2nd Edition
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
METHODOLOGY OF BASIC 
AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Second Edition
Edited by
A.I. Oiayinka,
V. O. Taiwo,
A. Raji-Oyelade and 
I. P. Farai
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Published by:
The Postgraduate School 
University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
E-mail: postgrad@mail.ui.edu.ng
Website: http://www.postgraduateschool.ui.edu.ng
Published 2006
All Rights Reserved 
ISBN 978 - 37883 - 9 - 6
Printed by: Dabfol Printers, Ibadan. 
0803-449-5517
it
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Contents
PAGE
Contributors iii
Foreword vii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
1. Definition, Spectrum and Types of Research
I. Fawole, F. O. Egbokhare. 0. A. Itiola.
A. I. Odejide and A. I. Olayinka 1
2. The Link between Everyday Reasoning, Scientific 
Reasoning, Scientific Research and Theory
S. A. Babarinde 19
3. Design and Development of Conceptual Frame 
work in Research
0. C. Aworh. J. B. Babalola, A. S. Gbadegesin,
1. M. Isiugo-Abanihe. E. O Oladiran and
F. Y. Okunmadewa 3 7
4. Preparing a Research Proposal
A. I. Olayinka and B. E. Owumi 53
5. Use of Logical Framew ork Approach in Research 
Proposal Writing For Grants
B.O. Agbeja 83
6. Systematic Collection of Data
G. A. T. Ogundipe, E. O. Lucas and A. 1. Sanni 95
7. Analysis of Qualitative Data
A. S. Jegede 113
8. Use of a Research Questionnaire
J. O. Osiki 133
xii
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
9. Statistical Analysis and Inferences.
E. A. Bamgboye, E. O. Lucas, B. O. Agbeja, G. 
Adewale, B. (). Ogunleye and I. Faw ole 151
10. Data Retrieval and Use of ICT in Research
O. A. Fakolujo 203
11. Use of Computers and the Internet for 
Research Purposes
O. A. Bamiro, A. E. Oluleye and M. A. Tiamiyu 215
12. Information and Document Retrieval on the
Internet
A. O. Osofisan 235
13. Writing a Phd Thesis
A. I. Olayinka and R. Oriaku 245
14. The University of Ibadan Manual of Style 
(UIMS) for Thesis Writing
A. Raji-Oyelade, T. O. Alonge and
E.O. Olapade-Olaopa 267
15. Ethics in Research
O. Obono, A. Arowojolu, A. J. Ajuw’on,
G. A. T. Ogundipe, J. A. Yakubu and
A. G. Falusi 281
16. Challenges in Conducting Research in 
Developing Countries
G.O.S. Ekhaguere, A. I. Olayinka, VO. Taiwo
T. O. Alonge and O.M. Obono 321
Appendixes 335
Index
xiii
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
16
CHALLENGES OF CONDUCTING 
RESEARCH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. I., Taiwo, V. O., 
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
INTRODUCTION
Some of the challenges in conducting research in developing 
countries are described in this Chapter. An example is given 
o f the problems faced in conducting biological and medical 
researches.
Notion of Research
Research can mean one or more o f the following activities: 
Free inquiry
Painstaking search for the truth no matter where it 
leads
U nfettered  in te llectual engagem ent aim ed at 
expanding the frontiers o f knowledge 
Unbiased recording and interpretation of events with 
a view to unveiling new facts or trends 
Knowledge mining o f systems in the universe
RESEARCH IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Research occupies a strategic position as it is more important 
in wealth creation than the mere possession of raw materials 
because the key to sustainable socio-economic development 
comprises knowledge creation, processing, packaging and 
dissemination. Nations with poor research capacity must expect 
to regress and become poorer, since knowledge is expensive, 
while raw materials, with no value added, are relatively cheap.
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320 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. /., Taiwo, VO.,
Alonge, T. O. andObono, O. M.
In that case, a vicious circle is set up: poverty gives rise to poor 
research capacity, which in turn generates more poverty.
