are concentrated in workplaces which have low effect on OCB (and vice versa). An important related issue is that of labour market segmentation. For example, it is possible that the labour market is in some ways divided into workplaces which offer better working conditions, are more attractive places of employment and are associated with longer tenure as well as promoting pro-social behaviour and those that are not (Ménard, 1995). It has previously been shown that females and non-white employees have shorter tenure (Neumark, Polsky & Hansen, 1999). Here, the data result is predominantly due to the nature of the workplace the personnel are employed in. Indeed, the shorter individual tenure (conditional on their individual characteristics) of females disappears once workplace effects are allowed for whilst that of non-whites is substantially reduced. Additionally, early job design research by Hackman and Oldham (1981), career stages research by Katz and Van Maanen (1977) and Schein (1971), and organizational socialization work by several researchers suggests that newcomers to a job are much more concerned about establishing their own work identity than they are in taking control of a work situation which tends to lower the tendency of engaging in helping behaviour. However, as one‘s career unfolds and one‘s level of job 11 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY knowledge and confidence increases, individuals appear to want more control or say over what happens at work. The implication is that job tenure may moderate the degree of control one seeks on a job and thereby increases the tendency to engage in citizenship behaviour in the workplace. The extent to which job tenure moderates the autonomy-satisfaction relationship might also be influenced by the type of job one holds. It is worthy of note that Job analytic work (Gottfredson, 1986), as well as the research on job complexity, (Hunter, Schmidt, & Judiesch, 1990), suggests that blue-collar jobs are typically less complex than white collar jobs. Furthermore, the individuals that hold blue-collar jobs tend to be less well educated and less cognitively complex given the typical job specifications for such positions (Hunter, Schmidt, & Judiesch, 1990). Blue collar workers may very well be likely to enter jobs of lower complexity without the initial desire, or expectation, for control at work. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that the job satisfaction of such workers is less likely to be substantially impacted by the presence or absence of autonomy early in their employment. However, as the personnel begin to grow in their role and develop a better understanding of how the ability to control the work environment can have a positive influence on their lives, they begin to desire autonomy which will give them the ordersity to be able to engage in extra-role behaviour. Thus, as tenure with the organization increases, the satisfaction of the blue collar worker is very substantially impacted by the presence or absence of autonomy at work. In light of the research and rational argument presented above, the researcher hypothesizes that job tenure will predict the exhibition of OCB in the workplace and will moderate the effect of three different facets of job satisfaction. The specific nature of this interaction will be such that the predictive effect between OCB and satisfaction will be stronger for high tenure employees than for low tenure employees. Blakemore and Hoffman (1989) study reported in Ilmakunnas, Maliranta, & Vainiomäki, (2005) research of tenure and manufacturing productivity in the United States. The authors merge output data from the U.S. manufacturing sector at the two- digit SIC level with aggregate tenure data from the Current Population Survey. The model estimated is simple, based on 63 observations for the years 1963 to 1981. It is specified to test the effect of labour quality on short-run manufacturing productivity. The authors argue that in the short-run, only firm-specific skills (training) will affect labour productivity, since the other variables that affect labour productivity, ability 11 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and general training (education), are long-run variables. Thus, the model is specified with short-run productivity as a function of the share of workers with different levels of tenure, since workers with longer or shorter tenure have received different amounts of firm-specific skills training. Other explanatory variables include the ratio of real output to potential output as well as a time trend to control for secular trends in capital growth, educational attainment and labour force experience. The authors find that for every one per cent increase in the median year of job tenure in manufacturing, labour productivity increases by 0.39 per cent. They believe that this supports the hypothesis that seniority rules are established to increase productivity as predicted in firm- specific capital models (Ilmakunnas, Maliranta & Vainiomaki, 2005). Their analysis is based on a similar, though cruder, model using pooled sectorial productivity and tenure data for 13 European countries for the years 1992 to 2002. In total, there are 822 observations. As in Blakemore and Hoffman (1989), we assume that in the short-run, only firm-specific skills (training) will affect labour productivity, since the other variables that affect labour productivity, ability and general training (education), are long-run variables. We also use time dummies to control for business cycle effects. The results of their analysis indicate a positive and significant association between tenure and labour productivity. This is less than the estimate of 0.39 per cent found by Blakemore and Hoffman, though their study only concerns the manufacturing sector in the United States, while this particular research is for all sectors in the 13 European economies. A study by Kramarz and Roux (1999) also supports the hypothesis that some degree of stability in employment is good for productivity and employees‘ productivity tends to promote OCB. Using an employer-employee data set that covers private sector employees in France for most of the years between 1976 and 1995, the authors are able to compute the amount of time that an employee has been at that firm and, because of the firm data, control for the capital-labour ratio as well as the skill structure of the workforce. To estimate the effects of tenure on firm productivity, the authors group workers according to how long they have stayed on the job (―stayers‖). The four groups of stayers are less than one year, 1-4 years, 4-10 years and more than 10 years, with more than 10 years used as a control. After correcting for endogeneity, the authors find that employing workers with 4-10 years of tenure has the most beneficial effect on productivity which will boost the workers‘ pro-social behaviour, a one per cent increase in the share of this group increases firm productivity by 0.36 per 11 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY cent. On the other hand, a one per cent increase in the proportion of workers with less than one year of tenure has a negative effect on productivity, lowering productivity by 0.02 per cent. The productivity effect of increasing the 1-4 year tenure group by one per cent is a positive 0.05 per cent. Thus, relative to workers with more than ten years of tenure, it is by far most beneficial for a firm to increase the proportion of workers with medium tenure (4-10 years), less but still beneficial to increase the amount of workers with 1-4 years of tenure; whereas short tenure (less than one year) has a negative effect on productivity. From the foregoing, the researcher observes that the higher the number of years on the job, the better the productivity and the elicitation of organizational citizenship behaviour and vice versa. To buttress this, Kramarz and oux, 1999 re- estimated their model using the percentage share of three groups of tenured workers: those that have been less than one year on the job, those with more than 10 years of tenure and those with more than 20 years. Doing so changes the sign of the coefficients; indeed, our econometric analysis reveals that increasing the share of workers with very short or very long tenure will have a negative effect on productivity. In particular, the result shows that a doubling in the share of workers with more than 10 years of tenure will cause productivity to fall by 1.8 per cent; a doubling in the share of workers with more than 20 years of tenure has a much greater negative effect, causing a productivity drop of 9.2 % For short-term workers, the effect on productivity is also negative and significant, with a one per cent increase in the amount of workers with less than one year of tenure causing productivity to decline by 4.2 per cent. The negative effect of an abundance of workers on short-term contracts confirms the findings of other studies. As mentioned, Kramarz and Roux (1999) find that a doubling in the number of short-term workers will cause productivity to fall, a result not found for the other tenure groups. On a more aggregate level, Lichtenberg (1988) found that workers with 0-6 months of tenure in the durable goods industries were only 24 per cent as productive as workers with over two years of tenure; workers with 7-24 months experience were 65 per cent as productive. In the non-durables industry, workers with 0-6 months of tenure were only 5 per cent as productive as those with two years of tenure, while workers with 7-24 months experience were 54 per cent as productive. Overall, these researchers with the secondary literature find a positive and beneficial effect of tenure on productivity with intermediate levels of tenure exhibiting the 11 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY greatest returns to productivity and OCB, decreasing but positive returns for extended tenure, and a negative productivity effect from workers with short tenure. Employees’ Age and OCB Age is defined empirically with respect to a specific event-call it the study event. For example, the study event could be employment with a specific firm, marriage, college of education, or graduate education, but it is usually birth, with age distinguishing people by how long they have survived. Each person involved in the study event has a date at which they began their involvement. Repeating the preceding list of example study events, the entry dates would be the date when an employee was first hired by the firm, the date of marriage, the date of entering college, the date of entering graduate school, and, most typically, the date of birth. Indeed, Ng and Feldman (2008) in their meta-analysis of age and job performance found a positive relationship of age and contextual performance indicators (e.g., organizational citizenship behaviour), whereas a null relationship emerged for core task performance. They conclude that older workers might ‗‗consciously engage in discretionary behaviours to compensate for any losses in technical core performance‘‘ (p. 403). Although no relationship emerged between age and general work motivation, workers older than 50 years old reported higher motivation on ‗‗people tasks‘‘ (passing on knowledge, leading others) but lower motivation levels for learning-related tasks. The researcher takes these findings to suggest that workers have developed an individual motivation and or OCB profile with increased levels of motivation in some tasks and stable or lower motivation in other tasks; increases in motivation might compensate for decline in other tasks which in turn leads to greater exhibition of pro-social behaviour in the world of work and vice versa. The motivation profile assumption does not so much mark a difference between older and younger workers; younger workers also have different levels of motivation for different tasks and so different levels of OCB. The general idea is that developing and differentiating a motivation profile is a central strategy of older workers‘ motivational regulation and exhibition of OCB. Younger workers might regulate their motivation as well exhibiting OCB in a similar way, but the researcher would expect motivational regulation and exhibition of OCB to be more important for older workers because there is no more opportunity for job searching again. For younger workers, attractive longer term goals (e.g., 11 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY promotion, training and retraining, and so on) might compensate for an unfavourable motivational situation which will positively affect their OCB, thus attenuating their need for immediate motivational regulation and exhibition of OCB. In sum, the motivation profile assumption renders broad-brush motivation decline unlikely and increases OCB. Motivational regulation serves to optimize psychic well-being and if the workers have psychic well-being, they tend to elicit altruistic behaviour towards their colleagues and the organization as a whole; by refocusing from tasks with high fluid demands to other, less demanding tasks, workers might minimize negative self- concept consequences by providing opportunities for mastery experiences and limiting the risk of adverse experiences and therefore engage in OCB. Like Kanfer, the researcher assumes that ‗‗older workers‘ motivation for work is positively related to contextual performance as well as OCB that are perceived to protect and promote positive self-concept (p. 27), but the researcher posits that motivational regulation and OCB will occur even in the presence of organizational interventions such as work redesign or incentive programmes which tend to make workers more productive and thereby engage in citizenship behaviour. Ng and Feldman‘s (2008) findings appear helpful in generating hypotheses. For instance, these authors found that engagement in OCB was positively related to age, suggesting that OCB might be an area of motivation increases. At the same time, correlations were stronger with task-directed OCB (e.g., spending extra effort on the job) than with OCB directed to others (e.g., helping colleagues) or to the organization (e.g., observing organizational norms). This suggests that older workers do not just ‗‗avoid‘‘ core performance, and it might be worth exploring the influence of colleague and supervisor recognition on the OCB–age link. Recognition might increase other directed OCB and open workers another avenue for motivational regulation. On the practical side, viewing age-related changes in motivation as a matter of active regulation provides human resources professionals with more opportunities for motivation interventions and OCB. For instance, giving older workers higher degrees of job control (e.g., in terms of timing and method control) might help fulfil workers‘ needs for OCB and enable them to allocate effort in line with their motivational profile and pro-social behaviours in the world of work. In a similar vein, discussing and ‗‗teaching‘‘ OCB and motivational regulation strategies might help equip older workers with skills to successfully cope with age-related 12 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY capability changes and changing job demands which will foster the exhibition of OCB. In the study of Jack and Jone, (2013) age did not act as a determinant of OCB. In other words, the OCB scores did not have statistical relationship with age group of respondents. Although, the relationship between age and OCB was not part of their study but some previous studies have reported that age is an individual determinant of OCB. Dolan, Tzafrir, & Baruch, (2013), in their study have pointed out that age has a positive and significant relationship with OCB. Moreover, ‗older employees‘ showed higher level of OCB than younger employees (Dolan et al, 2013). Nadiri & Tanova, in their research have coroborated this correlation (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). Also, Yaghoubi et al, in their research among the employees of selected hospitals of Isfahan city have showed that age has a statistical relationship with the employees‘ OCB (Yaghoubi et al, 2010). Although these studies have indicated the relationship between age and OCB, some other studies such as Iranzadeh & Asadi, did not show the same relationship (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009). Wanxian and Weiwu (2007) studied the relationship among demographic characteristics of organizational citizenship behaviour in their research entitled "a demographic survey on citizenship behaviour as job orientation". Having performed an opinion poll from 349 employees of a Chinese company, findings revealed that old employees and women consider organizational citizenship behaviours more probably as role behaviours. This implies that there is a significant relationship between the workers‘ age and OCB. When the association between demographic variables was considered, a significant relationship of age with job scope, affective commitment, normative commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviour was detected. Organizational tenure was positively related to only job satisfaction, whereas total tenure was positively related to job scope, affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviours. Besides, as expected, age was found to be positively correlated with organizational and total tenure. Another demographic variable, gender, was significantly associated with job satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (Wanxian & Weiwu, 2007), The available data of the recent study confirmed the positive relationship which exists between age and pro-social motives and the negative relationship between age and impression management motives. The results further supported the 12 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY mediating roles of pro-social and impression management motives in age-related OCB relationships. Specifically, pro-social motives were found to be a significant mediator in the relationships of age with four OCB sub-dimensions, including altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue, at a confidence level of 95%, while marginal significance of mediation was found for courtesy and overall OCB at a lower confidence level of 90%. In exploring the role of subjective age identity in predicting the motives and OCBs, that study included three subjective age measures: identity age, cognitive age, and comparative age. The results suggested that, when controlling for age and other demographic variables, incremental validity of subjective age identity in predicting OCBs is limited. Identity age uniquely accounted for 1.1% of the variance in conscientiousness; cognitive age uniquely accounted for 1.3% of the variance in sportsmanship; comparative age uniquely accounted for 1.6% of the variance in sportsmanship and 1% of the variance in overall OCB. Cognitive age and comparative age were found to be significantly related to both pro-social and impression management motives, when controlling for age and other demographic variable. The data did not support the hypothesized moderation effect of comparative age in the relationships of age with criterion variables. The current study contributes to the body of studies on OCB by enhancing the understanding of age-related OCB processes. Older employees tended to report higher levels of OCBs, particularly conscientiousness and sportsmanship, as opposed to their younger counterparts. The findings pertaining to age differences in motives indicate the greater prominence of pro-social motives and the lower relevance of impression management with increasing age, providing empirical support for the general principles derived from socio-emotional selectivity theory. The study also advances knowledge of age differences in motives by identifying age differences in the two OCB-specific motives. The mediation relationships found in the study verified pro-social and impression management motives as relevant underlying psychological mechanisms in age-related OCB processes. Such findings present age as a meaningful demographic antecedent to OCBs, beyond behaviour as a function of age. The use of the comparative age measure allowed the study to specifically explore and witness the relevance of younger age identities in shaping OCB-specific motives based on their meanings of physical or social functioning, or self-concept. People with a more youthful identity are more likely to embrace pro-social motives and discount 12 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY impression management motives. The consideration of the subjective age measures, particularly comparative age, provides a valuable tool with which to gauge employees‘ motives, attitudes, and behaviour. To sum up, age, gender, education, organizational tenure and the total tenure, were the variables that had significant association with the mediators and dependent variable i.e OCB. Although age, organizational and total tenure were significantly related to the mediators (i.e., job satisfaction, affective commitment, and normative commitment) and the dependent variable (i.e., organizational citizenship behaviour). It should be noted that these three demographic variables were highly correlated with one another. Job Seniority/Cadre/Ranking and OCB The study of Yaghoubi et al, 2010 indicated that among the employees of hospital which divided the staff into 3 categories including medical, paramedical and administrative staff, the results showed that there is a statistical relationship with the profession (work category) of hospital employees and their OCB. In contrast with the primary conception about the different work groups from OCB showed that administrative staff have most favourable OCB in the studied hospital which followed by