UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Teaching and Learning
Secondary School
Geography in Nigeria
Supported by University of Ibadan 2006 Senate
Research Grant
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Teaching and Learning
Secondary School Geography
in Nigeria
Eugenia A. Okwilagwe
2011
Supported by University of Ibadan 2006 Senate
Research Grant
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Stirling-Harden Publishers Ltd.
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Second Gate, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
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Box 20984 Jattu-Uzairue
Ibadan Edo State, Nigeria
Oyo State, Nigeria
© Eugenia Aikhemhe Okwilagwe
Published 2011
ISBN 978 - 032 - 422 - 4
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Dedication
From
Dr Eugenia Aikhemhe Okwilagwe
To
Dr Oshiotse Andrew Okwilagwe, my Dear Husband;
Dr Osikhuemhe Osomiamhe; Dr Osiro Precious; and Miss
Osise Osioriamhe Okwilagwe my lovely angels
And
Those who thirst and hunger for knowledge offered so
pure and unrestricted.
oJ
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Acknowledgements
My appreciation goes first to the Almighty God for life and
the intellectual capacity to carry out the research and for
putting people at various points for the work to see the light
of day.
I specially acknowledge and appreciate Professor P.N.
Okpala who showed interest in this work right from its
inception to the end and the University of Ibadan through
Senate revolving grants for finding my proposal worthy of
funding in the 2006 grant year.
Next in line are my colleagues and postgraduate students
who participated in the data collection at one point or the
other in persons ofDrs Henry Owolabi, UdohAkpan, M.N.
Odinko, B.A. Adegoke, Gilbert Obajemu, Rev. Allwell
Ibeagha, Messers O.A. Ojo, lA. Oyedepo and Pastor D.O,
Ashamu and others too numerous to mention who assisted
with data collation and coding. The next group are the
analysts Dr J.G Adewale and Mr lA. Oyedepo; and Mrs
Grace Amao of the Stirling Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd
for typesetting and providing the professional touch to the
book, I say thank you. The efforts of Dr F.V. Falaye (My
academic collaborator) for peer reviewing the work is highly
appreciated.
Lastly, to my three lovely angels; Drs Osikhuemhe
Osomiamhe, Osiro Precious and Miss Osise Osoriamhe
Okwilagwe for assisting to sort out knotty internet searches
often far into the midnight at very short notices, I love you
all. Also, I thank the CEO and management of Stirling- Horden
Publishers (Nig.) Ltd for incuring a larger percentage of the
cost of publishing this book and the schools, teachers and
I
I students of the schools used in the study for their consent.to participate and making the study a reality.
__1
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r,
:i
i
I
Foreword I
I
The bedrock of a nation's economy is founded on sound and I
qualitative education. The recurring poor performance of students
inpublic examinations invirtually all subjects including Geography
is a national concern that should be addressed immediately. In
this book, Eugenia attempts addressing the situation in one of the
core secondary school subjects, GEOGRAPHY.
The book focuses on the teaching and leaming of Geography
at the secondary school level in Nigeria with the aim of
understanding some of the factors for the poor performance of
students in the subject. In addition, it identifies the skills and
teaching methods require by Geography teachers to impart the
knowledge required for the overall development of the students
and more importantly to perform optimally during examinations.
The book is unique because it is based on the empirical
analysis of the methods and patterns of classroom interactions
during Geography lessons in selected secondary schools from
the six Geopolitical zones ofNigeria. To traverse the entire country
and conducts this type of interactive study requires a huge capital
outlay that was graciously provided by the Senate Research Grants
of the University ofIbadan, a gesture that is worth emulating by
other tertiary institutions not only ill Nigeria but all over the
continent. Thus, one of the major outcomes of the study is an
empirically-based identification of the ingredients for effective
transfer of knowledge from Geography teachers to the students
to increase the success rate in Geography examinations.
No doubt, the 19 chapter book, divided into five sections
to ensure a quick grasp of the concept and content of the
subject matter, is a must for all Geography teachers at secondary
school level, researchers and the general public.
Adeniyi Gbadegesin
Professor of Geography,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
Nigeria.
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Preface
Teaching is a growing and dynamic profession established
for the training and development of the minds and character
of the members of a society. The role of the trained teacher
in this onerous but interesting task cannot be quantified.
Traditionally, the teacher was the custodian of the shared
values of the community he/she served and these values
were passed on to the young ones. The teacher still performs
this role today besides being the interpreter and implementer
of the planned curriculum to develop the cognitive domain
of the learners. To achieve this responsibility, the teacher
has to exhibit some enabling qualities acquired through
training. Such qualities/skills are used to assist students to
mitigate the impinging environmental challenges they
encounter in the course of their schooling. They, also, assist
students to achieve the. expected academic excellence that
should enable them to transit and forge ahead in their
academic journey. Otherwise, stagnation with its unpleasant
consequences is inevitable.
The kernel of this book Teaching and Learning
Secondary School Geography in Nigeria was
conceptualised, designed and conducted to provide insight
into the quality of teaching and learning of secondary school
geography in Nigeria senior secondary schools. Teaching
(instruction), which is the core business in these educational
institutions, provided the raw data for making the judgement
on the quality of the two key issues of education - teaching
and learning at this level. In addition, teachers' understanding
of geography objectives, location, type of school and class
sizewere the discriminating variables used to explain teaching
and learning at this level.
The book is broken into sections and chapters. The
style ofwriting adopted in the book presents each chapter
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
in simple and easy to read English. Where necessary, relevant
graphical illustrations ofinfonnation were employed for easy
understanding of information presented. It is hoped that the
book will form an interesting and informative reading to
users because it is a,core addition to knowledge in the area.
Dr Eugenia A. Okwilagwe
Institute of Education,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
June, 2011
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Table of Contents
Dedication v
Acknowledgements .Vi
Foreword ..VIl
Preface ...Xlll
Table of Contents x
List of Tables ...Xlll
List of Figures .XVI
Section One: Introduction: Teaching and
Learning Geography in Nigeria 1
1. Secondary School Geographic 3
Education and Students' Performance
2. Classroom Interaction Practices 7
3. Indicators of Classroom Interaction 11
Patterns and some Influencing Variabales
4. Methods and Approaches for Teaching 21
Secondary School Geography
Section Two: Methodological Perspectives 39
5. Methods and Materials 41
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Xl
Section Three: Empirical Evidence of Pattern of
Classroom Interaction in school
Geography in Nigeria 45
6. Geography Teachers Characteristics 47
7. Teacher's Understanding of Geographic 55
Objectives
8. Senior Secondary School Three 59
Geography Teachers Teaching Behaviours
9. Senior Secondary School Two 71
Geography Teaching Behaviours
10. Senior SecondatySchoolThree(SS3)Teachers' 81
InteractionPattemT:imeExtent
11. Senior SecondaryClassTwo (SS2)Teachers' 89
InteractionPattem:TnneExtent
Section Four: Quality Assurance in Teaching and 97
Learning Geography in Nigeria
12. Episodic Analysis of Senior Secondary
School Three Geography Teachers 99
by States
13. Episodic Analysis of Senior Secondary
School Two Geography Teachers 115
by States
Section Five: Issues, Discussion and Summary 119
14. Teachers' Understanding of Geography 121
Objectives inNigeria
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xu"
15. General Trend in Interaction Pattern of the 123
Teachers in Secondary Class Two and Three
inNigeria
16. Extent of Time Expended in the Teaching 127
Behaviours of the Teachers
17. Relational Report on Discriminating Variables 129
18. Quality Assurance of Geography Teachers 135
Teaching Behaviours
19. Summary, Implications of Findings, 139
Conclusion and Recommendations
References 145
Appendices 153
Index 157
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List of Tables
Table 1: Geography Teachers Characteristics 47
Table 2: Teachers Understanding of Geography 55
Objectives
Table 3: Observed General Trend of Teaching 60
Behaviours of SS 3 Geography Teachers
onTMI
Table 4: T-test Analysis of Teaching 65
Behaviours of Geography Teachers by
School Type
Table 5: T - test Analysis of Teaching 66
. Behaviours of Geography Teacher by
Class Size (Science)
<Table 6: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 67
Geography Teachers by Class Size in
Commercial Classes
Table 7: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 68
Geography Teachers by Class Size in Art
Classes
Table 8: T-Test Analysis of Teaching 68
Behaviours of Geography Teachers
by Location
Table 9: Analysis of Geography Teachers 69
Classroom Behaviours by their
Level of Understanding of Geography
Objectives
Table 10: Observed General Trend of Teaching 71
Behaviours of SS 2 Geography Teachers
Table 11: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 76
Geography Teachers by School Type
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XIV
Table 12: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 76
Geography Teachers by Location
Table 13: T-Test Analysis of Teaching 77
Behaviours of Geography Teachers by
Class Size in Science Class
Table 14: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 78
Geography Teachers by Class Size in
Commercial Classes
Table 15: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of 78
Geography Teachers by Class Size in
Arts Classes
Table 16: Analysis of TeachingBehaviours 79
of Geography Teachers by their Level of
Understanding of Geography Objectives
Table 17: Observed GeneralTrend of Interaction 81
Patterns of SS3 Geography Teachers by
Time Extent
Table 18: Analysis of Interaction Pattern ofSS3 83
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Location
Table 19: Analysis of InteractionPattern of SS3 84
Geography Teachers(TimeExtent) by
School Type
Table 20: Analysis of Interaction Pattern ofSS3 85
Geography Teacher (Time Extent) by
Class Size Science Classes
Table 21: Analysis of Interaction Pattern ofSS3 ·86
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by Class
Size in Commercial Classes
Table 22: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3 87
Geography Teachers (TimeExtent) by
Class Size in Arts Classes
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xv
Table23: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3 88
Geography Teachers (Time Extent)
by Level of Understanding of Geography
Objectives
Table 24:0bserved General Trend of Interaction 89
Pattern of SS2 Geography Teachers in
terms of Time Extent
Table 25: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS 2 91
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Location
Table 26: Analysis of Interaction Pattern ofSS 2 92
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
School Type (Private or Public)
Table 27: Analysis of Teaching Behaviour ofSS 2 ·93
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Class Size (Science)
Table 28: T-TestAnalysis of Interaction Pattern 94
of SS 2 Geography Teachers
(Time Extent) by Class Size (Commercial)
Table 29: T-Test Analysis of Interaction Pattern 95
of SS 2 Geography Teachers
(Time Extent) by Class Size (Arts)
Table 30: T-Test Analysis of Interaction Pattern 96
of SS2 Geography Teachers by Level of
Teacher Understanding of Geography
.' Objectives
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List of Figures
Figure lea): Senior Secondary School 3 Geography 48
Students Characteristics.
Figure l(b): Senior Secondary School 3 Geography 49
Students Characteristics.
-Figure l(c): Senior Secondary School 2 Geography 50
Students Characteristics.
Figure 1(d): Senior Secondary School 2 Geography 51
Students Characteristics.
Figure 2(a): SS Three Teachers Understanding of 57
Geography Objectives.
Figure 2(b) SS Two Teachers Understanding of 57
Geography Objectives.
Figure 3(a): Observed General Trend of Teaching 62
Behaviour of SS3 Geography Teachers
on TMI.
Figure 3(b): Observed Teaching Behaviour 62
of SS3 Geography Teachers on TMI:
'Who to Whom', 'Instruction' and
'Questions'. '
Figure (c): Observed Teaching Behaviour of SS3 64
Geography Teachers on TMI:
'Response', 'Feedback'and'Management'.
Figure IO(a):Observed General Trend of Teaching 73
Behaviour of SS 2 Geography Teachers
on TMI.
Figure 1O(b):Observed Teaching Behaviour 74
of SS 2 Geography Teachers on TMI:
'Who to Whom', 'Instruction' and
'Questions' .
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XVll
Figure 10 (C): Observed Teaching Behaviour 75
of SS2 Geography Teachers
on TMI: 'Response', 'Feedback'
and 'Management'.
Figure 17(a): Observed General Trend of 82
Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers on CIS.
Figure 17(b): Time Spent by SS3 Teachers 83
on Class Interaction.
Figure 24(a): Observed General Trend of 90
Interaction Pattern of SS2
Geography Teachers on CIS.
Figure 24(b): Time Spent by SS2 Teachers 90
on Class Interaction.
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Section One
Introduction:Teaching and Learning
Secondary School Geography in
Nigeria
[.
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Secondary School Geographic
Education and Students' Performance
Students' Performance in Geography
A sound education system is the bedrock of a nation's
economy. Students' poor performance in various secondary
schools' subjects in Nigeria has been a major source of
concern to stakeholders in education. Research is replete
with such findings. Among these areAjewole (1993), Labo-
Popoola(2002),Adeniyi (2003),Ojo (2006)andAkpan (2008).
Also, the West African Examinations, Council's Chief
Examiners' reports have over the last three decades expressed
concern over the-poor performance of students in many
Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations subjects,
geography inclusive (WAEC's Chief Examiners' Report,
1983; 1997,2000, 2005 & 2007). The comments made by
these Chief Examiners are so unimpressive, as they revealed
that a large number of geography students in some centres
do not attempt some questions and/or do poorly on some
aspects of geography such as the reading and interpretation
of maps and the use of scale. They also, perform poorly on
some aspects of physical and regional geography that require
interpretation and calculation, an indication of their lack of
knowledge of these and other aspects of the subject. The
poor performance of students in school geography has been
attributed to a number of factors prominent among which is
the teacher factor (Okunrotifa, 1971; Anikweze, 2000;
Okwilagwe, 2002).
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4
Geography, Its Objectives and the Teacher
Geography has.become the science of planning worldwide.
The need to make the teaching of geography stimulating as a
social science subject by concentrating on making it theoretical
and conceptual (Ajaegbu, 1971), and the use of problem-
solving methods (Okunrotifa (1969) has been the interest of
geographers since the early 1970's. The main aim of
geography education as a social science subject is to make
the recipient develop practical skills and knowledge and be
able to engage in objective reasoning and seasonedjudgment
(Ajaegbu, 1971). Making reference to Ward (1968), Ajaegbu
further observed that geographical knowledge is essential as
it establishes in the learner the techniques of managing the
environment for economic and other development, and for
making planning policy decisions particularly with regards to
the study of spatial distributions and space relations (p.27).
Perhaps, the current value of the study of geography is well
orchestrated in its application in -the area of geographic
information System (GIS).
The secondary school geographic education and its
ensuing aims and objectives, like any other subject in the
secondary school curriculum, is derived from the national
educational aims and the philosophy of education of the
country. The intellectual knowledge, values, attitudes and
skills it set out to develop and inculcate are well thought
out. In view of these, the overall secondary school geography
objectives can be grouped into three: first are those that
ensure intellectual development and therefore Ineasure
learning at the cognitive domain; two, those that ensure the
development of values, attitudes, appreciation and thus
measure the affective domain, that is emotions, feelings and
behaviours; and third, those that develop psycho-productive
skills. Here, there is the interplay of the intellectual
(knowledge) -and the physical (psychomotor) expressed
through geographic investigation, making of maps, and
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5
undertaking the study of map work and its interpretation
among others.
The geography teacher should have a clear and deep
understanding of these goals, aims and objectives, so as to
guide the structure and development of content area. The
role of the teacher is to ensure that these goals, aims and
objectives are achieved. As identified by Okwilagwe (2002),
geography teachers are to explore and use current strategies
and techniques of teaching that will help in the discharge of
their duties and effectively impart the requisite knowledge,
skills and values to students. Also, they are to plan instruction
to cover these objectives based on the content to be taught.
According to Okunrotifa (1977), the way a teacher sees his
instructional objectives, determines to a large extent the
teaching methods to apply.
Similarly, Okunrotifa(1971) observed that developing a
wholistic geographic education ensures the production of
creative geography that can lead to the development of a
geographical attitude. He contends that a wholistic geography
education invariably ensures that (i), an enduring attitude is
developed that can help students seek and find, (ii) an
enthusiasVc attitude which serves them as a powerful incentive
and (iii) a scientific attitude which enables them to seek facts
and to reason about them when the facts have been found.
To corroborate Okunrotifa's views, Emeke and
Odetoyinbo (2004), reported from the outcome of their
study that the teaching strategies (lecture method) employed.
by integrated science teachers would not ensure proper
implementation of Integrated Science curriculum and the
achievement of the objectives of the subject at the junior
secondary school level in Nigeria. It is important that
geography teachers are guided in their teaching by objectives
of the subject they teach.
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6
Teaching Geography
The search for the good teacher dates back in time to the
early sixties and seventies. That the 'poor teacher' is
acclaimed by both parents and school administrators to be
seriously deficient of teaching techniques while the 'good
teacher' is known for the proper choice of teaching methods,
has been documented by research (Tolor, cited in Okwilagwe,
2002). The teachers and students are the principal actors in
the teaching-learning process. Each come into the learning
situation with some responsibilities. The processes of
classroom interaction are not as mechanistic as some may
think. Rather, they areplanned and organisedbehaviours which
the teacher or instructor tries to exhibit as he/she passes on
the subject matter content to the learner. The learners on their
part are no longer to be seen as passive recepients but as
active participants in their learning experiences. For teaching
to be effective, cognitive psychologists are of the view that it
shouldbe interactive, a dialectic or dialogic process between
the teacher and the learner.This implies that the teacher ensures
the use of some interactive methods and exhibits
communicative behaviour between him/herself and the
students in the classroom.
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o Classroom Interaction Practices
Interaction as different from claSSrOOlTinIteraction is defined
by Robinson (1994, p.7) cited by Wilson (1999) as the
process which refers to 'face-to-face' action and can either
be verbally channeled through written or spoken words or
non-verbally channeled through touch, proximity, eye-
contact, facial expressions, gesturing etc. However,
claSSrOOlTiInteraction that which can be captured through
systematic observations using category analysis system,
plays down on many of the specific activities listed by
Robinson, but emphasises verbal communications only.
According to Flanders (1970), classroom interaction is
used to refer to a chain of events which occur in spontaneous
interactions, one after the other, each occupying a small
segment of time.
In a typical classroom interaction setting, therefore, the
teacher's style of communication is expected to be a two
way process; teacher- learnerts), learner(s)- teacher. Also,
there is room for both teacher/learner interaction with
materials. The social environment or atmosphere that exists
in the classroom can enhance or reduce important behaviours
that can lead to improved academic achievement. In view
of this, claSSrOOlTinI teractions are supposed to be dialectic
or dialogic between the teacher and students, students and
materials, and teacher and learning materials. Where these
are lacking, learning tends to be drab, monotonous and
uninteresting. The teacher's style of communication in the
classroom goes a long way to make learning meaningful
and effective. Activities like instruction (explanation),
questioning, responses, feedback including initiated student
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8
talk and class management are expected to go on
systematically. Also, important is the need to make the class
interactive and participatory. Learners are to be vigorously
engaged in hands on activities in the classroom where the
individualleamer is seen to be important by allowing him/
her engage in relevant activities that can arouse interest and
promote learning. This is a current paradigm shift from the
usual whole class activity to individual student participation.
A major component of classroom interaction analysis
is the teacher's evaluation of learning achievement. This can
be done progressively as the lesson progresses or
summatively at the end of the lession through the
employment of various levels of questions such as recall,
application and other higher levels of questions.
The traditional structure of classroom instruction and
the laid down communication pattern in a normal classroom
set the scene that puts the teacher at the central position.
The initiation of classroom ihteraction is thus centred on
the teacher, who wield her authority by setting the process
in motion through asking of questions and engaging in other
activities.Analysing the functions of linguistic communication
in the classroom, Cazden cited in Hickman (2004) notes that
the commonest pattern of interaction sequence in the
classroom is: teacher interaction, student response and teacher
evaluation. He maintained that the teacher is the sole initiator
of interactions in the classroom. The implication of this
phenomenon on the students' responses and initiated talk is
that it sends many wrong signals to learners (Cazden cited in
Hickman, (2004). Other implications are:
i. Teachers have the monopoly of talking at any time
during the course of interaction, while the students must
wait until they are recognised;
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9
ii. That students are not as important as the teachers in the
classroom, since their participation strictly depends on
the pattern established by the teacher; and
lll. The pattern indicates that it is the teacher who
communicates what knowledge is valuable and the
lesson pace, while students are cut-off from raising
issues or personal problems that concern or are related
to difficulty in processing previous information.
To further confirm the importance of teacher
communication style in teacher-student interaction using the
Levy Wubbles (1992) 'Dominance-Submission dimension
of communication style, Hertz-Lazarovitz, Ilatov, Mayer-
Young and Shamai (1998), found that different
communication styles were manifested in the study they
conducted. In one of the classrooms used, the teacher's
style of communication was found to be influenced by the
academically dominant students while in the other class,
the teacher exercised control. This means that in the former
case, the teacher talked more or controlled interaction
whereas in the latter the teacher was more reserved.
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rJlIndicators of Classroom Interaction
LJPattern and Some InfluencingVariables
An important variable in classroom interaction analysis to
look out for, is time-on-task or student involvement. As
explained by Stallings and Kaskowitz (1974), it is the amount
of time students are actively involved in the learning process.
The ideal interaction in a teaching -learning process is that,
if students are to be successful academically, they should
be engaged 'on task' for most, or a greater part of the class
time. It is also expected that an effective teacher should
plan and manage instruction to effectively execute the
proc~sses of learning and involve students in activities
(individually and in groups) for enhanced academic
achievement.
Researchers such as Berliner (1990) observed that the
measure of time used to learn a particular school subj ect
matter has been used to predict learning. According to him,
instructional time has the same importance as reinforcement
in psychology, homaostasis in biology and gravity in physics
because instructional time allows for understanding,
prediction and control. He also asserts that instructional
time is used to refer to a family of concepts which are:
allocated time, engaged time, time-on-task, academic learning
time (ALT), transition time, perseverance and pace. Allocated
time is explained as the time provided for the student
instruction, engaged time is that part of allocated time that
students devot~ to materials and presentations that have
instructional goals, and time-on-task is the engaged time on
particular learning task. Academic learning time (ALT) is the
part of the allocated time for a subject in which students are
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12
successfully engaged in activities or with materials that are
related to educational goals and outcomes that are of worth.
Time on task or time spent on learning activities was
first brought to the fore in education by Carroll in (1963).
This he called Academic Learning Time (ALT) which
consists of three components; summarised by Fisher and
Berliner (1985) cited by Gettinger and Seibert (1995, p.1),
as students must be 'actively, successfully and productively
engaged in learning' for them to be effective academic
achievers. Another important component of classroom
interaction is the amount or degree of students' initiated
talk, since student are supposed to take control of their
own learning situation themselves. In a study of classroom
interaction pattern of high and low achievers in an upper
primary classroom, Wilson (1999) found that when students
attempt to control interaction with the teacher, high achieving
students dominate, but when the teacher initiates interactions
and controls whom he allows to interact, the inequality
between high and low achieving students balances up and
students from both achievement levels are encouraged to
be involved.
Other research findings relating to differences in
students' level of participation in learning are reported by
Howe (1997) who found that in whole class teaching where
the teacher decides who should contribute, boys made more
contributions than girls, and their contributions were usually
lnore elaborate. Also, in small groups where school children
resolve matters among themselves, boys usually have the
upper hand. The study also reported that girls are more
likely to request for help than boys in individual or group
work.
The effects of classroom interaction pattern on students'
achievement or non- achievement have also been reported
by previous studies. Of importance is the study of higher
school drop-outs among native students by Caruthers (2006)
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13
who reported that drop-outs perceived teachers as not caring
about them nor do they provide them with sufficient
assistance when working. He, therefore, concluded that the
nature of teacher-student relationship affect student
performance, including the decision to drop-out of school.
Also, using structural equation modeling to identify teachers
and students classroom interactions adopting a multi-level
model approach aided by the influence of (Dominance/
Submission) dimension and a proximity (Cooperation!
Opposition) dimension model maps, Rickards, Newby and
Fisher (2006) found that the teachers' perception of '
classroom interactions affect the class perceptions, and that
the class' perception also affects the teachers' perception
,but to a lesser degree. Further evidence from previous studies
as observed by Shomoossi (2004) indicates that in an English
classroom where emphasis is on referential and display
questions, repeated questions from the teacher, low language
and proficiency and limiting the class to exercises from the
textbook are factors that reduce students' participation.
According to this study, factors such as teacher's attention
in the response being provided, misunderstanding (that is
wrong ideas of the meaning of a word), information gap
and humour, tend to enhance the amount of interaction.
Many factors besides learning time (time on task) would
seem to have the potential to influence classroom interaction.
Other variables ofinterest in this study therefore, are: class
size, school type, location and understanding of secondary
school geography objectives. These are considered to be
germane to the proper teaching and learning of the subject
at the secondary school level in Nigeria. This view is borne
out of the fact that each of these variables has the potential
for enhanced students' achievement even though, findings
are still inconclusive. For instance, the contention for reduced
class size in schools in many parts of the world as against
large classes is that the teacher with reduced workload can
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14
pay more attention to individual students.Besides learning situation
in classes with small size, less time is spent on classroom
management and there is more interaction between teacher and
students. In the view of Mosteller (1995), reduction in class size
has the potentials for teachers to work with and know individual
students. In a similar vein, National Council of English Teachers
(NCTE) (1999) states that students' achievement increase
significantly in classes of fewer than 20 students and that smaller
classes create better student performance, more positive attitudes
and fewer discipline problems.
However, there are reports and research evidence to show
that in spite of the perceived positive effects of reduced class size
on students' achievement, the gains are minimal. This line of
evidence is linked to the Education Commission of the United
States (2001) which reported that minimal effects of small class
size have been found, although limited to a small group of
Kindergarten learners who were ofblack origin inAmerican States
of Califonia and Wisconsin. The studies concluded that the cost
, of class-size reduction reform far outweigh the benefits and as
such efforts should rather be directed at improving teacher teaching
quality. Reporting from the same background, findings from the
type of studies as those fore cited and reported by Hanushek and
others, may have informed the World Bank (2004) synthesis of
fmdings to conclude that teachers do not change their methods of
teaching and assignments in response to small class size, and that
the small gains experienced are limited to early grades.
Evidence on the effect of small class size reduction are still
in conclusive, because studies reported from other parts of the
world like Asian countries and Japan indicate that students are
achieving better academically in large classes. These findings are
reported by World Bank (2004) citing examples from Asian
schools where there are large classes. Making reference to
Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gramoran andWillms (2001) the same World
Bank document, reports that teachers trade-off large class
size for more preparation time. This study saw the need to
further investigate the effect of the variable of class size on
learning achievement.
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During instruction, teachers engage in a number of
activities to impact knowledge. Among these are the asking
of questions, providing feedback, .prompting the learners
among others. Questioning is an age long mode of clarifying
instructional issues (facts, principles, theory etc), right from
the time of Socrates and has since become a teaching and
evaluation strategy whenever the teacher and the learner are
engaged in the classroom. Brualdi (1998) observed that
teachers have come to realise the possibility-of transferring
relevant knowledge through the process of asking questions.
The reasons as to why teachers ask questions in class
as advanced by Morgan and Saxton (1991) cited by Brualdi
(1998) seem to be in agreement with previous scholars who
have investigated the importance of questions in learning
facilitation. These scholars have come up with the views that
questions, especially those that require giving complex
answers, interpretation, opinion and elaboration are designed
to:
i. get the learner to produce language (VanLier, 1988 cited
by Shomoossi, 2004); c
ii. increase the amount of learner output (Brock, 1986 in
Shomoosssi, 2004);
m, produce discourse which produce a flow of information
from student to the teacher (Shomoossi, 2004); and
iv encourage students to volunteer ideas which connect
relative experiences or express critical viewpoints or
take any risks which might lead to amore comprehensive
understanding of the concepts being taught (Hickman,
2004).
Good pedagogic skills or procedures require that the
teacher spreads questions to all students such that all students
have equal opportunity to participate in the lesson. Ifpoor
achieving students are not carried along, their learning
weakness may get worse, especially if the teacher do not
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recognise their learning difficulties and get them involved in
the lesson. When questions are put into proper use that is, a
teacher randomly distributing his/her questions to many
students, it will not only. help to keep the class interactive,
but make individual students attentive. Closely related to
good questioning skills or procedure in classroom interaction
is that the teacher applies an amount of wait time usually
coded as 'silence' in Ten Minutes Interaction (TMI)
observation instrument to allow the students to think through
the question and be able to provide the correct answer before
the question is either redirected to another student or answered
by the teacher. According to Gettinger and Seibert (1995),
wait time should be of five seconds duration.
The pattern or techniques of questioning and the
responses elicited in the classroom have been extensively
documented by such researchers as Brualdi (1998),
Hickman (2004), Brophy and Good cited by Hickman
(2004) and Shomoossi (2004). The contribution of type
of questions to students' learning as reported by these
studies seem not to be conclusive. For instance, Brophy
and Good cited in Hickman (2004) strongly believe that
there is no difference in the value of different kinds of
questions, be it lower or higher order questions in facilitating
learning, even though they recognised the need to be
conscious with the construction of questions and the
varying of the cognitive activities. -There are other studies.
that do not find any difference in the efficacy of various
types of question in the facilitation of learning. These
include those of Wilen, Arends, cited by Brualdi, (1998);
and Lukinsky and Schachter cited by Hickman (2004).
Some other studies, for instance Ball cited by Brualdi
(1998), however, reported the positive effects of low-
level or factual questions on learning, especially, among
young disadvantaged children where mastery of basic skills
is involved. He also reported that higher order cognitive
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questions promote better learning in students of average
to higher abilities. As observed and reported by Shomoossi
(2004), display questions, the ones that allow learners to
respond with one word or give short answers, do not
encourage language production or discourse especially in
an English Language classroom.
Previous studies such as those of Long and Sato (1983)
cited by Shomoossi (2004), tend to confirm the quality and
quantity of students responses. These authors assert that
learner responses would differ not only quantitatively but
also qualitatively depending on the type of questions asked
by the teacher. In his study, Shomoossi (2004) reported
that referential questions that require the learner to give
complex answers, interpretations, opinion or elaboration;
seek information unknown to the learner and so tend to
elicit longer, more authentic responses than display questions
which have pre-determined responses from the lesson
content or are meant for confirmation or comprehension
checks.
In the views of Shomoossi (2004), such pattern of
questions in spite of the teachers' good intentions of
authenticating students' understanding, more often than not
do not ensure that the student has proper understanding of
the information being imparted. Rather the questions aim at
predetermined responses by the teacher and not that the
student has mastery of the learning. To corroberate the above,
Cadzen cited by Hickman (2004), contends that it is not
that students 'necessarily internalise the knowledge or has
connected the answer to any larger context of meaning'
(p.64). Also, according to 'Hickman (2004) referring to
Lukinsky and Schachter, lower order questions are simple
and they encourage recall or memorisation and do not
encourage any 'real thinking'. This made them to suggest
that teachers who use these should supplement them with
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activities that involve more of comprehension and application
of learnt concepts. Brophy and Good cited by Hickman
(2004) on their part, suggest activities with higher-order
processing skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
In spite of the observed deficiencies of lower-level
questions in students' learning, it would seem that many
teachers tend to use low-level cognitive questions in order
to avoid a slow-paced lesson, keep the attention of the
students and maintain control of the classroom. There is
therefore, the need to further examine the type and extent
of use of various questions by teachers in geography
classrooms in this study.
Characteristics of good and appropriately sequenced
questions according to Brophy and Good cited by Hickman
" (2004, pp 5-6) should 'shift attention away from the
questioning process to learning'. They should also 'be
planned to accomplish worthwhile goals that are integral
parts of well-designed units of instruction and should help
students to think about the topic systematically and should
emerge from the discussion with connected understanding'.
As acclaimed by Brualdi (1998), good questions are known
to foster students' understanding, and citing Rosenshine,
he contends that they promote students' achievement.
Classroom interaction studies that focus on different
locations are hard to come by in interaction literature.
However, enough studies abound on teachers' classroom
task performance that address their effectiveness and
students' learning in urban and rurallocations. Many of these
studies tend to show that students who are taught by the
teachers in urban location do better than those in the rural
areas. These are indicated by such studies asNdukwu (2002),
Odinko (2002) and Walberg and Ross (2002). Other studies
such as Orji (1998) do not find any influence of location on
students achievement. These studies do not agree with those
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of Okwilagwe and Samuel (2011) who found that teaching
effectiveness of Social Studies teachers in rural locations
were better than those in urban locations.
In view of the foregoing and the fact that many of the
researches on the variables of interest in this study are
inconclusive, the study examined the claSSrOOlTinIteraction
patterns of geography teachers in the country with a view to
establishing the status of the teaching and learning processes
of this subject at the senior secondary school level and to
determine the factors that influence these patterns.
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GilMethods and Approaches for Teaching
L.:J Secondary School Geograp_h.y.._.._
Methods are the means or ways that a teacher uses to teach
subj ect matter content to students. The choice of an
appropriate method depends on what to teach (content),
who the learners are (class) and the level of competence
expected (proficiency). There are various methods a teacher
can adopt to facilitate the teaching-learning process. For
effective teaching to take place, an appropriate method must
be employed and the teacher may develop lesson plans or
use lesson plans that have been developed by other teachers
(Wikipedia, 2011). This source explains further that when
deciding on the teaching methods to use, a teacher should
consider the students' background knowledge, environment,
and learning goals.
Geography is a wide discipline that brings together all
the different components of man's activity in its bid to
understand the complexities of the physical environment
(the earth) he lives. This include his social, economic, political
and transportation life. Geography has, therefore, been
defined as the study of spatial variation of how and why
things differ from place to place on the surface of the earth
(Demirci, Kesler and Kaya, 2010; CURIC, 2000 in Brkic-
Vejmelka, 2000; Okunrotifa, 1977 citing Bunge). Its nature
makes it one of the foremost school subject that exposes
learners to direct contact with man's' daily activities in his
natural habitat.
In view of this, no one method is adequate in teaching
and learning all its component parts. Various teaching
rrlethods and approaches have been advanced by
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educationists and researchers in secondary school
geographic education. For instance Okunrotifa (1972),
Okwilagwe (2002), Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010),
Kagoda (2009), Ajibade and Raheem (1999) and Balci (2010)
identified among others the following methods in teaching
geography at the secondary school level:
(a) demonstration method;
(b) discussion method;
(c) activity-based methods (project method, field trip,
inquiry method/problem-solving method, simulation!
games);
(d}' guided discovery method;
(e) programmed instruction;
(t) advance organiser;
(g) concept mapping; and
(h) the use of quantification in the study of geography.
Demonstration Method
Demonstration method involves displaying some objects,
models, equipment etc before the learners. It involves doing
or performing some actions on how an equipment works or
can be used in the presence of others, either as a means of
showing them how to do it themselves or illustrating a
principle. Demonstrations are better carried out by teachers
or students in small groups or individually. To use
demonstration method effectively, students should be used
as actors or demonstrators in some cases. Demonstration
also involves using visible or large materials for students to
see (e.g. the globe, maps, rain gauge etc).
Merits of Demonstration Method
1. If used to introduce a lesson, it has the potential to
motivate and capture students' interest.
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2. It enhances a teacher's presentation ofmaterial especially
in a large class, and thus saves time.
3. Helps to facilitate summary of learnt topics.
Demerits of Demonstration Method
1. It restricts the development of manipulative skills and
the use of all sensory organs in learning.
2. It is limited in scope and so should be used in
conjunction with other methods,
Discussion Method
Discussion method consists of elucidating on an idea, issue
or opinion with a view to making its nature known from
many perspectives. Discussants "think together, and examine
each other's thinking". The teacher acts as a moderator or
facilitator prompting students to think and speak. Both the
teacher and the learners are' expected to contribute to
information building during the learning process. Students
should be motivated to relate the subject of discussion to
real life situation. The teacher is not expected to dominate
the discussion but to involve learners throughout the duration
of the lesson. The method assumes that each learner is
endowed with some intellectual ability and can work as a
group member. This method is a leamer-centered strategy
of teaching. The current trend in pedagogy is a break away
from whole-class discussion to other forms. A popular one
is the small-group discussion method which has been
explained later in this section.
Types of Discussion Method
The teacher is open to using any of these types of discussion
methods but has to plan ahead of class which one he/she
intends to use for it to be effective.
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1. Brainstorming - allowing a group of students to think
about a problem at the same time with a view to having
a better idea of the problem.
2. Small group discussion - a group of 5-8 students
thinking and resolving issues surrounding a problem.
3. Round table discussion - a small group of people sitting
around a table to discuss a social, political or economic
problem.
4. Pan.el. discussion. - a group of experts giving theiropmions on an Issue.
5. Opposing panel- two groups of experts giving opposing
views on an issue of common interest. This is popularly
called a debate.
Merits of Discussion Method
Some of the merits of discussion method are: it develops
positive interpersonal relationship between teacher and
students and between students themselves. Also, it promotes
fluency, develops confidence in the students themselvesand
in the task assigned them,
Demerit of Discussion Method
A common weakness of the method is that it wastes a lot of
time if not well coordinated by the teacher and fewer topics
may be covered during a term or session as a consequence.'
Activity-Based Learning Approaches
Activity-based approaches to learning is a paradigm shift
that has gained much prominence and recognition in the
pedagogical training of teachers in the United States of
America, United Kingdom and some other nations of the
world in the last few decades. Demirci, Kesler and Kaya
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25
(2010) are of the opinion that the initiative was injected into
the education system to replace the traditional 'talk and
chalk' (lecture) method which encouraged rote-learning rather
than active learning .:
Demirci et a! (2010) and MATAS (1990) in Brkic-
Vejmelka (2000) assert that activity-based approaches to
learning and teaching do not only encourage active learning
by students, but increases their thinking abilities, and places
them at the centre of learning while the teacher serves as a
guide. Besides, these approaches to learning do not only
enable students to gain knowledge of the subject area but
general, technical and academic skills. Students are also
prepared for active and effective citizens. Activity-based
approaches incorporate learning and doing and go beyond
in-class to out-of-class activities (Demirci et a!, 2010).
Many methods can be grouped under the activity-
based learning approaches and they include: student-centred
methods, experimental methods, project-based methods,
inquiry-problem-solving methods, field-trip and cooperative
methods. This shift in pedagogical paradigm arose from the
outcomes of empirical researches and scientific
breakthroughs witnessed by cognitive and behavioural
psychologists that brought to limelight theories on
constructivism-which proposes that learners can construct
their own learning rather than become passive recipient of
knowledge waiting to be spoon fed by their teachers.
In the study conducted by Demirci et a! (2010), they
found that activity-based methods have gained much ground
in Turkey where the study was conducted, and teachers
have even incorporated new technologies such as the Google
Earth and GIS in the teaching of geography. They, however,
reported that some traditional methods like discussion, and
questioning and answers were still in use, and where
concerned about the sustainability of the use of these new
methods in Turkey schools.
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Some activity-based methods that have been used in
the teaching and learning of geography are now discussed.
These are: project method, field trip, inquiry/problem solving
method and simulation and games.
(a) Project Method
This method is one of the activity based methods that
allows the learners to identify societal problems and
find solution to them. Project work may be group or
individual based. It helps to provide an avenue for the
class of individual students or sometimes small groups
to exhibit their ingenuity and creativity so that those
with special abilities have opportunities to fulfill
themselves. When executing a project work the teacher
guides and coordinates the work and allows the students
to do the actual work. The method is an independent
approach to learning that brings about new discoveries.
Merits of Project Method
(i) It equips students with investigative skills.
(ii) keep learners active and makes learning meaningful
with better understanding. .
Demerits of Project Method
Some of the demerits of project method are:
(i) It is time-consuming and restricts syllabus coverage.
(ii) It is difficult to use in situations where research
materials are inadequate.
(iii) Also, it is cumbersome and does not take into
consideration individual differences.
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9. However, students who are reluctant to go for the
trip, should not be pressurised to go or punished.
Advantages of Field Trip
(i) It sharpens students' observational abilities and
helps them to observe events and phenomena.
(ii) It also promotes teacher-student relationship.
Disadvantages
(i) It is costly in terms of transporting and feeding of
the students.
(ii) Time consuming in terms of planning and execution.
(iii) Disruptive to school programme if scheduled during
school hours.
(c) Inquiry/Problem-Solving Method
The method of inquiry allows the learners to react
individually to a problem. It is an investigative approach
in which learners are given tasks or problems to solve.
It involves problem formulation and interpretation,
generation of ideas and actions. This technique requires
students to think and adopt various skills to get the
required result. The method helps the students to
develop skills of independent thinking, analysis and
decision making. Inquiry and problem solving are two
related methods, Inquiry skills such as investigation,
discovering, search for data, analysis, evaluation,
subjecting an information received to scrutinyare essential
in problem-solving. These processes lead to in-depth
knowledge of the problem at hand and arriving at new
facts about the problem. In problem-solving, these
identified steps are applied to solving a real problem such
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as: finding solution to economic problem on fuel scarcity,
pipeline vandalisation, urbanisation etc. The underlisted
steps are necessary for employing inquiry/problem
solving method: .
1. identifying a problem;
2. stating hypothesis( es);
3. collecting relevant information;
4. analysis, appraising and interpreting the information
gathered;
5. arriving at the solution of the problem; and
6. drawing conclusion and inferences from the findings
of the inquiry.
RoI~ of the Teacher in InquirylProblem-Solving
1. Planning/determining the problem to be solved.
, ,
2. Identifying the objectives to be achieved.
3. Allocating the problem/dimension to students.
4. Planning for the collection of data by the students
(where/how).
5. Planning the method/procedure for reporting/
grading or evaluation of the activities.
(d) Simulation/Games
Simulation methods are "dynamic ways of presenting
very thought provoking ideas, problems, issues and
realities in our past and present socio-economic life". It
is used in a situation where a real world is imitated by
explaining the origin, cause, solution or situation, or
workability of a process. The situation could be social,
political, economic issues or problems in nature. Well
known simulation/games in geography is the Nigerian
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railway and transportation system.Modem day simulation!
games are played on computer and these abound in
developed countries like Europe andU.S.A~.Creative and
dynamic teachers inconjuction with their classes can
develop games based on any aspect of geography.
Planning for Simulation/Games
(i) Identification of problem.
(ii) Identification of specific objectives to be achieved.
(ill) Identification and isolation of the various
components of the problem and the stakeholders
involved.
(iv) Allocation of specific components to students for
exploration.
(v) Investigation by students and final execution of the
simulation in class.
Advantages of Simulation/Games
(i) Enables more realistic learning while reducing
abstract learning.
(ii) Inculcates, problem-solving skills and attitudes in
the students.
(iii) Enables students express their creative abilities.
(iv) Provides a clear understanding of how things and
people in the society function.
(v) Enables multiple instructional objectives to be
achieved in one lesson.
(vi) Makes for easy retention of knowledge.
(vii)Trains students in group processes and dynamics
thereby, enabling students to appreciate the roles and
responsibilities of good leadership and followership.
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Disadvantages
(i) Not easy to develop.
(ii) Time consuming.
(ill) Students may misconstrue targeted objectives.
Programmed Instruction
The concept of programmed instruction is characterised by
self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical
sequence. The method is also known as individualised
learning method. This method of teaching is highly suitable
for making students with different abilities to obtain optimal
level of comprehension of geographical concepts
(Okwilagwe, 2002). The method provides conditions under
which students can learn geography content efficiently with
little or no outside help. There are two types of programme
instruction; the linear and the branching.
Steps in the Preparation of Good Programmes
Mackenzie, Eraut and Jones (1970) cited inOkwilagwe (2002)
advocated the following procedures: '
1. formulation of lesson objectives;
2. designing and testing appropriate criteria measures to
determine when the objectives are being achieved;
3. definition of the target population (class);
4. analysis of learning tasks (learning materials);
5. developmental testing of programme (a trial-testing of
the programme to remove ambiguities);
6. preparation of prototype programme (initial programmes
that will be tested); and
7. validation of programme (to collect data that indicate
the validity of effectiveness of the programme.
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How Students should Progress in Programme Learning
1. In the linear programming, the student moves from item
to item (frames) in a linear faction athis/her own speed.
2. Each piece of information is followed by a question.
3. The student responds to the question orally or in writing.
4. A correct response attracts an automatic progress to
the next stage or frame.
S. Each subsequent frame that follows provides another
piece ofinfonnation and a question, to which the student
progresses in the same manner.
6. If a wrong response is provided, the student may be
asked to go back one or more frames or back to the
last frame where he/she was referred.
The 'Branching' type requires that a student perform step 6
above and also to skip some frames and move ahead so
long as comprehension is not hindered.
Advantages of Programmed Instruction
1. It is individual student paced.
2. It enables active and continuous participation of the
student in learning.
3. The immediate feedback of result is self-motivating and
encourages continuity in the activity.
4. It also reduces student's anxiety inherent in teacher
centred teaching.
Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction
1. The construction of programmes is time-consuming and
can discourage the uncommitted teacher.
2. Lacks the development of cooperative and interpersonal
relationship among students.
3. Differential learning time is observed for the slow, average
and high achieving students.
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Guided Discovery Method
Discovery method allows the learners to discover facts for
themselves, especially if it is presented in a logical and
systematic way. Discovery method can be grouped into two:
guided discovery method and unguided discovery method.
The guided discovery method involves the teacher's direct
guidance while the unguided discovery allows students' free
choice of investigation. Here, the teacher plays the role of a
facilitator and a guide.
Teaching and learning involves helping students discover
certain facts or answers to a given problem. Many times
students depend on teachers for all the answers they need.
This kind of situation is not helpful in bringing out the
intellectual development of learners. Guided discovery may
be focused around a picture, landforms or artifact. This
strategy helps to develop critical thinking and decision making
abilities in students. It is an appropriate method for teaching
concept formation in geography. In guided discovery the
teacher ensures that students discover answers to problems
stated for learning. For instance, in the teaching of 'land
and sea breezes' the teacher can list some terms related to
the two types of breezes and ask students to classify them,
stating reasons for such classification, and making inferences
based on the classifications made. E.g.
Cold wind, sweating, hot temperature, dry wind, cool
temperature, dust, water vapour etc.
If students are able to classify these terms into those related
to sea breeze and land breeze and explain why the terms are
grouped together and make inferences from these, then they
have knowledge of land and sea breezes.
Advantages of Guided Discovery
1. It makes learning real and meaningful.-
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2. It encourages full participation of students.
3. It is motivating and gratifying as knowledge is being
discovered.
Disadvantages of Guided Discovery
1. It is time consuming. '
2. Creates differences in learning among students.
Advance Organiser
This is a pre-instructional strategy which is concerned with
the learner's previous knowledge. The learner's prior
knowledge serves as an organisational framework for
incoming materials such that the new materials are only
meaningful to the learner if there are relevant concepts in
his/her memory to which the new material can be anchored
(relate) (Adegbile, 2002). He defined it as a framework or
information pattern presented to the learner iri advance of
learning new material to help facilitate learning. There are
two types of advance organiser, as identified by Ausubel
(1963). They are expository advance organiser and
comparative advance organiser. The expository type is used
when the learning material is new to the learner while the
comparative advance organiser is 'used when the learning
material is relatively familiar. Organisers presented before
new learning are referred to as advanced organisers but
there are those presented after learning and are known as
post-organisers. According to Ausubel (1960) organisers
take different forms. It can be a statement, a question, a
descriptive paragraph, a demonstration or a film.
Advantages of Advance Organisers
1. Learning is made meaningful.
2. New learning is anchored on what has been learnt.
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Disadvantages of Advance Organisers
1. It is time consuming to construct advance organisers.
2. It requires an adeguately motivated teacher to plan and
execute.
Concept Mapping
Rather than study some concepts or words isolatively, it is
at times good to present a relationship among some concepts.
Concept mapping is a technique of representing concepts and
their interrelationships in two-dimensional structure to present
the concepts in a topic or unit. Both teacher and students can
represent their views on how a group of concepts interconnect
or relate and this forms an in-depth understanding of the concept.
. Some concepts in geography are transportation, landforms
(volcanic, glacial, running water, arid etc.). These can be
mapped to show how they .interconnect or interrelate. Myths
which some students think exist in the learning of some subjects
like geography are cleared and learning becomes meaningful.
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Example: Concept of Map of Transportation in Nigeria
Means of Transportation
Types of Transportation
+ + +
land Water Air Pipeline
~ ~
Means of land Means of water Means of air Means of Pipeline
Transportation transportation Transportation transportation
~ !
Problems of land Problems of water Problems of air Problems of Pipeline
Transportation Transportation Transportation Transportation
! ~ + !
Roles of transportation in
the Nigerian economy
Modified after NTI (2003)
Merits of Concept Mapping
1. Facilitate meaningfulleaming as indepth understanding
of concepts is achieved.
2. Students can create their concept maps which can be
used to summarise a unit or topic in the prescribed
geography textbooks.
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3. Reduces anxiety in learning situations.
4. Enables topics to be presented in sequential and holistic
manner that reduces the complexity of some topics and
anxiety arising from some difficult topics.
Demerits of Concept Mapping
1. Time consuming.
2. Requires care in isolating and linking of the concepts.
3. As a technique, it cannot stand alone as a method of
teaching. It must be complemented with other methods.
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Section Two
Methodological Perspectives
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Methods and Materials
The 'Use of Quantification in the Study of Geography
This involves the use of statistical methods and mathematical
rules to study some concepts in geography. Quantitative
techniques have been satisfactorily introduced into physical
geography in areas as' the study of climate, and in map reading
topics such as the calculation of gradients, profiles, scales
and slope measurement from topographical maps
(Okwilagwe, 2002). Some elements of statistical methods
according to her, have also been introduced into practical
work in geography. Quantification requires proper
understanding and teaching of mathematics in the schools
as skills learnt will be used by the students in the learning of
these mathematically related geography topics.
Introduction
This chapter discussed the methodology of this work. It
comprises of the research design, sampling procedure and
sample, instrumentation, ethical approval and method of
analysis.
Research Design
The study is an ex-post-facto type of research designed to
cover all states of Nigeria as represented by the six geo-
political zones and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT).
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Study Population, Sampling Procedure and Sample
The target population for this study are SS II and SS ill geography
teachers and their students in all the secondary schools in Nigeria.
The parents and other stakeholders in education did not participate
in the study. The multi-stage-stratified sampling procedures were
used to select the sample as follows:
(a) Two states in each geo-political zone of the country
and the (FCT) were selected to participate in the study.
(b) In each selected state, five secondary schools were
randomly selected, with consideration gi ven to
representation of public and private schools; and rural
and urban location.
(c) In each secondary school selected, two geography
teachers (SS II and SSIII) and their respective classes
were observed. In all, 65 secondary schools and 76
geography teachers participated in the study.
Instrumentation
Three instruments were used in the study to collect
information on the teacher and classroom environment
interaction process. These are:
i. Teachers' Understanding of Secondary Education
Geographic Objectives Scale (TUSEGOS): This was
developed by the investigator to gather information on
teachers' understanding of secondary geography
education objectives.
ii. Ten-MinuteInteraction Instrument (I'M!): This instrument
was developed and used for IEA study on 'Classroom
Environment Study: Teaching for Learning'. It was
designed to cover varied teacher-learner classroom
environment interactions which have been divided into
'context', 'who to whom', 'what was said', 'qualifier'
and 'non-academic'.
I
I
I
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
43
HZ. Classroom Interaction Sheet (CIS): The instrument was
developed by Onocha and Okpala (1990) and was used
to record the observation data on classroom interaction.
It is a category recording instrument. Its validity and
reliability as a useful observation instrument has been
ensured by Onocha and Okpala (1990), Akinsola and
Okpala (2001) and UNICEFIUNESCO/World Bank!
FME/'ESA' Study (2003).
However, the instruments were re-validated and found highly
valid, reliable and useable before they were used in the field
activities. The instruments were content validated by giving
them to experts in evaluation to ensure that they were useable.
Using equal length Spearman-Brown split-half formula,
TUSEGOS yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.86, TMI
had inter and intra rater reliability values ranging from 0.73
to 0.85 while the CIS gave reliability values of 0.76 to 0.84.
The Ethical Approval
The ethical issues of anonymity and confidentiality of
responses were taken care of during and after data collection.
Statistical Analysis
Data analyses in the study involved the use of descriptive and
inferential statistics such as frequency counts, percentages,
graphs, and t-test. Qualititaive reporting was given to some
aspects as the general trend of interaction, teachers
characteristics and episodic analysis where it was
appropriate.
Benefit of Study to Society
i. The study provides a large scale report on the classroom
interaction patterns between teachers and students in
typical Nigerian classroom settings. It also provides a
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
44
qualitative and quantitative analysis as well as
descriptions of observed instructional processes in
senior secondary geography classroom environment.
..
ll. The findings of this study provides empirical data base
as an additional built-up in advancing the frontiers of
knowledge in the area of classroom interaction studies
inNigeria.
Ill. It serves as a yardstick for advising policy makers,
school administrators, Inspectors of Education, and
institutions that train teachers on the relevant teacher
and environmental factors that influence effectiveness
which should be enhanced and sought to improve
students' achievement.
Research Questions
The following are the reseach questions examined in this,
study. '
1. To what extent do geography teachers' understand the
objectives of secondary school geography education
inNigeria?
2. What is the general trend of interaction patterns of
geography teachers at the Senior Secondary School
two (SS2) and Senior Secondary School three (SS3)
inNigeria?
3. What is the time extent expended on facilitating learning
by geography teachers at the (SS 2) and (SS3) classes
in the country?
4. Is there any significant difference in the geography
teachers' interaction patterns in tenus of school type,
location, class size and understanding of geography
objectives?
5. What is the quality of these interactions in some selected
schools in the country?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Section Three
Empirical Evidence of Pattern of
Classroom Interaction in School
Geography in Nigeria
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
o GeographY,Teachers Characteristics
Introduction
In this chapter, the reports of results and findings of this
study are presented. It has been broken-up into section with
each section reporting an important component of the results
and fmdings. Section one presents the general characteristics of
the observed geography teachers who participated in the study.
Table 1: Geography Teachers Characteristics
Characteristic SS3 SS2
Freq. 0/0age Er-eq, %age
1. Age
20 -29 5 (10.6) 6 (28.6)
30-39 24(57.1) 9 (42.9)
40-50 18 (38.3) 4 (19.0)
50 and above - 1 (4.8)
c.
2. Sex
Male 45 (83.3) 14 (66.7)
Female 9 (16.7) 7 (33.3)
3. Highest Qualification
NeE 6(11.1) 3 (14.3)
HND 1 (1.9) 1 (4.8)
B.Ed,B .A.lB Se./PGDE 37 72.2) 16 (76.2)
MAlM.Ed 8 (14.8) 1 (4.8)
4. Teaching Experience
Below 4 years 10 (18.5) 8 (38.1)
4 -6 years 10 (18.5) 3 (14.3)
7 - 9 years 4 (7.4) 3 (14.3)
10yrs and above 30 (55.6) 7 (33.3)
5. Area of Specialisation
Geography 49 (90.7) 16 (76.2)
Geog-related (geology) 2 (3.7) 1 (4.8)
Others (e.g. Eeons/Bus Admin
Social Studies 3 (5.6) 4 (19.0)
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
48
Table 1 and the accompanying Figures (1a) and (1b) show
the characteristics of the SS 3 geography teachers as
observed in this study. Majority of the SS3 teachers (57.1 %)
were between 30 - 39years old, 38.3% were between 40 -
50 years old while 10.60/0were 20 -29 years old. In terms of
gender, most of the teachers were males (83.3%) whereas
16.7% were females. Refer to Table 1 and Figure l(a)
60 >
50 .'
~ 40.
..~...,
s:: 30
~
(J
P~-c 20!
10 .'' t
o
20-29 30-39 40-50
Age
;0
80
70
~ 60.J
en
.;s 50
=
~ 40
~ 30
20
10
o .
Male Female
Sex
Figure l(a): Senior Secondary School 3 Geography Teachers
~I Characteristics
I.
I
I
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
49
80 - 'f-----------------·----·--l
70- ~----:;I : t j
60- !,
•~...!J I
;j 50
!
i >
;~
i I
.J 40
- j
.
,..'J 30 . " Ij
I j"
20 I ..f.=. (I I
10
0 i r lL- .. ~ .~.-. ...~.1 ,,11._.. 1
Highest Qualification
60
50
~
.OC•".: .!I 40
~c 30
~
A~.. 20
10
0
Below 4yrs 4-6yrs 7-9yrs 10yrs above
Teaching Experience
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
o
Area of Spccialisution
Figure l(b): Senior Secondary School J Geography Teachers
Characteristics
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
so
Table 1 and the accompanying Figure 1(b) show that the
highest qualification of most of these teachers was B.Ed/
B.ScIPGDE (72.2%), this was followed by teachers with
M.A./E.Ed (14.8%) and NeE (11.1%). Besides, about 2%
of the teachers hold the Higher National Diploma certificate.
Many of these teachers (55.6%) have over 10years of teaching
experience, followed by 18.5%with below4years and between
4-6 years experience respectively. Seven percent of these
teachers have been teaching for between 7 - 9 years. About
(91%) of these teacher are specialists in the subject but about
6% are not. The none geography specialists are from diverse
background e.g. Business administration, and Economics.
45 .
40 : --
I
- ~ 35 >
OJ:)
!=l 3025,
~ 20:.
- 15'
~ 10:
5 "
O·
20-29 30-39 40-50 50 and
above
Age
70
60
50
40
30 :
20
10
o
Male Female
Sex
Figure l(c): Senior Secondary School 2 Geography Teachers
Characteristics
I
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
51
80-4~~~~~~~~~~~~
70~}~~~~~~~~~
60~~~1
50~
40 •• mm~itli
30
20
10
o
Highest Qualification
40
30
20
10
o
Below 4-6yrs 7-9yrs l Oyrs
4yrs above
Teaching Experience
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
o
Area of S pecialisation
Figure l(d): Senior Secondary School 2 Geography Teachers
Characteristics
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
52
Among the SS2 geography teachers, Table 1 and the
accompanying Figure (1c) show that a large number of them
(42.9%) are between 30-40 years old, 28.6% between 20-
29 years old, (19.0%) and (4.8%) are between 40 -50 years
and above respectively. Of these teachers, (66.7%) are males
while (33.3%) are females. Table 1 and Figure (ld) also
show that many of these teachers hold the basic qualification
to teach at this level that is B.Ed/B.Sc/PGDE (76.2%).
However, (4.8%) hold higher degrees M.AIM.Ed while
(14.3%) and (4.8%) hold NCE and HND respectively. In .
terms of teaching experience, (33.3%) of these teachers have
spent over 10years in the profession, (38.1%) below 4 years
and (14.4%) have spent 4 -6 years and 7-9 years respectively.
Seventy-two percent of these teachers are specialists in
geography, while (19%) are not. .
From these information, it would seem that more male
than female teachers teach geography inNigerian secondary
schools. This would be attributed to the difficulty and rigor
attributed to the studying of the subject at the secondary
school level, which may have unfortunately made many
female students not to opt for studying geography at the
tertiary level. Many of the teachers are experienced with an
average of 44.4% having been teaching the subject for more
than 10years. Of importance is a small proportion of 2.8%
on the average who are relatively young in the profession
(less than 4 years). Over 70% of these teachers have the
basic qualification (B.Ed/B.AIB.ScIPGDE) to teach at this
level, and a small number have gone to further improve
their knowledge to enhance their job performance. However,
is a curious unintended discovery of a proportion of
unqualified persons who teach the subject - an average of
16%. Specifically, according to the policy on education,
NCE holders are to teach at the junior secondary level and
not at the senior secondary where geography is taught.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
53
In terms of age, many of the teachers (an average of
69%) are still very young and they belong to the active
population. On the average, (89.4%) of these teachers are
trained geography teachers but a small proportion of those
who teach the subject in some schools are not trained. This
group consisting of 12.30/0 are specialists in diverse subject
areas not directly related to geography. These are: business
administration, social studies, economics and government.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
f7l Teachers' Understanding Geographic
L..:.J Objectives
Introduction
In this chapter, the geography teachers' understanding of
geography objectives is presented.
Table 2: Teachers Understanding of Geography Objectives
Objectives of Secondary SS Three SSTwo
Geography Education Agreement Disagreement Agreement Disagreement
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq, %
I Develop ability to do critical 52 100 . . 21 91.3 2 8.7
thinking in students.
2 Provide students with a body of 51 96.2 .2 3.8 23 100 . .
geographical knowledge, which are
interesting and useful for everyday
life.
..,
s Establish in students the habits of 52 - 98.1 I 1.9 21 91.3 2 8.7
observation of phenomena around
them.
4 Develop in students the capacity to 51 96.2 2 3.8 23 100 - .
use and interpret maps.
5 To appreciate the role of geography 52 98.1 I 1.8 20 87.0 ..,j 13.0
as a 'bridge' subject between the
sciences and humanities.
6 Promote a bener understanding of 51 96.2 2 3.8 21 91.3 2 8.7
the value of natural resources and
the need for a more intelligent use of
them.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
56
Objectives of Secondary SS Three SSTwo
Geography Education Agreement Disagreement Agreement Disagreement
Freq, % Freq. % Freq. % Freq, %
7 Develop students' ability to make 51 96.2 2 3.8 21 91.3 2 8.7
worthwhile use of leisure by making
local trips and excursion.
8 Teaching them to derive pleasure 51 96.2 2 3.8 22 95.7 1 4.3
from the beauties of nature.
9 Develop students' geographical 53 100. - - 23 100 - -
imagination" which is the ability to
visualize what conditions would be
like in places outside their locality.
10 Promote international understanding 51 96.2 2 3.8 21 91.3 2 8.7
by means of knowledge of the inter-
dependence of peoples.
II Develop in students a sense of 49 92.4 4 7.6 21 91.3 2 8.7
responsible citizenship.
12 Develop in students the appreciation 50 94.3 3 5.7 20 87.0 3 13.0
of the essential unity of all
knowledge.
13 Develop an understanding of the 52 98.1 I 1.9 21 91.3 2 8.7
concept of ma-land relations, which
is, to correlate the life of man with
his physical environment and to
explain the interaction of human and
natural agencies.
14 To develop respect for accurate, 50 94.3 3 5.7 22 95.7 I 4.3
orderly and objective methods of
investigation.
15 Provide students with information 51 96.2 2 3.8 21 91.3 2 8.7
about other places and environments
other than their own so as to
enable them appreciate the
uniqueness of these places.
16 Equip students with the ability to 51 96.2 2 3.8 20 87.0 3 13.0
handle and analyze spatial data
obtained from the field.
Table 2 and the accompaying Figure 2(a) and 2(b)
present teachers' understanding of geography objectives.
Results show that a greater proportion (over 70%) of SS2
and SS3 geography teachers in Nigeria secondary schools
have high (good) understanding of geography objectives.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Senior Secondary School Three (SS3)
Igl Geography Teachers Teaching
LJ Behaviours
Introduction
Senior Secondary School three teachers general trend of
teaching behaviours and the influence of class size, location,
school type and understanding of geography objectives on
their teaching behaviours are presented.
Table 3 and Figure 3(a) present the observed general
trend of teaching behaviour of SS3 geography teachers.
The table shows that 'who to whom' account for 42% of
the total time spent in class, 'instruction' (30.2%), 'question'
(8.3%), 'response' (8.2%), 'feedback' (7.2%), 'class
management' (1.3%) and 'emphasis' (2.8%). The result also
shows that communication flows mainly from the teacher
to the whole class (30.2%) with minimal' student to teacher'
talk (3.9%). .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
60
Table 3:0bserved General Trend of Teaching
Behaviours of SS 3 Geography Teachers on TMI
Category Category Behaviour Freq. 0/0
No.
Who to Whom
1 Teacher to group 727 31.2
2 Teacher to student 104 4.5
3 Student to teacher 91 3.9
4 Group to teacher 41 1.8
5 Teacher to other 16 0.7
Sub-total 979 42.0
. Instruction
6 Lecture/Explain 447 19.2
7- Lecture with materials 65 2.8
8 Lecture non-verbal 3 0.1
9 Gives example 122 5.2
10 Cues/structuring 23 1.0
11 Directives 23 1.0
12 Probe 20 0.9
Sub-total 703 30.2
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61
Category Category Behaviour Freq. 0/0
No.
Question
13 High level 92 3.9
14 Recall 55 2.4
15 Opinion 25 1.1
16 Redirect 22 0.9
Sub-total 194 8.3
Response
17 Silence 159 6.8
18 Recite 6 0.3
19 Extended Response 7 0.3
20 Don't know 16 0.7
21 Statement 3 0.1
Sub-total 191 8.2
Feedback
22 Acknowledge positive 64 2.7
23 Wrong 14 0.6
24 Punish 1 0.01
25 Repeat answer 27 1.2
26 Gives answer 29 1.2
27 Effectiveness of teaching 27 1.2
28 Silence 5 0.2
Sub-total 167 7.2
Management-Non-
Academic
29 Discipline 1 0.01
30 Procedure 13 0.6
31 Can't hear 7 0.3
32 Social 9 0.4
Sub-total 30 1.3
33 Emphasis 66 2.8
Total (Overall) 2,330 1000/<
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
62
45
40
35
30
•••
.•O.J.:• 25
~
•=••
y•... 20
•••
~ 15
Who to Whom Instruction . Question Response Feedback Management
Category Beha\iour
Figure 3(a): , Observed General Trend of Teaching Behaviours
of SS 3 Geography Teachers on TMI
Also, information in Table 3 and Figure 3(b) further reveal
that the geography teachers spend about 19.2% of the lesson
time on lecturing/explaining, 5.2% on 'giving examples' and
1% on 'directives'. On the type of questions asked by the
teachers, high level questions accounted for 3.9%, recall 2.4%
and redirect 0.9%. On mode of response, 'silence' accounted
for 6.8%. In terms of feedback, 'positive acknowledgement'
accounted for 2.7%. (refer to Table 3 and Figure 3c).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
63
35
30
<l.I J'
0'<: -)
-ea 20C
<l.I 15 I-+-Who to whom I~<J
c<.l...I 10
5
0
Teacher to Teacher to Student to Group to teacher Teacher to other
student teacher teacher
Category Behaviour
25 ,-",-c-==
2105~-~h~~~~~~~~~
I5O~~~~~=~~=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~-+-I~ns t~ructio~n I~
O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Category Behaviour
5
4
CI>
.o.j).•..:• 3
C
.<I.J. I-+-Questionl<J 2
c<.I.J.
High level Recall Opinion Redirect
Category Behaviour
Figure 3(b):Observed Teaching Behaviours ofSS 3 Geography Teachers
on TMI 'Who to whom', 'Instruction' and 'Questions'
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
64
8
~
t:>Jl 6
.~•...
c~.. 4 I--+-ResponselCJ.
~
Q.. 2
0
Silence Recite Extended Don't know Statement
Response
Category Behaiiour
•..
-b~J)c•..
... 1-.- Feedback I<.J•..
Q..
Category Behaviour
3
~ 2.5 ~~;.:
-~ 2
.~.. 1.5 I-+- Managementl•...... I
Q.. 0.5
O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Discipline Procedure Can't hear Social Emphasis
Category Behaviour
Figure 3(c): Observed Teaching Behaviours of SS 3 Geography
Teachers on TMI: 'Response', 'Feedback' and
'Management'
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
65
Table 4: T-test Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teachers by School Type
Behaviour Public Private
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 40 700 17.50 10.37 13 279 21.46 8.68 1.24 51 0.220\S
Instruction 40 491 12.28 8.99 13 212 16.31 11.85 2.30 51 0.021;'
Question 40 U9 3.73 2.77 13 45 3.46 2.26 0.31 51 0.758\S
Response 40 139 3.48 2.30 13 52 4.00 2.00 0.74 51 0.465\S
Feedback 40 138 3.45 3.57 13 29 2.23 2.20 1.16 51 0.253\S
Class 40 26 0.65 1.44 13 4 0.31 0.85 0.81 51 0.423\S
management
Emphasis 40 49 1.23 1.23 13 17 1.3 1.30 0.22 51 0.828\5
* = Significant at p<0.05
NS =Not significant at p < 0.05
The result in Table 4 shows that there is significant difference in
geography teachers' pattern of instruction based on school type (t=
2.30; df = 51, p<0.05) with Mean = 16.31; SD = 11.85 for private
schools and Mean = 12.28; S.D = 8.99 for public schools. Other
teacher-student classroom behaviours such as 'who to whom';
'type of questions asked', 'response', 'feedback' and 'class
management' were not significant.
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66
Table 5: T - test Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teacher by Class Size (Science)
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 27 558 20.67 10.99 26 421 16.19 8.60 2.65 51 0.011 *
Instruction 27 422 15.63 11.60 26 281 10.81 6.89 2.83 51 0.043*
Question 27 97 3.59 3.14 26 97 3.73 1.89 0.19 51 0.851\S
Response 27 98 3.63 2.60 26 93 3.58 1.79 0.09 51 0.932\S
Feedback 27 71 2.63 3.04 26 96 3.69 3.55 1.17 51 0.247\S
Class 27 12 0.44 1.0 I 26 18 0.69 1.59 0.68 51 0.50}\S
management
Emphasis 27 31 1.15 1.17 26 35 1.35 1.20 0.61 51 o.-~4 :-l~s
* = Significant at p < 0.05
.NS = Not significant at p < 0.05
The result in Table 5 reveals that there is significant difference
in the geography teachers behavioursunder the categories 'who
to whom' (t = 2.65; df = 51, P < 0.05) and 'instruction' (t =
2.83; df = 51, p< 0.05) when class size is low in Science
classes, The Mean for 'who to whom' = 20.67; SD ~ 10.99
for class size of30 students and below, and Mean = 16.19; SD
= 8.60 for class size of 31 students and above. Under
'instruction', Mean= 15.63; SD = 11.60 for class size of 30
students and below and Mean = 10.81; SD = 6.89 for class
size of 31 students and above. Other teacher behavior such as
'type of question asked', the 'response', 'feedback' and 'class
management' were not significant.
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67
Table 6: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of Geography
Teachers by Class Size in Commercial Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 35 696 19.89 9.62 18 283 15.72 10.56 1.44 51 0.155~s
Instruction 35 483 13.80 10.84 18 220 12.22 7.56 0.55 51 0.584 xs
Questions 35 117 3.34 2.07 18 77 4.48 3.48 1.23 51 0.225~s
Response 35 122 3.49 2.17 18 67 3.83 2.36 0.54 51 0.594
NS
Feedback 35 90 2.57 2.43 18 77 4.28 4.44 1.81 51 0.036*
Class 35 22 0.63 1.50 18 8 0.44 0.92 0.48 51 0.636
NS
Management
Emphasis 35 47 1.34 1.24 18 19 1.06 1.06 0.84 51 0.405NS
* = Significant at p < 0.05
NS =Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 6 shows that there is significant difference in the way
geography teachers 'feedback' information based on class
size in Commercial classes when class size was more than
30 students, (t- 1.81; df= 51, p= 0.05) with Mean= 2.57,
SD = 2.43 for class sizes 30 students and below and Mean =
4.28, SD =4.44 for class sizes 31 students and above. Other
classroom categories such as 'who to whom', instruction'
'question' 'response', and class management were riot
significant.
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68
Table 7: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of Geography
Teachers by Class Size in Art Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 29 511 17.62 10.49 2~ 468 19.50 9.61 0.67 51 0.503 xs
Instruction 29 405 13.97 11.30 H 298 12.42 7.77 0.57 51 0.572 xs
Question 29 105 3.62 2.50 2~ 89 3.71 2.85 0.12 51 0.906~s
Response 29 10~ 3.59 2.23 H 87 3.63 2.26 0.06 51 0.950~s
Feedback 29 103 3.55 3.82 H 6~ 2.67 2.57 0.97 51 0.338~s
Class 29 12 0.41 0.87 H 18 0.75 1.72 0.92 51 0.362~s
management
Emphasis 29 33 1.14 1.18 H 33 1.38 1.17 0.73 51 0.470:'\s
NS =Not significant at p < 0.05
The result in Table 7 shows that the teaching behaviours of
geography teachers were not significantly different in terms
of class size in Arts classes.
Table 8: T-Test Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teachers by Location
Behaviour Urban Rural .
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean· S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 30 577 19.23 9.85 23 402 17.48 10.44 0.63 51 0.534 NS
Instruction 30 399 13.30 10.16 23 304 13.22 9.54 0.03 51 0.976 xs
Question 30 114 3.80 2.12 23 80 3.48 3.23 0.44 51 0.664NS
Response 30 110 3.67 1.94 23 81 3.52 2.59 0.23 51 0.817:'1S
Feedback 30 105 3.50 3.54 23 62 2.70. 3.01 0.87 51 0.390~s
Class 30 IS 0.50 1.07 23 IS 0.65 1.61 0.41 51 0.682~s
management
Emphasis 30 42 1.40 1.16 23 24 1.04 1.19 .09 51 0.278:'1S
N.S- Not significant at P < 0.05
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
69
The result in Table 8 shows that there is no significant
difference in geography teachers' teaching behaviours in
terms of location.
Table 9: Analysis of Geography Teachers Classroom
Behaviours by their Level of Understanding of
Geography Objectives
Behaviour High Low
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 34 593 17.44 9.66 19 386 20.31 10.74 1.00 51 0.323 ~s
Instruction 34 427 12.56 10.21 19 276 14.53 9.16 0.70 51 0.489NS
Question 34 134 3.94 2.85 19 60 3.16 2.19 0.04 51 0.304NS
Response 34 118 3.47 2.03 19 73 3.84 2.57 0.58 51 0.564NS
Feedback 34 99 2.91 '2.78 19 68 3.58 4.15 0.70 51 0.487NS
Class 34 0.13 9.38 0.85 19 17 0.89 1.88 1.36 51 0.179NS
management
Emphasis 34 38 1.12 1.17 19 28 1.47 1.17 1.06 51 0.295NS
NS =Not significant at p < 0.05 .
The results in Table 9 show that there is no significant
difference in classroom interaction pattern of geography
teachers in terms of their level of understanding of geography
objectives.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Iol Senior Secondary School Two (SS2)
~ Geography Teachers Teaching Behaviours
Introduction
This chapter presents the general trend of SS2 geography
teachers' teaching behaviours, and the influence of school
type, location, class size and teachers' understanding of
geography objectives on these behaviours.
Table 10: Observed General Trend of Teaching
Behaviours of SS 2 Geography Teachers
Category Category Freq. 0/0
No. Behaviour ,
Who to Whom
1 Teacher to group 319 32.3
,
2 Teacher to student 35 3.5
3 Student to teacher 30 3.0
4 Group to teacher 28 2.8
5 Teacher to other 6 0.6
Sub-total 418 42.3
Instruction
6 Lecture/Explain 140 14.2
7 Lecture with materials 20 2.0
8 Lecture non-verbal 3 0.3
9 Gives example 64 6.5
10 Cues/structuring 14 1.40
11 Directives 12 1.21
12 Probe 6 0.6
Sub-total 259 26.2
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
72
Category Category Freq. o
No. Behaviour
Question
13 High l,?vel 43 4.4
14 Recall 33 3.3
15 Opinion 4 0.4
}(~ Redirect 15 1.5
Sub-total 95 9.6
Response
17 Silence 59 6.0
18 Recite 3 0.3
19 Extended Response 8 0.8
20 Don't know 4 0.4
21 Statement 4 0.4
Sub-total 78 7.9
Feedback ,
22 Acknowledgement positive 31 3.1
23 Wrong 4 0.4
24 Punish 3 0.3
25 Repeat answer 15 1.5
26 Gives answer 44 4.5
27 Effectiveness of teaching 14 1.4
28 Silence 2 0.2
Sub-total 113 11.4
Management-Non-
Academic
29 Discipline 0 0
30 Procedure 0 0
31 Can't hem' 6 0.6
32 Social 4 0.4
Sub-total 10 1.0
33 Emphasis 14 1.4
Total (Overall) 987 100%
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
73
Table 10 and the accompanying Figure 10(a)present the observed
general trend of teaching behaviour of SS 2 geography teachers.
The results show that, out of the total class time spent in teaching,
'who to whom' accounted for 42.3%, 'instruction' 26.2%, 'type
of questions asked' 9.6%, 'response' 7.9%, 'feedback' 11.4%,
'class management' 1.0% and 'emphasis' 1.4%. The result in
Table 1and Figures 10(b) and (c) also show that 'teacher to group'
32.3% dominated the classroom interaction pattern followed by
'teacher to students' 3.5%, 'student to teacher' 3.00/0,group to
teacher 2.8% and 'teacher to others' 0.6%. On the pattern of
'instruction', 14.2% of the total time was devoted to 'lecturing!
explanation' and about 6.5% to 'giving of examples'. On type
of questions asked 'high level' questions accounted for 4.4%,
'recall' 3.3% 'redirect' 1.5% and 'opinion' 0.4%. The result
further reveals that on mode of response, 'silence' accounted
for 6%, 'extended response' 0.8% and 'don't know' 0.4%.
Result on 'feedback' shows that 'acknowledgement' was 3.1%,
'give answers' 4.5%, 'repeat answer' 1.5%, 'effectiveness of
teaching' 1.4%. Under class management, 'can't hear' accounted
for 0.6%, social 0.4% discipline 0%
45
40
35
~ 30
ell
~= 25~
~ 20
~
~ 15
10
5
Who to Whom Instruction Question Response Feedback Management
Category Behaviour
Figure lO(a): Observed General Trend of Teaching Behaviours of
SS 2 Geography Teachers on TMI
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
74
Teacher to Teacher to Student to Group to Teacher to
group student teacher teacher other
Category Behaviour
15
~•
••••• 10
•..c.•.. -+- Instruction
C•o•
5
.
0
Category Behasieur
5
~ 4
-OJ)~ "I= J~
u I-+-Questionla..
~ 2
Q.,
0
High level Recall Opinion Redirect
Category Behaviour
Figure lO(b): Observed Teaching Behaviours of SS 2 Geography Teachers
on TMI: 'Who to Whom', 'Instruction' and 'Questions'
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
75
8
•
-~
.• 6
~
~•.. 4 I-+- ResponseIOJ
~2
0
Silence Recite Extended Don't know Statement
Response
Category Behaviour
6
~~
!: 4
c~.•.... I-+- FeedbackI
~ 2
Q.,
0
u OJ) ..r::: - •... •... u
Ol) c:: '" ., ., '" u
-0 •... .~ o ~ ~ .'", bO0 c0" c:: 0..", < c::'" C._
0
- > ~ ::l ., C c.:,: ., ..r:::~ :f: P-. ~'" '" > u eno en '';'" u:: c.d,C 0~ 0.. 0-
u .:: '- '-
< 0 ~o
Category Behaiieur
1.6
1.4
1.2
u~
:=:
I
u 0.8•.. I-+-ManagementlOJ
Qj 0.6
=- 0.4
0.2
0
Discipline Procedure Can't hear Social Emphasis
Category Behaviour
Figure lO(c): Observed Teaching Behaviours of SS 2 Geography
Teachers on TMI: 'Response', 'Feedback' and
'Management'
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
76
Table 11: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teachers by School Type
Behaviour Public Private
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 1~ 268 19.14 12.80 9 150 16.67 10.37 0.49 21 0.632 \5
Instruction 1~ 155 11.07 6.36 9 10~ 11.56 9.79 0.15 21 0.886\5
Question 14 51 3.6~ 2.47 9 4~ 4.89 3.l~ 1.06 21 0.300\5
Response 14 38 2.71 2.23 9 40 4.4~ 3,40 1,48 21 0.154\5
Feedback 14 58 4.21 4.98 9 5~ 6.00 5.55 0.80 21 0.431\5
Class 14 5 0.36 1.34 9 5 0.56 1.67 0.32 21 0.755\S
management
Emphasis 14 12 0.86 1.46 9 2 0.22 0.67 1.22 21 0.23i'5
NS = Not significant at p < 0.05 .
The. results in Table 11 show that there is no significant
difference in all the teaching behaviours of geography
teachers in tenus of school type.
Table 12: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teachers by Location
Behaviour Urban Rural
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 18 314 17.44 11.26 5 104 20.80 14.34 0.56 21 0.5831'\S
Instruction 18 217 12.06 8.11 5 42 8.40 5.51 0.94 21 0.3571'\S
Question 18 72 4.00 2.79 5 23 4.60 2.88 0.42 21 0.676"'5
Response 18 62 3.44 2.59 5 16 3.20 3.83 0.17 21 0.868\5
Feedback 18 72 4.00 4.95 5 41 8.20 5.02 1.68 21 0.109\S
Class 18 5 0.28 1.18 5 5 1.00 2.24 0.99 21 0.145"'5
management
Emphasis 18 .8 0.44 1.04 5 6 1.20 1.79 1.23 21 0.234\5
NS= Not significant at p < 0.05
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
77
Table 12 shows that there is no significant difference in all
the teaching behaviours ofSS two geography teachers based
on location.
Table 13: T-Test Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of
Geography Teachers by Class Size in Science
Class
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 12 234 19.50 12.07 11 184 16.73 11.73 0.56 21 0.583 xs
Instruction 12 129 10.75 5.75 11 130 11.82 9.60 0.33 21 0.747:'\s
Question 12 57 4.75 2.41 11 38 3.46 3.05 I. 14 21 0.269~s
Response 12 39 . 3.25 2.60 11 39 3.55 3.14 0.25 21 0.808~s
Feedback 12 76 6.33 5.37 11 37 3.36 4.68 1.41 21 0.173:'\s
Class 12 5 0.42 1.44 11 5 0.45 1.51 0.-06 21 0.952:'\s
management
Emphasis 12 11 0.92 1.56 11 3 0.27 0.65 1.27 21 0.219:'\s
NS= Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 13 shows that class size in Science classes have no
significant difference on all the 'teaching behaviours of
geography teachers in SS two.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
78
Table 14: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of Geography
Teachers by Class Size in Commercial Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Frcq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 14 246 17.57 10.40 9 172 19.1 1 14.16 0.30 21 0.766 xs
Instruction 14 164 11.71 8.44 9 95 10.56 6.71 0.35 21 0.732 xs
Question 14 69 4.93 2.79 9 26 2.89 2.32 1.82 21 0.082~s
Response 14 58 4.14 3.11 9 20 2.22 1.86 1.66 21 0.111 xs
Feedback 14 88 6.29 5.48 9 ~,-:l 2.78 3.99 1.65 21 O.113~s
Class 14 5 0.36 1.34 9 5 0.56 1.67 0.32 21 0.755~s
management
Emphasis 14 8 0.57 1.16 9 6 0.61 1.41 0.18 21 0.861 xs
. NS= Not significant at p < 0.05
The results in Table 14 show that there is no significant
difference in teaching behaviour of geography teachers in
terms of class size (commercial).
Table 15: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of Geography
Teachers by Class Size in Arts Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 and below Class Size 31 and above
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Who to Whom 9 188 20.89 11.34 14 230 16.43 12.04 0.89 21 0.386 xs
Instruction 9 108 12.00 5.32 14 151 10.79 9.02 0.36 21 0.720;';s
Question 9 42 4.67 1.94 14 53 3.79 3.19 0.74 21 0.467NS
Response 9 31 3.44 2.07 14 47 3.36 3.27 0.07 21 0.944"'s
Feedback 9 42 4.67 5.12 14 71 5.07 5.37 0.18 21 0.859"'s
Class 9 5 0.55 1.67 14 5 0.36 1.34 0.32 21 0.755"'s
management
Emphasis 9 . 8 0.89 1.36 14 6 0.43 1.16 0.87 21 0.395;';s
NS = Not significant at p < 0.05
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
79
The results in Table 15 show that there is no significant
difference in teaching behaviours of geography teachers
based on class size in Art classes.
Table 16: Analysis of Teaching Behaviours of Geography
Teachers by their Level of Understanding of
Geography Objectives
Behaviour High Low
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t Of Sig
Who to Whom 13 2~5 18.85 12.82 10 173 17JO 11.29 OJI 21 0.762 xs
Instructio n 13 133 10.23 9JI 10 126 12.60 6J3 0.72 21 OA25 xs
Question 13 ~5 3A6 3.23 10 50 5.00 2.22 1.35 21 0.190\S
Response 13 3~ 2.62 3A7 10 4~ 4040 1.98 1.56 21 O.I3~:\s
Feedback 13 39 3.00 6.2~ 10 7~ 7.40 3.2~ 2.26 21 0.039*
Class 13 5 0.85 1.58 10 5 0.50 1.39 0.19 21 0.85~\S
management
Emphasis 13 8 0.62 1.35 10 6 0.60 1.19 0.03 21 0.977\S
* = Significant at p < 0.05
NS = Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 16 shows that there is significant difference in SS two
geography teachers teaching behaviours in the way they
feedback information in terms of their level of understanding
of geography objectives (t = 2.26; df= 21, P < 0.05) with
Mean 3.00; SD = 6.24 for those teachers with high level of
understanding and Mean = 7.40, SD = 3.24 for those with
low level of understanding. Other teaching behaviours 'who
to whom.', 'instruction', 'question', 'response' and 'class
management' were not significant.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
~ Senior Secondary School Three (SS 3)
l.!..Qj Teachers' Illteraction Patterns: Time Extent
Introduction
This chapter presents the result of SS3 geography teachers'
general trend of interaction pattern in terms of time extent and
the influence of location, class size, school type and teachers
understanding of geography objectives on the patterns.
Table 17: Observed General Trend of Interaction Patterns
of SS3 Geography Teachers by Time Extent
Behaviour Freq 0/0 Time Spent
, (min)
Individual student work 281 5.8 l min 10secs
Student group activity 370 7.6 lrnin. 20secs
Teacher prompting learning 1248 25.6 5mins
Monologue 2613 53.6 11mins 5sees
Teacher not facilitating learning 218 4.5 lrnin
Confusion 80 1.6 17secs
Others 65 1.3 15 sees
Total 4,875 100 20mins
Table 17 and Figure 17(a) show the general trend of classroom
interaction pattern of geography teachers in terms oftirne extent.
Table 17 shows that for SS3 teachers, frequency of 'monologue'
was 2,613 (53.6%), 'teacher prompting learning 1,248 (25.6%),
'student group activities, 370 (7.6%), 'individual student work,
281 (5.8%), 'teacher not facilitating learning' 218 (4.5%),
'confusion', 80 (1.6%) and 'others', 65 (1.3%).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
82
Time spent on each important class activity by the SS3 teachers
as presented in Table 17 and Figure 17(b) shows that monologue
took the greatest part of class tU11e(llmins. Ssecs).This was
followed by teacher prompting learning (Smins.). Students group
activities and individual student work constituted Imin 20secs.,
and 1min. 1Osecs. respectively. Other activities that indicated that
the teachers were not in full control of their classes constituted
minute segments of the class time observed. These are teacher
not facilitating learning, confusion and others.
Individual Student group Teacher Monologue Teacher not Confusion Others
student work activity prompting facilitating
learning learning
Category Behaviour
Fig 17(a): Observed General Trend of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers on CIS
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
83
IS
.--..
-c-e 10C
<.>
C.
rJeJ 5
r-
Individual Student group Teacher ~I onologue Teacher not Confusion Others
student work activity prompting facilitating
learning learning
Category Behaviour
Figure 17(b): Time Spent by SS 3 Teachers on Class Interaction
Table 18: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Location
Behaviour Rural Urban
N Freq Mean SD N Freq Mean SD t . -,df Sig
Individual student work 23 89 3.87 4.00 30 182 6.40 5.84 1.98 51 0.041 *
Student group activity 23 82 3.57 7.48 30 268 9.60 18.67 1.46 51 0.150\S
Teacher prompting 23 502 21.83 15.3 30' 746 24.87 13.29 0.77 51 0.444\S
learning
Monologue 23 1231 53.52 21.90 30 1382 46.07 20.25 1.28 51 0.206~s
Teacher not facilitating 23 103 4.48 8.33 30 115 3.83 5.95 0.33 51 0.744~s
learning
Confusion 23 21 0.91 1.41 30 59 1.97 4.01 1.20 51 0.235\S
Others 23 19 0.83 1.97 30 48 1.53 2.13 1.24 51 0.221 \S
* = Significant at p < 0.05
NS . Not significant at p < 0.05
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
84
Table 18 shows that there is significant difference in 'individual
student work' in terms of classroom behaviour by school
location (t = 0.041, df=51, p<0.05), Mean = 3.87; SD =4.00
for rural and Mean =.6.40; SD= 5.4 for urban location.
Results also reveal that there is no significant difference in
other classroom behaviours such as 'student group activity',
'teacher prompting learning', 'monologue', 'teacher not
facilitating learning', 'confusion' and' others' .
Table 19: Analysis of Interaction Pattern ofSS3 Geography
Teachers (Time Extent) by School Type
Behaviour Private Public
N Freq Mean SD N Freq Mean SD t df Sig
Individual student 13 72 5.54 5.58 40 208 5.23 5.20 0.19 51 0.85~5
work
Student group activity 13 77 5.92 6041 40 293 7.33 17.02 0.29 51 0.77"5
Teacher prompting '13 336 25.85 18.27 40 912 22.80 12.74 0.67 51 0.51"s
learning
Monologue 13 641 49.31 24.15 40 1972 49.30 20.74 0.01 51 0.99~5
Teacher not facilitating 13 46 3.54 7.03 40 172 4.30 7.09 0.34 51 0.73"5
learning
Confusion 13 34 2.62 5.42 40 46 1.15 1.97 1.46 51 0.15"5
Others 13 16 2.3 1.64 40 49 . 1.23 2.21 1.01 51 0.99"s
NS Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 19presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern ofSS3
Geography teachers in terms of time extent by school type (i.e.
private or public). The table shows that there is no significant
difference in 'individual student work', 'student group activity',
'teacher prompting learning', 'monologue', 'teacher not facilitating
learning', 'confusion' and 'others' in terms of school type in
these classes.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
85
Table 20: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teacher (Time Extent) by Class
Size Science Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 & below Class Size Above 30
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Sig
Individual student 27 150 5.56 5.83 26 131 5.0~ 4.65 0.36 51 0.723 :-'5
work
Student group activity 27 171 6.33 8.67 26 199 7.65 19.83 0.32 51 0.753 \S
Teacher prompting 27
learning 539 19.96 12.37 26 709
27.27 15.15 1.93 51 0.051\S
Monologue 27 1411 52.26 21.22 26 1202 46.23 20.97 1.04 51 0.303\S
Teacher not 27 126 4.67 8.43 26 92 3.54 5.26 0.58 51 0.563\5
facilitating learning
27 43 1. 59 3.94 26 37 1.42 2.19 0.19 51 O.8~8~5Confusion
Others 27 37 1.37 2.24 26 28 1.08 1.92 0.51 51 O.OIINS
NS =Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 20 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS3 geography teachers in terms of time extent by class
size in science classes. It shows that there is no significant
difference in all the behaviours in terms of class size in
science classes.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
86
Table 21: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by Class
Size in Commercial Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 & below Class Size Above 30
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Sig
Individual student 35 212 6.06 5.66 18 69 3.83 ~.05 1,48 51 0.1~5\5
work
Student group activity 35 248 7.09 8.99 18 122 6.78 23.08 0.07 51 0.945\5
Teacher prompting 35 862 H63 1~.11 18 386 21.4~ Il~2 0.77 51 0.4~3\5
learning
Monologue 35 1655 47.29 20.17 18 958 53.22 22.92 0.97 51 0.337\5
Teacher not 35 167 4.77 7.09 18 51 2.83 6;88 0.95 51 0.346\S
facilitating learning
Confusion 35 64 I. 83 3.47 18 16 0.89 2.49 1.02 51 0.313\S
Others 35 55 1.57 2.37 18 10 0.56 1.10 2.13 51 0.038*
* = Significant at p < 0.05
NS = Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 21 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS3 geography teachers in terms of time extent by class
size in commercial classes. It shows that there is significant
difference in "others" (t = 0.03, df= 51, p <0.05). It further
reveals that there are no significant difference in other class
behaviours such as 'individual student work', 'student group
activity', 'teacher prompting learning', 'monologue',
'teacher not facilitating learning' and 'confusion' in these
classes.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
87
Table 22: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by Class
Size in Arts Classes
Behaviour Class Size 30 & below Class Size Above 30
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean S.D t df Si(eJ
Individual student 29 149 5.14 5.82 24 132 5.50 4.55 0.25 51 0.805 \5
work
Student group activity 29 278 9.59 19.08 24 92 3.83 7.18 1.40 51 0.169 \5
Teacher prompting 29 667 23.00 14.24 24 581 24.20 14.34 0.31 51 0.760\5
learning
Monologue 29 1334 46.00 20.85 24 1279 53.29 21.17 1.26 51 0.214\5
Teacher not facilitating 29 130 4.48 8.17 24 88 3.67 5.45 0.42 51 0.678\5
learning
Confusion 29 47. 1.62 3.77 24 33 1.38 2.36 0.28 51 0.78l\S
Others 29 41 1.41 2.16 24 24 1.00 1.98 0.72 51 0.475\5
NS - Not significant at p<O.05
Table 22 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS3 geography teachers in terms of time extent by class
size in Art classes. It shows that there is no significant
difference in all other class behaviours in these classes.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
88
Table 23: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS3
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by Level
of Understanding of Geography Objectives
Behaviour High Low
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Sig
Individual student 19 137 7.21 5.64 34 144 4.76 4.24 2.04 51 0.05*
work
Student group activity 19 141 7.42 9.56 34 229 17.55 6.74 0.16 51 0.88~s
Teacher prompting 19 480 24.21 13.06 34 788 14.91 23.18 0.25 51 0.801'S
learning
Monologue 19 915 48.16 23.35 34 1688 20.10 49.94 0.29 51 .O.77~s
Teacher not 19 99 5.21 8.48 34 119 6.11 3.50 0.85 51 OAO~s
facilitating learning
Confusion 19 48 2.52 4.51 34 32 1.97 0.94 2.78 51 0.02*
Others 19 18 0.95 1.58 34 47 2.31 1.38 0.73 51 OAis
. * = Significant at p < 0.05
NS = Not significant at p <0.0
Table 23 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS3 geography teachers (Time Extent) in terms of their level
of understanding of geography objectives. Result shows
that there is significant difference in 'individual student work'
(t = 0.04, df= 51; P <0.05), and 'confusion' (t = 0.02, df=
51; p < 0.05). in terms of level of teachers' understanding
of geography objectives. Table 23 also shows that there is
no significant difference in other behaviours: 'student group
activity', 'teacher prompting learning', 'monologue',
'teacher not facilitating learning' and 'others'.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
rtil Senior Secondary Class Two (SS2) .
L.::jTeachers' Interaction Pattern: Time Extent
Introduction
This chapter presents the result of SS2 teachers classroom
interactionpatterns intermsoftime extentaswell as the influence
of location, class size, school types and teachers' understanding
of geography objectives on the interaction patterns.
Table 24: Observed General Trend of Interaction
Pattern of SS2 Geography Teachers in terms
of Time Extent
Behaviour - Freq. % -Time
Soent (rnin)
Individual student work 113 6.2 1.24
Student group activity 185 10.1 2.02
Teacher prompting learning 479 26.2 5.24
Monologue 902. 49.3 10.00
Teacher not facilitating learning 102 5.6 1.12
Confusion 37 2.0 0040
Others 11 0.6 0.12
Total 1,829 100 20mins
Table 24 and Figure 24(a) show the general interaction
classroom patterns of SS2 geography teachers' interaction
'Monologue' was 902 (49.3%), 'teacher prompting learning'
479 (26.2%), 'student group activity' 185(10.1%), 'individual
student work' 113 (6.2%), 'teacher not facilitating learning'
102 (5.6%), 'Confusion' 37 (2.0%) and 'others' 11(0.6%).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
90
In SS2 classrooms, tune spent by the teachers as presented
in Table 24 and Figure 24(b), showed that 'monologue' with
(10mins) took up the greater part of class time, followed by
'teacher prompting learning' (5mins, 24secs). 'Student group
activity' and 'individual student activity' constituted (2mins,
2secs) and (Irnin., 24secs) respectively. Other activities that
are made up of 'teacher not facilitating learning', 'confusion
and others', took small segments of the total class time.
60
50
<IJ 40
e..l:l
~ 30
(j
L.
c<.I.J 20
10
Individual Student Teacher M onologue Teacher not Confusion Others
student work group prompting facilitating
activity learning , learning
Category Behaviour
Fig 24(a): Observed General Trend of Interaction Pattern of SS 2
Geography Teachers on CIS
15
-c 10
-E'-"C
<IJ
Co
V'l
<IJ
E
r- 5
04===~=
Individual Student Teacher M analogue Teacher not Confusion Others
student work group prompting facilitating
activity learning learning
Category Behaviour
Figure 24(b): Time Spent by SS 2 Teachers on Class Interaction
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Table 25: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS 2
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Location
Behaviour Rural Urban
N Freq ~Iean S.D N Frcq Mean SD t df Sioe
Individual student 5 9 1.80 2.68 18 10~ 5.78 6.61 1.30 21 0.208 \5
work
Student group activity 5 6~ 12.80 13,25 18 121 6.72 6.88 1.42 21 0.171 ~s
Teacher prompting 5 86 17.20 11.3~ 18 393 21.83 9.39 0.94 21 0.360\5
learning
Monologue 5 166 33.20 15.02 18 736 40.89 17.31 0.90 21
0.378\5
Teacher riot facilitating 5 65 13.00 17.15 18 37 2.06 5.29 2.44 21 0.024*
learning
Confusion 5 11 2.20 3.49 18 16 1.44 2.15 0.61 21 0.550~5
Others 5 1 1.40 1.34 18 4 0.22 0.65 2.82· 21 0.010*
* = Significant at p < 0.05
NS= Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 25 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS2 geography teachers in terms of time extent by location.
It shows that there is significant difference in 'teachernot
facilitating learning'(t = 0.024, df= 51; P < 0.05) and 'others'
(t = 0.01, df = 51; P <0.05) in terms of school location. It
also shows that there is no significant difference in 'individual
student work' (t = 0.21), 'student group activity' (t = 0.17),
'teacher prompting learning' (t = 0.36), 'monologue' (t =
0.38) and' confusion' (t = 0.55) in terms of school location.
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Table 26: Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS 2
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by School
Type (Private or Public)
Behaviour Private Public
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Siab
Individual student 9 64 7.11 8.87 14 49 3.50 3.20 1.40 21 O.175\S
work
Student group activity 9 84 9.33 8.06 14 101 7.21 9.23 0.56 21 0.579 \5
Teacher prompting 9 197 21.89 12.31 14 282 20.14 8.17 0.41 21 0.686\5
learning
Monologue 9 360 40.00 15.57 14 542 38.71 18.14 0.18 21 0.863\5
Teacher not facilitating 9 13 1.44 2.35 14 89 6.36 12.23 l.l8 21 0.250\5
learning
Confusion 9 18 2.00 2.65 14 19 1.36 2.34 0.61 21 0.548~5
Others 9 2 0.22 0.67 14 9 0.64 1.08 1.04 21 ' 0.310~s
NS =Not significant at p<O.05
Table 26 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS2 geography teachers (Time Extent) by school type. It
shows that there is no significant difference in 'individual
student work', 'student group activity' ,'teacher prompting
learning', 'monologue', 'teacher not facilitating learning',
'confusion' and 'others' in terms of school type.
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Table 27: Analysis of Teaching Behaviour of SS 2
Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by Class
Size (Science)
Behaviours Class Size 30 below Class Size Aboye 3(
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Si(Jb
Individual student 12 42 3.50 3.48 11 71 6.45 8.07 1.15 21 0.260 \S
work
Student group activity 12 79 6.58 9.69 11 106 9.64 7.51 0.84 21 0.411 \S
Teacher prompting 12 261 21.75 10.23 11 218 19.82 9.62 0.47 21 0.646\5
learning
Monologue 12 492 41.00 19.20 11 410 37.27 14.47 0.52 21 0.607\5
Teacher not facilitating 12 89 7.42 12.96 11 13 1.18 2.18 1.57 21 0.131 \S
learning
Confusion 12 21 1.75 108 11 16 1.45 1.57 0.286 21 0.7781\5
Others 12 9 0.75 1.14 11 2 0.18 0.60 1.48 21 o.r"..~5
NS Not significant at p < 0.05
Table 27 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS 2 geography teachers in terms of time extent by class
size in science classes. Result shows that there is no
significant difference in all the behaviours in terms of class
size in science classes.
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Table 28: T-Test Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS
2 Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Class Size (Commercial)
Behaviour Class Size 30 & below Class Size Above 30
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Sig
Individual student
14 88 6.295work 7.22 9 25 2.78
3.35 1.36 21 0.189 \S
Student group activity 14 143 10.21 9.70 9 42 4.61 5.70 1.54 21 0.137 \S
Teacher prompting 0.598\S
learning 14 304 21.71 10.92 9 175 19.44 8.06 0.54 21
Monologue 14 515 36.78 14.55 9 387 43.00 20.20 0.86 21 0.400\S
Teacher not
facilitating learning 14 58 4.14 10.24 9 44 4.89 9.70 0.17 21 0.864\S
Confusion 14 18 1.29 2.30 9 19 2.11 2.67 0.79 21 0.439\S
Others 14 5 0.35 0.93 9 6 0.67 1.00 1.76 21 0.457\S
".
NS = Not significant at P< 0.05
Table 28 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS2 geography teachers in terms of time extent by class
size in commercial classes. Result shows that there is no
significant difference in all the behaviours according to class
size in commercial classes.
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Table 29: T-Test Analysis of Interaction Pattern of SS
2 Geography Teachers (Time Extent) by
Class Size (Arts)
Behaviour Class Size 30 & below Class Size Above 30
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t df Sig
Individual student 9 54 6.00 8.37 14 59 4.21 4.44 0.67 21 0.510\S
work
Student group activity 9 94 10.44 11.29 14 91 6.50 6.49 1.07 21 0.297\S
Teacher prompting 9 184 20.44 8.71 14 295 21.07 10.70 0.15 21 0.885~s
learning
Monologue 9 359 39.89 21.23 14 543 38.79 14.18 0.15 21 0.882\S
Teacher not 9 74 8.22 13.53 14 28 2.00 5.83 1.53 21 0.141\S
fa:TCItIf a mg Iearnm.'g-
Confusion 9 1'6 1.78 2.73 14 21 1.50 2.31 0.26 21 0.796NS
Others 9 3 0.33 1.00 14 - 8 0.57 0.94 0.58 21 0.568~s
NS =Not significant at P < 0.05
Table 29 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS2 geography teachers in terms ·of time extent by class
size in arts classes. Result shows that there is no significant
difference in all the teacher behaviours in terms of class
size in arts classes.
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Table 30: T-Test Analysis of Interaction Pattern of
SS2 Geography Teachers by Level of Teacher
Understanding of Geography Objectives
Behaviour Low High
N Freq Mean S.D N Freq Mean SD t Of Sig
Individual student 10 29 2.90 3.81 13 6~ 6.46 7.25 1.41 21 0.174x.
work
Student group activit. 10 15 5.00 5.72 13 135 10.38 9.98 1.52 21 0.143 x
Teacher prompting 10 180 18.70 10.17 13 292 22.46 9.52 0.91 21 0.372~
learning
Monologue 10 423 42.30 13.37 13 479 36.85 19.26 0.76 21 0.454xs
Teacher not 10 25 2.50 6.88 13 77 5.92 11.64 1.82 21 0.420~s
facilitating learning
Confusion 10 17 1.70 2.67 13 20 1.54 2.33 0.16 21 0.878riS
Others 10 4 0.40 0.84 13 7 0.54 1.05 0.34 21 0.7377\8
NS = Not Slgnificant at P< 0.05 ~
Table 30 presents the t-test analysis of interaction pattern of
SS2 geography teachers in terms of time extent by level of
understanding of geography objectives. Result shows that
there is no significant difference in all the teacher behaviours
in terms of teacher's level of understanding of geography
objectives.
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Section Four
Quality Assurance in Teaching and
Learning Geography in Nigeria
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Episodic Analysis of Senior
Secondary School Three Geography
Teachers by States
Introduction
Quality teaching involves a whole gamut of factors and it
would mean applying leamer-centred, skill-based approaches
and other categories of instructional media to promote
learning in all students without an exception. In addition, the
teachers' quality in terms of qualification, pedagogical skills,
adequate offering of relevant courses (extent of subject
knowledge), adequacy of internship and relevant experiences,
motivation (drive to achieve) among others are essential
factors to achieving quality.
The quality of the geography teachers teaching
behavours were explained in episodic analysis or what can
also be called sequence analysis. This was done at state
level. At the SS three level, two scenarios were observed
and analysed per state while one was analysed at the SS
two level. With the two scenarios analysed at the SS three
level, attempts were made to present where possible, one
'good' . or (ideal) and one 'poor' (not ideal) teachingscenenos.
In a few states, it was impossible to identify bad/poor
(not ideal) or good (ideal) cases. At the end of each episodic
reporting, a summary of analysis of the features of the lesson
was presented indicating the overall performance of each
teacher.
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10()
Ahuja
In Abuja, one of the teachers observed (a male) proceeded
from lecturing to asking a higher order question directed at
the class but went into a period of silence. Rather than use
prompts and other techniques to make the students learn he
went ahead to provide the answer laying emphasis on the
response and then asked the class to recite the answer after
him. The teacher then went on teaching using examples for
some time, then asked another higher order question directed
at the class to which they responded correctly and teacher
acknowledged response as correct. The lesson continued
with the teacher giving examples then asked another higher
order question laying emphasis on the question while the
class kept silent. He probed them further until they provided
the required response. Though, he did not acknowledge the
correctness of their response, he went on teaching and later
asked another higher order question, which was answered
by a student and the teacher acknowledged and continued
~ili~~~. .
In another scenario, the teacher asked a higher order
question in the course of teaching, to which the class
responded correctly. This teacher acknowledged, repeated
the response and went on with the teaching. Shortly after,
he asked another higher order question and the students
were silent, then the teacher gave the answer laying some
emphasis on this to enable them remember next time, and
he continued to teach. The teaching of the lesson and the
use of examples continued for a fairly long period of time,
before a higher order question was asked again. The class
gave the correct response which the teacher repeated and
he then continued with the teaching. This was followed
closely with another higher order question, a response and
teacher repetition of the answer.
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Analysis of Findings
The two lessons observed arid reported here are
characterised with these features:
• regular use of examples;
• questions (mainly higher order) were asked;
• teaching behaviours were more methodological with
proper understanding of pedagogical skills;
• students were carried along, encouraged and
participation was fairly high;
• though lecture method was used for a fairly long period
of time, students' participation was never over looked;
• this pattern was common in the schools observed in
the Capital Territory; and
• learning materials were, however, not used extensively.
Akwa-Ibom
Scenarios from two schools were also presented from this
State. In one of the schools in the State, the geography
teacher's teaching behaviour shows the following episodes.
Using the lecture method, the teacher passed on information
to the students using examples, then asked a recall question
directed at a student who answered the question and the
teacher repeated the answer and asked for the effectiveness
of instruction. As teaching continued, with the teacher still
giving examples, he asked a higher order question which
was answered by a student while the teacher asked for
effectiveness of the teaching and proceeded to teach giving
examples.
In another school, the teacher during the course of
teaching asked a higher order question to which a student
responded followed by a recall question that was directed
to the student again who then gave an extended response.
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The teacher continued with the teaching and asked a recall
question which was answered by a student but this was
discontenounced by the teacher who continued teaching
without giving attention to the student's response.
Analysis of Findings
These lessons are characterised by the following features:
• short use of the lecture method to pass on information
to students;
• use of higher order and recall questions to engage
students in the lesson;
• adequate examples were used even though learning
materials were conspicuously absent;
• the short teacher teaching behaviours recorded in this
state seem to indicate that less time was spent on task
out of the 1Ominutes the TMI instrument was used; and
• the observed episodes seem to be the pattern in all the
schools observed in the State.
Edo State
In the first scenario, the geography teacher (a female) tended
to maintain a fairly good teaching behaviour pattern expected
of a good teacher but could not follow through to the end.
The teacher proceeded from a brief lecture/exposition to
asking opinion questions directed at a student which was
responded to. The teacher acknowledged the response and
proceeded to teach using materials. Along the line, individual
students made students initiated talk without the teacher
noticing or was it a deliberate refusal to notice the students?
Teacher went on with the lesson, then asked another opinion
question which she redirected to the class, who gave a chorus
answer. She was not probably satisfied with the answer so
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did not acknowledge the response but went on teaching.
Shortly after, she redirected the question to another student
who responded to the question and the teacher again went
on teaching without any feedback.
In the second scenario, the geography teacher started
teaching by using examples, then asked a recall question
that was directed at a student who responded. The teacher
redirected the question to another student without any
feedback to the first student or class. The student then
answered the question, and teacher said student was wrong
and went on to give the answer without providing further
information on why the response was wrong. In each of the
instances, the teacher failed to prompt, give cues, probe the
students with other questions that could lead to thinking
and can elicit the required response. Next, this teacher went
on teaching, asked an opinion question directed at a student
who gave a fairly long response, the teacher continued
teaching without providing appropriate feedback to the
student or class.
Analysis of Findings
In the two scenarios presented, the lessons are characterised
by:
• short use of the lecture method to provide information
to students;
• use of questions (opinion and recall) which were fairly
distributed across students;
• there was serious problem of pedagogic mastery. For
instance, examples and learning materials were scarcely
used and seems to be the case in all the schools
observed in the State;
• students were hardly prod to provide correct responses
nor were they encouraged through praise or other
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• long/extended use of lecture method;
• higher order and recall questionswere used in the delivery
of instruction;
• learning materials and examples were used to some
extent;
• probing was fairly used while silence was observed;
• teachers used pedagogical procedures fairly well; and
• this pattern was common in most of the schools
observed in the State.
Kaduna State
In the first scenario in this State, the geography teacher in
one of the schools observed, proceeded from providing
information to asking a recall question directed at the class
who gave chorus response. The teacher acknowledged the
response and asked for the effectiveness of that
understanding. He then continued to teach using examples,
and asked a higher order question directed at the 'class to
which a student provided a response and the teacher replied
'wrong'. He did not stop at that, but probed the student
further until he was able to provide the needed response
and the teacher acknowledged the correctness of the
response. As the teaching progressed, the teacher asked an
opinion question directed at the class who gave a chorus
response. This, the teacher acknowledged and continued to
teach.
In another scenario, a male geography teacher that was
observed started his teaching and proceeded to ask a higher
order question directed at the class, a student answered the
question and the teacher responded and said 'wrong' and
went ahead to provide the answer and also asked for the
effectiveness of the response he gave. The teacher taught
for a while, again using some form of learning materials
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then, asked another higher order question to which a student
responded and was acknowledged as correct with some
emphasis. As teaching progressed, the teacher asked an
opinion question directed at the group and they gave some
chorus answers. This was ignored by the teacher who
continued to teach with examples and using some materials,
He later asked another higher order question to which a student
answered and was acknowledged by the teacher to be correct
with some emphasis and he went on teaching using examples.
Analysis of Findings
The two scenarios are characterised by these features:
• use of questions (opinion and higher order questions),
these were directed at the whole class;
• lecture was used to provide brief information at intervals;
• learning materials were used for better comprehension in
the second instarice and not in the first, though both teachers
used examples to drive home the points being made;
• the teachers tended to exhibit good teaching behaviour
by using probing questions to make students learn;
• there was, however, poor class management exhibited
by frequent chorus answers from students; and
• this pattern seems to pervade the classrooms observed
in the State.
Kebbi State
The first scenario in Kebbi state showed that in one of the
observed schools, the geography teacher used the lecture
method all through the duration of the ten minutes the TMI
was used, there was no interaction between this teacher,
students and materials,
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The second scenario tended to be much better than the
first. The teacher in this school used the lecture method for
fairly long period of time using examples. Then he asked a
higher order question directed at the whole class, to which a
student responded and the answer was repeated by the
teacher. The teacher continued to teach and using examples
intermittently for a very long time, then carried out a procedure
and asked a higher order question to which a student
responded and the teacher continued teaching without paying
attention to the response given. He asked another higher order
question directed to a student which was answered.
Analysis of Findings
In the two scenarios presented, the following are the
characteristics of the lesson:
• the teacher took the central stagewithout the participation
of the students in the first scenario while the second
was Inuch better;
• though the lecture method was used to a large extent in
the second scenario, there was an increased
uncoordinated teacher-students interaction than the first;
• higher order questionswere askedeventhoughnot followed
through but examples were provided several times; and
• this manner of classroom behaviour seem to pervade
the schools visited in the State.
Kwara State
In the firstscenarioinKwara State,the geography teacher
gave a directive, a probe and a higher order question in that
order to a student. The student responded 'I do not k now"
an d the teacher said wrong and gave the correct answer.
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Thereafter, the teacher continued to teach using examples,
then asked a recall question directed at the class which a
student responded to and the teacher acknowledged as
being correct and repeated the answer. The teacher also
asked for effectiveness of his teaching to which the students
chorused a positive response and the teaching continued
with the teacher using examples and learning materials, Next,
the teacher asked a recall question directed at the whole
class, pro bed further when they did not respond, and they
gave the correct response to which the teacher acknowledged
as correct, repeated the answer and sought for effectiveness
of teaching. The teacher asked another recall question, a
student responded and the teacher gave the answer and the
student responded by repeating the teacher's answer.
In the second scenario, the male geography teacher
observed asked a higher order question in the course of
teaching, the teacher probed further and directed the
question to a student who-responded and the teacher, rather
than probe, prompt and encourage the student to elicit the
correct response gave the answer and the student and the
class in turn repeated the answer. As the teacher continued
to teach, he asked an opinion question directed at the class,
redirected the question to a student when the whole class
could not provide the answer. Rather than wait for the
student to answer the question, he went ahead and continued
teaching.
Analysis of Findings
. Analyses of the two scenarios show the following as the
characteristics of the lessons.
• short use of the lecture method to provide information
on the topics being taught;
• recall, higher order and opinion questions were used to
drive home the information being imparted;
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• probes were used but most times teacher did not wait
for students to respond, but was in a hurry to end the
lesson than allow students to learn, so gave the answers
and made them chorus these;
• learning materials were sparsely used but examples were
frequently provided;
• students' responses were not promptly motivated; and
• class management was poor and so was teachers
mastery of pedagogy.
Ogun State
Two scenarios of geography teaching in this State show
that the following are the episodic teaching features. In one
of the schools where the geography teacher was observed,
the teacher proceeded to ask a recall question during the
course of teaching which was directed at a student, the
student responded correctly and was acknowledged by the
teacher who went ahead to teach without carrying the
students along. .
In another scenario, the teacher proceeded from
teaching with learning materials to asking an opinion question
to which a student responded correctly and was
acknowledged as being correct by the teacher. The teacher
continued with the lesson using learning materials, then gave
a directive and continued teaching, asked another opinion
question which was answered by a student and was
acknowledged to be correct by the teacher. As the teaching
continued, she asked a recall question which was responded
to and was acknowledged to be correct and the lesson
continued with the teacher using some learning materials.
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Analysis of Findings
The features of these two episodic reports of observed
teaching are as follows:
• lecture method was used in short duration to pass
information;
• recall and opinion questions were mostly used to elicit
students' knowledge;
• the teacher in the second scenario seems to have fairly
good pedagogic skills, than the first though the time on
task observed in these two classrooms tended to be
short;
• learning materials and examples were used to make
lessons effective; and
• short duration of the learning time observed tended to
pervade all other schools visited in this State.
Oyo State
In one of the schools visited in this State, the geography
teacher embarked on teaching using the lecture method for
a greater part of the lesson, then asked a higher order
question directed at the class. The answer was provided by
a student and the teacher went on teaching oblivious of the
response provided by the student, then asked another higher
order question again which was answered by another student.
In the second scenario, the female geography teacher
observed lectured. She gave a directive and provided a cue,
then asked a higher order question in that order. The answer
to the question was provided by a student and the teacher
showed no interest in the student's response, and continued
teaching giving examples. This she did for a fairly long time
and then asked another higher order question directed at
another student who said' I do not know' the teacher was
too much in a hurry to finish the lesson than allowing students
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learn, so she decided to give the answer and went on
teaching using examples.
Analysis of Findings
These two teachers have some characteristics in common,
they are listed as follows:
• the lecture method was solely used for a very long period
of time;
• few questions were asked even though they were higher
order questions but the teachers paid no particular
attention to the students' reactions to them;
• examples and learning materials were used intermittently
in the lesson;
• the teachers generally depicted poor understanding of
proper pedagogic skills; and
• pattern of teaching seemed to be the trend among the
teachers' sampled in the State.
Plateau State
In this State, the observation of a geography teacher in one
of the schools revealed that he maintainedjust a fair teaching
behaviour. During the course of teaching, the teacher asked
a recall question directed at a student. The student was silent
and later replied 'I do not know'! Rather than apply
necessary learning procedures to enable student elicit
expected response, the question was redirected to another
student who gave a correct reply and was acknowledged as
correct. The teacher continued teaching using examples and
learning materials, then asked a higher order question which
a student answered and the teacher repeated the answer
with some element of emphasis without any feedback or
any encouraging word. The teacher then gave a directive
and went into a period of silence.
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In the second scene, the geography teacher, taught with
learning materials, carried out a procedure like cleaning the
blackboard and then asked a higher order question directed
at a student who was silent, apparently because he/she did
not know the answer and later replied 'I do not know'. Like
the first teacher, the question was redirected to another student
without any delay. The student answered correctly to the
admiration of the teacher who spent sometime acknowledging
the student's response with emphasis. The lesson progressed
with the teacher using examples and learning materials. Then
there was silence followed by a directive given to a student.
Analysis of Findings
The two teachers in the two scenarios have everything in
COmlTIOnT.he characteristics of the lessons are:
• short use of the lecture methods to pass information
across, to students;
• use of examples and learning materials;
• prompts and cues were not used to students' advantage;
• use of questioningmethod,recallandhigherorder questions
to create and enhance thinking abilitiesof the students;
• Sudden silence was observed from the teachers during
the course of the lesson shortly before carrying out a
procedure or before a student answered a question.
• Teaching behaviours of the type of the first scenario
seem to pervade the schools observed in the State.
Yobe State
The scenario in one of the geography classroom in this
State shows that during the course of teaching the teacher
asked a recall question directed at the class and the students
chorused the answer, another recall question that followed
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113
was equally chorused by the class and the teacher
acknowledged the correctness of these responses. He then
asked a higher order question which was directed at a
student. This was answered, and followed by another higher
order question which was answered and the teacher repeated
the answer and went ahead to continue teaching instead of
re-inforcing the student's responses. As the teacher kept
teaching with materials he gave a directive to a student who
was silent for a while and the teacher asked a higher order
question which was responded to and the teacher said
'wrong' and gave the answer instead of prompting and
probing further to elicit the correct response.
In another school, as the lesson development went on,
the teacher asked a recall question directed at the class and a
chorus answer was provided. Thereafter, the teacher gave a
directive to a student which was carried out and he went on
teaching using learningmaterials and giving examples for quite
sometime and a higher order questionwas directed at the class
which was answered and the teacher acknowledged as correct.
Thiswas followedwith arecallquestionwhichwas answeredby
a student and the correctnesswas acknowledged by the teacher.
Analysis of Findings
The characteristics of the two lessons are:
• the lecture method was used at short duration to pass
information;
• teaching materials and examples were frequently used;
• recall and higher order questions were frequently used;
• student silence was observed before responding to
higher order questions;
• teachers seemed to have a good knowledge of
pedagogic skills; and
• this quality of lessons were observed to be the trend in
the schools visited in the State.
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Episodic Analysis of Senior
Secondary School Two Geography
Teachers by States
Introduction
In SS two classes, the episodic analysis was done in only
one school per State. This was because there were fewer
cases and the patterns did not detract markedly from what
obtained in the SS three classes.
Akwa-Ibom
Inone of the schools where the female 'geography teacher
was observed, the teacher proceeded with her lesson using
learning materials, she then asked a recall question directed
at a student who responded and the teacher repeated the
answer, continued to teach for sometime using examples to
elaborate her points. Next, she asked a recall question which
was answered by a student and she continued to teach again
using examples without reinforcing or paying attention to
the student's response. She asked another question which
followed the same pattern like the earlier ones.
Analysis of Finding
Characteristics of this lesson are:
• short use of the lecture method;
• use of examples and learning materials;
* frequent use of recall questions only; and
• seem not to have very good grasp of pedagogical skills.
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Enugu State
In this State, one of the teachers observed at this level a
male, engaged the class in enough interaction. He asked a
higher order question directed at the class and it was
answered by a student and the correctness acknowledged
by the teacher who also went ahead to repeat the response
provided laying some amount of emphasis on this. He then
continued with teaching, asked another question which the
student could not answer and so kept silence, then he
redirected it to the other student who also kept silence before
redirecting it to two other students. The last student gave an
extended response, which the teacher acknowledged to be
wrong and then gave the answer laying some emphasis on
his response. He further proceeded with the lesson, laying
emphasis on some points he was passing across, then he
asked the class to repeat what he had said, the class chorused
the statements. At this point, the teacher started attending to a
visitor who came into the class, returned to the class, and
asked them to repeat the statement again and continued with
the teaching using some learning materials andwent into class
management issues by punishing the whole class.
Analysis of Finding
The lesson is characterised by the following features:
• lecture method was put into short and frequent use to
disseminate information;
• frequent use of recall and higher order questions to
ensure full students' participation;
• use of examples and learningmaterials to focus the lesson;
• use of occasionalprompts andconsciousrepetitiontomake
students learn, even though itwas not consistent; and
• generally maintained a good classroom behaviour
pattern.
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Ogun State
The teacher observed at this level in this State was present
for a short duration. He proceeded from teaching to asking
a recall question, which was directed at the class and the
group made no attempt to answer it because they did not
know the answer. The teacher made no attempt to pursue
the issue beyond that point, he went ahead teaching but
using examples and learning materials.
Analysis of Findings
The features of the lesson are listed below:
• short to moderate use of the lecture method;
• few use of question (only recall was asked);
• learning materials and examples were used;
• pedagogic skills seemed not to be put to full use; and
• lesson duration was very short.
Plateau State
The scenario presented is from one of the schools. The
teacher, a female, asked a recall question during the course
of the lesson and the class who apparently did not know the
answer kept silent. The teacher provided the answer, went
on teaching then she asked another recall question, the class
was silent again but this time the teacher probed further.
The class gave a response which was acknowledged to be
correct by the teacher, repeated the response given and asked
for the effectiveness of their understanding. The teacher
then asked an opinion question, probed the student further
who said 'I do not know', and the teacher redirected the
question to another student who responded but the teacher
said it was wrong and she provided the answer instead, and
asked for the effectiveness of the lesson without the students
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responding. As the lesson progressed with the teacher using
examples.to focus her point, she asked a higher order
question which a student responded to and she
acknowledged her response as being correct, repeated the
answer and asked for the effectiveness of her teaching. She
continued teaching and using examples then she asked a
recall question, probed further and the student replied' I do
not know' but the teacher gave a verbal punishment instead
of prompting and probing deeper into the student's cognitive
knowledge. She then gave the answer, asked for effectiveness
of instruction and continued to teach using examples then
gave a directive which was carried out.
Analysis of Finding
The features of the lesson are:
• short and frequent use of the lecture method to pass
informati on;
• frequent use of recall and higher order questions;
• frequent use of examples though learning materials were
not used;
• use of occasional prompts and conscious repetition to
make students learn; and
• seem to have good amount of pedagogical skills.
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Section Five
Issues, Discussion and Summary
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f1Al Teachers 'Understanding of Secondary
~ Geography Objectives in Nigeria
Objectives are set to attain the philosophy and educational
goals of a nation. They also serve as a guide to what is
learnt (curriculum), how it is to be learnt and the depth and
scope, as well as the nature of assessment and evaluation to
conduct.
Findings with respect to the geography teachers'
understanding of secondary education objectives indicate
that a greater proportion of the teachers over 70% of them
have good understanding of these objectives. Statistics show
that the few who probably claimed low or poor knowledge
of these objectives were teachers who are not specialists in
geography and constituted (6%) and (19%) of SS3 and
SS2 geography teachers respectively. These teachers
specialise in Government, Economics, Social Studies,
Business Administration and Environmental Management.
Observations in this study with respect to the influence
of teachers' understanding of secondary geography
objectives and their pattern of classroom interaction indicate
that this variable seems to influence the way these geography
teachers teach at the secondary class two level where the
teachers with high understanding of geography objectives
(Mean = 3.003; SD= 6.24) had poor feedback mechanism
than those with low understanding of geography objectives
(Mean = 7.40; SD = 3.24). The study did not observe any
significant difference in the teaching behaviours of senior
secondary class three geography teachers, who had high .
understanding of geography objectives and those who did
not.
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The finding with respect to the effect of Senior
Secondary School two teachers' understanding of
geography objectives on their instructional pattern, has come
as a surprise. This finding generates a number of questions
which are: could it be that the teachers with low understanding
of geography objectives possess better pedagogical skills
than those who claimed they possessed high understanding
of geography objectives? Or is this category of teachers
those who say they are specialists in other subject areas but
who by chance teach geography, better teachers than those
who are geography specialists? This could not easily be
answered in this study.
Understanding of geography objectives is an input to
education. Objectives give direction to teaching- learning
and to education generally. They serve as a guide or compass .
for gauging standards attainment. It is an irony that most of
the geography teachers claim understanding of geography
objectives, yet such understanding did not impacton their
professional practices. It was those teachers who claimed
to have low understanding of geography objectives that
tended to exhibit better pedagogic skills by using feedback
mechanism of information flow to an advantage in their
professional practices. With all honesty, these teachers
should be commended either for their display of ingenuity,
commitment or love of teaching. There is no doubt that
better understanding of geography objectives should lead.
to proper and comprehensive planning of content to be
taught, choice of strategies or methods and materials to be
applied and assessment methods to be adopted. The bottom
lineis that teachers generally (geography teachers inclusive)
need to be committed to their work and there is a lot the
government and the school management personnel should
do to encourage and motivate teachers to work.
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General Trend in Interaction Patterns
of the Teachers in Secondary Class
Two and Three in Nigeria
The Ten Minutes Interaction (TMI) observation instrument
was used to capture teacher classroom behaviour within ten
minutes duration out of the total of30 minutes observation
time period. Findings with regards to the general trend of
SS three geography teachers' interaction patterns indicate
that the teacher was the dominant initiator and actor in
classroom interaction link. Thirty one percent (31%) of such
initiated talks was to the class and 4.5% to individual
students. Students made minimal amount of interaction
(3.9%).
Also, explanation was the dominant activity (19.20%)
that the teacher engaged in, use of learning materials was
very poor and low (2.5%) and use of examples while
teaching was 5.2% of the time. Use of high level questions
constituted only 3.9%, and recall 6.8% ,opinion 1.9%,
students' initiated talk was very low 0.1%. Feedback of
information from the teacher to students, acknowledgement
of students responses, repetition and giving of answers were
minimal - 2.7%, 1.2% and 1.2% respectively. Silence
(mostly students silence) was observed to be high 6.8%.
Also high was effectiveness of instruction or confirmation
check 12%. Communications with persons outside the
classroom (social) was low 1.3%, sowere all other behaviour
categories.
The general trend of the SS two teachers classroom
behaviour seems to follow the same pattern as those of the
SS three geography teachers. Teachers' initiation of .
interaction to the whole class constituted 32.3%, teacher to
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124
individual student was 3.5%, class to teacher talk was 2.8%
and individual student talk was 3.0%. Explanation under
what was said or instruction was dominant 14.20/0followed
by giving of examples 6.5%. Use of teaching materials,
probes, cues etc were low - 2.0%, 0.67% and 1.2%
respectively. The use of high level questions and recall
questions were moderately high 4.4% and 3.3% respectively.
Under response, silence was high (6.0%), while students
initiated talk was very low 0.4%. Giving of examples,
acknowledging what was correctly said, repetition of answers
and effectiveness of instruction in that order were high -
4.5%, 3.1%, 1.5% and 1.4% respectively. There were very
I low management problems probably because of the presence
t of an external person in the classes observed.
Findings in this study, are similar to those of Padron,
Wasman, Brown and Powers (2000) who found that in an
English Language classroom where the intent is to prove the
classroom behavior of resilient and non-resilient students in a
whole class instructional setting, the teacher dominate about
80% of the class time, small group and individualised tasks
constituted 10% of class time while both resilient and non-
resilient students interacted with the teacher for about 10% of
the class time. Similarly, findings are not too different from
those ofFalaye (2007), Osokoya and Odinko (2005), Shittu
(2006), Okwilagwe and Adetayo (2011) andAdetayo (2011).
It is obvious that many of the geography teachers
observed in this study displayed poor pedagogical skills in
their practice. What these findings further indicate is a total
disconnect between theory and practice. This seems to be
contrary to the training many of them may have received,
considering the fact that between 95% and 98% of these
teachers hold professional qualifications, the lowest being
NeE. Besides, methodology courses are core courses in all
teacher training institutions the world over.Darling-Hammond
(1999; 2000) citing several studies including those of
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Ashton and Croaker (1987); Everton, Hawley and Zlotnik
(1985); Begle (1979); Ferguson and Womack (1993) which
contradict observed findings in this study, indicated that
knowledge of education course work, number of credits a
teacher had on methods course, other teaching dimensions
have consistently impacted stronger positive influence on
teaching performance and student learning ..
Perhaps, these geography teachers lack a lot of
commitment and positive attitudes to work or may have
been negatively influenced by the conditions of their work
environment, since teaching takes place in the context of
the school. Many factors of the school environment, some
beyond the teachers' control affect their work. The Education
Commission of the States (2001), reporting on the progress
of education reform between 1999-2001, submitted that the
nature of the daily work of teachers may have been altered by
education policies reforms such as work ethic, the amount of
decision-making they are allowed and the amount of support
they receive from parents or school, class-size, standards
and assessment. The environment has to be work friendly
and teachers need adequate support from parents and the
system to enable them perform to expectation, It is not enough
to leave teachers with bare qualifications and the curriculum
to implement. To corroborate the Education Commission
for the states reports, Okwilagwe and Okunogbe (2009)
reported that teachers' attitudes and behaviour to task
performance are influenced by government policies
illustrated through poor opportunity given to teachers to
improve themselves beyond the monthly emolument they
receive, while the school policy only permit them to
determine student progress and not much freedom to take
decision in matters affecting their jobs. Teachers also, need
regular on the job or in-service training to update their·
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knowledge, it is only a teacher who is knowledgeable that
can translate policies and theories into practice.
Poor pedagogic skills are expressed in poor instruction,
low student participation, poor choice of teaching strategies,
teacher dominance of the teaching-learning process among
others. In the view of Darling-Hammond (1999; 2000), the
degree of 'teachers' knowledge of pedagogical skills may
interact with subject matter knowledge to bolster or reduce
teachers' performance' (p.8). By implication, teachers with
poor pedagogical skills and poor knowledge of subject
matter are most likely to do poorly in teaching, while the
reverse is the case.
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Extent of Time Expended in the
Teaching Behaviours of the
Teachers
The Classroom Interaction Sheet (CIS) was used as a
complement to the TenMinutes Interaction (TMI) observation
instrument. The observation made with the (CIS) is time bound
as it enables the time expended by teachers on each behaviour
to be measured every 3 seconds of the observation time. The
instrument also permitted the researcher to identify the total
amount of time expended on each important class activity
such as explaining, student group work, individual student
activity, questioning, response and so on.
Findings in respect of SS three geography teachers
indicate that the teachers undertook some activities that
prompted learning. For instance, explaining, writing on the
board, asking questions took up 5 minutes of the total time
allocated to the observation, monologue (that is teacher
talking continuously without involving the students) an
indication of teacher not facilitating learning, took 11minutes;
students group and individual activities took up a combined
time of2 minutes 30 seconds. Other activities that indicated
that the teachers were not facilitating learning includes poor
classroom management (confusion), took up Irninute and
32 seconds. At the senior secondary school class two level,
the pattern of the teachers behaviours was not too different
from those of the senior secondary school class three
teachers. Teacher prompting learning took up 5 minutes 24
seconds, monologue 10minutes, student group and
individual activities jointly accounted for 3 minutes 26
seconds while other activities relating to teacher not facilitatin ;
learning accounted for 2 minutes 4 seconds.
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By implication, the teachers in the two classes spent
more of class time in talking, meaning that the classes were
dominated by the teacher. Little time was spent by the
students participating in learning. This pattern ofinteraction
resulted in lack of initiatives from the students who were
more or less on-lookers. That about 6 minutes was spent
by the teachers on activities that facilitated learning indicated
that less time was spent on learning tasks while more of class
time was spent on time-off-task in addition to attending to
other persons and receiving phone calls. These findings tend
!
r, to find support in previous studies such as those of Wilson
i, (1999), Okwilagwe andAdetayo (2011) andAdetayo (2011).
Closely linked to proper practices of instruction is the
ability of the teacher to apportion instructional time to every
important class activity. Negligence of the teacher to do this
important allocation may lead to lopsidedness in time spent
between relevant and irrelevant classroom behaviours. The
results obtained with the TenMinutes Interaction (TMI) and
Classroom Interaction Sheet (CIS) used as complementary
data capturing instruments in this study tended to corroborate
each other on important classroom teacher-student
behaviours like the attention paid to facilitating activities that
enhance learning, students' participation through initiated
talk, individual and group activities, lecturing and other non-
academic activities. Teacher-student interaction is important
but student-teacher interaction is more important as the later
develops in students ability to express their views and
opinions, participate actively in class discussion, build
bridges for inter-personal relations between and among their
peers, develop confidence in their personal values and self-
concept. It also, develops communicative ability in learners,
especially when the language of instruction is foreign to them.
Consequently, the views of Berliner (1990) with respect
to the importance of ALT should be given serious
consideration and attention by teachers if they want their
students academic achievement to improve.
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[17] Relational Report of Discriminating
Variables
In this study, findings with respect to the relational effects
of the variables on teachers' interaction patterns indicate
that some were significant. With respect to type of school,
instruction of public school teachers using the TMI
instrument was significantly different from teachers in private
schools. Senior Secondary School three geography teachers
in private schools with Mean = 16.31; S.D = 11.85 were
better in 'instruction' than those in public schools with Mean
=12.28; S.D = 8.29. Significant difference was not observed
in the other behaviour categories between these teachers.
Also, no significant difference was observed between Senior
Secondary School two geography teachers in terms of
school type.
Findings with respect to class size, indicate that there is
a significant difference in teacher behaviour category 'who
to whom' ( i.e. initiator of interaction) when the class size
was small, between (1-30 students), Mean = 20.67; S.D =
10.99 and instruction when class size was small (1- 30
students) Mean = 15.63; S.D = 11.60 especially in Science
classes. Feedback was significantly different in commercial
classes when class size was large (more than 30 students)
Mean = 4.28; S.D = 4.44, than when class size was small (1
-30 students) with Mean = 2.57; S. D = 2.43. However,
class size was not significant in influencing any of the
behaviours of Senior Secondary School three teachers in
Art classes. The Senior Secondary School two teachers
were not significantly different in their teaching behaviours
irrespective of the number of students they taught.The
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130
findings in this study tend to be in agreement with previous
studies such as Mosteller (1995) and Education Commission
of the United States (2001) which suggest that smaller class
size give increased opportunities for teacher -individual
student interaction. What was observed in Commercial
classes than in Science classes tend to suggest that teachers
talked more by passing information and not necessarily
engaging the students in hands-on -tasks. Also, findings tend
to support research reports by the World Bank (2004) that
students tended to learn better in large classes in Japan and
elsewhere in Asia depending on subj ect area of
concentration.
With respect to location, findings seem to suggest that
location does not seem to influence any difference in the
teachers' classroom behaviour. Whether schools were
located in the urban and rural areas, teaching behaviours
were same. These findings are at variance with those of
Okwilagwe and Samuel (2011) who found that social studies
'teachers in rural locations are more effective in the business
of teaching than their urban counterparts. However, the
findings are consistent with those of Orj i (1998) where the
urban location influenced teachers' performance than rural
location.
Class size is an important input into education. The
quality of inputs to a large extent, determine the influence of
teacher performance in conjuction with or without the
influence of other factors. Findings in this study support
unarguably the two factions of debate on effect of small or
large class size. The context of teaching and learning was
found to determine to a great extent the overwhelming
influence of this input variable on instruction and feedback
behaviours of these geography teachers. Findings also
suggest that the teachers bring their personality to bear on
the influence of this variable on their professional practices.
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Teachers who teach Commercial classes seem to put in a
lot more efforts in managing their large classes to make
much impact as teachers who manage small geography class
sizes in the Science classes. These are unique findings in
this work and stakeholders and school management
personnel will have to consciously maximise teacher effect
in the teaching of geography based on the existingpeculiarities
in their schools.
The observed dichotomy in instructional practices
between private and public shools is not new. Public schools
are known to have highly qualified teachers than those in
private schools even though private schools tend to have
better performance in externally conducted examinations, a
factor linked to better and improved monitoringstyle of the
management personnel in private schools (Okwilagwe, 2005).
It is pertinent to ask why exactly are public schools inNigeria
performing poorly in spite of the seemingly adequate
personnel at this level? What is being done elsewhere that is
not being done in these schools?
The leadership and managerial accumen of school heads
as well as the style of mangement are key to proper school
improvement and students' achievement. Studies such as
Anyanwu (2002) tend to coroborate this. Public school
management personnel need to work relentlessly on their
roles as school managers to achieve set goals and standards.
In countries like the United States of America, school
managers and their teachers who do not achieve set goals
and standards through observable school improvement and
. i students' achievement indices, are shown the way out and
are immediately replaced Feamise (2003), inRisimati, (2007).
In view of the foregoing, there is need for school
managers to adopt Total Quality Management (TQM)
principles in ensuring that all persons linked to the school in
any way (teachers, parents, schoolheads, heads of
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departments and Ministry supervisory agents) work
collaboratively to achieve excellence with minimal cost and
optimal efficiency and effectiveness. They should develop
sustainable plans for continuous improvement, applying
TQM as a systemic change, imbibing and implementing its
principles encapsulated in the '3Cs' that is, it should be
costumer, culture and capacity oriented which are necessary
for continuous improvement, According to Cotton (1990),
the first Cvcustorncr; presupposes that total quality is ensured
if every person in the production line (establishment) adds
value to the product before it gets to the next stage, and
ultimately to the customer's satisfaction. The second C-
culture, explains that TQM is committed to a kind of
organisational culture that is based on thrust and shared
decision-making. The last C-capacity, is management based.
Here, the leadership is quality conscious and seeks for ways
to bring about change as well as instill and manage the change
process to bring about a continuous achievement of purpose.
TQM is all about systemic change. It must pervade all
aspects of the system and not only an aspect. The change
process is engineered by the end users or customers. Using
the Mt. Edgecumbe High School as an example of where
Demmings (the father of TQM) fourteen points for quality
in education have been successfully' implemented, Cotton
(1990) advanced the following modified points that school
managers should take a cue from:
1. Create and maintain a constancy of purpose
toward improvement of students and service; and
aim to create the best quality students capable of
entering and improving meaningful positions in society.
2. Embrace the new philosophy. Educational
management must take up the challenge, learn their
responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.
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3. Work to abolish grading and the harmful
effects of rating people and focus on the learning
process.
4. Cease dependence on testing to achieve quality
but providing learning experiences which create
quality performance; learning experience that
encourage creativity and experimentation.
5. Work with the educational institutions from
which students come and minimise total cost of
education by improving the relationship with student
sources and helping to improve the quality of
students corning into your system.
6. Improve constantly and forever the system of
student improvement and service to improve
quality and productivity in personal life and
community.
7. Institute continuous training on the job for
students, teachers, classified staff administration
and for all people connected to the human
organisation.
8. Institute leadership (supervision) by helping
people use technology and materials to do a better
job and set the pace, driving human creativity.
9. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work
effectively for the school system and create 'an
environment which encourages people to speak
freely and take risks.
10. Break down barriers between departments.
People in teaching, special education, accounting,
food service, administration, curriculum development
and research must work as a team. Also, develop
strategies for increasing the cooperation among
various groups and miximise time.
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11. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for
teachers and students, asking for perfect
performance and new levels of productivity.
Exhortations create hostile relationships and the
main cause' of low quality and low productivity
belong to the system and thus lie beyond the control
of teachers and students.
12. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on teachers
and students (e.g. raise test scores by 10%; lower
dropouts by 15%) but substitute leadership, the
eternal drive for quality, andjoy of learning.
13. Remove barriers that rob the students, teachers
and management (principals, assistants and central
office support staff) of their right to pride and joy
of workmanship. Abolish the annual or merit rating
and of management by objectives. The
I responsibility of all educational managers lTIUSbt echanged from quantity to quality.14. Institute a vigorous program of education-and
self-improvement for everyone.
15. Put everybody in the community to work to
accomplish the transformation (p.5) .
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Quality Assurance of Geography
Teachers Teaching Behaviours
Quality connotes different meaning to different people. Its
meaning according to UBEP (2002) ranges from excellence,
efficient production of products to the total transformation
of the product by the addition of values. Each of these
perspectives according to this source on quality, lays
emphasis on one characteristics of quality, or another.
Okwilagwe (2003) asserts that quality should cover three
important areas: input, process and output. Input is seen as
covering both the characteristics learners bring into the
learning process, and other human and financial resources.
The process according to her connotes quality of the
instructional phase and the interaction in the classroom and
output connotes the outcomes such as academic
achievements attitudes, values and acquired skills.
Teachers in each school are to promote and maintain
education standards. They are also expected to monitor
and appraise their teaching to see that their lesson plans,
teaching notes align with the scheme etc. Failure to do such
self-evaluation could lead to loss of precious time and
ineffectiveness. Some of the quality assurance principles in
the classroom that teachers should observe include:
(i) ensuring that all students learn irrespective of their
background;
(ii) make lessons purposeful and judiciously executed;
(iii) assessment should be valid, reliable and equitably
distributed;
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(iv) feedback the competencies and perfonnances of
students to relevant persons and bodies;
(v) beyond school support, teachers should make personal
provision for effective delivery of lessons;
(vi) maintain teaching and learning standards at respective
class and school levels;
(vii) ensure that students get required support for learning;
(viii) build and reinforce studentsconfidenceinthemselves;and
(ix) ensure a healthy and conducive learning environment.
Though, quality assurance is a collaborative effort
between the teacher, school management personnel,
supervisory agency, parents, the respective teacher in each
school has a major role to play in ensuring that quality control
is maintained in every lesson delivered. Such quality control
includemonitoring learning activities,assessing every learning
and does a self-appraisal of his/her instructional activities
and feedback information to the students and other relevant
authorities and stakeholders. The actualisation of these key
activities by every teacher (a key link in the educational chain)
will strengthen the process and ensure the achievement of
the desired set objectives at the class and subject level and
attainment of the educational goals -ofthe country.
A critical analysis of the quality of the teaching
behaviours of the teachers (episodic analysis) indicates that
the teachers teaching behaviours' can be classified into three
viz 'good', 'fair' and 'poor'. In a normal classroom situation,
teaching is supposed to be a series of connected links or
steps, involving the interaction of teacher-student and
materials. Besides, the teacher is expected to be ecclectic
using varying strategies and methods to impart relevant facts,
principles, theories and information to learners. Equally
important is the active participation of the learners in the
learning process. In view of these, the teacher has to display
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great wealth of experience, ingenuity and innovativeness both
at the level of planning, execution of the lesson and the use
of effective evaluation techniques. The use of various levels
of questions plays key role in enhancing the learning and
retention of important information. Also, of equal importance
is the teachers' feedback, an important learning block building
process. The potential of these indicators of good teaching
behaviours in setting the weak and not too confident learner
on track cannot be quantified. Therefore, among the observed
lessons, there were those where these basic features were
frequently put into use, some were moderately used and
others hardly apparent. These formed the basis for classifying
the observed lessons into the three categories of 'good',
'fair' and 'poor'.
The very good lesson presentations possessed to a great
extent the identified quality indicators. These were found
among teachers in Abuja, Kaduna, Yobe, Plateau and Enugu.
Those lessons that could be judged to fall within fair category
had about 50% or a modest amount of the quality indicators
identified. These were common among teachers in Akwa-
Ibom and Kwara. Lessons that were classified as poor were
those where the identified features were employed to a lesser
extent and these could be found in classrooms in such States
as Ogun, Oyo, Edo, and Kebbi.
Many teachers rush their lessons in a bid to implement
the scheme of work. or set curriculum at the expense of
achieving quality. The reasons usually advanced by such
teachers is that, they have to meet up with the examination
syllabus. Good as this reason may sound, there is an adage
that says quality should not be sacrificed on the altar of
inefficiency. Teaching is a process that needs to be
systematically executed. A lot of time is wasted by teachers
by spending quality instructional time-off-task either talking
to others, telling stories or engaging in other non-academic
activities during lessons rather than engaging students in
active learning. Teachers, also, employ. ineffective
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approaches, rather than approaches and methods that can
allow them maximise learning. Most often, some teachers
hardly prepare fully for their lessons picking up their
textbooks only when lessons are few minutes away. As a
result, quality time is sacrificed on the alter of inefficiency
and ineffectiveness. In addition, students are thrown into a
state of confusion leading to poor learning and adoption of
poor learning strategies that lead to rote- learning of learnt
facts, which they soon forget immediately after examination.
Research evidence reported by Darling-Hammond
(1999; 2000) has strongly linked student learning to teacher
variables such as: teaching clarity, enthusiasm, task-oriented
behaviour, variability of lesson approaches, student
opportunity to learn; and teachers' abilities to structure
materials, ask higher order questions, use student ideas and
probe student comments, besides the adoption of the right
methodology by successful teachers. Teachers should make
concerted efforts to engage students in quality learning.and
assuring standards attainment.
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~ Summary, Implications of Findings,
~ Conclusion and Recommendations
The major findings in this study are:
With regards to the characteristics of the teachers observed
in this study
• More males than females teach geography in Nigerian
senior secondary schools.
• Greater proportion of Senior Secondary School three
geography teachers (90.70/0) and. Senior Secondary
School two (76.2%) are specialists in the subject.
• Many of the teachers are within their active years 30 -39
years (57.1%) for Senior- Secondary School three and
(42.9%) for Senior Secondary School two.
• 83.3% and 90.3% for Senior Secondary School three
and Senior Secondary School two respectively are
professionally trained.
• Majority of the teachers (between 70-96%) have a high
. understanding of the objectives of geography education
inNigeria.
• A modest proportion (33-58%) of these teachers have
over 1Oyears teaching experience.
With respect to the teaching behaviours of these teachers in
the classroom,
• The teacher (36.9%) is the dominant figure of interaction
and initiator of events in the claSSrOOlTI.
• Instruction (monologue) expressed through lecture or
explanation (26-30.2%) took the greater share of class
interaction.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
140
• Effective students' participation was very minimal
(4.0%).
• The pattern of instruction of Senior Secondary School
three geography teachers in private schools was
observed to be significantly better than those in public
schools.
• These teachers' pattern of 'instruction' and 'who to
whom' were significantly different in Science classes
when class size was small (less than 30 students).
'Feedback mechanism' was significantly different in
commercial classes when class size was large (above
30 students).
• Teachers' teaching behaviours were not significantly
different in Arts classes irrespective of the class size.
• Location and understanding of geography objectives were
not significant discriminating factors of these teachers'
teaching behaviours at this level. '
• The pattern of interaction in the claSSrOOlTwIas observed
to be significantly different in terms of Senior Secondary
School two teachers understanding of geography
objectives. Other factors were not significant in
influencing interaction patterns at this level.
• In terms of time-extent used in discharging the relevant
class activities, 'monologue' (teacher talking non-stop)
and' other activities' that show that the teacher was not
facilitating learning constituted 12minutes 30seconds of
class time dominating the class activities. Time on
task was minimal between 2minutes 30seconds to 3mins
26secs.
• In Senior Secondary School three, the time spent on
individual student talk was significantly different in terms
of location and teacher understanding of geography
objectives. Teachers in urban schools were better than
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
141
their rural counterparts, whereas teachers with high
understanding of geography objectives were better off
than those with low understanding of geography
objectives.
• Class size was only significant in the way teachers
interacted with 'others' in Commercial classes than in
Art, and Science classes.
• In Senior Secondary School two, none of the variables
was significant in discriminating between the teachers'
pattern of time use.
• The quality of instruction in terms of episodic analysis,
was high in schools in 5 states, modest in 2 states and
low in the other 4 states.
1mplications of Findings for Teaching' and Learning
The study findings have implications for the practising
teachers, school management 'personnel, policy makers,
teacher trainers, curriculum planners and students.
The observed poor instruction in the public schools as
against the private schools calls for proper monitoring of
teaching by the school management personnel to ensure
that adequate teaching and learning go on in those schools.
There is no doubt that the system has the manpower to
ensure this, but perhaps the nonchalant attitude of many
management staff in some of our schools, besides the lack
of commitment, do not enable them to have firm control
over their teachers' activities, and has led to the poor state
. of education in our schools.
Poor participation of students in instruction that was
observed through insufficient student initiated talk which
has resulted in non-expression of their views and opinions .
on issues in class, has serious implication for students'
inadequate learning in schools. Many students prefer not to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
142
be noticed by the teacher in class. Rather than taking personal
steps or efforts to handle their own learning to achieve
success they stay in the background. By implication, these
students lose out of proper education and may not be able
to contribute to their personal, family and societal
development in due course.
The factor of smaller class size in science classes, and
moderate to large class size in commercial classes should
be taken seriously by both school management personnel
and policy makers if effective teaching and learning are to
take place in geography classrooms.
There is the need for the curriculum or course contents
of our teacher training pragrammes to be continuously
reviewed to update the teacher trainees with new knowledge
in teaching strategies. They also need new and effective
pedagogical skills in the management of instruction in small
and large classes to achieve enhanced learning and the
objectives, of education at this level in our schools.
Conclusion
The study established the pattern of interaction in geography
classrooms in Nigeria. It was established in the study that
not much of action learning is going on at this level of
education when many of the teachers dominate class
activities, while the students are left as onlookers.
'Instruction' and 'who to whom' tended to be teacher
dominated activities, and were significant when class size
was small but 'feedback' was significant when class size
was and in the class where teachers have low understanding
of geography objectives. It is rather surprising that
teachers'high understanding of geography objectives and
location had no influence on teachers' interaction patterns.
Time spent on class activities by students, which is an
indication of their level of participation and an
indicator of effective learning was inadequate while
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
143
'monologue' (teacher talk) dominated the class interactions.
All these observations border on poor application of
pedagogical principles and practices and poor teacher
attitude to work.
Recommendations
In view of the findings in this study the following
recommendations are made:
• Need for proper training and retraining of trainee and
practising teachers.
• Review of existing courses on pedagogy in colleges/
universities where teachers are trained.
• Science classes where geography is taught should be
small for effective instructions/interaction and
subsequent achievement of enhanced learning by
students.
• Commercial classes should be moderate to large in size
for feedback to be effective.
• To achieve high quality of well sequenced and effective
lessons, teachers should put into use all available
ingenuity, creativity, pedagogic skills, be daring, and
give attention to students' participation in class.
• Students, especially, in rural locations should be daring
in the organisation of their learning aswell as take quality
decision about their learning into their own hands.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Appendices
Classroom Interaction Sheet (CIS)
Date: School No: Subject State No: .
Class: Obsersation No: Teacher No: Time start: Time stop .
Behaviour Category .~. Time
A. Individual student work
B. Student group activity
C. Teacher prompting learning
D. Monologue
E. •......•Teacher not facilitating learning Vl
F. WConfusion
G Others
Note on Categories:
A. Individual student work (observing, writing, questioning, manipulating, etc).
B. Student group activity (observing, writing, manipulating, etc).
C. Teacher - prompting learning (questioning, aiding the slow leamer, demonstrating, explaining, reinforcing
correct response, etc).
D. Monologue (teracher talking non-stop)
E Teache not facilitting learning (punishing, distracting attention, use ofnegatibe reinforcement, giving notes, etc).
F. Confusion (noise, student playing, class disorganized, etc).
G Others (whatever interaction that does not fit info A-F).
Instruction for Recording:
Code in the appropriate cell after each interval of 15 seconds
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
-------------------~~ ~~=c~ .'•~~'•-•~~--~~--~
Ten Minute Interaction Instrument (TMI)
Who
~to --+ ••• What ~ Qual.
Whom
State No: . 1234516 7 8 9 10 11 J 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 t 9202 t 22 21 2425 262728 29303132J 33
School No: , .
i Academic J'v1gt
Teacher No: .
Observation No: ,.. Instruction' Question I Response I Feedback Non. Aca.
Time Start: .
TimeStop: . o•....•.. Il5- ..•~...•
Subject: . E o..~]~ •...
~Cd.o~ IVUl .-Vj -c
::l"0 o..c: (,) ~ "<::'..... 00.- .-:::(:,) 0 c: c: 0 (.)
Class: . O2::l~0
Cd :> _ ._ o 0. ~ •.... ~
Q
o V5~~
,:o "C....:: • 0.'- f} 0 ':"~ti~x'::" c: ::: B u ~ 00 0 ....;,.'-
u .<:).0•.'~0•c.t-~<•.0..•~~oa(.)I-. •.•••~ ..•.•••a...... ~•I..1••..)..uZ
vx. 2~ - ~o 13 Ztrlr;;o 11.) 0 a VI
::s::s •...W• .•..• ,;»
S:>
u,;;
.•
0c: Cu
.•• ~ 11.) "0
,) VcI: u::
c'::;::Co;;-' .- ~'-n'"@ cc:o:>11.) .S ~ 11.) 'Vi "'-'
] ~ ~ 0.] ,t/)'';:: "0 ••• - c:: •...• '-0 - "0.0 .c VI
(,)o-o::lo· .g•..•g.u•..••~~::: VI "ttI 0 0 .
-.c:::::.c-:.-~ ~ 0Context Code ~.g Cd ~ o.-=
11:.): ,-... ~.•••• E, 0c: ce:JJ.~.- '•:.-.:•;••~~ V'.I) U c0: .2u- uIU~~
-+:.
Cd Cd::s 2ct1 00 u·- "0 ,VI 0 ~ c:- ~ 0 2 ~ o.>,~ 0 §'
<_i:i c0o.
~~V5o~ .11..).1;1..) .IU '.-L Large Group .;...
•••;••O-UQA•••,•
= ~ ~ 8' ~ -~~w8~ -< ~ ~ ~~OZ;U5
tr. 0 U
.O- A,•..U.• Uc ')0 WE
S= SmallGroup
= (01)- ( ) IG 'IS sf on IE lLlyi UN Ex ClJ[} Ib fC Fe 0; Rd . Rc F:f I:k 3: k 'v\r 111Ml I()Ql a a It 01 S: unM Monitoring
= (02)- ( ) 1G TS51' GrI IE LtM lJN Fx o, Ir Ib 1-1;.Fe 0; Rd Fe & [k ~ kW ru M1 .RsG1 IT S a It 01 S:>finT Transition (03)- ( ) 10 15 ~TGrI IE 1.dv1.ttN Ex ClJn fb H:;Fe 0; Rd S Fe '& I:k S AcW RJMi RsG:1 IT S a It 01 S:. Em
P= Private
= (04)- ( ) ill 15 Sf ill ldv11tN Ex o, D: lb H; Fe Q; Rd S Fe & Il< S kW I-\I M1 RsCl!1.:f S U ff en ImN Non-involved (05)- ( ) 1G TSsr G lE LM UN6: elln Ib It Fe Q; Rd S Rc '& Il.:3 kW ru tvh RsCe H S a It Ch 5.>En
(06)- () ill rs Sf GrI' IE I,M [tN L-XClJn fb H: Rc 0; Rd Fe & [k S AcW Pu Ml RsC.1l II S n It Ot S,.) Em
(07)- () 1G 13 Sf IE Wvll.tN Exellu lb Ii: Fe 0: Hd Fe & Il< ~ k\\t Pu Ml RsG:1 ir S a It Ch So Im
(08)- ( ) 1G 'IS sr en IE I..dvf.lLNExOJnTb It Fe 0; Rd 9 Fe & n, 3 kW RJMl RsCa ff SUit 01:':0 En
(09)- ( ) 1G 15 ~T IE 1d-.11tNExellu Ib Ii; Fe 0; Rd Rc fr Il::S. r-\c\\t l\J Ivtl RsGl fJ 9 n ff Ot 5.> Irn
(lO}- () ill 15 Sf IE lffi-i ItN ExCu Ix lb 11: Rc0; Rd S Rc fr U: ~ k\l.,t ru r.•1.1fuGt ff S [] It Ot ~ 8n
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
. Ten Minute Interaction .Instrum ent (TMI)
Who
I+-to--.. "·What •• Qual.
Whom
State No: . 1 2345 16 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 16171819202122232425262728 2930313~ 33
School No: . Academic Mgt
Teacher No: .
Observation Instruction Question I Response 1 FeedbackNo : . Non. Aca.
Time Start: .
Time uStop : .
.•..• o.•.c...•u... 0-
.::
Subject: . ~ ::l~..c'
•O.•..... u .-c:"<~:' E•... V'l Vl .r:b/)
B o-oo.c~ .- ~ 0 c:
~(3 c0. uVl"" c.':l
Class: . s ""3~g •.... ..;g .c ;;> ~ .;:: 0. 0 ~~ •..~•O(I)r--~O ~;:::6~3 ~ ;.. CJ) 0 ::: p••..•CiJ~oaurJ'j
U .C•.O.•O•"..•...,.a.0o~ .- ~ ~o 'E Z§~o •.......L.. •...••••••• ~ •••• "buZx2~3 5 ~ LlJ Vl .::: ~ c: U ~c: 'E~"5 -:; .c os::n•..• §.-~
UC u•.•.•a', .-V)
.- ::l .- V) Vl
~o1o5-o:5:luo.~
U 0 0 -0 ~ 'l)
.u•.u.•--::•lV..l.o• t)0 -
--0.0 ~
Context Code Vl 0;.0 .c
::::.- •...~co,.
ec ~ s:: >0t 0.-:o:
.:._. •..·.;:;0s:: Cs::lJc:.~:;;;:~VlUUOJ ~ .f:- o ~ -a -a VI
~c.':l::l2c.':l c.':l t0':I ~(..) -;.. u::1".-"•0 ... -0 t.rl .Bx os::.•s......(:.<.! )0•..._C_a 0o·.-<>
0~ su::
u ~ g~C:'G ;::.
L = Large Group ~~ci5o~ .....l.....l.....lOUOc...
._ 4) 0. 0 _ O'l) .;...0;;:::
0 ~- 1-0 ~,-, c::::r::P::; P::; .~~wClUJ < ~ £: ~~Ou.l(/) Qc...uVS ~
S=Small Group (11)-() G 1S Sf GIlD .E 1..d\1hN &.: a. II lb Ho:Fe o, Rd Fe fr ll: s Pe \\t n. MI RsGt IJ S n It 01 SJ Irn
M =Monitoring (12)-{) IG 'IS Sf ono .E ifM LN &QI II lb H: Fe o. Rd Rc It Ck 3. PeW Rl M1 Rs('..aIT 9 n It Ch s..) En
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Index
A wholistic geographic education, 5 School Two Geography Teachers by
Academic learning time, II States, 115
components, 12 Extent of Time Expended in the
Activity-based approaches, 24, 25 Teaching Behaviours of the
methods, 25, 26 Teachers, 127
Advance Organizer, 34
advantages and disadvantages of, 34, Field Trip, 27
35 procedure for using, 27
Advantages ofField Trip, 28 Advantages of, 28
Analysing the functions of linguistic Disadvantages, 28
communication in the classroom, 8
Benefit of Study to Society, 43 General characteristics ofthe observedgeography teachers, 47
General Trend in Interaction Patterns
Characteristics of good and of the Teachers in Secondary Class
appropriately sequenced questions, 18 Two and Three in Nigeria, 123
Class size, 130 geographical knowledge is essential, 4
Classroom interaction (is), 7,8 Geography, 21, 41, 47, 59, 71, 99, 115,
Cognitive psychologists view, 6 121,135
Concept mapping, 22,35 teachers, 5,42,44, 52, 53, 55, 59,
Merits and demerits of, 36,37 71,81,99,121,122,123,124,125,127,
129,130
Ge.ography, Its Objectives and the
Demonstration method, 22 Teacher, 4
merits and demerits,22,23
Discovery method, 33
advantages and disadvantages, 33,34 How Students should Progress In
Discussion method, 22, 23 Programme Learning, 32
Types of, 23
merits and demerit,24
Display questions, 13, 17 Irn portan t variab le in classroom
Drop-outs, 12, 13 interaction analysis, 11
In Abuja, one of the teachers observed,
Education Commission of the United 100
States, 14, 130 Inquiry/Problem-Solving Method, 28
Education ists and researchers in Steps necessary for employing, 29
secondary school geographic Instructional time, 11, 128, 137
education, 22
Effect of Senior Secondary School two
teachers'understanding of geography Lower-level questions, 18
objectives, 122
Episodic analysis, 43,99, 115, 136
of Senior Secondary School Three Main aim of geography education as a
by States, 99 social science subject is, 4
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157
Methods are, 21 Simulation/Games, 22,29,30
Modified points that school managers Planning for, 30
should take a cue from, 132 Advantages, 30
Disadvantages, 31
SmaIl class size reduction, 14
Objectives, 121, 122 Statistical Analysis, 43
Steps in the Preparation of Good
Programmes, 31
Pattern or techniques of questioning Structural equation modeling, 13
and the responses elicited, 16 Students' Performance in Geography, 3
patterns of geography teachers, 19
Pedagogic skills, 15,99,101,110, Ill, Teachers' Understanding of Geographic
113,115,118,122,124,126 Objectives,55
Poorperfonnance of students in school Secondary Geography Objectives
geography, 3 inNigeria, 121
Procedures for Using Field Trip, 27 Teaching Geography, 6
Programmed instruction, 31 methods and approaches advanced
advantages, 32 by educationists and researchers, 21
disadvantages, 32 The' good teacher' is, 6
The 'poor teacher' is, 6
questioning The effects of classroom interaction
skilIs,,16 pattern on students', 12
procedure, 16 The Ethical Approval, 43
Quality assurance, 136 The importanceof teachercommunication
of Geography Teachers Teach ing style,9
Behaviours,135 The observed dichotomy in
principles in the classroom that instructional practices, 131
teachers should observe, 135 The result of SS3 geography teachers'
general trend of interaction pattern
Reasons why teachers ask questions, in terms oftime extent, 81
15
Referential questions, 17 SS2 teachers classroom interaction
Relational Report of Discriminating patterns in terms of time extent, 89
Variables, 129 The role of the teacher, 5
Research evidence reported by Darling- The Ten Minutes Interaction, 123
Hammond (1999), 138 Time on task, 12,13
Role of the Teacher in Inquiry/Problem- TQM, 131, 132
Solving, 29 Traditional structure of classroom
instruction, 8
Typical classroom interaction setting, 7
Senior Secondary School Three (SS3)
Geography Teachers Teaching
Behaviours, 59 Variables of interest in this study, 13,
Two (SS2) Geography Teachers 19
Teaching Behaviours, 71
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