Today, Universities around the world are differentiated 
by, among other criteria,
• the level of their involvement in research
• the type of problems they attempt to solve
• the impact of any results they obtain on their societies 
and the world at large
As a result, many universities take great pains to promote 
research through the structures and facilities they make 
available and the way they continually empower their staff 
and students to engage in cutting-edge research activities. 
Universities which pay only lip service to research must expect 
to decline and be relegated in the congregation of higher 
education institutions.
Strategies for Sustainable Research Activities
Some of the strategic initiatives needed include:
• Building research capacity and synergy through
Good and implemented institutional policy on 
research;
Providing the enabling environment for research; 
Enhancing the scope for intellectual, scientific 
discourse;
Making research a feature o f various levels of 
training;
Formulating and implementing strategic national 
research policies;
Prom oting in terdisciplinary/trans-disciplinary 
research collaborations;
Making institutional research announcements, high­
lighting selected new developments or directions; 
Networking/collaborative activities involving various 
partners: industries, other research institutions, etc; 
Packaging and dissemination of research products.
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Challenges of conducting research in developing countries 321
Obstructions to Research Activities in Developing Countries 
Attitudinal Issues
In their race to catch up with the developed countries overnight many 
developing countries fail to understand:
• the nature o f the research enterprise;
• the long gestation periods of many research activities: the 
products we see on shelves in markets have taken years to get 
to the public;
• the expensive nature of research;
• the speculative nature of research;
• the need for continual and uninterrupted research engagement, 
as a strategy for sustainable development;
• the imperative of seeing research as a veritable strategy for 
sustainable development.
Poorly Articulated, or Obscure National Priorities
At independence, several developing countries had some clearly stated 
national priorities although they had only a few indigenous researchers; 
ironically, some forty years down the road when the countries have 
many experts, they have no identifiable national priorities.
That research is not a priority in many developing countries is seen 
in the fact that many of them, like Nigeria, do not have crucial outfits 
such as: national science foundations to support mission-oriented 
research
Substantial Loss o f  Sovereignty by Many Developing 
Countries
Developing countries are mere puns on the chess boards o f foreign 
organizations like the: IMF, World Bank, Paris Club, and WTO which 
supervise their activities on almost a daily basis. This makes it difficult 
for developing countries to set meaningful national priorities.
Developing countries have been oriented to look outwards for 
turnkey solutions to their problem s, instead o f searching for 
autochthonous or endogenous solutions. This leads to the abandonment 
of, or ineffectual support for, research activities by many developing 
countries and poor states of research infra-structure in the form of
• libraries,
• laboratories,
• facilities/funds for field trips, surveys, etc, and
• ICT infrastructure, hindering connectivity to the global 
information pool.
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322 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. /., Tciiwo. VO.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
There is difficulty in obtaining vital data from statutory 
national agencies and
• data collection, structuring, and warehousing often 
not done to ensure quick retrieval;
• negligence in data collection and warehousing;
• poor, or no data security measures in place;
• data often of doubtful integrity owing to indolence, 
incompetence, corruption, etc;
• data often not timely; and
• official secrets act.
Mentoring o f  Young Researchers
Severe personnel constraints arising from bad policies 
invariably lead to competent persons not being available for 
mentoring; hence, there is a lack of poor interest in research 
by many young persons and incompetent mentors.
There are limited outlets for research works because:
• escalating international standards means that many 
young researchers cannot publish in international 
journals;
• cost of publishing in some international journals may 
be high, and unaffordable by researchers;
• cost of publishing in local journals is escalating;
• local journals are often obscure and hardly widely 
distributed;
• local journals have high mortality rates;
• many local journals have poor scholastic quality.
International experience is inadequate or vanishing because 
of lack of funds for conferences, fellowships, staff training, 
etc. These are mainly supported by foreign agencies, hence 
highly competitive, with conditionalities.
The consultancy syndrome has resulted in rushed data 
collection and analysis and data manipulation to meet clients’ 
expectations.
Collaboration/networking with foreign partners
Institutions in developing countries are seen by foreigner 
scientists as mere outposts for data collection, hence home 
scientists are relegated to the subordinate role o f data
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Challenges o f conducting research in developing countries 323
collection while the academic/intellectual role is assumed by 
the foreign partner.
Only data that support some predetermined position held 
by foreign partners are considered valid/acceptable and 
therefore, reports are prepared to conform with the views/ 
expectations of the foreign partners.
The wages of underdevelopment are manifested in
• Poor municipal and other facilities such as
- Electricity
- Water supply
- Roads and transportation and
- Lack of security.
• High inflation in the economy.
• Shifting economic paradigms (SAP, deregulation, etc).
• Widespread corruption
• Fake and adulterated products
Ethical Issues
Young researchers have little or no knowledge about the ethics 
of research, hence unethical practices in research are increasing 
in the form of
manipulation and falsification of data, 
reporting experiments that were never done, 
results that are not reproducible, 
lack of truth and trustworthiness in research
These arise from compromised peer-review system and 
unethical practices in the larger society
WTO/GATS/TRIPS and research
Commodification of knowledge 
Withdrawal/reduction of public support for research 
in higher education institutions 
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 
(TRIPS): patents, trademarks, and copyright issues 
Foreign domination of developing countries 
Emphasis will be on commercial research
Some fall-outs from the difficulties in doing research in
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324 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. I., Taiwo, VO.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
developing countries include the following:
Polemic responses to intellectual discourse 
Research is often merely mimetic, with no depth, 
. foundation or relevance: this means that research 
hardly addresses key development issues 
Poor quality of research output 
Progressive enthronement of mediocrity 
Brain drain
CONSTRAINTS TO ACADEMIC LINKAGES
The main obstacle to conducting research in developing 
countries can be attributed to inadequate institutional funding 
(Ekhaguere 2004). Arising from this are such other problems 
as the following:
poor teaching, learning and research environments, 
evident in the poor state of libraries, laboratories and 
the ICT infrastructure, 
poor living conditions of staff and students 
incessant strikes by university staff unions which lead 
to disruptions in academic calendars.
- It has been reported (Abubakar 2003) that the 
nationwide strike embarked on by the Academic 
Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) from January 
to May 2003 led to a financial loss of some N43.3 
billion.
- Other losses include the loss o f worth of our 
certificates, knowledge, skills and overseas’ 
scholarships.
inadequate resource provision for inter-institution 
cooperation
poor quality  s ta ff  (teaching , techn ical and 
administrative)
lack of scholarship and bursaries to the vast majority 
of students
poverty among students, leading to many cases of 
those who are registered as full-time students but 
are at the same time working full-time/part-time 
declining ethical and moral values, 
inadequate staff development activities, 
rising scourge o f the HIV/AIDS pandemic on
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Challenges of conducting research in developing countries 325
campuses,
poor state of campus facilities such as roads, water
supply, and electricity supply,
unsafe campus environment and endemic campus
violence,
poor campus sanitation.
The challenges in conducting research in Nigeria can be 
grouped into two main classes:
those caused by the proprietors, 
those that are self-inflicted.
The political and economic crises of the last 20 years or 
so have caused social dislocations, resulting in: 
inadequate funding, 
inadequate human resources, 
loss of the academic ideals, ethics and transparency.
Government has never treated universities as worthy 
partners. Universities are neither encouraged nor challenged 
,to play constructive roles in research and development, 
through generous discretionary funding from government. 
Nigerian universities as corporate bodies are hardly involved 
in projects that are sponsored by government.
In developed countries, universities are major contractors 
to government because they bid for projects that provide the 
basis for the knowledge that is to be used to move society- 
forward. Postgraduate students in turn work on the projects 
that are headed by their professors
Reforms are needed to recover the academic ideals, but 
these must be democratic in nature. These will entail:
• constructive criticism
• consultation
• participation in decision making by individuals and 
units
• academic freedom
What is required:
academic mentoring 
peer criticism
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326 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. Taiwo, VO.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
quality assurance in publications 
- definition of publications has been so lax in many 
cases, more so in these days of desktop publishing.
MENTORING
The word mentor can be employed to mean: 
a trusted counsellor, 
guide
tutor or coach
usually older (and/or more experienced) than the person being 
counselled, guided or tutored. The number of experienced 
academic staff who are willing to be mentors is grossly 
inadequate (table 1). The younger academic members are 
overworked and find little time for personal professional 
development beyond the required postgraduate degrees 
(Sonaiya 2004). Opportunities to attend learned conferences 
are limited
Table 14.1:
Distribution of academic staff by grade in the University of 
Ibadan, as at December 2003.
G ra d e N u m b e r  o f  s ta f f
A ss is ta n t L e c tu re r 101
L e c tu re r  II 253
L e c tu re r  I 2 2 2
S e n io r  L e c tu re r 295
R ead e r 2 7
P ro fe sso r 2 4 9
T o ta l 1147
Source o f  data: Osasona and Olayinka (2004) 
PASSION FOR RESEARCH
In order to produce excellent results, a researcher must believe 
passionately in what s/he is doing. There are reported cases 
of many academics even in developed countries of the world 
who have all the necessary facilities at their disposal, but who 
lost interest in any serious research once they obtained tenure 
(Spittler 2004). Conversely, there are many badly equipped
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Challenges o f conducting research in developing countries 327
researchers who work in an environment that is indifferent or 
hostile to their research, who still manage to do excellent work. 
The latter group ought to be encouraged and some of them 
may be interested in doing fundamental research. They most 
certainly need to network (e.g. by e-mail) with people who 
share similar opinion.
It would seem that from about 1985 till 2000 many young 
.scholars were not interested in having a career in universities 
or research institutes largely on account of the very poor 
salaries and lack of research facilities. Some of the most popular 
and imaginative slogans, developed by ASUU, and which 
members displayed on their office doors and as car stickers 
were “My take home pay cannot take me home”, “My boss is 
a comedian, the wages he pays is a joke”. I think the “boss” in 
the latter should in fact read “employer”. Employment within 
the Nigerian university system became very unattractive to 
most potential scholars. The private sector, especially the 
banking sub-sector and oil exploration and production 
companies offer much better attractions. In such circumstances 
it became very difficult for young scholars to have any enduring 
passion for research.
It might be encouraging to start an academic career if 
universities teaching and research are prestigious activities 
within the society. Even if the income prospects are lower 
than for persons engaged in the private sector, it may still be 
attractive to plan for an academic career. For example in 
Germany, a university professor ranks high in society. There, 
a university professor always ranks highest, followed by 
doctors and pastors, and far higher than politicians (Spittler 
2004).
STRENGTHENING COLLABORATION BETWEEN 
UNIVERSITIES
Some of the measures that can help in fostering inter-university 
collaboration include the following:
• strategic planning
• striving for excellence in teaching and research
• improving the ICT infrastructure
-  For a university to be in a position to compete
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328 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. l., Taiwo, VO.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono. O. M.
favourably in the present-day world, the need for 
a functional and robust website cannot be 
overemphasized
-  Apart from other information, it is necessary to 
showcase the reservoir of expertise that abounds 
within the university.
• improving the state of infrastructure on the campuses 
(roads, w ater supply, e lec tric ity  supply, 
telecommunication)
• regularizing the academic calendar
• improving ethical standards in teaching and research
• recognizing credits for studies abroad
• operating a functional international relations office
• internationalizing the curriculum
• dealing with policy and management issues
• broadening participation in regional initiatives (e.g. 
NEEDS, NEPAD, AGOA)
There is an urgent need to strengthen inter-university 
cooperation in Nigeria in order to promote academic mobility 
within the country. This will also foster national and 
international inter-university collaboration in research 
projects.
The following are some of the factors that may constitute 
obstacles to productive research.
Researcher’s Factors
• lack of conviction
• lack of focus
• unclear motives
• fear of failure
• poor motivation
Supervisor’s Factors
• lack o f interest
• poor mentoring
• poor remuneration
• frustrations
Institutional Factors
• poor motivation
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Challenges o f conducting research in developing countries 329
• unrealistic institutional policies
• lack of reward for excellence
• defective information system
• lack of commitment
• national factors!!!
Six Phases of a Research Project
• enthusiasm
• disillusionment
• panic
• search for the guilty
• punishment of the innocent
• praise for the non-participant
CHALLENGES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN 
BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL SCIENCES IN 
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 
Introduction
A significant number of research studies have been conducted 
in the developing w orld, as can be observed by the 
contributions to published scientific and biomedical literature. 
However, the results of most of such studies seem to be less 
likely to be published in international journals, particularly in 
influential scientific journals, compared with reports from 
similar institutions in developed countries. Allusions have been 
made, in some international and local circles, to the effect 
that studies and research for development in biological and 
medical sciences in the developing countries have been largely 
inefficient, ineffective and unable to attract commendable 
international acclaim worthy of say, Nobel Prize or such likes. 
This is due to the fact that they have been plagued by factors 
attributable to the following:
• There are usually no policy-driven quest for scientific 
research in the quantum needed, and neither are there 
incentives to create the enablement and zeal by 
scientists to carry out scientific research; Most of 
these countries prefer to import scientific results and 
technology at great cost.
• Many of these studies have not investigated major
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330 Ekhaguere, C. O. S., Olayinka, A. I., Taiwo, V.O.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
scientific and medical innovations aimed at solving 
national problems, but have focused on less significant 
problems, or at best a replication of studies carried 
out elsewhere.
• Most of the well-researched, result-oriented studies 
have been external donor-driven, usually catering to 
the priorities of donor agencies, instead of national 
priorities.
• The quality o f research in many instances is lower.
• The information generated from such researches have 
not been well documented, disseminated and put to 
use by policy- and decision-makers at all levels of 
governance and sectors of society.
The Challenges
Although there may be some substance in the above assertions, 
it is also true that in most developing countries, researchers 
have to do their work under extremely difficult conditions. 
The challenges facing these researchers can be grouped into 
four categories: the macro-environment, work environment, 
personal factors and the intrinsic and specific nature of 
biological and medical research.
The Macro-environment
A fundamental determinant of the level of scientific research 
capability and activity in developing countries is the general 
social, economic and political environment. Apart from lack 
of political will by leaders in most developing nations for basic 
scientific and applied research, prolonged military rule, natural 
disasters such as famine and drought, man-made disasters such 
as civil wars and wars w ith neighbouring countries, 
international economic recession and local administrative 
mishaps have changed (and continue to change) the socio­
economic landscape o f these countries. Such political, 
economic and social instabilities are obviously not conducive 
to fruitful research activities.
Another challenge is the lack of demand for (and social 
appreciation of) research from developing countries. Policy- 
and decision-makers do not demand and utilize results of most 
scientific findings. At best, when requested for, the results of 
the probably poorly funded researches end up in filing cabinets.
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Challenges o f conducting research in developing countries 331
In countries where there is a semblance of democratic rule, 
the public and politicians who represent them are not aware 
o f the utility of research. The main reason for this is a low 
level o f scientific culture, due to underdevelopment, high level 
of illiteracy and absolute poverty in these nations, especially 
in sub-Saharan Africa.
Resource allocation for scientific research from public 
funds is essential if  research is to be of use for national 
development. However, few governments in the developing 
world are willing to allocate a sizeable amount of resources 
for research in general and for biomedical research in particular. 
Because of limited funding from the public sector, researchers 
have a restricted choice of topics, and thus are frequently 
unable to institute research into wider problem areas. Where 
external funding is available, the objectives of investigations 
are usually dictated by donors, and results used for their own 
selfish ends.
The Work Environment
The research infrastructure in low-income countries is generally 
weak. Inadequate and insecure budgets, inadequate equipment 
and supplies and scarcity o f technicians and support staff are 
commonplace. Until recently, in areas where there is develop­
ment of internet-based information communication technology, 
limited access to up-to-date journals and books in their 
particular disciplines is probably the greatest challenge facing 
most researchers. Literature review is essential in order to be 
able to study the background to a particular research problem, 
to justify research proposals, to avoid ‘re-inventing the wheel’, 
and to write good reports. Particularly in Nigeria, the internet 
is expected to alleviate this problem, but research staff with 
computer and internet facilities are still in a small minority.
Because o f the low level of development o f human 
resources in biomedical sciences in developing countries, 
particularly in Nigeria, the number of skilled researchers is 
limited and the exchange o f experience between investigators 
is either impossible or is extremely limited.
Lack of, and if present, inadequate and poor infrastructural 
facilities such as uninterruptible power and water supplies are 
a bane to any scientific and biomedical research. The inept
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332 Ekhaguere, G. O. S., Olayinka, A. I.. Taiwo, V.O.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
national power supply and backup systems do not guarantee 
effective temperature-dependent research and storage of 
laboratory  reagents and b io log ica ls, not to talk  o f 
uninterruptible and timed research protocols. The loss and 
psychological frustration a scientist suffers when there is 
power outage during a research work or surgical operation 
are better imagined. Catastrophic losses have been and are 
still being encountered in avoidable destruction of valuable 
biologicals in most biom edical research laboratories 
nationwide. Frequent and epileptic power and water supplies 
have led to avoidable loss of sensitive scientific equipment in 
many laboratories. There is a dearth of modern equipment, 
and old ones when available are no longer serviceable because 
the manufacturers have long phased them out o f their 
production lines. The few modern equipment available are 
always jealously guided by their owners because of insecurity. 
In most universities, and notably Ibadan, there is no central 
research laboratory where maximum advantage of the few 
scattered equipment can be tapped and the over-blown well 
trained laboratory staff can be put into effective use.
Persona/ factors
Relatively low salaries and emoluments of researchers are a 
major and perennial problem in developing economies. This 
has forced a considerable number of most of the highly trained 
(mostly overseas trained) researchers and scientists to seek 
greener pastures either in developed countries or developing 
countries where the pay packet is bulkier. This is the popular 
brain-drain syndrome, which to date is still in force. Most of 
the few well-trained scientists who choose to remain at home 
devote substantial amounts of their time to other income­
generating activities such as private practice and consultancies 
instead of research.
The vast majority of the younger scientists who carry out 
research in developing countries, especially in Nigeria in the 
last 15-20 years, are products o f in-breeding by senior 
colleagues, who either studied here or at best enjoyed overseas 
training in the late 70’s or early 80's, when things were much 
better than now. This phenomenon has placed a lot of 
restrictions on the quality and quantity of scientific findings.
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Challenges of conducting research in developing countries 333
up-to-date equipment and infrastructural facilities for good 
research.
Insufficient training of staff working in scientific and 
medical laboratories, protocol development, fund soliciting, 
project execution and financial management is another 
challenge. Although these workers may be highly skilled in 
their respective disciplines, few have had the necessary training 
to plan and implement research projects.
Intrinsic Nature o f Biomedical Research
Biomedical research comprises of fields of study that are 
implicitly exact in their form and outlook. They are not only 
basic; most of the research results are applicable to life and 
living. In almost all cases, they determine life and death of 
persons, plants and animals; essentially life and existence on 
mother earth. No amount of semantics and philosophy can 
add to or remove from the significance of biomedical research 
findings. In essence, results of biomedical research may not 
be varied to suit purposes for which they are not intended. 
Hence, they require specialised equipment, well trained staff 
and a good and efficient work environment for good results.
Conclusion
The problems that have plagued research in biomedical 
sciences in most developing countries are not insurmountable. 
Despite the multitude of challenges facing them, probably the 
most important incentive for researchers in developing 
countries is their conviction that they are working in places 
where the need for their research is greatest, and that at some 
future date (hopefully soon) policy- and decision-makers will 
recognize the need for research and development in biomedical 
sciences as priority areas that need adequate resource 
allocation, and that the results of their research will be used 
to improve the living conditions of individuals, families and 
communities in these countries.
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334 Ekhaguere, G. O. S„ Olayinka, A. Taiwo, V.O.,
Alonge, T. O. and Obono, O. M.
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