paramedical and finally medical employees. Nevertheless Yaghoubi et al, have concluded that employment status has not a statistical relationship with OCB (Yaghoubi et al, 2010). The question of whether or not wages rise with job seniority is of practical as well as theoretical importance. From an employee/employer point of view, the wage- tenure profile gives valuable insight into the structure of earnings over careers. The wage-tenure profile determines to what degree the earnings power of an employee is linked to a specific job, and it is important for valuation of the losses suffered by ―displaced‖ workers. `A cadre comprises persons who have been adjudged suitable and recruited to hold a group of positions requiring similar skills - technical, professional and/or administrative; within a Service, there may be more than one grade arranged vertically according to the level of responsibility' (Administrative Reforms Commission, 1969). A' Service represents a group of posts belonging to a distinct functional area arranged in a hierarchical order representing different grades or levels of responsibility. All the posts in the Service carry the same functions involving specific skills. They are thus uni-functional. They only differ in rank and status corresponding to given levels of responsibility attached to different grades of 12 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY posts. The hierarchical arrangement of posts along with the pay scales attached to different grades constitutes what may be called a cadre and the arrangement itself is known as a cadre structure. A well-structured Group `A' cadre consists of two distinct parts: (i) Regular Duty Posts and (ii) Reserves. The regular duty posts which constitute the core of the cadre are meant for performing the functions for which the service has been constituted. It consists of both permanent posts as well as temporary posts which are likely to continue indefinitely. As mentioned above, the duty posts are structured into different levels of hierarchy in the time scale, Corps assistance, Inspectorate and Superintendent Cadres corresponding to different levels of responsibility. Incidentally, it is the structure of the regular duty posts which is examined in a cadre review. The reserves are of four types, viz. (i) probationers reserves (ii) leave reserve (iii) training reserve and (iv) deputation reserve. Every organised service normally provides for probationers reserve in order to cater for the requirements of probation which has to be undergone by direct recruits to the service. Probationers reserve cannot be considered part of regular duty posts of a service as they are not intended to perform the regular service functions. Officers undergoing probationary training are shown against probationer reserve. The strength of reserve depends upon the size of the normal annual intake through direct recruitment and the period of probation required to be put in by direct recruits. The other reserves, namely leave, training and deputation reserves are intended to serve as substitute for regular duty posts in the event of service officers holding duty posts being temporarily away from their cadre on leave, training or deputation. That is, it is expected that at any time there will be some officers who are on leave, deputation or training. In order that the work does not suffer due to their absence, extra posts are provided. The various types of reserves including probations reserve are usually created in the junior time scale. Religiosity and OCB Costly signalling theory is the launch pad for the majority of behavioural ecological oriented research on religious behaviour. Foreshadowed in the works of social scientists such as Frank (1988) and Allison (1992), who suggested that some otherwise puzzling cultural behaviours may be difficult-to-fake signs of group commitment, the work of Lee Cronk represents some of the earliest suggestions within behavioural ecology of the possibility that signalling theory, in its 12 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY contemporary formulations, might be productively applied to the study of religious behaviour, stating that ―religious rituals and other practices…may have the effect of making religious devotion a costly-to-fake signal and thus a better indicator of commitment to a specific moral code and to the well-being of one‘s fellow believers‖ (Cronk 2005). William (2001) has also pointed out that many aspects of religion may constitute hard-to-fake signals of commitment to a specified group. In support of this postulation, Irons notes the complexity and costly nature of many religious traditions such as mandatory prayer schedules, episodes of fasting, and obligatory alms to the poor, as among the Yomut Turkmen Muslims, would be difficult for a non-committed outsider to imitate. Irons also put forth the hypothesis that, ―Other things being equal, we should expect that more costly religions are more effective at creating intragroup cooperation. We also might predict that the greater the need for cooperation, or the greater the difficulty of creating cooperation, the more costly will be the religious institutions that support it‖ (Williams, 2001). There indeed exists some support for these predictions. Iannaccone, in his studies of various religions in modern America, found that those ―churches‖ (religions) that are most ―strict‖ (that is, demanding the most time and/or resources from their adherents) are characterized by stronger commitment, higher levels of participation, and also are able to offer greater benefits to members than other more liberal churches that demand less of their members. Furthermore, strict churches have been experiencing rapid growth in membership within the last several decades, while membership of less strict, liberal denominations has been steadily declining (Iannaccone 1994). The main reason for this effect, according to Iannaccone, is that strictness resolves the free-rider problem, ―it screens out members who lack commitment and stimulates participation among those who remain‖ (Sosis, & Ruffle, 2003). Along with Cronk, (2005) has perhaps been the most prolific in pointing to the costly nature of religious rituals and other behavioural requirements as the key to their effectiveness in the promotion of cooperation and commitment. ―The significant time, energy, and financial costs involved serve as effective deterrents for anyone who does not believe in the teachings of a particular religion. There is no incentive for nonbelievers to join or remain in a religious group, because the costs of maintaining membership…are simply too high‖ (Sosis 2005: 169). In his costly signalling theory of religious behaviour, Sosis emphasizes religious belief as the primary mechanism that ensures the commitment of coreligionists and the deterrence of free-riding 12 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY nonbelievers. If one is willing to endure the costs of rituals, obligations, and taboos mandated by doctrine, they can be trusted to be genuine believers and their commitment to the group can be counted upon. Furthermore, Alcorta & Sosis (2008) argues that repeated engagement in public and private ritual enhances and can even create religious beliefs: Ritual, by employing the same psychological processes that translate value laden actions into attitudinal changes, is the mechanism through which religions maintain belief among adherents…self-perception or cognitive dissonance processes will cause nonbelievers to either modify their belief or discontinue the ritual actions. Commitment fostered by beliefs, and beliefs fostered by commitment, minimizes the monitoring and enforcement costs related to free-riding, and allows religious groups to overcome the problems of collective action (Sosis & Alcorta 2003; Sosis 2000). Sosis and colleagues have conducted studies and collected data in support of the hypothesis that religion promotes cooperation. For example, Sosis and Ruffle (2006) conducted field experiments in Israeli kibbutzim using a common-pool resource game to test their hypothesis that shared ideological commitment and participation in communal rituals would be positively associated with cooperative behaviour in the experimental games which is one of the elements of altruistic and citizenship behaviour. Sosis and Ruffle (2006: 113) found that members of the organization ‗collectivized kibbutzim‘ exhibited higher levels of cooperation when their partner was identified as a fellow group member than when paired with non-kibbutznik city residents or members of privatized kibbutzim, and as compared to pairings of fellow privatized kibbutz members. Furthermore, higher levels of cooperation occurred between fellow male members of collectivized religious kibbutzim compared to fellow male members of collectivized secular kibbutzim. In their conclusion, Sosis and Ruffle argue that, ―the inherent link between unverifiable beliefs and ritual actions enables religious ideologies to enhance intra-group cooperation and cohesiveness more effectively than their secular counterparts can‖. Soler, (2008) has conducted field experiments using a public goods economic game among Brazilian Candomble practitioners. Consistent with the costly signalling theory of religion, Soler‘s results showed that higher scores on a religious commitment scale were positively correlated with more cooperative behaviour in the economic game. While scores on the subscale of ―personal religiosity‖ were not 12 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY predictive of individual offers in the games, measures on the ―group commitment‖ subscale were positively related to individual offers. In discussion of the results of his studies, Soler maintains that his findings are supportive of the thesis that, ―ritual functions as a reliable signal of an individual‘s willingness to cooperate with members of their own group…it is the public aspects of ritual that are important to cooperation because that are more open to inspection and easily monitored‖ (Soler 2008: 173). Similarly, Bulbulia (2005) has developed a rather sophisticated theory of religion‘s role in altruism and reciprocity based on game theoretic concepts and models. Bulbulia also sees religious behaviours primarily as costly, and thus reliable, signals of commitment and altruistic intent. Religious behaviours are advertisements that allow reciprocators or co-operators to find each other. Integral to his theory is that belief in the supernatural, what Bulbulia calls ―supernatural cognition‖ is an evolved human psychological adaptation whose function is to ―facilitate efficient solutions to otherwise difficult or intractable co-ordination problems‖ (Bulbulia, 2004a: 19). Religious individuals are motivated to altruism from their beliefs in the retributive powers of super naturals who oversee human affairs. In the language of game theory, Bulbulia explains that: belief in gods capable of altering individual fortunes promotes efficient play by prompting the motivational structure to produce strategically co-operative behaviour. The sacrifice of the defection pay-off is understood as a kind of investment, the god acting to ensure desirable outcomes through supernatural causation. Bulbulia (2005) further elaborately describes supernatural cognition as a multifaceted and costly system that prompts signalling and altruistic behaviour. Religious signalling is made honest by underpinning beliefs in the supernatural, which are evidenced in emotional displays and ritual participation; and these supernatural beliefs are maintained through cognitive distortion and denial that generates commitment in the face of zero, and even disconfirming evidence of the existence of the supernatural. The function of this self-deception is to facilitate the production of maximally convincing displays of conviction and commitment; ―the strategy works because it is based on an illusion, not in spite of any illusion‖ (Bulbulia, 2005). Dominic Johnson and colleagues have also argued that belief in supernatural retribution for earthly misdeeds serve as a deterrent to defection in cooperation and collective action, and hence is an adaptive psychological trait favoured by natural selection (Johnson & Bering 2006). In a pilot test of the supernatural punishment 12 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY hypothesis, Johnson (2005) surveyed 186 societies from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Using the variable of ―high gods‖ (defined loosely as ‗supernatural beings who created and govern the world‘) as proxy for a measure of ―the extent of belief in supernatural punishment for selfishness‖ (Johnson 2005: 418 emphasis in original). For the variable of ―high gods‖, each society is coded for the presence of absence of this variable as well as the extent to which these super naturals are concerned with and involved in human affairs and morality. Johnson reasons that the importance of high gods should correlate positively with the extent to which morality is supernaturally imposed, and the likelihood of belief in supernatural punishment of moral transgression. Comparing the ―high god‖ variable against 19 other independent variables identified as indexes of the extent of cooperation and contribution to collective goods within each society, Johnson found that high gods are significantly associated with societies that are large, (to some extent) more norm compliant, use and loan abstract money, are centrally sanctioned, policed, and pay taxes, and have more internal conflict. Although Johnson claims that he has gathered some support for the hypothesis that beliefs in supernatural punishment should be associated with high levels of cooperation, his conclusion is shaky and contains many qualifications (Swanson, 1978). Shariff and Norenzayan (2007) have also conducted tests designed to examine the relationship between supernatural beliefs and pro-social behaviour. In the first of two experiments, Shariff and Norenzayan investigated the effects of implicitly primed ―God concepts‖ on subjects‘ behaviour in an anonymous dictator game. The priming procedure consisted of having subjects unscramble sentences containing the target words spirit, divine, God, sacred, and prophet, while the control group of subjects were given only neutral sentences to unscramble. Results showed that implicit priming of God concepts did indeed increase pro-social behaviour as subjects primed with religious concepts left significantly more money for the anonymous receiver than neutrally primed subjects. The second experiment of Azim and Norenzayen (2007) included three groups of test subjects, those primed with God concepts, neutrally primed subjects, and subjects primed with concepts associated with ―secular moral institutions‖ (target words: civic, jury, court, police, and contract). Results of this experiment showed, again, that subjects primed with God concepts behaved more fairly (i.e., left more 12 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY money for the receiver) than neutrally primed subjects. However, priming with secular moral concepts had as large an effect as God concept priming on the pro- sociality of subjects. One interesting outcome of the second study, which used a larger and more heterogeneous pool of subjects (75 community members versus 50 university students), was the finding that priming with God concepts has a non- significant effect on the pro-social behaviour of subjects identified as atheists, whereas in the first study such priming affected theists and atheists alike. Shariff and Norenzayan suggest as an explanation of their results ―that the religious prime aroused an imagined presence of supernatural watchers, and that this perception then increased pro-social behaviour‖. It can be seen from the studies just described, as well as those above in the section on the evolutionary cognitive psychology of religion, which several researchers have begun to integrate theory and findings from cognitive science into costly signalling and game-theoretic models of religious behaviour. Disciplinary and paradigmatic boundaries are increasingly blurred as increasing amounts of empirical research is conducted and fields mature. However, there is one issue on which battle lines seem to be drawn quite definitively, and this is the question of whether religion is an adaptation or by-product of human evolution. Moreover, during the last decade, religious diversity in the workplace has made religiosity an attractive field for organizational research, and has received both theoretical and empirical attention from organizational scholars. According to the literature on psychology of religion, religion produces both formal and informal norms and provides adherents with certain prescribed behaviour (Allport, 1953). Several studies that have systematically investigated the underlying dynamics of religiosity in organizational behaviours have found a link between religious affiliation and workplace behaviour. Strong positive correlations have been discovered between people‘s religiosity and their job attitudes (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005; Kutcher et al. 2010), and ethical decision-making in organizations (Weaver & Agle 2002; Fernando & Jackson 2006). Greater religiosity was associated with higher job satisfaction and was a significant predictor of organizational commitment and OCB (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005). Fernando and Jackson (2006) suggest that the traditions of the world‘s major religions have endured the test of time and note that the values inherent in those religions may be relevant to the management of modern organizations. Most religions and the consequent religious beliefs incorporate strong 12 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY teachings about appropriate ethical behaviours. These have often guided organizational managers on the moral and ethical guidelines needed in order to resolve ethical dilemmas their organizations faced (Weaver & Agle 2002; Turnipsed 2002). Additionally, religious individuals have indicated higher scores on work centrality, demonstrating that work held a more central role in their lives than their non-religious counterparts (Harpaz 2002). Extant research therefore considers religion as an important mechanism for increased organizational performance, and a spiritually minded workforce as having better work attitudes than the atheists (Chusmir & Koberg 1988; Lynn et al. 2011). Work ethic, a religious oriented concept, reflects a constellation of attitudes and beliefs pertaining to work behaviour. Organizational scholars-Kidron (1978) and recently, Sikorska-Simmons (2005)-both found that the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE), measured by the commitment to the values of hard work was positively correlated with organizational commitment and dedication. Organizational commitment reflects being cognitively and emotionally attached to one‘s organization. An individual displaying a high work ethic would place great value on hard work, fairness, personal honesty, accountability, and intrinsic values of work. Contemporary theorists who have examined the PWE have concluded that the PWE is no longer a Protestant issue, as all religious groups espouse the importance of work and, hence, share to the same degree the attributes associated with the work ethic (Miller & Thoresen 2003; Yousef 2001). For example, the views of Islam about the workplace are denoted under Islamic Work Ethic (ISE), and preach commitment, accountability, and dedication to one‘s organization (Yousef 2001). Other religious views like Hinduism and Buddhism also propose hard work and devotion as the tools for the modification and total enrichment of life, the soul and work (Jacobson 1983). For Traditionalists, it is more of teamwork, interdependence, co-responsibility, integrity, and respect for hierarchical order at home and at work (Applegate, Cullen, Fisher, & Ven, 2000). Adherents who are committed to their religious ideals have been inspired to show positive work attitudes such as co-operation and loyalty, obedience, commitment and dedication to their organizations (Ntalianis & Raja 2002), exhibited more pro-organizational behaviours (Gyekye & Salminen 2008; Kutcher et al. 2010) and limited antisocial or counterproductive work behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja, 2002). 