ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AS RELATED TO SOME
PSYCHOSOCIAL AND CAREER VARIABLES OF NIGERIAN
UNIVERSITY TEACHERS.
BY
ERNEST IFEANYI ACHALU
B.Sc. (Hons) Zoology. (Alabama A & M University),
M.Sc. Medical Physiology. (Southern Illinois University) .
.A Thesis In The Department of Physical and
Health Education.
Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial
Fulfilment of Requirement for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PffiLOSOPHY
, OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN.
DECEMBER 1994
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
IBAOAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
Ace. i'" _ , ..•• () ,:'~'
NO. ..• (') .-. ' i .-•.. f,'" '*v
,
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ABSTRACT
Thts study tnvestigated :occupational stress as related to
psychosocial variables of job satisfaction and psychological well-being
of teachers in the first generation Nigerian Universities. Also the
study assessed the differences in occupational stress experienced by
the. teachers with respect to career variables such job status and years
'of teaching experience as well as biographical characteristics namely,
age and sex. The research method was a cross-sectional survey design.
Cluster sampling technique was used to select teachers in the first
generation Nigerian universities. A total of 300 university teachers
responded to the Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
as well as the General Health Questionnaire. Descriptive statistics
were used to summarise the data. Multiple regression, chi-square, t-
test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA} were used to test the
hypotheses at .05 level of significance. Scheffe post-hoc test was used
to detect differences among. groups where ANOVA was found
significan ,t.
The results show that an overwhelming majority of the teachers
(67.0%) were experiencing moderate levels of occupational stress while
15.0% and 18.0% were experiencing low and high levels of stress
respectively. Despite this, 97.0% of the teachers reported moderate to
high levels of job satisfaction with only 3.0% reporting low job
satisfaction. Also a majority of the teachers (94.0%) reported
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moderate to high lev~els_oLpsychological.well-being.The reason for the
findings are not clear. but it could be that the teachers have learnt to
cope with the stressors encountered in the course of their work.
Possibly. it could that the reported high levels of job satisfaction may
have helped to moderate or reduce the impact of stress on the
teachers' health.
Regression analysis revealed a positive and significant
relationship between occupational stress and job dissatisfaction Ir =
.43; P < .OOl); between occupational stress and psychological
symptoms Ir = .35; P < .OOl}; and between job dissatisfaction and
psychological symptoms (r = .45; P < .OOl}. These findings are
consistent with previous studies on teacher stress. Furthermore.
there were no significant differences in total occupational stress levels
with respect to age. sex and years of teaching experience. However.
there was a significant difference in stress levels experienced by the
teachers with respect to job status. Professors and Readers reported
the lowest levels of stress followed by Senior Lecturers with junior
lecturers-expertencing the most stress.
The study identified the major sources of occupational stress
among the Nigerian university teachers. Shortage of teaching
materials. poor working conditions. heavy workload. time pressure.
overcrowded classrooms. low salary and unfavourable conditions of
service ranked accordingly as the most significant causes of stress.
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Finally, the present studyjndicated that occupational stress, job
satisfaction and psychological health are closely related and that
greater stress leads to low job satisfaction and some degree of
psychological dysfunction. Thua .occupattonal stress has negative
effects on teachers' health and well-being. Moreover the results
. -support the-view in hteraturefhat.feachtng is a satisfying but a
demanding and stressful occupation.
Based on the findings of this study recommendations were made
on how to reduce occupational stress and improve the health and
quality of life of university teachers.
,
..
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DEDICATION
TO
. - -.-... -- - -- --- - __My brothers. Dr. O.E. Achalu
Mr. Simon C. Achalu and Nelly E. Achalu.
,
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the
contributions of many people. I am indebted to these people who have
in one way.or .another contributed to the success of this study. First.
I would like to express my profound gratitude to my able supervisor.
Professor C.O. Udoh for providing the needed intellectual guidance
and encouragement throughout my doctoral degree programme. He
was readily available to give the needed and desired attention to my
work. I am happy to have a mentor like him.
I am immensely grateful to Dr. V.C. Igbanugo, Professors A.S.
Sohi and J.A. Ajala and my brother Dr. O.E. Achalu who offered
valuable criticisms. suggestions and assistance at various stages of
the research work. I would also like to express my appreciation to the
entire members of staff of the Department of Physical and Health
Education for giving me the opportunity to achieve my academic
ambition. My special thanks to Professor J.A. Adedeji. and L.O.
Amusa. Dr, (Mrs) E.I. Nwankwo. Dr. Yomi Awosika. Dr. E.O. Owolabi
and Dr. O. Omolabi for their cooperation and encouragement.
Finally. my deepest gratitude goes to my parents. brothers and
sisters for their inspiration. love. encouragement and support without
which my education would not have been possible. I would like to
thank-my-brother Mr. S.C. Achalu for doing his best to make me
comfortable in Nigeria since my return from the United States. I
thank the Almighty God for protection and guidance.
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CERTIFICATION
I certify that this project was carried out by Mr. Ernest Ifeanyi
ACHALU in the Department of Physical and Health Education,
University of Ibadan under my supervision.
Supervisor
Professor C. o. Udoh,
Ph.D. (Ohio State).
M.A., B.S. (West Michigan).
D.L.C. (Loughborough),
SCPE, CPE (Nottingham).
,
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page .. i
Abstract ii
Dedication .. v
Acknowledgements vi
Certification vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiv
List Appendices xv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 8
Sub-problems/Research Questions .. 9
Hypothesis .. 10
Sub-hypotheses 10
Delimitations of the Study 12
Limitations of the Study 13
Significance of the Study .. 14
Definition of Terms 15
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 17
The Concept of Stress 18
The Mechanism of Stress 21
General Adaptation Syndrome 22
Stress-Illness Relationship 23
The Concept of Psychosomatic Disease 23
Occupational Stress 25
Sources of Occupational Stress .. 26
Occupational Stress and Health .. 32
Manifestations of Work Stress 33
Prevention and Stress Management Strategies 37
Individual Focused Stress Mangement Strategies 38
Organizational Approach to Stress Management .. 39
Work Place Stress Management 39
The Conce,pt of Teacher Stress 46
The Model of Teacher Stress 48
Sources of Teacher Stress 51
Consequences of Teacher Stress 52
Job Stress and Health Status 52
Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction .. 55
Stress. Job Satisfaction and Biographical and Career
Characteristics I •• 57
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Occupational Stress and Related Studies
Among Nigerian Teachers 59
CHAPTER THREE
METHODS AND PROCEDURES ~
( Introduction ~
Research Design .. 65
Population .. 66
Sample and Sampling Technique 66
Development of Teacher Stress and Job
Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ) .. 68
Validation of the Teacher Stress and Job
Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ) .. 70.
Face and Content Validation .. 70
Reliability and Internal Consistency 71
The General Health Questionnaire .. 72
Procedure for Data Collection .. 73
Procedure for Data Analysis 74
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 76
Prevalence of Occupational Stress among University Teachers 82
Job Satisfaction among the University Teachers .. 92
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Psychological well-being among the University
Teachers 101
Relationship between Occupational Stress and Job
Satisfaction 109
Relationship between Occupational Stress and
Psychological Well-being 113
Relationship between Job Satisfaction and
Psychological well-being 117
Occupational Stress Biographical and Career
Characteristic of University Teachers 122
Occupational Stress and Sex .. 122
Occupational Stress and Age .. 123
Occupational Stress and Teaching Experience 125
Occupational Stress and Job Status 127
CHAPTER FIVE
SUM~Y. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 131
Summary 131
Conclusions 132
Recommendations .. 136
Suggestions for further Studies 137
REFERENCES 139
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
2.1 Individual and Organizational Responses to
Stress 36
2.2 Group and Organizational-Level Method for
Preventing Work Stress .. 41
4.1 Distribution of Randomly Selected Universities
and Faculties 77
4.2 Distribution of Respondents by Sex .. 78
4.3 Distribution of Respondents by Age .. 79
4.4 Distribution of Respondents by Years of Teaching
Experience .. 80
4.5 Distribution of Respondents by Job Status 81
4.6 Analysis of Occupational Stress among University
Teachers 82
4.7 Responses to the Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI) 83
4.8 Rank Order of Occupational Stressors in the
, Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI)Subscale 87
4.9 Analysis of Job Satisfaction among
University Teachers 92
4.10 Response to the Job Satisfication
Questionnaire (JSQ) 94
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4.11 Rank Order of Sources of Job Dissatisfaction
in the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ)
Subscale 96
4.12 Analysis of Psychological Well-being of University
Teachers 101
4.13 Responses to the General Health Questionnaire
(GHQ) 103
4.14 Stepwise Multiple Analysis of Occupational
Stress with Job Dissatisfaction and Psychological
Symptoms .. 109
4.15 Analysis of Relationships between Job
Dissatisfaction and Psychological symptoms 117
4.16 Summary of Interrelations between Occupational
Stress, Job Dissatisfaction and Psychological
Symptoms .. 119
4.17 Analysis of Total Occupational Stress levels
, by Sex 122
4.18 Analysis of Total Occupational Stress Levels
by Age 124
4.19 Analysis of Total Occupational Stress
Levels by Years of Teaching Experience 125
4.20 Analysis of Total Occupational Stress by
Job Status .. 127
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
2.1 Behavourial EngineeringModelof Stress management 45
2.2 ModelofTeachers Stress 49
,
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A Teacher Stress and Job
Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ) " 146
Appendix B General Health Questionnaire 150
Appendix C Letter of Introduction and Permission 152
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Although much is known about stress there is no consensus or
agreement as to the definition of the term "stress" among scientists.
According to Gatley (1981) "stress is easy enough to recognize but it is
very difficult to define satisfactorily". Researchers and theorists do
not agree on a definition of stress, perhaps for a good reason; stress
seems to be a highly subjective construct (Barnwell, Hoffman and
Koch, 1982). The term "stress" has been defined differently by different
people because of the complex nature of stress itself. The pioneering
work of Hans Selye on various species of experimental animals in
1936 led to understanding of the link between stress and illness. Selye
described stress as the "wear and tear of the body" and later as "the
nonspesiflc response of the body to any demand" (Selye, 1982).
Ohaert and Odejide (1991) defined stress as "the biological
response to events that threaten to overwhelm the individual's
capacity to cope satisfactorily in the environment". Moreover,
psychosocial stress has been defined as:
a particular relationship between a person and the
environment that is exceeding his or her resources
and endangering his or her well-being. (Green,
Duthie, Young and Peters, 1990 p. 1154).
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A similar definition given by Lazarus (1966) considered stress as a
psychological process; an internal state of the individual who
perceives threats to his or her physical or psychological well-being
_____J_etted.in Krantz and Raisen. 1988).
. ,. -The basic feature-of these definitions is that the perception of a
threat is the key to whether a person experiences stress or not.
However; the perception of stress varies considerably from person to
person and that is why what is considered stressful by an individual
may not be stressful to another - "one man's meat is another man's
poison".
Stress is an unavoidable aspect of human existence. Stressors are
omnipotent in human existence (Antonovsky. 1979). Stressors are
found everywhere including home. work and social environments.
Stress affects everyone regardless of age. sex. race or social status.
" Stressors are events. people. thoughts. things or any stimulus that
'causes -stress, Negative life'events are common causes of stress.
However. it is important to note that not all stressors are bad.
Stress can have both positive and negative effects. As a matter of fact.
some amount of stress is essential for human survival. adaptation,
growth and development. For example. mild or moderate amount of
stress can be stimulating or motivating while too little or too much
stress can lead to tension. anxiety. strains and health problems.
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.... ,..,.Gatley·0981),stated.thatstressis_not.in itself inherently harmful and
may even be beneficial and only when it becomes excessive for a
particular individual is strain caused.
The link between the mind and body is well known as well as
the link between emotional stress and health (Achalu, 1993a). The
, role-of psychosocial- andphystcalstresstn the etiology of a variety of
illnesses such as cancer, allergy, arthritis and infectious diseases has
been emphasized (Dubey, Staunton, Yunis, 1982). According to
Friedman and Booth-Kewley, (1987), regardless of the direction of
causality, there is a strong evidence of a reliable association between
illness and psychological distress. An example of this is the immediate
bodily responses such as fainting or nausea in response to the sight of
blood or mutilation. There is, no question that emotional states such
as fear or joy can elicit a physical reaction while physical events can
elicit emotional responses in humans. The evidence is quite strong
_that in a large .numberofdtseases. stressors appear as statistically
significa,nt risk factors (Antonovsky, 1979).
The preceding discussion was intended to introduce the concept
of stress and to clarify the nature of general stressors and their role in
health and diseases. The present study focuses on the problem of
occupational stress and its relationship to job satisfaction,
psychological well-being and selected biographical characteristics of
Nigerian University teachers. Occupational stress is a serious hazard
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"," , that can have adverse consequences for the workers health and well-
being.
There is evidence of the role of work stress in causing overt
disturbances such as psychophysiological symptoms and heightened
susceptibility to physicalIllness (World Health Organization [WHO],
... 1980). Also .Levi (1990). stated ·that. there is a little but increasing
evidence of a causal relationship between work-related psychosocial
stressors and the incidence and prevalence of occupational morbidity
and mortality. The dearth of information on occupational stress
among workers in the developing countries suggests the need for
research in this area (Achalu, 1993a).
Like general stress. there is no consensus as to the definition of
occupational stress. However, occupational stress can be defined here
as the physiological or psychological response to negative psychosocial
or environmental factors at work that is perceived as taxing,
disturbing o,r threatening to an individual's health or well-being.
Occupational stressors refer to potentially disturbing or threatening
psychosocial or environmental factors at work.
The major sources of occupational stress are well documented
(Cooper. 1987; Davidson and Cooper. 1981; Cooper and Marshall.
1978). Some of these include factors intrinsic to the job such as poor
working conditions. shift work. work overload or underload and
physical danger. Other stressors are related to unclear and conflicting
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job demands (role ambiguity and role conflict). low salaries and wages,
problems of under-promotion or, over-promotion, relationships with
coworker-s. - and -organisationalstructure and climate. These
occupational stressors have been linked to physical problems such as
headaches, exhaustion, pains and sleeplessness; psychological
problems such as job dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression and
behavioural responses- such as smoking, alcohol use and drug abuse.
Occupational stress, job _satisfaction and mental health
(psychological well-being) are closely related. A number of studies have
indicated a negative relationship between occupational stress and job
satisfaction, and between stress and mental health (Kasl, 1978). Job
satisfaction is the degree of satisfaction or happiness derived from
one's job or work. The major .dimensions of job satisfaction have been
identified in the literature (Cross, 1973; Kasl, 1978). These included
employees attitude towards the company or organization, and its
policies, -pay -and salary; opportunities for promotion and fairness of
the prom,otional system, relationship with work-mates and immediate
superior and of course the job itself.
Similarly, mental or psychological health is related to
conditions at work. There is empirical evidence suggesting link from
various aspects of the work environment to mental health (Kasl,
1978). Poor mental health is related to unpleasant work conditions,
lack of use of skills and abilities, perception of job as uninteresting,
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..poer· wages and salaries. --un-clear conflicting job demands among
others. From the discussion so far it is clear that occupational stress,
job satisfaction and mental or psychological well-being are closely
related to each other.
The main purpose of the present study is to investigate
occupational- 'stress -and- its- -relationship to job satisfaction,
psychological well-being as well as career and biographical variables of
Nigerian University teachers. Teaching has been documented as one of
a number of high stress occupations. The major sources of teacher
stress and job dissatisfaction have been identified (Rudd and
Wiseman, 1962: Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1977: Needle. Griffin,
Svendsen and Berney. 1980). These include, heavy work load, time
pressures, low salaries, large classes. poor working conditions,
problem with students, staff conflicts. inadequate buildings and
facilities.
-- -Ps,ychosocial .stress is ..an ..occupational health hazard with
-adverse consequences for the teachers' health and career (Needle,
Griffin, Svendsen and Berney, 1980). A number of studies have
investigated the relationship between stress, job satisfaction and
health status of teachers at various levels of education in advanced
.countrtes (Mark, Pierce. and Molloy, 1990; Needle. Griffin and
Svendsen. 1981; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1979). Teachers experiencing
greater stress were found to have more somatic symptoms. poorer
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physical health, high anxiety and psychological difficulties, low job
.... ..... satisfaction -and' psychological well-being. These studies c)early
indicate that teachers' health and well-being as well as job
satisfaction are adversely affected by stress. Thus teacher stress can
have negative effects on the attainment of educational goal and
objectives.
The problem however, is that while a great deal of research have
been conducted in the area of occupational stress and its relationship
to physical and mental health in the advanced countries, there is a
dearth of research in this important area among African workers,
Nigeria inclusive. There is no doubt that occupational stress is a
major health hazard facing teachers allover the world. Nigeria may
not be an exception. Nigerian universities have been faced with many
problems ranging from low salaries to lack of adequate facilities and
poor working conditions that have resulted in trade disputes, frequent
strikes and university closures. These factors are potential causes of
stress 'and could lead to job dissatisfaction and consequently
influence the teacher's health and well-being.
Ajayi (1981) in a survey of Nigerian University teachers reported
a low job satisfaction and commitment among the teachers. Also
Mbachu (1986) identified work-related stress as the most important
source of stress among teachers at the University of Ibadan compared
with other categories of stressors. Thus the low job satisfaction and
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,comptitment reported among Nigerian University teachers by Ajayi
.0981) may be related to occupational stress.
Therefore the main purpose of the present study is to investigate
occupational stress and its relationship to psychosocial variables of
job satisfaction and psychological well-being as well as biographical
-characteristics such-as age.i sexand career variables of job status and
years of teaching 'experience of teachers in the first generation
universities. Also the relationship between occupational stress, career
and biographical characteristics of the teachers were examined in the
present study because an individual's experiential background,
knowledge, sex, age and status affect the perception of stress and
moderate one's response to stress. There is no doubt that extensive
research is needed in the area of teacher stress which has so far
received only a limited attention. According to Achalu (1993a)
certainly more research is needed to identify the potential causes and
consequences of occupational stress among Nigerian workers.
Statem~nt of the Problem
The major problem of the study was to investigate occupational
stress and its relationship to job satisfaction and psychological well-
being of teachers in the first generation Nigerian universities and also
to determine whether there would be differences in total occupational
stress experienced by the teachers with respect to biographical
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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characteristics such as age. sex..and career variables of job status and
years of teaching experience.
Sub-problems:
This study attempted to provide answers to the following
questions:-
1. 'Would there be a difference in the levels of occupational stress
. experienced by university teachers?
2. Would there be a difference in the levels of job satisfaction
experienced by the university teachers?
3. Would there be a difference in the levels of psychological well-
being experienced by the university teachers?
4. Would there be a relationship between levels of occupational
stress and job satisfaction among the university teachers?
5. Would there be a relationship between levels of occupational
stress and psychological well-being experienced by the university
teachers?
6. Would there be a relationship between levels of job satisfaction
and psychological well-being experienced by the university
teachers?
7. Would there be a difference in the total level of occupational
stress experienced by the male and female university teachers?
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8. Would there be a difference in the total level of occupational
stress experienced by the younger and older university teachers?
9. Would there be a difference in the total level of occupational
stress experienced by the university teachers with respect to the
years of teaching experience?
- ... -10.· .Would there be a difference in the total level of occupational
_.-. - _.-.cc-. -- stress 'Withrespect to position or job status?
Hypothesis
The main hypothesis of this study is that there would be no
significant relationships between levels of occupational stress. job
satisfaction and psychological well-being among Nigerian university
teachers and also there would be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the university teachers with
respect to biographical characteristics namely sex. age. and career
variables of job status and the years of teaching experience.
Sub-hypotheses
The following specific sub-hypothesis were tested at .05 level of
significant: -
1. There would be no significant difference in the levels of
occupational stress experienced by the university teachers.
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2. There would be no significant difference in the levels of job
satisfaction. experienced by the university teachers.
3. There would be no significant difference in the levels of
psychological well-being experienced by the university teachers.
4. There would be no significant relationship between levels of
. ..occupational. stress and job satisfaction experienced by the
university teachers .
.- 5. ..There.would.be.no significant relationship between the levels of
occupational stress and psychological well-being experienced by
the university teachers.
6. There would be no significant relationship between the levels
of job satisfaction and psychological well-being experienced by
the university teachers.
7. There would be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the male and female
university teachers.
8. There would be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the younger and older
university teachers.
9. There would be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the university teachers
with respect to the years of teaching experience.
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10. There would be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the university teachers
with respect to job status.
Delimitations of the study
This study was delimited to the following:-
1. The teaching staff of the randomly selected faculties in the first
generation Nigerian universities.
2. The use of self-administered questionnaire as the instrument
for data collection.
3. Occupational stress, job satisfaction, psychological health
measures and selected biographical and career variables (age,
sex, job status and years of teaching experience)
4. The use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
The statistical analysis involved descriptive statistical measures
such as means, and standard deviation, frequencies and
.
percentage. Chi-square statistics were used for categorical data
an,alysis, while t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)were
used to test difference between means of different groups.
Multiple regression was used to test associations among the
study variables.
5. The analysis involving biographical and career variables were
based on the overall or total stress scores only.
•
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Limitations of the study
This study was limited by the following factors:
1. Response bias which is a major limitation inherent in any
survey involving questionnaires. Subjects may not have given
true- or-honest response .and this--can affect the validity of the
- . - - - - st.udy.. However, subjects were instructed to complete the
questionnaire anonymously in order to minimise response bias.
2. Secondly the results of the study were dependent on self-
reported data which is essentially the teachers perception about
themselves, and the work environment. However, the study is
primarily descriptive and does not imply any cause and effect
relationship.
3. Lastly, the extent to which other forms of stress influence the
respondents perception of occupational stress cannot be
accounted for. The researcher recognises the presumed
interaction among various stressors in life. This is why the
research instrument has been specifically designed to measure
work-related psychosocial stress.
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Significance of the Study
The study is significant because -there is a limited research in
occupational stress as a field of scientific inquiry among Nigerian
scholars. Few of the available studies focus on sources of stress. job
satisfaction and commitment among university teachers (Mbachu,
_. ::l986~:Ajayi. 19B-n. The reportedlow job: satisfaction and commitment
among' Nigerian ·university teachers may be related in fact to
occupational stress.
Unfortunately. there appears to be a limited study on the
relationship between occupational stress and employee health among
Nigerian workers including teachers. According to the World Health
Organisation (1980). there is limited data on occupational health
problems particularly in less developed countries. It is this gap in
literature that the study intends to fill. It would add to the limited
literature on occupational stress and teacher stress in particular.
In addition this study would contribute to improved awareness
and understanding of the adverse effects of occupational stress and
provide empirical evidence of its relationship to job satisfaction and
well-being. Also the study identified the major sources of
occupational stress and job dissatisfaction among Nigerian university
teachers with a view to profering solution. Based on the findings of
the study. suggestions and recommendation would made on how to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
15
prevent or alleviate occupation stress and improve job satisfaction as
well as health and well-being of Nigerian university teachers.
The data collection instrument (JSJSQ) developed in this study
has adequate reliability and validity and can be adopted to study
occupational stress among other categories of workers. Finally it is
-- ..hoped that this study Will-provoke exciting research on the causes,
consequences, prevention and management of occupational stress by
other researchers.
Defini tion of Terms
For the purpose of this study the following terms are defined:
1. Biographical characteristics refers to personal information
such as age, sex.
2. Career varailables refer to job status and years of teaching
experience.
3. First-generation universities refer to the first set of
. universities established in Nigeria between 1948 and 1962.
4. Job Satisfaction refers to the individuals perceived satisfaction
from one's job.
5. Occupational stress is used synonymously with job stress or
work stress. They refer to a physiological or psychological
response to negative psychological or environmental factors at
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16
work perceived as taxing or disturbing and threatening to an
individual's health or well-being.
6. Occupational stressor refers to potentially disturbing
psychological or environmental factor at work perceived by the
individual as stressful or threatening to his or her well-being.
--7.-· - Psychological well-being (health) status refers to the presence
or absence of symptoms or psychological distress as measured
by the' General Health Questionnaire developed by Goldberg
(1972). The term is used synonymously with psychological well-
being or mental health.
8. Psychosocial variables refer to factors related to job
satisfaction and psychological well-being.
9. Job Status refers to classification of the university teachers
according to position or rank in the university.
10. Teacher stress refers to a response of negative affect by a
teacher usually accompanied by potentially pathogenic and
biochemical changes resulting from aspects of the teacher's job
and mediated by the perception that the demands made upon
the teacher constitutes a threat to himself or well-being.
(Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1978).
11. Total Occupational stress refers to the overall occupational
stress measure or score from both the Teacher Stress Inventory
(TSI) and the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ).
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The main purpose of this study was to investigate occupational
stress and its relationship tojob satisfaction and psychological well-
being of teachers in first generation Nigerian Universities. This
-chapter provides a'review of the concept of stress, the theoretical
frame work and the basis for understanding the stress-illness
relationship and the role of occupational stress in the development of
employee ill health. The major topics of the review are organized and
highlighted as follows:
1. The concept of stress.
2. The mechanism of stress
3. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
-4. - Str,ess-illness Relationship
5. The Concept of psychosomatic Diseases
6. Occupational Stress
7. Sources of Occupational Stress
8. Work stress and Health
9. Manifestations of stress
10 Prevention and Stress Management Strategies
11. Teacher stress
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12. Sources ofTeacher Stress
13. Consequence of Teacher Stress
14. Teacher stress and Job Satisfaction
15.' Stress, job satisfaction and Biographical Characteristics
-- THE CONCEPT OF STRESS
Although stress is easy to recognize it is very difficult to defme.
According to Rogers (1982), the term "stress" is widely used but
unfortunately with variable meanings. Some have used it to mean a
noxious and threatening stimulus, others such as Selye, have used it
to mean response of organism to such a stimulus, either
physiologically, psychologically or both. Although stress has become
some sort of key word for professionals and laymen alike, it is a poorly
defined phenomenon (Lolas, 1982).
The medical concept of stress has been borrowed from physics
and engineering, that is applying a deforming force to a material and
creating a state of tension within it (Gatley, 1981), According to him,
stress is not in itself harmful to the material in question but it may
cause the development of strains which are harmful. Gatley (1981),
further st ated that stress is universal and often beneficial and only
when it becomes excessive for a particular individual is strain caused
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and that what is excessive stress vary considerably from person to
person.
Stress has been conceptualized and defined differently by
different authors. According to Jackson and Maslach (1982),
throughout the psychological literature. the term stress has been used
'-to.zefer to-many things. tncludtng-external stimuli. perceptions of
'" -situational -demands;" psychologteal ~stress. and psychological
reactions.
Thus discussions on stress can lead to problems of terminology
(Cherry. 1978). Other researchers agree that stress is difficult to defme
satisfactorily (Gatley. 1981; Payne, Jick and Burke. 1982; Beehr.
1987). In fact it is safe to say that there are as many definitions of
stress as there are researchers. Recent reviews of the concept of social
psychosocial stress have found it virtually impossible to define what is
meant by stress in any but most general terms (Levine and Scotch.
1970) cited in House. (1974). Stress is used broadly and this has been
partly r,esponsible for many terminological confusions and much
criticism (Lolas. 1982).
In everyday English. the word Stress is used to describe an
emotional state in which an individual is subjected to mental tension
and strain while in a scientific context. stress does not pertain to
emotional state. but is used to describe the bodily response to stimuli
that alter the existing equilibrium (Selye. 1956) cited in Berger (1982).
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The work of Selye provided the frame work for the understanding
of the role of stress in pathogenesis or disease. Haw (1982) defined
stress in terms of an imbalance between the perceived demand and the
person's perception of his of her ability to meet that demand. Stress
has also been defined as an alteration of psychological homeostasis
(Lolas, 1982).
- Despite the controversy and lack of consensus on the exact
definition of stress there is agreement among researchers that
excessive stress can have adverse effects on health. Stress has been
implicated in a variety of physical, mental and behavioural disorders.
There is a unanimous agreement in the literature that stress results
when a situation or event is perceived as threatening by the
individual.
The general stress model developed by Payne, Jick and Burke
(1980) proposes that environmental stressors impinge upon a person
and the ,factors within the person affect whether or not the stressor is
perceived as threatening and that if the person sees the event as
threatening, they typically cause psychological perhaps physiological
strain and that if the strain continues over time it will eventually
result in either physical, mental disease or both.
The House Paradigm of stress research (1974) identified five
classes of variables for a comprehensive paradigm of stress research
such as:-
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1. Objective social conditions conducive to stress;
2. Individual perceptions of stress;
3. Individual responses (psychological, affective and behavtoural)
to perceived stress;
4. More enduring outcomes of perceived stress and responses and
finally;
5. Individual and situational conditioning variables that specify
the relationships among the four set of factors.
At this juncture, it is important to point out that the stressor
effects are assumed to occur only when the situation is appraised as
threatening or otherwise demanding and insufficient resources are
available to cope with the situation (Cohen, Kamarck and
Mermelstein, 1983).
THE MECHANISM OF STRESS
Hans Selye, the renowned Canadian physician and pioneer of
stress research introduced the concept of physiological stress in the
1930s. He defined stress as the "wear and tear of the body". In the
course of his experimentation with laboratory animals, he described
the chains of physiological changes in the body in response to stress.
Selye developed the model of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS),
which refers to somatic response to harmful stimuli. Selye later
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defined stress as "the non-specific response of the body to any
demand".
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
The GAS has been a useful model for realizing the physiological
--process -involved -in the relationship .between stress and acute illness
and can serve as a useful paradigm for the understanding of the
symptomatic expression and progression of chronic physical illness
(Leidy. 1989). The GAS provides the framework for the understanding
of the process of stress and its role in the development of physical and
mental disorders. The GAS involves triphasic process of adaptation
and resistance consisting of acute alarm reaction followed by a state
of resistance and ending with exhaustion.
Selye (1982) suggested that depending upon the length and
severity of stress. an animal passes through the following phases:
1. Alarm, - when the organism is not capable of resisting the
stress. This phase involves the initial and immediate reaction to
the noxious agent and the mobilization of the body defensive
phase with increased secretion of corticoid hormones.
2. Resistance - when the body returns to normal functioning. This
involves the resistance and the adaptation to the stress and
disappearance of symptoms. Prolonged resistance leads to
depletion of adaptive energy and exhaustions.
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3. Exhaustion - when the resistance is lost, due to severe and
prolonged stress. In this phase symptoms reappear and if stress
continues, leads to death.
According to Hoffman and Parsons (1988). the three phases
represent the sum of non-specific reaction of the body resulting from
long exposure to chronic stress. These reactions may include,
histological, morphological, biochemical and functional alterations.
STRESS - ILLNESS RELATIONSHIP
The Concept of Psychosomatic Disease.
As already mentioned, the mind-body relationship is well
known. The notion that certain mental states bring about certain
diseases is not new (Angell, 1985). The view that stress and
unpleasant emotional experiences may cause physical diseases is now
,
widely accepted inspite of the fact that most of the available evidence
supporting it is either indirect or conjectural (Berger, 1982) The
relation between stress and illness does not appear to be a simple
causal correlation (Barnwell, Hoffman and Koch, 1982).
The concept of psychosomatic disease is based on the fact that
the mind plays an important role in the genesis of many diseases. The
two major types of psychosomatic diseases are psychogenic
psychosomatic and somatogenic psychosomatic. Psychogenic disorder
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2.4:
psychosomatic refers to physical diseases caused by emotional stress
while somatogenic psychosomatic disorder refer to emotional
disturbances such as anxiety. anger. fear. frustration that increase
the body's susceptibility to organic disease (Girdano and Everly.
1979).
However. the new concept of psychosomatic disease has been
broadened to include psychological disturbances created indirectly by
physical illness (Wright,1977). Almost any organic disease may have a
somatogenic component depending on the individual psychological
make-up (Girdano and Everly. 1979). According to Friedman and
Booth-Kewley (1987), there is no doubt that many illnesses have a
significant psychological component, whether it is impotence resulting
from fear after heart attack. functional paralysis resulting from
psychological trauma. or anorexia from depression. There is no doubt
that psychosomatic disease effects the structure and function of the
body (Achalu. 1993b).
In psychosomatic diseases. emotion or stress can function as a
,
trigger to aggravate the condition and bring about an acute attack
such as bronchial asthma Berger (1982). Some of the disorders
grouped as psychosomatic diseases included hypertension. peptic
ulcer. asthma. rheumatoid arthritis. ulcerative colitis. migraine and
various dermatoses. Berger.1982 stated that there is no complete
proof that psychic factors are the cause of any of these disease
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entities. He however, pointed out that it has been well substantiated
that psychogenic factors can aggravate or ameliorate psychosomatic
diseases to a greater extent than is the case with other diseases.
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
Occupational stress has been defined as negative environmental
factor or stressor associated with a particular job. Work stress is one
of the most intense kinds of stress. People spend a significant fraction
of the adult life at work. Workers in various occupations perceive their
job as stressful. A wide range of factors has been identified as major
sources of occupational stress. These include the following:-
1. Factors intrinsic to the job.
2. Role in the organization.
3. Career development problems.
4. Relationship at work.
5. Or,ganizational structure and climate.
6. Home-work interface. (Extra-organtsational sources of stress)
Job stress results when there is a lack of harmony between the
worker and the environment. Stressors are aspects of the work
environment that causes strains and strains are aversive employee
responses caused by stressors (Beehr, 1987). According to Beehr, job
stressors are psychosocial characteristics of jobs that cause strains,
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which are employee's aversive reactions while "strain"
characteristically refers to ill health.
Psychosocial stress at work occurs as a result of either a
potential or actual conflict between an employee and some aspect of
the organization (Zaccaro and Riley, 1987). One of the most widely
accepted definition was given by McGrath (1970) cited in Kasl (1978).
He defined stress which is applicable to work situation as: "a
perceived substantial imbalance between demand and response
capability, under conditions where failure to meet demand has
important perceived consequences."
The emphasis here is on perceived demands, perceived capability
and perceived consequences if demands are not met (Kasl, 1978).
According to Kranz and Raisen (1988) if situations are not viewed or
interpreted as harmful, threatening or noxious, they can produce
smaller or even opposite physiological responses.
,
SOURCES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
The specific sources of occupational stress have been extensively
documented (Webb, Schilling, Jacobson and Babb, 1987; Davidson
and Cooper, 1981; Marshall and Cooper, 1979: Cooper and Marshall,
1978). These include factors intrinsic to the job itself, role in the
organisation, career development, relationships at work,
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organisational structure and climate and extra-organisational sources
of stress.
Factors Intrinsic to the Job
The sources of stress intrinsic to the job across a variety of
occupations include the following:
- . --1. Poor working conditions;
2. Shift work;
3. Work underload;
4. Work overload;
5. Physical danger. and
6. Person - environment fit (P - E) and job dissatisfaction.
Poor Working Conditions: There is no doubt that poor physical
working condition can enhance stress at work. They include poorly
designed work place. pollution in the work place. too much noise.
overcrowding. poor working conditions due to heat and so on.
Shift Work: A number of occupational studies have shown that shift
work is a common cause of occupational stress (Davidson and Cooper.
1981). Shift work has been shown to affect biological rhythms such as
blood temperature. metabolic rate. blood sugar levels as well as
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mental efficiency and motivation which intimately result in stress-
related illnesses.
Work Overload: Work overload can be either quantitative or
qualitative. Qualitative overload is when the work is too difficult
while- quantitative overload is'when-the work is too much. Work
overload has been associated with physical, mental and behavioural
problems. Occupational settings characterized by high demand and
low level of control over the job are associated with increased coronary
risk (Krantz and Raisen, 1988).
Work Underload: It is interesting to note that having too little work
to do can lead to stress. Work underload involves repetitive, routine,
boring and under-stimulating work environment.
Physical Danger: Some occupations by nature involve high risks in
terms of physical danger. Some of these include police personnel,
soldiers, miners and fire fighters.
Person-Environment Fit (P-E) and Job Satisfaction: The P-E fit
theory has been applied to occupational health. McMichael (1978)
defined P-E theory as an interaction between an individual's
psychosocial characteristics and objective work conditions (cited in
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ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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Davidson and Cooper. 1981). Simply put the P-E theory states that
stress can occur or result in psychological problems such as anxiety.
depression. job dissatisfaction and physiological disorders if there is a
P-E misfit. For example. one type of P-E fit is the fit between an
employee's needs and the job supplies or resources for meeting those
needs. For instance ...stress results .when the supplies/demand of the
environment (E) do not match the needs or abilities of the Person (P).
The most stressful occupational environment are those that have high
demands combined with low ability to control the situation (Payne.
Rick. Smith and Cooper. 1984). There are two type of P-E fit. The
need-supplies fit is fit between an employee's need and the job
supplies or resources for meeting those needs. The Demands-abilities
fit is fit between the job demands and the person's abilities (Beehr,
1987).
Role in the Organization
The role that a person is supposed to play at work can be a
source of occupational stress. Such roles can result in stress if they
are not clear or ambiguous or when they conflict. Role ambiguity is
when there is lack of clarity about one's job while role conflict is when
there is a conflicting job demands (Cooper. 1987; Davidson and
Cooper. 1981). Role ambiguity and conflict have been associated with
stress-related diseases.
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Career development
The stressors related to career development include the impact
of over-promotion. under-promotion. status incongruence. lack of job
security and thwarted ambitions. Lack ofjob security relates to fear of
- .rltsmtsaal.. job .loss early. retirement against one's will and so on.
Status incongruence such as when one is under-promoted or over-
promoted. Under-promotion can result in frustration. while over-
promotion may lead to overworking and stress which results in stress.
Relationship at Work
The relationship at work with one's colleagues. bosses and
subordinates has been related to job stress. According to French and
Caplan (1972) poor relationships with other members of an
organization may be precipitated by role ambiguity in the organization
which iQ turn may produce psychological strain in the form of job
dissatisfaction (cited in Davidson and Cooper. 1981). Conversely good
relationship with coworkers and social support can reduce stress at
work. Social support has been shown to ameliorate the impact of
occupational stress on job-related strain (LaRocco. House and
French. 1980).
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Organization Structure and Climate
The potential sources of occupational stress is related to the
organizational climate and structure such as office politics. lack of
effective consultation. lack of participation in decision-making
process and restriction on behaviour. French and Caplan reported
.. that greater participation -byworkers was related to high productivity
.improved. performancevlower staff turnover. lower levels of physical
and mental illness and lower stress-related behaviours such as
escapist drinking and heavy smoking (cited in Cooper. 1987).
Home-Work Interface (Extra-organisational sources of stress).
Work pressures can also affect the families of the workers. The
above mentioned sources of occupational stress such as work
overload. over-promotion/under-promotion. fear of job loss. or other
problems workers bring with them into the family affect the children.
wife and the home environment. Also the problems related to family
demands can be a major source ofjob stress.
Other potential sources of work stress include lack of
interesting or stimulating work. little or no chance of using or
developing new skills. time pressures. repetitive or monotonous work.
and negative physical environment, such as overcrowding and social
isolation.
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OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND HEALTH
There is a strong evidence of a reliable association between
illness and psychological distress (Friedman and Booth-Kewley, 1987).
With respect to occupational health. Levi (1990) indicated that there
is a little- but increasing direct evidence of a causal relationship
between work-related psychological stressors and the incidence and
prevalence of occupational morbidity and mortality.
According to Levi (1990). if a mismatch exists between the
worker and the job, if the worker is (or feels) unable to control his or
her work conditions. or if he or she copes ineffectively or lacks social
support. then potential pathogenic reactions may occur and these
reactions can be emotional.. cognitive. behavioural or physiological
which under certain conditions might lead to physical, mental
diseases or both. The model of occupational stress shows the
relationship between the employee and the workplace which may
result in etress and in turn be effectively or ineffectively coped with.
Successful coping with stress provides opportunity for new
solutions or growth while strain. the outcome of unsuccessful coping
results in detrimental effects for the employee and the organization
(Zaccaro and Riley. 1987). There are optimal stress at work as there
are in life. The issue is not one of presence or absence of stress but
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rather the nature, intensity and duration and the resources available
to respond or cope with it.
The negative effects of stress are not easily seen because they
take longer to develop and are moderated by so many factors. As a
result the link between stress, poor health, organizational withdrawal,
poor performance are less directly apparent (Zaccaro and Riley, 1987).
Moreover, it is difficult to establish connection between stress and
specific diseases (Webb, Schilling, Jacobson and Babb, 1983).
In addition, it is even more difficult to determine which health
problem is due to occupational or nonoccupational stress. However,
what is clear is that psychological stress is a serious occupational
hazard with adverse consequences for the worker's health and well-
being.
MANIFESTATIONS OF WORK STRESS
A number of studies have investigated the association, between
stress and health. The Table 1 shows some of the physiological,
mental, emotional, behavioural and social responses to stress. It is
important to note that many of these responses can be due to factors
other than stress. However, these responses are regarded as indicators
of stress (Webb, Schilling, Jacobson and Babb, 1988).
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It is true that work can be a factor in health promotion but
according to EL Batawi, (1984) when it produces excess risks, it may
affect health in one or more of the followingways:
1. It may cause occupational disease from specific physical,
chemical and biological exposure;
2. It may lead to aggravation of existing disease of non-
occupational origin; and
3. It may be a factor in a number of diseases with multiple
etiology.
Adverse psychosocial factors at work have been blamed for a
variety of psychosomatic and behaviour disorders such as smoking
and alcoholism (EL Batawi, 1984). Also in an extensive review of
relationship between occupational stress and health by Davidson and
Cooper (l981), workers experiencing high job stress drank more than
those in occupations experiencing less job stress. It was also reported
that smoking and drug abuse were -more common in stressful
occupations.
Psychosocial stress in whatever form, overt or covert may playa
part in many organic and psychological disorders. Health problems
said to be aggravated by psychosocial job stress include, coronary
heart disease (CHD), hypertension, obesity, asthma, arthritis,
migraine, indigestion, ulcer, diabetes, mental disorder including
suicide (EL Batawi, 1984, Davidson and Cooper, 1981). The
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association between occupational stress, coronary heart disease and
mental health have been investigated. The role of psychosocial stress
in the development of CHD is well documented (Dorian and Taylor.
1984).
Lam, Ong, Wong, Lee and Kleevens (l985) found strong
--- association between mental ill-health and work stress among office
workers in Hong Kong. Besides, there is evidence that psychological
stress can result in decreased immune function (Friedman and Booth-
Kewley, 1987).
Stress whether occupational or not has been shown to decrease
physical stamina. mental alertness and reaction time (Davidson and
Cooper, 1981). At the organizational level, work stress may produce
such symptoms as job dissatisfaction, increased absenteeism,
accidents, poor working relationship and decreased productivity.
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TABLE2.1
Individual and Organizational Responses to Stress.
A. Short-Term response Mental, emotional behavioural and
physiological social
Migraine headache Job dissatisfaction
Backaches Anxiety
Eye and vision problems Depression
Allergic skin reaction Irritability
Sleep disturbances Frustration
Digestive disorders Breakdown of relationships at home
Raised heart rate and work
Raised blood cholesterol Alcohol and Drug misuse
smoking
Inability to relax
B. Long-term responses Organizational health
individual health
Gastric/Peptic ulcers Absenteeism
Asthma Poor time keeping
Diabetes High labour turnover
Arthritis _ High sickness rates
Stroke Low productivity
High blood pressure Industrial unrest
Coronary heart disease
Mental ill health
Source: Webb. Schilling. Jacobson and Babb, (1988) Health at Work. London:
Health Education Authority.
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PREVENTION AND STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.
As well known. stress is caused by many situations and
psychosocial factors in our environment and therefore cannot be
controlled or reduced by any single technique (Achalu, 1993b). This
... .section ..highlights the.~y:ariQUS approaches and strategies to the
prevention and management of individual and organisational stress.
Primary prevention involves changing the potentially stressful
situation before it occurs while secondary prevention involves
controlling the meaning of the stressful experience once they occur.
Lastly tertiary prevention deals with managing of the effects of the
stress response or outcome.
Zaccaro and Riley (19$7) categorised the approaches to solving
the prob.cm of both individual and organisational stress and they
include:
1. attempts to directly change the situations (prevention)
2. attempts to manage the meaning of stress (management)
3. attempts to cope with the effects of stress (damage control).
According to Zaccaro and Riley (1987). individuals and organisations
have two purposes in coping with stress and these are:
1. to effectively overcome the threat or meet the challenge; and
2. to prevent strains.
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Individually Focused Stress Management Strategies
These are personal stress management or coping strategies for
preventing the occurrence of stressors by managing personal
perception or meaning of the demanding situations and managing the
effects of unavoidable stress to reduce the development of strains
(Zaccaro and Riley-, 198-7L = Primary prevention involves managing
personal perception of stress such as recognising the inevitable and
disputing cognitive distortion; lifestyle management such as
prioritizing one's goal, maintaining a balanced diet, regular exercise,
moderate use of drugs and alcohol, use of leisure time and
sabbaticals; and finally managing the personal work environment
such as planning ahead, time management, avoidance of work
overload, changing task or job if possible.
Unlike the primary prevention which is stressor-directed,
secondary prevention is response-directed. These include relaxation
training such as progressive and -momentary relaxation, meditation,
hypnosis, autogenic training and bio-feedback.
Lastly at the tertiary prevention level, it is symptom-directed
with an attempt to cope with the impacts or effects of stress (damage
control). This involves counselling and psychotherapy such as
symptom-specific programmes, individual psychotherapy, behaviour
therapy, group therapy and career counselling. Others include
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medical care such as medications, surgery and physical therapy
depending on the extent of symptom or damage.
Organlsauional Approaches to Managing Work Stress
The organtsational-level methods of preventing stress include
. those that-address or relate to the task and physical demands of the
workplace and those that target relationships between employees at
all levels. The interventions at the organisational level are primarily
concerned with modifying the formal organisation in order to alter the
demands it places on the individual (Zaccaro and Riley, 1987). These
may include task redesign, participative management, flexible work
schedule, career development and design of physical settings. Table
2.2 shows the group and organtsattonal-level methods for preventing
work stress.
, W.ORK-PLACE STRESS MANAGEMENT
Many people continue to be uninformed about the relationship
between lifestyle, stress and health (Zaccaro and Riley, 1987). The
aim of stress education at work site is to help individuals manage
their own health, ultimately reducing their health risk (Rosen and
Lee, 1987). According to them, approaches to work site stress
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management and education can be directed at changing the individual
and/or changing the organization.
They suggested that individual change programmes are by far
the most popular. These include instruction in stress management
techniques such as physical. cognitive and emotional strategies for
managing-psychological and physiological
,
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TABLE 2.2
Group and Organisational-Level Methods for Preventing Work Stress.
Role and Interpersonal
Demands
Clarify role expectations Social support
* Define job requirements * Encourage constructive
clearly relationships
* Make resources accessible * Provide group or unit goal and
* Make rewards contingent on rewards
performance * Encourage accessibility of supervisors
* Eliminate conflicting * Provide accessible counselling
expectations
* Provide frequent feedback
on performance
Goal setting Team building
* Establish re-asonable performance -- ----_.* Provide opportunity to address
goals and resolve conflicts
* Define area of responsibility * Provide methods for
* Provide frequent feedback on integrating new employees
goal-related performance
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TABLE 2.2 CONTD.
Task and Physical Demands
Task redesign Flexible work schedules
Assessment of task demands • Employee manages time to
• Restructures to provide more fit needs
satisfying. less stressful • Enhances fit between work
work and home responsibilities
Participative Management Career development
• Reduces authoritarianism • Involves self-and
• Increases employee control organizational assessment
and responsibility • Requires clarification of
• Increases co-worker support career paths
Design of physical settings
• Involves assessment and
reduction of stressful
environments
• Facilitates task accomplishment
Source: Zaccaro. S. and Riley. A.N. (1987). Occupational Stress and Organizational Effect.
New York: Praeger.
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reactions to stress. Rosen and Lee categorized stress reduction
programmes into two types:
1. Preventive programmes which teach skills to help educate
employees about the negative effects of stress and the
techniques to prevent more serious physical and psychological
problems or breakdowns.
2. Intervention programmes which focus on people with particular
stress-related symptoms. teaching them self-management of
stress as a way to overcome or reduce existing pains and the
risk of further health problems.
Achalu (l993b) proposed the behavioural engineering model as a
holistic approach to stress management. Basically this involves
identifying the cause of stress and making intentional and conscious
alteration of lifestyle to reduce or avoid exposure to the stress. The
behavioural engineering strategy attempts to influence knowledge.
attitude and behaviour through information and education.
,
The behavioural engineering model of stress reduction shown in
Figure 2.1 stresses the importance of lifestyle behaviour management
in the control of stress; encouraging behaviours that promote health
while discouraging stress-promoting activities. Achalu (l993b)
indicated that one of the most effective techniques of managing stress
is to identify the sources of stress and then develop a lifestyle aimed
at controlling the social and environmental stressors.
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Needle. Griffin and Svendsen (1981) identified four psychological
coping strategies- that is in line with the behavioural engineering
model of stress management. First is the positive comparison which
is a device intended to control the meaning of the problem. Second is
optimistic action which involves searching for positive aspects of the
situation. The third one is the substitution of rewards which deals
with maximizing the positive while minimizing the negative aspects of
the situation. The fourth strategy involves selectively ignoring
problems and focusing on a more gratifying aspect of the job or
situation.
,
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FIGURE 2.1 Behavioural Engineering Model of Stress
Management
Life Stress
Social ----)Stresirs ( Environmental
t
Perception of Stress
1
Behavioural Engineering Intervention
(Information and education)
1
Influence Knowledge and Attitude
1
Preparation for Action
Selectionof leJ Stressful Lifestyle
t
Behaviour Change
, 1
Reduced Stress
1
Reduced Psychosomatic Disease
Source: Achalu, E.!. (1993b). Psychosocial stress management: A behavioural
engtneertng model. Sports Science Medicine 3. p. 52.
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THE CONCEPT OF TEACHER STRESS
Teaching is one of the high-stress occupations. A number of
researchers have studied the various aspects of occupational stress
among teachers at the various .levels of education. Teaching is widely
held to be a stressful and demanding occupation and teachers are
more likely than other occupational groups to see their work as
stressful psychologically (Herloff and Jarvholm. 1989). The various
sources and manifestations of teacher stress have been documented
(Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1977. 1978: Needle. Griffin. Svendsen and
Berney. 1980).
Psychosocial stress is a serious occupational hazard with
adverse consequences for the teachers health. well-being and career as
well as the teaching-learning process and the attainment of
educational goals and objectives (Needle. Griffin. Svendsen and
.Berney.. 19.80).Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978) defined teacher stress as:
a response of negative affect (such as anger. depression)
by a teacher usually accompanied by potentially
pathogenic and biochemical changes (such as increased
heart rate or release of adrenocorticotropic hormones into
the blood stream) resulting from aspects of the teacher
job and mediated by the perception that the demands
made upon the teacher constitutes a threat to his self-
esteem or well-being and by coping mechanisms activated
to reduce the perceived threat. p.2.
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47
According to Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1977) the extent to which
. the demands made upon a teacher results in teacher stress depends
on many factors such as the following:
1. The degree of role conflict or role ambiguity involved;
·2. The degree -to which the teacher perceives that he is unable to
meet the demands made upon him or her;
3. .. The. degree to which the teacher's ability to meet the demand is
impaired by poor working conditions;
4. The degree to which the demands are new or unfamiliar;
5. The degree to which the teacher is already experiencing stress
resulting from sources outside his or her role as a teacher.
Literature on stress indicate that there are many approaches to
stress research. Some focus on the environmental factors. others on
individual differences in perception of stress while others concentrate
on the .individual's, responses to stress. In a study investigating the
teacher s,tress and satisfaction. Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979b) found
that 23.4% of the teachers rated being a teacher as either stressful or
extremely stressful.
However. they reported that a large proportion of the teachers
were either very satisfied or fairly satisfied with teaching. The teachers
who experienced greater level of stress were more likely to experience
lower job satisfaction (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1979b). Also there was
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
48
a positive association between self-reported teacher stress and the
frequency of absences. as well as intention to leave teaching. In other
words s . teachers having higher stress level are more likely to be less
satisfied with their job. more likely to be frequently absent and more
likely to leave teaching.
Model of Teacher Stress
The discussion of the concept of teacher stress would be
incomplete without the description of a model of teacher stress. The
model of teacher stress proposed by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978)
presents a comprehensive paradigm of teacher stress. The model
essentially conceptualises teacher stress as a response syndrome
mediated by an appraisal of threat to the teacher's self-esteem or well-
being and by coping mechanisms activated to reduce the perceived
threat (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1978).
The- model of teacher 'stress shown in Figure 2.2 identifies
important aspects of teacher stress as follows:
1. Potential stressors which are either physical or psychological
(Box 1);
2. The appraisal of threat to the teacher's well-being (Box 2);
3. Actual stressors which are a subset of potential stressors that
actually constitute a threat (Box 3);
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49
FIGURE 2.2
Model of Teachers Stress
_. -
7
ClIARAcn:RISnCS OF
TIlE INUIVIDUAL TEAClIEJI.
bi"lIr.>phic:al
lH:rJunillity
higher order nttds
ability lu meet or cope with demands
bclicfs·at1.iIUdcs-valucs system
I (.1)-,
I 2 , 1 i4 5 6
f--
P01T.NTIAI. I- APPRAISAL ACfUAI. r- COPING f--- n:AClIt:R CHRONIC
STRESSOR~; STRESSORS MF.(:JIANISMS STRESS SYMPTOMS
lhrcallu
KIf-esIC"Cm tu reduce ncgarive psychotOlUtic
physic'" wcll·bcinK perceived afCectl corunary
psychologic; I Ihrc~l mcnl:al
response
I currclatl.'S:r (.) psychulugicalphYliulut(ical
bchaviuural
,.
(b) (e)
a ..-
P01T.N'11AL
NON OCCUPAnONAL
STk£S~ORS
..1~:: '~ -
Source: Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (l978j. A Model oj Teacher Stress.
Educational studies, 4 (lj p.3.
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50
4. The coping mechanisms used to deal with the actual stressors
(Box 4) which are determined by the teachers individual or
.... _._. _ . biographical characteristics (Box 7) and the degree to which the
coping mechanisms are unable to deal with the stressors and
the degree to which he appraises the threat;
5. Resp.onse. correlates .of the . teacher stress which are
psychosomatic or chronic symptoms (Box 5);
6. The biochemical changes which may lead to psychosomatic or
chronic symptoms (Box6).
The teacher stress model contains four feedback loops (a, b, c.
d) that interact with other factors in the model to moderate the
appraisal or impact of teacher stress. These include:
1. The coping mechanisms adopted by the teacher to deal with the
actual stressors which can affect the appraisal of potential
stressors .
.. 2 If the coping mechanism usedis-successful the actual stressor
will be reduced to potential stressor in loop (a).
3 Also the teacher stress may affect appraisal directly in loop (b)
or indirectly by causing ill health, loop (c).
4 Lastly failure to meet or cope with the demands in the past may
affect the individuals future appraisal of his ability to meet or
cope with new demands as shown in loop (d).
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51
SOURCES OF TEACHER STRESS
The various sources of occupational stress among teachers have
been documented (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1977. 1978; Needle. Griffin.
Svendsen and Berney. 1980; Mark. Pierce and Molloy. 1990). The
various stressors where identified usually by asking teachers to
identify factors that they consider hindrances in performing their
duties as a teacher. Some of the major sources of teacher stress:
1. teacher salaries;
2. poor human relations among staff;
3. inadequacies in school buildings and equipment;
4. teacher training;
5. teaching load;
6. large classes;
7. feelings of inadequacies as a teacher;
8. status of teachers in the society (Rudd and Wiseman 1962).
It should also be noted that what causes job dissatisfaction can
be a source of stress. Although the stressors outlined already are
unique to teachers. teachers may experience other stressors shared
with other occupations as already described. Lastly. the employers
may contribute to burnout or stress through poor communication and
implementation of decisions which affect teachers. These include
inflexible policies on staffing and leave. inadequate teacher welfare
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52
and lack of general support system. The effects of burnout at the
school level may be reflected in staff turnover, absenteeism, job
dissatisfaction and consequentToss.iof trained and experienced
-teachers to other professions.
CONSEQlIENCES OF TEACHER STRESS
c.~ zr=>: -_Job Stress and Health Status
Generally stressors, whether occupational or not can result in
physiological, behavioural, psychological and somatic disorders. A
number of studies have investigated the relationship between stress
and health status of teachers. According to Needle, Griffin and
Svendsen (1981) depending on individual psychological and coping
resources. social support and other conditions outside of work,
psychological stressors can result in stress responses of psychological,
somatic and behavioural -nature which, as risk factors and precursors
,
of disease, affect the health and well-being of teachers.
The association between occupational stressors and a number
of health problems among teachers have been reported. These include
somatic problems such as headaches, dizziness, abdominal pain,
sleeplessness. fatigue and exhaustion, high blood pressure, peptic
ulcers, coronary heart disease; psychological problems (such as
anxiety, tension, irritability, depression. job dissatisfaction);
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53
behavioural responses (such as -use of drug and alcohol. smoking, loss
of appetite. absenteeism).
----In-a-studyofphysical-and general well-being of teachers, Needle
and Associates (1981) found that 45% of all teachers in the survey of
Minnesota Public Schools (U.S.A.) reported one or more chronic
health -problems. Ninety six percent (96.0%) of the respondents
reported one or more symptoms. Theyalso noted that teachers with
greatest stress were more likely to report significantly high levels of
almost all symptoms. In their study of the health problems of
teachers, the respondents were asked to indicate how frequently they
have experienced a particular symptom or physical condition in the
previous year. A section of the questionnaire contained the general
well-being scale which measures teachers' psychological states of
depression and anxiety. The result showed that a great majority of
the teachers in the study were in good spirit (72%). while only 26.0%
reported being in low spirits.
- Some of the teachers were reported to be experiencing much
distress and anxiety. The teachers reporting higher stress report lower
general well-being (r = -0.37) and more symptoms (r = 0.32). Somatic
symptoms correlated highly with general well-being (r = -0.67) with
those reporting higher levels of general well-being reporting lower
levels of symptoms. The data indicated that perceived job stressors are
substantially related to psychological, somatic and health-related
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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problems and that the health of teacher is greatly affected by stress
(Needle. Griffin and Sv.ends.en._1981}._Alsoit was noted that stressors
____v_a_r_y .and.affect teach-ersdiffer-ently;consequently some teachers are at
high risk for health problems than others. This observation confirms
the fact that individuals respond. differently to same stress because of
__ -,-indivtdual. differences in perception of stress.
- In a similar study by Cichon. et. al. (1978) cited in Needle.
Grtffin, .and Svendsen (1981) it was found that more than a half of the
teachers reported experiencing physical illness they believed was
related to work stress. In a more recent study. Mark, Pierce and
Molloy (1990) compared secondary school teachers experiencing high
level of stress (burnout) with those experiencing low level of stress and
observed that high levels Of stress were associated with poorer
physical health, higher rates of absenteeism, lower self-confidence and
more frequent use of regressive or bad coping strategies.
In summary, a number, 01studies have shown that teachers
with greater stress -have rnorephysical or somatic symptoms, higher
levels of anxiety and psychological difficulties. In addition, teachers
with greater stress are more likely to report lower job satisfaction and
more likely to leave the teaching profession (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe,
1977, 1979b; Mark, Pierce and Molloy, 1990). At this juncture it is
important to point out that poorer health can result in more stress.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
55
Events perceived to be desirable and therefore. presenting
-,- --opportunities forgainor.masterywere.not stressful while events that
were neither mastery. desirable nor within control resulted to distress
and ill health (McFarlane. Norman. Streiner and Roy. 1983). In a
previous study of the relationship of psychosocial environment to
health status. McFarlane. Norman; Stretner. Roy and Scott (1980),
stated that the extent to which individuals are successful in coping
with changes in their lives will be reflected in the degree to which they
report distress or strain and that it is cost of coping struggle that
results in the increased likelihood of health problems.
TEACHER STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION
The relationship between stress and job satisfaction has been
widely investigated. Stress in the case of teaching results when the
- - _-. .. demands of- teaching exceeds the ability of the teacher to cope.
Teachers with greater stress report low job satisfaction and low
occupational self-esteem (Needle. Griffin and Svendsen. 1981).
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979b) studied the relationship between self-
reported teacher stress and job satisfaction among a sample of
comprehensive schools in England. They used a single-item self
reported measure of overall job satisfaction also known as the global
measure of job satisfaction. The results indicated that self-reported
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
56
teacher stress was negatively associated with job satisfaction (r = -.27;
..... P <...01) .and positively associated with intention to leave teaching (r
=.18; P < .01).
. In a similar study comparing secondary school teachers
experiencing high levels of occupational stress versus those
experiencing. low Ievels of stress, Mark. Pierce and Molloy (1990) noted
that teachers experiencing high levels of stress were less satisfied with
their career, and had less career commitment. Kyriacou and Sutcliffe
(1979) found a significant negative association between job
satisfaction and self-reported teacher stress and a significant positive
correlation between self-reported stress and intention to leave
teaching Ir = .18; P < .01). However, there was a positive association
between teacher stress and frequency of absences, although not
significant (rho = .09; P> .10).
It was concluded that teachers experiencing greater stress are
...also likely to have lower job satisfactton. to be absent more frequently
and to be more likely to leave teaching. Similarly a comparison of
,
teachers in the high versus low stress groups indicate that teachers
having high level of stress were more frequently absent than those
with less stress and less satisfied with their job (Mark, Pierce and
Molloy, 1990). Finally, the effects of stress may include high
resignation rates with consequent loss of experienced teachers.
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STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION,. BIOGRAPHICAL AND CAREER
C~CTERISTICS
Mark, Pierce and Molloy (1990) investigated the psychological as
well as biographical differences between secondary school teachers
experiencing high and low levels of burnout or stress. They examined
whether the composition of the high and low stress group differed
with respect. to school type, sex, marital status, age, teaching
experience, position in school, level of education among others. They
found that the composition of the high and low stress group did not
differ with respect to sex, marital status, age or level of education.
However, they found significant differences between the high
and low stress group with respect to years of teaching experience and
position in school. Teachers in the low stress group tended to have
overall teaching experience than those in the high stress group. It was
also rep,orted that more teachers involved mainly in classroom
teaching duties were in .the high stress group (65.0%) compared with
teachers the low stress group (41.5%). Furthermore, more teachers
with additional responsibilities were in the low stress group (46.8%)
compared with the teachers in high stress group (25.9%).
In a similar study Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (l979a) studied the
relationship between self-reported teacher stress and biographical
characteristics such as age, sex, length of teaching experience and
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58
position held in school. They found a significant interaction for sex
and position -held in school- They also noted that male head of
departments and female teachers reported greater stress than their
colleagues.
Generally, studies have consistently found that women have
moredepressive disorders and psychological distress than men and are
more likely to view themselves as having emotional problems (Cleary
and Mechanic, 1983). Gadzella, Ginther, Tomcala and Bryant (1990)
investigated differences in stress by sex, levels, age, and job
classification as perceived by professionals in a survey. They found
that women reported more stress than men. This was explained by
the fact that women undertake more responsibilities in caring for the
family in addition to their professional career.
Also individuals in the younger age groups reported higher
stress scores than the older groups. They suggested that it could
mean that individuals in the-older age group have learnt to cope with
stressful situations. They also found in job classification, that the
staff and middle level managers reported greater stress than the
executives. According to them these differences among jobs may be
due to executives delegating the tasks to be done and the mid-level
managers carrying them out.
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OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND RELATED STUDIES AMONG
_____~_- ... '""--- ""-,- NIGERIAN TEACHERS
In a study of stress among lecturers at the University of Ibadan.
Mbachu (1986) reported that male and female lecturers experience the
-same degree of stress.vStmilarly the young and older lecturers as well
as the senior and junior lecturers experience the same degree of
stress. In other words. there were no significant differences in the
degree of stress experienced by the lecturers with respect to sex. age.
and status.
__ _Ajayi ..0-981) .Jn ·a -study of job. -satisfaction and commitment
among Nigeria university teachers. noted that job satisfaction and
commitment among the teachers was low. He reported high job
satisfaction for younger lecturers (30 years and below) and low job
satisfaction for older teacher (30 - 40 years) and rising for those 40
years and.above.i.Wtth respect to .status or position held. he noted
that job .sattsfaction and commitment tend to increase with status
with the exception of Readers who were less satisfied than Senior
lecturers and Lecturers I and II. Also interestingly. male teachers were
less satisfied with their job but more committed than the female
counterparts while female teachers were more satisfied but less
committed than the male teachers.
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Finally, Ajayi (1981) suggested that the low job satisfaction and
commitment was related to repeated complaints of lack of fund and
facilities, with the unprecedented state of individual action and trade
disputes among the university teachers. This trend is not any
different today than it was ten years ago when the study was
conducted.
According to Ajayi (1981) the Nigeria university teachers are
loosing their sense of attachment to the university and do not believe
that the university is fulfilling its goal and are neither too willing to
appreciate the problems of the university nor willing to share the
blames for the university shortcomings. He believes that the teachers
loyalty is waning and that some of teachers would gladly leave for
openings elsewhere and may not be totally committed to spending the
rest of their career in their present universities. There is no doubt
that stressed or dissatisfied teachers are more likely to leave their job
than satisfied ones.
From Ajayis study, it was clear that job satisfaction is
significantly correlated with job commitment. Naturally satisfied
workers are more committed to their job while dissatisfied workers are
less committed and more likely to leave his job than satisfied workers.
It is not clear why female teachers were more satisfied but less
committed than male teachers in Ajayi's study. Ajayi (1981) suggested
that the greatest means by which the Nigerian universities can secure
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the commitment of its teachers is by satisfying of their job-related
needs.
Also there have been some occupational studies among teachers
in other educational levels in Nigeria. Ehiametalor and Nwaobasi
(1987) studied the effects of stress on secondary school principals in
-former Bendel State of Nigeria.-They-found that reported stress has an
effect on the performance and that effective principals seemed to have
stress. They also noted that the situation in which the principal
worked and his responsibilities were potent stressors.
Ogunsanya (1981) investigated the relationship between job
-sati-sfactio~;. produottvtty.sand .aoademte goal achievement of teachers
in former Oyo State secondary schools. He found a positive
relationship among teacher job satisfaction. productivity and
academic goal achievement of secondary schools of Oyo State. In a
stmtlar istudy. _A_kanbi(l986)_ reported .teacher job satisfaction as a
correlate -of. institutional task performance in Kwara State Teacher
Colleges. Teacher job satisfaction was positively related to task
performance.
,
Finally. the relationship between indicators of job satisfaction
and commitment of physical education teachers in former Bendel
State secondary schools was investigated by Ikhioya (1989). The
results revealed a significant and positive relationships between the
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various indicators of job satisfaction and commitment of the teachers
surveyed.
As already indicated" in the previous sections, there is still a
limited research in the area of occupational stress in the developing
"countries. Similarly research in occupational stress among Nigerian
.workers is still in its" infancy: The available occupational studies
focused only on sources of stress, teacher job satisfaction,
commitment and productivity. So far there appear to be little or no
data on the relationship between occupational stress and health
status of Nigerian university teachers. There is no doubt that
occupational stress is a major_health hazard facing Nigerian
University teachers.
In the recent years, Nigerian universities have been faced with
many problems ranging from low salaries to lack of adequate facilities
and poor working conditions that have resulted in trade disputes,
frequent strikes and university closures. These factors are potential
causes of stress and could lead to job dissatisfaction and
conseque,ntly influence the teacher's health and well-being.
Ajayi (1981) in a survey of Nigerian University teachers reported
a low job satisfaction and commitment among the teachers. Also
Mbachu (1986) identified work-related stress as the most important
source of stress among teachers at the University of Ibadan compared
with other categories of stressors. Thus the low job satisfaction and
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commitment reported among Nigerian University teachers by Ajayi
.U98lo).may-be-related to occupational stress.
-Therefore the main purpose of the present study is to investigate
occupational stress and its relationship to job satisfaction,
psychological well-being, selected biographical and career
-charactertsttcasuch-aaage, sex, job .status and years of teaching
experience of teachers in the first generation universities. The
relationship between occupational stress, biographical and career
characteristics of the teachers were examined in the present study
because an individual's experiential background, knowledge, sex, age,
and job-status -affects -the-perception of stress and moderate one's
response to stress. There is no doubt that extensive research is needed
in the area of teacher stress which has so far received only a limited
attention. Certainly more research is needed to identify the potential
causes and consequences of occupational stress among Nigerian
workers (Achalu, 1993a).
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
.. The main purposeof this .studywas to investigate occupational
stress and its relation to satisfaction arid psychological well-being of
teachers in the first generation Nigerian Universities and also to
assess differences in the levels of overall occupational stress
experienced by the teachers with respect to biographical
.characteristics namely age. sex and career variables of job status and
years of teaching experience.
This chapter describes the methods and procedures applied in
the study under the following subsections:-
1. Research Design
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Technique
4. De,velopment of Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (JSJSQ).
5. Validation of the Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire
a. Face and Content Validity
........ b .. - .Reliability and Internal Consistency
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6. The General Health Questionnaire
-,7 .. c • ,Administration of the survey instrument and data collection
. 8. - Procedure for Data Analysis.
Research Design
. ~·······--·The research method .employed in the study was a cross-
sectional- survey design. According to Babbie (1973) in a cross-
sectional survey, data are collected at one point in time from a sample
selected to describe some larger population at that time and can be
used not _only for purposes of description but also for the
.'-' .-·-determination .ofrelationships. between variables at the time of study.
This assertion is consistent with the objectives of this study which
sought to investigate occupational stress and its relationship to job
satisfaction, psychological well-being and biographical characteristics
of a sample of Nigerian University teachers.
The survey design used allows for the study of the complex
subject of stress and its correlates since it does not lend itself to
experimental manipulation in human subjects. Occupational stress
was assigned the dependent (criterion) variable while job satisfaction,
and psychological well-being were regarded as the independent
(predictor) variables for the purpose of prediction. This study is a post-
facto research rather than experimental. According to Sprinthall
(1987) when the independent variable is manipulated the research is
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experimental and when the independent variable is assigned the
research is post-facto. Also the. biographtcal characteristics of age.
sex. job status and years' of teaching experience were the independent
(predictor) variables while the overall occupational stress was the
dependent variable.
Population
.. The study population consisted of only the teaching (academic)
staff in the first generation Nigerian Universities. which included.
University of Ibadan. Ibadan. University of Nigeria. Nsukka. University
of Lagos. Lagos. Obafemi Awolowo University. Ile-Ife, and Ahmadu
Bello .Universtty, Zaria. The subjects were limited to teaching staff
which included Professors. Readers (Associate Professors). Senior
Lecturers and Lecturers I and II as well as Assistant Lecturers in the
selected faculties.
Sample and Sampling Technique
The sampling technique used in the study was cluster sampling.
,
According to Raj (1972) this technique involves selecting the sample
in clusters or groups rather than take individual units. In cluster
sampling. the population is broken down into groups of cases called
clusters. and a sample of clusters is selected at random (Singleton.
Straits. Straits and McAllister .. 1988). However. in this study a
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multistage or multiphase cluster sampling was employed. The first
stage involved the random selection of three out of the five first
generation Nigerian Universities followed by the second stage in which
- three faculties· were 'randomly selected from each of the sampled
Universities .
.- ... -: ··The-·names of allthe first generation Universities were each
written in a piece of paper and dropped in container. The researcher
randomly picked three, Untverstttes by means of balloting with
replacement. When a University was picked twice it was placed into
the container until a different one was picked.
The same procedure was used to select faculties from the
selected universities. Three faculties were randomly selected from the
University of Ibadan and University of Nigeria while four faculties were
selected from Ahmadu Bello University (ABU). An additional faculty
was included for ABU because the researcher did not reach a majority
of the teachers in the faculty of law at the time of the survey. Lastly.
the academic staff from all the departments within the selected
faculties were surveyed. A total of 300 university teachers responded
to the survey questionnaire.
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHER STRESS AND JOB
_ .~__ ._~~_._--SA1:ISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE (TSJSQ)
The research instrument was a structured questionnaire which
was developed and validated by the researcher. This instrument
--referred to as "Teacher Stress -and -Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
(TSJSQ}" was designed to measure occupational stress and job
satisfaction among-the university teachers. The TSJSQ consisted of
three sections. The first section requested biographical information on
age. sex. job status and years of experience. The second section was
the t'Teacher.Stress Inventory (TSI)"which was designed to measure
the levels of occupational stress experienced by the teachers. while the
last section referred to as "Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ) was
designed to measure the levels of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
among the teachers.
The TSJSQ has been developed by the researcher following
. extensive review of related literature on teacher stress and job
satisfaction. The TSI contains a list of stressors that have been
,
identified in previous studies as potential causes of stress among
teachers (Needle. Griffin. Svendsen. and Berney 1980; Kyriacou and
Sutcliffe. 1979a: Rudd and Wiseman. 1962).
In this present study subject were asked to rate the degree of
stress caused to them by each of the potential stressors at work on a
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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four - point Likert scale labelled, "severe stress" (4 points), "moderate
stress" (3 points), "Mild stress" (2 points), and "No stress" (1 point).
High score on the instrument indicated higher levels of occupational
. stress. - The last section of the TSJSQ is the Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (JSQ)which requested subjects to rate how satisfied or
: dtssatisfted. they are.with the various psychological factors related to
:: :theirjob on a four point Likert scale .
. The . responses ranged from "Very Dissatisfied" (4 points),
Dissatisfied .(3 points), "Moderately satisfied" (2 points) to very
satisfied" (1 point). High scores in the JSQ indicated high levels of
job dissatisfaction or low levels of job satisfaction. A sample of the
Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire is shown in
Appendix C. The JSQ contains eight questions. The scores of 25 - 32,
17 - 24, and 8 - 16 on the JSQ subscale indicate low, moderate and
high levels of job satisfaction respectively. The total score range from
a minimum of 8 to a maximum of 32. For the TSI subscale, scores of
65-84, 43-64 and 21-42 indicate high, moderate and low stress
respectively.
,
The scores for the 30 items on the TSI and JSQ subscales were
summed up to derive the overall or total stress scores of the TSJSQ.
The overall stress scores ranged from a minimum of 30 to a maximum
of 120. The scores of 91 -120, 61 - 90 and 30 - 60 indicated high,
moderate and low levels of overall occupational stress respectively.
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The scores of 25-36. 13-24 and 0-12 indicate high. moderate and low
.... levels of psychological symptoms .. The respondents score to each item
on the TSJSQ was added together and divided by the number of items
to get the mean scores plus the standard deviation. The overall mean
was derived by adding all the item means and dividing it by the total
.number of items in the Questionnaire.
Validation of the Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (TSJSQ)
----. ---Face and Content Validation
Content validation concerns the extent to which a measure
adequately represents all facets of a concept (Singleton. Straits.
Straits and McAllister. 1988). Also according to Cronbach (1970)
content validation involves the adequacy of the contents important
for the test instrument. The face. content and construct validity of
the TSJSQ was assessed by experts in the areas of health education
and allied fields. The instrument was found adequate for the study
,
with respect to content and construct validity by project supervisor
and other experts at the University of Ibadan and University of
Nigeria. Nsukka. The final instrument was revised and produced after
incorporating suggestions and recommendations from the experts.
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Reliability and Internal Consistency
A pilot study .was. carrted. Gut among a sample of 20 University
teachers in the faculty of education at the University of Ibadan. The
pilot study was used to identify possible problem with the
questionnaire and to. determine the reliability of the TSJSQ. The
'.:TSJsg was.admintsteredto-the.same subjects after two weeks interval
from the initial time.
Reliability is concerned with questions of stability and
consistency of the measuring instrument. Reliability refers to the
accuracy (consistency) and stability of measurement by a test (Isaac
and Michael. __1971; Campbell and- Stanley. 1959). Test-retest
reliability method was used to determine the coefficient of stability.
Finally. the computational formula for Pearson Product Moment
correlation was used to determine the test-retest reliability which is
indicative of the relationship between the two sets of measurements.
The test-retest reliability coefficients for the Teacher Stress Inventory
and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire subscales were 0.89 and 0.85
respectively.
,
The reliability coefficient for the combined subscales (Le.
Teachers Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire was 0.96. The
pilot study indicated that the TSJSQ is valid and adequate for this
study as shown by its high test-retest reliability [r = 0.96) and internal
consistency.
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The internal consistency estimates of reliability of each subscale
of the TSJSQ were determine using Cronbach's coefficient alpha. The
alpha coefficient of internal reliability for the TSI subscale was 0.875
-with a corrected item- - total correlation ranging from 0.36 to 0.53,
while that of JSQ sub scale was 0.73 with a corrected item - total
l correlation ranging from 0.31 to 0.53. The Cronbach coefficient alpha
- for-the entire instrument- (t.e. the- TSI·and JSQ subs cales combined}
was 0.88 with a corrected item - correction ranging from 0.21 to 0.57.
The two subscales were also found to be highly correlated (r = 0.43; P
<.OOl}.
Furthermore, the global measure of occupational stress, global
measure of job dissatisfaction, total job dissatisfaction (JSQ score)
total occupational stress scores (TSI score) and psychological distress
{GHQ score} correlated positively with each other (P<.001). The
summary of the inter-correlations between occupational stress, job
disatisfaction and psychological symptoms are shown in Table 4.16.
The General Health Questionnaire
The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) developed by Goldberg
(l972) was used to measure the level of psychological well-being or
psychological distress of the University teachers. The GHQ consists of
questions asking whether a respondent has recently experienced a
particular symptom or item of behaviour over the past few weeks.
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There are several versions of the GHQ but the 12 item version was
used in the present study. Each item was scored on a response scale
ranging from 0 to 3 with high score indicating greater psychological
distress (or low psychological well-being).
The GHQ is a self-administered screening test devised to
identify or detect non-psychotic minor psychiatric disorder among
-respondents (Goldberg .:-1972). Generally there is evidence indicating
-that self-ratings of .health .are-significantly related to measures of
objective health status (Ferraro. 1980). The validity of the GHQ is well
established and has been used extensively in both community and
occupational setting (Gureje and Obikoya, 1990. Ullah & Brotherson
1989; Lam. Ong, Wong. Lee. arid Kleevens. 1985; Banks. Clegg.
Jackson. Stafford and Wall. 1980).
The GHQ has been shown to have high internal consistency and
good test-retest reliability over a period of 6 months (Banks et al.
1980). In the present study. the GHQ was found to have a test-retest
reliability r = .94 over two weeks period. Also the Cranbach coefficient
of internal consistency was 0.87 with corrected item-total correlation
ranging from 0.34 to 0.69.
Procedure for data collection
The researcher travelled to the randomly selected Universities to
administer the questionnaire. A letter of introduction from the
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researcher's Head of Department was. submitted to the Dean of the
selected faculties. After obtaining the permission to conduct the
survey, copies of the questionnaire were distributed to all teachers in
the faculty with the help of research assistants and department
secretaries .
..,,~...The questionnatrecontatned an introductory section explaining
the purpose of the study and the need for the teachers to participate
in the survey. Most of the teachers were able to complete and return
the questionnaire within the deadline.
-- ---Procedure for Data Analysis
Several statistical procedures were used to analyse the data. All
hypotheses were tested at .05 significance level. Descriptive statistics
of means and standard deviation, frequencies and percentages were
computed for the various study variables. Appropriate univariate and
multivariate statistics were used to test the various hypotheses.
Chi-square statistics was used to test for differences among
variables or data at nominal levels. The studentized t-test and
,
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA}were employed to test differences
between or among variables at interval or ratio scale. Multiple
regression analysis was used to test relationships among variables at
interval or ratio scale and to determine the influence of the
independent variables on the dependent variable. According to
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Singleton et al (1988) multiple regression is a better technique for
analysing the simultaneous effects of several independent variables on
a dependent variable. In addition Scheffe' post-hoc test was used to
detect differences among groups where ANOVA was found significant.
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the
07. '.C.'_'_ data analysis. The analysis. was doneat the African Regional Center
for Information Science (ARCIS).University of Ibadan. Ibadan.
,
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The study investigated occupational stress and its relationship
to job .satisfacttcn and psychological well-being as well as career and
biographical- characteristics of -teachers in the first generation
Nigerian Universities. This chapter presents the results and analysis
of the data collected. The results are described and discussed with
-respect to hypotheses being tested.
Table 4.1 shows the frequency and percentage of respondents
according to their universities. A total of 300 respondents responded
to the survey from the three universities. Ahmadu Bello University.
Zaria accounted for 35% followed by 34.7% from the University of
Ibadan, Ibadan and 30.3% from University of Nigeria. Nsukka.
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TABLE 4.1
Distribution of Randomly Selected
Universities and Faculties
Universities Numbers Percentage
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 105 35.0%
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Law
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
University of Ibadan, Ibadan 104 34.7%
Faculty of Clinical Medical Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry
Faculty of Social Sciences.
University of Nigeria, Nsukka 91 30.3%
Faculty of Arts
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Faculty of Physical Sciences.
Total No. of Respondents 300 000.0%)
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TABLE 4.2
Distribution of Respondents by Sex
Sex -- --:F: requency Percentage
Male 253 84.3%
Female 47 15.7%
Total 300 100.0%
Table 4.2 shows the frequency and percentage of respondents by sex.
Males accounted for (253) (84.3%) while female accounted for only (47)
(15.7%) of the study sample of 300 respondents.
,
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TABLE 4.3
--. -- Distribution of Respondents by Age
Age Frequency Percentage
Under 40 years 136 45.3%
Over 40 years 164 54.7%
Total 300 100.0%
Table 4.3 shows the distribution of respondents by age. Out of
a total 300 respondents. 136 (45.33%) were under 40 years old while
164 (54.66%) were over 40 years old.
,
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TABLE 4.4
Distribution of Respondents by Years
- --------------- = ---- __ 0____ of Teaching Experience
Experience Frequency Percentage
1 - 4 Years 77 25.7%
5 - 10 Years 62 20.7%
Over 10 Years 161 53.7%
Total 300 100.0%
Table 4.4 shows the frequency distribution of respondents by
years of teaching experience. Most of the teachers had over 10 years
experience (53.7%) followed by those with 1 - 4 years experience (25%)
and lastly those with between 5 to 10 years experience (20.7%).
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TABLE 4.5
Distribution of Respondents by Job Status
Job Status Frequency Percentage
Professors /Readers 46 15.3%
Senior Lecturers 84 28.0%
Lecturers I & II 170 56.7%
Total 300 100.0%
Table 4.5 shows the distribution of respondents by their job status,
professors and readers (15.3%). senior lecturers (28%), and lecturers I
and II (56.66%).
,
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PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONALSTRESS AMONGUNIVERSITY
TEACHERS
Hypotheses l: There will be no significant difference in the levels
of occupational stress experienced by the University
teachers.
TABLE4.6
Analysis of Occupational Stress Among University Teachers
.Levels of Occupational Stress
Low Moderate High X2 value P. value
Frequency 45 200 53 153.35*** 0.001
Percentage 15.1 67.1 17.8
* significant at P<.05.
,
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TABLE 4.7
r
Responses to the Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI)
-------------------------------------------------------------
Levels of Occupational stress
----------------------------------------------------------------
Severe Moderate Mild No
Sources of Teacher Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress
1. Heavy work load 123 113 50 14
(40.8%) (37.8%) (16.7%) (4.7%)
2. Time Pressure 120 110 56 14
3. Salaries too low 124 79 68 29
(41.3%) (26.3%) (22.7%) (9.7%)
4. Teaching too difficult 22 35 84 159
(7.3%) (11.7%) (28%)
5. Shortage of staff
members 97 98 73 32
(32.3%) (32.7%) (24.3%) (10.7%)
6. Shortage of teaching
materials 179 82 29 10
(59.7%) (27.3%) (9.7%) (3.3%)
7. Overcrowded classrooms 138 66 63 33
(46%) (22%) (21%) (11%)
8. Poor working condition 155 96 32 17
(51.7%) (32%) (10.7%) (5.7%)
9. Lack of equity in
handling promotion 83 74 77 22
(27.7%) (24.7%) (25.7%) (22%)
10. Lack of cooperation
among staff, 28 71 101 100
(9.3%) (23.7%) (33.7%) (33.3%)
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- . - - - - .- - --- TABLE 4.7 CONTD.
Levels of Occupational stress
Severe .Moderate MUd No
Sources of Teacher Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress
11. Lack of renumeration
for extra duties 100 78 72 50
(33.3%) (24%) (24%) (16 7%)
12. Too many students to
supervise 79 88 80 53
·(26.3%) (29.3%) (26.7%) (17.7%)
13. Unfavourable sabbatical
policy 40 84 78 98
(13.3%) (28%) (26%) (3.7%)
14. Demands of high
expectation from
colleague 18 71 91 120
(6%) (23.7%) (30.3%) (40%)
15. Problems of ethnic
groupings In
department 23 40 63 174
(7.7%) (13.3%) (21%) (58%)
16. Negative community
attitude towards the
teaching profession 52 64 73 110
(17.4%) (21.4%) (24.4%) (36.8%)
17. Lack of Jot security 29 51 55 165
(9.7%) (17%) (18.3%) (55%)
18. Problem with students 22 50 104 124
(7.3%) (16.7%) (34.7%) (41.3%)
19. Publish or perish
syndrome 74 80 61 85
(24.7%) (26.7%) (20.3%) (28.3%)
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TABLE 4.7 CONTD.
Levels of Occupational stress
Severe Moderate Mild No
Sources of Teacher Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress
20. Lack of University
autonomy 61 86 85 68
(20.3%) (28.7%) (28.3%) (22.7%)
21. Unfavourable condition
of service 106 100 59 35
(35.3%) (33.3%) (19.7%) (11.7%)
22. 'Teaching as a stressful
profession 51 114 88 47
(I 7%) (38%) (29.3%) (I 5.7%)
,
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Table 4.6 shows that the total number of teachers reporting
moderate levels of occupational .stress (67.1%) is significantly higher
than those reporting low levels of stress (15.1%), and high levels of
stress (17.8%). Also 54.0% of the teachers rated being a teacher as
either very stressful or moderately stressful. Only 15.7% of rated
- being a teacher as not stressful-at all while 17.0% rated teaching as
very stressful.
This hypothesis was tested by comparing the number of
respondents reporting various levels of occupational stress as
measured by the Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI) subscale of the
Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ).
Chi-square test revealed a significant difference in the levels of
occupational stress experienced by the University teachers (P<.OOl).
Thus the hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the
levels of occupational stress experienced by the University teachers
was rejected.
Respondents were requested to rate the extent of stress caused
by each of the potential stressors related to their job. Table 4.7 shows
the frequencies and percentages of teachers reporting specific stressors
in the TSI subscale of the questionnaire. The response of the teachers
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TABLE 4.8
Rank Order of Occupational Stressors in the Teachers Stress
Inventory (TSI) Subscale
Sources of Teacher Stress Mean±SD
1. Shortage of Teaching materials 3.43±O.80
2. Poor working condition 3.3O±O.B7
3. Heavy work load 3.15±O.B6
4. Time pressure 3.12±O.B7
5. Overcrowded class rooms 3.03±1.11
6. Salary too low 2.99±1.01
7. Unfavourable condition of service 2.92±1.01
B. Shortage of staff members 2.B7±O.99
9. Lack of renurneration for extra duties 2.76±1.09
10. Too many students to supervise 2.74±1.06
II. Lack of equity in handling Promotion 2.5B±1.11
12. Teaching as a stressful occupation 2.56±0.95
13. Publish or perish syndrome 2.4B±1.15
14. Lack of university autonomy 2.47±1.05
15. Unfavourable sabbatical policy 2.22±1.05
16. Negativ,e community attitude
towards teaching profession 2.19±1.12
17. Lack of cooperation among staff 2.09±O.97
is. Demands of high expectation from
colleagues 1.96±O.94
19. Problem with students 1.9O±O.93
20. Lack of job security I.Bl±l.04
21. Teaching too difficult 1.73±O.93
22. Problems of ethnic groupings 1.71±O.97
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to the question "In general. how stressful do you find being a
teacher?" indicated that 38% rated being a teacher as moderately
stressful followed by 29.3% rating being a teacher as mildly stressful.
About 17% rated being a teacher as very stressful while 15.7% rated
teaching as not stressful at all.
Table 4.8 shows the mean scores .and rank order of the specific
causes of stress. The higher the mean Scores the higher the level of
stress caused by the specific stressors. The major sources of stress
among others included; the shortage of teaching materials. poor
working conditions. heavy work lead. time pressure. overcrowded class
rooms. salaries too low. unfavourable condition of services. shortage
of staff members. lack of renumeration for extra duties and too many
students to supervise.
Conversely. the least stressful areas are: problems of ethnic
groups in the departments. teaching too difficult. lack of job security.
problem with students. demands of high expectation from colleagues.
lack of co,operation among staff. negative community attitude towards
the teaching profession and unfavourable sabbatical policy.
The result indicates that teachers differ in ways that they
perceive stressors related to their job and that what causes stress to
an individual may not cause stress to another. The perception of
stress is very much subjective and the experience of stress is mostly
dependent on individual and situational factors.
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This finding suggests that teaching is a stressful occupation as
widely reported inthe literature (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1979a 1979b.
1978, 1977; Pratt. 1978). In this study. 17% of the university teachers
- rated being -a teacher -as very stressful. This is lower than the 23.4%
reported among school teachers in England by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe
(1979). The lower stress levels perceived by the university teachers
compared -to that of secondary school teachers may be related to
differences in working condition. wages and the age of students
taught.
The data indicated that a great majority of Nigeria university
teachers are experiencing high levels of occupational stress related to
their job as teachers. The major sources of stress among the teachers
are as a result of factors intrinsic to teaching as well as those related
to poor working condition and inadequate funding and facilities.
These included shortage of teaching materials. poor working
conditions. heavy work load. time pressure. overcrowded classrooms.
salary too low, unfavourable condition of services. shortage of staff
members. lack of renumeration for extra duties and too many
students to supervise.
These observation are not surprising because Nigeria
universities are reportedly underfunded. grossly understaffed. coupled
with lack of adequate teaching and research facilities and buildings.
The classes are mostly overcrowded and in some cases a lecturer might
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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be assigned as many as five to six courses per semesters (ten to fifteen
hours per week). There is no doubt that Nigeria university teachers are
under tremendous pressure and stress compared with their
counterparts in the developed countries.
On the other hand. the University teachers seemed not to be
bothered by those stressors related to problems of ethnic groups in the
departments. teaching being too difficult. lack of job security. problem
with students. lack of cooperation among staff or by demands of high
expectation from colleagues (Table 4.8 presents the means and rank
order of the specific occupational stressors).
It is interesting to note that the major occupational stressors
among the university teacher as identified in the present study are
part of the trade disputes. between the Academic Staff Union of
Universities (ASUU) and the Nigerian Government. This has led to a
series of strikes and university closures in the recent years. Nigeria
university teachers have been complaining of low salaries. poor
working co,nditions and lack of facilities. This study provides the first
empirical evidence highlighting the specific sources of stress and
dissatisfaction among Nigeria university teachers. However. it is
important to point out that although the inadequate funding by the
Nigerian Government is the basic problem; the university
administrators in some cases contribute to the problem by not
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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adequately utilizing the fund to provide the needed facilities due to
mismanagement of such fund.
University teachers have persistently complained of low salaries
compared with other professionals. Thus. it was expected that low
salary would be the most significant cause of stress among the
university teachers but the salary was found to rank sixth among the
major sources of stress (Table 4.8). This may be related to the recent
increase in the salaries and wages of the university teachers by the
Nigerian Government. It is fair to say that low salaries would have
ranked as the most significant cause of stress to the lecturers if the
salaries had not been increased at the time when the present study
was conducted.
Finally. the data revealed that although a large proportion of
the teachers rated being a teacher (53.4%) as moderately or very
I
stressful. 67.0% indicated that it is fairly likely or very likely that
they would choose teaching again as a career. This suggests that
teachers are mostly satisfied with their job despite the stressful
,
nature of teaching. This does not mean that most of the teachers
would not leave if they can find a better alternative elsewhere. After
all many of the teachers have sought employment overseas because of
the low salaries and depressed Nigerian economy.
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JOB SATISFACTIONAMONGTHE UNIVERSITYTEACHERS
Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant difference in the levels
of job satisfaction experienced by the university
teachers.
TABLE 4.9
Analysis of Levels of Job Satisfaction Among University Teachers
Levels of Job Satisfaction
Low Moderate High X2 value P. value
Frequency 10 145 145 123.72*** .ooi
Percentage 3 48.5 48.5
. ,
* Significant at P < .05.
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Table 4.9. shows that the total number of teachers reporting
moderate to high levels of job satisfaction (97%) were significantly
higher than those reporting low level of job satisfaction (3%). The
hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the levels of
job satisfaction among the university teachers was tested by
comparing the number of respondents reporting various levels of job
satisfaction as measured by the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ)
subscale of the Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
(TSJSQ). Chi-square test revealed a significant difference in the levels
of job satisfaction among the university teachers
(P < .001).
,
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TABLE 4.10
Responses to the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ) Sub-scale
Levels of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction
Very Moderately Very
Job satisfaction factors Dissatisfied Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied
How are you satisfied:
l. With teaching as a job? 25 40 129 106
(8.3%) (13.3%) 43.00Al) (33.5%)
2. With your physical working
condition? 60 109 104 27
(20%) (36.3%) (34.7%) (9.0%)
3. With your pay considering
duties? III 99 76 13
(37.1%) (33.1%) (25.4%) (4.3%)
4. With the extent to which
teaching makes use of your
skills and another? 43 65 136 56
(14.3%) (21.7%) (45.3%) (18.7%)
5. With the extent to which
your colleagues cooperate
with one another? 24 46 68 62
(8.0010) (15.3%) (56.0%) (20.7%)
6. With the level of
average time demand of
teaching job? 22 63 181 34
(7.3%) (21.0%) (60.3%) (11.3%)
7. With academic
programmes? 25 70 168 37
(8.3%) (23.3%) (56.0%) (12.3%)
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TABLE 4.10 CONTD
Responses to the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ) Sub-scale
Levels of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction
Very Moderately Very
Job satisfaction factors Dissatisfied Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied
8. If you have the opportunity
to choose your career again.
how likely is it that you would
choose teaching?
A:.. Very unlikely 43 (14.3%)
B: Fairly unlikely 53 (17.3%)
C: Fairly likely 109 (36.3%)
D: Veru likelu 95 (3l.7%).
Respondents were requested to rate how satisfied or dissatisfied
they are with certain aspects of their job. Table 4.10 shows the
frequencies and percentages of responses to each question in the JSQ
subscale.
,
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TABLE 4.11
Rank Order of the Sources of Job Dissatisfaction in the Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (JSQ) Subscale
Sources of Job satisfaction Mean±SD Rank
1. Teaching as a job? . 1.95±O.91 8
2. Physical working
condition? 2.67±O.90 2
3. Pay considering your duties? 3.03±O.90 1
4. Teaching makes full use of
your skills and abilities? 2.35±O.94 3
5. Colleagues cooperate
with one another? 2.11±O.82 7
6. Average time demand of
teaching job? 2.24±O.75 5
7. Academic programmes? 2.28±O.78 4
8. Choice of teaching
as a career 2.15±l.02 6
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Table 4.11 shows the means scores and standard deviations of
the various items in the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire Subscale as
well as their rank orders. Higher mean scores indicate high levels of
job dissatisfaction.
The analysis of the responses of the teachers to global measure
of job.satisfactton.i'Tngeneral ..how are you satisfied with teaching as
-a job?", .revealed that 8.3% of the respondents were dissatisfied.
However. a great majority of the respondents 43% and 35.3% were
moderately or very satisfied with teaching respectively. Also responses
to the question. "If you have the opportunity to choose your career
again. how likely is it that you would choose teaching?", was related
to the responses to that of the global measure of job satisfaction.
About 14.3% and 17.3% of the respondents indicated that it was very
unlikely and fairly unlikely that they would choose teaching as a
career again respectively. In contrast. a larger majority of the
respondents. 31.7% and 36.3% indicated that it was very likely and
fairly likely that they would choose teaching again as a career if they
had the opportunity.
,
The present study did not agree with the finding by Ajayi (1981)
that job satisfaction and commitment is low among Nigerian
university teachers. The high job satisfaction obsrved in the present
study among the university teachers is consistent with previous
studies conducted overseas (Rudd and Wiseman. 1962). Rudd and
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Wiseman investigated degrees of job satisfaction among teachers in
College of Education in Manchester England and noted that 91.7% of
the respondents were fully or fairly satisfied with teaching.
The finding in the present study is similar to that reported by
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979). In a study of secondary school teacher
in England. they .found that 21% .and .51.4% of the respondents were
very satisfied and moderately satisfied with their jobs as teachers
respectively.
The differences in the levels of job satisfaction among the
Nigerian University teachers is not surprising because different people
experience different levels of satisfaction under similar situation.
What causes dissatisfaction or stress to a worker may be a source of
happiness to another. For example. Cross (1973) stated that a worker
may be highly satisfied with wages he receives. moderately satisfied
with his work-mates but dissatisfied with his immediate superior. In
other words the reported high levels of satisfaction experienced by the
university teachers may be related to many factors not considered in
the prese,nt study.
Low job satisfaction is related to various aspects of the work
itself. such as unpleasant working condition. lack of use of skills and
abilities. the work group (lack of understanding among co-workers.
lack of recognition for good performance. discrimination in hiring and
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promotion, lack of promotional opportunities, and of course low
salaries and wages.
The main sources of dissatisfaction among the university
teachers were, low salary, poor working conditions, the extent to
which teaching makes use of their skills and abilities and some
aspects of the academic programmes .. The teachers were not satisfied
with their pay considering their duties. They seemed to be satisfied
with teaching as a career, and the extent to which teacher cooperate
with one another.
Finally the interesting finding was that despite the fact that
teachers were experiencing high levels of stress, an overwhelming
majority were satisfied with their job as teachers. As a matter of fact
68% of the teachers indicated that it is very likely or fairly likely, that
they would choose teaching again if given the opportunity. This
observation may be due to the love for the teaching profession which
they have chosen as their career. Afterall people do the things that
they enjoy to do. The reason for this may be that the teachers have
learnt to, cope successfully with stressful situations encountered in
their job.
The result agrees with the assertion that teaching is a very
satisfying but somewhat a high pressure occupation (Fletcher and
Payne, 1982). Also the effect of stress can be moderated by social
support leading to the experience of less stress and greater job
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satisfaction. For example. the teachers were satisfied with the extent
to which colleagues cooperate with one another. In the same light.
problems of ethnic groups in the department was an insignificant
source of stress to the university teachers.
The relationship between immediate superior and attitude of
workers towards co-workers Isan .important factor determining job
.. satisfaction beside work itself and work condition. There appears to be
high level of social support among the university teachers and this
may be one of the reasons for the reported high level of job
satisfaction.
The results indicated that some teachers are satisfied with some
aspect of their job and dissatisfied with others and that an
overwhelming majority of the university teachers are highly or
moderately satisfied with their job.
,
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PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG UNIVERSITY TEACHERS
Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant difference in the levels
of psychological well-being experienced by the
university teachers.
TABLE 4.12
Analysis of Pychological Well-being of Respondents
Level of psychological well-being
Low Moderate High X2 value P. value
Frequency 17 101 . 180 133.78*** .001
Percentage 5.9 33.9 60.4
* Significant at P < .05.
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Table 4.12 shows that majority of the respondents (60.4%)
reported high level of psychological well-being followed by 33.9% with
moderate levels of psychological well-being (indicating low
psychological distress) and only 5.7% reporting low levels of
psychological well-being (indicating high psychological distress).
Chi-square analysis of the responses to the GHQ in Table 4.12
shows a significant difference (P < 0.001) in the levels of psychological
well-being experienced by the university teachers. Based on the
findings stated above. the hypothesis that there will be no significant
differences in the levels of psychological well-being experienced by the
university teachers was rejected.
Table 4.13 shows the frequency and percentage of responses to
the Goldberg's 12 - item General Health Questionnaire.
Respondents were required to indicate how their health has
been in general. over the past few weeks on a Likert Scale ranging
from 0 to 3 points. The responses were A = O. B = 1. C = 2. D = 3). The
score of zero in each item indicate the absence of psychological
distress ,or complaints while high scores indicate greater frequency of
psychological distress (that is. low psychological well-being).
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TABLE 4.13
Responses to Goldberg's 12 - item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ)
1. Have you been able to concentrate on what you are doing?
(a) Better than usual (15.3%)
(b) Same as usual (4l.7%)
(c) Less useful than usual (13.3%)
(d) Much less than usual (12.3%)
2. Have you recently lost much sleep over worry?
(a) Not at all (33.7%)
(b) Nomore than usual (38.38)
(c) Rather more than usual (19.9%)
(d) Much more than usual (9.0%)
3. Have you recently felt that you are playing a useful
part in things?
(a) More so than usual (29.3%)
(b) Same as usual (50.2%)
(c) Less useful than usual (13.4%)
(d) Much less useful (7%)
4. Have you recently felt capable of making decision about things?
(a) More so than usual (33.7%)
(b) Same as usual (54%)
(c) Less so than usual (8.7%)
(d) Much less capable (3.7%)
5. Have you recently felt constantly under strain?
(a) Not at all (16%)
(b) No more than usual (40.7%)
(c) Rather more than usual (30%)
(d) Much more than usual (13.3%)
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6. Have you recently felt you couldn't overcome your difficulties?
(a) Not at all (45.5%)
(b) No more than usual (36.8%)
(c) Rather more than usual 00.7%)
(d) Much more than usual (7%)
7. Have you recently been able to enjoy your normal
day-to-dayactivities?
. ta) More so than usual 00%)
(b) Same as usual (48.7%)
(c) Less than usual (27%)
(d) Much less than usual 04.3%)
8. Have you recently been able to face up to your problems?
(a) More so than usual (21.3%)
(b) Same as usual (55.3%)
(c) Less so than usual (16%)
(d) Much less than usual (7.3%)
9. Have you recently been feeling unhappy and depressed?
(a) Not at all (36.7%)
(b) No more than usual (34.3%)
(c) Rather more than usual 09%)
(d) Much more than usual 00%)
10. Have you recently been losing confidence in yourself?
(a) Not at all (83.5%)
(b) No more than usual (19%)
(c) Rather more than usual (5.7%)
(d) Much more than usual (2.7%)
11. Have you recently been thinking of yourself as a
worthless person?
(a) Not at all (83.5%)
(b) No more than usual (12.0%)
(c) Rather more than usual (2.0%)
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(d)· Much more than usual (2.7%)
12. Have you recently been feeling reasonably happy all
things considered?
(a) Much so than usual (20.3%)
(b) About same as usual (55%)
(c) Less so than usual (14.7%)
(d) Much less than usual (10%)
,
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The GHQ contains six positive statements (items I, 3, 4, 7, 8,
12) and six negative statements (items 2, 5, 6, 9, la, 11). For the
positive statements (e.g. item responses such as "less than usual" or
"much less than usual" indicate that problem has been experienced in
that area. Conversely, for the negative statements (e.g. item 21.
responses such -as -"Rather more than- usual" or much more than
usual" indicate problem in that area. This means the more the
frequency of symptoms reported the lower the respondent's well-being
and this invariably implies more psychological distress. By the same
token, the lesser the frequency of responses in the positive statements
or behaviours the lower the psychological well-being (indicating higher
psychological distress).
Generally there were fewer respondents that have problems in
the negative statements. For instance, in item lO, 72.7% of the
respondents answered "Not at all" to the question, "Have you recently
been losing confidence in yourself?"
Also in question II, 83.5% of the respondents answered "not at
all" to the question "Have you recently been thinking of yourself as a
,
worthless person"?
Similarly, in item 2, only 25.3% of the respondents reported
that they "have lost much sleep over worry" compared with 74.7% who
did not. Also in item 5, 43.5% of the respondents have "felt constantly
under-strain" -compared-with 56.7%-who did not. Another example in
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item 9 shows that only 29% have "been feeling unhappy and
depressed" while 71% of the respondents did not. On the other hand.
in item 12. a large majority of the respondents (75.3%) indicated that
they have been feeling reasonably happy all things considered It
compared with 24.7% who did not. Lastly these observations point to
the fact that a large majority of the teachers experienced high levels of
psychological well-being.
The result showed that most of the teachers were experiencing
significantly high level of psychological well-being and less
psychological distress. Thus the teachers were mostly happy all things
considered. able to enjoy normal day-to-day activities. able to make
decision and able to concentrate in what they are doing. Only a few
teachers indicated negative responses such as losing much sleep over
worry. feeling unhappy and depressed. feeling constantly under strain.
loosing confidence and thinking oneself as worthless and feeling they
couldn't overcome their difficulties.
The data also showed that an overwhelming majority of the
teachers ,were happy and in good spirits. For example. 75.3% of the
respondents have been feeling reasonably happy compared with 24.7%
who did not. Only 29% of the respondent felt unhappy and depressed
while a large majority of them (71%) did not. These findings are
consistent with previous study on health problem and general well-
-- ------being-ofpublic -school teachers-in United States (Needle. Griffin and
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Svendsen. 1981). They found that 72% of the teachers were in good,
very good or excellent spirits with only 21% feeling up and down in
spirits. Only 5% reported low or very low spirits among the sampled
teachers.
,
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OCCUPATIONALSTRESS AND JOB
SATISFACTION
Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant relationship between
levels of occupational stress and job dissatisfaction
experienced by the university teachers.
TABLE 4.14
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Occupational Stress with Job
Satisfaction and Psychological Symptoms
Independent Multiple Simple
Variable R R2 r B SEB F-value P. value
Job
Dissatisfaction .428 .184 .428 1.055 .179 65.8*** .001
Psychological
Symptoms. .464 .215 .349 .334 .098 39.9***
Constant 31.542
* Significant at P < .05.
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Table 4.14 shows stepwise multiple regression analysis of
..occupational·· stress -(dependent variable) and the independent
variables· (job dissatisfaction and psychological distress). Job
dissatisfaction is significantly correlated with occupational stress (r =
.428; P < .001). Therefore the hypothesis that there will be no
stgntftcant relattonshtps=between occupational stress and job
dissatisfaction was rejected.
To investigate the relationship between occupational stress. job
dissatisfaction and psychological symptoms of the university teachers.
stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed with occupational
stress as the dependent variable. Job dissatisfaction and psychological
symptoms served as the first and second independent variable
respectively. The first analysis tested the relationship between
occupational stress and job dissatisfaction. This involved correlating
the respondents scores in the Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI) sub scale
with the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ) sub scale of the Teacher
Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ).
However. combining both independent variables It.e. Job
dissatisfaction and psychological distress) yielded a multiple
correlation of (Multiple R = .464) with the multiple R2 of .2148. This
means that approximately 21% of occupational stress variance is
accounted for by job dissatisfaction and psychological distress. Lastly.
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the resultantequation for predicting occupational stress (Y)from job
dissatisfaction andpsychologtcal distress is given below:
y = a + + e
Occupational Stress' 31.542 + 1.055 (Job dissatisfaction)
+ 0.334 (Psychological symptoms)
The results show that teachers experiencing high levels of
occupational stress also experienced high levels of job dissatisfaction
(or low levels of job satisfaction). This is consistent with other
studies on occupational stress and job satisfaction among teachers
overseas (Mark. Pierce and Molloy. 1990; Needle. Griffin and
Svendsen. 1981; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe. 1979b).
The correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(r=.-428. P <.001) r.eported. . in the present study is higher than the
correlation of (r = -.27; P <.O!) reported among school teachers in
England by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (l979b). However. Dolan (l987),
reported a high negative correlation (r = -.68; P <.001) between
occupational stress (burnout) and work satisfaction among nurses in
the United States. The present study support the view that the
experience of teacher stress leads to the experience of higher job
dissatisfaction or conversely lower job satisfaction. The teachers
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experiencing greater levels of occupational stress were found to
--- experience lower job satisfaction.
___ -However. -it is -interesting- to -note- that although a significant
majority of the teachers were experiencing high levels of occupational
stress. they were mostly satisfied with their job. Teaching is widely
regarded in the literature as. a high stress occupation. yet teachers are
mostly satisfied with their job as teachers.
The high levels of job satisfaction noted among the university
teachers may be related to social support and coping mechanism of
the teachers. Firstly. it may be that the teachers have learnt to cope
with the stressful situations intrinsic to their jobs as teachers.
According to Payne and Fletcher (1982) cited in Fletcher and Payne
(1982) job stress is the outcome of the balance between job demands.
supports and constraints. They stated that whilst teachers may be
under high levels of demand, .they may .also have high levels of support
and low levels of constraints. which reduces the overall level of stress
and thus the strain experienced from it.
In {his study there is evidence that the teachers are satisfied
with the extent to which colleagues cooperate with one another. This
kind of social support may have helped to moderate. buffer or lessen
the impact of stress and hence the experience of high job satisfaction.
Also the university teachers like other teachers tend to have job
discretion over what they do with their time and less constraints on
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what they do compared -with other occupations. These explanations
are in line with the view that teaching is a very satisfying but
somewhat -high pressure occupation (Fletcher and Payne. 1982).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND
_______ -.PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
Hypothesis 5: There will be no significant relationship between
the levels of occupational stress and psychological
well-being experienced by the university teachers.
Similarly Table 4.14 also shows that psychological distress is
significantly correlated with occupational stress (r = .349: P < .001).
The multiple R value of .1835 indicates that approximately 18% of
variance .In_._occupational stress Is explained or predicted by job
dissatisfaction.
The analysis to investigate the relationship between
occupational stress and psychological well-being involved the
,
correlating the occupational stress measures (TSI Score) and the
psychological well-being measures (General Health Questionnaire
(GHQ)). Occupational stress served as the dependent variable while
psychological well-being served as the independent variable.
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The second stepwise regression analysis (Table 4.15) revealed a
significant and positive association between occupational stress and
psychological symptoms or distress (r = .349; P < .001). This means
that teachers experiencing high levels of occupational stress also
experience high levels of psychological distress or complaints
-_ (tndtcating -low psychological well-being). Based on this finding. the
hypothesis that there will- be no significant relationship between
occupational stress and psychological well-being was rejected.
The results show that the teachers experiencing high levels of
occupational stress reported more psychological symptoms or distress
in the GHQ. For example. those with high stress scores reported being
under strain. losing sleep over worry. felt unhappy and depressed than
those experiencing low level of occupational stress.
In contrast, the teacher experiencing low levels of occupational
,,- .-.v.stress,reported being reasonably happy. being able to concentrate with
what they are doing. enjoying their day-to-day activities and being
able to face up to their problems in comparison to those experiencing
high levels of occupational stress.
,
The results is consistent with previous studies indicating a
negative relationship between stress and mental or psychological well-
being. For example. in England Pratt (1978) reported that poorer
mental health was associated with high levels of perceived stress
among school teachers as measured by the General Health
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Questionnaire (r = .41; P <.001). This compares with the correlation (r
_ _=.349; P <.001) obtained between occupational stress and
_ psychological symptom or distress in this study.
Also Needle. Griffin and Svendsen (1981) found that teachers
reporting higher levels of stress report lower general well-being [r =
.37) and more somatic .symptoms (r=, _._-32). Furthermore. Lam et al.
(1985) found a stronger association between mental illness
(psychological distress) and work stress-among office workers in Hong
Kong as measured by the General Health Questionnaire (r = .63).
Surprisingly. in the present study. although a significant
majority of the teachers (67.1%) were experiencing moderate to high
levels of occupational stress. 93.3% of all teachers experienced
moderate to high levels of psychological well-being. This observation
may be related to the fact that the teachers were mostly satisfied with
. their job. This implies that job satisfaction can in some way moderate
or buffer the effect of stress on psychological health of teachers. This
is a plausible explanation because job satisfaction was found to
correlate positively with psychological well-being among the university
teachers.
Also Fletcher and Payne (1982) suggested one of the reasons
why a job which appears inherently stressful may not have
maladaptive effects on the mental and psychological health of
workers. In the case of the teaching profession. teachers may be under
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stress and yet satisfied with their jobs due to high levels of social
support among the staff and job discretion over what they do.
-Previous studies have provided substantial evidence that social
support does reduce job stress and job-related strain and improve
health (LaRocco.House and French. 1980).
,
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION AND
PSYCHOWGICALWELL-BEING.
Hypothesis 6: There will be no relationship between the levels of
Job Satisfaction and psychological well-being
....... - ..' experienced by the university teachers.
TABLE 4.15
Analysis of Relationship Between Job Dissatisfaction
and Psychological Symptoms
Independent Multiple Simple
Variable R R2 r B SEB F-value P. value
(.
Job
Dissatisfaction .446 .195 .445 0.815 .096 72.2*** .001
Constant -1.906
* Significant at P < .05.
,
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Table 4.15 shows the relationship between Job dissatisfaction
and psychological symptoms" with Job dissatisfaction as the
independent or predictor variable. The analysis shows a significant
and positive relationship between the two variables (r = .445; P <
.001). The coefficient of determination (R-square) shows that
approximately 19%· of the variance in psychological distress is
explained or predicted by job dissatisfaction.
To analyse the relationship between the Job dissatisfaction and
psychological well-being. job dissatisfaction was regarded as the
independent variable while psychological stress was regarded as the
dependent variable. However. the results show that the
juxtapositioning of the variables as dependent or independent did not
affect the multiple R value .
.Regression analysis revealed a significant and positive
relationship between job dissatisfaction and psychological distress or
symptoms Ir = .445; P < .001). In other words teachers experiencing
high levels of job dissatisfaction also experienced high levels of
psychological distress or symptoms (indicating low psychological well-
,
being). Table 4.16 presents the summary of the inter-correlations
among occupational stress. job satisfaction and psychological well-
being.
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TABLE 4.16
Summary of Inter-correlations Between Occupational Stress, Job
:=~_---::.:::.::-::-::._-= .c:.._. : ... =.Dissatisfaction--and Psychological Symptoms
- Independent Occupational Job Psychological P. value
Variables Stress Dissatisfaction Symptoms
Occupational
stress 1.0 r = 428 *** r = .349 *** .ooi
Job
Dissatisfaction 1.0 r = .445 ***
Psychological
distress 1.0
* Significant at P < .05
,
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. The results indicate that teachers experiencing high levels of job
dissatisfaction (low job satisfaction) also experienced greater
..psychological distress (low psychological well-being). This finding
concurs with previous study indicating positive association between
job satisfaction and well-being among teachers. Needle. Griffin and
Svendsen. (1981) indicated ..that. specific problems confronted in
teaching is also related to health and well-being outcomes. For
instance. overall well-being. somatic symptoms as well as job
dissatisfaction are affected by stress.
Stress. job satisfaction and mental health are closely
associated. .For example teachers with greater stress report low job
satisfaction and lower occupational self-esteem (Needle. Griffin and
Svendsen. 1981). Literature suggests links from various aspects of
work environment to mental health and well-being (Kasl. 1978).
However Kaslindicated that the association between mental ill health
(psychological distress) and job satisfaction were usually quite low. In
the present study. the correlation between job dissatisfaction and
psychologic,al symptoms was quite strong (r = .45).
In the present study. teachers experiencing high levels of job
satisfaction also report high level of psychological well-being. This
study supports the view that satisfied workers are more likely to
experience high mental health and general well-being. Teachers
experiencing high levels of job satisfaction reported being happy. and
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enjoying their day-to-day activities as well as being able to face up to
their problems compared with those experiencing low levels of job
satisfaction. On the other hand, teachers experiencing low job
satisfaction reported more psychological symptoms such as losing
sleep over worry, being constantly under strain and feeling unhappy
•.and. depressed. These findings clearly indicate that job satisfaction is
positively associated with better. psychological well-being. Thus it is
probable that job satisfaction mitigates or moderates the experiencing
of stress thereby resulting in the experience of high psychological
health. This explanation is consistent with the buffering hypothesis
that social support ameliorate the impact of occupational stress on
job-related strain and health (LaRocco.House and French, 1980).
,
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OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND BIOGRAPHICAL AND CAREER
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSITY TEACHERS
Occupational Stress and Sex
-Hypothe.sis7:: _::There wi-llbe no significant difference in the total
occupational stress level experienced by the male
and female university teachers.
TABLE 4.17
Analysis of :rotal Occupational Stress by Sex
Gender N Mean Score S.D t - value
Male 250 69.884 12.81 -.70
Female 47 71.319 13.69 (NS)
NS = Not significant (P > .05).
,
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Table 4.17 shows the mean stress scores and standard deviation
for the female and male teache.rs which were 71.319 13.69 and
69.884 _ 12.81 respectively. However these differences were not
statistically significant and accordingly the null hypothesis was
upheld.
-.The Student's 't+testwas.usedto-analyse the differences in the
mean occupational stress scores between the male and female
university teacher. No significant difference was found in the levels of
total occupational stresses experienced by both male and female
teachers (t = -.70; P >.05). However, female teachers experienced
greater occupational stress than male teachers.
In order to assess any biographical differences in occupational
stress among the respondents. the scores of the Teacher Stress
Inventory (TSI) and that of Job Satisfaction Questionnaire subscale
(JSQ) were summed to obtain the total occupational stress levels.
··Thus -the testing of differences between occupational stress levels and
selected biographical characteristics of the university teachers were
based o,n total occupational stress measures Ii.e. the overall scores in
the Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSJSQ).
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_Occupational Stress and Age
Hypothesis 8: There will be no significant difference in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the
younger and older university teachers.
TABLE 4.18
Analysis of Total Occupational Stress by Age
Aj!e N Mean Score S.D. t-value
Under 40 134 71.7985 11.759 1.92 NS
Years
Over 40 161 68.6721 11.930
Years
NS = Not significant (P > .05).
The mean scores, standard deviation and t-values of the total
occupational stress scores are summarised in Table 4.18. The t-test
,
analysis of the mean occupational stress scores of teachers under the
age of forty and thos-e above forty years showed no significant
difference between the two groups. Younger teachers reported higher
levels of stress than older teachers, but failed to reach significant level
(t = 1.92; P > .05). Hence the null hypothesis was accepted.
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-- Occupational Stress and Teaching Experience
Hypothesis 9: There will be no.istgniflcant differences in total
occupational stress levels experienced by the
.university teachers with respect to years of teaching
experience.
TABLE4.19
Analysis of Total Occupational Stress by Years of Teaching
Experrence.
Expedenc-e-- ---N --Mean SD F - value
score
1 - 4 Years 76 71.7368 11.7591 1.0009 NS
5 - 10Years- - - . . -61" 68.6721 11.9397
Over 10 Years 160 69.8875 13.8055
,
NS = Not significant (P > .OS).
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Table 4.19 shows that teachers with 1 - 4 years experience had
the highest mean stress scores (71.737±11.76) followed by those with
-.more than 10 years experience (69.886±13.806). Surprisingly. those
teachers with 5 - 10 years teaching experience recorded the lowest
stress score (68.672±1l.94).
- For this hypothesis Analysis ofVariance (ANOVAw) as employed
to assess whether there were differences in total occupational stress
levels experienced by the teachers respect to years of teaching
experience. The results showed no significant differences among the
three groups (F-value = l.0009; P> .05). Based on the results. the null
-- hypothesis was -accepted since there were no significant difference
among groups. The results of this study contradicts the finding of
Mark. Pierce and Molley (1990) and Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979a).
They found significance differences in levels of stress experienced by
..secondary .school teachers with ..respect to years of teaching
experience. Teachers with more teaching experience reported less
stress than those with less experience. This suggests that the more
experience,d teachers must have learnt to cope with work stress over
the years.
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Occupational Stress and Job Status
Hypothesis 10: There willbe no significant differences in the total
occupational stress levels experienced by the
university teachers with respect to job status.
TABLE 4.20
Analysis of Occupational Stress by Job Status.
Job Status N Mean SD F - value
Score
Professors /Readers 45 65.2444 14.4382 4.38*
Senior Lecturers 82 70.3902 11.6986
Lecturers I and II 167 71.5805 12.7668
,
* Significant at P > .05.
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.. The means. standard deviation and F ratio for the total
occupational stress scores by job status are summarized in Table 4.20.
The ANOVA indicated significant differences among the groups.
Scheffe' post-hoc test was applied to determine which groups differed
from the other. Significant difference was found in occupational stress
. ~C.o scores between Professor/ Associate Professor group and the Lecturers I
and II group.
Professors and Readers reported significantly lower stress score
(65.24 - 14.44) than Lecturers I and II (71.58 - 1.70) (F = 4.38; P <
.05). Senior Lecturers had lower stress score (70.39 11.70) than
lecturers I and II although not statistically significant. Simply stated.
there was an inverse relationship between occupational stress and job
status of the teachers. showing that the higher the job status the
lower the stress reported.
The results indicated a difference in the levels of total
occupational stress experienced by the university teachers with
respect to job status hence the rejection of the null hypothesis.
The,analysis of biographical and career characteristics showed
no significant differences in total occupational levels with regards to
sex. age. and years of teaching experience. This concurs with that of
Mbachu (1986) who reported that male and female university lecturers
experience the same degree of stress and that older and younger
... - lecturers experience the same degree of stress.
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However. the results of the present study contradicts the finding
of Mark Pierce. and Molloy (1990); Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979a).
They found significant differences between teachers experiencing low
and high levels of stress by age. sex and years of teaching experience.
Equally. it is important to point out that female lecturers had
'higher mean scorethanmale.teachers; Also younger teachers (under
40 years old) had greater mean stress scores than those above 40
years. Furthermore teachers with lesser teaching experience (1-4
years) had greater stress. But these differences in means scores failed
to reach significant levels.
The only biographical differences -in occupational stress levels
found to be significant in the present study was on job status.
Professors and Associate Professors (Reader) reported the lowest
occupational stress levels. followed by senior lecturers and lecturers I
and II reporting the. highest stress, .This observation may be related to
the fact that professors have reached the peak of their careers.
Professor do not have to worry any more about publishing for
promotion or from the so called "publish or perish syndrome". Also
professors are mostly in management position and with lesser course
load compared with other cadres of lecturers.
The low occupational stress reported by the senior university
teachers is not surprising because they have access to better research
and teaching facilities compared with other cadres of teachers. Also
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studies of job satisfaction among teachers have indicated that job
satisfaction tended to be higher for older and more experienced
teachers (DiCaprio. 1974; Start and Laundy. 1973) cited in Kyriacou
and Sutcliffe (1979b). Thus the lower occupational stress level among
the professor may be related to the experience of high levels of job
satisfaction and also to the- fact that senior and more experienced
teacher have learnt to cope or deal with the occupational stressors
encountered in their job over the yeats. Also job satisfaction and
commitment have been shown to increase with status (Ajayi. 1981).
Finally it must be pointed out that there are many other career
and personal variables that can influence or mediate the impact of
stress beside those considered in the present study. For example. a
person's psychological and physiological attributes can influence his
or her response to stress. Some of these can be acquired or inherited
and they include. coping style. social support system. personality
pattern (type A or type B behaviour) and other factors that may
influence the perception of stressors in the environment.
,
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CHAPTER FIVE
_ __SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This study investigated occupational stress as related to job
satisfaction. psychological well-being. some career and biographical
characteristics of teachers -in- the first generation Nigerian
universities.
Chapter one presented an overview of the concept of stress. the
purpose and rationale for the study. high-lighting the statement of
the problem. hypotheses. delimitations and limitation of the study.
the significance of the study and ending with the operational
definition of terms.
Chapter two dealt with an extensive review of literature on the
concept and mechanism of stress, sources and consequences of
occupational stress. psychosomatic diseases and stress - illness
relationsh,ip. Also the concept of teacher stress model including its
sources and consequences was extensively discussed. The
relationship of teacher stress to job satisfaction, health. and
biographical characteristics were reviewed. The last section of this
chapter presented local studies on stress and its correlates among
Nigerian teachers at various educational levels.
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Chapter three described how the study was conducted. This
included research design, population, sample and sampling technique,
construction and validation of the research instruments,
administration of the survey instruments and lastly the procedure for
data analysis.
-- -Chapter four .summartzed.the.results and analysis of data using
descriptive and ·inferential statistics .. The analysis of results was
followed by the discussion of the findings and their implications in
relation to the original hypotheses proposed in the study and the
previous studies in the field of occupational stress.
Chapter five presented the. summary, conclusions,
recommendations and suggestions for further research on
occupational stress among teachers and other occupational groups.
Conclusions
This investigation revealed some interesting results. The data
provided an empirical evidence for the relationships between
occupatio,nal stress, job satisfaction and psychological health.
Occupational stress among the university teachers was found to be
positively and significantly related to job dissatisfaction and
psychological symptoms. Also there was a positive and significant
association between job dissatisfaction and psychological symptoms.
These findings are consistent with previous studies on teacher stress.
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Thus the results indicated that university teachers experiencing
higher levels of occupational stress reported lower job satisfaction and
more psychological symptoms (that is low psychological well-being)
than those experiencing lower levels of occupational stress. The data
suggested that job satisfaction and psychological health of teachers is
_____ =-_- adversely.affected.by occupational stress and that greater stress leads
~- -to low job satisfaction and some degree of psychological dysfunction.
The results showed that an overwhelming majority of the
Nigerian university teachers were experiencing moderate to high levels
of occupational stress and despite this, most of the teachers were
satisfied with their job. Also a significant majority of the teachers
reported high levels of psychological well-being despite the prevalence
of high levels occupational stress. The reasons for the findings are
not quite clear, but it could be that they love teaching as a chosen
career or that the teachers have learnt to cope effectively with the
stressorsencountered in their job. Possibly it could be related to
social support and co-operation among the staff which has been
found to m,oderate the impact of stress on health. Lastly, the
university teachers unlike some other categories of teachers may tend
to have high levels of job -control and job discretion with little or no
constraints or interference in the performance of their duty. High
levels of job control over one's job may be particularly important in
reducing the impact ofjob-related stress.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
134
In addition the teachers were found to differ in their responses
to the various stressful situations in their job, with some experiencing
more stress than others. Thus the perception of stress is a subjective
phenomenon. Stress results when the demands of teaching exceed
the resources and the ability of the teacher to cope satisfactorily. The
.c __ flnding.that a majority of the-teachers: were mostly satisfied with their
job suggest that teaching is a satisfying but a demanding and
stressful occupation
The analysis of the career and biographical characteristics of
the university teachers revealed no significant differences in the
occupational stress levels_e_xperienced by the university teachers with
respect to age, sex and years of teaching experience. Male and female
teachers, young and old as well as the less experienced and more
experienced teachers reported the same level of occupational stress.
However, there was a statistical significant difference in the
levels of occupational stress experienced by the teachers with respect
to job status. Professors and Readers reported the lowest stress
followed by Senior Lecturers with the junior lecturers reporting the
highest stress. The results indicated that job status is a more
significant predictor of stress among the teachers than age, sex and
years of teaching experience. Biographical and career characteristics
appear to moderate the experience of stress among teachers. Also the
difference in the levels of job satisfaction and psychological well-being
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
135
experienced by the university teachers may be related to the individual
differences in both perception of stress and reaction to stress.
Also the study identified the major sources of occupational
stress among Nigerian university teachers. The major stressors are
related to factors intrinsic to teaching and those related to inadequate
.....-.:.funding. and. facilities.: -Shortage ..of teaching materials. poor working
conditions. heavy workload. time pressure. overcrowded classrooms.
low salary and unfavourable conditions of service ranked accordingly
as the most significant causes of stress among the university
teachers. This indicates that some stressors are more stressful to
some teachers than others.
Finally. results of the present study have implications for
governments and university policy makers as well as the Academic
Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) to take appropriate actions to
reduce occupational stress and improve the health and well-being of
university teachers. The results clearly demonstrated that
occupational stress is a hazard with adverse effects on job satisfaction
and psychological well-being of university teachers. Consequently.
occupational stress reduce teacher's performance and commitment
which affects the achievement of our national educational goals and
objectives.
Clearly. there is the need to improve the working condition and
welfare of the university teachers in order to improve their job
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
136
satisfaction and retain them in the profession. Without adequate
funding and improved conditions of service. the Nigerian university
.systems will eventually collapse as a result of "brain drain" with
experienced teachers leaving teaching for other professions or
.countries where the condition of service is more rewarding.
-" ,,~, +It: Is- hoped this- study will provoke more research into
- occupational stress aimed at identifying its sources. consequences
-and how-to alleviate occupational stress.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study. the following
recommendations are made to reduce occupational stress and to
improve the health and quality of life of university teachers.
1. The government should provide adequate funding for the
.untverstties. This will help to improve the teaching and research
facilities which are grossly inadequate at this time.
2. The government should improve the conditions of service and
u{>grade the salary and allowances of university teachers to
reduce the problem of "brain drain" facing the nation today.
3. The university authorities should make good use of the allotted
funds to provide the needed teaching and research facilities as
well as other infrastructures. This will improve the learning.
working and living conditions on campuses.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
137
4. The university authorities should employ adequate staff in order
to reduce the stress of work overload.
5. Also the university authorities should take appropriate actions
________._to.reduce _o_rgantsational. stressors such as work overload. poor
working condition. lack of participation in decision making and
so on.
6. The Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) should
consider organising periodic in-service workshops to educate or
enlighten teachers on the sources and consequences of teacher
stress. as well as the practical strategies to cope and manage
occupational stress.
7. Lastly. there are specific strategies that can help individual to
prevent and reduce stress at work. These include planning and
good time management. avoidance of work overload and
maintenance of good interpersonal relation with work mates or
colleagues. Others involve lifestyle management such as having
balanced diets. regular exercise. sabbaticals. use of leisure time
and recreation; relaxation training such as progressive and
,
momentary relaxation. meditation. hypnosis and bio-feedback.
suggestions for Further Studies
There is a limited data on occupational health in the developing
countries. Nigeria inclusive. There is a paucity of local literature in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
138
the area of occupational stress especially among Nigerian university
teachers. Although the finding of the. present study can be generalized
to other Nigerian universities, there is the need for more extensive
studies to fully understand the causes and consequences of teacher
stress.
l~-- ... There is .therreed to-earry.eut.thestudy among teachers in the
new Nigerian universities and other educational levels
(secondary schools. colleges-of education and polytechnic).
2. There is also the need for research to develop appropriate stress
intervention programme to help teachers cope with the demands
in their job.
3. More studies are needed to fully understand the role of
occupational stress on the physical and mental well-being of
workers in other occupational groups.
4. Also there is the need to study the role of social support
in moderating and buffering the impact of stress on job
satisfaction and health status of workers.
,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
139
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APPENDIX A
TEACHER STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
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r TEACHER STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE ]
Dear SiriMadam,
This survey is designed to study occupational stress and job satisfaction arnonq teachers in Nigerian
Universities. This study will hlep improve the awareness of the adverse effects of job-related stress and how
to alleviate stress among teachers. Your participation in this study is important and will be greatly appreciated.
I will be pleased to send you an abstract of the results if you desire. The questionna.ire will only take a few
minutes to complete.
INSTRUCTION Please read and complete the questionnaire. Your name is not required. Try to be as honest
and frank as you can in your responses. Your responses will be used only for resesrch purpose. Thank you
for your cooperation.
SECTIONA: Biographical Information
In this section, we would like to know just a little about you so that we can see how different groups of people
respond to the issue of occupational stress. Please tick the appropriate box as it applies to you,
1. Sex: D Male D Female
2. Age: D Under 40 years D 40 years and above
3. length of teaching experience
A. 1 to 4 years D
B. 5 to 10 years 0
C. over 10 years. 0
I
4 Status
A. Professor or Reader 0
B. Senior Lecturer 0
C, Lecturer 0
SECTION B. Teacher Stress Inventory
This section contains potential causes of occupatorial stress among teachers. Please indicate the extent of
stress caused to you by each of the following factors. Please tick the appropriate box as it applies to you.
Severe Moderate Mild No
Stress Stress Stress Stress
1. He/hly workload [IJ [IJ IT] IT]
2. Time pressure tJ CJ CJ D
3. Salaries too low LJ CJ 0
4. Teaching too difficult D D D D
5. Shortage of staff members D D D D
6. Shortage of teaching materials LJ D 0 D
7. Overcrowded classrooms
(Large classes) LJ CJ D CJ
8. Poor working condition CJ CJ 0 CJ
9. Lack of equity in handling promotion D D D D
10. Lack of cooperation among staff n n 11 II
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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Severe Moderate Mild No
Stress Stress Stress Stress
11. Lack of remuneration for
extra duties m m w IT]
12. Too many students to
supervise D D D 0
13. Unfavorable sabbatical
policy 0 D D D
14. Demands of high expectation
from my colleagues D D D D
15. Problems of ethnic groupings
in the department 0 D D D
16. Negative community attitude
towards the teaching profession D D D 0
17. Lack of job security 0 D D D
18. Problem with students D D 0 D
19. Publish or perish syndrome D D 0 D
20. Lack of university autonomy D D D D
;
21. Unfavorable condition of
services D D D D
'. Tick th9 eppropriete box as it appli9s to you,
22. In general, how stressful do you find being a teacher?
A, Very stressful ,CJ·.·: • .')1" ":. :., " ,-,
B. Moderately stressful D '
C. Mildly stressful CJ
D. Npt at all stressful CJ
,
,
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149
SECTION C: Job Satisfaction Questionnaire I
This secnon deals with various aspects of job satisfaction with respect to the teaching profession.
Indicate how you feel about each of the following by ticking the appropriate box as it applies to you.
Very Dissatisfied Moderately Very
Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied
23. In general, how are you satisfied
with teaching as a job? [!] IT] IT] IT]
24. How are you satisfied with your
physical working condition? CJ D D CJ
25. How are you satisfied with your pay
considering your duties? D D D D
26. How satisfied are you withthe extent
to which your job (teaching) makes full
use of your skills and abilities? D CJ CJ CJ
27. How satisfied are you with the extent to
which your colleagues cooperate well
with one another? D CJ D D
28. How satisfied are you with the level
of average time demands of teaching
jobs? D CJ D CJ
29. How are you satisfied with the
academic programmes? CJ D D D
Please tick the appropriate box as it applies to you
30. If you have the opportunity to choose your carrer again, how likely Is It that you would choose
teaching?
A. Very likely D
B. Fairly likely D
C. F~irly unlikelyD
'\, -, D. Very unlikely D
, I
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\
APPENDIX B
THE GENERAL HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE
,
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.--- 151
\
AppendixB General Health Questionnaire
Please read this carefully:
We would like to know if you have any complaints, landhow your health has been in general, over the past
few\weeks. Please answer all the questions simply by ticking ( ) the answer ~ hich you Ihink most nearly
applies to you. Remember that we want 10 know about presenl and recent complaints not those that you had
in the past II is important that you answer all the questions.
1. Have you recently been able to concentrate on what you are doing?
(a) Better than usual D (b) Same as usual D
(c) Less than usual 0 (d) Much less than usual.0
2. Have you recently lost much sleep over worry?
(a) Not at all D (b) No more than usual 0
(c) Rather more than usual0 (d) Much more than usual0
3. Have you recently felt th8t~ are playing 8 useful, part In things?
(8) More so than usual LJ (b) Same as usual 0
(e) Less useful than usualD (d) Much less useful0
4. Have you recently felt ca~le of making decision about things?
(a) More so than usualU (b) Same as usual 0
(c) Less so than usual 0 (d) Much less capable. [:J
5. Have you recently felt constantly under strain?
(a) Not at all, 0 (b) No more than usual 0
(c) Rather more than usual0 (d) Much more than usunl.D
6. Have you recently felt you couldn't overcome your difficulties?
(a) Not at all 0 (b) No more than usual 0
(c) Rather more,than usual0 (d) Much more than usuuLD
7. Have you recently been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities?
(a) More so than usual0 (b) Same as usual 0
(c) Less so than usual0 (d) Much less than usuaLD
8. Have you recently been able to face up to your problems?
(a) More so than usual0 (b) Same as usual 0
(c) Less so than usual0 (d) Much less than usuaLD
9. Have you recently been feeling unhappy and depressed?
(a) Not at all 0 (b) No more than usual
(b) Rather more than usual0 (d) Much more than usual.
,
10. Have you recently been losl~confldence In yourself?
(a) Not at all U (b) No more than usual 0
(c) Rather more than usualD (d) Much more than usual.0
11. Have you recently been thin~ of yourself as a \\I0rthles~ person?
(a) Not at all U (b) No more than usual 0
(c) Rather more than usual0 (d) Much more than usual.0
12. Have you recently been feeling reasonably happy all things considered?
...-- (a) More so than usual0 (b) About same as usual D. (c) Less so than usual0 (d) Much less than usual.0
----
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\
APPENDIX C
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION AND PERMISSION
,•
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;so
The Dean,
Faculty of Agric & Forestry,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Dear Sir,
Ernest I. Achalu. Ph.D. Student
Mr. Achalu is conducting a doctoral research survey
under the Department of Physical and Health Education,
University of Ibadan. This survey is designed" to study
occupational stress and job satisfaction among Nigerian
university teachers. It is hoped the study will help
improve awareness of the adverse effects of job-related
stress and the need to improve the work conditions of
university teachers.
Your faculty is among the Nigerian u:niversities sampled
to participate in this important study. We intend to sample
all the teaching staff in the various departments within your
faculty in order to collect the necessary data.
I am therefore requesting for your co-operation to enable
Mr. Achalu conduct the survey in your faculty. A sample copy
of the questionnaire is enclosed. Mr. Achalu will personally
administer the questionnaire when he visits your faculty.
Thanks for your co-operation.
Prof. C. O. Udoh,
Head,
Department of Physical & Health Education
And Supervisor.
/
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.',
155 "-
I
• I
1[3th 1-Iarch, 1:>\)'1 •
The Dean,
Faculty ef Clinical Medical SCiences,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.
Dear Sir,
Ernest I. Achalu, Ph.D • .::itude11t
}lr. Acha.l.u is conducting a doctoral r es c or-ch survey
und or- the Department of Physical and" IleaLth Educ a Lion,
U11ivcrsity of IlJadau. This survey is UcSi:';lled to study
occupational stress and job satisi'action a!1I011~~Id:';l!rian
un.i.v er s I ty teachers. It is hoped t.h e s tudy wi Ll. he.lp
il!IproYe awarel1eSS 01 the aclver!;e o f f oc t s or job r eLu t od
:; tress an d the n ee d to improve the wo r-k c o nd i Li.o ns o I'
un.i.v or s Lty touchers.
Your i.'acttlty is i:Ullollg t.h c }:i~erian Ulliversj"tic~ s ampLod
t;'J piH-ticip<.lto ill tllis import,lIlt study. \.c illl!~lHl Lo SLII:lpJt'
all tJH~ teaching starr ill tile' Vill-:io us dcpartlllcl. U; hi UtilI
yOUL' 1.'i.lctLlty ill order to collect; the l)ece:,:;ar,:; da t u ,
I au thereLore requcstin:; fo r' your co-opul- .•t.Lo n to
CL<.lLJlo}lr. AciiaLu corduct the s ur-v oy in your- Lac uLty. i\
sD:ilplc copy" 01' tho questio1111airc if:' e rc Los o.t , Nr-, J"~Clt;)),11
will personally udllli nis ter the quos tiOll11ai1'o wh en he v i s Lts
yo ur- f ac u Lty.
'I'h anlc s 1.'01' your co-op cr ut Lon ,
Yours ('(:Ii tll rully,
, Proi'. C. D.
JIeild,
Department or Ph y.s Lc uL And lieultll Ed uc uti on
And 3up orv t s or ,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
156
r , ,,
FACULTY OF ENGlNE)~RING
AHMADU BELLO~BU.NIVERS:ITYZARIA, NIGERIAOFFICB or DBAH
Tel~one: ZARIA Sl
Telegrams:UNlBEl
y '. Ref!
Our Ref: Date 27th June, 199~
All Members of Academic staff,
Faculty of Engineering,
Ahmadu Bello University,
Z A RIA.
Mr. Ernest Achalu Doctoral Student
The above-named is a doctoral student of the University of Ibadan
who is co~ducting a survey on stress and job satisfaction among Nigerian
University teachers. The ABU Department of Physical and Health Education
has an exchange programme with the University of Ibadan in this regard. .J
They have therefore, re~uested us to assist in completion of ~uestionnaires.
. • • .' -, [. 'r . ~( '", ,'. ";} . ~,'4.. ! rr : '\, ...."-:. ;. j ')
Please. give alL.necessary assistance to ,th~'candidate as he may
, ,
re~uire of you ,. \ . ~-..
; I .
.~: .'
. ,- " ~, .. ,'''!.:. "".~.. :., : . "
_. _:~. ,I ._ 'II
./ (!' ';'::;:(j~DEI~A';\,,, ~'!!,:~:~'~~;,~::': ','j~';.
, ' . ~' ", ' .. [.
\, for Dean of Engine~r ng
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.~ ~~P' :,':
.,,,'..... ' .•- .-;.;:.•...
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
157
24th June, 1994.·
The Dean/Faculty Officer,
Faculty of Law,
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria.
Dear Sir,
Ernest I. Achalu. Ph.D. Studept
Mr. Achalu is conducting a doctoral research survey
under the Department of Physical and Health Education,
University of Ibadan. This survey is designed to study
occupational stress and job satisfaction among Nigerian
university teachers. It is hoped the study will help
improve awareness of the adverse effects of job related
stress aud the need to improve the work conditions of
university teachers.
Your faculty is among the Nigerian universities sampled
to participute in this important study. ~e intend to sample
all the teaching staff in the various departments ~ithin
your facluty in order to collect the necessary data.
I am therefore requesting for your co-operation to
enable Mr. Achalu conduct the survey in your faculty. A
sample copy of the questionnaire is enclosed. Mr. Achalu
will personally administer the questionN:llre when he
visits your facultyo
Thamts for your co-operation.
Yours
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
158
18th il a r-c h , lSlSJ'I.
The Dean,
, Faculty of Sciences,-.:. University of Nigeria,Nsukka.
Dear Sir,
Ernest I. Acltnlu, Ph.D • .::itudcllt
Hr. Ac h a Lu is conducting a doctoral r-e s e ur-c h survey
unLer the Department of Physical and JIealth Education,
University of Ibadal1. This survey is desi~l1ed to study
oc cupa t i.onaL stress and job s at.Ls f ac t.Lon alllon:~ t,i::;criml
uni, v or sd ty t oac Iior s , It is hoped Lh c study wi L], hell'
il!lt)rove awu.ro n o.ss 01' the adverse e ffo c t s or job related
s tress and the need to illlprove the wo r t: c ond.i tiol1S or
university tC<.lchers.
Your i'nculty is al11on~~the Ni~erinn unLvor-s LtLos salllpled
trJ p ur-t LcLpa t;c ill thls Lmp ort o rrt study. \.0 jJ1LcJHI to -s ru.ip Lc
all 'thc 'tcac!liJlg s t orI' ill the vnrd ous dCl"Il'tIllCl.l.s ",:i.tlt:l11
your Faculty ill orucr to collect t hc noc oas ur-j dn t u ,
I au thcreI'ore requestin.:.:; 1'01' your CO-opcJ'ation to
onu LLo Hr. Ach aLu conduct the s ur-v oy in your to.c uLt y , J\
s oup Lc copy or the questionnaire is c ic Los cd , Hr. Acha.l u
w.i Ll, personally administer thc qucstiollnniJ.'c wl ien l i o v.is Lt s
yn t ll.- r i1C !.!J. t~,r•
'I'h anlcs 1'or your co-op o.ra t Lon ;
Yours .cui tl ijuLLy ,
)
1'1'01'. c. O. Utlolt,
Head,
Depurtmcnt or Phy rs i c uL And lle aLt.h ELiuciltinll
~~I'E§j~""-'-"Tr'7--' __ .>-<:A
~~'
~~, trc}tj/
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
159
q
The Dean,
Faculty of Arts,
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
Dear Sir,
Ernest I. Ac]wlu, Ph.D. Studcllt
Hr. Ac h a.l u is conducting a doc toral res e ur c h survey
u nd or- the De p ar-t.rn e rit; of Phy s ic al and Il e a I,t11 Educ L\ t i on ,
University of Ebad a n , This survey is uesi;~lled to study
occupa LLon a L s tress and job s a t LSf<IC tiol1 Hli1011~~hi:';l~ri rm
u.ni,v or s L ty t.o ao ho r-s , It is hop od th o s t.u dy w.i L], l i oLp
:l1!lprOVe <.n;Ul'encSS o L' the a dv or-n n o Ifc c Ls or jol> reJiltcu
s t ro s s ariel the ri eod to improve the wo r-k c oncl i, t Lons or
UIJ:l v or s L ty t oac hers.
Your Llculty is UmOI)!;the l':i~jeriall uu i.v c r s Lt Lc s s ampLc d
t'J participi_\tc ill this impot·tilnt study. \.e iIltC]Hl to sill;lpJe
all till! uoac hI ng starr in LlH! v[lr:i oilS d()l"ll·trll\~L Ui hi LiLL]l
your l'aculty in order to collect tilt! IJUcc:-isar.:; datu.
I aLl t.h or-o J.or-e requcstin~ 1.'01' your cn-op\~J'iltion to
cnubLo 1:,11'. Ach aLu c o nuuc t the survey in your fao uLt y , A
S anp Lc copy 0 r the qu os t.Lonria i.r-o i!3 e rc Los cu. Hr. J-\C ha l,U
1~ill personally administer the questiollnaire when he v is Lts
your i'acGlt:I.
'I'liank s for your co- op ernt.Lon.
Yours rai t.hju Ll.y ,
j); 7
:Jttr;:fJ!!tl'urtment C. o ,lIeuLl,or Physical And l l c uLt h EducntiOllA11cl 3upervisoro
~
16(0/7'/
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY