w i » » g » g HUtt :|:sp-:g£f|iisapfttewi illWs||f |s;!:t IIBfl H W H /- i1: &i l s i « r a H n «aBm i S i p s ■ w m m m jgj|pgifg IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 1 ‘ OAU 50 ..........5 0 ih .o a u ife .i i IFE JOURNAL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES (IJOFOL) Special Edition to mark the 50 Anniversary of the Founding of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife (1962-2012) NO. 8 November 2012 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY IFE JOURNAL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES (IJOFOL) Special Edition to mark the 50 til Anniversary of the Founding of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife (1962-2012) ©2012 Department o f Foreign Languages, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria ISSN 1116-5480 ii IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY CONTENTS SECTION A: LANGUAGE, LINGUISTICS AND STYLISTICS 1 The Challenges of Teaching Russian as a Foreign Language in Nigeria: The Universities of Ibadan and Lagos as Case Studies Kayode O. Omotade 3 Translation Studies In History: From Fiction to Reality Adewuni, Salawu 13 LI and L2 Interference in the Choice of German Prepositions By Yoruba Students of German in Nigeria. Oyedele C. Olajumoke 22 Les Techniques Narratives Dans Riwan Ou he Chemin De Sable De Ken Bugul Esther Oghenetekewe Ojo 30 As Normas Portuguesa E Brasileira Da Lingua Portuguesa: Um Estudo Comparative Dr Tayo Julius Ajayi 41 Le Comportement Linguistique Transffontalier Chez Les Etudiants Nigerians De Frangais : Une Etude Pilote. WaleAdeniran 51 Wollen Als Anhebungsverb Jakob Mache 55 L’enseignement Du Francais A Osun State: Une Enquete Statistique Ibiyemi Mojola & Festus Ayodeji Soyoye 79 SECTION B: LITERATURE AND LITERARY CRITICISM 99 « J’enfante, Done Je Suis » ? Womanisme et Sterilite Chez Trois Romancieres Africaines Ajoke Mimiko Bestman 101 Modes De Transgression: L’ecriture Francophone Africaine et Les Tendances De La Theorie Postcoloniale Richard Oko Ajah 111 A Questao Da Lingua E O Engajamento Literario Nas Literatures Africanas. Sunday Adetunji Bamisile 124 Fruitful Dialogue: Yoruba Elements in the Poetry-In-English of Niyi Osundare and Remi Raji SuleE. Egya 137 La Femme Face Au Patriarcat Au Maghreb: Une Politique De Subversion Dans L’ceuvre De Tahar Ben Jelloun Kayode Atilade & Rasaq O. Gbadamosi 145 xv IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Une Relecture Feministe De La Greve Des Battu D’aminata Sow Fall Ngozi O. IJoh 154 Lebensgeschichte Und Kirchenbild Heinrich Bolls Und Seine Version Der Literatursoziologie Aloysius Ikechukwu Orjinta 167 A Prospective View on African Civilization Taught In Three African Universities Akambi Fatiou Raimi 175 Une Etude Critique De Voyage Dans L ’utiivers Africain Du Spahi De Pierre Loti Olubunmi Ashaoiu 183 O Processo de Construgao E Desconstrugao de Estereotipos Sobre a Mulher Negra e Afro-Brasileira em Jorge Amado e Paulina Chiziane. Omidire Anikeade R. 197 Abiola Irele: A Critic’s Views and Reviews of Negritude, African Literary and Cultural Debate Ramonu Sanusi 208 Teaching of Francophone Poetry in an Anglophone Nigeria: Prospect and Challenges Ayeleru Toluwa Funmilayo •, 216 French Thought: Comparing Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus Clementina Kezie-Osuagwu 223 Literatur Im Daf-Unterricht In Nigeria Folorunso Odidiomo 231 Entre Texte, Contexte et Pretexte, La « Mise En Abyme » Du Cahier D ’un Retour Au Pays Natal D’aime Cesaire Clotaire Saab Nengou 246 The Depiction of Women in Luis Bernardo Honwana’s Short Stories Ebenezer Adedeji Qmoteso 255 SECTION C: CULTURAL STUDIES 267 A Lei Federal 10.639/03: Caminhos De Zumbi, Sonlios Da Liberdade e Igualdade Etnicorraciais No Brasil Do Novo Milenio Felix Ayoh’Omidire 269 The Ontological Status of Natural Objects and Artifacts Okorie, Ndukaku 280 Wailing Women in Ancient Greek Society Qlakunbi O. Olasope 286 Language, Politics and Identity in the Novels of Alimadou Kourouma Adewuni Salawu and Ramonu Sanusi 298 The Hard Problem of Cultural Consciousness Fasiku Gbenga l!* 313 xvi IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY LANGUAGE, POLITICS AND IDENTITY IN THE NOVELS OF AHMADOU KOUROUMA Adewuni Salawu26 and Ramorni Sasrnsi27 ABSTRACT Facts are vital parameters not only in the sciences, history and translation studies but also in literature Facts are the back-hone of human discussions irrespective of the nature of things discussed. To avoi< attacks for political reasons, some Francophone Postcolonial African writers, create imaginary spaces b their novels and embellish them with facts. This is for instance, the preoccupation of Ahmadou Kouroum in his debut novel, Les soleils des independances (1970), and others. The objective of this paper is tc show Kourouma’s commitment as a literary linguist, politician, historian, geographer, and indeed as ar iconoclastic writer. The issue of identity is also addressed in the analysis of Kourouma’s works. This study, therefore, adopts a narrative analysis of data collected from Ahmadou Kourouma’s Les soleils des independances (1970), Monne, outrages et defis (1990), En attendant le vote des betes sauvages (1998) Allah n ’est pas oblige (2000), and Quand on refuse on dit non (2004). Special attention is paid to critica works of linguists, political theorists, translators and literary scholars among others, to buttress oui discourse. ICourouma is known for his language revolution, political discourse, translation skills and his quest for identity. In fact, Kourouma’s coloration of French language with Malinke, his mother-tongue stands like pillars to solidify his creative work and to promote African languages and identity. Needless t( say that facts and spaces are parameters responsible for the gradual development of Kourouma’s novels for they allow his protagonists to complete their journey in the process of actualizing their destiny. Key words: Language, Politics, Space, Identity, Francophone Postcolonial African writers 26 Department of French, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria & Research Fellow, Dept, of Linguistics & Modem Languages, University of South Africa (UNISA) r.salawu@,vahoo.com 27 Department of European Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, rasanusi@.vahoo.com 298 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY INTRODUCTION more problems than they met after Africa has produced a good number of independence. Pretending to adopt an African writers o f Francophone origin, way of governance, these rulers/leaders especially after the birth of the literary transposed the multi-party system of their and political movement called Negritude. respective countries into a single-party system, While the era of Negritude was more silencing the opposition by way of detention, dominated by the zeal to praise Africa and to imprisonment, exile, and killing. Before such demystify the myth of superiority o f a situations, some African writers accepted to particular race or culture over the other, the assume a position of protector o f the people, post negritude era is more of the risking their life and accepting the pains demystification o f African rulers who created Kourouma (1970; 1998; 2000; 2004) is one of for the several literary productions in the such African writers committed to true history, aiming to advertise Africa. The democratisation o f the African continent and pioneers of Negritude were found among the seeking a fair play in the administration and Caribbean and the French speaking African the management o f the huge Africa’s natural poets and writers in Paris in the 1950s. Some and human resources for the benefit of her of them are Leopold Sedar Senghor, Aime population. This study reveals the style of Cesaire and Leon Gontrant Damas. Negritude writing and the political criticism adopted by was a means of protest, a weapon in the Kourouma in his novels. Les soleils des struggle to attain equality and challenge the independances (1970), Monne, outrages et myth of superiority o f the European culture defis (1990), En attendant le vote des betes (Davidson, 1971:74). Every student of African sauvages (1998), Allah n ’est pas oblige origin in Europe, especially in France then, (2000), Quand on refuse on dit non (2004) are wanted to identify with the negritude the central focus o f this article. movement, which was set to culturally free the African. “Engage” or not, converted to KOUROUMA AS A POSTCOLONIAL Christianity or not, militant or not, some WRITER African elites were at the same time writers Post-colonialism x-rays the relationship and political elites, and all of them had the between the "‘developed and developing same focus: Africa. countries. This is translated in literary It is interesting to note that these West productions by the study o f these relations in African elites, writers and politicians, who the works o f African writers, allowing them to were aware o f the colonial masters’ culture, freely express themselves. Post-colonial spearheaded the struggle for independence. theories therefore provide « a ready solution to These elites had no choice other than to write the understanding of literary works by the and talk in the languages of the colonial colonized, the oppressed (Nchu, 2012: 6-7). masters, such as English and French, which The history o f writing in Africa is undoubtedly constitute an important impact of the linked to the innovation brought to Africa by European influence in West Africa (Wauthier, the European and Arab missionaries and the 1964: 24-25). Even though, the first set of colonial masters. The European link to writing Francophone African literary productions is most pronounced and generally forcefully were heavily criticized for having no method adopted and adapted to the continent; or theoretical framework by. critics of the Negritude in sub-Sahara Africa is known to be centre, Koutchoukalo Tchassim-Samboe the only literary movement which can account (2010: 107) on the other hand takes a different 299 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ... posture and affirms that Negritude was attendant le vote des betes sauvages (1998), principled and methodical. « So every Allah n ’est pas oblige (2000), and Quand on published work was evaluated based on refuse on dit non (2004). clearly defined parameters: it had to go in the direction o f the exaltation of Africa, or her There is no doubt that Kourouma (1970; 1990; unity,., or her freedom »28. Talcing position 1998; 2000; 2004) is a committed writer from Yves-Emmanuel (1978) for whom every always ready to denounce the abuses of literature is a criticism; Tchassim-Samboe corrupt and greedy African leaders, well (2010: 108) concludes that African literature positioned to impoverish their people. To in the era of Negritude was methodical and to achieve his aims and simply because he wants be judged as such, because there were points to enlighten his people and correct the of reference. Paschal B. Kyiiripuo Kyoore abnormalities in Africa in general and (2004: 7) admits the above enumerated aims especially in sub-Sahara Africa, he adopts a of the Negritude and notes that: style o f writing peculiar to him, a style heavily During the colonial era, African criticized by the centre at the beginning o f the writers were mainly concerned with innovations. This accounts for the refusal of challenging the myths and the publication in France of his first novel Les Eurocentric perceptions often created soleils des independances, which eventually about Africa by Westerners. They challenged the moral, political, and was published in Canada. economic legitimacy of colonialism, and also sought to educate All the writers o f the periphery,that publish in Westerners as well as Africans languages of the centre are translators, for they themselves on African traditions and write in a language different from their mother customs. tongue. Kourouma, being a Malinke, is not an exception. Denise Egea-Kuehne (1999: 111) Alimadou Kourouma did not fall in the argues that « The politics o f assimilation category o f the Negritude writers because the discouraged Africans from speaking anything publication o f Les soleils des independances but the language of the master. They now fmd inl970 stood as a revolutionary tendency in themselves confined within their boundaries literary production in Africa. Mawuloe Koffi because it does not allow them “to express Kodah (2013: 9) points out that Les soleils des themselves in their totality29”* . Thus, they have independances, is a clear departure by African one language only, and it is not theirs. ». writers o f Francophone origin who were Anthony (2010: 19) clearly speaks the mind of identifying with the classical style established Kourouma, while he argues that « East versus by the centre for literary and artistic West, irrational versus rational, subjective production, which respects grammatical and versus objective, marginal versus central, syntax rules o f French language. He adds: subordinate versus dominant, the list goes on, «Tlie story o f Faina is an authentic African but it has fortunately become a catalyst for a story told the African way in an “Africanized” yet subtle swing in a new literary direction, in French language)). Similar remarks are which Kourouma, ... is a leading voice )>. The attributed to his other literary productions such Africanisation of French in African literature as Monne, outrages et defis (1990), En of Francophone origin is inevitable but the 28 Ainsi chaque oeuvre publiee etait evaluee en fonction 29Ahmadou Kourouma, taped Communication at the des parametres clairement precises: il fallait qu’elle Annual Conference of the American Councilor for the aille dans le sens de l’exaltation de l'Afrique, ou son Teaching of Foreign Languages, Nashville, TN, unite, ou sa liberation. November 1997. 300 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY problem lies in the flexible marriage of «... I use Malinke words like fafaro ! (Fafaro! languages and cultures by the writer and his means sex of my father or of my father’s creative ability that gives birth to farther). As gnamokode! (Gnamokode! means hybridization, which is Maninka-French in the bastard or illegitimacy). The Malinke ... is my case of Kourouma (Anthony, 2010: 1). race, for me » (Kourouma, 2000: 10)3 . Vincent Genot (2003: 1) aptly summarizes the Besides, Kourouma differs from other African interview he had with Kourouma as a unique writers, for his ability to marry the historical writer, personal, that brought a shake-up with the fictional (Kyoore, 2004: 12), and the within African literature. Genot also talks of body of his work has « been more responsible the enthusiasm young ones have for his works than that of any other francophone West and « His boldness in respect of a French African author for the decolonization of language happily coupled with the Malinke language in the West African states (Anthony, rhythms »30. Cary Keith Campbell (2010: 236- 2010: 1). This is explained by numerous 237) in the case of Kourouma argues that the loanwords from the Malinkes and proverbs narrator compels his reading public to go and incantations from African languages. along with him in Malinke language with a Thinking and composing in the mother tongue Malinke content, yet French remains the and writing in an alien language is the taste of medium of writing. It is worth reading the all Kourouma’s contemporaries. Ferdinand following lines of Campbell (2010: 239) to Oyono (1956: 27; 31) for example, is. also discover more about the stylistic “gymnastics” known for using the stylistic gymnastics of of Kourouma: African writers as translators. The following Kone and Miller both find wonderful sentences are simply picked from African examples of thoughts and concepts tradition and penciled down in French. « This which are Malinke in nature, and yet is perhaps his heart told him that... The which are clothed in a French which chiefs wife therefore began to do like a is twisted sufficiently from IT grammarian’s standard for it to woman » . Kourouma is also known for his register as foreign in the native use of Africanised French. Here is an example. French speaker’s mind. And while it « This is the moment that gushed from the is true that something is lost in the assembly the injunction: sit down your ass and translation from Malinke thought to shut your mouth! Our ears are tired of hearing French script, it is not so much what your words! » . is lost that is significant in Les Soleils de Independances, but rather the fact Having associated with the postcolonial that whatever is lost, Kourouma is theory, and having adopted the hybridization still succeeding in communicating it approach, Kourouma clearly identifies with in some form of French. the authorial intention theory which is « a23* In fact, hybridization has become an important terminology in literature of post-colonialism ... j ’emploie les mots malinkes comme fafaro! because of its description o f putting together (Fafaro ! signifie sexe de mon pere ou du pere de mon two or more than two cultures (Nchu, 2012: pere). Comme gnamokode ! (Gnamokode ! signifie 9). Kourouma clearly carries along readers in batard on batardise). ... Les malinkes, c’est ma race a moi. his literary productions informing them of the 32 C’est peut-etre son coeur qui lui a dit qa ... La femme Malinke language used. For example, he says: du chef commenqa done a faire la femme. j3 C’est a l’instant que fusa de l’assemblee 1’injonction : Assois tes fesses et ferme ta bouche ! Nos oreilles sont 30 Ses audaces a l’egard d’une langue franpaise fatiguees d’entendre tes paroles ! (Kourouma, 1970 : joyeusement accouplee avec les rythmes malinkes. 14) 301 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBR RY useful tool in dealing with works of authors inception. The success of Kourouma’s literary who are marginalized on the basis of their production is linked to his style of writing that race, class or gender » and the signifying puts accent on fact and reality, collecting his theory that extends « the relationship between data from history. Kone (1995: 15) further texts, a form of intertextuality ». Furthermore, explains: the power/knowledge theory is also well Like other African novelists, suited in Kourouma’s style for it is « Kourouma describes the African important in colonial and post-colonial studies socio-historical context and the two because it gives an insight into the dynamics historical stages which are crucial in of hybridity and acculturation (Nchu, 2012: 8; the development of Africa and 10-11). Zabus, quoted by Anthony (2010: 5), Africans: the colonial situation and the difficult management of rather suggests the palimpsest approach, independence. Kourouma stands for a which suits the texts, such as those of realistic position, because he adheres Kourouma, where «indigenization of the to the historical development of exogenous language, not merely by Africa.34* introducing African words or translating African proverbs, but by calquing African Kyoore (2004: 7) has demonstrated more than syntax and idioms onto [a] European style». any other critic how Kourouma was able to Anthony (2010: 5) further proposes that: manipulate historical facts to construct his The methodologies of indigenization literary productions. Monne, outrages et dejls necessarily vary in accordance with and Allah, n'est pas oblige are both more the different elements of the historical novels, because Kourouma uses particular metissage at hand, that is, historical raw materials for his fictional “source” language, exogenous language(s), authorial intent, and imagination. Very close to oral narrative inevitably, the differentiated use of teclmiques, he smartly manipulates the these languages within the author’s structures of Malinke and French languages to real and imagined contexts. ...The come up with hybridization, a metissage of ethno-text, another term introduced cultures. Kyoore (2004: 7) comments about by Zabus, represents what has the style of writing of Kourouma who « become by today’s standards a evokes historical personalities in order to moderate level of indigenization lampoon them and to criticise dictatorship and through the incorporation of proverbs those responsible for the civil wars in Liberia and songs in translation, and the use and Sierra Leone respectively ». Afin Laditan of teclmiques closely associated with orature, such as the repetition of (2010: 82) underscores the facts in words and phrases for emphasis Kourouma’s literary productions when he and/or narrative framing. With Allah fingers some key personalities that make the n ’est pas oblige, Kourouma moves history in Cote d’Ivoire and who should bring well beyond the ethno-text genre of more light in the socio-political crisis in that his predecessors and his own country. He argues that the personalities in previous work. 34 Cornme les autres romanciers africains, Kourouma Amadou Kone (1995: 14-15) rather examines decrit le contexte socio-historique africain et les deux Kourouma’s style of writing as if he imposes etapes historiques qui restent cruciales dans revolution the Malinke language structures on French de l’Afrique et les Africains : la situation coloniale et la language in such a way that he presents the difficile gestion des independences. Kourouma revele un parti pris realiste, car il adhere a 1’evolution African elites in their biculturalism since historique de l’Afrique. 302 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Quand on refuse on dit non are Felix known facts, names what was not Houphouet-Boigny, Henri Konan Bedie, named, points accusing fingers. This Robert Guei, Alasane Ouattara, and 1’Almany is a critical orientation [that] draws Samory Toure. Anthony (2010: 21-22), from history to educate contemporary commenting on Allah n ’est the pas oblige, [society]/6 says that ICourouma exposes the identities of the leaders involved in the crisis in Liberia and All the strategies employed by Kourouma and Sierra Leone. They are Samuel Doe, Charles other African writers of Francophone origin, Taylor, Lansana Conte, Houphouet-Boigny, are made possible by the abilities of those Compaore, Tejan Kabbah, and Kadhafi and writers to translate, transpose, borrow, and are major political players in the crisis. By so transliterate data collected from the African doing, Kourouma was responding to the traditions. Kourouma could not deny his status theory o f Bakhtine (1984: 102): « There is no as a translator, going by Bandia (2009) who literary prose speech... which can fail to go says that African writers are translating in an along the existing materials or data, the attempt to write in alien languages. Although, known, public opinion » , which is nGt , Kourouma (1987: 12) opines that calling him a different from the theory of Julia Kristeva translator is too harsh on him because, (1980: 66): « Any text is constructed as a according to him: « I think sometimes in mosaic o f quotation; any text is the absorption French... Any language, any society, is .and transformation of another ». To the primarily of a number of myths or realities. intertextuality theory is added the Marxism Translating is to find the corresponding myths theory, because Kourouma stands as the or realities »j7. It is therefore obvious for defending lawyer of the oppressed, the voice Bandia (1993; 2009) to attribute the name of of the voiceless (Abiodun-Eniayelcan, 2013: translator to the African writer. This view is 43). Even though the method of using supported by Adebayo (2000: 76) who says: « historical facts is well known to Kourouma, Since writing in another language, other than Theophile Munyangeyo (2000: 96; 97) argues one’s own, is basically an exercise in that, it is a style spread in literary productions translation ». Bijlt (2011: 34) also confirms of the new generation of committed African the findings of Adebayo (2000). Bandia (1993; writers of francophone origin. Munyangeyo 2009) is of the view that any book written in a*36 further remarks: It should be noted, however, that in 36 II est a remarquer cependant qu’en auscultant examining the evolution of African 1’evolution de l’ceuvre romanesque africaine, l’on se novels, one realizes that a number of rend compte qu’un certain nombre d’ecrivains se writers can hardly do without their detachent difficilement des donnees de leur real environmental data, that is to say environnement reel, c'est-a-dire des reperes historiques, their historical landmarks, [...] the [...] les perspectives d’avenir de la litterature de combat future of literature of combat equips se dotent d’un discours de temoignage pour denoncer le itself with testimonial speech to mal qui sevit en Afrique en general et dans le pays du romancier en particulier. ... La narration romanesque denounce the evil raging in Africa in adopte une demarche analytique qui parle des lieux et general and in the country of the faits connus, nomme ce qui etait l ’innommable, point novelist in particular. ... The fictional du doigt pour accuser. C’est une orientation critique narration ... adopts an analytical [qui] puise a l ’histoire pour eduquer les approach that talks about places and contemporains... 3‘ .. .je concois certaines choses en franpais... Toute ... aucun discours de la prose litteraire ... ne peut langue, toute societe, c’est d’abord un certain nombre manquer de s’orienter dans le deja dit, le connu, de mythes ou de realites. Traduire, c’est trouver les F opinion publique mythes ou realites correspondants 303 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY colonial language is at glance a translation the prestigious Le Prix de la Francophonie du without the original. Quebec. (Florianopolis, 2011 : 14) and Le Prix renedaut. AHMADOU KOUROUMA AS A POLITICIAN Kourouma not only denounces the political Politics is like hunting, we enter behaviour of political leaders of his country of politics as one enters the hunters’ origin, which is Cote d’Ivoire, but he stands as association. The thick bush where a vanguard in combating political, financial the hunter operates is vast, inhuman and merciless as space, the political and social crimes often displayed by African world. The novice hunter before leaders at independence and after. Kourouma, frequenting the bush goes to the the author of Les soleils des independances school of master hunters to listen, (1970), tackles African countries at admire and get initiated. You must independence as well as the issue o f one-party not Koyaga, take a step as Head of system. In fact, the one-party system adopted State without a journey of initiation, by some presidents in Africa at independence without acquiring the art of science is heavily criticised by Kourouma and some of dangerous dictatorship with the other African writers. The one-party system ■masters of autocracy. You must first was known in countries such as Cote d ’Ivoire, travel. Meet and listen to the Guinee Conakry, and Togo among others. It masters of absolutism and the single was the only party in such countries and every party, the most prestigious of Heads of State of the four cardinal points citizen was to be a member willingly or of the draconian Africa.38 forcefully. Kourouma (1970 : 23), angrily describes the one-party system as: «The single All human beings are politicians irrespective party, do you know? looks like an association of one’s social status or religious inclination. of witches, where the TQold members eat other Kourouma cannot be an exception. He is people’s children » . He continues by known to be a committed writer, a concerned reminding us of the pains afflicted to Diakite African elite and a novelist. His style of for belonging to the opposition party. passing across his message to his reading Diakite’s father who was of the public has attracted the love and appreciation opposition, was summoned, he was of people and which earn him awards and informed that his party was dead, that he had to adhere to the unique medals. For example, Kourouma has received party L.D.N. He joined the party, paid his contributions, for his 38 La politique est comme la chasse, on entre en family, his oxen and his three politique comme on entre dans l’association des trucks. ... The next day, he was chasseurs. La grande brousse ou opere le chasseur est summoned again; he had to pay the vaste, inhumaine et impitoyable comme l’espace, le dues of the . party since its monde politique. Le chasseur novice avant de establishment 4*0 frequenter la brousse va a l’ecole des maitres chasseurs pour les ecouter, les admirer et se faire initier. Vous ne devez, Koyaga, poser aucun acte de chef d’etat sans un voyage initiatique, sans vous aquerir de Part de la ... le parti unique, le savez-vouS ? ressemble a une perilleuse science de la dictature aupres des maitres de societe de sorcieres, les grandes initiees devorent les l’autocratie. II vous faut au prealable voyager. enfants des autres. Rencontrer et ecouter les maitres de Pabsolutisme et du 40 Le pere de Diakite qui etait de l’opposition, fut parti unique, les plus prestigieux des chefs d’Etats des convoque, on lui signala que son parti etait mort, qu’il quatre points cardinaux de PAfrique liberticide avait a adherer au parti unique L.D.N. II adhera, paya (Kourouma, 1998 : 183). les cotisations pour lui, sa famille, ses boeufs et ses trois camions... Le lendemanin on le manda encore; il devait 304 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Fantoure (1972: 146) explains how the one- women in such a society. Fama’s death is a party system became compulsory for all the tragedy and it looks like a suicide. Monne, citizenry in Le Cercle des tropiques. « Do not outrages et defis (1990) is all about the issue waste your time, it is no! The camp is of discovery of Africa by Europeans, the dissolved. You are wrong for wanting to colonization and the imperialism. En attendant instigate the public opinion against the party. le vote des betes sauvages (1998) exposes the This is not smart. There is only one party in life style of a dictator known as Gnassingbe this country, everyone adheres voluntarily or Eyadema while Allah n ’estpas oblige narrates by force, if you are not happy, it is kif-lcif » the violence and wars in West Africa, (Our translation)41 *. Kwame Anno argues that especially in Sierra Leone and Liberia the opposition should be sent pacldng to (Florianopolis, 2011). Quand on refuse on dit favour the party in government and to make it non was published in 2004, a year after the the only party in the country, thus killing the death of Ahmadou Kourouma. Tire novel opposition considered as pollution. Through describes wars and the political scenarios in Kwame Anno, Francis Bebey (1973 : 168) Cote d’Ivoire and exposes the tribal says: « Il faudra done s’entendre: ou bien nous differences between the North and South of restons d ’accord avec nous-memes et the country. The novelist blames most of the continuons notre lutte contre l’opposition, ou woes faced by Cote d ’Ivoire on Houphouet- bien nous abandonnons cette lutte, et la Boigny, having left some critical problems pollution de la nation n ’ira qu’empirant ». unresolved and which led, one after the other, The African leaders that adopted the one-party to the presidency o f Henri Konan Bedie, system behaved as if it was an African way of Robert Guei', Laurent Gbagbo, and the current democracy that discourages opposition and President Alassane Ouattara, putting more encourages consensus and unity (Nyang’oro, accent on the reign o f Gbagbo, which was 1994:133). Rather, it was purely a military bloody. Greed, corruption, and absolutism way of governance that leads to dictatorship. were common denominators of these sit-tight presidents and dictators (Florianopolis, 2011; In fact, Fama is the last prince the Doumbouya Abiodun-Eniayelcan, 2013; Balcayoko clan who lost his traditional right to kingship Kama]an, 2013; Akrobou Agba Ezechiel, to the colonial system. Unfortunately, Fama 2013). has no offspring to continue the lineage, and he is politically and socially ruined, having In some of Kourouma’s novels, African been accused o f plotting to remove the dictators are clearly mentioned through president. He is furious about the Suns of nicknames and their geographical links. For independence and the new social order. example, Allah n ’est pas oblige, is all about Fama’s wife, Salimata, escaped several the political conflicts that ruined Sierra Leone attempts o f rape. This informs the condition of and Liberia (Ducoumeau, 2006). Sissao (2007) argues that the main focus of Kourouma’s novels is political and that the payer les cotisations du parti des annees courues depuis la creation de la L.D.N (Kourouma, 1970: 86). political crisis in the sub-region of West Africa in particular and Africa in general is 41 Ne perdez pas de temps, e’est non! Le camp est borne out of the greed of African leaders, who dissous. Vous avez tort de vouloir exciter l’opinion want to perpetuate themselves in government publique contre le Parti. Ce n’est pas malin. II n ’y a houses. Sissao (2007: 6) comments on Allah qu’un seul parti dans ce pays, tout le monde y adhere.de gre ou de force, si vous n ’etes pas contents, e’est kif-kif n ’est pas oblige: » (Fantoure, 1972: 146). In short, A llah n ’est pas oblige reflects the political conflict that has 305 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY drained a procession of calamities in fiction is Bokassa in reality. Kourouma did the region. Kourouma has the merit deny these assertions because, after all, he of reminding us, as he has done from confirms them during an interview he granted The suns o f independence, that the duo of Thibault Le Renard and Comi M. Africans are mainly responsible for their misfortunes and it would be too Toulabor (1998: 178): « 1 wanted to write this easy to attribute to Allah or even to novel with names, but my editor has deterred the other.42 me. I wanted therefore to keep some such as Houphouet-Boigny, ... 1 kept anyway their Abiodun-Eniayekan (2013: 35) suggests that totems: leopard, crocodile, hyena, etc. » (Our Kourouma is well positioned to be called the translation)4 J. Kourouma denounces how best African writer to have exposed the violent the presidents mentioned in his novels corrupt and malicious African leaders who are, whether in fiction or in reality. Their became dictators, misappropriating natural and cruelties were extended to killings of human resources o f their respective countries opponents, for those who refused to go into for private uses. Such leaders metamorphosed exile were pursued by the oppressors o f their into oppressors and allies of the colonial respective countries. Kipre (2003) agrees with masters, becoming neo-colonialists. the above, accusing the African leaders at Generalizing his comment on the position of independence of using violence to scare their African writers, Munyangeyo (2012) says that political opponents out of politics so as to they talk on behalf o f the ‘ voiceless people, appropriate public property. Kipre cited risking being pursued by corrupt leaders, military coups d’etats as examples and he is denouncing the greed, despair, agony and also of the view that the greed o f corrupt violence perpetuated on the helpless citizenry. African leaders is still dragging African states As such, African writers have assumed social backward and endangering the future of the and political responsibilities and commitment youth who are the hope of the country. Some to the betterment o f their respective countries. of those youths are recruited as child-soldiers, In this way, African writers have demonstrated others become armed robbers or are found in the relevance of literary texts in combating drugs and crimes. Kipre (2003: 138) joins crimes and social injustice, encouraging Kourouma in concluding that: « Africa is a democratic principles. continent of war and violence »43 4. He is supported by Brou (2013), who summarises Ngong (2008: 146-147) locates En attendant the works o f Kourouma as an Africa o f failure, le vote des betes sauvages within the context deception and disillusionment. It is according of postcolonial Africa where Etienne to Brou (2013: 130): « Africa o f the weak, Gnassingbe Eyadema is well caricatured lost, fallen, the disappointed are found one through Koyaga, Houphouet-Boigny by after the other, in Koyaga, Djigui, Birahima, Tiekoroni; Sekou Toure is represented by Fama, Macledio »45. * Nkoutigui Fondio, while Bossouma in the 43 J ’ai voulu ecrire ce roman avec des noms, mais mon editeur m’en a dissuade. J’ai voulu alors en conserver 42 Bref, Allah n ’est pas oblige traduit le conflit politique quelques-uns, tels Houphouet-Boigny, ... J ’ai garde qui a draine un cortege des malheurs dans la sous toutefois certains de leurs totems : le leopard, le caiman, region. Kourouma a le merite de nous rappeler, comme 1 ’hyene, etc. il a su le faire depuis Les soleils des independences, que 44 L’Afrique est ainsi un des continents de la guerre et les Africains, sont pour l’essentiel responsables de leurs de la violence. malheurs et qu’il serait trop facile de les attribuer a 43 L’Afrique des faibles, des perdus, des dechus, des Allah ou meme a 1’Autre. degus se trouvent en effet, tour a tour, en Koyaga, Djigui, Birahima, Fama, Macledio... 306 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY However, Akrobou Agba Ezechiel of the novel I just finished, Waiting (2013: 40), admitting the use of facts in for the vote o f wild beasts, which Ahmadou Kourouma’s works, admires the focuses on the tragedy of the Cold love, advice and concern Kourouma displays War in Africa (Our translation).48* for a dying Africa. According to him: « Through tire literary scenery, he [Kourouma] POSTCOLONIAL IDENTITY draws the attention of his continent to the Ahmadou Kourouma is a native of Cote principles that underpin all community life: d’Ivoire and a Malinke. Despite his exposure, the dialogue to absorb any type of conflict »46. Kourouma could not hide his feelings to his Fellah (2013: 208) remarks: « Francophone traditional identity, spell out and well spread African literature becomes a powerful place in all his novels, that is, the Malinke where facts and the imaginary compete to tell connection. The issue o f identity is relative as the story of disappointed countries whose the conception of life differs from one region independence has been diverted »47. This is to the other. In Africa, for example, there is further given credence by Kourouma himself nothing called an individual. He can only be as reported by Lefort and Rosi (1999: 1): defined in relation to others, because ‘I am’ For us African writers, writing is also does not exist in traditional African dictionary. a matter of survival. When I wrote The individual is rather known within the The suns o f independence, I aimed to context of ‘We are’. In Africa, one exists in expose abuses of power, economic relation to the other or to the community and social abuses. There was (Ojaide, 1992: 45). This way o f thinking is therefore a vital and absolute well represented by Kourouma (1970: 9) in necessity! All contemporary French Les Soleils des independances, with Fama writers, as well as authors from other having a link to the Doumbouya lineage. He European countries, have devoted part of their production to reflect on writes: « Fama Doumbouya! True the four years of occupation and Doumbouya, father Doumbouya, mother oppression that their country has Doumbouya, last descendant and legitimate suffered during the Second World War. But in Africa, we have had 100 years of occupation, and you 48 Pour nous, ecrivains africains, I’ecriture est aussi une understand that it is vital for us to question de survie. Quand j ’ai ecrit Les soleils des talk, to analyse the consequences and independances, j ’avais pour objectif de denoncer des abus de pouvoir, des abus economiques et sociaux. II y effects. We have had as many avait done une necessite vitale et absolue ! Tous les massacres as the European during the ecrivains franqais contemporains, comme les auteurs last war and under the authoritarian d’autres pays d’Europe, ont consacre une partie de leur Stalinist regimes. In my second novel production a la reflexion sur les quatre ans d’occupation Monne, outrages et defis, published et d’oppression que leur pays ont subi pendant la in 1990,1 just wanted to make it clear Dcuxieme Guerre Mondiale. Or en Afrique, nous avons that we too have suffered greatly. eu 100 ans d’occupation, et vous comprenez bien qu’il And this suffering is also the subject est vital pour nous d’en parler, d’en analyser les suites et les effets. Nous avons eu autant de massacres que les Europeens pendant cette demiere guerre et sous les 46 Atravers la scenographie litteraire, il [Kourouma] regimes autoritaires staliniens. Dans mon deuxieme attire l’attention de son continent sur les principes qui roman Monne, outrages er defis, publie en 1990, j ’ai fondent toute existence communautaire : le dialogue voulu justement faire comprendre que nous aussi nous pour resorber tout type de confl its. avons beaucoup souffert. Et cette souffrance fait aussi 41 Aussi, la litterature francophone devient un lieu de l’objet du roman que je viens d’achever, En attendant le pouvoir infaillible ou s’affronte vaillamment le reel et vote des betes sauvages, axe sur la tragedie de la guerre 1’imaginaire pour relater l’histoire au quotidien de pays froide en Afrique. depites et dont les independances ont ete detoumees. 307 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY prince of Doumbouya o f Horodougou, panther changes and we must move with the times »51. as totem, was a ‘vulture’ »49. Seydou Badian What Badian (1972) and fore-runners of (1972: 118) in Sous Forage also mentions the African literature of Francophone origin have collectivism known to Africans. « To a girl, noted earlier, is developed by Stuart Hall children say ‘me’. They speak only of them... (1990: 225) in his paper ‘Cultural identity and Man is like a great tree; any traveler is entitled diaspora’ acknowledging a complex definition to his shadow »50. Hall (1990: 223) agrees where more factors are considered, including with the collectivism status of cultural identity the continuous changing of people. For Hall, when he defines cultural identity: cultural identities change. It is a: in terms of one shared culture, a sort matter of ‘becoming’ as well as of of collective one true self, hiding ‘being’. But like everything which is inside the many others, more historical, they undergo constant superficial or artificially imposed transformation. Far from being ‘selves’, which people with a shared eternally fixed in some essentialised history and ancestry hold in common. past, they are subject to the Within the terms of this definition, continuous ‘play’ of history, culture our cultural identities reflect the and power. Far from being grounded common historical experiences and in a mere ‘recovery’ of the past, shared cultural codes which provide which is waiting to be found, and us, as ‘one people’, with stable, which, when found, will secure our unchanging and continuous frames of sense of ourselves into eternity, reference and meaning, beneath the identities are the names we give to shifting divisions and vicissitudes of the different ways we are positioned our actual history. by, and position ourselves within, the narrative of the past. This above perception of Africans has been the object of frustration with the infiltration of Supporting Stuart Hall (1990), Maalouf (1998: alien culture into African life, where Africans, 7) argues that having left his country of origin especially o f Francophone origin, were forced and adopted French nationality, if asked his to adopt the French way of life. The first identity, he could not really say if he is from generation of African writers, such ' as Liban or France, but both.* « I invariably Kourouma, wrote intensively to educate their answer: ‘the one or the other’... I am so on the counterpart Africans of the need to blend and edge of two countries, two or three languages, accommodate the revolutionary tendency in and several cultural traditions. It is precisely vogue in the continent that is, changing along this that defines my identity »52. Following the with modem times. Change is a must and steps of Hall (1990) on cultural identity, Africa must also move in line with the world. Florianopolis (2011: 32) observes that there is The globalization is in progress and the no longer a fixed identity in the modern world process cannot be stopped. Africa is not strong and Fama had no longer a fixed status. He is a enough to stand apart and must follow suit. powerless prince who has no access to the Badian (1972: 56) has said it: « Everything kingship during the colonial era and he is not colonialist, nor anti-colonialist, but made a 49 Fama Doumbouya! Vrai Doumbouya, pere political prisoner, having done nothing. Doumbouya, mere Doumbouya, dernier et legitime desendant des princes Doumbouya du Horodougou, 51 Tout change et nous devons vivre avec notre temps. totem panthere, etait un ‘vautour’ 52 Jereponas invariablement: ‘L’un et 1’autre!’... C ’est 50 A la fille, les enfants dissent ‘moi’. Ils ne parlent que que je suis ainsi a la lisiere de deux pays, de deux ou d'eux... L’homme est un peu.comme un grand arbre; trois langues, de plusieurs traditioas culturelles. C’est tout voyageur a droit a son ombre. precisement cela qui definit mon i’dentite. 308 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY According to Ducoumeau (2006: 36), even woes of the continent which they mismanaged, though Kourouma agrees to the continuous violated, corrupted, and raped. Yet, despite all transformation o f an individual identity which his attacks directed at African leaders, he was is a combination of African, Asian, and optimistic of a prosperous Africa if well western in the African or Cote d ’Ivoire managed. Kourouma did not mince words in context, Africans cannot forget their origin. exposing the political leaders in Cote d ’Ivoire, Responding to questions from Le Renard and Liberia, Sierra Leone and Togo, for being Toulabor (1999), Kourouma agrees to his dual responsible for wars and conflicts' in those identity o f Malinke and French. Coulibaly regions that engulfed thousands of dead (2013: 193) rather thinks that with the new people, including children and women. He status of the individual in his movements, the blamed such leaders for their greed and acquisition of a new cultural set-up is undemocratic tendencies. The issue o f identity inevitable, influencing the historical and was well spelt out in his works, supporting a cultural build up of such an individual. This is continuous changing of cultural identity in a obvious in the reactions displayed by world which no longer favours a collective Kourouma’s protagonists. The vision of, cultural identity. Kourouma is well expressed by Myriam Louviot (2010: 7): « the identity is now seen as a complex narrative, constantly changing WORKS CITED and not as a data base. This does not mean that Abiodun-Eniayekan, Eugenia Nwakaku. the barriers have been abolished, but have L ’ecrivain comme historian : une etude become increasingly complex and changing de quelques romans d ’Ahmadou and their respective value seems more relative ■ Kourouma, Thesis, Department of »53. 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