13 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Religious beliefs and values have also been predictive of organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Veechio 1980). Veechio (1980) found that religious affiliation, after controlling for occupational prestige, accounted for a significant proportion of variance in job satisfaction. Additionally, he noted that religious affiliation was significantly related to organizational commitment, with Protestants displaying higher commitments than Catholics. Membership or affiliation with religious groups provides a mechanism by which individuals establish a highly valued social network (Myers 2000), which is important for the shaping of societal values and norms, and for ethical decision making at the workplace (Weaver & Agle, 2002). Allport and Ross (1967) have distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic religious membership. According to these experts, intrinsically oriented persons truly believe in their religious beliefs, internalize them, and use the doctrines to guide them in all other aspects of their life. They view and experience religion as a master motive with all aspects of life referenced to it. In contrast, extrinsically oriented individuals have a utilitarian approach and view religion only as a meaningful source of social status. Organizational Tenure and OCB The research results reveal that executives over the tenure of 10 years show significantly high level of Organizational citizenship behaviour than the executives of tenure less than 3 years. The result is similar to the results of O‘Reilly and Chatman (1986) and Morrison (1993) who reported that longer tenured employees performed more extra-role activities. Previous studies reported that organizational tenure favourably affects the executive‘s job attitudes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment/OCB). Meyer and Allen (1991) found positive correlation between organizational tenure and organizational commitments/OCB. Committed employees value their membership in the organization and often develop expectations of continuity as well as exhibiting citizenship behaviour. It is argued that committed employees are more likely to engage in behaviours that enhance their value and support the organization. Several empirical studies have tested the link between organizational tenure and OCB. Researchers found that affective commitment correlated positively with self- report measures of OCB (Meyer, Allen & Smith, 1993; Chen, Lam, Naumann & Schaubroeck, 2005). Two meta-analytic studies conducted by Organ and Ryan 13 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (1995), and Podsakoff et al. (2000) also reported the positive relationship of affective commitment and OCB. It is expected that organizational tenure positively influence the organizational citizenship behaviour through increasing the organizational commitment of executives as well as the rank and file. Mowday, Porter, & Steer (1982) argued that levels of commitment developed during the early employment period appear to remain stable. Moreover, increased investments in the form of time and energy make it increasingly difficult for employees to leave their jobs voluntarily. The relative stability of commitment levels along with increased difficulties in leaving the organization weaken the relation between age and OCB in the mid and late career stages. Previous studies reported a positive relationship between an employee‘s age and organizational tenure and their level of OCB (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Buchanan, 1974). Meyer et al. (1993) found a positive relationship between organizational tenure and extra role behaviour. Similarly, O‘Reilly and Chatman (1986) admit organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) as a relevant outcome of organizational tenure. Consequently, age and organizational tenure influence the executives‘ as well as rank and files‘ performance on OCB scale either by increasing the organizational commitment or by dominated motives of different stages of careers. In general, this research supports the notion that older and long term tenured workers demonstrate high level of OCB than their younger and short term tenured counterparts. Arguably therefore, the longer the organisation exists, the better its performance and productivity become. Likewise, employees who had stayed in the organisation for about 15 years may engage in OCB than his counterparts who just joined for about 5 years. By implication, organisational tenure tends to mediate as well moderate the effect of OCB on organisation. Marital Status and OCBs Marital status had been found not to have a significant relationship with OCB (Jack & Jone, 2013). These findings showed that single and married employees have a same OCB in their workplace. Yaghoubi et al, in their research have showed that marital status has not statistical relationship with OCB which approve their findings (Yaghoubi et al, 2010). Nevertheless, Iranzadeh and Asadi, in their study among the employees of Mohagheghe Ardabili University have showed that marital status has statistical relationship with OCB (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009). From the foregoing, the 13 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY researcher opines that the marital status of personnel of NSCDC could influence their OCB in the workplace especially the single ones due to the fact that they have enough time to spend beyond normal job period in order to reciprocate the kind gesture presented to them by their superior during office hours while the married ones may be busy with their marriage rites at home front preventing them from engaging in altruistic behaviour. Conceptual Model for the Study Independent Variables Dependent Variable Social intelligence p Leadership Behaviour Creativity Social I nnovation Relig iosity Gender Organizational Employees’ Age Citizenship Behaviour Marital status Job Te (OCB) nure Job Ca dre/Seniority Educational Level/Status Organiza tional Tenure Figure 2.1. The Conceptual Model 13 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY This study adopts the eclectic conceptual framework. This is necessary taking into consideration the scope of this study. The study examines the role of multi- analytic factors as predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. These multi- analytic factors include employees‘ age, gender, educational level/status, social innovation, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity, job tenure, job cadre, organizational tenure, creativity and marital status. It is therefore pertinent to combine what the researcher regards as the most valid positions of scholars to justify the combination of these variables for examination. The conceptual framework above illustrates the interplay as well as the linear relationship of multi-analytic variables on organizational citizenship behaviour among personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in South-West, Nigeria. These multi-analytic factors are the independent variables (employees‘ age, gender, educational level/status, social innovation, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity, job tenure, job cadre, organizational tenure, creativity and marital status.) The dependent variable in the framework is organizational citizenship behaviour. However, existing literature has shown that organizational citizenship behaviour could serve a predicting role in organizational commitment and productivity. This corroborates the finding of O‘Reilly and Chatman (1986) that admits organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) as a relevant outcome of organizational commitment and productivity. This is the reason for organizational citizenship behaviour being placed before organizational effectiveness and productivity. Research Questions 1. What is the joint contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation, including the demographic factors to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria? 2. What is the relative contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence and social innovation, and the demographic factors on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria? 13 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Hypotheses 1. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 2. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 3. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 4. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 5. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 6. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 7. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 8. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 9. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 10. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 11. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 12. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 13 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY The methodology for this study is presented in this chapter with the details of the procedure described under these sub-headings, Research Design, Population, Sample and Sampling Procedures, Instrumentation and Method of Data Analysis. Design The research design adopted was the descriptive survey research design with ex-post facto type. Ex-post facto type is defined by Kerlinger and Lee (2000) as a systematic empirical inquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control on the dependent variables because their manifestation have already occurred or being present in the participants prior to the period the researcher goes to the field. The main thrust of the study is the establishment of the predictive effects of the endogenous variables (Leadership Behaviour, Creativity, Social Intelligence, Social Innovation and Religiosity) on criterion variable (Organizational Citizenship Behaviour) of the personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in South-West, Nigeria. Population The target population was the entire staff of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in the South-West, Nigeria. About One thousand, six hundred and ninety-six (1,696) personnel of NSCDC were randomly selected for this study. The population comprised both Officers and Men. The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps is divided into 37 Commands with each Command sited in the thirty-six states of the Federation and Federal Capital Territory and each state is headed by a Commandant of Corps (CC). Each state is divided into 3 Area Commands headed by Area Commander who should be of a rank of Assistant Commandant of Corps (ACC) and each Area Command covers all the divisions that statutorily fall in the jurisdiction it is designed to cover i.e each of the Senitorial Districts. Each of the Divisional Offices is being headed by Divisional Officer who could either be Chief Superintendent of Corps (CSC) and/or Superintendent of Corps (SC) as the case may be. South-West Zone comprises six commands namely: Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti and Lagos. In all the 6 target states which consist of 6 commands and about 137 divisions, three state commands were randomly selected (Oyo, Ogun and Osun) with 13 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY three Area Commands namely Oyo Central-Nine Divisions; Ogun Central-Five Divisions) and Osun Central-Ten Divisions. Sample and Sampling Technique The sample of this study comprised the officers and men of NSCDC in South- west, Nigeria. Oyo state command has 2,075 personnel, Ogun state command has 3,148 personnel, Osun state command has 1,785 personnel, Ondo state command has 1,345 while Ekiti state command has 1,016. This means that the total population in South-west amount to about 9,300 personnel except zone A which is the Lagos state command alone. According to the Annual Reports of Civil Defence (2015), the overall population of NSCDC is over 52,000 personnel. The total number of participants for this study is 1,696 personnel. Table of proportional allocation of participants S/N Command Population Sample Approximated value 1 Oyo 2,075 502.17 502 2 Ogun 3,148 761.85 762 3 Osun 1,785 431.99 432 4 Ondo 1,345 _____ _____ 5 Ekiti 1,016 _____ _____ Total 93,69 1696 Multi–stage sampling techniques were used to select the participants of this study from the population. The technique involves 3 stages which comprises 2 zones; namely zone A and zone F. Zone A comprises Lagos state command alone while Zone F cuts across Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti states. Each state Command has 3 Area Commands. Therefore, we have a total of 18 Area Commands among which 1 Area Command each was randomly picked from which 9 divisions were selected making a total number of 27 divisions in all. Therefore, in each of these divisional offices, the NSCDC personnel that were willing and ready to participate were included. Instrumentation The instruments for this work comprised two sections. Section A has bio-data of the participants like gender, age, job tenure, educational level, ethnicity, religion affiliation, organizational tenure, job cadre, job tenure, socio-economic status and 13 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY marital status. Section ‗B‘ contained six instruments used to collect information for the study. The scales were adapted from the validated instruments through a careful review of relevant literature on the constructs of domain of interests in the study except Social Innovation Scale which was developed by the researcher with the assistance of the supervisor. The reliabilities of these scales was confirmed through a statistical test of internal consistency and reliabilities analysis through a pilot study that was conducted on about 100 personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC). The instruments included Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Measure by Suzy and Paul (2009), Creativity Scale by Animasahun, (2007), a section in Success Potential Battery, Social Innovation Scale developed by the researcher with the assistance of the supervisor, Multifactor Leadership Questionaire (MLQ-6S) by Avolio & Bass (1995) and The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS-IV) by Silvera, Martinussen and Dahl (2001). The Italian Version of the Tromso Social Intelligence Scale1 (Gini, 2004) and The Religiosity Measures Questionnaire developed by Rohrbaugh and Jessor (1975) were used. Description of Research Instruments The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS) The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale (Silvera, Martinussen & Dahl, 2001) was used. Each item of this scale is a statement concerning an ability related to the social intelligence concept (e.g., ―I can predict other people‘s behaviour‖). Participants were asked the degree to which each statement described them on a 3- point scale (from 1 = ―never describes me‖; 2 = ―describes me extremely poorly‖ to 3 = ―describes me extremely well‖). As 11 items are negatively worded and re-coded before statistical analyses. The scale measures three areas of social intelligence: a) social information processing, that is the ability to understand and predict other peoples‘ behaviours and feelings; b) social skills, that stresses the behavioural aspects of the construct by assessing the ability to enter new social situations and social adaptation; c) social awareness, that measures the tendency to be unaware of or surprised by events in social situations. Through a pilot study, the reliability alpha coefficient of 0.90 was obtained which means the scale is very reliable for the study where as the original reliability coefficient of the author was 0.71. 13 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Religiosity Measure by Rohrbaugh and Jessor (1975) The Religiosity Measure was developed by Rohrbaugh and Jessor (1975). This measure evaluates the religious beliefs, the practices, and the participation in religious oriented activities in one‘s daily life. This measure is not intended for any particular religious denomination, but for religiosity in general. The Religiosity Measure has seven multiple-choice items and one fill-in-the-blank question. It is divided into four subscales: ritual religiosity; consequential religiosity; theological religiosity; and experiential religiosity. Items under ritual religiosity ask about the number of times one attended religious service during the past year and how often one practiced prayer or engaged in religious mediation. Consequential religiosity included items that focused on the degree to which one used religious advice or teaching for serious personal problems and how much influence religion had on how they choose to act and spend their time. Those pertaining to theological religiosity assessed one‘s beliefs about God as well as beliefs about life after death. Experiential religiosity items examined the degree to which one has experienced a feeling of religious reverence or devotion during the past year and if one believes that religion gives him/her a great amount of comfort and security in life. Demaria and Kassinove (1988) conducted a study using the religiosity measure that examined the relationship of irrational beliefs, religious affiliation, and religiosity as measured by the religiosity measure with the disposition to feel guilt in normal adults. The authors reported high internal consistency reliability with reported alpha coefficients above .90, external validity shown by a high correlation of the scale (.80) with self-reported of religious involvement, discriminatory validity between known religious and nonreligious groups (Scott, 2004). In this study, a pilot test showed the alpha coefficient of 0.93 which means the scale was observed to be valid meanwhile the author‘s alpha coefficient was 0.73. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 6S by Avolio & Bass, 1995 This questionnaire provides a description of the leadership style and the general behavioural dispositions. Twenty‐one descriptive statements are listed in the body of the scale. The respondents are to judge how frequently each statement fits them. The word others may mean your followers, clients, or group members. The MLQ‐6S measures the leadership on seven factors related to transformational leadership. The factors-related include: 13 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Factor 1 – idealized influence indicates whether you hold subordinates‘ trust, maintain their faith and respect, show dedication to them, appeal to their hopes and reams, and act as their role model. Factor 2 – inspirational motivation measures the degree to which you provide a vision, use appropriate symbols and images to help others focus on their work, and try to make others feel their work is significant. Factor 3 – intellectual stimulation shows the degree to which you encourage others to be creative in looking at old problems in new ways, create an environment that is tolerant of seemingly extreme positions, and nurture people to question their own values and beliefs of those of the organization. Factor 4 – individualized consideration indicates the degree to which you show interest in others‘ well‐being, assign projects individually, and pay attention to those who seem less involved in the group. Factor 5 – contingent reward shows the degree to which you tell others what to do in order to be rewarded, emphasize what you expect from them, and recognize their accomplishments. Factor 6 – management‐by‐exception assesses whether you tell others the job requirements, are content with standard performance, and are a believer in ―if it isn‘t broke, don‘t fix it.‖ Factor 7 – laissez‐faire measures whether you require little of others, are content to let things ride, and let others do their own thing. The original author‘s Cronbach alpha and Guttman split half reliability were 0.71 and 0.69 respectively. The Cronbach alpha = 0.87 while the Guttman split half reliability was 0.78. Creativity Scale by Animasahun (2007) This scale was developed by Animasahun (2007). It is obtained from Success Potential Battery (SPB). The battery comprises 16 tests measuring different domains that constitute success of which creativity is one of such. Therefore Scale 6 was used to measure the general creativity skill of the employees. This test 6 contains 33 items describing how creative and innovative they are on the job e.g. ‗I like to generate new ideas all the time‘. It is based on 5-point likert format such as I strongly disagree, Disagree, Not sure, I agree, I strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5. The author reported a Cronbach alpha of 0.92 and a Guttman split half reliability of 0.86. 14 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Organization Citizenship Behaviour Questionaire by Fox, Spector, Goh, Bruursema, & Kessler ( 2012) The original Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) was a 42 item instrument designed to assess the frequency of organizational citizenship behaviours performed by employees. It has since been refined and shortened first to 36 items and then to the final 21 item scale that the researcher used (Fox, Spector, Goh, Bruursema, & Kessler, 2012). Included were items that reflected acts directed toward the organization as well as people in the organization, such as co-workers. Some items asked about altruistic acts that helped co-workers with personal as opposed to workplace issues. The items were based on 214 critical incidents generated by 38 subject matter experts (SMEs), who were graduate students and alumni of Masters of Science in Human Resources (MSHR), and MBA programmes which had employment experience. The scale is based on 5-point Likert format such as I strongly disagree, Disagree, Not sure, I agree, I Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5. Each of the 21 items describes the general behaviour of the employees and how an employee perceives his/her colleagues in the workplace e.g. ‗I Seek and accept responsibility at all times‘ and how the employees perceive their organization. In this study, a pilot test showed the alpha coefficient of 0.83 which means the scale is observed to be valid while the original author‘s alpha coefficient read 0.79. Social Innovation Scale The Social Innovation Scale is designed by the researcher with the guidance of the supervisor, using social innovation indicators in the literature, working areas and barriers, to measure social innovation in the respondents. Each item of this scale is a statement concerning an ability related to social innovation concept (e.g.‗I couple ideas with a need that is not being met in my daily official/non-official dealings‘, ‗I develop a promising idea and test it in practice‘, etc). Participants were asked the degree to which each statement describes them on a 5-point scale (from 1 = ―strongly Disagree‖ to 5 = ―Strongly Agree‖). As 2 items are negatively worded, they were re- coded before statistical analyses. The scale measures the key areas (indicators) of social innovation such as general creative skills, motivation, flexible organizing, dynamic management, working smarter, synergy, etc. Through pilot study, the 14 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reliability Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient of 0.91 is obtained. A total score of 100 - 150 on the Social Innovation scale indicated a low score, whereas a total score of 151 – 203 indicate a moderate score while a total score of 204 – 420 indicates a high score. The content validity of this scale is .09. Procedure for Data Collection An official permission for the administration of instruments was obtained through a formal letter from the Head of Department, Counselling and Human Development Studies, University of Ibadan, to the Commandant of Corps in each of the states in the South-West seeking their permission to conduct the research in their various commands. Likewise, the Area Commands and the divisional offices selected were visited and appropriate information was collected from the NSCDC Staff through the questionnaire designed for the study. Research assistants were trained on the administration of instuments and they were properly made use of and acknowledged. Data Analysis Data collected was analyzed using Multiple Regression Analysis to determine both joint and relative contribution of independent variable on the dependent variable and Pearson‘s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) to establish the relationship between each of the independent variables (multi-analytic factors) and the dependent variable (Organizational Citizenship Behaviour) at 0.05 level of significance. 14 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS This chapter presents the results from data analysed. The study examined creativity, leadership style, social intelligence, social innovation, age, job tenure, gender, educational level, religiosity, organizational tenure, job cadre, and marital status as predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour among Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in South-West, Nigeria. Twelve hypotheses were formulated and two research questions were raised tested using correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis. The summary of the findings was presented as follows. Table 4.1: Summary of Test of significant Correlations among Independent Variables and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 1.00 ** 2 .648 1.00 ** ** 3 .339 .390 1.00 ** ** ** 4 .548 .581 .475 1.00 5 .000 .048 .008 -.05 1.00 * * ** 6 .015 .053 .052 -.00 .369 1.00 ** ** * 7 .028 -.00 .118 .045 -.08 -.05 1.00 * ** ** ** 8 .006 .052 .073 .020 .331 .493 -.02 1.00 * * 9 -.02 .009 -.04 -.03 -.01 -.04 -.06 -.13 1.00 ** ** ** * 10 .038 .012 .041 -.02 .250 .157 -.1 .149 -.00 1.00 * ** ** ** ** * ** 11 .062 .032 .006 .040 .238 .120 -.1 .132 .028 .190 1.00 * ** ** ** ** ** * ** ** 12 .095 .076 .138 .095 .293 .232 -.43 .169 -.02 .186 .23 1.000 * ** ** ** ** ** ** * ** ** 13 .536 .508 .412 .788 -.38 -.28 .30 .110 -.01 .172 -.03 .083 1.00 * Me 85.50 56.86 43.70 95.7 2.61 - - - - - 2.00 - 73.95 an Sd 22.96 14.67 6.27 22.3 .84 - - - - - .873 - 18.17 1. Creativity 2. Leadership behaviour 3. Social Intelligence 4. Social Innovation 5. Age 6. Job tenure 7. Gender 8. Educational Level 9. Religiosity 10. Organizational Tenure 11. Job Cadre 12. Marital Status 13. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour KEY: * = Significant at 0.01 **=Significant at 0.05 14 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Hypotheses 1. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and organizational citizenship behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.536, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 2. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.508, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership Behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 3. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West Nigeria with (r = 0.412, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected to support the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence of NSCDC staff. 4. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West Nigeria with (r = 0.788, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected to confirm the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 14 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.380, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 6. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = -0.280, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in support of the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 7. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.300, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected to confirm the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 8. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.110, p>0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 9. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria.The 14 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.01, p>0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 10. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.172, p>0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted to confirm the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 11. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria.The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = -0.03, p>0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 12. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with (r = 0.083, p>0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted in support of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. 14 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Research Questions RQ1. What is the joint contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation, including the demographic factors to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria? Table 4.2: Summary of Regression Analysis of the combined prediction of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 0.799 0.639 0.636 10.96266 SUMMARY REGRESSION ANOVA Sum of Df Mean Square F P Remark Squares Regression 331740.705 12 27645.059 230.031 0.000 Sig Residual 187721.094 1562 120.180 Total 519461.799 1574 Table 4.2 showed that the joint prediction of all the twelve independent variables to the dependent variable. That is, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff correlated positively with the twelve predictor variables. The table also shows a coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.799 while the adjusted R square = 0.636. This means that 63.6% of the variance in the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff is accounted for by all the twelve predictor variables, when taken together. The significance of the composite contribution was tested at p<0.05 using the F- ratio at the degree of freedom (df = 12/1562). The table also shows that the analysis of variance for the regression yielded a F-ratio of 230.03 (significant at 0.05 level). This implies that the joint contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable was significant and that other variables not included in this model may have accounted for the remaining variance. RQ2. What is the relative contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation, and the demographic factors on 14 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria? Table 4.3: Relative contribution of the independent variable to the dependent variable (Test of significance of the Regression coefficients). Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. 1 (Constant) 6.646 2.481 2.679 .007 Creativity .116 .017 .005 7.031 .000 LeadershipBehaviour -.002 .027 -.001 -.060 .952 Social Intelligence .108 .052 .037 2.095 .036 Social Innovation .563 .017 .691 33.508 .000 Age .531 .042 .389 12.767 .000 Job Tenure .176 .074 .072 2.369 .018 Gender .544 .071 .274 7.692 .000 Educational Level .445 .078 .212 5.696 .000 Religiosity -.174 .334 -.008 -.520 .603 Organisational -.307 .064 -.189 4.768 .000 Tenure Job Cadre -1.053 .499 -.038 -2.109 .035 Marital Status .130 .464 .005 .280 .779 Table 4.3 reveals the relative contribution of the twelve independent variables to the dependent variable expressed as beta weight. The partial correlation coefficients of organizational tenure, job cadre, leadership behaviour, and religiosity have negative relationship on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff. The positive value of the effects of creativity, social innovation, gender, age, educational level, job tenure, social intelligence, and marital status implies that the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff is actually determined by positive reinforcement of these eight variables. Using the Unstandardized regression coefficients to determine the relative contributions of the independent variables to the explanation of the dependent variable social innovation (B=0.691, t=33.508, p<0.05) is the most potent contributor to the prediction followed by age (B=0.389, t=12.767, 14 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY p<0.05); gender (B=0.274, t=7.692, p<0.05); educational level (B=0.212, t=5.696, p<0.05); organizational tenure (B= 0.189, t=4.768, p<0.05); creativity (B= 0.147, t=7.031, p<0.05); job tenure (B= 0.072, t= 2.369, p<0.05); social intelligence (B= 0.037, t= 2.095, p<0.05); job cadre (B= -0.038, t= 2.109, p <0.05); marital status (B = 0.005, t = 0.280, p>0.05); leadership behaviour (B = -0.001, t = 0.060, p>0.05) and finally, religiosity (B = -0.008, t= 0.520, p>0.05) in that order. Socio – demographic factors in percentage (%) Job tenure 8.32-10.7 (in range) Gender Male 58.3 Female 41.7 Educational SSCE/WAEC Trade OND 11.3 NCE 14.0 HND 27.2 University Master Ph.D level 13.4 test 7.7 Degree 6.7 .1.0 18.7 Job Cadre Corps 26.5 Inspectorate Superintendent 18.1 Assistance 55.4 Marital Stattus Single 27.3 Married Divorced Separated 1.7 Widowed 68.0 2.0 1.0 Organizational 1-5years 38.1 6-10yeaes 23.8 11-15 38.1 Status years Grade Level 01-06: 31.4 072- 10-12: 9.9 13-15:2.4 16-17:0.4 09:55.8 Job tenure Below5yrs: 5 -10 11-15yrs: 16-25yrs:7.1 26-35yrs: 43.2 yrs: 14.3 6.2 29.2 Summary of Findings The researcher tested the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the study are summarized as follows: 1. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 2. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 3. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 14 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 5. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 6. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 7. There is significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 8. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 9. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 10. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 11. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 12. There is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. 13. The joint contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variables was significant and that other variables not included in the model may have accounted for the remaining variance. 14. The relative contribution of the twelve independent variables to the dependent variable, expressed as beta weights. The partial correlation coefficients of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence and social innovation, and the demographic factors on Organizational 15 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff have positive relationship with the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among participants. 15 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS There is no doubt that workers‘ behaviour is being influenced by many factors in the world of work. The question is that what factors could be responsible for such? It is not far-fetched; this survey provides appropriate answers to that in the sense that this study undertook the task of investigating a combination of factors that can predict organizational citizenship behaviour of the staff of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps in South-West, Nigeria. This chapter, therefore, presents the discussion of findings along with the conclusion of the findings, recommendations are also made, contributions to knowledge are also identified and some limitations to the study are pointed out as well as suggestions for further studies are also highlighted. Discussion The study investigated the multi-analytic factors that predict the organizational citizenship behaviour of the personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in South-West, Nigeria. Twelve hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance and two research questions were raised and answered accordingly; Multiple Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used for data analysis. The results of the study are discussed as follows: Hypothesis one states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The hypothesis is rejected. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and organizational citizenship behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ creativity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. It clearly shows that if the workers are creative in their approach to job and service delivery, they will exhibit helping behaviour in the world of work. In other words, being creative predicts OCB. This finding is in consonance with the assertion of Animasahun (2013) who posited that creative abilities, for instance, help the individual in ideative originality, ideative flexibility, ideative fluency and creativity 15 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY motivation, which ultimately lead to innovations in confronting challenges in life and work place (Animasahun, 2013). This implies that the more practically creative the personnel are, the higher their citizenship behaviour. Moreover, it lends credence to the findings of Shalley (1991) that creativity in an organizational context is the conceptualization and development of novel ideas, products, processes or procedures by individuals or a group of individuals working together (Shalley, 1991). By implication, if the staff conceptualize and develop novel processes or procedures of working together as an organized entity/system, they tend to elicit helping behaviour which will give them a unique identity. In addition, the study of Styhre and Sundgren, (2005) also corroborates further when they found that the creative climate encourages people to generate new ideas and helps the organization to grow and increase its efficiency and at the same time it enables members to generate and implement creative ideas more effectively which in turn tends to improve the exhibition of OCB in the work place. It should be noted that the role of organizations are inevitable to improve any country, and a successful organization is one which could adapt itself to environmental changes during a long- term, create a purposeful management structure, and develop key competencies (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013); and human resource is one of those capital resources of an organization which not only increases the efficiency and the effectiveness of the organization but it acts as a sheer source of competitive advantage which is inimitable (Mosadeghrad, 2013). Considering this fact, creative employees have the ability to put up citizenship behaviour and organization‘s success is based on employee‘s creativity therefore organization should put in place an enabling environment where workers will be able to generate novel ideas, products, processes, procedures and attitude that will help them to be exhibiting pro-social and citizenship behaviours in the world of work. This will surely boost the organizational productivity as well as creativity. Hypothesis two states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ leadership Behaviour and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. It clearly shows that workers‘ perception of 15 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY their leadership behaviour actually can predict citizenship behaviour in the world of work. The finding however, is in agreement with the study of Avolio and Yammarino, 2002 as well as Bass, 2008 that leadership behaviour affects the followers‘ attitudes and performance. Therefore, if the leadership behaviour affects the staff‗s attitude in the world of work then the exhibition of OCB depends largely on the leaders‘ behavioural disposition and leadership styles being used by the leaders in question. For clarity purpose, these behaviours fall into four categories: transformational leadership behaviour, transactional leadership behaviour, behaviours having to do with the path-goal theory of leadership, and behaviours having to do with the Leader- Member Exchange Theory(LMX). Transformational leadership behaviours, including articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, and intellectual stimulation, have significant positive relationships with Organ‘s dimensions of OCB. Two types of behaviours representative of transactional leadership style, contingent reward behaviour and non-contingent punishment behaviour, have significant relationships with Organ‘s dimensions of OCB which this finding buttresses because any of the leadership styles being adopted has direct effect on the workers‘ attitude which will definitely encourage or discourage the exhibition of altruistic and pro-social behaviours in the working place. All these accrue to organizational citizenship behaviour. Additionally, both the supportive leadership and leader role clarification aspects of the path-goal theory of leadership are positively related to OCB. Furthermore, the finding concurred with Podsakoff et al. (2000) who found that leader-member exchange was positively related to altruism and an overall composite measure of OCB. More so, this finding is in concordance with the study of Cherulnik, Donley, Wiewel and Miller (2001) who pointed out that a leader‘s behaviour has an impact on the subordinates‘ affective state. They found that, when the leader exhibited truly charismatic behaviour, this behaviour had an effect of emotional contagion, inspiring similar emotional responses in the subordinates who were exposed to the behaviour. This implies that the leader‘s behaviour triggers off either positive or negative emotions from the followers which in turn determines whether such gesture will be reciprocated or not, thus blocking or opening up the elicitation of OCB in the world of work. Thus, emotion is seen as a precursor of action, providing the schema on how 15 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY individuals interact with their environment. Also in their finding, Schyns and Wolfram (2008) confirmed that the earlier research in leadership focused on the leader alone but eventually developed a new approach that took into account that leaders and members always interact and that both contribute to the respective relationship which culminates into exhibition of OCB. Correlatively, Tang and Ibrahim (1998) who found that employee satisfaction, organisational commitment, organisational justice, career development, age, tenure, personality, motivation, leadership and leadership behaviour all impact and affect citizenship behaviour within an organisation is in agreement with this finding. The finding here is also in concurrence with that of William and Anderson, 1991 who conducted studies on OCB around the issue of interpersonal relationships have been driven by the conviction that sound superior-subordinate relationship is crucial to organizational success and elicitation of OCB. Positive interpersonal relationship at workplace should enhance positive OCB among the employees. Subordinates with high levels of OCB are more likely to be committed to the organization and be more loyal to their supervisors. Therefore, it is worthwhile for the superior to be aware of his/her leadership style in work situations and how it promotes subordinates‘ OCB. In addition, this finding also goes in line with that of Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) who indicated that superior‘s leadership style and subordinates‘ OCB are inter-related. Likewise, Motowidlo (2003) posited that inappropriate leadership styles may trigger negative consequences, which might further increase the sensitivity and susceptibility to misunderstanding that may lead to organizational dysfunction such as decline in work performances, absenteeism and high turnover which are counterproductive and this tends to discourage the workers from exhibiting OCB. Thus, prevention of subordinates‘ negative outcome is important visa-vis the use of different leadership styles. The mismatch might precipitate an unending and potentially disruptive vicious cycle that many organizational leaders want to avoid and therefore, they need to address their styles and the attendant consequences more rigorously. Consistently, this finding also relates to the pattern that emerged from the data of the research of MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Fetter (1993) that reward contingencies influence the frequency of organizational citizenship behaviour. 