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NO 1 3 r UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education health implications of harmful widowhood practices in nigeria By Owolabi Gbonjubola Oludayo and Onibokun Adenike Across the globe, widows comprise 8–13% of the adult female population (Owen, 1996), and this is espe- abstractcially the case in later life (Fajemilehin and Feyisetan, this article outlines an exploratory survey to determine the 2000). In many societies, widows constitute a quarter of the existence and extent of harmful widowhood practices among adult female population (Potash, 1986). In Nigeria, with an widows and the subsequent health implications of such average male and female life expectancy at birth of about 51 practices. a detailed questionnaire was administered to 210 and 54 years respectively, and a spousal age gap of 6–10 years, widows with a response of 95.24%. Findings indicated that a significant number of Nigerian women become widows 83.5% and 56.5% of respondents were subjected to staying before reaching middle age. indoors and wearing of black dresses respectively. similarly, Widows across regions and cultures may struggle to widows were commonly subjected to confiscation of husband’s survive and yet as a group have been relatively neglected. goods and accused of having a hand in the husband’s death, Some widows may be extremely poor, oppressed, violated with a prevalence of 20% and 18% respectively. a significant and invisible with unheard voices. In Africa, as in societies relationship also exists between these harmful widowhood around the world, widows may face poverty due to lack of practices and the respondents’ health. of the respondents, 40.5% inheritance and land rights, while social support systems may experienced absent-mindedness, while 56% had anxiety about aggravate their vulnerability to bad health. With little having children’s future and 13.5% already had high blood pressure. been done by governments to ensure that widows obtain their Little or no help was received from the government or non- human rights to inheritance and land ownership, they are still governmental organizations. there is a need for policies from all accountable for omitting to protect widows from widowhood sectors of society to help ensure widows’ welfare. practices which can be seen as ‘harmful’ and may have health implications. The United Nations (UN), through adopting the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Table 1. Statistical information on widows in various countries Against Women (CEDAW) (1979), highlighted the need to take all necessary steps to abolish all customs that affect the country Population of widows Percentage of population human dignity of women. It specifies that (UN, 1979: 5a): China 43 million 3 India 42.4 million 4 ‘Parties shall take all appropriate measures to modify united states 13.6 million 4 the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and Indonesia 9.4 million 4 women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which Japan 7.4 million 6 are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority Russia 7.1 million 5 of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and Brazil 5.6 million 3 women’. Germany 5.1 million 6 Bangladesh 4.7 million 3 As a matter of urgency, government, national agencies and non-governmental organizations were enjoined to con- Vietnam 4.7 million 5 demn practices harmful to women in general. The Secretary Afghanistan 2 million 7 General of the United Nations also itemized the discrimina- Iraq 740 000 2 tory practices inimical to the health of women, prominent Nigeria 7 million 4 among these being inhumane rites undergone by widows. A source: the loomba Foundation (2010) study by the World Health Organization additionally specifi- cally itemized widows’ abandonment as one area of harmful practice that is tantamount to abuse of women’s rights (Krug et al, 2002). owolabi Gbonjubola oludayo is chief nurse tutor and Principal, Millions of widows are young mothers, some still children oyo state school of nursing, eleyele, ibadan and onibokun themselves, and many are subject to discriminatory practices adenike is senior Lecturer and head of department, department which may have health implications. The disorganization and of nursing, university of ibadan trauma that follows the death of a spouse may be seriously AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 25 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education or a great deal of discrimination against widows. On average across all 18 nations, just 28% say there is no discrimination against widows. Widowhood practices in Nigeria Ahonsi (1997) stated that widowhood rites in Nigeria sub- ject widows to all the three dimensions of gender inequality, namely:  Discrimination—singling women out for unequal and inferior treatment based largely on stereotypical beliefs  Exploitation—subjecting women to different practices to obtain inappropriate gains  Oppression—the use of coercion and tyranny to forcibly constrain women. In a study carried out in the Afikpo community of Imo State, Nigeria by Uche Azikwe of the University of Nigeria Nnsuka, it was found that harmful widowhood practices exist in the South Eastern part of the country, with severe consequences on health, social, economic and psychological wellbeing of women in the area (Azikwe, 2008). The World Public Opinion poll (2008) also discovered that in Nigeria a clear majority (58%) thinks widows experi- ence at least some mistreatment in the country. A pilot study carried out among widows in Lagos by Saba (1997) investigated the effects of various experiences on the widows’ psychological wellbeing. It was evident from the 50 widowed women studied that the number of respond- ents undergoing widowhood rites decreased among people with higher education levels. This study also revealed what the common rites were among two major ethnic groups in Nigeria: shaving was found to be common among Ibos, whereas wearing of black dresses was noted among Yorubas. In the study, 50% of the women did not feel good about the various rites, while 45% were neutral and only 5% felt good about the rites. In an age of evidence-based practice, the relationship between grief, its subsequent effects and appropriate manage- If widowhood is associated with worsened health, then harmful widowhood ment of the process of grief and bereavement needs to be practices will pose an even greater threat to the health of widows. understood. Sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists among others have studied various aspects of widowhood; alarming. Different problems may arise such as being accused however, nurses also need to be aware of the issue of harmful of having a hand in the husband’s death and other harmful widowhood practices and health implications in order to fully widowhood practices such as partial or total shaving of hair, tackle this important issue. staying indoors, wearing of black dresses, a general lack of attention as to the widow’s welfare and confiscation of the Health implications of widowhood husband’s goods. These practices can intensify and aggravate the grieving process, producing a cumulative effect on the and harmful practices health of the widow. Wilcox et al (2003) has identified that, at baseline, married Additionally, while campaigns have been undertaken women reported better physical and mental health behaviours against all forms of discrimination against women, harm- than widowed women. Chen et al (1999), while studying ful widowhood practices occur around the world. A poll gender differences reported that widows had higher mean lev- conducted in 18 nations including China, India, the United els of traumatic grief and symptoms of depression and anxiety. States, Indonesia, Nigeria, Mexico, Britain, France, Ukraine, Their results revealed that high symptom levels of traumatic Egypt, Iran and Turkey, and involving 17 505 respondents grief measured at 6 months predicted a physical health event found a widespread perception that widows and divorced (e.g. cancer, heart attack) at 25 months post-intake for wid- women were treated worse than other women (World ows. Although widows constitute a significant percentage of Opinion Poll, 2008). In only two countries did a majority say the adult population in many African communities (Table 1), that there was no discrimination against widows. In 12 of the systematic investigation about the health of widows has not 17 nations polled, about 4 in 10 people felt there was some been undertaken (Potash, 1986). 26 AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education If widowhood is associated with worsened health, then harmful widowhood practices will pose an even greater threat The number of respondents to the health of widows (Olawoye, 1999). Previous studies such as Owen (2001) have identified infections and diseases undergoing widowhood rites such as scabies, gastroenteritis, typhoid and malnutrition as ‘ direct consequences of harmful widowhood practices. These decreased among people with harmful practices can affect the physical, psychological, social, higher education levels. emotional and cultural wellbeing of widows (Eboh and Boye, 2005; Ozo-Eson, 2008), with some widows suffering from depression and mental disorders following widowhood prac- al  (1990) proposed that health-promoting or health-damag- tices (Ozo-Eson, 2008; Oyeniyi and Oyeniyi, 2010). ing responses are shaped by interaction between th’e individ- In developing countries, widows may also struggle to ual or group and the environment, and that the responses are survive in the face of violent physical and mental abuse further mediated by public policy. This is the model adopted (The Loomba Foundation, 2010). In societies where gender for this study. inequality allows perpetration of harmful cultural widowhood practices against widows, the severity of these negative influ- Methodology ences on the health of these widows needs to be assessed. The study was an exploratory survey conducted in Ibadan North West Local Government of Oyo State, Nigeria. Aims Completed questionnaires were analyzed using statistical In this article, the health implications of harmful widowhood package for social sciences (SPSS) software. practices within Ibadan North West Local Government of There are 11 wards in the local government with an aver- Oyo State, Nigeria will be assessed. The study aims to: age of 12 communities in each ward. The total population  Identify the existence and extent of harmful widowhood is 152 834, with 77 523 females (50.7%) and 75 311 males practices among widows in Ibadan North West Local (49.3%) (National Bureau of Statistics, 2006). Government Area  Examine the health implications of these harmful widow- Sampling hood practices on widows in this area Due to observed homogeneity, a multistage sampling tech-  Examine the effect of social support on the health of wid- nique was used. Six wards were randomly selected out of 11 ows in this area. wards. There was an average of 12 communities in a ward. Exact statistical data on widows are not available in many Four communities were randomly selected from each ward developing countries, and many widows have been missed out making up a total of 24 communities. In each community, in census data, particularly those who are elderly and shuttled there were 5–10 compounds. The compounds were listed between the homes of relatives (Ahonsi, 1997; Oloko, 1997). and numbered and one compound was randomly selected. A This suggests that the economic contribution and health sta- compound consisted of 14–20 houses. All the houses (386) tus of widows is also not known. in the selected communities were visited by the researcher The Agent-Host-Environment model of interaction first and four assistants. Within this sample, 210 widows were developed by Pesznecker (1984) and reported by Berne et given questionnaires, out of which 200 were completed and Table 2. Socio-demographic data distribution of respondents Variable age Frequency Percentage Mean standard deviation 15–24 2 1.0 25–34 7 3.5 35–44 35 17.5 45–54 43 21.5 58.5 14.14 55+ 113 56.5 total 200 100.0 age of respondents at bereavement 22–31 14 7.0 32–41 49 24.5 42–51 46 23 52–61 37 18 62–71 21 10.5 44.425 20.164 72+ 13 6.5 No response 20 10.0 total 200 100.0 AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 27 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVER ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education ‘A larger percentage of were filled and collected immediately. Illiterate respondents were assisted with the interpretation of the questionnaires Nigerian women are and absolute confidentiality on information provided was maintained.widowed before reaching Results and discussion middle age largely due to a The findings revealed that widowhood increases with later predominant spousal age life, with the age group 55 years and above having the highest representation (56.5%) (Table 2). This finding is also reflected gap of 6–10 years’. in other studies such as Kasturi (1996), Owen (1996) and Fajemilehin and Feyisetan (2000). However, the mean age at bereavement was 44 years, which is significant due to the ten-analyzed. The remaining ten questionnaires that were not dency to relate it to later life. A larger percentage of Nigerian duly completed were discarded, giving a response rate of women are widowed before reaching middle age largely due 95.24%. to a predominant spousal age gap of 6–10 years among the Yoruba in the study area. Instrument The nature and extent of harmful widowhood practices A 39-item questionnaire was developed consisting of four and respondents’ feelings toward these practices are outlined sections: in Tables 3 and 4. A large proportion of widows in this study  Section A (questions 1–9) to elicit data on demographic disagreed with widowhood practices—this demonstrates variables potential issues with empowerment. In contrast, in Azikwe’s  Section Bi and ii (questions 10–21) on nature and extent 2008 study of women in the Afikpo community in Imo State, of harmful widowhood practices widows reported that they wanted widowhood practices to be  Section C (questions 22–29) to elicit information about retained so as to sustain the culture. However, similar to the the health implications of harmful widowhood practices results of this study are those of Saba’s 1997 survey of 50 wid-  Section D (questions 30–39) on social support. owed women in Lagos, in which 50% of the widows reported The questionnaire consisted of a combination of both that they did not feel good about the various widowhood rites closed and open–ended questions and a 5-point Likert scale. while 45% were neutral and only 5% felt good about it. The results show that harmful widowhood practices exist Data collection in Ibadan North West Local Government of Oyo State since Permission was sought from the local government as well as 83.5% of the respondents experienced staying indoors and individual respondents. The researcher and assistants moved 56.5% experienced wearing of black dresses among others from one ward to the other on a specified day. Questionnaires (Table 5). Subsequent health implications are demonstrated Table 3. The nature and extent of harmful widowhood practices Respondents harmful widowhood practices Yes (%) no (%) Partial/total shaving of hair 29 (14.5) 171 (85.5) staying indoors 167 (83.5) 63 (16.5) wearing of black dress 113 (56.5) 87 (43.5) exposure to general lack of attention 28 (14.0) 172 (86.0) Accused of having a hand in husband’s death 36 (18.0) 164 (82.0) Confiscation of husband’s goods 40 (20.0) 160 (80.0) withdrawal of children 7 (3.5) 193 (96.5) Table 4. Respondents’ feelings toward harmful widowhood practices Percentage harmful widowhood practices strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree demonstration of excess grief 53.5 9.5 1.0 19.5 16.5 disinheritance from property and children 70.5 14.9 2.5 8.0 5.0 widow inheritance 68.0 17.0 2.0 10.5 2.5 shaving of hair 68.5 14.5 2.0 6.0 9.0 Adoption of mourning dress 48.0 10.5 5.0 22.0 14.5 28 AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education Table 5. Health implications of harmful widowhood practices Respondents health implications of harmful widowhood practices Yes (%) no (%) Crying often especially in early months 125 (62.5%) 75 (37.5%) sickly 41 (20.5%) 159 (79.5%) High blood pressure 27 (13.5%) 173 (86.5%) Feeling of worthlessness 63 (31.5%) 137 (68.5%) Perceived suspicion when relating with married men 49 (24.5%) 151 (75.5%) Anxiety about children’s future 112 (56%) 88 (44%) Absent-mindedness 81 (40.5%) 119 (59.5%) Feeling low 76 (38%) 124 (62%) by the fact that 62.5% of the respondents reported crying Table 6. Open-ended question: ‘How did the harmful often, especially in those early months of widowhood, 56% widowhood practices contribute to your present state of had anxiety about their children’s future, 40.5% experienced health? (specify)’ absent-mindedness, and 13.5% of the respondents reported Response Percentage having high blood pressure. This certainly has potential implications for the future health of widows. The participants No ill-health 15 were asked how the harmful widowhood practices affected Relying on God and religion 1 their health and these responses are outlined in Tables 6 and 7. No significant contribution to their present health 62 it is extremely significant that 92% of respondents felt that harmful widowhood practices in general were damaging to Not knowing of any effect on their health 1 health, although 62% still felt that such practices had had no No response to question 12 significant contribution to their own health. These findings Affected by a low standard of health 7 are in line with those reported by Olusola (2009) and Oyeniyi Found the situation very hard 2 and Oyeniyi (2010) who argued that widowhood practices still in existence among the Yorubas are deeply rooted in cul- ture varying from one community to the other. Table 7. Open-ended question: ‘In your own opinion, The harmful practices common in the studied population are these harmful widowhood practices promoting are itemized in Table 3 and match the findings from stud- or damaging health?’ ies undertaken by Adekanye (1988), Fasoranti and Aruna Response Percentage (2007), Tei-Ahontu (2008) and Oyeniyi and Oyeniyi (2010). damaging to health, e.g. causing high blood pressure 92 Mourning, shaving of hair, staying indoors, wearing of black Not damaging to health 4 dresses and drinking water used for washing the deceased hus- band are common harmful practices both among the Yorubas No response to question 2 in Nigeria as well as other African societies. Not knowing of any effect on their health 2 Oyeniyi and Oyeniyi (2010) argued that harmful widow- hood practices, though barbaric, are still sustained among the Yoruba for the following reasons: Table 8. Open-ended question: ‘What did they (your in-laws)  To protect the woman from being harmed by the spirit of do when your husband died, in terms of supporting and the dead husband looking after you and your children?’  For the woman to prove innocent of the death of her hus- Response Percentage band and severing the link between the living and the dead No response to question 8  Practices are observed to pay homage to the dead No support from in-laws 54  To ensure widows’ availability to welcome sympathizers. Olusola (2009) suggested that women might go along Partial support for child’s needs, e.g. school fees 5 with harmful widowhood practices without protesting due Moral support 3 to shock and because their grief is too fresh to allow them Not very supportive 6 to speak up for themselves at such a critical moment. From Afflicted, e.g. no support, instead brought in other 1 the perspective of elderly, perhaps more traditional widows, children fathered by the deceased these practices may be a mark of love for the dead husband supportive 22 (Oyeniyi and Oyeniyi, 2010). On the other hand, Nzewi older children had to support the younger children 1 (1981) argued that widows who failed to observe the rite may be sanctioned by paying fines and spiritual punishment can Feeling low 38 be bestowed on offenders. AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 29 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ReseaRch & education policies need to be expanded to incorporate welfare pro- Key Points grammes as well as national policy relating to widowhood.  the World health organization has highlighted certain harmful AJM widowhood practices as tantamount to abuse of women’s human rights. Adekanye TO (1988) Women and rural poverty: some considerations  studies have identified that widowed women have worse from Nigeria. In: Adekanye TO, ed. Women in Agriculture. University of physical and mental health than married women. Ibadan, Ibadan  harmful widowhood practices can intensify and aggravate the Ahonsi B (1997) Society, culture and the status of widows in contemporary Nigeria: a gender analysis. In: Owasanoye B, Ahonsi B, eds. Widowhood grieving process, producing a cumulative effect on the health in Nigeria: Issues, Problems and Prospects. Fredrich Ebert Foundation and of the widow. Human Development Initiatives, Lagos: 20–45  this study examined the health implications of harmful Azikwe U (2008) Widowhood practices in Nigeria: a case study of Afikpo widowhood practices in ibadan north West Local Government community. http://tinyurl.com/33malhj (accessed 5 January 2011)Berne AS, Dato C, Mason DJ, Rafferty M (1990) A nursing model for of oyo state, nigeria and found that urgent intervention is addressing the health needs of homeless families. Image J Nurs Sch necessary to ensure the health of widows. 22(11): 8–13 Chen JH, Bierhals AJ, Prigerson HG, Kasl SV, Mazure CM, Jacobs S (1999) Gender differences in the effects of bereavement-related psycho- logical distress in health outcomes. Psychol Med 29(2): 367–80 Participants were also asked about support received from Eboh LO, Boye TE (2005) Widowhood in African Society and its effects their in-laws, and the responses are outlined in Table 8. With on women’s health. Afr Health Sci 5(4): 348 regard to support from local or government organizations, it Fajemilehin BR, Feyisetan BJ (2000) The widowhood experience of the is evident that widows in Ibadan North West area received elderly in rural communities of Southwestern Nigeria. Nigerian School Health Journal 12(1–2): 11–17 little help from the local widow’s association and the various Fasoranti OO, Aruna JO (2007) Cultural comparison of practices relat- arms of government. This therefore predisposes some widows ing to widowhood and widow-inheritance: among Igbo and Yoruba in to be susceptible and vulnerable to stress from extra work, Nigeria. Journal of World Anthropology: Occasional Papers 3(1): 553–73 welfare of children and antagonistic in-laws with the associ- Izuako SN (2000) Widowhood in Nigeria: The views of a judge official. Newsletter of the Widowhood in Nigeria Network 1(1): 6 ated emotional, physical and mental trauma. Kasturi S (1996) Gender. In: Ebrahim S, Kalache A, eds. Epidemiology in Old Age. BMJ Publishing Group, London Limitations Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA et al, eds. (2002) World Report on Violence and Health. World Health Organization, Geneva This study is limited as it is concerned with one local govern- National Bureau of Statistics (2006) Federal Republic Of Nigeria 2006 ment area out of 774 such areas in Nigeria. There is therefore Population Census. www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/nbsapps/Connections/ a need to replicate more studies in more local government Pop2006.pdf (accessed 11 January 2011) areas and states within the federation to allow for more accu- Nzewi D (1981) Widowhood Practices: A Female Perspective. Presentation, workshop on widowhood practices, Imo State, 6–7 June rate/reliable generalization. Studies are needed to identify Olawoye JE (1999) Developing a Network for Organizations that Assist and document the nature and extent of harmful widowhood Widows in Nigeria. Ford Foundation with Loto Production, Ibadan practices throughout the world, and to establish the relation- Oloko BA (1997) Widowhood in Nigeria: Issues, Problems and Prospects. Human Development Initiative and Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Lagos ship of these to physical and mental health. Olusola A O (2009) Cruelty in the name of culture. Pulsewire. http:// worldpulse.com/node/14173 (accessed 5 January 2011) Implications for health professionals Owen M (1996) A World of Widows. Zed Books, London The implications of these practices on the health of widows Owen M (2001) Human rights of widows in developing countries. In: Askin KD, Koenig DM, eds. Women and International Human Rights requires urgent intervention by all, especially health profes- Law. Transnational Publishers, New York sionals and nurses who can play an important role in ensuring Oyeniyi A, Oyeniyi I (2010) Widowhood practices among the Yorubas of the holistic care of widows and their families. The process of South West Nigeria: are there differences in what women experience due death, dying, bereavement and care of the bereaved should to their status? Gender and Behaviour 8(2)Ozo-Eson PI (2008) Law, women and health in Nigeria. Journal of be emphasized in the nursing curriculum at all levels. Head International Women’s Studies 9(3): 285–99 nurses and the entire nurse populace should be well informed Pesznecker (1984) Adaptational model of poverty. Public Health Nursing in order to render quality and holistic care to widows. Nurse 1(4): 23–35Potash B (1986) Widows in Africa: an introduction. In: Potash B (ed) researchers should collaborate effectively by carrying out Widows in African Societies: Choices and Constraints. Stanford University intervention studies targeted at tackling some of the health Press, Stanford implications of such practices. Nurses can help to create great- Saba O (1997) Psychological Effects of Widowhood on Women and Children. er awareness about the existing facilities available for widows. Human Development Initiatives and Friedrich Ebert Foundation, LagosTei-Ahontu MM (2008) Widowhood rites in the GA traditional area of Accra-Ghana, a review of traditional practices against human rights. Conclusions Masters Thesis of the Department of International Environment and It is clear that harmful widowhood practices are still in exist- Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, NorwayThe Loomba Foundation (2010) Invisible and Forgotten Sufferers: The Plight ence in the study population. Widows should therefore be of Poor Widows Around the World. The Loomba Foundation, London encouraged to adopt healthy behaviours that will enhance United Nations (1979) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of optimal level of functioning. Public awareness is necessary Discrimination Against Women. www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw (accessed 11 January 2011) to educate everyone on the health implications of these Wilcox S, Evenson KR, Aragaki A et al (2003) The effects of widowhood harmful widowhood practices, while widows would benefit on physical and mental health behaviours, and health outcomes: The from being made aware of any welfare provisions that might Women’s Health Initiative. Health Psychol 22(5): 513–22 be available to them. At a national level, health and social World Public Opinion (2008) Poll: Across the world, many see discrimina-tion against widows and divorced women. http://tinyurl.com/3x8d7s4 30 AFRICAN JouRNAl oF MIdwIFeRy ANd woMeN’s HeAltH, JANuARy–MARCH 2011, Vol 5, N0 1 Downloaded from magonlinelibrary.com by 141.161.091.014 on September 13, 2019. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY