Papers of
International Conference On
Two Hundred Years After Kant
(November 20-22,2004/ Tehran-Iran)
By /
Department of Philosophy,
Allame Tabataba'j .University
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Allame Tabataba'i University
Tehran 2005
ISBN 964-8415-30-7
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Cl'apersof International Conference On q'woj{~tufred 'Yearsftfter 7(fznt
(November 20-22, 20041 Tehran-Iran)
Edited By: Hamidreza Ayatollahy (ph. D)
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Contents
Introduction : 5
Kantian Disinterestedness and Postmodern
Geopolitics! Christopher Brown , 7
The formality of pure logic:' , .
I. Kant and G. Fiegel Yu.Chernoskutov 15
The Eschatology of Kant and '
Mulla Sadral Yanis Eshots 2S
The Teleology Of Freedom:
I Courtney David Fugate 33
The Two sides of I. Kant:! Bekele Gutema 47
Kant's Perpetual Peace and its Practical Actualization
!Simon Hoffding ~ : 65
Syncopating Kant: Jean-Luc Nancy's
Reading ofthe 1st Critique! Ian R James ~ 83
Kant's Philosophical Theology in his
Critique of Pure Reason! Christian Kanzian 101
Kant's Enlightenment Project,! Kassim 109
'How Are Synthetic Judgments a Priori Possible?
!Claus Langbehn ; t 17
Kant's Transcendent Imperative:/ Helen. Lauer 129
Radical Evil and Kant's Turn.toReltgton
!Joseph P. Lawrence.................................................................. 139
. The Concept of "Reality" in Kant's Critical Philosophy
I Markku Leppakoski 04 •••••••••••••••••••••••• 0. ••• 157
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4 International Conference On TwoHundred YearsAfter Kant
,.
Remarks on Lacanian Readings of Kant ,.•.
/ Dariush Moaven Doust 167
Kantian (History of) Reason and the Platonic
Tradition/ Johannes M. van Ophuijsen : 179
The Analogies of Experience as Key to Kant's
Transcendental Deduction! Gregg Osborne 191
Kant's Ideal of the University as a Model
for World Peace/ Stephen Palmquist , 207
The Logical Mechanism of
a Necessary Illusion/ Bogdan Popoveniuc 223
Ontological and Phenomenological Distinctness
in Kant's Refutation/ Scott Stapleford 231
A Critical Analysis of the Ground of Metaphysics
and All Other Ontologies/ Onuoha Sylvester , 241
l'A Critical Evaluation of Ghazzalian and KantianNotions of Mysticism .../ Ibrahim Olatunde Uthman 267
Kant' World and the World's Kant
/ Musa Wangfeng, Zhang Xiaoli : 283
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A Critical Evaluation Of Ghazzalian And Kantian
Notions Of Mysticism And Intuition,
An Islamic Perspective
Ibrahim OIatunde Uthrnan *
Abstract
This research is an attempt to study the relationship between
the Ghazzalian Lind Kantian thoughts on mysticism and
intuition from an Islamic perspective. This study is intelligible
when it is remembered that after Al-Ghazzali. mysticism in
Islam was not the same again and even though. Kant was not a
Mystic in the real sense of the word but his mystical notions
appear similar to that of al-Ghazzali on many points especially
on "mystical metaphysics. The study begins by tracing the
concept and development of mysticism in Islam. It also
enumerates some of the Muslim scholars who brought about
reconciliation between mainstream Islam or orthodoxy and
philosophical Sufism. One of whom and certainly the most
famous and acknowledged in the West is al-lmam al Ghazzali.
In addition, the study has traced the historical background of
both the Ghazzalian and Kantian philosophical and
metaphysical thoughts vis-it-vis mysticism and intuition. ltalso
unravels both the post Kantian and Ghazzalian trends in
mysticism and intuition. In doing. it has attempted to explain
some metaphysical concepts germane to their thoughts on
mysticism as popularly understood in the Ghazzalian and
Kantian schools. It finally ends up revealing that today
mysticism has become a euphemism for both laxity and
licentiousness. Most mystics today hide behind their esoteric
teachings to call for total or unwarranted liberalization of
religious observances in the name of promoting rettgtous
• "Department Of'Usul-Din And Comparative Religion Kulliyyah Of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge And Human Sciences, Intemational Islamic University,
Malaysia.
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268 International Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kant
understanding. As a result, there is perennial conflict in the
philosophical mystical camps. The study therefore opines that it
is the premonition of this problem that accounted for Kantian
. skepticism and Ghazzalian demolition 0.(philosophy.
***
Background To The Study
In order to examine Ghazzalian and Kantian thoughts on mysticism from
an Islamic perspective, it is important to understand the meaning and essence
of mysticism in Islam, trace its origin and development as well as some of its
major proponents and their efforts to bring it into conformity with Islamic
orthodoxy. The term mysticism is derived from the Greek verb muo, which
means silence or closing of the lips. Sufism is the term for mysticism in
Islam and is related to the Balin which implies "inward", "inner" and
"hidden" .: Sufis therefore see themselves' first of all as the noble guardians of
Asrar or Divine mysteries. It is by its confidential nature meant only for an
elected few. I In this sense-Sufism differs from Fiqh which is concerned.with
public religious practice of the Muslims.
In the light of the light of the above, Maududi, refers to Sufism as the
other side ofFiqh because while the former deals with the esoteric and inner
dimension of Muslim worship, the latter deals with the external dimension of
this worship.' This view is well expounded upon by al- Ghazzali in the lhyau
'ulum aI-din. It is also related to the element of Divine love or mahahbah
shared among His servants, not individualistic or sentimental. As explained
by al-Ghazzali, a true Sufi loves only God most High while loving others
because of his love of the Almighty and Sublime God. This love of God
implies absolute trust and confidence in God or tawwakul and the true Sufi
gives himself up to God "like a corpse in the hands of a corpse washer. 3
Sufism is also understood by Sufis as a path of Gnosticism or al-
ma'rifah. This explains why the Islamic mysticism has had a close
relationship with philosophy especially Shiite mysticism." For instance, al-
Farabi, who was also inclined towards a Sufi life, was the first celebrated
Islamic philosopher: Ibn Sina is another famous Islamic philosopher who
was greatly influenced by Sufism especially in his "al-hikmat al-
mashriqiyyah", In fact, chapter nine of his "al-Isharat wat-tanbihat"- which
is still taught in Persia-, contains a strong advocacy of the attainment of the
ultimate truth by Gnostics through the Sufi path. In short both Islamic
philosophers and Sufis have been concerned with the search for the ultimate
truth especially in the Twelve-fmamiyyah and Ismai 'liyyah schools.' lbn
Sina's notable student, Shihab ad-Din al-Suhrawardi created a new synthesis
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A Critical Evaluation Of Ghazzaliannnd Kantian Notions ... 269
of Islamic philosophy and Gnosticism. A Sufi right from his youth, al-
Suhrawardi later went on to master the philosophy of ibn Sina. He then
propounded a novel philosophical theory on the attainment of knowledge
through illumination and became the founder of the school of illumination or
al-ishraq. Mullah Sadra further developed this school.
Sufism can also. be perceived as a form of quietism as demonstrated by
Imam al-Ghazzali who stigmatized any form of revolt even if it is against an·
unjust and tyrannical ruler .. He went further to support the Caliphate-and
recognized the legitimacy of the Abbasids and even sanctioned its
suppression of any revolt against its authority." This could have been
induced by his philosophical interpretation of the relationship between the
mystic goal ofrefonn and political stability. Indeed. no reform can duly take
place in an environment characterized by wars and crises. Consequently,
many Sufis tend to reject in its totality the concept of Jihad while they call
for reform and restoration of the human conscience because the reform of the
hearts needs peace and stability in order for it to be effective and lasting.
At a stage in the history of Sufism, many Sufis strove to bring about a
coherent harmonization between Sufi practices and Islamic law and they
adopted the Qur'an and Sunnah as their guiding principles. Their focus was
the arcane dimensions of Sufism, its accessibility and conformity with
Islamic orthodoxy. The Kitab al-ri 'ayah (Book of consideration) by Abu
Abdillah al-Harith ibn Asad al-Muhasibi, who worked in Baghdad and
Basra, was one ofthe first manual written for a Sufi disciple. He expounded
upon the examination of the conscience as an effective tool for spiritual
advancement and purification.
Other books include are Kitab al-luma'. (Books of Concise Remarks) by
Abu Nasr Abdillah ibn Ali al-Sarraj, Kitab al-ta 'rruf(Book of knowledge)
by Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Kalabadhi, the Qut al-qulub (Nourishment of
the Heart) and the Kash 'al-mahjub (Unveiling of the veiled) by Hujweree
Ali ibn "Uthman. Abu al-Qasim 'Abdul Karim al-Qushayri also wrote his 01-
Risalah al- Qushayriyah, another manual in the Sufi path. AI the works went
a great length in revealing the legitimacy of Sufism. As Asharite scholars,
the authors proved that it was in tune with Asharite theology citing profusely
from the Qur'an, Hadith and other legal tradtions. One other effort that is
regarded as the culmination of the attempt to bring Sufism into conformity
with legal rulings is that of Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-
Ghazzali. .