15 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From the foregoing, when employees are not indifferent to the rewards made available by the organization, when employees perceive that their leaders control those rewards, and when their leaders administer rewards contingent upon performance, organizational citizenship behaviour increases. This suggests at least two possibilities. First, it is possible that managers (either implicitly or explicitly) have a relatively broad conception of performance and view citizenship behaviour as a part of it. Consequently, when they administer rewards contingent upon performance, they reward OCBs as well as in-role aspects of performance, thus increasing the frequency of citizenship behaviour. These findings indicate that managers do take OCBs into account when evaluating the performance of their subordinates, (e.g. APER form) while the findings of Allen and Rush (2001), indicate that managers administer rewards contingent upon citizenship behaviour. Another possibility is that employees have a broad conception of performance that includes OCBs. Thus, when they value organizational rewards, and believe that their leader administers them contingent upon good performance, they engage in citizenship behaviour as a means of obtaining rewards. This line of reasoning is consistent with Morrison (1994), who found that employees often view OCBs as an expected part of their job which this finding is consistent with. Also in consistence with this finding is Saks (2008) who stated that employees who have higher perceptions of procedural justice are more likely to respond with higher organization engagement. Hence, employees having higher perception of justice through their immediate supervisor in their organization are expected to feel gratified to be fair in performing their roles through greater levels of engagement in terms of OCBs. In addition, there is an increasing interest in the forms of positive leadership because of the evidence that supports the idea that positivity increases well-being and job performance as well as OCB (Fredrickson, 2009) which is in line the present finding. Further corroborating this finding is the study conducted by Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, and Avey (2009); Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, and Avolio (2010); Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, and Oke (2011) which showed that the greater the authentic leadership, the greater the employees‘ satisfaction with the supervisor, their organizational commitment, extra effort, and organizational citizenship behaviour. It is also in accord with the finding of Buonocore, 2010 which states that where there is presence of good superior- 15 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY subordinate relationship has somehow increased bearing towards making the subordinates perform better OCBs. From the foregoing, therefore, it could be inferred that leadership behaviour accounts for a high performance of OCBs in the world of work. Hypothesis three that postulates that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social intelligence of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. By implication, it means that the staff who are socially intelligent have tendency to engage more in OCBs in the world of work compared with their counterparts who are less socially intelligent. In other words, workers who can negotiate complex social issues and challenges have high performance level of OCBs in their various formations. In contrast, workers who cannot negotiate complex social issues tend not to exhibit helping and extra-role behaviours in their daily activities. This finding is consistent with that of Podsakoff, Ahearne and Mackenzie (1997) who suggested that organizations that employ individuals who exhibit high levels of organizational citizenship behaviour are more likely to have effective work groups within their organization. And this cannot be so if not these employees are socially intelligent; This means that they should be able to fulfil all the tenets/components of social intelligence which involve incorporating internal and external perceptions, social skills, social memory, social creativity and other psychosocial variables (Taylor, 1990). Marlowe‘s (1986) model of social intelligence comprised five domains- personal attitude, social performance skills, empathetic ability, emotional expressiveness and confidence. Pro-social attitude is indicated by having an interest and concern for others, social performance skills is demonstrated in appropriate interaction with other, empathetic ability refers to one‘s ability to identify with others, emotion expressiveness describes one‘s emotionality towards others and confidence in social situations is based on one‘s comfort level in social situations. Weis and Sub (2007) showed that social undertaking and social knowledge were separate constructs of social intelligence. To further support this finding, 15 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Willimann, fedlt and Amelang (1997) viewed supporting harmony and restoring equilibrium between individuals as acts of being socially intelligent. Studies have also shown positive relationships between OCB and social intelligence (Sitter, 2005 and Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch, 1994). Individuals who exhibit social intelligence should be more likely to decipher the intentions of others to perceive situations in a more positive light (George, 1991). In addition, one might expect that individuals with positive emotions will foster OCB (Organ, 1990). People who are low in social intelligence are unable to perceive one‘s emotion accurately (Salovey & Mayer, 1997). All these findings are in agreement with this present finding. This finding is also being confirmed with that of Anonymous, 2004 who asserted that ultimately, it is Social Intelligence that dictates the way people deal with one another and understand emotions. Hence, social intelligence is considered important for business and organizational leaders because if they are insensitive to the mood of their staff or team, it can create frustration and, therefore, not get the best out of people and therefore hampering the employees from engaging in pro-social behaviour. Furthermore, this finding is also in agreement with Yaghoubi, Mashinchi, and Hadi (2011) who have also observed that social intelligence had positive impact on the OCB of followers. Similar results were also observed by Sitter (2004) who has found that leader‘s Emotional Intelligence had positive impact on employees‘ performance of citizenship behaviour. Why is this so? The reason may be that it enables employees to comprehend their co-workers‘ feelings and to respond better than employees with low social intelligence because of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods (Abraham, 2005). Staw, Sutton and Pelled (1994) have linked emotional intelligence with altruistic behaviour (one form of OCB) and suggested the following explanations. That being in a good mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is also rewarding in the sense that it enables employees to also maintain this state of mind. That people in good moods may be more socially interactive. And that when employees are more satisfied (having positive emotional reactions and attachment to the job), they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behaviour. Similarly, social intelligence would help in keeping the positive attitude towards the organization and people even under adverse conditions. Therefore, it can be inferred that people with a high emotional intelligence which is a subset of social intelligence possess clarity in thinking and remain composed in stressful and chaotic situations. A person who has good EQ can manage 15 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY his or her own impulses, communicate with others effectively, manage change well, solve problems, and use humour to build rapport in tense situations. These people will have empathy, remain optimistic even in the face of adversity, and are gifted at educating and persuading in a sales situation. It should be noted that social intelligence, measured by your Social Quotient (SQ) is closely aligned; it is a measure of social awareness. Social Quotient relates to a person‘s ability to understand and manage people and to act wisely in human relations. It is equivalent to interpersonal intelligence; as society becomes more complex and world of work becomes competitive and stress prone, intellectual competences need to become more sophisticated. Social Quotient is the intelligence that lies behind group interactions and behaviours. A person with a high Social Quotient is no better or worse than someone with lower scores; they‘re just different and have different attitudes, hopes, interests and desires. However, having good Social Quotient is what separates top performers from weak performers in the workplace. Traditional Intelligence Quotient on its own is fine for technical work but as a person moves into higher management roles, the ability to lead, manage and influence others becomes increasingly important so as to induce organizational citizenship behaviour from the employees. In addition, literature in organizational behaviour and industrial and organizational psychology generally acknowledge the inadequacy of intelligence as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. In reviewing the literature on intelligence and transformational leadership, Bass (2006) concluded that traditional conceptualization of intelligence is generally concerned with the analytical or academic aspect of intelligence, but an adequate conceptualization of this construct comprises other aspects, such as emotional and social intelligences, as well which this finding has successfully provided. It is suggested therefore, that the predictive value of intelligence may have been flagged in various studies because these study examined and measured aspects of intelligence (social intelligence) that, however effective they may be in predicting academic and certain other domains of performance, are not effective predictors of leadership performance unless social intelligence. It is therefore imperative that there are other dimensions of intelligence-social intelligence, emotional intelligence, or practical intelligence or what scholars refer to as "street smarts"-which indicates that an individual is not limited simply because he or she has a below average academic intelligence or intelligent quotient. He/she can still excel in other areas with being socially intelligent. 15 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY More so, intrapersonal intelligence otherwise social intelligence is the ability to be aware of and regulate one's own emotions (feelings, moods, and desires); it is associated with one's ability to understand others‘ emotions and to induce desirable responses in them. Boyatzis (2001) suggested that this intelligence is associated with social competencies, such as empathy and social skills. Empathy and social skills as components of emotional quotient are germane because the researcher believes that manifestations of empathy and social skills in an organizational context will have a significant influence on employees‘ perceptions of their supervisors and therefore inform their decision to reciprocate such gesture in form of organizational citizenship behaviour. Hypothesis four states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ social innovation and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. This connotes that the staff who crave for better ways of solving societal and work challenges apart from the conventional ways tend to exhibit altruistic and helping behaviours in the workplace. In a more concise way, the personnel who are socially innovative can elicit citizenship behaviour than their colleagues who refuse to break forth from conventional ways of solving work, social as well as societal challenges. This finding is in concurrence with the assertion of Canadian Policy Research Network (CPRN) (2004) report that Non-profit organizations continue to foster and lead innovation at the community level. They bring to social and economic challenges their in-depth knowledge of the community, hands-on experience, flexibility, creativity and responsiveness, entrepreneurial skills, and a holistic approach-some of the very ingredients essential to ―social learning‖ and innovation. Even as the roles of various sectors continue to shift the non-profit sector plays a critical role in delivering services to individuals and communities, and to work with other partners to seek innovative solutions to complex social problems. From the foregoing, it is evident that complex social problems require innovative solutions which this finding complements. It is also in line with the position that 16 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Phills et al. (2008: 1) argue that ―most of today‘s innovative social solutions cut across the traditional boundaries separating non-profits, government, and for-profit businesses.‖ They note that, on the one hand, there has been both increasing devolution of public services to the private and non-profit sectors and ―an explosion in applications of business ideas and practice to non-profit and government works‖. On the other hand, they point out that ―(we) have also watched business take up the cause of creating social value under the mantle of corporate social responsibility, corporate citizenship, and socially responsible business‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 1). These authors argue that ―the free flow of ideas, values, roles, relationships, and money across sectors is fuelling contemporary social innovation‖ such that non- profits, governments, and businesses have developed a better appreciation of the complexity of global problems such as climate change and poverty. Many have also come to understand that these problems require sophisticated solutions. As a result, all hands are on deck to tackle the social problems that affect us all…. like insurgency, vandalism, counter work productive behaviours, and other social vices in our public offices which this finding also corroborates. As noted by the Stanford authors, these developments build on the notion of corporate social responsibility (CSR), a term that has been in wide use since the 1960s. CSR reflects a view of business ―both as a vehicle to make money and as a means to improve society‖ (Phills et al., 2008: 40). The concept is generally understood to be the way that firms integrate social, environmental and economic concerns into their values, ethics, culture, decision making, strategy and operations in a transparent and accountable manner and thereby establish better practices within the firm/organization, to create wealth and improve society and employees‘ OCB as well (Basil, Runte, Easwaramoorthy, & Barr, 2009). It typically encompasses ―treating employees well, respecting the communities in which it operates, developing sound corporate governance, ensuring environmental preservation and supporting philanthropy, human rights and accountability‖ (McDonald, 2008). It can be deduced from the above that social innovation tends to predict citizenship behaviour of the workers when organization injects a radical approach to solving both work and social complex issues. This finding supports Eveleens, 2010 who posited that social innovations differ from business innovations in that the latter are generally motivated by profit while social innovations are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need and are predominantly developed and diffused through organizations that are motivated 16 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY primarily by social purposes which serve as motivating factors for the employees to engage in helping and altruistic behaviour in the workplace. Hypothesis five states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria with. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ age and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. This implies that the workers‘ age does play a significant role in exhibiting helping behaviour. Being young or old has relationship with rendering a helping hand to one‘s co-workers. This finding corroborates that of Ng and Feldman (2008) who, in their meta- analysis of age and job performance found a positive relationship of age and contextual performance indicators such as organizational citizenship behaviour, whereas a null relationship emerged for core task performance. They conclude that older workers might ‗‗consciously engage in discretionary behaviours to compensate for any losses in technical core performance‘‘. Although no relationship emerged between age and general work motivation, workers older than 50 years old reported higher motivation on ‗‗people tasks‘‘ (passing on knowledge, leading others) but lower motivation levels for learning-related tasks. The researcher takes these findings to suggest that workers have developed an individual motivation and or OCB profile with increased levels of motivation in some tasks and stable or lower motivation in other tasks; increases in motivation might compensate for decline in other tasks which in turn may lead to greater exhibition of pro-social behaviour in the world of work and can as well lead to lower exhibition of helping behaviour. It could also be adduced to the fact that the motivation profile assumption does not so much mark a difference between older and younger workers; younger workers also have different levels of motivation for different tasks and so different levels of OCB or not at all. However, the general idea is that developing and differentiating a motivation profile is a central strategy of older workers‘ motivational regulation which might have informed their decision to or not to lend helping hands in the world of work. Younger workers might regulate their motivation in a similar way, but the researcher would expect motivational regulation to be more important for both old 16 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and young workers because there may no more have the opportunity for job searching again due to Nigeria situation. For younger workers, attractive longer term goals (e.g., promotion) might compensate for an unfavourable motivational situation which will positively affect their OCB, thus attenuating their need for immediate motivation to exhibit altruistic and pro-social behaviour in the workplace. In sum, the motivation profile assumption renders broad-brush motivation decline unlikely. Motivational regulation serves to optimize psychic well-being and if the workers have psychic well-being, they tend to elicit altruistic behaviour towards their colleagues and the organization as a whole; by refocusing from tasks with high fluid demands to other, less demanding tasks, workers might minimize negative self-concept consequences irrespective of their age by providing opportunities for mastery experiences and limiting the risk of adverse experiences and therefore engage in OCB. To this end, the researcher assumes that ‗‗workers‘ motivation for work is positively related to contextual performance that are perceived to protect and promote positive self-concept as well as OCB irrespective of their age‘‘, but the researcher posits that motivational regulation will occur even in the presence of organizational interventions such as work redesign or incentive programmes which tend to make workers more productive and thereby engage in citizenship behaviour and this should cut across all the age range of the workers. Ng and Feldman‘s (2008) findings appear helpful in generating hypotheses to boost workers‘ helping behaviour without age limit. For instance, these authors found that engagement in OCB was positively related to age, which concurs with this finding, suggesting that OCB might be an area of motivation increases. At the same time, correlations were stronger with task-directed OCB (e.g., spending extra effort on the job) than with OCB directed to others (e.g., helping colleagues) or to the organization (e.g., observing organizational norms). This suggests that older workers do not just ‗‗avoid‘‘ core performance, and it might be worth exploring the influence of colleague and supervisor recognition on the age link. Recognition might increase other directed OCB and open workers another avenue for motivational regulation which will help them to see the need to be helpful to colleagues irrespective of age. On the practical side, viewing age-related changes in motivation as a matter of active regulation provides human resources professionals with more opportunities for motivation interventions and OCB. For instance, giving older workers higher degrees of job control (e.g., in terms of timing and method control) might help fulfil workers‘ 16 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY needs for OCB and enable them to allocate effort in line with their motivational profile and pro-social behaviours in the world of work. In a similar vein, discussing and ‗‗teaching‘‘ OCB along with motivational regulation strategies might help equip workers with skills to successfully cope with age-related capability changes and changing job demands which will foster the exhibition of OCB in general. Incidentally, this finding is in contrary with the study of Jack and Jone (2013) that age did not act as a determinant of OCB. In other words, the OCB scores did not have statistical relationship with age group of respondents. Although, the relationship between age and OCB was not part of their study but some previous studies have reported that age is an individual determinant of OCB which this study keys into. In this regards, it is possible to think that both young and old workers don‘t base their workplace behaviours on age related issues. Concurring to this finding again, Dolan, Tzafrir, & Baruch (2013), in their study have pointed out that age has a positive and significant relationship with OCB. In clearer terms, older employees‘ showed higher level of OCB than younger employees (Dolan et al, 2013). Nadiri and Tanova, in their research also supported this correlation (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). Also, Yaghoubi et al, in their research among the employees of selected hospitals of Isfahan city have showed that age has a statistical relationship with the employees‘ OCB (Yaghoubi et al, 2010). Although these studies have indicated the relationship between age and OCB, some other studies such as Iranzadeh & Asadi, did not show the same relationship (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009) which this study contradicts. Hypothesis six shows that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ job tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. This means that the number of years being spent on the job goes a long way to determine the exhibition of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. From this finding, job tenure does predict altruistic and pro-social behaviour in the world of work. The reason for this may be due to the workers‘ personality traits, social background, and perception of other co-workers. This finding 16 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY contradicts that of Jack and Jone‘s, (2013) findings which showed that professional experience has no significant relationship with OCB. In accordance to this finding, Nadiri and Tanova, in their research have showed that tenure has a positive and meaningful statistical relationship with OCB. (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). Moreover, Dolan et al, in their study have pointed that tenure has a positive and significant relationship with OCB (Dolan et al, 2013) which this finding corroborates. Specifically therefore, the estimate differential returns on tenure and experience across women and men in the first decade and half of their careers within the framework of a standard human capital earnings may be traced down as the reason for the insignificance of job tenure on OCBs. The National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY) are ideally suited for these purposes. The NLSY tracks a panel of 12,686 young women and men, first interviewed in 1979. The availability of work histories of early careers, including detailed information on job duration, labour market experience, earnings, and other individual and job characteristics, facilitate a rigorous analysis of returns on tenure and experience. Despite the growing attachment to the labour market mentioned earlier, women are likely to be relatively less attached to their respective employers and jobs compared to their male counterparts, especially during the early part of their careers. Women in their twenties and thirties experience life cycle events such as marriage, childbirth, and family care responsibilities that make them more prone to employment interruptions and gaps (Mincer & Ofek, 1982). A likely consequence is that expected job duration will be shorter for women than men. Different expectations about job duration and overall commitment to the labour market will have important ramifications for gender differences in strategic aspects of on-the-job training and job selection. If women are relatively less attached to firms because life cycle events lead to less durable employment relationships then women are likely to invest less in firm-specific skills and more in general labour market skills that are portable across employers which may also hinder citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Light and Ureta (1995) find that returns on tenure are higher for women than men (though these estimated returns are very small for both women and men and use a different-work history-specification); Becker and Lindsay (1994), using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics from 1968 to 1987, find that wage-tenure profiles are steeper for women than men among a sample of stayers (those who stay with the same employer for more than 5 years). By contrast we find strong evidence that the returns 16 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY on tenure are substantially higher for men than it is for women but this finding does not corroborate this despite that it is not a gender specific study. Additionally, early job design research by Hackman and Oldham (1981), career stages research by Katz and Van Maanen (1977) and Schein (1971), and organizational socialization work by several researchers suggests that newcomers to a job are much more concerned about establishing their own work identity than they are in taking control of a work situation which tends to lower the tendency of engaging in helping behaviour which this finding corresponds with. However, as one‘s career unfolds and one‘s level of job knowledge and confidence increases, individuals appear to want more control or say over what happens at work. The implication is that job tenure may moderate the degree of control one seeks on a job and thereby increases the tendency to engage in citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Hypothesis seven states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South- West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is significant relationship between the workers‘ gender and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. This implies that being male or female could predict altruistic and pro-social behaviour in the workplace. However, this finding is in contrary to the position of Kidder and Parks, 2001 that the dimension of conscientiousness, which includes attention to detail and adherence to organizational rules, is excluded, as this dimension does not seem to adhere to any particular gender norm. From such assertion, being altruistic and pro- social is not directly peculiar to any sex which this finding negates. To further buttress the previous finding, demographic variables (e.g., organizational tenure and employee gender) have not been found to be related to OCBs. This finding that gender is related to citizenship behaviours is in consonance with the theoretical position given that Kidder and McLean Parks (1994) who discussed a number of plausible theoretical reasons why it was so. For example, they noted that empathetic concern and perspective taking should influence both helping behaviour and courtesy, and both of these traits are associated with females (Davis, 1983). Conversely, Kidder and McLean Parks (1993) argued that males are more likely to engage in conscientious 16 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY behaviour than females, because ―this type of behaviour suggests an exchange orientation or an emphasis on quid pro quo, frequently associated with a male preference for equity over equality‖ which this finding lend credence from. This finding is also in agreement with that of the research that investigated the impact of gender on OCB and found men and women to be differ in terms of engaging in OCB (Allen & Rush, 2001; Deborah & McLean Parks, 2001). Moreover, while LePine and Van Dyne (1998) reported the effect of the educational level on OCB, Morrison (1994) showed a positive relationship with tenure. On the other hand, the meta-analysis of Mathieu and Zajac (1990) revealed significant correlations between organizational commitment and age, sex, education, and organizational tenure. All these findings corroborate this finding. Quite concurring, variables such as age, tenure, education, and gender were found to be related to job satisfaction (Lok & Crawford, 2004). The effects on the demographic variables on the prediction and criterion variables should not be ignored. When the association between demographic variables was considered, a significant relationship of age with job scope, affective commitment, normative commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviour was detected. Also, this research finding about the relationship between gender and OCB indicates that gender can be addressed as a demographic determinant of employees‘ OCB. In the examined hospital, males had OCB more than females. Iranzadeh et al, in their research among the employees of Mohagheghe Ardabili University (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009) and Yaghoubi et al, among the employees of selected hospitals of Isfahan city (Yaghoubi et al, 2010) have showed that sex has not had a meaningful relationship with OCB which this finding contradicts. Moreover, Dolan et al, in their study have pointed that gender has a positive and significant relationship with OCB (Dolan, Tzafrir, & Baruch, 2013) which this finding keys into. Comparatively therefore, the reason for the variation in findings may be due to individual differences that both male and female workers possess. Hypothesis eight projects that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is 16 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY no significant relationship between the workers‘ educational level and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. This implies that workers‘ level of education could not actually determine their altruistic and helping behaviours in the workplace. In contrary to this finding is the various theoretical frameworks, that ability beliefs have a reasonable influence on educational attainment level as well as extra role behaviour (Bandura, 1997; Connel, 1990). In addition, their results are not in line with some empirical evidence on the relation between ability beliefs and persistence (Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). It is generally believed that a high educational degree is related to healthy functioning (Keating & Hertzman, 1999) which this finding contradicts such belief system and because occupations with high literacy and cognitive skills registered the strongest increase in employment in our society being a certificate oriented one (Herr, 1999). To address such, researchers and practitioners should design interventions to foster high levels of educational attainment that will impact positively on altruistic and helping behaviours in order to boost the workers‘ pro-social behaviour in the world of work. The researcher believes that interventions designed to enhance OCB such as praise, feedback, and attribution training would be useful in this regard. Such interventions may plant the seeds of later organizational adjustment and healthy functioning. It should be noted that human capital externalities may arise if the presence of educated workers makes other workers more altruistic and productive. Alfred Marshall (1890) is among the first to recognize that social interactions among workers create learning opportunities that enhance productivity and organizational citizenship behaviour. A growing theoretical literature has since then built on this idea and proposed models where human capital externalities are the main engine of economic growth of any nation. Concurring to this finding is that of Jack and Jone, (2013) research findings that failed to approve the educational level as a determinant of employees‘ OCB. Based on the available results, there is not a statistical relationship between education and OCB. Furthermore, Yaghoubi et al, (2010) in their research have showed that educational status has no statistical relationship with OCB which also coroborates this finding. Nevertheless, Dolan et al (2013) in their study concluded that there is a meaningful negative relationship between OCB and its dimensions with educational 16 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY level. This further concretizes this finding. Contradicting this finding is that of Nadiri and Tanova, (2010) which indicated that educational status has a positive and meaningful statistical relationship with OCB. From the above analogy, it is believed that level of education is expected to have a positive relationship with organizational commitment as well as OCB but reverse is the case here. The rationale for this assertion may be that people with low levels of education generally have more difficulty changing jobs and therefore show a greater commitment to their organizations as well as exhibiting pro-social behaviour in their workplace and vice versa. Glisson and Durick (1988) have reported findings consistent with this rationale. Nevertheless, educational status does not portray any worker to be altruistic, helpful and pro-social but being altruistic, helpful and pro- social is a question of natural traits. Hypothesis nine states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ religiosity and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. It therefore projects that religiosity is not being significant in the exhibition of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. From this finding, it may be permissible to opine that the reason for this may be due to personal belief system that has edge over religious indoctrinations. In contrary to this finding is the opinion of Alcorta and Sosis (2008) who argue that repeated engagement in public and private ritual enhances and can even create religious beliefs (which permeates into the world of work): Ritual, by employing the same psychological processes that translate value laden actions into attitudinal changes in the workplace, is the mechanism through which religions maintain belief among adherents…self-perception or cognitive dissonance processes will cause nonbelievers to either modify their belief or discontinue the ritual actions and as a result engage in helping behaviours in workplace. Commitment fostered by beliefs, and beliefs fostered by commitment, minimizes the monitoring and enforcement costs related to free-riding, and allows religious groups to overcome the problems of collective action (Sosis & Alcorta 2003; 16 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Sosis 2000). Sosis and colleagues have conducted studies and collected data in support of the hypothesis that religion promotes cooperation. For example, Sosis and Ruffle (2006) conducted field experiments in Israeli kibbutzim using a common-pool resource game to test their hypothesis that shared ideological commitment and participation in communal rituals would be positively associated with cooperative behaviour in the experimental games which is one of the elements of altruistic and citizenship behaviour. They found that members of the organization ‗collectivized kibbutzim‘ exhibited higher levels of cooperation when their partner was identified as a fellow group member than when paired with non-kibbutznik city residents or members of privatized kibbutzim, and as compared to pairings of fellow privatized kibbutz members though their finding is not in consonance with this finding. Furthermore, higher levels of cooperation occurred between fellow male members of collectivized religious kibbutzim compared to fellow male members of collectivized secular kibbutzim. In their conclusion, Sosis and Ruffle argue that, ―the inherent link between unverifiable beliefs and ritual actions enables religious ideologies to enhance intra-group cooperation and cohesiveness more effectively than their secular counterparts can‖ but in reference to this finding, reverse is the case. The workers religious belief did not positively impact on their altruistic behaviour in the workplace. Also in disagreement with Soler, (2008) who conducted field experiments using a public goods economic game among Brazilian Candomble practitioners, consistent with the costly signalling theory of religion and Soler‘s results showed that higher scores on a religious commitment scale were positively correlated with more cooperative behaviour in the economic game. While scores on the subscale of ―personal religiosity‖ were not predictive of individual offers in the games, measures on the ―group commitment‖ subscale were positively related to individual offers. In discussion of the results of his studies, Soler maintains that his findings are supportive of the thesis that, ―ritual functions as a reliable signal of an individual‘s willingness to cooperate with members of their own group…otherwise helping behaviour in the workplace, it is the public aspects of ritual that are important to cooperation because that are more open to inspection and easily monitored‖. Similarly, Bulbulia (2005) has developed a rather sophisticated theory of religion‘s role in altruism and reciprocity based on game theoretic concepts and models. Bulbulia also sees religious behaviours primarily as costly, and thus reliable, 17 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY signals of commitment and altruistic intent. Religious behaviours are advertisements that allow reciprocators or co-operators to find each other. Integral to his theory is that belief in the supernatural, what Bulbulia calls ―supernatural cognition‖ is an evolved human psychological adaptation whose function is to ―facilitate efficient solutions to otherwise difficult or intractable co-ordination problems‖. This finding contradicts bulbullia‘s finding. Religious individuals are motivated to altruism from their beliefs in the retributive powers of super naturals who oversee human affairs. In the language of game theory, Bulbulia explains that: Belief in gods capable of altering individual fortunes promotes efficient play by prompting the motivational structure to produce strategically co-operative behaviour. The sacrifice of the defection pay-off is understood as a kind of investment, the god acting to ensure desirable outcomes through supernatural causation. Greater religiosity was associated with higher job satisfaction and was a significant predictor of organizational commitment and OCB (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005) but this finding is not inconsistence with theirs. Fernando and Jackson (2006) suggest that the traditions of the world‘s major religions have endured the test of time and note that the values inherent in those religions may be relevant to the management of modern organizations. Most religions and the consequent religious beliefs incorporate strong teachings about appropriate ethical behaviours. These have often guided organizational managers on the moral and ethical guidelines needed in order to resolve ethical dilemmas their organizations faced (Weaver & Agle, 2002; Turnipsed, 2002). It is the opinion of the researcher that the tenets of religiosity should be brought to limelight in the world of work to promote healthy inter/intrapersonal, pro- social, helping and altruistic behaviours in order to boost organizational productivity. To consolidate such position therefore, Harpaz (2002) found that religious individuals have indicated higher scores on work centrality, demonstrating that work held a more central role in their lives than their non-religious counterparts and as a result they tend to be more altruistic, pro-social and helpful to both their colleagues and organization they work for. Extant research therefore considers religion as an important mechanism for increased organizational performance, and a spiritually minded workforce as having better work attitudes than the atheists which will definitely impact o the workers‘ citizenship behaviour (Chusmir & Koberg, 1988; Lynn et al., 2011). 17 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Contrary to this finding, the adherents who are committed to their religious ideals have been inspired to show positive work attitudes such as co-operation and loyalty, obedience, commitment and dedication to their organizations (Ntalianis & Raja, 2002), exhibited more pro-organizational behaviours (Gyekye & Salminen, 2008; Kutcher et al., 2010) and limited antisocial or counterproductive work behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja, 2002). Additionally, membership or affiliation with religious groups provides a mechanism by which individuals establish a highly valued social network (Myers, 2000), which is important for the shaping of societal values and norms, and for ethical decision making at the workplace (Weaver & Agle, 2002). Hypothesis ten states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ organizational tenure and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. This finding, by implication, depicts that the number of year the organization has been existing, has no significant predictive effect on the workers citizenship behaviours. The reason for this may be due to the altruistic and helping gestures not being presented to the staff in form of in-service training and retraining and the staff may want to reciprocate back by being not committed, regular in the workplace as well as not exhibiting pro-social behaviour to the other colleagues and the organization as a whole. This finding is not in concurrence with the research results of Morrison (1993) which revealed that executives over the tenure of 10 years show significantly high level of Organizational citizenship behaviour than the executives of tenure less than 3 years. The result is also disimilar to the results of O‘Reilly and Chatman (1986) and Morrison (1993); who have also reported that longer tenured employees performed more extra-role activities. Moreover, Meyer and Allen (1991) found positive correlation between organizational tenure and organizational commitments which will prompt the exhibition of OCB which this finding contradicts. Furthermore, committed employees value their membership in the organization and often develop expectations of continuity as well as exhibiting 17 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY citizenship behaviour. It is argued that committed employees are more likely to engage in behaviours that enhance their value and support the organization. Several empirical studies have tested the link between organizational tenure and OCB but reverse is the case with this finding. Researchers found that affective commitment correlated positively with self-report measures of OCB (Meyer, Allen & Smith, 1993; Chen et al., 1998). Two meta-analytic studies conducted by Organ and Ryan (1995), and Podsakoff et al. (2000) also reported the positive relationship of affective commitment and OCB. It is expected that organizational tenure positively influence the organizational citizenship behaviour through increasing the organizational commitment of executives as well as the rank and file which this finding negates. Hypothesis eleven hypothesizes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ job cadre and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. This informs that the category of job (either executive or rank and file) does not predict the staff‘s ability to exhibit citizenship behaviour. This depicts that being executive or rank and file does not make you to be altruistic, helpful, pro-social as well as engaging in extra-role behaviours in the world of work. This finding is in concordance with the study of Yaghoubi et al, 2010 who conducted research among the employees of hospital which divided the staff into 3 categories including medical, paramedical and administrative staff; and found that there is a statistical relationship with the profession (work category) of hospital employees and their OCB. In contrast with their primary conception about the different work groups from OCB showed that administrative staff have most favourable OCB in the studied hospital which followed by paramedical and finally medical employees. Nevertheless Yaghoubi et al, have concluded that employment status has not a statistical relationship with OCB. This really consolidates this finding. For clarity sake, a cadre comprises persons who have been adjudged suitable and recruited to hold a group of positions requiring similar skills - technical, professional and/or administrative; within a Service there may be more than one grade arranged vertically according to the level of responsibility (Administrative Reforms 17 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Commission, 1969). A Service represents a group of posts belonging to a distinct functional area arranged in a hierarchical order representing different grades or levels of responsibility. All the posts in the Service carry the same functions involving specific skills. They are thus uni-functional. They only differ in rank and status corresponding to given levels of responsibility attached to different grades of posts. The hierarchical arrangement of posts along with the pay scales attached to different grades constitutes what may be called a cadre and the arrangement itself is known as a cadre structure. Hypothesis twelve states that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria. The results from Table 4.1 showed that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and organizational citizenship behaviour of NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted in favour of alternative hypothesis and the researcher concludes that there is no significant relationship between the workers‘ marital status and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff. This connotes that workers‘ marital status does not have a predictive value for elicitation of altruistic, helping and pro-social behaviour in the workplace. According to this finding, being single or married is not traceable to being helpful, pro-social and altruistic to the co-workers as well as the organization. This finding coroborates the study of Jack and Jone (2013) who found that marital status had been found not to have a significant relationship with exhibition of OCB. These findings showed that single and married employees do not have same OCB in their workplace. Also in concordance to this finding is that of Yaghoubi et al., (2010) in their research which showed that marital status has no statistical relationship with OCB. However, this finding is in contrary with that of Iranzadeh and Asadi (2009), in their study among the employees of Mohagheghe Ardabili University, found that marital status has statistical relationship with OCB (Iranzadeh & Asadi, 2009). This diversity may be due to the nature of the organization, background of the participants, economic status, and others. Research Question 1 states that what is the joint contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence, religiosity and social innovation, including the demographic factors to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South West, Nigeria? Table 4.2 showed that the prediction of all the twelve independent variables to the dependent variable is significant. That is, Organizational 17 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff correlated positively with the twelve predictor variables. The table also shows a coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.799 and a multiple R square of 0.636. This means that 63.6% of the variance in the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of NSCDC staff in South Western Nigeria is accounted for by all the twelve predictor variables, when taken together. The significance of the composite contribution was tested at p<0.05 using the F- ratio at the degree of freedom (df = 12/1562). The table also shows that the analysis of variance for the regression yielded a F-ratio of 230.03 (significant at 0.05 level). This implies that the joint contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable was significant and that other variables not included in this model may have accounted for the remaining variance. In other words, irrespective of the individual predictive effect, they can jointly induce helping, altruistic and pro-social behaviours in the world of work. Research Question 2 states that what is the relative contribution of creativity, leadership behaviour, social intelligence and social innovation, and the demographic factors on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff in South-West, Nigeria? Table 4.3 reveals the relative contribution of the twelve independent variables to the dependent variable expressed as beta weight. The partial correlation coefficients of organizational tenure, job cadre, leadership behaviour, and religiosity have negative relationship on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff. The positive value of the effects of creativity, social innovation, gender, age, educational level, job tenure, social intelligence, and marital status implies that the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among NSCDC staff is actually determined by positive reinforcement of these eight variables. Using the unstandardized regression coefficients to determine the relative contributions of the independent variables to the explanation of the dependent variable social innovation (B=0.691) is the most potent contributor to the prediction followed by age (B=0.389) followed by gender (B=0.274) followed by educational level (B=0.212) followed by organizational tenure (B= 0.189) followed by creativity (B= 0.147), followed by job tenure (B= 0.072), followed by social intelligence (B= 0.037) and followed by job cadre (B= -0.038) followed by marital status (B = 0.005) followed by leadership behaviour (B = -0.001) and finally followed by religiosity (B = -0.008) in that order. The reasons for this are inexhaustible ranging from various issues earlier raised such as work motivation, 17 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY managing complex social issues, positive behavioural dispositions by the leaders, in- service training and retraining, imbibing positive religious value and belief system, etc. Conclusions from the Findings The study investigated the multianalytic factors predicting the organizational citizenship behaviour of personnel of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC). The study employed descriptive survey with expo facto type. Data collected were analyzed using Multiple Regression Analysis as the appropriate statistical tool. Based on the findings of this study, conclusions are drawn as follows: 1. It was found that workers‘ creative ability can predict organizational citizenship behaviour in NSCDC. 2. It is also noteworthy that leadership behavioural disposition and/or leadership styles adopted by the leader predisposed the staff of NSCDC to exhibit OCB. 3. It was discovered that being socially intelligent was also significant in predicting the personnel of NSCDC to engage in OCBs. 4. It was also found that personnel‘s social innovation could predict organizational citizenship behaviour in NSCDC. 5. The researcher also identified social innovation as most potent predictor of OCBs in NSCDC. 6. Likewise age, gender and job tenure are also found potent to predispose the personnel of NSCDC to exhibit OCBs. 7. Religiosity, job cadre, orgnisational tenure, educational level and marital status are not potent in predicting the NSCDC staff to exhibit OCB in the workplace. Implications of the Findings The study has numerous implications as the issue of organizational citizenship st behaviour is highly germane to the survival of organizations in this 21 century. The factors examined play vital roles in the contemporary organizations. Creativity, that was found to be significant in the exhibition of extra-role, altruistic and pro-social behaviours in the world of work, has to be stressed by the organizational as well as counselling psychologists. That the employees have to be creative in their approach to 17 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY addressing work related issues and challenges. They need be creative to break new frontiers in the world of work. The staff of the NSCDC must also crave for knowledge to be creative so as to meet up with the global standard of operations in the contemporary world. Moreover, the staff of the NSCDC in general and in particular must keep abreast the fact that general intelligent quotient is not enough to survive in the world st of work in this 21 century but they need to be able to negotiate complex social issues as well as work challenges that may arise in the course of their statutory duties, therefore emotional quotient come to play. They should be aware that they need to empathize in almost all cases at hand. Therefore the need for social intelligence training arises. Being socially intelligent is indispensable for success in the world of work. The organizational leadership must also be aware of this fact and work towars imparting such knowledge into the employees as a whole. Ability of the workers to better, efficient and effective solutions to the societal and workplace challenges is also germane in the workplace. This implies that the personnel of NSCDC must be able to do extra ordinary things to surpass their counterparts in services. The personnel need to excell other agencies through surpetition which means that other better alternatives to solving societal and job challenges need to be adopted. The existing convention and statusquo must be radically approached. Therefore the need for being socially innovative is imperative. We must come out from the conventional way of addressing social vices in our society and world of work and create more effective, efficient and pragmatic methods of approaching such. In addition, the leaders must be aware that they need not there to exert authority on the led alone but they must be humane in the discharge of their statutory and God-given assignment. Their leadership styles should not be work-centered alone but also human-centered depending on the situation at hand. They need to be eclectically in the selection of their leadership styles as no single style is enough but all leadership styles must be explore for better performance and that result-oriented services will be achieved. They must be aware of the fact that a tree cannot make a forest; the rank and file also plays vital roles in meeting the work target as well as 17 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY achieving the organizational set goals. Therefore, leadership behaviour must be properly streamlined though training in order to achieve maximally in due course. Furthermore, the place of religiosity cannot be overemphasized in order for the st organization to survive and be successful in this 21 century. Religious belief system has been proved to influence the workers‘ behaviour in the workplace. We must be aware that being religious is pivotal to behavioural dispositions in the workplace. The personnel who are committed to their religious injunctions tend to exhibit pro-social, helping and altruistic behaviour in the world of work. They also have the tendency to display loyalty to their immediate supervisor as well as the organization as whole. Therefore all hands must be on deck to synergize and harness all available resources and opportunity to improve the religiosity of the personnel in other to achieve the organizational goals as well as boosting the exhibition of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Leaving no stone unturned, the counselors/counselling psychologists, organizational psychologists must note that demographic constructs captured in this study are really likely to influence the workers‘ ability to exhibit citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Such variables include age, gender and job tenure while educational level, organizational tenure, marital status, religiosity and job cadre are not likely to influence the workers‘ ability to exhibit OCB in the world of work. It must be stated categorically, at this juncture, that research is dynamic and as a result, demographic constructs that were not significant in this study may be so in another study. Therefore, they are also germane and should be treated as such in their dealings with the personnel in order to improve citizenship behaviour in the world of work. The reason for this assertion is adduced to the fact that these variables contributed both jointly and relatively to predicting the NSCDC staffs‘ citizenship behaviour in the workplace. To this end, this study has implications for all the stakeholders in the organization as well as the society at large. They include the organizational leaders/followers, counselling psychologists, organizational psychologists, educational psychologists, administrators, policy makers, social workers/scientists, government‘s Ministries, Departments, Agencies (MDAs) and government functionaries and so on. This implies 17 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that all the issues raised here are germane to all and sundry in various callings and so should be noted. Recommendations of the Study The study confirms further that citizenship behaviour is highly indispensable to the survival and success of organizations in the global world in general and Nigeria in particular. Therefore, it is highly recommended that all the stakeholders both within and without the NSCDC should explore all the means to integrate the value/tenets of organizational citizenship behaviour into the system they belong. This will go a long way to boost productivity, job performance, commitment, loyalty and acceptability of the organization. Arising from the diverse implications from the study, attention of the policy makers and work schedule facilitators in the NSCDC should be drawn to the importance of being creative in the world of work in order to exhibit altruistic, helping, extra-role and pro-social behaviours in the course of discharging their statutory duties in the workplace. It should further be noted that creativity is the soul of business here. Another obvious finding in the study points to the direction of social intelligence as a viable predictor of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. This informs that there is the need to be socially intelligent in their day-to-day activities in the world of work. This implies that the staff have to be able to manage and negotiate complex social relationship in the workplace. Being able to do this effectively requires that they need to be exposed to certain social intelligence training that will enable them to recognize and manage their own emotion and that of others so that both intra and interpersonal relationships will be cordial. This will induce the exhibition of helping, altruistic, extra-role and pro-social behaviour in the world of work. Social innovation also proved to be significant in predicting workers to engage in citizenship behaviour in the workplace. This involves introducing a more radical, effective, efficient and pragmatic methods in confronting social vices/challenges in the society in general and in the workplace in particular. Developing understanding and capability to do this requires that encouragement should be provided by both the 17 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY government and the organization in question. Likewise the internal stakeholders like counselling psychologists, organizational leaders and policy makers should note this. If this recommendation can be observed to the letter, citizenship behaviour will surely be boosted in the world of work. The researcher strongly recommends that organizations must break forth from conventional way of approaching work and societal challenges. Furthermore, leadership behaviour proved to be potent in predicting extra-role behaviour in the workplace. This depicts that attitudinal dispositions of the leaders at all levels account for the followers‘ adherence to the organizational rules, work ethics and other embellishments in the workplace. Therefore, it is highly recommended that leaders should checkmate their behaviours in the workplace. They need to be aware of the fact that both top-down and bottom-up management approach are germane to workers‘ display of citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Likewise, their leadership styles should be all encompassing as sticking to only one style may be injurious to the workers‘ emotions and therefore find it difficult to render helping hands to their co- workers talk less the organization as a whole. The leaders should be more humane and tactical in their interaction with their subordinates. The researcher also recommends that all the demographic constructs (age, job tenure and gender) found to be significant in this study are strictly observed in the process of policy formation so as to encourage the workers to imbibe citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Peculiarities of the Study Actually, a number of research works have been carried out on organizational citizenship behaviour both locally and in diaspora. The researcher delved extensively into the literature but could not find any work being carried out in the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC). Though there are studies in the area of citizenship behaviour in the field of Counselling Psychology but the work was an experimental study while this study is a survey study. Besides, the participants of both studies are different. Specifically therefore, the study examined the predictors of citizenship behaviour among the personnel of NSCDC in South Western Nigeria and found creativity, leadership behaviour, social innovation, social intelligence, age, organizational tenure, marital status, job tenure, educational level and gender to be 18 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY potent predictors of exhibiting citizenship behaviour in the world of work. This study is peculiar because it offers additional focus on possible effect of all the aforementioned factors as being significant in predisposing the NSCDC staff to exhibit altruistic, helping, pro-social and extra-role behaviour in the workplace. In addition, the study establishes that a demographic variable and a sociological construct examined are not significant in predicting citizenship behaviour in the workplace. Such variables include job cadre and religiosity. Nevertheless, they have contributed both jointly and relatively in predicting the participants to exhibit citizenship behaviour in the world of work. It is also noteworthy that this study is peculiar because it negates other studies that proved religiosity as a predictor of work commitment and elicitation of OCB in the workplace. Limitation of the Study Despite the fact that this study discovers some salient points as regards the workplace behaviour, there still exist some limitations which need to be brought to the limelight to actually gain insight into the study. The study covered only the South West geo-political zone of Nigeria whereas it is needful in the whole country. As such, only 2000 participants were randomly selected from the target population but 1,696 questionnaires were retrieved from the participants. Specifically, out of the total population of about 9,369 personnel in South-West, Nigeria, 1,696 participated in the study. Though this number is acceptable for survey study but larger number could be preferred. Moreover, since creativity, social intelligence, social innovation, leadership behaviour and religiosity are not exclusive competences of an ethnic group, delineating the study to the South-West, Nigeria which has a preponderance of a particular ethnic group is a limitation; as such the researcher could have considered ethnicity as a variable in the study despite its sensitivity. In addition, despite the provision of incentive to the participants during the course of administering the instruments, it was difficult to get all the questionnaires sent out back. The instruments that were not returned were excluded from the study. However, the rate of attrition was insignificant to the study. Finally, inadequate resources such as fund also limited this study. Despite all these limitations, the study is still able to validate the rationale for the study. 18 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Generalizability of the Study It is an indisputable fact that citizenship behaviour is highly germane to the survival and success of corporate organizations in Nigeria and the stakeholders are aware of this, hence, the need to put such in place or otherwise boost such behaviour in the personnel that are in the system. Based on this premise, the results of the study can be generalized. Although, findings may apply to the selected staff of NSCDC in South West, Nigeria, nonetheless, they are largely applicable to other NSCDC personnel in other geopolitical zones in Nigeria as well as other services in Nigeria and beyond since no one will prefer to be disengaged. In other words, the findings could be generalized to other staff in other services such as Nigeria Custom Service, Nigeria Immigration Service, Nigeria Prison Service, Nigeria Fire Service, and Nigeria Police and so on. This is so because the results had got many previous studies in its support. Even, in areas where the findings are at variance to the existing studies, the reasons are logically presented for defense. Moreover, the sampling approach and procedure are devoid of any bias that could render the outcome restricted. Also, the medium of expression during the study was English Language in a simple style; this was deliberate to ensure comprehension without complexity such that items and messages are well-understood by the respondents. Contributions to Knowledge The contributions this study made to knowledge are as follows: 1. On a general note, this study has added to existing literature on organizational citizenship behaviour, and brought to limelight, some salient information about the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) personnel‘s citizenship behaviour in the workplace, which has raised some critical issues that could form the basis for other research investigations in the field of Counselling Psychology, Organizational Psychology and beyond. 2. The employees who are highly creative tend to exhibit helping, altruistic, pro-social and extra-role behaviours in the world of work, and those whose creative ability is latent could be helped since creativity has proved to be potent for predicting citizenship behaviour in the workplace. 18 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3. Being able to negotiate complex social relationships by the workers proved to be potent in predicting their citizenship behaviours in the workplace which in turn will boost the organizational productivity, performance and acceptability. 4. It has also helped to understand that leadership behaviour goes a long way in predisposing the NSCDC staff to exhibiting helping, pro-social, altruistic and extra-role behaviours (organizational citizenship behaviour) in the workplace. 5. The study confirmed that social innovation is capable of influencing the workers‘ behaviour towards exhibiting citizenship behaviour in the world of work. 6. It has also proved that demographic variables like age, gender and job tenure have proved to be potent in predicting the NSCDC staff to exhibit OCB in the workplace. For instance, younger personnel tended to engage in citizenship behaviour compared to their older counterparts; male personnel tended to exhibit altruistic behaviour in the workplace than their female counterparts; personnel who had spent below 5 years on the job exhibit citizenship behaviour in the workplace than others which means the more they advance in years of service, the less they tend to exhibit citizenship behaviour. 7. This study has also confirmed that job cadre might not determine whether the workers will exhibit citizenship behaviour or not in the world of work. 8. Furthermore, the study has also intimated that being religious might not really influence the ability to exhibit citizenship behaviour in the workplace. 9. It has also been discovered that organizational tenure, educational level and marital status could not predispose the NSCDC personnel to exhibiting citizenship behaviour. 10. On the last note, the study has provided empirical data for Counselling Psychologists, Organizational Psychologists, Social Workers and other professionals to understand better issues regarding organizational citizenship behaviours in the world of work. 18 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Suggestions for further Studies It is suggested that similar study should be conducted in other geo-political zones in Nigeria. This may further give credence or scholarly critiques to findings in the study and verify the level of consistency or otherwise of results. A further research involving more and other variables outside this set is advocated for comparative analysis. In addition, this study could involve separate cadres, age range, economic status, gender, educational level, etc for comparative analysis. Also, a replica study should be conducted with different target groups to find out if similar results would be obtained. 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Science Communication, 1(1), 82-105. 22 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX I The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS) State how each of the following statements describes you 1. Never describes me 2. Describes me extremely poorly 3. Describes me extremely well The social intelligence scale has three subsets. They are Social Skills (items 1, 3, 6, 9, 14, 17 and 19); Social Information (items 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18 and 20); Processing and Social Awareness (items 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16 and 21). S/N ITEMS 1 2 3 1. I can predict other peoples‘ behaviour 2. I often feel that it is difficult to understand others‘ choices 3. I know how my actions will make others feel 4. I often feel uncertain around new people who I don‘t know 5. People often surprise me with the things they do 6. I understand other peoples‘ feelings 7. I fit in easily in social situations 8. Other people become angry with me without me being able to explain why 9. I understand others‘ wishes 10. I am good at entering new situations and meeting people for the first time 11. It seems as though people are often angry or irritated with me when I say what I think 12 I have a hard time getting along with other people 13 I find people unpredictable 14 I can often understand what others are trying to accomplish without the need for them to say anything 15 It takes a long time for me to get to know others well 16. I have often hurt others without realizing it 17. I can predict how others will react to my behaviour 18. I am good at getting on good terms with new people 19. I can often understand what others really mean through their expression, body language, etc. 20. I frequently have problems finding good conversation topics 21. I am often surprised by others‘ reactions to what I do 22 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Religiosity Measures Questionnaire (Self) Instructions: The following questionnaire consists of seven multiple-choice items with one fill-in-the-bank item. Please answer the following questions by circling the appropriate letter for the multiple-choice items and providing the most accurate number the fill-in-the-blank question. 1. How many times have you attended religious services during the past year? times. 2. Which of the following best describes your practice of prayer or religious mediation? a. Prayer is a regular part of my life b. I usually pray in times of stress or need but rarely at any other time c. I pray only during formal ceremonies d. I never pray 3. When you have a serious personal problem, how often do you take religious advice or teaching into consideration? a. Almost always b. Usually c. Sometimes d. Never 4. How much influence would say that religion has on the way that you choose to act and the way that you choose to spend your time each day? a. No influence b. A small influence c. A fair amount of influence d. A large influence 5. Which of the following statements comes closest to your belief about God? a. I am sure that God exists and He is active in my life b. Although I sometimes question His existence, I do believe in God and believe He knows of me as a person c. I don‘t know if there is a personal God, but I do believe in a higher power of some kind d. I don‘t know if there is a personal God or a higher power of some kind, and I don‘t know if I ever will 22 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY e. I don‘t believe in a personal God or in a higher power 6. Which of the following statements comes closest to your belief about life after death (immortality)? a. I believe in a personal life after death b. I believe a soul existing after death as a part of a universal spirit c. I believe in a life after death of some kind, but I really don‘t know if I will ever know d. I don‘t believe in any kind of life after death 7. During the past year, how often have you experienced a feeling of religious reverence or devotion? a. Almost daily b. Frequently c. Sometimes d. Rarely e. Never 8. Do you agree with the following statement, “Religion gives me a great amount of comfort and security in life.” a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree c. Uncertain d. Agree e. Strongly Agree Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 6S INSTRUCTIONS: This questionnaire provides a description of your leadership style. Twenty‐one descriptive statements are listed below. Judge how frequently each statement fits you. The word others may mean your followers, clients, or group members. KEY: 0 ‐ Not at all 1 ‐ Once in a while 2 = Sometimes 3 = Fairly often 4 = Frequently, if not always 1. I make others feel good to be around me................................................ 0 1 2 3 4 2. I express with a few simple words what we could and should do.......... 0 1 2 3 4 3. I enable others to think about old problems in new ways...................... 0 1 2 3 4 4. I help others develop themselves........................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 5. I tell others what to do if they wan t to be rewarded for their work. .... 0 1 2 3 4 22 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. I am satisfied when others meet agreed‐upon standards......................... 0 1 2 3 4 7. I am content to let others continue working in the same ways always. . 0 1 2 3 4 8. Others have complete faith in me........................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 9. I provide appealing images about what we can do................................. 0 1 2 3 4 10. I provide others with new ways of looking at puzzling things. ............ 0 1 2 3 4 11. I let others know how I think they are doing. ....................................... 0 1 2 3 4 12. I provide recognition/rewards when others reach their goals............. 0 1 2 3 4 13. As long as things are working, I do not try to change anything. ......... 0 1 2 3 4 14. Whatever others want to do is OK with me ......................................... 0 1 2 3 4 15. Others are proud to be associated with me. ........................................ 0 1 2 3 4 16. I help others find meaning in their work. ............................................. 0 1 2 3 4 17. I get others to rethink ideas that they had never questioned before...... 0 1 2 3 4. 18. I give personal attention to others who seem rejected.......................... 0 1 2 3 4 19. I call attention to what others can get for what they accomplish........... 0 1 2 3 4 20. I tell others the standards they have to know to carry out their work. .. 0 1 2 3 4 21. I ask no more of others than what is absolutely essential...................... 0 1 2 3 4 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 6S SCORING INTERPRETATION Factor 1 – IDEALIZED INFLUENCE indicates whether you hold subordinates‘ trust, maintain their faith and respect, show dedication to them, appeal to their hopes and reams,and act as their role model. Factor 2 – INSPIRATIONAL MOTIVATION measures the degree to which you provide a vision, use appropriate symbols and images to help others focus on their work, and try to make others feel their work is significant. Factor 3 – INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION shows the degree to which you encourage othersto be creative in looking at old problems in new ways, create an environment that istolerant of seemingly extreme positions, and nurture people to question their own valuesand beliefs of those of the organization. Factor 4 – INDIVIDUALIZED CONSIDERATION indicates the degree to which you showinterest in others‘ well‐being, assign projects individually, and pay attention to those who seem less involved in the group. 22 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Factor 5 – CONTINGENT REWARD shows the degree to which you tell others what to do in order to be rewarded, emphasize what you expect from them, and recognize their accomplishments. Factor 6 – MANAGEMENT‐BY‐EXCEPTION assesses whether you tell others the job requirements, are content with standard performance, and are a believer in ―if it ain‘t broke, don‘t fix it.‖ Factor 7 – LAISSEZ‐FAIRE measures whether you require little of others, are content to letthings ride, and let others do their own thing. Creativity Scale of Success Potential Battery (SPB) (Animasahun, 2007) Instructions: Here are statements that describe how creative and innovative you are on the job you are doing. Base on your current behaviour, how creative would you rate yourself for each of the following items using the below format? 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree 1. I like to generate new ideas all the time _____ 1 2 3 4 5 2. I am always thirsty for new knowledge. _____ 1 2 3 4 5 3. I feel tired doing the same thing all the time _____ 1 2 3 4 5 4. I keep myself busy doing something all the time ____ 1 2 3 4 5 5. I am original in all things I do _____ 1 2 3 4 5 6. I copy what my predecessors did because the legacy must no die _____ 1 2 3 4 5 7. I have never ventured into doing anything that has utility or value _____ 1 2 3 4 5 8. I am highly inquisitive _____ 1 2 3 4 5 9. I bother to look critically at what people don‘t normally notice _____ 1 2 3 4 5 10. I have turned many of my life problems into gainful ventures _____ 1 2 3 4 5 11. I never bothered to restructure old ideas to new ones _____ 1 2 3 4 5 12. I have great determination on anything I lay my hand on ___ 1 2 3 4 5 13. I have never done anything special to impress or to benefit people _____ 1 2 3 4 5 14. I am too much in a hurry to pay attention to details _____ 1 2 3 4 5 15. People marvel and admire me for my unusual contributions in groups _____ 1 2 3 4 5 16. I am rather enthusiastic than being bothered about my life‘s problems _____ 1 2 3 4 5 22 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 17. I always strive to let people benefit from my endeavours _____ 1 2 3 4 5 18. I am afraid of taking risks_____ 1 2 3 4 5 19. I strive to bring order into a chaotic situation _____ 1 2 3 4 5 20. I am always attracted to difficult, disorderly and ambiguous situation_____ 1 2 3 4 5 21. I often find faults and criticize what people do ______ 1 2 3 4 5 22. I like to be lonely at times to devote time for thinking _____ 1 2 3 4 5 23. I am a non-conformer and so I disagree with what people say many times ___ 1 2 3 4 5 24. It is not good to question orders of superiors _____ 1 2 3 4 5 25. I am not afraid of making mistakes _____ 1 2 3 4 5 26. I am above average intelligence. _____ 1 2 3 4 5 27. A variety of ideas to solve certain problems run through my mind _____ 1 2 3 4 5 28. I often run dry of ideas _____ 1 2 3 4 5 29. I find it difficult to start a discussion _____ 1 2 3 4 5 30. I can easily adapt something for other to use _____ 1 2 3 4 5 31. I don‘t care for what people say so far I am moving forward _____ 1 2 3 4 5 32. My contributions and introduction of unusual make me happy and healthy__ 1 2 3 4 5 33. I don‘t bother to be self actualized because God handles all things_____ 1 2 3 4 5 Social Innovation Scale This scale is designed, using social innovation indicators, working areas and barriers, to measure social innovation skills in the respondents. 1. I couple ideas with a need that is not being met in my daily official/non-official 1 2 3 4 5 dealings. 2. I develop a promising idea and test it in practice. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I scale up, replicate and adapt and otherwise diffuse an idea that has proved itself in practice. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I learn and adapt ideas into forms that may be very different from the original. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I am aware of new opportunities that are similar to what has already been done. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I am not limited by the existing frame works, routines, investments, cultural forms 1 2 3 4 5 and even expectations about what knowledge will be profitable in the future. 7. Knowledge is both a key drive and barriers to the innovation process (Negative Item) 1 2 3 4 5 22 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 8. What I crave for is to deliver societal benefits other than the straight forward opportunity for economic enrichment e.g through reduced environmental impact or increased social inclusion. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I identify/develop ideology that drives grass root innovations and innovators. 1 2 3 4 5 10. I am an actor with new ideas, technologies, practices and culture outside or peripheral to the main stream practice. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I have a common homogenous desire with my organization to develop the most 1 2 3 4 5 effective solutions to societal problems. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I have ability to induce cooperation across multi-stakeholder environments 1 2 3 4 5 involved in societal problem. 13. I have the ability to network and collaborate with others in my workplace and 1 2 3 4 5 society at large. 14. I have the flair to develop new management skills, use innovative organizational 1 2 3 4 5 principles and realization of high quality work forms to increasing competiveness and productivity. 15. I share with others on the peer-to-peer platform. 1 2 3 4 5 16. I do align the users‘ needs with the services I provide. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I can create and maintain innovative organization principles (flexible organizing). 1 2 3 4 5 18. I can create dynamic capacities and different management roles in order to enhance the absorptive capacity of an organization. (Dynamic Management). 1 2 3 4 5 19. I have the ability to facilitate the employees in such a way that they can utilize and develop their talents. (Working Smarter). 1 2 3 4 5 20. I have tendency to skip the borders between departments. 1 2 3 4 5 21. I integrate the different tasks that have to be performed to produce an order (e.g Patient, Client, Student) into self-managing teams. 1 2 3 4 5 22. I can integrate instead of specialize performing, supporting and controlling tasks. 1 2 3 4 5 23. I have the ability to develop talent by means of a deep knowledge base. 1 2 3 4 5 24. I can devise a variety in the management team of expertise. 1 2 3 4 5 25. My team rewards a system which implies motivating and stimulating employees to market new innovations successfully. 1 2 3 4 5 26. I can recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it and apply it to commercial ends. 1 2 3 4 5 27. I have entrepreneurship ability through visionary leadership. 1 2 3 4 5 22 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 28. I have the ability to shift from vertical (top-down) coordination towards fostering and facilitating horizontal and vertical knowledge exchange. 1 2 3 4 5 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) by Fox, Spector, Goh, Bruursema, & Kessler ( 2012) Instructions: Please rate your colleague by using items below by ticking the number that you think is most appropriate. I strongly disagree 1 Disagree 2 Not sure 3 I agree 4 I Strongly agree 5 1. I Seek and accept responsibility at all times 1 2 3 4 5 2. I perform competently under pressure 1 2 3 4 5 3. I get a great deal done within the a set time frame 1 2 3 4 5 4. I readily accept more work 1 2 3 4 5 5. I could be expected to be in a position to start work at the appointed Time 1 2 3 4 5 6. I could be relied on to come every morning 1 2 3 4 5 7. I could be expected to maintain the work I do 1 2 3 4 5 8. I could be expected to attend work regularly and be punctual 1 2 3 4 5 9. I do not take days off without previously asking for them 1 2 3 4 5 10. I never deliberately work below my best even without supervision 1 2 3 4 5 11. I anticipate problems and develop solutions in advance 1 2 3 4 5 12. I assist others with their work 1 2 3 4 5 13. I innovate suggestions to improve the department 1 2 3 4 5 14. I do what is required of me and never volunteer for extra work 1 2 3 4 5 15. I help others who have heavy workload 1 2 3 4 5 16. I carry out functions that are not required of me but are of help to the Organization 1 2 3 4 5 17. I keep up with any new developments in the organization 1 2 3 4 5 18. I may stay at work for longer hours than the workday even without Compensation 1 2 3 4 5 23 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization 1 2 3 4 5 20. I talk favourably about the organization to other people 1 2 3 4 5 21. When in need, I will help work mates to complete tasks without having been told by management 1 2 3 4 5 Scoring The OCB uses a 5-point frequency scale ranging from 1 = Never to 5 = Every day. Scores are computed by summing responses across items. A total score is the sum of responses to all items. Subscale scores are the sum of items within each subscale. 23 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX II Approval letters from the NSCDC Authorities to conduct research in the covered state commands. 23 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY