MAIDEN
EDITION
JOS JOURNAL 
OF
PHYSICAL 
AND HEALTH 
EDUCATION
Vol. 1 
No. 1
M arch, 2017
A Publication of 
The Department of 
Physical and Health 
Education
Faculty of Education 
University of Jos, 
Plateau State, Nigeria.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
vi Jos Journal of Physical and Health Education
CONTENTS
Awareness And Perceived Causes Of Infringement Of Patients’ Bill Of Rights Among 
Health Education Students, University Of Morin, Nigeria
— Olaitan, O. L. (Ph.D.), Adegoke, M. O., Ogunbela, O. T., Ademola, S. O.,
Biliaminu, M. K. & Ajara, T. A.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Low Enrolment In Physical And Health Education At Senior Secondary School In 
llorin Metropolis, Kwara State
— Bakinde Surajudeen Tosho (Ph.D.), Taiabi Adetayo Ebun (Ph.D.),
Adebayo Babatunde Samson (Ph.D.), Oyetunji Bashir Adebare (M.Ed.)
& Bakinde Ismail Jayeola (M.Ed.)...........................................................................17
Awareness Of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors And Utilisation Of Pap-Smear Testing 
Among Health Workers In Ibadan, Nigeria
— Ruth Ochanya Adio-Moses (Ph.D.) & Helen Sindama (M.Ed.)............................ 27
The Challenges Of Education Since 1914 And Prospects Of Educational 
Development In Nigeria
— Oyelade A. F. (Ph.D.) & Abolade S. B..................................................................... 38
Perceived Health Implications Of Erectile Dysfunction Among Married Men In 
Ibarapa North Local Government, Oyo State
— Onifade, O. A (Ph.D.), Adigun, J. O., (Ph.D.), Abiola, O. O., Abikoye, A. I.
(Ph.D.) & Ogungboye, R. 0. (M.Ed.).......................................................................49
Assessment Of Nutritional Status Of Primary School Pupils In Samaru Community Of 
Sabon-Gari L.G.A., Zaria, Kaduna State
— Olubiyi, Simeon Kayode (Ph.D.), Aderibigbe S. A., Adebayo O. M.,
Ibraheem, Mulikat Ayooade & Olubiyi J. 1................................58
Perceived Influence Of Budgetary Allocation On Sports Performance Among Staff Of 
Kwara State Sports Council
— Adesoye Abimbola Abefe (Prof.), Abdulraheem Yinusa Owolabi,
Oniyangi Shuaib Olarenwaju (Ph.D.) & Ibraheem Musa Oluwatoyin................. 68
Perception Of Drug Use And Abuse Among Secondary School Students In llorin 
South Local Government Area Of Kwara State
— Bakinde Surajudeen Tosho (Ph.D.), Olaitan Olukunmi Lanre (Ph.D.),
Onifade Olasunkanmi Adeoye (Ph.D.), Oyetunji Bashir Adebare, (M.Ed.)
& Bakinde Ismail Jayeola, (M.Ed.)..........................................................................78
Perceived Difficult Topics By Mathematics Teachers In The Revised Upper-Basic 
Mathematics Curriculum In llorin Metropolis
— Adeniji, S. M. & Salman, M. F.................................... ..............................................90
Effect Of Drug Education Teaching Materials Provision And Mode Of Sexually 
Transmitted Diseases Transmission Knowledge Achievement In Primary Schools
— Enyikwola Rebecca Onyebi, (M.Ed.) & Owojaiye Sunday Oni (Ph.D.)............. 102
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Jos Journal of Physical and Health Education vii
Repositioning The Professional Teacher’s Training Of Physical Education Teacher 
For National Development
— Simon Bobai Kayit (Ph.D.).......... 109
Body Composition, Strength And Low Back Pain On Resistance Training For Health 
And Fitness As A Rehabilitative Modality
— Ogunleye A. Victor (Ph.D.) & Amasiatu N. Athanasius (Ph.D.)...........................119
Body Composition And Functional Capacity Of Osteoarthritis Of The Knee
— Amasiatu N. A. (Ph.D.) & Ogunleye A. V. (Ph.D.)................................................. 128
Problems And Availability Of Health Care Delivery In Atyap Community Of Zangon- 
Kataf, Kaduna State
— Haruna A. Elizabeth (Ph.D.), Kayit S. Bobai (Ph.D.) & Kajang G. Yakubu,
(Ph.D.) 137
Perceived Knowledge Of Causes Of Air And Water Pollution Among Residents In 
Okuta Community Of Kwara State
— Kperogi, Ismail Ibrahim, Akorede, Seun Nurudeen, Abdulahi
Mohammed Isyaku (Ph.D.) & Shehu Raheem Adaramaja (Ph.D.).................... 148
Attribution Of Causes Of High Blood Pressure Among Married Adults In Ogbomoso,
Oyo State
— Alwajud-Adewusi M. B., Odebode A. A., Mustapha M. L. A. &
Adegboyega L. 0 .....................................................................................................157
Relationship Between Autocratic Coaching Style And Sports Performance
— Adewole Rufus Sunday & Hirse Aisha Kasham..................................................167
A Philosophical Examination Of The Standard Of Education In Nigeria
— Dr. A. F. Oyelade.......................................................................................................173
Prevalence And Effect Of Intestinal Parasites On The Health Burden Of School Age 
Children In Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria
— Sani, Ibrahim Ningi, M.Sc., Aideyan, Osarenmwanta Daniel, M.Sc. Ed. &
Abdullahi, Umar Yahaya...........................................................................................184
Knowledge Of Safety Precautions And Accident Prevention Among The Junior 
Secondary School Students During Physical Education Practical Lessons In llorin 
West Local Government Area, Kwara State
— Ajeigbe, Yaqub Issa (Ph.D.).....................................................................................194
UNIVERSITY OF IB
DAN LIBRARY
Jos Journal of Physical and Health Education 27
AWARENESS OF CERVICAL CANCER RISK 
FACTORS AND UTILISATION OF PAP-SMEAR 
TESTING AMONG HEALTH WORKERS IN 
IBADAN, NIGERIA
RUTH OCHANYA ADIO-MOSES (Ph.D.)(1)
Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of 
Ibadan.
Email: ochanvaadiomoses@gmail.com. Tel:08077077906 
and
HELEN SINDAMA (M.Ed.)(2)
Department of Physical and Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. 
Email:sindamahelen@gmail.com
Abstract
Cervical cancer is a major reproductive health problem among women in Nigeria, every 
woman who has ever been sexually active is at risk. Certain factors also increase the risk of 
developing the disease. Cervical cancer can usually be found early by having regular Pap 
smear tests but this test is rarely provided and hardly utilised by women. This study was 
aimed at finding out the level of awareness of female health workers and the level of 
utilization of pap smear testing. The study was carried out using descriptive survey research 
design and the total population of 623 health workers in government owned hospitals were 
used as respondents for the study. Only 502 of the structured questionnaire were returned. 
Reliability of the instrument was determined using a test-retest method with Pearson Product 
Moment correlation and it yielded reliability co-efficient of 0.73. Data collected was analysed 
using descriptive statistics of frequency count and percentage for the research question, 
while inferential statistics of chi-square and regression were used to determine the level and 
the direction of relationship between the independent and the dependent. The level of 
significance was set at p-value <0.05. The results shows that only 118 (23.5%) have had pap 
smear test while 384 (76.5%) have not. Also, awareness of cervical cancer risk factors was 
significant (X2cal 33.426, X2crit =11.071, df= 5, p< 0.05) among health workers. But, this 
awareness of the risk factors did not significantly influence (13 =.084, t=  1.069, p> 0.05) the 
utilization of pap-smear testing among female health workers in Ibadan. It is surprising to 
note that the awareness of cervical cancer risk factors did not influence the utilization of pap- 
smear testing among health workers in Ibadan. In recommendation, female health workers
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
2 8  Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
should be sensitised and encouraged to subject themselves to pap-smear testing as the 
experience will serve as a source of empowerment in their pivotal role of adviser and 
developing consciousness, reliance and cooperation of other women.
Keywords: Awareness, Cervical Cancer, risk factors, utilisation, Pap Smear test.
Introduction
Cancer is a deadly disease that has claimed several lives not only in developing countries, 
but also in the developed ones. Cancer is a non-communicable disease that accounts for 
12.5% of all deaths worldwide; a greater percentage than deaths caused by HIV/AIDS, 
tuberculosis and malaria combined. Cancer which is characterized by uncontrolled growth 
of body cell, invasion and sometimes metastasis is a global problem. However, the burden is 
more in developing countries like Nigeria where 70% of all new cases are predicted to occur 
and where governments are least prepared to address growing cancer burden. This rate of 
cancer related cases could further increase in 2020. However, lifestyles and public action by 
government and health practitioner could stem this trend and prevent as many as one third 
of cancers worldwide. A critical review of published data from Nigeria cancer registries and 
other publications have confirmed some changing trends in the relative incidence of major 
cancer in both adults and children. Cancer is indeed a serious public health problem in 
Nigeria but regrettably, its management has not been satisfactory owing largely to poor 
health management policies and poor economic factors.
Cervical cancer, a female genital cancer is still the leading type of cancer among women. 
Cervical cancer is a key reproductive health problem for women particularly in the 
developing countries where screening services are lacking or inaccessible for the majority. 
In Nigeria approximately 10,000 women develop cancer and about 8000 women die from the 
disease. Basically, every woman who has ever been sexually active can develop cancer of 
the cervix but certain risk factors increase the risk of developing the disease. These risk 
factors include infection with high-risk human papilloma virus (HPV), high parity, smoking, 
family history, low social economic status, low diet in fruits and vegetables and long term 
use of oral contraceptives. Furthermore the risk of acquiring the HPV, a sexually transmitted 
virus drastically increases with multiple lifetime sexual partners, co-infection with other 
sexually transmitted agent such as chlamydia traconmatis and herpes simplex. Likewise, 
early sexual debuts, multiple sex partners of spouse, co-infection with human 
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are known to be associated risk factors for HPV infection.
The Papanicolaou (Pap) smear test which was introduced in 1947 by a Greek Doctor, 
George Papanikolou, is one of the most essential screening tools for early diagnosis of 
cervical cancer and it has been found to be the most effective preventive measure. The value 
of cervical cancer screening in reducing the risk of cervical cancer and mortality has been
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear lesting 2 9
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
established while the risk of developing cervical cancer has been said to have reduced by 
80% through regular screening. The benefits of Pap smears availability and usage have been 
documented; resulting in reduction of mortality rates by 60 to 90% in several developed 
countries. Discoveries from studies have submitted that unscreened women are at high risk 
of cervical cancer and these necessitated researchers to investigate different reasons for 
non-screening among women. It is nevertheless worrisome in Nigeria as several studies 
have continued to show very low rate of Pap smear utilization. This is coupled with almost 
two thirds of cervical cancer cases presenting at the stage 111 or later where cure is not 
possible. While The American Cancer Society recommends that all women should begin 
cervical screening at age 21 a 2 year interval can be considered in the age group 21 to 29 
while women age 29 - 49 should be screened at 3 years interval provided the last two result 
are negative; for women aged 50 and above a 5 year interval is recommended. However, in 
Nigeria, health policies are not in place to support this practice; rather, the burden of the 
cervical cancer is overshadowed by other health priorities such as AIDS, tuberculosis and 
malaria.
In Nigeria, as in many other developing countries, organized screening services are not 
available. What is being practiced is sporadic screening for women who visit certain clinics. 
There is no standard policy or protocol for cervical cancer screening in Ibadan or in Nigeria 
as a country. Incidentally in places where the services are available, women are not utilizing 
them sufficiently. Some of the reasons cited by previous studies for low utilization of Pap 
smear testing are limited screening programs and lack of resources. Cultural based 
embarrassment, fear of the outcome of test, hopelessness concerning diagnosis of cancer, 
spouse influence, cost and access barrier, lack of physician referral, perception of test as 
being unnecessary, discomforting experience during procedure have also been identified as 
factors responsible for lack of utilization of cervical screening services.
A previous study from Zaria also noted that only 270 patients were screened as part of 
routine screening in 5 years, women’s knowledge and health care professionals were seen 
as predictors in the screening uptake. Women with little or no knowledge about cervical 
cancer and its prevention are unlikely to access screening services. Women in developing 
countries like Nigeria seem to utilize reproductive health services more during pregnancy, 
post natal check-up, family planning or when they are faced with actual gynaecological 
problem. Hence, there is need for national commitment on cervical screening programs 
whereby health workers play a major role in motivating and educating women by subjecting 
themselves to regular screening for cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer, the most common genital tract cancer in female, represents a unique global 
health problem. But its burden is more in the developing countries owing largely to low level 
of Pap smear utilization. Despite the efforts of the ministry of health to encourage women to
U
IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
3 0  Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
go for cervical cancer screening which serves as a secondary preventive measure, many 
women only go for treatment when the disease is at the advance stage1 2. Several studies 
have been carried out on cervical cancer. The level of knowledge and awareness of cervical 
screening among undergraduate was surveyed, awareness of cervical cancer screening 
among market women and there were also studies on the perception and factors affecting 
utilization of cervical screening among women in Ibadan. Nonetheless, there is need to work 
on knowledge of cervical cancer risk factors among health workers, especially as it relates to 
the practice of pap smear test. Health workers who should be responsible for opportunistic 
screening of women they care for may not be keen on getting screened themselves. As a 
matter of urgency, health care providers need to be targeted first in order to convince and 
motivate other women to access cervical screening services. This study was aimed at finding 
out the level of awareness of female health workers and the level of utilization of pap smear 
testing among health workers in government health facilities in Ibadan.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study were to:
1. Determine awareness of cervical cancer risk factors among health workers in state 
government owned hospitals in Ibadan?
2. Examine the relationship between awareness of cervical cancer risk factors and the 
utilisation of pap smear testing among health workers in state government owned 
hospitals in Ibadan?
Research Questions
Answers were sought for the following research questions:
3. What is the prevailing rate of Pap smear testing among health workers in state 
government owned hospitals in Ibadan?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
1. There will be no significant awareness of cervical cancer risk factors among health 
workers in state government owned hospitals in Ibadan.
2. Awareness of cervical cancer risk factors will not significantly influence the utilisation 
of Pap smear testing among health workers in state government owned hospitals in 
Ibadan
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing 3*|
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
Methodology
The methods adopted for this study are described below.
Research Design: the descriptive research design was adopted for this study.
Population: consists of all female professional health workers (female doctors, nurses, 
pharmacist, medical laboratory scientists and physiotherapists.) in state government owned 
hospitals located in Ibadan. (623)
Sample and Sampling Technique: The sample for this study is six hundred and twenty 
three (623) respondents. The population size is manageable thus, the total population of 
health workers in government owned hospital in Ibadan was used.
Numbers of female professionals in government owned hospitals in Ibadan, Oyo State
S /N Professionals N am e of hospita ls
Oni
M aternal M em oria l
A d eo ye and Ring C h ild ren St Govt
M atern ity child R oad H ospital Jericho P eters C h est
H ospital H ospital State Ring Jericho N ursing H ospital H ospital
Y em etu Apata H ospital road S p ec ia lis t H om e A rem o Jericho Total
1. Doctor 7 1 5 6 1 1 1 1 23
2. Pharmacist 3 - 2 3 2 2 1 1 14
3. Physiotherapist 2 - 2 2 2 2 - - 10
4. Med. Lab. 10 6 4 2 1 1 2 26
Scientist
5. Nurses 202 23 125 52 56 44 32 16 550
6. Total 224 24 140 67 63 50 35 20 623
Instrumentation: A self - developed, validated two- section questionnaire was used to 
collect data for this study. The instrument was administered on twenty (20) female health 
workers of a private Hospital in, Ibadan. This was repeated two (2) weeks after. The data 
collected was used to estimate the reliability coefficient of the instrument using Pearson 
product moment correlation. The instrument yielded a reliability co-efficient of 0.73.
Procedure for Data Collection: The questionnaire was self- administered with the help of 
three research assistants. A total of 623 copies were administered to the health workers in 
state government owned hospitals in Ibadan. However, only 502 of the questionnaire were 
valid for analysis 24 were not returned and the others (97) were badly filled.
Data Analysis: Reponses from section A were analysed using descriptive statistics of 
frequency counts and percentages, while the responses from section B were analysed with 
correlation and regression to test the stated hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
3 2  Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
Results: All the research questions and hypotheses were answered and the following 
findings were made and presented in tables below
Research Question One: What is the prevailing rate of Pap smear test among health workers 
in state government owned hospitals in Ibadan?
Table 1: Frequency table showing prevailing rate of pap-smear test among health 
workers in Ibadan
Frequency Percent
No 384 76.5
Yes 118 23.5
Total 502 100.0
Table 1 above revealed the prevailing rate of pap smear test among health workers in state 
government owned hospitals in Ibadan. The table shows that only 118 (23.5%) have had a 
pap smear test, while 384 (76.5%) reported that they have never had this test. This shows 
that majority of the respondents have not been tested or do not practice pap smear testing.
Hypothesis One: There will be no significant awareness of cervical cancer risk factors 
among health workers in state government owned hospitals in Ibadan.
Table 2: Chi-square table showing responses on awareness of cervical cancer risk 
factors among health workers in state government owned hospital in Ibadan._________
Yes % No % X2cal X2 crit Df P
Human papiloma virus is a risk factor 485 96.6 17 3.4
for cervical cancer
Human papiloma virus can be 348 69.3 154 30.7
contacted through sexual intercourse
Early exposure to sex is a risk factor for 359 71.5 143 28.5
cervical cancer
Multiple sexual partner is a risk factor 313 62.4 189 37.6
for cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is can be contracted 248 69.3 154 30.7
through sex
Long use of oral contraceptives is a risk 378 75.3 124 24.7 33.426 11.071 5 .000
factor for cervical cancer
Multiple parity is a risk factor for 373 74.3 129 25.7
cervical cancer
HIV/AIDS is a risk factor for cervical 359 71.5 143 28.5
cancer
Smoking is a risk factor for cervical 382 76.1 120 23.9
cancer
Herpes simplex and Chlamydia (STIs) 320 63.7 182 36.3
increases the risk of HPV infection
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Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing 33
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
Table 2 above shows that health workers in state government owned hospital in Ibadan have 
significant awareness of cervical cancer risk factor (X2cal 33. 426, X2crit =11.071, df= 5, p< 
0.05. The observed X2cal is greater than X2crit, therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. This 
study revealed that the respondents have high or significant awareness of cervical cancer 
risk factors.
Hypothesis Two: awareness of cervical cancer risk factors will not significantly influence the 
utilisation of Pap smear testing among health workers in state government owned hospitals 
in Ibadan
Table 3: Regression table showing responses on the relative contribution of awareness 
of cervical cancer risk factors on the utilisation of pap smear test among health 
workers in Ibadan.
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) -.415 .636
Awareness .084 .078 .084 1.069 .286
of cervical 
cancer risk 
factors
Table 3 above shows that awareness of cervical cancer risk factors does not have a 
significant influence on the utilisation of pap smear test among health workers (13 =.084, t= 
1.069, p> 0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis is accepted.
Discussions
The findings in hypothesis one indicate that health workers in state government owned 
hospitals have a significantly high level of cervical cancer risk factors. This findings 
hypothesis corroborates with the findings of a research carried out in a sub-urban district of 
Nigeria among female health workers1 who observed a similar high level of knowledge of 
cervical cancer risk factors among their respondents. The high level of awareness observed 
in this study is not unexpected considering the educational background of the respondents. 
The risk associated with cervical cancer is therefore not strange to these health workers.
The results of hypothesis two showed that the awareness of cervical cancer risk factors did 
not translate to adequate utilization of pap smear testing among health workers in Ibadan. 
This finding is in-line with the position of some earlier studies6,21 that reported that high 
knowledge and awareness of cervical cancer risk factors among their respondents did not 
translate to utilization of pap smear test. The poor utilization of pap smear testing despite 
adequate knowledge of cervical cancer risk factors also affirms similar findings by other
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
34 Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
researchers across Nigeria who reported that the high level of knowledge of cervical cancer 
risk factors shown by their respondents did not translate to utilization of the pap smear test. 
Although a greater proportion of the respondents (76.5%) were aware of the presence of the 
screening service, only (23.5%) of the respondents had undergone the screening for cervical 
cancer. This poor utilization of screening services observed in this study calls for concern 
and questions as to why are these services not used by the very people who are to 
convince, employ and motivate other women to take the test.
Conclusion
This study revealed that health worker in state government owned hospital has high 
awareness of cervical cancer risk factors. However, this awareness of cervical cancer risk 
factors did not translate to adequate use of the service hence the low practice of Pap smear 
test among health workers in Ibadan. Several barriers have been identified to have 
contributed to the low uptake ‘of the screening for cervical cancer. If the fight against the 
disease is to be won, concerted efforts should be, made to educate female health workers 
who are involved in providing health education to other women.
Recommendations
The observed low utilisation of Pap smear testing in this study shows that female health 
workers must be proactive and should be in the vanguard for the fight against cervical 
cancer as anything short of this will erode the confidence that other women have in them. 
For successful implementation of cervical screening program in Nigeria, the pivotal role 
played by health workers should be kept in mind and they should be targeted first. The 
knowledge about cervical cancer and screening is already good among Health workers. 
Therefore, there is the need for brief training session or sensitization of health workers so 
that they can play the role of enlightening the community about the availability and need of 
regular cervical screening.
Though there are no organized national programmes for cervical cancer screening in Nigeria 
today, female health workers should be sensitized to patronize the few screening centres 
available now. They could then play a pivotal role in educating and encouraging other 
women to make use of these centres. There is also a need for clear national policy 
guidelines on cervical cancer screening. Well organized and accessible screening services 
should be made available in the count, matched with good treatment modalities and follow 
up programmes for screened women. The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) should 
be strengthened to increase access of the entire women folk to screening- this will go a long 
way in reducing the burden of cervical cancer in the country.
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Awareness of Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Utilisation of Pap-Smear Testing 35
Among Health Workers in Ibadan, Nigeria
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