Short Biographies Of AI-Ghazzali And Kant
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al- Ghazzali was born at Tus, a
city in Khurasan in Persia in 450/1058 and received a very good traditional
education first at Jurjan and later Nishapur the provincial capital where he
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270 International Conference. On Two Hundred Years After Kant
learnt the main principles of Ash 'arite Kalam at the feet of Imam al-
Haramayn Abu al~Ma'ali al -Juwayni. He held theAsh 'arite beliefs of the
Unity of God, the reality of Divine attributes distinguished from the essence
of God, the eternity of the Qur'an, Seeing the face of God by the blessed in
Paradise, the supremacy of revelation over reason and the legitimacy of the
succession of the Khulafa ar-rashidun. Owing to his conformity with the
legal rulings of the Shari'ah, al- Ghazzali also upheld an anti-Batinite
position at a time when the Ismaili state was still very strong in Fatimid
Cairo and spreading ·like fire through out the Middle East. He devoted a lot
of his energy to the critique of Ismailism and its Batinite absurdities. Some
of his works devoted to this task included Fada'ih al-batiniyyah wafada'il
al-mustazhiriyyah. He attacked the Batinite heretical innovations of taqlid or
submission to the authoritarian teachings of their Imams in lieu of the
Prophetic Sunnah that is the only necessary guide after the book of Allah.'
Al-Ghazzali eventually abdicated his professorial position in Baghdad in
488 because to a spiritual crisis and went into concealment in Syria and
Palestine. During the period he devoted himself exclusively to Sufi life and
performed pilgrimage to Mecca. He became convinced that he had a divine
mandate to carry out the revivalism of Islam for his epoch." He later returned
to his professorial position in 499 only to retire two years later before he
died in 505. Before his death, al-Ghazzali succeeded in effecting
reconciliation between Sufism and the mainstream oflslam. He argued that
the mystical experience is the highest form of knowledge when compared to
philosophy and theology. This he stated clearly in his Munqidh minad dalal
where he explained that despite his juristic and philosophical apprehension
he was still in need of mystical illumination."
Al-Ghazzali went ahead to analyze in dept the various stages and states
that makes up the Sufi path. He also prov ided the manner of training that can
aid the Sufi to gain control over the lower soul (nafs al-ammarah bi su '). He
explained that true Sufism starts from knowledge of God and His attributes,
observing religious obligations like prayers and pilgrimage followed by the
avoidance of unlawful and prohibited vices like love of worldly things.
According to him these unlawful practices can remove the murid or novice
from the Sufi path while practices like asceticism, repentance and fear of
Allah will sustain him on the path. This is so because the conduct of a true
Sufi implies a silent satisfaction with God's decree." According to al-
Ghazzali, it is only after attaining the best possible disposition that a murid
can start his proper journey to God. It begins with the sincere intention or
niyyah to approach God followed by the continuous remembrance of God's
name or dhikr which leads to the total annihilation of human weaknesses and
immersion in God known asfana. AI- Ghazzali differentiates between this
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A Critical Evaluation 0fGhazzalianAnd Kantian Notions .... 271
ecstatic moment andhulul or incarnation of God. He believes this moment of
fana is very short and should be devoid oftheophatic utterances and acts of
Shirk or polytheism, II .
As for Kant, he was a Prussian philosopher born in Konigsberg and
started his life pursuing academic distinction but did not complete his
doctoral thesis by which he qualified to teach in a German university, until
1755, when he was already 31 years old. Prior to that he made his living as a
tutor but was only paid by the students. This Kantian early life as a tutor
however improved when 'he was later appointed to a regular chair of
philosophy, at age 46. Nevertheless, Kant had already made a name for
himself with his original ideas in physics and astronomy and with his
growing critique of the widely accepted thought of "The First Ground of the
Distinction of Regions in Space," which upheld Newtonian arguments
against Leibniz's denial of the existence of space.
The "Inaugural Dissertation" that significant work was his first attempt at
analyzing the distinguishing characteristics of a critique of Philosophy. The
trilogy constitutes his most important works but the writing of the 'Critique
of Pure Reason', which was the first of the three, took more than ten years.
And its publication in 1781 made Kant, at age57, achievedthe beginning of
his academic plan but his age and health, it appeared would hinder and slow
the pace of its completion. His concern that he might actually die before
finishing his work, in an age when sudden death was an all too familiar
phenomenon, spurred him on and he focused his whole time, attention and
efforts with unyielding determination on the work at the expense of his
. friendship, family companionship and socialization and entertainment with
all his acquaintances. About this Kantian experience, Ernst Cassirer wrote
quoting what Rink says:
"Kant in his early years spent almost every midday and evening. outside his
house in social activities, frequently taking part also in a card patty and only
getting home around midnight. If he was not busy at meals, he ate in the inn
at a table sought out by a number of cultured people.'012
According to Johann George Hermann, Kant had in his head a host of
works lined up than he could probably ever have completed in the "whirl of
social distractions" in which he was involved at the time. He therefore
abandoned this "whirl of social distractions" for his works. He sacrificed this
"whirl of social distractions" at the halter of his writing with dogged ~.
discipline that surprised most of his intimate friends and colleagues. It
appeared as if he was really racing against death 3I As it eventually turned
out, he was able to accomplish his plan before death could struck he
succeeded in producing the key monuments of the Critical Philosophy and
the trilogy of his Critiques his faculties diminished and his pen was stilled. It
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272 International Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kant
was not death but his declining faculties that finally stilled his pen, before he
actually passed away. He employed his knowledge of the history of nations
and peoples, natural sciences, logic mathematics, and his vast experience
sources to enrich his work and enliven his lecture." .
A Critical Evaluation Of Their Mysticism And Intuition
Al- Gazzali is a celebrated authority on Islamic mysticism, theology,
jurisprudence and philosophy; His maqasid al-falasifah was an exposition of
the main philosophical issues of his time objectively. His assimilation and
mastery of philosophy was so deep so much that it had influence on his
. mystical thoughts. While fighting against the dialectical contradictions in
philosophy, his theology and mysticism had a logical theoretical basis. He
argued that philosophy cannot solely ensure the truth because it does not
produce the absolute truth and certainty and accused it of making great
compromises in its own methodology. He explained in Munqidh minad dalal
that in applying logic, philosophers usually draw some conditions to be
fulfilled in order to ensure certainty but later relax these conditions when it
comes to religious issues." To him logic based on the necessary relationship
between premises and their conclusions is not satisfying to the mind and the
heart. True Knowledge is the product of divine illumination (ilham) because
when God nurtures the heart and lightens the breasts of men, the mystery of
the spiritual realm becomes revealed showing the true reality of things while
removing ignorance. In Tahafut al-falasifah, the Imam responds to the
incoherence of the philosophers; most of whom he accused of atheism unlike
their predecessors, and refutes twenty of their claims which include
. emanation' and eternity theories or the ideas that the world had no beginning
and will have no end, denial of Divine attributes, knowledge of generals,
divisibility into genus and differentia, impossibility of departure from natural
course, and annihilation of souls, resurrection, bodily pleasures and pains."
On three ·of these, he explains that they can be considered infidels.
Here it must be stressed that Al-Ghazzali does not deny the existence of
natural causality but the existence of a necessary connection devoid of God's
will. He precedes David Hume inasserting that the nexus of causality is only
an apparent effect of human custom of liking together two occurrences and it
is the regularity of this adah that. implants in human minds that the two
cannot be separated. 17 In reality, according to him, God is the acting cause of
effects like burning and not fire through His direct intervention or that of His
agents. God has created in us the Knowledge that he will not always bring
about everything that is possible or every time for nothing is impossible for
Him. He also explains that religious scriptures cannot judge natural sciences.
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A Critical Evaluation OJ Ghazzaliannnd Kantian Notions ... 273
Whoever interprets them with the literal meaning of the Qur'an and Sunnah
wiUdamage religion. III He listed philosophical sciences as six, mathematics,
logic, metaphysics or theology, ethics, politics and natural science. But not
all philosophical arguments are cogent logical and reliable hence dispute
between religion and philosophy. He wrote lqtisad fi al- 'Itiqad as a proof of
religious creeds based on Aristotelian logic. He explains the importance of
beliefs in God, His Attributes, Qualities, Deeds, Prophethood and
eschatology. He was the first theologian that employs logic to explain beliefs
devoid of legal jargons hence Ibn Khaldun considers him as the founder of
this tendency. He explains in the Tahafut that logic is the prerogative of the
philosophers but an art ofKalam or dialectical Jadal. He uses such logical
thinking as every originated being requires a cause for its origination, the
world is originated therefore has a cause, any masterpiece proceeds from a
master and powerful agent, the world is a masterwork hence proceeds from a
powerful agent He considered theoretical certainty as the result of the
highest form of knowledge which is revelation. 19 Following the above al-
Ghazzali turned the Ash'arite Kalam into the dialectical and philosophical
basis of his religious revival and mystical reflection. He joined the court of
Nizam al-Mulk in 478 and became the Shafi'te jurist in the Madrasah
Nizamiyyah in Baghdad in 484 and an intellectual of the court which made
him appreciate the corruption of the depraved Kings and Sultans and the
compromises of the U/ama and fuqaha/"
To Kant himself, only God has an intellectual intuition. Though it is
believed that he has no interest in mysticism, 21 yet mysticism is in Kantian
philosophy. According to Kantian philosophy any kind of mysticism is an
immediate knowledge that is an intuitive understanding that unlike a
discursive understanding is immediate and unarticulated. No doubt this
shows clearly that Kant agrees that mysticism is an entity of intuitive
understanding that stands on its own as a ground for substantive truths in the
divine realm only and is not a source of knowledge from our human angle.
This is what is to be found and can be said to exist in Kantian mysticism.
Other forms of intuitionism may claim intuitive understanding prior to
discursive but not Kant yet mysticism is very much Kantian. Kantian notion
is premised on a wall separating the phenomenal or objects as they are
perceived and tbe.noumenal or objects as they actually exist independentof
human knowledge. He strongly submits that people only know the
appearartces of things and not the things as they are in reality Ding an sich
because they are beyond our human perception." This notion is a
delimitation of the Kantian epistemology of knowledge and it implies that
humans cannot grasp the noumenal but rather can only understand the
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274 International Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kiint
phenomenal that is based on human limited preconceptions and biases. This
is contrary toGhazzalian notion of the numinous. Al-Ghazzali believed that
the numinous could not only be felt and experienced by humans but could
also be apprehended rationally by them. True Knowledge to him is the
product of divine illumination (ilham) because when God nurtures the heart
and lightens the breasts of men, the mystery of the spiritual realm becomes
revealed showing the true reality of things while removing ignorance. In
short, according to Ghazzalian thoughts, it is possible to for illuminated
humans to access the noumenal or things the way they actually are.
While mysticism is a form of intuitionism, not all. intuitionism is
mysticism going by the above Kantian mysticism. Mysticism is intuitive
knowledge of transcendent concrete objects that are not the phenomenal or
material objects of ordinary perception. The mystic sees things that are not
part of ordinary experience. According to Kant, transcendent objects cannot
be understood because they cannot be regularly articulated. For Kant, a
theory of transcendent objects ("dialectic")· generates antinomies. Kant's
theory may therefore allow for mystical knowledge that is not effable in
concrete terms. This is rather like what many mystics say, since they gain
knowledge that is ineffable and inexpressible. This is also true for al-
Ghazzali mystical experience who insists that the mystical knowledge is real
but atthe same time in an attempt to communicate it to the non-initiated, the
mystics cannot escape from committing heresies. The intuitive apprehension
of abstract objects does not rise to the level of mysticism since abstract
objects do not have independent existence. Intuitions of abstractobjects
concern meaning and the ordinary sense of "intuition" applies to this. Such
intuitions, when analyzed, are the basis of analytic truths, but whether the
meanings apply to existence is a separate question, which requires an
evidentiary basis. Kant also holds the notion of moral law going by his
philosophy of morality. He explains the moral intuition without any
reference to a transcendental being. He cannot therefore be considered a
mystic, since his God is not transcendent, but immanerit, in all the objects of
perception, and who does also submit to and is governed by the moral law.
He is not beyond the control of moral law.23 Only a sensible intuition could
relate one to an independent transcendent object, since one who knows it
clearly cannot create such a thing. However, if the mystic is identical to the
transcendent object, this could allow for an intellectual intuition, depending
on the metaphysics of the object. It is possible for God's existence to be
presented to him passively, in which case he would have sensible knowledge
of himself; or, God may actually create his own existence, like that of
anything else, merely by knowing it.
This would be an intellectual intuition in a strong Kantian sense, and a
form of mysticism, with the transcendence of the Pure Land, in which the
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A Critical Evaluation Of Ghazzaliannnd Kantian Notions ••. 275
identity with the mystical object is facilitated by the absence of any
substantial independence of things whatsoever. Similarly, the Tibetan "Book
of the Dead" urges the deceased to realize that the visions of the hereafter are
not independent but created by their own Mind. The natures of transcendent
objects, to the extent that they can be theorized at all, are matters Kantian
metaphysics Which resolve some antinomies; and Kantian metaphysics tends
to dismiss more substantive doctrine from historic religions (e.g. the Trinity,
trans-substantiation Kantian theory of the "numinous" is an abstraction,
whose existence is certified by its presence in the objects of experience, but
which in an important way is not a natural property, since it is invisible to
science and is unrelated to mundane utility. This forms the basis of the
numinous as the central theme of allreligions in the' Idea of the Holy' by
Rudolf Otto. He argues that there is no religion in which God does not exist
as the real and innermost core.'" But though the idea of the numinous is
natural to Otto, but his God comes from the Kantian Ideas and divine his
numinous derives from no more than a phenomenoiogy of such religions. In
Kantian epistemology and metaphysics, no rational or intelligible system can
be built from mystical intuitions. To Kant the antinomian choices between
metaphysics .of the mystical intuitions as intellectual or sensible
apprehension of independent or identical objects and the divine substance
cannot be resolved on the mere evidence of a mystical knowledge, since the
knowledge of different mystics confirm different apprehensions of the same
. objects and even the divine substance and the evidence of one tends to refute
the evidence of the other. This in itself is one of the most important features
of human existence, since it leaves us without any rational certainty that
there are transcendent objects. at all. The mystics could as well be
hallucinating, whether beholding the presence of celestial Beings or
visualizing the divine presence itself.
In Kant's theory, complications arise over Kant's original conception of
intuition because, as considered by Kant, perception itself comes to be seen
in the transcendental deduction as a product of mental activity. Since
perception is supposed to be of an active mental synthesis between intuition
and thought; but since this synthesis is an activity that cannot occur in the
conscious mind then intuition is not lost. There is also the ontological aspect
to this, that the phenomenal objects immanent in our perception can be both
real andextemal.onthe ()!le hand and subjective and internal on the other
hand. In arguments 'about mathematics theories, "intuitionismi~ te~ds to mean
something else, which can be very confusing. Mathematical intuitionists
don't like mathematical or logical constructions that cannot be visualized and
disapproving of infinities. Empiricism therefore seemingly has had little
effect on the practice of mathematics and if taken seriously, would make
much of modern mathematics, suspect. While Kant might be said to be a
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276 ,International Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kant
,kind of intuitionist in this sense, since he thinks that the axioms of geometry
and arithmetic are grounded by visualization, there is nothing to prevent the
logical, extension of mathematics beyond our capacity for visualization,
which in fact is what has occurred. While Kant's mathematics is somewhat
, intuitionist in the modem mathematical sense, it is not necessarily int
uitionist in the traditional epistemic sense, since our mathematical
"intuitions can be wrong.
Another Kantian original contribution to philosophy is that knowledge
depends on the structure of the mind and not on the world and that it has no
connection to the world and is not even true representation, just asolipsistic
fantasy. Kant seems threatened with the doctrine that all humans can
apprehend is human psychological perceptions and biases but not noumenal,
objective and external things. Kant believed that the rational structure of the
mind reflects the rational structure of the world and of external things not as
they exist in themselves. Kant's theory manages to provide, it phenomenal
reality of a sphere for science that was distinct and separate from anything
that would relate to morality or religion. The endless confusion and conflict
that still results from people trying to figure out whether or not and how
science and religion should fit together is deftly avoided by Kant, who can,
say, for instance, that God and divine creation cannot be part of any truly
scientific theory because both involve "unconditioned" realities, while
science can only deal with conditioned realities.
Similarly, Kant can be' a phenomenal determinist with science yet
simultaneously allow for free will in a way that involves obscurities that no
one has been able to illuminate. Kantian theory prevents psychological
explanations for behavior being used to excuse moral responsibility and
,accountability. Thus, the tragic childhood of a person however touching
cannot excuse crimes committed by that person in full knowledge of the
implications and consequences of such crimes. His approach is of
comparative interest because of similar philosophical distinction between
conditioned realities, which mostly means the world of experience, and
unconditioned realities which interestingly include, not only the sphere of
salvation, but also space, a form imposed a priori on experience by the
'mind. The problems that must be sorted out with Kant are formidable. Most
important is the confusion that results from Kant mixing together two
entirely different theories. The first theoryis that the fundamental activity of
the mind, called "synthesis," is an activity of human thought that applies
certain concepts to a previously given perceptual datum from experience as
found in the "Critique of Pure Reason". Thus, Kant still says, "Since
intuition' stands in no need whatsoever of the functions of thought,
appearance would none the less present objects to our intuitions"."
Kant realized that "synthesis" would have to produce, notjust a structure
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A Critical Evaluation OJ Ghazzalian.And KantianNotions •.. 277
of thought, but also the entire structure of consciousness within which
perception also occurs. Thus he says, "What is first given to us is
appearance. When combined with consciousness, it is called perception. It is
the structure of consciousness, through synthesis, that turns "appearances" .
into objects and perceptions, without which they would be nothing."
Consequently Kant made synthesis a function of 'imagination' rather than
thought, as abridge between thought and perception, though this creates its
own confusions. This move occurs because Kant hits upon the idea that
synthesis produced the unity. that we actually find in "in the unity of
consciousness". Everything we know, think, see, feel, remember, etc.
belongs to our consciousness in one temporal stream of experience .
. Synthesis therefore brings things into consciousness, making it possible for
us' to subsequently recognize that our consciousness exists and that there are
things in it. In order to resolve the paradoxes of this Kantian theory, itmust
be recalled that Kant believed that reason connects us directly to things and
that Kant did not support Cartesian theory of hidden and transcendent
objects,but empirical realism, that weare directly acquainted with real
objects. Kantian notion therefore does not allow for speculative metaphysics
as practiced by the rationalists because reason alone does not determine any
positive content of knowledge but allows for two sources of sources of
knowledge that produce the perception of phenomenal objects;
Because of, the paradox of his thought, much of philosophy in recent
times has been a mess of Kantian confusing theory. The idea that the mind
produces the world it knows conspicuously turns up in modem and
postmodern theories that view all realities as "socially constructed". These
all produce a fundamental paradox that was avoided by Kant, for they are all
relativistic and subjectivist denials that knowledge. even exists, which
nevertheless maintain that this circumstance is a fact that can be known and
demonstrated with some certainty. The "Transcendental Logic" in the
Critique oj Pure Reason· is divided into the "Transcendental Analytic" and
the "Transcendental Dialectic." The "Dialectic" is concerned with the
fallacies produced when metaphysics is extended beyond possible
experience. For Descartes, any notion that could be conceived "clearly and
distinctly" could be used without hesitation or doubt, a procedure familiar
and unobjectionable ill mathematics. It was the Empiricists who started
-demanding certificates of authenticity, since they wanted to trace all
knowledge back to experience. Locke was not aware, that not everything
familiar from traditional philosophy was going to be so traceable; and
Berkeley's pious rejection of "material substance" lit a skeptical fuse whose
detonation would shake much of subsequent philosophy through Hume,
thanks in great measure to Kant's appreciation of the importance of the issue.
. Thus, Kant begins, like Hume, asking about the legitimacy of concepts.
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278 International Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kant
However, the traditional Problem has already insensibly been brought up; for
in his critique of the concept of cause and effect, Hume did question the
principle of causality, a proposition, and the way in which he expressed the
defect of such a principle uncovered a point to Kant, which he dealt with
back in the Introduction to the Critique, not in the "Transcendental Logic" at
all. Hurne had decided that the lack of certainty for cause and effect was
because of the nature of the relationship of the two events, or of the subject
and the predicate, in a proposition. In An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understanding, Hurne made a distinction about how subject and predicate
could be related: While some philosophers spent much of the 20th Century
congratulating Hume for having discovered that causality might not exist,
they never seem to have noticed that he explicitly denied having done
anything of the sort. Kant already knew the type, who "were ever taking for
granted that which he doubted, and demonstrating with zeal and often with
impudence that which he never thought of doubting ... ,,27
Kant's solution to the quid juris in the Critique of Pure Reason was the
argument of the "Transcendental Deduction" (in the "Analytic of Concepts")
that concepts like causality are "conditions of the possibility of experience,"
because they are the rules by which perception and experience are united
Into a single consciousness, through a mental activity called "synthesis."
Once the existence of consciousness is conceded, then whatever is necessary
for the existence of consciousness must be conceded?
Kant gave us the real elements of the solution of the Problem of First
Principles, even though he could not complete and seal the matter himself.
Indeed, no one can hope to do that, even as new elements and new
understanding of the soiutionemerge over time. The term 'principle'
[Prinzips] is ambiguous, and. commonly signifies any knowledge
[Erkenntnis ] which can be used as a principle [Prinz ips], although in itself,
and as regards its proper origin [Ursprung], it is no principle. Every
universal proposition, even one derived from experience, through induction
[Induktion], can serve as major premise [Obersatz] in a syllogism; but it is
not therefore itself a principle [Principium].28. The obscurity of his theory of
empirical realism and transcendental idealism is largely due to his
terminology and the difficulties of reconciling parts of his theory. Since
"transcendental" is contrasted with "empirical," the two terms are
epistemological and mean "independent of (i.e. transcending) experience"
and "immanent in experience." Since "realism" is contrasted with "idealism,"
those two terms are ontological and mean "independent of my existence" and
"dependent on my existence." However, using the strict definitions,
"transcendental idealism" means something else, "transcendental idealism"
would have to mean knowledge of objects that are dependent on my
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A Critical Evaluation Of GhazzaliattAnd Kantian Notions ... 279
existence but independent of my experience. This seems to be, not just a
paradox, a contradiction, since if something exists as an epiphenomenon of
myself, it hardly seems like it could be independent of my experience.
Conlusion
In this work, an attempt has been made to offer a comparison between the
main themes of Imam al-Ghazzali and Emmanuel Kant mysticism and
intuition especially within the framework of Sufism in Islam. The work has
.traced the concept, origin and emergence of Sufism in Islam as well as its
nature, various developments and current trends. Though, today Sufism in
most part of the Muslim world, West Africa inclusive has become a
euphemism for both laxity and licentiousness as Sufis hide behind .their
esoteric. teachings to call for total or unwarranted liberalization of religious
observances in the name of promoting religious understanding, it is evident
that Sufism still, they continue to enjoy a large following in postmodern
society. Both Imam al-Ghazzali and Emmanuel Kant actually agreed that
mysticism in its social transformations and adaptations to the exigencies of
society may develop ineffable features which are not in accordance with
high ethical standards.
Endnotes
1Thomas Patrick Hughes, ed. The Dictionary of Islam, p. 609;
2 A.A. Maududi, Towards Understanding of Islam. Lahore: . J 989. p. 111.
3 A. al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arbain fi usul ad-din, ed. M. Mustafa Abul-'Ala, Cairo: pp.
249- 257.
4 See S.H. Nasr, "The Relation between Sufism and Philosophy in Persian Culture"
in Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia, ed. M. Aminrazavi, London: 1995.
5 See L. Sherrard, Trans. A History of Islamic Philophy, London: 1993
6 A. Larnbaton, Theory and practice of Medieval Persian Government, London:
1980.
7 A. al-Ghazzali, Fada'Ih al-batiniyyah wa fada'il al-mustazhiriyyah, trans.R. J.
McCarthy, Freedom and Fulfilment, Boston: 250,1980.
8 A. Al-Ghazzali, aI- Munqidh minad dalal, trans. W. M. Watt, The Faith and
Practice al-Ghazali, London: 1967, 75 ..
9A. Al-Ghazzali, al- Munqidh, p. 55.
lOA. al-Ghazzali, Kitab aI-arbain: 12, 51, 197, 205 and 211, 1970.
11 Al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arbain, p.62.
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·280 .Intemational Conference On Two Hundred Years After Kant
12 James Haden, trans. Kant's Life and Thought, Yale University Press, 1981,
pp.51:52
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 AI-Ghazzali, al-munqidh minad dalal, trans. W.M. Watt, The Faith and Practice
ofal- Ghazzali, London, 1967, p. 36.
16 William Montgomery Watt, Islamic Surveys: Islamic Philosophy and Theology
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1962, p. 44.).
17 See al-Ghazzali, Tahafut al-Falasifah, 1928: 285.
18 Ibid, 738
19 Al-Ghazzali, al-munqidh , 25
20 W.M. Watt, Muslim Intellectual: a Study of al Ghazzali, Edinburgh, 1963.
21 See "Dreams of a Visionary, explained by Dreams of Metaphysics," 1766
22 Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, (New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1950), pp. 42-8\.
23 S~ Immanuel Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans.
Thomas Kingsmith Abbot, (New York: Prometheus Books Press, 1987).
24 Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy (Oxford University Press, 1969), p.6.
25 ("A" 90-91, Norman Kemp Smith translation, 1929, St. Martin's, first edition,
1965).
26 Ibid. 119-120.
27 Lewis White Beck trans1, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, , Bobbs-
Merrill, 1950, pp.6-259).
28 Norman Kemp Smith translation, (St Martin's Press, 1965), p.301
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