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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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Tunde Agbala
A. Oladoja
E. Oyewale
J. A. Babarinde
S. I. Abumere
0.1. Obateru
C. O. Olatubara
I. Kunie Adeniji
Ola E. Aluko
S.I. Okafor
O.O.Alokan
F. Olokesusi
S.Olufemi
F.O.A. Dada
Dayo Ayorinde
B. Wahab
O.K. Oyesiku
O. Fadare
'lt1acmiMllan ~
Nigeria
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
© Tunde Agbola, 200 I
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means without permission.
First published 2004
Published by
Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Limited
Ilupeju Industrial Estate, P.O. Box 264, Yaba, Lagos
New Oluyole Industrial Estate, P.O. Box 1463, Ibadan
Companies and representatives throughout the world
'.
ISBN 978-018-281-0
Printed by Foludex Press Limited. Ibadan .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Contents'
Dedication iv
Preface v
Contributors viii
Acknowledgement xii
Part One: Theoretical Issues
Chapter 1 Philosophy and Theory ofUrban and Regional Planning 1
2 History of Urban and Regional Planning 31
3 Land Economics 61
Part Two: Planning Methodology
4 Statistical Methods in Urban and Regional Planning 103
5 Development Control and Planning Standards 129
6 Land Use Planning 137
Part Three: Components of Urban and Regional
Planning
7 Population and Urbanization Studies 163
8 Housing Strategies .......•.........................................•..... 187
9 Transportation Planning 257
10 Social Services Planning in Nigeria 293
11 Regional Development Planning 305
12 Industrial Development Planning in Nigeria 321
13 Planning for Leisure and Recreation 345
14 The Management of Cultural Properties 390 .
Part Four: Planning Design
15 Graphic Presentation (Map Design) 403
16 Landscape Planning and Design 413
17 Urban Design '"! •••••••••••••••••••••• •.••••••••••• 444 ~
Part Five: Planning Administration and Planning
Practice
18 Town and Oountry Planning Law and Administration
in Nigeria 481
19 Administrative Framework for Planning in Nigeria 525
20 Planning Practice and Professional Ethics in Nigeria .. 540
21 Writing an Urban and Regional Planning Dissertation. 555
Index 582
III
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1171 Urban Design
B. Wahab
urban~
Design is a vital tool for the modification of existing urban environment.
Coherence, orderliness and aesthetics are some of the products of design
and these can be injected into many of the presently disorganized and
inhumane urban environment in order to raise their quality, character and
image.
Modem urban life is completely different from the traditional one - very
expensive, quite unsafe, dreadful and uninteresting. Presently, our cities,
most of them heavily over-populated, have so much deteriorated that many
stink to high heavens. Shapeless built-up areas are spreading out in all
directions in an uncontrollable manner (for example, the two-sides of the'
Ibadan-Lagos Expressway, from Ibadan end, in Nigeria) with characterless
and repetitive type of buildings leaving such areas of the city with no distinct
identity and form.
The ugly trend described above is not limited to the developing countries
where foreign style in house building is copied with impunity. The developed
countries are equally battling with endless, dull, drab, monot•onous and
sometimes very expensive buildings being erected especially in residential
areas. "
A lover of cities will be much more disturbed to note that the cities whose
physical environments are fast deteriorating do not have much good to offer.
They are characterized by deafening noise and poisonous fumes, 'mountain'
of solid wastes, modem slums ofiJI-conceived housing developments (lacking
in basic infrastructural facilities), visual distress, dramatic increase in
muggings, burglaries, the' 419' game of deceit (being experienced in Nigeria
at the time of writing), car snatching, kidnapping, assassinations and similar
other crimes. All these have been compounded by large-scale unemployment
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Urban Design 445
culminating in abject poverty with consequences on nutrition, health and
education, Our environment as Nuttgens (1974) rightly observed, "has been
scaled to the speed of the car rather than walkers, to the statistics mass
rather than to human groups, ... to the storage of masses of people rather
than to the provision of suitable space for families."
The above scenario calls for a drastic solution. The built environment
must be transformed to make them more humane, a place in which people
can live satisfying and creative lives. The principal debits of architecture
and planning, that is seale and inhumanity, have rendered the two disciplines
quite incapable of fully arresting the situation. Urban design has coine into
thescene as a series of responses to the contemporary urban worries. As
Bentley (1978:35) puts it: "Urban design, emerged as part of a critique of
the urban environmental product, a critique of the process of development
by which it is brought about and a critique of the professional roles involved
incontrolling it."
The design of cities. is so important that it is often treated as a separate
discipline which is urban design. As Gibberd (1976: 10) observes, "The urban
environment is so complicated that the design for a town must in the first
·place be shown symbolically in the form of a two-dimensional plan." This
plan which is to be prepared by a town planner constitutes the broad
framework on which the design of all the other elements ofthe town will De
based. Other people win come in to design other objects in units - architect
designing buildings, civil engineer designing culverts, structural engineer
preparing the structural details of all reinforcement, while the mechanical
engineer works out the details of mechanical lift to be used in a high rise
building. However, in order-that we ,may have a wholesome, efficient and
humane environment, the various elements separately designed will have to
be brought together under a very orderly arrangement so that each element
co-relate or is iit perfect juxtaposition to theothers. This seemingly simple
exercise requires a lot of inputs and it is a continuous and flexible process
which involves critical decisions on the anticipated growth, decline and change
in the environment. This activity falls within the purview of urban design - a
subject which includes landscape as well as buildings, both preservation
and new construction and rural areas as well as cities.
This chapter is meant to in~oduce the subj ect of urban design to everyone
who has a stake in the built environment. It is not supposed to be a complete
work covering the whole spectrum of urban design, rather it is to serye as an
instructional material providing quick information on basic aspects of the
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4-16 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
subject including its definition, objectives, principles and process, and its
relationship to both architecture and urban and regional planning. The note
will also give coverage to the concepts of imageability, space and street
design which are vital to the understanding and practice ofurbandesign.
In preparing this paper, the author has deliberately resorted to the use of
very simple terms and expressions in order to facilitate easy understanding
and to avoid jargonising the subject. Illustrations are provided to enhance
the understanding of the issues discussed in the same way that local and
foreign examples are given within the limit or'the author's knowledge and
experience.
The Concept of Urban Design
Urban design, a term ~hich means different things to different people has
been defined severally by many scholars: Gosling and Maitland (1984);
Goodey (1979), Barnett (1982), Rapoport (1977), "Samuel (1986), Medhurst
(1985), Bentley (1980), Galloway (1982, 1986), Lichfield (1984), Dovell
(1982), McCluskey (1984), Reekie (1972), Marsh (1983),. Gibberd (1976)
and Spreiregen (1965). There is yet a straight-jacket definition of the subject.
According to the Urban Design Group (1984:6):
Urban Design is at the interface between architecture, town
planning, landscape architecture, engineering and related social
science and environmental management professions. It is the
creative activity by which the form and character of the urban
environment at the local scale may, over.time, be devised, modified
and controlled in circumstances of social, economic, technological .
and/or political change.
Urban design is the physical and spatial design of the environment .
(Shirvani 1985 :6).
Lichfield (1984: 18) defines urban design as "The skill of understanding
and manipulating the relationship between different aspects of the urban
environment - physical, social, economic, political, etc."
In one of his works, Galloway (1982:2) observed that "Urban Design is
essentially an 'action', or rather a 'method' of acting."? He went further to
say that "Urban design is basically a role and a process" Urban design is
seen as a role in the sense that It assists the local power in the control and
promotion of development. This it does by means of the design brief. It is
also a process - a continuous and flexible process which takes into account
the dynamic development of towns and cities and several environmental
changes which may take place as ? town develops over time.
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Urban Design 447
In his contribution to the issue of definition, Bentley (1978:36) defined
the subject .as "Design in and of the public realm, at neighbourhood scale
and at the scale of the main structuring elements of the town". According to
Barnett (1982: 12), "Urban design is the generally accepted name for the
process of giving physical design direction to urban growth, conservation
and change."
From the above definitions of the subject, one could see the difficulty
entailed in defining the term 'urban design' . It may be simply described as a
creative art concerned 'with the articulation of buildings and spaces, the
relationship between them, their flow, aesthetic character and the pattern
they create in the environment. Urban Design may also be thought of as a
temporal art concerned with the organisation of the general, spatial and
temporal pattern of human activity inspace and time with consideration for
economic, visual, ecological, socio-cultural, political and psychological
effects, especially the sensuous aspect, form, colour and.texture.
A more embracing and comprehensive way of defining urban design is to
see it as a discipline concerned with the creation of a pleasing and humane
environment which is achieved through proper harmonization of sites and
landscape features and the conscious' and skillful manipulation of forms,
shapes and lines, colours and texture with due regard to the interrelationship
of building masses, open and enclosed spaces and other elements of the built
environment. Shirvani (1982:428) describes urban design as a "Physical-
spatial sys-tem ... concerned with both functional and aesthe.tic relationships.
of urban spaces and people in the context of the socio-political and economic
environment of the city".
Urban design is the conscious and detail arrangement of the parts of the
built environment such that each element or constituent part functions properly
eithe~ as a separate entity or in relation to one another (when combined
together) to achieve a pleasant, visually and aesthetically satisfying urban
scene. In whatever way it (urban design) is described, "Its practice is much
more exemplified in cites and towns; the larger and more prosperous, the
better it is able to draw upon ~ variety of elements" (Medhurst, 1985:4).
Objectives of U'rbaiJ. Design
The main aim ofurban design is to seek solutions to the real issues of providing
a better and humane environment for living, working and recreation. Some
of its objectives include the need to:
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448 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
(i) achieve efficient and imaginative use of resources;
(ii) create a pleasing, healthy and agreable environment in which people
can live satisfying and creative lives;
(iii) create responsive environments - environments that are legible,
permeable, rich, robust and visually appropriate and which offer
opportunity for personalization, balance, harmony and variety;
(iv) create the desirable town and city which are designed not on the scale
of machines ana motor cars rather on a scale which takes cognisance
of the perceptual capacities and limitations of man. In urban design, a
city is ideal and desirable if it offers uninhibited access to different
activities, resources, information and places for all sectors of the dense
population which is made up of people of different ages, skills, and
socio-economic status;
(v) create and maintain (a satisfactory) "quality of life and of the public
realm in both new and cherished environments ... and to help the users
and not only the producers of the urban environment achieve their
aspirations" (Samuel; 1986:2). User satisfaction is often 'criminally'
ignored by private and, surprisingly, public clients in the planning,
execution and management of their projects; and
(vi) create human environment which is comprehensible and stimulating to
its inhabitants and users and which, in its perceived form, supports the
distribution of activities and patterns of movement.
In a bid to achieve its set objectives, urban design "explore[s] the
. interrelationship of form, space and movement; and the perception, experience
and creation of building and spatial groups" (Dovell, 1yg2:8).
Urban design, as highlighted in the foregoing paragraphs, deals with the
totality of the built environment and it influences all human activities. It is
~. so basic to the healthy growth and development of settlements, their functional
efficiency and visual character that the lack of it (urban design) poses serious
threat to the well-being of people, the quality of urban life and the extreme
end ofthe scale, the survival of a nation. The absence or unnecessary neglect
of urban design is bound to lead to:
(i) generally low quality ofliving;
(ii) dull, uninspiring, hostile and characterless urban environment;
(iii) unsightliness in the appearance oftowns and cities;
(iv) greater menace of the violent and discordant element of our urban
environment, i.e. motor traffic;
(v) discomfort (social, physical and even political); and
(vi) environmental degradation.
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Urban Design 449
Scope and Development of Urban Design
Urban design, which is primarily concerned with the articulation of buildings
and urban form, is a relatively new inter-professionalism (very humane in
approach) which has almost unbounded scope for studies. It is a many-sided
study which demands contributions from many specialisrns-architecture, town
planning, civil engineering, estate management, sociology, anthropology,
history, pathology, political science and the law. The scope of influence of
the profession ranges from large architectural statements to entirely process-
oriented programmes which affect whole cities.
The subjeet covers a wide range of issues which Doxiadis (1968: 12) grouped
together as the elements of human settlement - nature, man, society, shells and
networks. Urban design takes care of the minutest object in a city (size of seats
in a public park for example) as well as big objects such as the Eiffel Tower in
Paris, Spires City Boulevards, Edinburgh Castle, or the plan ofFestac Town
in Lagos showing the actual physical arrangements of its parts.
As Samuel (1986:3) observes "Urban design is not biased towards prestige
sites but it is equally concerned with small-scale, modest revitalization projects
..." It deals with policies for small as well as big projects and for all categories
of people. It does not only advocate the creation of a conducive, congenial
and aesthetically satisfying environment but also strives to pull people out
of their homes to enjoy the beauty of towns thereby making the towns lively
and active both day and night. This it does by the wise use of Activity
Timing ana Activity Spacing techniques. .
Urban design is therefore a discipline whose mode of operation covers
the tangible three-dimensional built-form and its quality, aesthetic character,
image and symbolic meaning in relation to human scale.
Urban Design as a distinct field of study is of recent. origin. In most
countries where it is taught as an academic discipline, architects have been
much responsible for its establishment.In the United States of America, the
first academic curriculum was in the University of Pennsylvania's Civic
Design Programme which started in 1957, followed by Harvard's Urban
Design Programme in 1960. The City College of New York started its Urban
Design Programme in 1971, thejsarne year that Heriot-watt University,
Edinburgh, University of Aberdeen and University of Manchester started
their own programme.
Oxford Polytechnic established its Joint Centre for Urban Design about
the-same period. Gloucestershire College of Arts and Technology began its
Urban Design prograp1Fne in January 1984, while post-graduate studies had
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
450 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
been on since 1046 at the University of Newcastle-Up on-Tyne. Other schools
of Urban Design are Pratt Institute and University of Washington in the
United States, Polytechnic of Central London and University of Sheffield in
the United Kingdom.
Who is an Urban Designer?
From the various definitions and objectives of urban design given earlier in
this chapter, an urban designer can be thought of simply as' the creator,
promoter, enabler andcontroller of urban developments which take place in
wide variety ofform, pace and intensity over time. As Samuels (1986:2-3)
observes, ''Unlike the architect but like the planner, the urban designer is
involved in the processes of metamophosis ever long periods of the urban
environment."
Bentley (1978:39) viewed the urban designer as.being "concerned with
the design and development of briefs with which to control or promote
environmental changes in the public realm at the scale either of the local
. neighbourhood and of what are perceived as the key elements of urban
structure".
The task of the urban designer is to synthesise the contributions of all the
professions in environmental development and to express this in a physical
form suitable for human needs. The urban designer may be described further
as the manager of environmental changes, well/versed in development control
matters either in the preparation of design brief for development cqntrol or
in local area management and conservation.
In sum, urban designers are concerned with the totality of the build
environment, its visual quality and how it affects people; with the development
of public places that are active and used and all those things which make a
city liveable. Some work for private practices but many work in government
offices especially lod1 (planning) authorities or teach in schools of planning
and architecture as in Nigeria, America and Britain. They also work in
planning commissions, housing and development administration, transport
administration, etc. as in the United States of America.
How well an urban designer does his or her job will very much depend on
• his creative ability, talent and exposure; Iiis or her knowledge of the dynamic
nature of human environment, and ability to mix well and communicate
with other professionals as well as members of the public.
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Urban Design 451
Significance of Urban Design
Urban design, which is a crucial common ground between the established
development professions, is being practised all over the world for the benefit
of the world community at large.
Urban design is important because its prime concern iswith the physical"
product of the planning process. The public judges planning by the physical
quality of what it sees around it, whereas the concern of urban design goes
very much beyond mere quality: it is more with the function, attractiveness,
efficiency, cost-effectiveness and management of places in their totality rather
than the individual buildings, plans, procedures and legislation, however
well conceived each of these may ~ in its own right.
T Jrban design is much more relevant in-this time of global economic
recession as it is rarely about lavish expenditure, white-elephant or mere .
's,how-piece.developments. It employs the principles of prudence, economic
justification and judicious use of resources while not corripromising quality,
efficiency and functionality. Urban design accords greater priority to small-
scale, modest, community-based and sensitive projects.
In the developing countries where there is rapid population growth, low
technology, spontaneous development of organic urban and rural forms,
backward economies resulting in abject poverty and invariably, slummy
environments and dirth ofprofessiorially trained designers, utban design is
very much rieeded and becomes a panacea for the creation of improved,
economically viable and sustainable human environment based on available
resources, local culture and human aspiration.
Presently however, urban design strategy is being applied in selected
projects such as university campuses, large-scale commercial developments,
some government housing projects (e.g. Festac Town project in Lagos),
government secretariatcomplexes,and recreation spots (e.g. Trans
Wonderland or Amusement Park in Ibadan). However, in the development
of highways and other road networks, open spaces, water fronts, industrial
estates and street furniture, to mention a few, urban design approach is not
so adopted especially in many developing countries. The result is that parts
of'towns and cities in these developing countries (as in Ibadan and Lagos in
Nigeria) develop independent of one another in confused, chaotic, haphazard
and disorganised manner wi.thout regard to the interrelationship among
various elements of the urban scene.
In developed countries, however., urban design has accomplished a lot,
especially in areas of special design districts(the Lower Manhattan Land-
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452 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
fill in New York); conservation of landmark buildings; inner city renewal
(regeneration of Hull's inner city; The Clinton Park urban renewal plan in
the USA, and upgrading of CIGDEMTEPE MAHALLESI - a squatter
settlement in Ankara, Turkey); rebuilding of theatres, squares and shopping
streets (improvement of Times Square, the centre of night life in New York,
and the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Greater Liverpool); creation of
functionai pedestrian precints, planned unit development (Village Greens on
Staten Island and Lighthouse Cove, Redwood Shores, California); and
.community involvement iri plan design and implementation (Amherst,
Massachusetts Community Accessibility programme for the disabled persons,
Black Road community housing project, Macclesfield, near Manchester),
and creation of major city open spaces (CoIne Valley and Lee Valley Regional
Parks in Greater London).
In the developing countries, urban design has to assume greater recognition
and be applied, to a wide range of issues especially to arrest the daily
deteriorating condition of cities due to urbanization and to deal with the
emerging new trends in development - new scales and dimensions.
Architecture, Town Planning and Urban Design: Basic Differences
"Planning", "urban design" and "building design" are regarded by Reekie
(1972:4-5) as the three basic division ofthe design of the built environment.
Although he defines each part distinctly, Reekie.claims that "these three
parts of environmental design are not separate and distinct. Planning ... cannot
be properly carried out without consideration of the subsequent stages of
urban design and building design; urban design, which is conditioned by
planning, is a preliminary to building design."
In his discussion of the relationship of the three subjects, Dovell (1982)
observes that "Urban design is particularly related to architecture and planning
'. but concerned with architecture and its detail only to ensure that it aggregates
into enviionmental effectiveness; and with planning and its wider applications
only to ensure that a sound operational framework exists for environmental
action. If ar~hitecture may be considered to concern itself primarily with
the design, organization and structure of building, and planning with the
structure of settlement; urban design is concerned with the structure of
Urban Composition".'
Architecture; urban and regional planning, and urban design are by no
means the same. They are related only in the area of scientific approach t~
problem solving. TJ1CYbelong to the environmental professions but each has
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Urban Design 453
,
distinct functions, c<?verageand products. Urban design extends beyond the
operational realms of architecture and town planaisg because it (Urban
Design) is concerned with everything we see around us - the -localised
complexes ofbuildi.ngs and-the external environment created by them.
Figure 1. Relationship of Urban Design to Town Planning and Architecture
in the Built Environment
Planning
(Concerned with the structure
and organization of settlements
in two-dimensional form)
l.~>.Urban Design(con.cerned with thestructure of urban composition-thedesign and managementof _ .the urban three-dimensional
environment)
Architecture
(concerned with the
design, organisation
and structure of building)
Source: Adapted from Reekie; F. (1972)
. In the words of Barnett (1974: 186), "A city planner was someone primarily
cOhcerned with the allocation of resources according to projection of future
need ... Architects design buildings (and) prepare a set of documents so that
the building ... can be constructed and they take legal responsibility for the
process." Planners tend to regard. land use as an allocation of resources
problem, parcelling out land for zoning purposes without much knowledge
of its three-diinensiona( characteristics, or the natur~ of the building that
may be placed on it in the future. Whereas, urban design is the design and
. management of the urban three-dimensional environment larger than the
individual building.
At all the stages in the planning process, all the specialists involved are,
according to Gibberd (1970:1 0), "never required to exercise aesthetic
sensibility. When this point is reached, where someone has to show how the
[particular elements of the town] are to be actually arranged, has in fact to
express his-feelings about form, colour, texture, then town (or urban) design
begins."
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454 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
In one of his famous aiticles, Nuttgens (1974) highlighted some of the
credits and debits of planning and architecture.
Planning has credits in its response to change, itsuse of technology,
its occasional fun, and its great gestures and new forms - bridges
and motor ways, made up of concrete ... However, there are its
monotony, its scale, the absence of meaningful social units, the
expression of grey concrete everywhere and its inhumanity and
aggressiveness. Architecture has some credits in its response to
change, its use of new materials, its development of building
science, its use of technology, its occasional emphasis on colour
and contrasts ... [its debits are] its monotony and the pervading
grey of concrete, its aggressiveness, its disr~spect for individuals,'
its terrible inhumanity and its overwhelming scale whether.for
housing, schools, industry or offices.
From the above comments by Nuttgens, it would be seen that the debits in
both architecture and planning centre on the built environment, i.e. the habitat
of human beings> and its raw materials. It is these debits that urban design
is out to address especially the dimensions of scale, time, humanity, movement
and app,earance. It (Urban design) is able to do this very well because it is
more humane in approach and more scientific in practice. Urban design is
able to give physical design direction to urban growth; to give desired meaning
to the~i1y and offer the inhabitants ofthe city a true sense of belonging and
.maximum.opportunity in'the town in which they wish to live a satislyiAg and
creative lives. . . . . . .
There is one constant factor which architecture and planning seem to neglect.
.as earlier pointed out. That factor, which urban design gives adequate attention
is, according to Spreiregen (1965:69), "Man himself with his ability to
comprehend his surroundings." ,As Houghton-Evans (1978:J38) rightly
observes, "Man is the measure of all things ... The design of the city - its
proportion and scale -must be those of the pedestrian and the community, and
of these the dimensions are relatively timeless." Urban design relates every .
element or object in the built environment to human scale and human groupS
rather than the scale of cars and machines and statistic mass. .
Juchnowicz (1976) observes that "One ofthe most difficult problems of
town planning is that concerned with time." New roads that are planned and
built usually appear adequate for the present volume of traffic and land use
activities for which they are being planned. With the passage of time however,
I
they become hopelessly inadequate for the rapid increase in motor traffic
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Urban Design 455
due to urbanization, town expansion and changing pattern of land use, A
similar example of the problem of time is with regards to building which is
daily Increasing in volume and also changing in its use without complementary
changes accompanying it. Most.residential buildings in Victoria Island in
Lagos, Nigeria have been converted into offices andother commercial uses
in the recent time with negative effects on travel time, congestion, residential
accommodation, rent and neighbourhood character,
Urban design considers the elements of the town in relation to time: what
each elemerit is in historical time; its effect on past time; its effect in the
present time and what effect it will have in.future time, Time is the fourth
dimension of urban design, others being (human) scale, movement and
appearance or shape.
Basic Principles of Urban Design
Urban design operates under certain principles which centre majorly on the,
concept of human scale and healthy environment. One ofthe basic principles
is equal access to different activities, resources, information and places for
all sectors of the population and from every part of the city. While this is
being ensured, the modem city should not be allowed to create conditions
which will make human dependent on car for all his or her needs, rather the
city should be sufficiently dense, public, full of opportunities and visually
attractive to be used by people of all age, ability and income.
A second principle is "the proper array of urban masses." Urban design
has to adequately and aggressively address the problems of scale, space and
time in 'the built environment, in order to ensure that all parts of the Cityare
used for the sensuous enjoyment of human in a very useful and healthy
manner. How pleasant, interesting, relaxing and visually satisfying or how
frustrating, boring and tense an environment is, is a function of mass, space,
'colour, texture, light and site including the layout of the lots.
There is also the functional deployment and mixture of urban activities
and land uses. Zoning, an important feature of town planning, creates
homogeneous sectors in a given settlement. However, such settlements are
not the best as -human activities and land uses are segregated rather than
being properly mixed or integrated or linked. The isolated and specialized
single-use zones found in contemporary cities should be properly reconciled
to aIIow for variety of activities and experiences.
Another princip le is "the functional arrangement of patterns of movement."
Circulation systems (made up of roads and footpaths) are vital linkages
which relate activities and uses on the land. They constitute important
structuring elements of a town-plan and have to be arranged in hierarchical
order with due regard to the type and size of activities or uses they are to
service,
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456 Readings in Urban anq Regional Planning
Proper Deployment of Urban Spaces: A "good design," according to
Stretton (197&), has to give a city good big spaces, good little spaces and
good relations between them." The Eiffel Tower and the numerous fine
boulevards in the city of Paris; the City Park and tree-lined boulevards in
Central Milton Keynes; the Trafagar Square and Hyde Park in London; the
famous Greek Agora or Wolverton Agora in Milton Keynes; the Tinubu
Square or Apapa Amusement Park in Lagos, the Trans-Wonderland in Ibadan
and other grand spaces across the world are very much needed for their
services and inspiration. In the cities are also found small spaces, e.g.
Independence Square in Old Bodija Estate or the Community Playground in
New Bodija and the Lekan Salami open space in Adamasingba areas of
Ibadan; the well-maintained, small open space along Ilupeju Industrial Road,
Ilupeju, Lagos, or the small communal open spaces in the Brow Housing
Project in Runcom New Town (U.K.), which are human scaled, intricate,
sheltered and of manageable size. These spaces are enjoyed by city dwellers
who socialise, meditate and relax within such spaces. The creation of such
diversity in urban elements is at the heart of urban design.
One important principle of any good design and urban design, is that
whatever is designed "should be for the people who will use it in order that
it may work well and feel good for them" (Stretton, 197R:204). Many
government low-cost housing schemes in Nigeria, which were built in the
Second Republic are, as at the time of writing, never occupied by human
beings simply because they were totally alien in design and totally out Of
tune with the residential mannerism, socio-ci, .ural and economic status of
the local people for whom they ,were meant. ,
Protection and Security Alongside Shelter and Comfort: In this
principle, urban design attempts to create secure environments which inhibit
crime and have opportunities for (natural) surveillance thereby enhancing
the lives of the inhabitants while providing security for families, neighbours,
friends and visitors. People do not have to live in iron cages or 'fortified
prisons-of-a-home' as in most towns and cities in Nigeria.
One last principle is the opportunity for personalization of own (private)
surroundings. Here, human beings are offered the greatest opportunity to
personalise their private spaces or living realm for individual expression. A
person can differentiate hislher flat from several others in a large apartment
block through the use of colour, texture and the ordering of landscape. In
this way, the uniqueness of parts of the city is recognised and the.
monotonization of its (city's) ele:nents is avoided ..
-------~~ -
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Urban fJesign 457
Urban Design Process
Urban design as earlier defined in this chapter is a process - a continuous
and flexible process; somewhat cyclic, usually going-back to the starting
point. To undertake a successful urban design project, the designer is expected
to be fully aware of what problem he/she is trying to solve, that is, comprehend
the, existing situation in the context of its physical, social, economic and '
political circumstances. This he/she does through indepth research and
investigation. The designer should possess the skill to analyse data, forecast
likely changes and the possible impacts of the changes on the built
environment, and then come up with what is considered the' best plan or
design synthesis which is sufficiently adaptive to permit review, modification
and revision.
Reekie (1972) gave a broad outline of a basic system which can be used
in connection with design in'the built environment. It isa five-stage design
procedure which proceeds in a straight line through a simple sequence: "Brief-
Analysis-Synthesis-Implementation-Communication." Reekie's procedure
contains very relevant steps in the urban design process.
Urban design process may be simply described as consisting of eight
stages, all continuous, concurrent and mutually linked. The eight stages are
described (see Figure 2).
1. Problem Identification
The first step isfor the urban designer to identify the purpose(s) which he/
she seeks to achieve, that IS, the problemshe/she intends to solve and then
order them in terms of their importance. In order words, the designer has to
establish, for example, the need to create a unified environment which may
involve fitting a new building into a delicate conservation area or the
pedestrianization of a shopping area. 10' :.'
2. Goal Formulation and Identification of Objectives
Probably, one ofthe most important aspects ofthe process is the formulation
of broad community goals. Goals are areas of concern; they are essentially
general and highly abstract. In urban design, goals tend to fall into broad
categories such as social, cultural/economic, physical and aesthetic/visual
quality or sensibility and may even include aspects of the .design process
itSelfespecially continuity and flexibility. A goal may be to achieve an efficient
distribution of activities and/or patterns of movement within a city, or to
ensure a liveable urban centre.
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458 Readings ill Urban and Regional Planning
Objectives which constitute actual programmes by which goals may be
achieved are then identified. Ifliveable urban centre-is the goal, the resulting
objectives might include: adequate pedestrian safety; provision of efficient
mass transit, comfort stations, adequate convenience shops, open spaces
and recreational facilities; efficient refuse disposal, and communication
facilities.
3. Collection ofRelevant Information and Data
At this stage, a detailed survey of the area, object, agencies, individual and
relevant activities will be carried out with a view to collecting relevant
information and data. Data would be collected on all the factors which may
influence the designer in arriving at a particular set of proposals. Data are
needed on site characteristics, activity patterns to be accommodated,
environmental factors, human relationships (social, political and 'cultural),
economic/demographic/technological and legal factors as well as open spaces
(see Figure 3).
4. Analysis of Data
All the relevant information already gathered will be separated into -
appropriate or required parts to make for easy and better utilization at the
design stage. Data may be grouped into physical and environmental, socio-
economic and political, materials and construction, and aesthetic/visual.
During the process of analysis, if a designer discovers the need for additional
information on one of more aspect( s) or factor( s), he or she has to go back to,
stage 3 and collect the required information before proceeding to the next
stage. Most urban designers adopt the "Ecoplanner Model" - a Multi-
dimensional Activity Interaction Matrix (developed by Phillips and Fortlage..
1972) to analyse all required data. The model is of three components: 1.-
Activities, Resources and Relationships.
5. Design Synthesis
The fifth stage is the synthesis stage where all requirements within the context
of prevailing policies, regulations and constraints (financial, legal, social
and political) will be met. It evolves out ofthe analytical phase. The design
synthesis constitutes possible alternative means of achieving the goal and
objectives formulated earlier (i.e. solutions to the identified problems) and it
is usually in form of actual designs developed from abstract relational
. diagrams that arc 'arranged and re-arranged over and over through warping,
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UrbanDesign 459
shifting, stretching, etc. until the desired design concept(s) and the viability
of the design is attained. Fach alternative design which is produced with due
regard to urban design principles and techniques and to the contents of the
activity matrix, proceeds from general to detail, i.e. from freehand sketches
to refined drawings or plans and then model. The cost and benefit of each
course of action, i.e. alternative plans or proposals are to be stated, and
tested and a preferred alternative indicated:
,6.: Design Evaluation
Evaluation of alternative potential solutions is an. important stage in the
urban design process. Here, the designer will compare and measure all the
complete courses of action against the goals and objectives already stated
and then make decisions. Objective and meaningful evaluation requires deep
knowledge, skill, imagination, intuition.compliance with regulations arid
.principles, as well as design technique which are all products. of a slow
process of creativity. Various techniques may be employed to eliminate weak
strategies - goal achievement matrix, cost-benefit analysis, critical path
analysis 'and rigorous appraisal. Available resources should, be seriously
considered here.
7. Implementation
The chosen design is to be prepared in its perfected form accompanied by
other charts and write-ups which will make for easy comprehension and
implementation, This i; the stage when actions must be taken towards the
physical realization of the preferred alternative. Adequate finance, personnel,
efficient management.and perhaps political support and encouragement more
than anything else are required for a successful implementation.
In order to achieve the implementation ofurban design works in a politica,!
atmosphere or process, Catanese (1984: 11-12) recommends that:
(a) urban design must be delivered in a timely fashion when and as
soon as needed, or.it will not be needed;
(b) plans must not be too vague rather; urbari design must be more
specific, distinct and inclusive of operational and functional plans
to be updated and revised more regularly; and
(c) private sector should be involved in plan formulation in order that
plans and designs may be implemented by private developers.
A sub-level in the implementation is phasing or programming which
provides for the'time each activity is expected to commence and finish based
on available resources (human and nraterial) and other factors.
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460 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning'
8. Monitoring and Review
This is the last stage of the urban design process where the designer has to
monitor veryclosely the state of the system. After an interval, he/she reviews
the performance of the policy regarding its effectiveness and efficiency. Where
it has strayed or departed from the assumed course or where changing
circumstances have overtaken it, adjustment may have to be made. This is
verj necessary because the built environment is a dynamic system, in which
changes cannot be forseen with utmost certainty. Urban design itself is a
continuous, cyclic and flexible process. Thus, the process may have to be.
recycled back and forth from stages 2 to 8.' ----- --
Review
(Modification
& Revision)
Implementation
'-------1 (Physical 1----------'
, Realization)
Figure 2. The Urban Design Process
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Urban Design 461
EnvirorunentaJ Political J Technological, Design (Skill) Technique,Factors • Cultural Factor • Urban Design Feasibility Studies• Biological • Eihru;al ' , • Area Diagnoses I I• Psychological • Socia'! Base Studies • Illustrative Design<: ---I " I • Process Rules
• Design Brief'
• Urbanist Perspective
,.IFramework Plans
input I~
J ~
'-'T'- -- I
-~---
PHYSICAL Activity Economic Factor Design Solution
Characteristic Pattern • Creation of a Unified, Responsive and
• Geology • 'Between PIace' • Resource/Ecouornic Base Tangible Three-dimensional Urban
• Soil Activity • Valuation Enviromnent in Relation to Human Scale,
• Topography • 'Within Place' • Manipulation • Performance Specification
• Micro Climate Activity • Cost-Benefit Analysis • Sustainability
• Ecology
Figure 3. Urban Design as an Open System
"~
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462 Readings in' Urban and Regional Planning
The Design Team
As stated earlier in this chapter, urban design is a many-sided study which
demands contributions from many specialisms. For many urban design
projects, the design team will usually be made up of urban designer(s) as
leader(s) of the team. Consultants and specialists whose corporate efforts
are required are; town planners, land surveyors, estate managers and valuers,
civil engineers, quantity surveyors, architects, landscape architects, urban
economists, environmental psychologists, cultural anthropologists,
sociologists and community development officers. They also work with,
prospective developers both public and private.
Visual Aspects of Planning and Design
One of the main preseccupatiqnsof an urban designer is to create a humane
environment which is visually and aesthetically satisfying and inwhich people
can live creative lives. This can be achieved through the conscious and skillful
manipulation of the nuances of scale and proportion, colour and texture,
solids, shape and size, character, balance, symmetry, spaces, pattern and all
the elements that make up the ove~all fabric of towns. The relationship'
between these elements will be examined later. '
The importance of visual element in the physical implementation of
planningand design proposals cannot be overemphasized. There is need for
high visual quality in the design of any part ofthe builtenvironment because
.the appearance of our surroundings touches our "lives in_every respect and
also influences how people feet about their city and ultimately theifability
to use the city in ahealthyrriann~r. People feel really proud to say~t they
live in Bodija (old and new), International Institute of Tropical ~grici.llture,.
and Agodi l.\.reasofIbadan or Ikoyi and V,jctoria IslandinLagos, Nigeria or
Duddingston, Colinton and Bruntsfield areas in Edinburgh, or in Russel
Drive, Pinehurst Circle or Torrey Pines areas in Ames, U$.A. all because,
of the clean nature and high visual character of these places. On the contrary,
it is a shame tolive in Ajegunle, Mushin, Amukoko, Oshodi areas of Lagos
or Foko, Agbede-Adodo, Ode-Aje and Beere areas oflbadan or the crowded
areas such as-the West End of Boston or Craigmillar in Edinburgh which are
characterized by chaotic jumble of squalid buildings where houses are closely
and badly built, inconvenient, and unsightly insanitary, and are also usually
crammed with eriormous numbers ofhu~an beings.
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Urban Design 463
Concern for visual qualities is a basic principle' of urban design which
applies to every settlement - rural and urban. The urban designer thus strives
to come up with good visual designs - designswhich are not only able to rid
the built environment of squalor, dreariness, dullness, drabness, ugliness
and chaos but equally create 'a -ba1-'!Flcedh,armonious, orderly, perfect,
coherent and visually unified environment.
In order to achieve a good visual organisation and coherent pattern of city
elements, the principles of legibility, nearness (proximity), similarity
(analogy), continuity, dominance and harmony should be given adequate
consideration.
(i) The principle of proximity or nearness (of parts, e.g. cluster of
buildings or trees, etc.) states that elements of a pattern.which are
nearer to each other tend to be organised into a form, especially
when the elements are identical.
/--,o DO
D / [JO "\I DO " Village CoreI\
D \
0 0 O.l
'-- . /--'" /
Figure 4'A Village and its Buildings
(ii) Elements which are similar in kind (e.g. building materials, repetitive
pattern of, for example, windows, design symbols, shop arcades)
\end to cohere in visual organisation and may take differ~nt forms
based on different factors.
~m!
eCiJ ~600W~
(a) Size/Mass (b) Location (c) Shape/Form (d) Direction.
Figure 5
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464 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
(iii) A continuous line tends to hold objects of different forms, shapes,
sizes, heights andjointings together and helps to define pattern and
increase textural effect. Examples are continuous belt of edge, long
building line or setback (Fig. 6a - b)
Plot boundary
r - - -,- - - r --r - - -, - - -,- - - I - - -, ~H--- Back garden
: ~(]: Dc§J: ~(]: D& : G(]: D~ : c?J(]: D Building
I I I I -'--' . 'Front garden
It. 0 •• D
~ 0 0 0> ~ " e ~ 0., __ •• ., 0>_ ., 0 c •..•_ •• _
(a)
- -
(b}
'. Figure 6
Form
Form generally refers to shape or visible appearance of a thing or even the
way in which parts of an object are arranged. Buildings and other structuring
elements of a town are perceived as forms and these forms are human creation.
A town may assume various forms ranging from random, segregated,
compact, dispersed, grid-like, linear and concentric. .
Form is a three dimensional object' consisting of Iines and planes. Form
may be explained in geometric terms. "Most buildings and civil engineering
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Urban Design 465
works have the appearance of geometrical solids or combination of such
solids, e.g. rectangular blocks, cubes, pyramids, cones, cylinders, spheres,
hemispheres, etc." (Reekie, 1972: 37).
The forms of most of the structuring elements of the built environment,
especially buildings, are determined by function (e.g. water towers, Alencon,
France; water towers (uncompleted), The Polytechnic, Ibadan and
construction method. Their forms are composed mostly of rectangular blocks
arranged horizontally and vertically. Broken House, Cocoa House, Trans-
International Bank in Ibadan; the 1,004 Flats and Oduduwa House in Lagos;
Concorde Hotel in Owerri; Town Library, Stevenage; Illinois Institute of
Technology Campus, and 860/880 Lake Shore Drive in Chicago are very
fine examples of rectangular form. The horizontal and vertical directions
are considered as the most desirable.
Buildings and structures could also be in circular forms emphasized also
by vertical lines as well as graded shades. Examples are Nuclear Power
Station at Oldbury-on-Severn; water reseryoir, Agodi Gate, Ibadan; Sewage
Treatment Plant, The Polytechnic, Ibadan and the Circular Chimney of the
Coal-fired Power Station at Ironbridge.
Most Islamic buildings, espe9ially the Mosques, are spherical or domed
in form, especially the roof part.Examples are the Jumma Musjid at Queen .
Street, Durbari; Central Mosque, Lagos; University of Ibadan Central
Mosque; the Sacre-Coeur. building in Paris; and the Geodesic Dome,
Montreal. Some other structures can assume the form of a pyramid, for
example, the La Grande Motte (holiday apartments by Marina) in France.
It needs to be mentioned that "The appearance ofform is determined by
the relationship of the size of the form to three coordinates of space and the
character ofthe form surface (rectilinear, curvilinear, broken 'or
discontinuous)': (Juchnowicz 1976:1). From this, three types of form emerge:
voluminous, flat and linear forms.
'.'\'
'Voluminous form IS characterized by the equality of the form
measurements related to three co-ordinates ofthespace"(Juchnowicz 1976:2).
The cube and the sphere are good ~amples.
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466 Readings in-Urban and Regional Planning
Figure 7. Voluminous Form
"Flat form is characterized by the equality of measurement of its extents
along two' coordinates of space and relatively short length along the third
one"(Juchnowicz 1976:3).
1-/----,/
~ v
Figure 8. Flat Form
"Linear form is characterized-by a dominant length along one coordinate
of space as compared to the-other two'{Juchnowicz 1976:3).
Figure 9. Linear Fo.rm
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o Urban Design 467@
(a) Cube (b) Pyramid (c) Circular
(d) Cylinder (e) Sphere (f) Rectangle (g) Cone
. Figure 10. Examples of Geometric Form
Mass
Mass may be explained as a quantity or matter without regular shape. Mass
can be considered in five different ways:
(i) It can be considered in relation to form. The size of mass is a function of
the size ofform; the bigger the form, the bigger the mass (fig: I I(a) -(b).
(ii) It can also be considered in relation to its distribution along the three
coordinates of space". In other words, it is related to the degree of
volumenousness and linearness. The closer mass is to voluminous form,
the bigger it is and the closer mass is to linear form the smaller its
quantity. (figure llc).
Figure ll(a) 1111
'. I Iiiiiii
(b)
~
(c) ---
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468 Readings in Urban 'and Regional Planning
,
(iii) The perception of massalso varies in relation to the different degrees
of compactness and number of openings within the bounds of its surface
(figure lid).
mmrnro
(d)
(iv) The perception of mass depends on the volume of the confronted space
as well as other forms confronting it. (figure l le-f).
DIJ II] II]
(e)
m m n [J.D. (] III III III 7mII{ ..
~ ~
(f)
(v) Mass relates to the distance between the observer and the object. The
.,. closer the observer-is to a building; the bigger in'quantity the building
appears am! vice-versa.
Shape
Shape, according to Hornby et. al. (1974:785) define "shape" as "outer
form; the total effect produced by the outlines of something." The components
of buildings are varied in shape so also are the various elements of the town.
Roads may be very straight or curve gently or sharply, a portion may even
be roundabout; open spaces may be small or big, rectangular or square or
crescent-like. Building plots may be rectangular, square, triangular, or even
assume the shape of a trapezium,
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Urban Design 469
"Shapes are derived from efficient functional arrangement and economic
construction" (Reekie 1972:43). Some shapes appear beautiful and inviting
while some may appear very ugly and awkward. Designers are advised to
show more skill when sub-dividing land so as to prevent impractical, unviable
and useless lots resulting from their bad shapes especially the triangular
'cut-offs'.
Shapes have emotional and visual impacts on people. For example, regular
and geometric shapes are very appropriate to urban layouts and buildings;
long rectangles lead the eye along the direction of their length while "squares
and circles attract and hold the eye and are often used as focal points" (Reekie
1972:43).
OD060
(a) Square (b) Rectangle (c) Circle (d) Triangle (e) Hexagon
00
(f) Sphere (g) Trapezium
Figure 12: Basic Shapes
t_. .m16
I. I
(a) Focal Point (b) Direction
Figure 13: Use of Shapes
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470 The Management in Urban and Regional Planning
Scale
Scale is a difficult and much misused term. It denotes relative size and extent
of things and is generally based on the size of the average observer. It is also
the proportion between the size of something and a map or diagram which
represents it. Scale as used here is in comparison with sizes (mass, area,
etc.) in relation to other normally recognised and accepted sizes. A building
or even a street in a layout may be said to be 'in scale' if it is proportional in
height or size (building) or width (street) to the size of the obser:ver. It may
be 'large in scale' if it is far too big or too wide for its purpose or for those
to use it (imagine a 6m x 12m classroom which is 5m high to be used. by kids.
between the ages of3 and 5 years). Most gothic churches and city central
mosques are S9 tall and spacious that people are struck with a feeling of
.insignificance when inside them. The cell in most prisons and police stations
in Nigeria are very 'small in scale' - narrow and poorly equipped for the
number and size of their inmates.
It should be mentioned here, however, that most public buildings (town
halls, Museums, school halls, churches, central mosques among others) are
often larger in scale than normal for visual expression of their character. In
urban design, the laying out of open spaces and buildings is done with due
regard to human limitations, expectations and potentialities and in relation
to other structures in the built environment so as to .achieve good 'visual
quality. The rule is that public spaces in urban areas must relate to the scale
of the human being such that their sizesare neither too large. nor toe small
relative to the size ofa human being. The architecture of London Square is
humanistic. The buildings are not excessively tall in relation to the open
space they surround. The scale of traditional residential compounds in Yoruba
towns is much more appropriate and comfortable.
'.
(a) Out of scare (b) In scale
Figure 14
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Urban Design 471
The compound houses are built around the family and are almost exactly
scaled to the human figure .and a human's basic needs.
Proportion
Proportion is an important factor in urban design. It is the ratio of height to
width and length, that is, sizes of mass and area. Proportion can be studied
in drawings or models - two dimensions or three. A regular plot ofland may
have sides in the proportion of I :2; the length being two times the width (fig.
15b). A rectangular building may be in the proportions 3 :2: 1;that is, length
to breadth to height (fig. 15c).
Figure 15 (a) 1:1 - Height to Width (b) 1:2 - Width to Lengin
!c) 3:2: 1 - Length to Width to Height
o 0
r::l
o
.0
o
(d) .Buildings of Unrelated Proportion
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472 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
Texture
Texture refers to surfaces and the way they are perceived. Texture has great
signi ficance in visual design. This term explains better the character of surface
structure of the fonn. Texture modifies colour and may be perceived by
touch or by sight. Texture occurs whenever the size and shape of an object
or parts of it as they form a continuous surface cannot be easily ascertained.
"All materials used on a project - designs or structures have texture which
may either be rough (e.g. rough surfaced granite) or smooth (e.g. polished
marble)." (Rubenstein 1968:71).
The texture of a surface is a function of the nature of the material (rock
face, animal skin, bark of a tree), mode of manufacture (as in the cases of
brick, concrete, wrought metals, woods, plastics), plastering and painting
(Reekie, 1972: 23). See Figure 17.
Distance affects texture. as the perception of texture depends on the
distance of the observer from the surface. A mud wall which appears
rough at a very close range, may look smooth and plain when seen from a
far distance. In Figure 16, when the observer 'is at point B 1 the field ·of
vision is limited and he or she can read a few number of the elements
of the mud wall as independent forms. The farther the observer
moves, however, the greater the number of elemerits of the texture
appearing in his or her field of vision but the smaller the sizeof the
elements. The wall is becoming smooth in appearance.
- W1
~. -.------
W:z.
%
.~
- (:::.:;r.
,t~ ~
mud wall++ '.J~-1I);1. ~-;,f63~~81 ,. --J-- - I- ./,' ~ I --.~--....••.•.•."'- ~ ,..-'- ---"" .•.-•....'" - ,-t.'-'"
Hz W;z ~13
Figure /6
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Urban I)e~ig,f 473
The pattern of place activity can be expressed in textural pattern and
such differentiations playa role in guiding the activity. For example, roads
can be distinguished from footpaths, dancing area, car stalls, boxing/wrestling
area, lawn tennis court, open market area, etc. What this means is that texture
can be considered in the scale of the city, though this texture will depend on
the way of organization of activity patterns. The texture of an African city
(rough, dusty) is pretty different from that of a European city (smooth, soft,
polished). •
",. \
!"'lor: ~
~
"""'"
•.......••.....•
.Figure 17
Symmetry
Symmetry is the "repetition of parts 'of a design about an axis" (Reekie,
1972:140). Symmetry generally indicates a systera of order created or imposed
by human. Hornby et. al. (1974:876) define symmetry as "Quality of harmony
or balance - in size, design, shape, pattern or arrangement, etc. between
parts." In symmetry, equal and like elements are balanced ori either side of
an axis (Rubenstein 1968:69). An.axis may be a court, a mall, a path, a
drive, a city street or any other connecting element.
"The elements of a symmetrical plan are the same and in equilibrium
about a central point or on either side of an axis"(Simonds 1961: 131-2).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Urban Design 475
Asymmetry
"Asymmetry is the balance of unequal and unlike elements on opposite sides
of an axis". (Rubenstein 1968:69) Balance is very important in urban and
building design and any design devoid of this balance can be ugly, dull and
disturbing. "Balance may also consist in a disposition of objects not similar
nor similarly placed, but still so chosen and arranged that the sum or the
attractions on one side of the vertical axis is equalled by the sum of the
attractions on the other side. This kind of balance i~called unsymmetrical of
occult balance" (Hubbard, 1917 quoted in Simonds 1961: 139),
"In occult balance, an optical axis or centre of gravity is implied and
opposing elements may be symmetrical or asymmetrical" (Rubenstein, lQ68:
69). It is by occult or asymmetrical balance zhat human composes and
comprehends the world about him or her. Asymmetry has been widely used
in the design of large-scale civil centres, city parks and squares all over
Europe and especially in Rome and even China (e.g. the ancient Yan Ming
Yuan or "Garden of Perfect Brightness" to the West of Peking). The layouts
of the palaces of most Yoruba Obas (Alaafin ofOyo and Ooni of Ife) and
many residences of Cameroon chiefs and other family dwellings are'
asymmetrical. They developed organically.
Rhythm
Rhythm appears when the"elements of the form are repeated or "if a sequence
of repetitive elements is interrupted at regular intervals"(Eubestein 1968:69).
Rhythm in urban design may be taken to mean the repetition of elements in
the design of buildings and other elements in the built environment - shape
and size of plots, and length, width and alignment or roads in a land
10 subdivision; columns, pediments, windows, panel trhtment of walls,
balconies, etc. may be employed to achieve repetition in a building which
may be interrupted to create rhythm. Repetition itselfis a kind of sequence
in which one element or object (colour, texture, shape, form etc.) is reiterated.
Repetition leads to monotomy but rhythm gives variety to total repetition.
Sometimes however, rhythm m~y also turn into monot0n:ty when, for
example one type of opening is repeated endlessly on the outside of a building
(especially offices, school buildings and barracks, e.g. custom and excise
barracks in Ijokodo area ofIbadan) or when concrete squares are so repeated
along a walkway 'as to overshadow the brick bands between them.
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References
Barnett, Jonathan; Urban Design as Public Policy. New York: Architectural
Record; p. 186. .
Beckley, R.M. (1979): "Urban Design" In A.J. Catanese and J.e. Snyder,
An Introduction to Urban Planning (pp. 62-103).
Bentley, Ian; Ibid, p. 39.
Bentley, Ian; "What is Urban Design? Towards a Definition, Urban Design
Forum 1, (February 1978), pp. 35 - 40.
Bentley, Ian; Ibid, p. 36.
Barnett, Jonathan; An Introduction to Urban Design. New York: Harper &
Row, (1982).
Catanese, Anthony James; The Seven Golden Rules: Politics in Planning and
Urban Design", Urban Design Review 7 (1); (1984), pp. 11 - 12.
Dovell, Peter; "M. A. (Urb. Des.) (Manchester) Urban design course review",
Urban Design Quarterly (November 1982), pp. 8 - 11.
Dovell, Peter; Ibid, p. 8.
Doxiadis, c. A.; Ekistics - the Science of Human Settlements, Athens:
Galloway, Mike; "Not Just Failed Architects", Urban Design Quarterly
(November 1982), pp. 2 - 4.
Galloway, Mike (1986) "Editonal", Urban Design Quarterly. No. 21, Autum,
p.2
Gibberd, Frederick; Town Design. London: The Architectural Press, 1970,
p.l0.
Gibberd, Frederick; Ibid, p. 10.
Gosling, D. mid B. Maitland (1984): Concepts of Urban Design. London:
Academy Editions.
Goodey, Brian (1979): "Towards a Debate on Urban Design." Five Papers
on Urban Design. Oxford: Joint Centre for Urban Design.
Goodey, Brian (1981): Urban Design and Planning Practice: Responsibility
.• for Place. Research note 6, Oxford: Joint Centre forUrban Design.
Hornby, A.S. and A.P. Cowie (eds.) Oxford advanced Learner sDictionary
of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1974), p.
785.
Hornby, A. S. et ai, Ibid, p. 876.
Houghton-Evans, W.; Architecture and Urban Design, Lancaster: The
Construction Press (1978), p. 138.
Hubbard, H. V. and Kimball, T.; An.Introduction to the Study of Landscape
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l39.
Ibid, p. 69.
Ibid, p. 204.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Urban Design 477
Ibid, p. 2.
Ibid, p. 3.
Ibid, p. 3
Ibid, p. 43.
Ibid, p. 140.
Ibid, p. 69.
Juchnowicz, S.; "Urban design, Relation to Urbanization", Course Paper
No.1, The Polytechnic, Ibadan: Town Planning and Estate
Management Department (March 1976), p. 9.
Juchnowicz, S.; "ThelBasic Features of the Urban and Architectural Forms
and their Relation to Space", Course paper No.5, The Polytechnic,
Ibadan: Town Planning and Estate Management Department (Match
1976), p. 1.
Lichfield, Dalia K.; "Changing Approaches to renewal", Urban Design
Quarterly, No. 12 (February 1984), pp. 18 - 19.
Nuttgens, Patrick (1974) "Too Much Red on the Balance Sheet", RlBA
Journal (June 1974), pp.
Nuttgens, 'Patrick; Ibid.
Marsh, M.W. (1983): Landscape Planning: Environmental Implications. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
McCluskey, J. (1984): "Mending the City: Keynote Talk" Urban Design
Quarterly. No. 14 & 15, August, p. 7
Medhurst, Frank; "Urban Design in Perspective", Urban Design Quarterly,
No. 16·(December 1984/January 1985), p. 4.
Phillips, E. and Fortlage, C.; "Notes on Ecosystem Planning", Edinburgh:
Heriot-Watt University, Faculty of Environmental Studies (1978).
Rapoport, Amos (1977): Human Aspects of UrbanForm. Oxford: Pergamon
Press. .
'. Reekie, Frazer; Design in the Built Environment, London: Edward Arnold
(1972), pp. 4 - 5.
Reekie, Fraser; Ibid, p. 37.
Reekie, Fraser; ibid, p. 9.
Reekie, Fraser; Ibid, p. 43.
'Rubenstein, M. J.; A Guide to Site and Environmental Planning. New York:
John Wiley & Sons (196'0), p. 71.
Reekie, Fraser; Ibid, p. 23.
Rubenstein, M. H.; Ibid, p. 69.
i Rubenstein, M. H.; Ibid, p. 69.
.I Ru.benstein, M. J.; Ibid, p. •69.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
478 Readings in Urban and Regional Planning
Samuels, Ivor; "Towards Urban Design Manifesto", leaflet Prepared for the
Urban Design Group (April 1986), pp. I - (
Samuels, Ivor, Ibid, p. 3.
Samuels, Ivor, Ibid, pp. 2 - 3.
Shirvani, Hamid (1982): "Urban Design: a Review of American Practice:"
Ekistics No. 297, NovemberlDecember, ijp. 428-432.
Shirvani, Hamid (1985): The Urban Design Process. New York: Van'
Nostrand Reinhold.
Spreiregen, Paul. D.; Urban Design: the Architecture of Towns and Cities.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book, p. 69.
Spreiregen, Paul D~; Ibid, p. 69.
Simonds, John Ormsbee; Landscape Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book 'Company, Inc. (1961). pp. 131-2.
Stretton, Hugh; UrbanPlanning inRich and Poor Countries. Oxford: Oxford
University Press (1978), p. 203.
Urban Design Group, "Nuffield Inquiry", Urban Design Quarterly, No. 12
(February 1984), pp. 6 - 7.
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