Second Edition ESURUOSO, G. O. IJAGBONE, I. F. O LUG AS A, B. O. V etA cad e m ic Resource Fo u n d atio n (V A R F) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY INTRODUCTORY EPIZOOTIOLOGY = Second Edition = (2005) By Professor Gabriel Oluwole ESURUOSO, DistinguishedAGSOBA (D.A.). B.V.M.S. (Glasgow), M.Sc. Invmtn. (Birmingham), PhD. (Ibadan), M.R.C.V.S. (U.K.). F.C.V.S.N. Dr. Ighoilalo Folorunso IJAGBONE, FISLT, Cert. Immonology (Lond), M.Sc. (Parasit.), M.Sc. (Epizoot.), Ph D. (Ibadan) Dr. Babasola Oluseyi OLUGASA, D. V.M. (Ibadan), M.Sc. (Epizoot.) (Ibadan) l UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY INTRODUCTORY EPIZOOTIOLOGY = Second Edition = (2005) By Professor Gabriel Oluwole ESURUOSO, Distinguished AGSOBA (D.A.), B.V.M.S. (Glasgow), M.Sc. Immun. (Birmingham), PhD. (Ibadan), M.R.C.V.S. (U.K.), F.C.V.S.N. Ag. President, College of Veterinary Surgeons, Nigeria President, Veterinary Council of Nigeria (1998-2003), Academic and Animal Health Consultant, Executive Director of Academic Consultancy Services (ACS), Founder and President, VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF), Former Dean ofVeterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan (1977-1979), Foundation Head of Department ofVeterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan (1976-1987), Foundation Fellow of the College ofVeterinary Surgeons Nigeria Professor of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, IBADAN. Oyo State Nigeria (1976-2001) Dr. Ighodalo Folorunso IJAGBONE, F1SLT, Cert. Immonology (Lond), M.Sc. (Parasit.), M.Sc. (Epizoot.), Ph.D. (Ibadan) Lecturer, Epizootiology and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Department ofVeterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, IBADAN. Oyo State Nigeria Dr. Babasola Oluseyi OLUGASA, D.V.M. (Ibadan), M.Sc. (Epizoot.) (Ibadan), Lecturer, Veterinary Public Health and Biostatistics Department ofVeterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, IBADAN. Oyo State Nigeria A Publication of VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF): Published by VetAcademic Resource Publishers and Consultants1' U.I. P. O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State, Nigeria [Telephone-. (02) 810 3164. GSM: 0803 410 0566 & 0803 418 1811 E-mail gomesuruoso@yahoo.com & ProfGOEsuntosofcp.aol. com Hi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology by Esuruoso, G.O., Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O. (Second Edition) 2005 All processingfrom data input to typesetting and graphics integration are by: - VETACADEMIC RESOURCE PUBLISHERS AND CONSULTANTS' [The Documentation and Desktop Publishing Division of Academic Consultancy Services (ACS) of VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF)]. U.l. P. O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo Stale, Nigeria [Telephone Ibadan (02) 810 3164, e-mail: gomesuruoso@yahoo.com &ProfGOEsuruosotaj.aol.com . ISBN 978-075-395-8 Copyright. All rights reserved. This means that no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the authors. Prior request for such permission should be directed in writing to G. O. Esuruoso: for and on behalf of the Authors and to President of VetAcademic Resource Publishers and Consultants, U.l.P.O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State,Nigeria. Previous Titles and Editions are: - 1. Esuruoso, G. O. (1976 ff) Lecture Notes on Epizootiology53 pp. for Undergraduate (DVM) and Postgraduate (Certificate Courses in Epizootiology and Meat Hygiene andf or MPVM, MVPH & M.Sc. Epizootiology) Students of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria: 2. Esuruoso, G. O. (1992) Lecture Notes on Epizootiology [Ref. GOE / 20TS.1B / 250392. 93 pp. which was produced specially for the penultimate year and first set of final year DVM students of the Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Department of Public Health and Animal Production, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto (UDUS), Nigeria. It was then mass reproduced and provided as the foundation text for the teaching of Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine (i. e. Epizootiology), w'hich was a major course in the DVM curriculum ofthat University (i.e. UDUS in 1992). 3. Esuruoso, G. O. (1993) Fundamentals of Epizootiology, 129pp. [Published by the Documentation and Desktop Publishing Division of Academic Consultancy Services (ACS), U.l. P.O. Box 14400, Ibadan,Nigeria] [Ref.GOE/20TS.IB/250393;93 pp. Being then the 1993 update of the 1976 1992 editions. Printed in Nigeria by GLJ Press, Ibadan. (3)08033251140 /V UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION This book is dedicated to the glory of God, especially for the lives of all true Epizootiologists who believe in the gospel of being 'biomedically literate, statistically numerate and socio-economically cost-conscious in the development and practice of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine. These are the transparent scientists, professionals and managers of human and material resources in timely order, who revere the holistic system and socially healthy approaches of socio-economic jurisprudence (sej), and will always prefer living by the dictates of positive (psej) rather than negative (nsej) socio-economic jurisprudence, towards the achievement and enthronement of total w ell-being through God's grace. G. O. Esuruoso 23rd January 2005 v UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of their undergraduate and postgraduate students who are now our colleagues being gainfully employed in the various Faculties of Veterinary Medicine in Nigeria, in the Institute ofVirology, University College Hospital, (U.C.H.) College of Medicine, Ibadan, Nigeria and in other places at home, including the National Veterinary Research Institute (N.V.R.I) and the Nigerian Institute of Science Technology (N.I.S.T) and also abroad. We also acknowledge other academic and professional colleagues worldwide, who are committed to the cause and development of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine through the healthy realization that Epizootiology and its closest alternative 'Veterinary Epidemiology> and Economics' as designed and canvassed, are the major composite scientific disciplines providing the soundest basis for cognitive and holistic understanding and practices of preventive veterinary medicine (pvm), which is preventive medicine/measure (pm) in its widest, most comprehensive and naturally most meaningful sense, thus meeting the social economic, financial and environmental health needs of man, our planet mother Earth and the concepts o f total wellbeing( Esuruoso, 1984 IT.). In particular we wish to recognize the following individuals, who at one time or the other were and still are students or/and teachers of the science of Epizootiology. They include Professors S. A. Agbede, G. A.T. Ogundipe and Arunsi Kalu. Drs. Sunday E. Uhiene, Ikwe Ajogi, Tayo Babalobi, Mohammed Ardo, 'Deji Olarinmoye, Tunde Adeitan, Dele Oluro, Gbenga Adcwale and Ronke Ogunwale. These are some of those who carried out specific projects on epizootiology, veterinary public health and/or preventive veterinary medicine in our school and who have since been applying epizootiological wisdom base to their teaching, research, professional practices and healthy living, in accordance with the principles of 'Non scholae sed vitae discimus' (ibid.) with dedication. We give special thanks to the pre-publication reviewers of this book, including especially Professors Oyewale Tomori, world renowned veterinary' virologist and Vice Chancellor of the Redeemer's University, Nigeria. Samuel A. Agbede, achiever specialist in Aquatic Veterinary Medicine, Professor and current Head of the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan (U.I.), Arunsi vi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Kalu, Professor and current Head of Department of Veterinary’ Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Maiduguri (UNIMAID), Gabriel A. T. Ogundipe incumbent Dean ofVeterinaity Medicine. Professor and former Head of the Department of Veterinary Public Head and Preventive Medicine, U.I. We also here record our appreciation to our many editorial advisers and proofreaders, especially Stephen O. Akpavie Professor and Head of Veterinary Pathology, U.I. and Dr. Ayodeji O. Olarinmoye, Director of Veterinary Services, Seventh Day Adventist Hospital, Jengre, Plateau State, Nigeria. We are indeed deeply grateful and would like to register our special thanks to the author of the foreword to this book Chief Benjamin Ekundayo Olufemi, Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Dean of the Faculty, U.I. (2003-2005 AD). We recognize the inestimable contributions and cooperation of and we are therefore thankful to Mrs. Florence Ijagbone for her support during this effort and Mrs. V.W. Esuruoso, the Administrative Director of VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF) for her active input into the success of this project. Most of our grownup children, especially 'Funmi, Gbolahan, 'Sola and 'Lola made significant inputs into the acquisition of the equipment, other resources and encouragement that made the electronic production of this book possible, and so we thank them. We also thank Miss Temilola Olatunji for her support by subtle encouragement to Dr. Babasola O. Olugasa. And to John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for supporting Dr. 'Sola Olugasa to Iowa State University as visiting scientist, while the final stages of the work on this book was going on, and for the resulting indirect enhancement of 'Sola's input into this book, the authors are grateful. Finally we give thanks and all the glory to God, the Father of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ for 1 lis immeasurable mercies in seeing us through this project, and in blessing the product. We recognize these as part of the spiritual dimension clearly reflected in the substance of the book, under the principles of socio-economic jurisprudence (sej), the nature of advocated social health and the pie chart o f human wisdom (ibid.), which all true epizootiologists w ill find useful all the time. Esuruoso, G.O., Ijagbone, I.F. and Olugasa, B.O. Ibadan.Nigeria23rd January2005 vii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY FOREWORD The second edition ofthis book has come at a time when there seems to be a dearth ol'qualified indigenous Nigerian authors in such a special area as Epizootiology. This book written by a guru and two of his disciples in the scientific discipline is an invaluable compendium of facts, ideas, figures and tables that provide a sequential introduction into the essential aspects of Epizootiology which is one of the necessary preludes to the understanding and practice of preventive veterinary medicine. O f particular importance in this respect is the presentation of Epizootiology as the scientific discipline that is concerned with the study, control, eradication and prevention of epizootics. Of no less importance is the understanding of the tripod of epizootiology, which is one of the points of development ofveterinary concern for problems of human populations. The aim ofthis text has been to ensure that such basics are available in an easily readable book. I am glad to note that the book contains sufficient material for a wide target readership. 1 recommend this treatise to epizootiologists throughout the world. I am proud that one of the authors (GOE) had taught in the Faculty o f Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria for nearly four decades (1965- 2001) and had trained many Nigerian and foreign students in the various aspects ofveterinary public health and preventive medicine. The other two authors (1F1 & BOO) are still in active service. 1 wish them w'ell in their contribution to man's effort in the understanding, management and control of epizootics in animal and human populations worldwide. Professor B. Ekundayo Olufemi, JP, FCVSN Dean, Faculty o f Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan. Ibadan. Nigeria viii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY PREFACE The first edition of this book came as “Fundamentals o f Epizootiology”, being a 1993 update of mimeographed text for both (DVM) undergraduate and postgraduate students at the University of Ibadan (U.I.). The earliest versions were used by students pursuing courses leading to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M) from the 1976/77 academic session. From 1977 to 1979 an upgraded version was used by candidates for the certificate programmes in Epizootiology and Food Hygiene, also at U.I. And lfom 1978/79 session and thereafter, students pursuing Masters of Veterinary Public Health (MVPFI), Masters of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (MPVM), M.Sc., M.Phil and Ph.D Epizootiology used various upgraded versions with other textbooks from abroad when available. The course in Epizootiology was also later being attended by candidates pursuing the Masters of Science (M.Sc.) Virology degree of the College of Medicine, University College Hospital (U.C.1L), Ibadan, an arrangement that has survived to this day. The text of “Fundamentals o f Epizootiology"’ w as in fact based on the approved course PVM 701 of the University. In 1992, when one of the authors acted as a visiting professor to the Usumanu Danfodiyo University in Sokoto (UDUS), he had to prepare a much simplified version of the text for Epizootiology for the first final year (and penultimate year) D VM students of the University, as there was no suitable textbook for their courses in epidemiology, veterinary public health and preventive medicine. This version was mass-produced as a special arrangement for the DVM students under the title “Lecture Notes on Epizootiology (Esuruoso, G. O., 1992)”. One of the lecturers in Ibadan later found the text to be more acceptable to the DVM undergraduate class in the university, and therefore decided to adopt and use it. This second edition is an upgraded and updated form of the existing texts in use at both and other universities. In addition, this second edition contains more extensive model practical exercises that go with each section and chapter of the book. The practical exercises are provided in model settings known to exist or are in the process of being established for the faculties. The practical exercises are meant to achieve the objectives of the teaching and learning processes in an enhanced mode. In the glossaiy ix UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY provided, relevant key terms are defined, explained and illustrated. The idea is to aid both students and teachers in comprehending the substance of the text and what the authors mean. Figures and tables are now generously included. The appendices supplement the text. This is to ensure that the students appreciate the important role of epizootiology as providing the soundest basis for the practice of preventive medicine / measures in its / their most comprehensive sense. In Introductory Epizootiology, the target readership has been enlarged, by making more glaring provisions for students in other disciplines. It is thus meant to provide materials for a baseline and bridge-makers' course for students in allied disciplines. Hence the book is meant to be useful for the scientific development and positive socio-economic jurisprudential (psej) orientation of students and teachers of Biology, Zoology, Agriculture, Agricultural systems Agricultural Economics, Animal Science, Environmental Health, Animal Health, Animal Husbandry, Livestock Production Economics, Geography, Biostatistics, Community Medicine. Veterinary Medicine, and Scientific Thinking generally Also built into the text are systems of natural relationships, inter­ relationships. inter-dependence, points of integration and coordination for achieving global views and bridge-building objectives for ultimate systems' success stories in scientific thinking and actions towards possible achievement ottotal well-being (Esuruoso, G. ()., 1993ff). x UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF CONTENTS Title Page Publishers' Page iv Dedication v Acknowledgement vi Foreword viii Preface ix List o f contents x i List o f tables xviii List o f figures xx Chapter One: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Policy Statements on the place of epizootiology in education: 1 1.1 (a) Basic purpose o f university education 1.1 (b) Non scholae sed vitae discimus 1.1 (c) University education as a system 1.1 (d) Branches o f education in the context o f relationships 1.1 (e) A matter o f deliberate policy 1.1 ((f) Epizootiology’ and epidemiology 1.1 (g) Intended coverage o f Epizootiology 1.2 Concepts and definitions of Epidemiology and Epizootiology : The gist 6 1.2 (a) Introducing the gist 1.2 (b) Introducing the definitions (i) Of Epidemiology) (ii) O f Epizootiology> 1.2 (c) Reflecting the uneasy feeling 1.2 (d) Not just the economic, but also the social health implications 1.2 (e) Classified summary presentation o f the definitions in tables 1.3 Objectives of Epizootiology 16 1.3 (a) Main Objectives of Epizootiology 1.3 (b) Other objectives would include Xl UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1.4 Conclusion 18 1.4 (a) Understanding and Relevance o f Epizootiologv 1.4 (b) For students o f Biology 1.4 (c) For students o f Agriculture 1.4 (d) For students o f human and veterinary medicine 1.4 (e) For students o f agricultural economics, geography, biometrics, computer sciences 1.4 (f) For students o f environmental problem management and prevention 1.5 Teaching of Kpizootiology 20 1.5 (a) As a multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary and multifaceted subject 1.5 (b) Adopting participative teaching-and-learning processes 1.5 (c) Recognizing the relevance o f basic knowledge o f General Biology in the course o f teaching Epizootiology 1.5 (d) Adopting didactic, participative and heuristic teaching methods 1.5 (e) In summary: 'the wisdom nugget' and road map to 'the pie chart o f human wisdom' 1.6 The wisdom n uggct: 23 1.6 (a) The pie chart o f human wisdom 1.6 (b) Imparting and acquiring the knowledge 1.6 (c) Gaining relevant experience 1.6 (d) Developing appropriate skills 1.6 (e) Achieving functional level o f competence 1.6 (f) Applying the knowledge, experience and competence judiciously 1.6 (g) Having the grace o f God in an atmosphere filled with His essence 1.6 (h) Conclusion: True / veritable wisdom is from God 1.7 Guidelines for model practical exercises 30 1.7 (a) Introduction to the practical exercises 1.7 (b) Usual Structure o f Model Practical Epizootiological Exercises 1.7 (c) Conclusion: Efficient Resource Management Approach is essential to success 1.8 An Appraisal of performance in relation to stated objectives 35 1.8 (a) The need for project appraisal 1.8 (b) Recommended procedure for the appraisal 1.8 (c) Conclusion: xii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Chapter Two: EPIZOOTIOLOGY AND ITS COMPONENTS 37 2.1 What is Epizootiology? 37 2.1 (a) Simplest definition 2.1 (b) A working definition 2.1 (c) Study o f relationships 2.1 (d) Study o f natural and evolving systems 2.2 The study of relationships 39 2.2 (a) Why do we study relationships? 2.2 (h) Physical andf unctional relationships 2.2 (c) Living agreeably to nature 2.3 Types of Relationships (Rr) 14 42 2.3 (a) Type 1 Naturally occurring relationships 2.3 (b) Type 2 Natural perspective relationships 2.3 (c) The scientific study o f relationships within systems 2.3 (d) Illustrations o f relationships 2.4 The Components of Epizootiology (Tripod o f Epizootiology) 45 2.4 (a) The Biomedical component 2.4 (b) Biostatistics component 2.4 (c) Socio-economic component o f Epizootiology 2.5 Reeommended Praetieal Exercises 51 2.5 (a) Title o f practical 2.5 (b) Preparation for the study 2.5 (c) Designed forms for field data collection 2.5 (d) The field exercises 2.5 (e) Recording, reporting and write-up for presentation Chapter Three: PHASES OF EPIZOOTIOLOGY 59 3.1 Why phases? 59 3.2 The phases of Epizootiology 59 3.2 (a) Descriptive Epizootiology 3.2 (b) What then are usually described.-' 3.2 (c) Description o f groups or populations 3.2 (d) Description o fp laces / locations 3.2 (e) Description o f time (temporality) 3.2 (f) Group / population, place and time relationships 3.3 Analytical Epizootiology 67 UNIVER ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.4 Experimental Epizootiology 69 3.5 Summary and Conclusion 70 3.5 (a) In summary 3.5 (b) Universal applicability of epizootiological philosophy 3.5 (c) Recommended practice 3.6 Recommended practical exercises 72 3.6 (a) Preparation fo r the study 3.6 (h) The field exercises 3.6 (c) Purpose o f observational training 3.6 (d) Laboratory practical 3.6 (e) Recording, reporting and write-up for presentation Chapter Four: EPIZOOTIOEOGICAL APPROACHES 77 4.1 General Introduction 77 4.1 (a) Merits o f epizootiological approaches 4.1 (b) Body o f the general introduction 4.2 Biomedical (Medical detection) Approach 79 4.2 (a) Indicators o f diseases and other problems 4.2 (b) Morbidity and mortality measurements 4.2 (c) Scope o f medical detection 4.3 Ecological Approach 85 4.3 (a) Introduction 4.3 (b) Types o f ecosystem 4.3 (c) Classification 4.3 (d) Other methods o f classification 4.3 (e) Anthropurgic ecosystem 4.3 (f) Autochthonous ecosystem 4.3 (g) Synanthropic ecosystem 4.3 (h) Biotic community 4.3 (i) History o f ecological epizootiology (i) Introduction (ii) Pioneers (Hi) Present situation (iv) Nidality o f diseases (v) Breaking the weakest link (Vi) Natural history approach (vii) Baseline in ecological approaches xiv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.4 Mathematical Approach 4.4 (a) Justification 4.4 (b) Objectives 4.4 (c) Methods o f mathematical epizootiology 4.4 (d) Sampling methods 4.4 (e) Sampling theory 4.4 (f) Uses o f sampling theory 4.4 (g) Statistical procedures 4.5 Socio-economic and Socio-cultural Approaches 138 4.6 Recommended Practical Exercises 139 4.6 (a) Before and during planned visits 4.6 (b) Examples o f recommendedf ormats for recording field and laboratory data 4.6 (c) Species and numbers o f animals on the farm 4.6 (d) On arrival back home 4.7 Details of some practical training exercises recently conducted for DVM students in Ibadan: Investigation of a disaster affecting pigs 143 4.7 (a) Introduction 4.7 (b) The objectives o f this investigation 4.7 (c) Location o f investigation and groups o f investigators 4.7 (d) Achievements o f the groups Chapter Five: APPLICATIONS OF EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 176 5.1 Introduction 176 5.2 Classification of animal group/ population problems 177 5.3 Natural histories of diseases and other problems in animal herds 178 5.3 (a) From an Epizootiological point o f view 5.3 (b) (i) The natural history o f Bovine brucellosis 5.3 (b) (ii) The usual beginning 5.3 (b) (Hi) Scenario I Relationships commencing with contamination 5.3 (b) (iv) Scenario II Relationships commencing with ingestion 5.3 (b) (v) Scenario III Relationships commencing with inoculation 5.3 (b) (vi) All scenarios XV UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.4 Epizootiological diagnosis 181 5.4 (a) What is diagnosis? 0.4 (b) Phases o f diagnosis 5.4 (c) Epizootiological diagnoses o f diseases and other group problems 5.5 Epizootiological intelligence activities 194 5.5 (a) Survey o f diseases and other problems 5.5 (b) Monitoring o f diseases and other problems 5.5 (c) Surveillance o f diseases and other problems 5.6 Risk Studies 196 5.6 (a) Introduction to risk studies 5.6 (b) Application o f geographic information systems (CIS) in risk studies 5.6 (c) What is GIS? 5.6 (d) Risk assessment and visualization with CommunityViz software 5.6 (d) (i) Spatial datasets for scenario setup in CommunityViz 5.6 (d) (ii) Scenario view and scenario theme properties setup 5.6 (d) (Hi) Visualization o f farm decontamination area as necessary 5.6 (e) Other GIS hardware and software and their benefits to risk studies 5.7 General Nature of Model Epizootiology Laboratories 211 5. 7 (a) Introduction to model expizootiology laboratory 5. 7 (b) Three grades o f Epizootiology Laboratories 5.7 (c) Physical and Functional Nature o f Epizootiology Laboratories 5.7 (d) Various types o f tests and investigation in an Epizootiology laboratory 5. 7 (e) Charts o f Standard values and interpretation o f results 5.8 Conclusion 216 5.9 Recommended Practical exercises 222 6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 7.0 GLOSSARY 235 POSTSCRIPT 247 Gist Presentation XV/ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY VPPENDICES: APPENDIX I: The increasing role and importance of veterinary epidemiology and economics in veterinary education, practice and development 250 APPENDIX II: Results of three web searches for “Epizootiology” 279 APPENDIX III: Knowledge base: from biology to epizootiology 282 APPENDIX IV: Highlights of some 'tools of thought' and procedures In epizootiology (in practice) 285 APPENDIX V: Model approved course content for undergraduate epizootiology and related courses 289 APPENDIX VI: Some examples of Epizootiological project topics, from which students may choose 291 APPENDIX VII: Epizootiological Intelligence Forms 294 APPENDIX VIII: “Sensitivity and Specificity (in a four-fold classification) Test” 303 APPENDIX IX: Some epizootiological database materials for Nigeria 306 APPENDIX X: Recommended attendance register for lectures And practical exercises in Epizootiology 308 INDEX 309 xvii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY List of Tables Title of table Page Table 1.1: Definitions of Epidemiology in Terms of Infectious/Communicable Diseases 9 Table 1.2 Definitions of Epidemiology in Terms of Diseases and/or Conditions, “Laws” and Circumstances 9 Table 1.3: Definitions of Epidemiology in Terms of Health, Ill-Health, Disease and/or Physiological Condition 11 Table 1.4: One definition of Epidemiology in Terms of Preventive and Community Medicine 11 Table 1.5: Definitions of Epidemiology in Terms of Observation, Methods of Reasoning (or Philosophy), Total Established Facts and Thereof and Related Social Factors 11 Table 1.6: Definitions of Veterinary Epidemiology /Simply Epidemiology according to Context and Reflecting the Interest and Thinking of the Author/s 12 Table 1.7: Definitions of Epizootiology in Terms of Animal Herd Problems, Basis for their Elucidation, Control, Liquidation and Prevention, and in the context of Veterinary Public Health (VPH) Practice 12 Table 4.1: How Incidence and Prevalence are Related 84 Table 4.2: Some Wildlife Species in Borgu Game Reserve, Niger State, Nigeria 104 Table 4.3: Some Wildlife Species in Yankari Game Reserve, Bauchi State, Nigeria 105 Table 4.4: Nigeria's Flora of epizootiological relevance: A list of some poisonous plants in Nigeria 105 Table 4.5: Some Prominent Grasses of the Various Grass Belts and grazing areas in Nigeria 107 xvi 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.6: Herds statistics; A model form for recording 140 Table 4.7: Record sheet for Morbidity and Mortality over 5 years 141 Table 4.8: Population of Pigs on farms affected by African Swine Fever (ASF) in Oyo State in 2001 (Based on reviewed reports submitted by Farmers) 147 Table 4.9: Farms From Which Blood Samples Were Collected For Laboratory tests 149 Table 4.10: Locations and Dates of 2001 ASF Outbreaks on Pig Farms in Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area (LGA) in Oyo State, Nigeria 153 Table 4.11: Illness Pattern and Deaths in 2001 ASF Outbreak On a Pig Farm in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria 169 Table 4.12: Financial Loss Due to ASF 2001 Outbreaks In Oyo State, Nigeria 173 Table 5.1: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of Sporadic Outbreaks of Diseases (or Other Group Problems) 187 Table 5.2: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of Flnzootic / Endemic Presence of Diseases (or Other Group Problems) 188 Table 5.3: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of Epizootic / Epidemic (Occurrence Of) Diseases (Or Other Group Problems) of Animals and People 189 Table 5.4: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of (the Occurrence of Cases in) a Point Enzootic / Epidemic (Outbreak of Disease or Other Group Problems of Animals or People) 190 Table 5.5: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of the Outbreak of a Propagative Enzootic/ Endemic Disease (Or Other Group Problems of Animals or People) 191 Table 5.6: Presentation of Frequency Distribution Of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Outbreaks in Nigeria 192 xix UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY List of Figures Title Page Figure 1.1: Pie Chart of Human Wisdom 23 Figure 1.2: Depicting How One May Achieve Veritable Wisdom 24 Figure 1.3: Groups of Animals and People Forming Relationships In Diverse Situations In Which Group Problems May Arise, And Where Epizootiological Approach May be The Answer 26 Figure 1.4: Depicting What May Lead From Demonstration of Ability To Development of Skill 27 Figure 1.5: Depicting stage-bystage approach to building up Competence and confidence 28 Figure 1.6: Depicting What May Lead To Ultimate Success 29 Figure 2.2: Depicting How To Achieve Effective Preparation For A Successful Field Study And/Or Training 54 Figure 2.3: Picture of One of the Grazing Areas At The University Of Ibadan (U.l.) Teaching And Research Farm 58 Figure 2.4: Picture of One of The Animal Houses / Buildings And Its Surrounding In The U.L Teaching And Research Farm 58 Figure 4.1: Work! Watch!! And Pray!!! Always Seeking To Be Right And Righteous And To Remain So 89 Figure 4.2: The Natural BIOS:(Basic Input/Output System) in Principle 90 Figure 4.3: Political Map of Nigeria Showing The Various States And Their Capitals 91 Figure 4.4: Natural Vegetation Of Nigeria: Forest And Grassland Vegetation 91 Figure 4.5: Rivers of Nigeria 92 Figure 4.6: Physical Regions of Nigeria 92 Figure 4.7: Showing Annual Rainfall Distribution in Nigeria 93 XX UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ^_'e4.8: Mean Annual Temperature Range Between 21°C and 30°C 93 4.9:The Physical Map of Nigeria Showing Plateaus And Mountain Areas Which Are Largely Free From Tsetse Flies 94 :gure4.10: Epizootiological / Disease Reporting Map of Nigeria 95 r igure 4.11: Nigeria's Trade Cattle Trek Routes, Control Posts And Quarantine Stations 95 Figures 4.12 and 4.13: Photographs Taken Along Okene-Abuja Road, Nigeria: Examples of Shrub land and Anthropurgic Ecosystems 96 Fi gure 4.14: A Watering Point En Route Southwest To Northern N igeria 96 Figures 4.15 and 4.16: Example of Anthropurgic Ecosystems 98 Figures4.17 and 4.18: More Examples of Derived Guinea Savanna Ecosystem Along A South/North Route in Nigeria 99 Figures 4.19 and 4.20: Dry Season Vegetation And a Herd of Cattle Grazing in the Background respectively 100 f igures 4.21: Picture of a Rainforest Area of South West Nigeria 101 Figure 4.22: Tropical Cattle shed at U.I. Teaching and Research Farm 110 Figure 4.23: Entrance To the Fenced Premises of a Dairy Herd Farm In Oria/lrua, Mid-Western (Now Edo) State of Nigeria, 1978 110 Figure 4.24: Mokwa Cattle Ranch in Northern Nigeria, During A Study Visit, 1974 111 Figure 4.25: N'Dama Cattle at Western Livestock Company Farm, Fashola, Oyo State, Nigeria 111 Figures 4.26 and 4.27: N'Dama Cattle, Grazing In an Oil Palm Plantation of the Nigerian Institute For Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), Near Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria (At Long and Close Range, respectively) 112 Figures 4.28 and 4.29: A Healthy Zebu Herd At a Livestock Breeding Centre in Northern Nigeria And a Clinically 111 Zebu Herd In Western Nigeria during a Dry Season 113 X X I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figures 4.30 and 4.31: Tropical Pig House At the Nigeria Institute For Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), Near Benin City in Edo State, Nigeria 114 Figure 4.32 and 4.33: Pig Breeding at the University of Ibadan Teaching And Research Farm Facility 114 Figures 4.34 and 4.35: Poultry Breeding at Western Nigerian Government Investigation and Poultry Improvement Farm at Fashola, near Oyo town And an Egg Production House at the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Ibadan (U.I.), Ibadan, Nigeria 114 Figure 4.36: Forest Products and Major Fishing Areas in Nigeria 115 Figure 4.37 and 4.38: Two Fish Ponds In the Rain Forest Area of Western Nigeria 115 Figure 4.39: Areas of Grain Production in Nigeria 116 Figure 4.40: Essential Stages in Epizootiological Studies Of Herd Problems 117 Figures 4.41 and 4.42: Appropriate Vehicles for Epizootiological Field Study and Training 117 Figures 4.43, 4.44 and 4.45: Dry Season Vegetation Geography En Route Sokoto - Dabagi Farm , Sokoto State, Nigeria 118 Figures 4.46 and 4.47: Some Veterinary Students Of Usumanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto (UDUS) On An Epizootiological Study Trip En Route Sokoto to Dabagi Farm With Professor G.O. Esuruoso 1992 118 Figure 4.48: A Grazing Cattle Herd Crossing the Road 119 Figure4.49: Typical Red Bororo (Rahaji) Cattle Herd Of Northern Nigeria 119 Figure 4.50: Part of the Defunct Western Nigeria Government's Dairy Herd at Iwo Road, Ibadan 120 Figure 4.51: Emaciated Bunaji (Red Bororo) Cattle 120 Figure 4.52: Bovine Papillomatosis (Skin Warts) In a Zebu Herd near Kano, Kano State, Nigeria 120 xxii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.53: Another case of Bovine Papillomatosis (Skin warts) in Nigeria 121 Figure 4.54: A Sporadic Case of Norcadiosis in a Cow On a Government Farm at Fashola, Near Oyo in Nigeria 121 Figure 4.55: A Scene at Government Farm, Fashola, Near Oyo During an Epizootiological Visit for the Study of Brucellosis 122 Figure 4.56: A Scene During an Epizootiological Trip To a Fulani Herd in Igbeti Cattle Area of Western Nigeria 122 Figure 4.57: Various Scenes of Trade Cattle Movement On Jebba Bridge Railway Line and Road Combined 123 Figure 4.58: Entrance to Bodija Control Post and Cattle Market Of the State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ibadan 123 Figure 4.59: Scenes at the Trade Cattle Control Post, Ibadan 124 Figure 4.60: Trade Cattle at the Control Post and Cattle Market, Bodija, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria 124 Figures 4.61,4.62 and 4.63: Some Related Scenes At the Sokoto State Central Abattoir, Slaughtering of Camels 125 Figures 4.64 and 4.65: Sokoto Abattoir premises: Examples of Anthropurgic Ecosystem 125 Figures 4.66 and 4.67: Dry Season Vegetation And Geography Of The Site Chosen For A Teaching And Research Outstation At Eruwa for the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Of Ibadan 126 Figures 4.68, 4.69 and 4.70: Bleeding a Pig through Anterior Vena cava, Filtering of 4-chloro-l-naphtol precipitate in Methanol Solution (the chromogen), and Washing of Immunoblotting Strips With PBS-Milk 2% Buffer To Obtain Test Results On Serum Samples Collected from Pigs 151 Figure 4.71: Result of Immunoblotting Test Carried Out on Serum Samples Collected From Clinically 111 Pigs And Convalescent Survivors At U. 1. Teaching And Research Farm 151 Figures 4.72 and 4.73: Use of the GPS and GIS Tools For Geographic Data Collection and Management In ASF Outbreak Investigation 154 xx Hi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.74: A Veterinary Student Using Summer Sketch III (A Digitizing Tablet) at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, Indicating the Usefulness of Such Equipment In Epizootiological Studies 155 Figure 4.75: Showing Arc View GIS Window' That Welcomes Users to the Software 156 Figure 4.76: Showing Steps in Arc View GIS Window For Opening a New Project and Creating a New Fable For Capturing Pig Farms Coordinates and Population Data 157 Figure 4.77: Showing Pig Farm Table Created in Arc View GIS Demo Edition 157 Figure 4.78: Showing Steps in Arc View for Opening a New' View To Display a Map of Pig Farms 158 Figure 4.79: Arc View GIS Add Event Theme Dialogue Box 159 Figure 4.80: Data View Display of Pig Farms Locations Identified And ASF Outbreak Points in Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area In 2001 160 Figure 4.81: Spatial Distribution of Pig Farms In 2001 In Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area Presented in Arc View GIS Layout View' 162 Figure 4.82: Dates and Sequence of African Swine Fever Outbreaks In 200 Ion Pig Farms in Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area 163 Figure 4.83: Pattern of Initial Spread of ASF in Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area In 2001 164 Figure 4.84: Pig Farms within 100 meters distance to a stream 166 Figure 4.85: Selected Pig Farms Within 100 Meters Distance of a Stream 167 Figure 4.86: African Sw'ine Fever Outbreak Sequence in 2001 In Relation to Streams in Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area 167 Figure 4.87: Locations of Confirmed African Swine Fever Outbreaks In Nigeria (1997-2004) 168 X X IV UNIVERSITY OF IBA AN LIBRARY F gures4.88,4.89 and 4.90: Sudden Death: Picture of a Pig i: Died Suddenly with Blood Discharge From the Mouth, At L I.Teachingand Research Farm See A Post Mortem Section ofThe Liver, Ibid.) 170 F 5ure4.91: An ASF Convalescent Survivor Sow w'ith Nine Piglets 171 r :gure4.92: 2001 ASF Death and Illness Time Curves On Government Farm, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria 13" September through 8"'October 2001) 172 Figures 4.93 and 4.94: A Pig Farmer and a Veterinary Student Assessing Workability of a Mini-plan on ASF Control Also To Be Seen by Public Health Veterinarians 174 Figure 5.1 Frequency Distribution of Sporadic Outbreaks of Diseases 188 Figure 5.2 Frequency Distribution of Sporadic Outbreaks of Disease 188 Figure 5.3: Graphic Presentations Of Enzootic / Endemic Diseases and Other Group Problems 189 Figure 5.4: Graphic presentations Of Epizootic / Epidemic occurrence of Diseases And Other Group Problems of Animals and People 190 Figure 5.5: Line Graph presentation Of Point Epizootic / Epidemic (occurrence of) Diseases (Or Other Group Problems) 191 Figure 5.6: Line Graph Presentation Of A Propagative Enzootic / Endemic (Or Even A Propagative Epizootic / Epidemic (Outbreak of)) Disease (Or Other Group Problems of Animals or People) 192 Figure 5.7: Line Graph Presentation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Outbreaks in Nigeria 193 Figure 5.8: CommunityViz Illustration of Risk of Disease Outbreaks in Accidental Release of Disease Causing Agents on a Cattle Farm 201 xxv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 5.9: Estimated Sum of Clinically 111 Cattle During the First 10 Days of Exposure to Disease Causing Agents Being a Result Generated by a Predictive Model Set-Up In CommunityViz (A GIS) Software 203 Figure 5.10: CommunityViz Scenario Properties window For setting up Scenario Elements, including Variables, Constants, Indicators, Snapshots, and Tables, With Provisions for Securing the Setup With a Lock 204 Figures 5.11 And 5.12: CommunityViz Dialogue Boxes That Prompt User For a Value for Biological Agent and A Value for Route of Agent Introduction Respectively 204 Figures 5.13 and 5.14: Dialogue Boxes That Prompt User For a Value For Infectivity of Agent and Allow User To Change Agent's Incubation Period Respectively 205 Figure 5.15: Snapshot of Model Resources For Estimating 111 Cattle in Latest New Exposure 206 Figure 5.16: CommunityViz Dialogue Boxes That Prompts User To Specify Spatial Spread Ability of Disease Causing Agent 207 Figure 5.17: CommunityViz Visual Display of Boundaries Of Areas Requiring Decontamination Following Exposure To Disease Causing Agents 208 Figure 5.18: A Veterinary Laboratory Staff Inputting Diagnostic Test Results Into the Computer For Animal Health Risk Study 210 Figure 5.19: Internal Relationship of Veterinary Public Health And Preventive Medicine Courses Taught from DVM III to DVM V At Undergraduate Level in The University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria 220 Figure 5.20: Internal Relationship of Veterinary Public Health And Preventive Medicine Courses in Relation to Epizootiology As a Common Foundation Course at Postgraduate Level 221 xxvi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Gist Presentation of The Simplest Definition of Epizootiology "Epizootiology is the study o f epizootics". It covers the study and vetting of'w hatever may befall' animal groups (herds, flocks, etc) and human populations and communities. Veterinary concern for problems in and of human populations (i.e. groups of people) is most obvious in the control of zoonoses, the promotion of food (including meat and fish) hygiene and sanitation of animal, especially livestock's external environment, which is inevitably shared by man directly and indirectly. And all of these and more are traditionally covered under the discipline of veterinary public health (vph) practice, research and administration, which in turn is a branch of preventive veterinary medicine (pvm). That tradition is worthy of retention and development, not destruction or derogation. And the inculcation of socio-economic jurisprudence (sej), deriving from being socio-economic ally cost-conscious (see tripod of epizootiology, ibid.) as a component of epizootiology is in fact one of the cardinal development points of veterinary concern for problems of people and the need for them to be socially healthy. To be socially healthy is to be so mentally, morally, educationally, spiritually, law-abidingly, peace loving and peace promotingly and security consciously, thus living in harmony with nature. Epizootiology remains in active service: Those who say in 1994 that the word Epizootiology is redundant may wish to have a rethink now in 2005 (over ten years after); the European Union (EU) is currently actively supporting the Pan-African (Programme for the) Control of Epizootics (PACE). If what the programme is all about are epizootics. it should be obvious that Epizootiologists sensu stricto should, among other scientists, be in good position to apply the soundest cognitive knowledge, understanding and wisdom to the scientific study, control and prevention of the 5 major epizootics (and other problems) being so actively supported in 32 African countries. Moreover. Appendix II to this text shows more than twenty one thousand (> 21,000) epizootiology titles from one single web search. Obviously epizootiology remains in active service worldwide. X X V l l UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Or, are the 32 countries and the whole of the European Union using redundant words such as 'epizootics' in the title of a programme they are actively supporting with such heavy resources? Obviously and most naturally, epidemiology should be seen as a sub­ discipline of Epizootiology. To try to replace the whole with a part (through etymological inexactitude) may set future generations wondering what the science of our age was all about in matters of etymology. Therefore, no one should have problems in agreeing that Epizootiology should be retained as the holistic scientific discipline that should be concerned with 'the study', control, eradication and prevention of' epizootics'. Such can never be a matter of fashion. Epizootiology as presented in this book should remain the soundest and most holistic basis for 'the control of epizootics' as in PACE. And care should be taken of the sej component, insisting on psej, while disapproving, deprecating and discouraging nsej. For, most of the apparently intractable problems of nations great and small, highly developed or just developing, are largely the results of adopting, or not being able to control the practices of negative socio-economic jurisprudence (nsej). GOE/VARF/112004 xxv Hi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Chapter INTRODUCTION 1.1 Policy Statements on the Place of Epizootiology in Education 1.1 (a) Basic purpose o f university education The first purpose of a university system is to provide higher education (at tertiary level) to the candidates admitted thereto. The word education in this context is used in its fundamental, broadly based and functional sense. It is also used to indicate the provision of adequate understanding of the basis for the management and control of problems that may interfere with the well being of people, animals, plants, the common environment and its content. It is meant to provide sound working knowledge and basis for acquiring skills. These would be useful for identifying roles, quantifying needs, determining and taking systematic actions that would favourably affect the fate of modern man. This is viewed in the contexts of natural relationships of man with the other components (plants, animals and other animate and inanimate objects) with which man inevitably shares his external environment. Such education is in turn expected to provide man with the basis for continuing survival through conscious adaptation to and effective control of the vicissitudes of social, economic and natural pressures and stresses throughout man's life. By these, the modern man can truly meet the dictates of the wise old saying 'Congruenta naturae vivendum est' meaning 'One should live agreeably to nature' / 'Man should be living in harmony with nature' in order to continue to survive and prosper. 1.1 (b) Non scholae sed vitae discimus Deriving from that basic purpose then, is the obvious need to ensure that our teaching is meant to provide learning, 'not just for school, but also for life'. Hence, 'Non scholae sed vitae discimus' means 'we learn, not just for school, but for life'. This means that the knowledge and skills that a truly educated person should graduate with from our universities, and thereafter should prepare him for good living. To benefit from that key statement, a wise reader should stop and meditate on it for a while before moving on, as that exercise would take the reader beyond the stage of learning by UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 echolalia and rote. Everyone needs some basic knowledge of epizootiology in order to live well and continue to contribute to total well- being. It is an important component of university education. 1.1 (c) University education as a system Now, universities are usually divided into systems of colleges, faculties, departments and other units and sub-units. Naturally for the system to survive, the objectives of the component faculties, etc should never run counter to those of the main university system itself. Therefore, as the faculties diverge to focus on their special disciplines, they are in fact contributing their quota towards the achievement of the main system's objectives. Also, in a way that is not generally readily appreciated without scientific thinking, the natural, physical, social and applied sciences and disciplines, as well as the Arts and the Humanities, are of essence related to one another in the system of education being provided in our universities. This is a fact that must be fully understood by well-educated individuals within the system, so that they can often be part of the solutions, rather than being part of the problems of society. Now, epizootiology (as a branch of epi'Scientologyw) is meant to provide the common knowledge base and unifying logic paths for all scientific disciplines in any educational system. That is a key statement. Our immediate example here is to trace the intricate inter-relationships (and inter-dependence) of the agricultural, veterinary, and the other (including human and environmental) health sciences to one another on the one hand. And on the other hand, one should try to establish the social, economic and cultural health implications of these natural relationships first for the survival and next for the prosperity of modern man and the health of the common external environment. We are assuming here that the word 'modern' as used can be interchanged with 'civilized'. Our reader should try and meditate on that assumption, before either accepting or rejecting it democratically. /. 1 (d) Branches o f education in the context o f relationships There should be no problem at all in appreciating that the objectives of the biological, agricultural and biomedical (including the veterinary) faculties do overlap so intricately that there must be some consciously created meeting points, at least at the grassroots, for the individual 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 disciplines to remain relevant to the overall system of living things and the world in which they all live. Now, epizootiology is meant to provide a model example of such meeting points in the formal education of their principal actors and exponents, since the interests of man are eventually the basis for all his efforts. And ultimate failure awaits an anthropocentric discipline that ignores the common knowledge base, the role-playing and fate sharing patterns with the lower animal and plant components, or even those of the microbes and the inanimate contents of the common external environment. Epizootiology should be recognised as one of the three basic multidisciplinary and inter-related subjects that provide models for scientific approaches to the study of living and non-living systems in the same b iosphere . The o ther two are E piphyto logy* and Epi'inanimatology '. All three form the components of'Epi'Scientology'. Epizootiology (like each of the other two components in their individual rights) is in turn a multi-disciplinary science. It may be noted here that Epiphany (meaning 'What happened to (befell) the Magi, as celebrated by Christians worldwide on 6"1 of January each year) will be found by believers to be the metaphysical example that fits into epi'scientological logic paths6'. 1.1 (e) A matter o f deliberate policy Thus, it is a matter of deliberate policy, that the subject 'Epizootiology' will be presented in the manner of systems approach and will be treated as a multidisciplinary science"1, providing suitable materials for the basic education of students of Biology, Agriculture, Veterinary and Human Medicine, Geography, Economics, other social sciences, Mathematics, Physics, Electronics and computer science. For they all have something to contribute to and usually much more to gain from the philosophy, logic paths and scientific thinking methods of Epi'Scientology’ here modelled by Epizootiology. That may be seen as a holistic and wholesome system approach to scientific thinking. 1.1 (j) Epizoot iology and epidemiology It should not be surprising therefore that such rival titles exist as Epizoology" (in one sense), Epizootology"' (in another sense and culture) and Epizootiology (in the original sense). Now, Epidemiology, Veterinary 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology; Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O.. 2005 Epidemiology (an apparent compromise title), Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases (an explanatory title made necessary for obvious reasons) and Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE) a spelling out of some of its major components, have all been used in the process of'thought, need and coverage development'. Each of the terms makes good sense in the context in which they were developed and used. They provide choice. But what seems to be most important in this matter is that adherents of each school (teachers and learners alike) should be clear in their own minds, on what basis they have come to prefer one title to the other, since most of the methods are similar in many respects. It is also known that each of them has a distinct area of focus and those of differences in some essential details and coverage. This should be seen in the same sense as sheep, goat, dog, fowl and even man, each has two eyes mounted on one skull, etc, but they are yet quite different from one another in very important physical and functional respects. This is to the extent that to call a sheep a goat may sound silly. To call a dog a cat may be plain ignorance. To call a woman a cow or a bitch is obviously rude. Surely, a word should be enough. 1.1 (g) Intended coverage o f Epizootiology Today, there are accomplished and great men of science who prefer that 'Epidemiology' should be concerned with the study of diseases in human populations (with a little greater foresight 'problems' should replace diseases"'). Hence, other scientists of equal distinction, be that so or not in contradistinction, would prefer the term 'Veterinary Epidemiology' when covering the study of group problems amongst veterinary patients, which are mostly vertebrate animals lower than man on the evolutionary scale. Whereas in this book, Epizootiology is meant to cover patterns of problems in groups, herds, flocks and populations and amongst the various species that make up the biological animal kingdom' (as opposed to the kingdom of plants, which is studied under Epiphytology. Thus, the de facto branches of Epizootiology should naturally include Epidemiology', Ep'ornithology ' ' (or Ep'ornithics '), Epi'equinology ', Epi'bovidology'\ et hoc genus omne. (See the distinction made by the Royal commission on public understanding of science and the value of specific terms (scientific jargons) being used when scientists are communicating amongst themselves as opposed to when targeting the general public readers. Ref. The Royal Society (1985) The Public Understanding of Science, Report of a Royal Society ad hoc Group endorsed by the Council of the Royal Society, 41 p. ISBN 0 85403 2576 The Royal Society, Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5 AG). 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 For those who prefer the term Epidemiology for the study of group problems in animals and people, they would always have the cause not to confuse the term with 'Epistemology'. We have observed on at least one important occasion, the case of a highly learned faculty and professional man writing on the board 'Epidemiology' (instead of Epidemiology), at a public seminar. Whereas, there is little to be confused with Epizootiology which cannot also by extension or as a matter of thesaurus be regarded as its potential synonym or being in the same group or family of words, depending on the user's discipline, school, culture, language or intended meaning. Hence, our University Senate in its wisdom approved for our school the original choice that was made. And hence also, it could be said that for our school, 'A word is enough...' And that word is EPIZOOTIOLOGY. For further reading and elucidation, scholars should see “Increasing role of and importance of veterinary epidemiology and economics in veterinary education, practice and development6̂ presented as Appendix I in this book (ibid.). Therefore, the reader should appreciate the fact that while some people think that there are these apparently competing titles, the first real question is not 'Which choice?', but 'How related?' are such titles as Epizootiology, Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases, Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics (VEE) and other cognate conceptions /disciplines6'. Our presentation in this book is meant to reflect very clearly that naturally Epizootiology includes what others, for their own good reasons, present under the cognate titles Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases and Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics (VEE), all of which (and more) do exist in literature as matters of deliberate choice. And that the last named (i.e. VEE) is the closest in content, coverage and philosophy to Epizootiology as defined and presented in this book, and as taught and researched into at our University since 1975. VEE is thus the most acceptable alternative title whose content is nearest to, but not as comprehensive as what we teach in Epizootiology0 2 6 3. Maybe a summary presentation of a review on the subject will be useful at this point. That summary is presented as Section l. 2 below. 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagborte, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 1.2 Concepts and Definitions of Epidemiology and Epizootiology: The Gist 1.2 (a) Introducing the gist In the last three quarters of the twentieth century, concepts and definitions of Epidemiology and Epizootiology have been evolving. Below is a summary presentation of a review of the evolving concepts and definitions in prose and tables. While the review is not exhaustive, enough has been presented to show samples of the various considerations of the cognate disciplines (Epidemiology and Epizootiology), and how the various reputed scientists have projected their individual and group philosophies on the choice of one or the other ofthe two. The classified list and the sources that now follow will show how the various definitions reflect differences in coverage, while the principles and methods are similar to the extent to which the scope permits. 1.2 (b) Introducing the definitions (i) Of Epidemiology Over the years, and according to the scope chosen by the various authors, each apparently seeking to convey approximately the same general idea of the study of 'whatever befalls or may befall groups of people and/or animals', the various definitions have evolved as shown below. What is particularly noteworthy is that some significant variations were reflected from one definition or group of definitions to the others. Some constructed definitions that cover the study of 'infectious/communicable diseases'. Others wrote in terms of the study of 'diseases, conditions, laws and circumstances'. Others still interpret epidemiology as 'the study of health, ill health and disease'. Some define epidemiology as the discipline of preventive and community medicine'. There are also those who consider epidemiology in terms of 'disease and/or physiological condition'. Some see it as 'a science'. Others believe that epidemiology is 'a philosophy'. With a much greater scope are those who see epidemiology in terms o f 'observation methods, total established facts and reasoning (or philosophy) thereof and related social factors'. (ii) Of Epizootiology Whereas, there are those who see epizootiology as inclusive of empirical, scientific, observational, philosophical and rational study of problems (not just diseases alone) that may befall the various classes of 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olngasa. B. O., 2005 animals as biological groups of species, the idea being to provide enough information for proffering and choosing from potential solution options for the control / management and prevention of the various problems cost- effectively in social, economic and financial terms. This we found to be particularly relevant to the mandate of veterinary surgeons, who must consider the financial, economic, social and environmental impacts or implications of animal group problems in real terms. Hence, when we say that 'a modern veterinarian has need to be biomedically literate, statistically numerate and socio-economically cost- conscious (as being 'the tripod of epizootiology'" '), we are reflecting the fundamental knowledge base requirements for the clinical, preventive, economic and social" ' aspects of the mandate of veterinary surgeons in economic and commercial animal production (ecap), livestock development (lid), veterinary public health (vph), preventive veterinary medicine (pvm), veterinary environmental health (veh), veterinary extension services (ves) and zoo-sanitary measures (zsm). In all these, we have made provisions for the adoption of resource management approach" (rma). Those then were the tools that provided the basis for our design, teaching, practice, application and promotion of the discipline of epizootiology as espoused in this book. 1.2 (c) Reflecting the uneasy feeling In any case, it should be obvious that what a veterinary surgeon usually needs to know and would always consider is much more than the study of infectious / communicable diseases in people. Hence, while some chose to teach Epidemiology to veterinary students, others prefer to make the distinction by choosing the term Veterinary Epidemiology. Yet others made it even more distinctive by choosing Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases. An even more emphatic distinction was the wisdom of choosing to teach Veterinaiy Epidemiology and Economics (VEE), thus indicating the multi-dimensional nature of the needs of the .more usual veterinary mandate in real life. These distinctions may probably have arisen from uneasy feelings about equating the problems of people in exact terms to those of animals of lower state in evolutionary terms and in reality. 1.2 (d) Not just the economic, but also the social health implications And when one observes the stresses and distresses o f economic buoyancy in great and small nations of modern men, it would be found that 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 the usual bug or leaven, often hidden until the bubble bursts is social ill- health resulting from negative socio-economic jurisprudence (nsej), which is a branch of socio-economic jurisprudence (sej), according to Esuruoso and Abdulkadir, 19846\ A veterinary surgeon concerning himself only with the 'study of infectious diseases in people' is obviously also making a case for the need for him to explain his limitations to what physicians and others would rightly lay greater species specialist claim. Whereas a noble profession that we are, must see beyond economic buoyancy, considering that our social (moral, mental, ethical and the other components of social well being6 2 6 6 health would remain intact whenever we have delivered the products of our professional services. And it should always be made obvious that veterinary contribution to people's health is essentially preventive, and requires a detailed epizootiological wisdom, that could provide sound basis for positive socio-economic jurisprudence (psej). 1.2 (e) Classified summary presentation o f the dejinitions in tables The various classes of definitions include the following: (i) Definitions of epidemiology in terms of infectious/communicable diseases (Table 1.1) (ii) Definitions of epidemiology in terms of diseases, conditions, laws and circumstances (Table 1.2) (iii) Definitions of epidemiology in terms of health, ill health, disease and or physiological condition (Table 1.3) (iv) One definition of epidemiology in terms of preventive and community medicine (Table 1.4) (v) Definitions of epidemiology in terms of observation methods, total established facts and reasoning (or philosophy) thereof and related social factors (Table 1.5) (vi) Definitions of veterinary epidemiology/epidemiology according to context, and reflecting the interest and thinking of the author/s (Table 1.6) (vii) Definitions of epizootiology in terms of the classification of living organisms being either plants, animals, or others, with explanations (Table 1.7) It should be noted that this list is not exhaustive; there are so many definitions of epidemiology. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O., 2005 TABLE 1.1: DEFINITIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN TERMS OF INFECTIOUS/COMMUNICABLE DISEASES S/No Definitions of Epidemiology Source 1. “The science of the mass-phenomena of infectious diseases or as the natural history of infectious diseases concerned not merely with describing the distribution of disease, but equally FROST, 19276 7 or more fitting it into a consistent philosophy”. 2. “The science of the infective diseases their prime causes, STALLYBRASS,6.8 propagation and prevention”. 1931 oJ. “That field of medical science which is concerned with the relationships of the various factors and conditions which MAXCY, determine frequencies and distributions of an infectious 1951"'' process, a disease, or a physiological state in a human community COCKBURN, 4. “The study of the Ecology of infectious diseases” 1963"10 5. “The study of the spread and decline of communicable diseases (pi) LOWEC.R. & in human populations and the prophylaxis and control of those KOSTREZEWSKI diseases” J., 19756.11 N.B. Each of these definitions and related statements reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored, especially when meditated upon in the right context and with clear conscience. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (*See'Thepie chart o f human wisdom', ibid.) TABLE 1.2: DEFINITIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGYIN TERMS OF DISEASES AND/OR CONDITIONS,‘ LAWS”, AND CIRCUMSTANCES S/No D e f in i t io n s o f E p id e m io lo g y S o u rc e 1. “ T h e s tu d y o f d i s e a s e as a m a s s - p h e n o m e n o n ” GR EEN W O O D , 2_ “ C o n c e r n e d w i th c i r c u m s ta n c e s w h e re d ise a se is p r o n e to 1935' - d e v e lo p ” PAUL, 1938'"’ -j>. “ E p id e m io lo g y m u s t u n d e r s t a n d d ise a se , n o t so m u c h as it AYCOCK, 19436" a f fe c ts th e in d iv id u a l , o r as it b e h a v e s u n d e r the e y e o f the o b s e r v e r at a n y o n e t im e o r in a n y o n e p lace , bu t as it im p o s e s i t s e l f o n g r o u p s o f p e o p le , * ev en i f th ey e x te n d a c ro ss b o u n d a r ie s se t b y m e n for e c o n o m ic , p o l i t ica l a n d so c ia l p u r p o s e s ” 4. “ T h e s tu d y o f d ise a s e in p o p u la t io n s ” STAMLER, 1958'’” 5. “ T h e s tu d y o f d is t r ib u t io n o f a d i s e a s e o r c o n d i t i o n in a LIL1ENFELD, p o p u la t io n o f t h o s e fa c to rs w h ic h i n f lu e n c e th e i r d i s t r ib u t io n ” 1958/78'’16 6. “ D e a ls w i th the c h a ra c te r i s t i c b e h a v io u r o f su c h d ise a s e s w i th in REID, 1961'’11 the c o m p l e x m a t r ix o f h u m a n p o p u la t io n s ” 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 1. “The study of the laws governing the distribution of diseases in the PEMBERTON, community” 1952"' 8. “The study of disease as it occurs in nature” GORDON, 1964" 9. “The study of factors determining the occurrence of diseases in FO X e ta l. 1970"’ populations” 10. “The study of the distribution and determinants of disease MACMAHON & frequency in man” PUGH, 1970" “The study of the distribution and dynamics of disease in human SARTWELL, 1973"2 population” 12 “The study of the factors determining the frequency and LOWE & distribution of disease in human populations” KOSTREZEWSKI, 13. “The study of the distribution and determinants of disease and 1975" 1 injuries in human populations” 14. “The study of disease occurrence in human populations” MAUSNER & 15. “The science* dealing with the incidence, spread and control of BAHN, I974“: disease” FRIEDMAN 1974“ 16. “Concerned with mass outbreak of disease” 17. (a) “The study of the patterns of disease is known as LASAGNA, 1975“ Epidemiology” (b) “Epidemiology of animal diseases (formerly called epizootiology SINNECKER, 1976“2 by linguistic purists).. (c) The study of animal epidemics was at one time called epizootiology, Brendan HALPIN, as distinct from the term epidemiology, which was reserved for 1975"'* human studies'. "It is clear that there are not 2 separate sciences, but one epidemiology with two aspects, one dealing with diseases usually seen in man, and the other with those seen more commonly in animals (Mulvihill, 1972"" ’)” 18. “Epidemiology is the study of diseases in groups” BLOOD, 1985"’ 19. “Epidemiology is the study of diseases in populations” SCHV/ABE et a i, 20. Alternative Definition: *”the study of the health status of 977',3“ populations” SCHWABEef a/., 21 . “Epidemiology has been defined as the study of the distribution, 1977“ the determinants, and the deterrents of disease” BENNETT, 19856'1 N.B, Each of these definitions and related statements reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored, especially when meditated upon in the right context and with clear conscience. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (*Scc'The pie chart ofhuman wisdom', ibid.) 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone. /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 TABLE 1.3: DEFINITIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN TERMS OF HEALTH, ILL-HEALTH, DISEASE AND/OR PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITION S/No D e f in i t io n s o f E p id e m io lo g y S o u r c e 1. “ T h e s tu d y o f h ea l th o r i l l -hea l th in a d e f in e d p o p u la t io n ” TAYLOR, 1967,,J! 0 “ T h e s tu d y o f the d is t r ib u t io n o f a d i s e a se o r a p h y s io lo g ic a l c o n d i t io n in h u m a n p o p u la t io n s a n d o f the fac to rs th a t in f lu e n c e LILIENFELD, 1978'" th is d i s t r ib u t io n ” N.B. These definitions reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (*See 'The pie chart o f human wisdom ibid.) TABLE 1.4: ONE DEFINITION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN TERMS OF PREVENTIVE AND COMMUNITY MEDICINE S/No Definitions of Epidemiology Source 1. “The basic science of preventive and community medicine” MORRIS, 1975"” N.B. This definition reflects the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (*See'The pie chart o f human wisdom', ibid.) TABLE 1.5: DEFINITIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN TERMS OF OBSERVATION, METHODS OF REASONING (OR PHILOSOPHY), TOTAL ESTABLISHED FACTS AND RELATED SOCIAL FACTORS S/No Definitions of Epidemiology Source 1. “Hence epidemiology is a method of reasoning about disease that LILIENFELD., deals with biological inferences derived from observations of 1978"1 disease phenomena in population / groups” 2. “Epidemiology at any given time is something more than the total Ibid. (P.90) of its established facts. It includes their orderly arrangement into chains of inference which extends more or less beyond the bounds of direct observation”. -> WHITIi. and"Epidemiology is the science of that which is on the people” HENDERSON, M.M, 1976"” 4. “Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations, and part of its province is the study of the related social factors. Indeed, every epidemiological HOBSON, 1975"35 variable is in some sense a sociological variable. The factors affecting the distribution of disease in populations may be N.B. Each of these definitions and related statements reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored, especially when meditated upon in the right context and with clear conscience. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (* See' The pie chart of human wisdom', ibid.) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O., 2005 TABLE 1.6: DEFINITIONS OF VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY/SIMPLY EPIDEMIOLOGY ACCORDING TO CONTEXT AND REFLECTING THE INTEREST AND THINKING OFTHE AUTHOR/S S/No Definitions of Epidemiology Source 1. “Veterinary' Epidemiology is a study of variable material (the LEECH & recorded observations about disease) in variable hosts (the SELLERS, population) living in an environment in which climate, topography and nutrition define other main groups of variables. (1979)63 Results of such a study contribute to a “natural history of disease 9 “Veterinary Epidemiology is the study of disease within NDIRITU, livestock populations and its effect on their demography and 1994631 productivity” (Livestock demography?) nJ. “Epidemiology is the study of systems of problems of sub- ELLIS, (1985)63 optimal productivity” 4. “Epidemiology is the study of disease in populations, and the factors that determine its occurrence, the keyword being THURSFIELD. populations”. “Veterinary Epidemiology involves observing (1986)63 animal populations and making inferences from the observations”. “The 4 approaches are descriptive, analytical, experimental and theoretical” N.B. Each of these definitions and related statements reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored, especially when meditated upon in the right context and with clear conscience. K now ledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (* See'The pie chart of human wisdom', ibid.) TABLE 1.7: DEFINITIONSOFEP1ZOOTIOLOGY In terms of animal herd problems, basis for their elucidation, control, liquidation and prevention, and of veterinary public health (vph) practice S/No Definitions of Epidemiology Source 1. Epizootiology is the study of epizootics. Esuruoso, G. O. (1994)63 Epizootiology is the study of epizootic problems including diseases, with a view to establishing basis for their sound and cost- Esuruoso., G. O. effective prevention, control/management practices, zoo-sanitary (1994)63 measures and extermination of the problems. “Epizootiology is the comprehensive (holistic and peripheral) Esuruoso, G. O. 1993) study of the variable factors, events, forces and circumstances that 6.1 contribute to the occurrence, distribution, control and prevention of ill-health, diseases and other problems in animal groups, herds, flocks ... or populations, as well as the valuation, quantification and analysis of the variable factors, their effects, relationships, 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 interactions and the implications and contribution to the problems in each instance. This is a working definition*. 4. Epizootiology is a study of systems and relationships on which Esuruoso . G. 0 . models of scientific thinking in operational research (1993)'” methodologies may be fruitfully based, for solving general and specific problems of animal groups / herds / flocks / human populations and of their environment. This is another working definition* 5. Epizootiology is the qualitative and quantitative study o f the Esuruoso, G. O. factors, events, forces, circum stances and relationships that (1993)'” contribute to the occurrence, distribution, effects, lim itations, control and prevention o f whatever problems may befall an animal group / herd, et hoc genus omne or human populations in a given location or geographical area, over a specific period o f time. This is another w orking definition* N.B. (a)* A working definition* is the one that a diligent investigator would put before himself, and systematically plough through, obtaining relevant accurate and adequate data of facts and figures on all of the variables before subjecting them to collation, processing, summary (i. e. descriptive statistics) presentation, analysis and interpretation that could aid decision making. N.B. (b) Each of the definitions above and related statements reflect the 'wisdom'* of the age, which cannot be ignored, especially when meditated upon in the right context and with clear conscience. Knowledge is neutral; but wisdom is supreme. (*See'Thepie chart ofhuman wisdom', ibid.) In summary of the points so far, the following statements by Brendan Halpin, 1975” are particularly worthy of note in the context of relationships amongst the various alternative titles, as between Epizootiology and Epidemiology, also between Veterinary Epidemiology and Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases, and finally between Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE) and Epizootiology. Hear what he says: - (a) “Epidemiology o f animal diseases (formerly called Epizootiology by linguistic purists)...” (b) “The study o f animal epidemics was at one time called Epizootiology, as distinct from the term epidemiology, which was reserved for human studies”. We happen to believe that the former distinction mentioned here should be retained. Moreover, we wonder whether when an author uses the term 'animal epidemic' he is trying to distinguish whatever he means from 'human epidemic'. Or in what context would it be necessary to use the term 'human epidemic' instead of'epidemic'? Why not reserve epidemic' for 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Jjagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 outbreak of human problem and 'epizootic' for outbreak of problem among lower animals, as in PACE640 (Pan African Control of Epizootics)? (c) “It is clear that there are not two separate sciences, but one epidemiology with two aspects, one dealing with diseases usually seen in man, and the other with those seen more commonly in animals (Mulvihill, 19726 2 ”. It is worthy of note, and for the avoidance of doubt, worthy of focus of attention, that the authors of 'Introductory Epizootiology' also believe that 'there are not two separate sciences', but that Epidemiology is a branch of Epizootiology. And so, it must be obvious to reason that, in the systematics of whatever may befall group members of the animal kingdom , all the other alternative titles used can naturally be regarded as branches of Epizootiology, and never vice versa. It is also noteworthy what one of the greatest pioneers and his respectable colleagues in the field, namely Schwabe et ah, 19 7 76 " did write as follows: - (i) “Epidemiology is the study of diseases in populations”. This we do accept. But we also consider that “Epizootiology should be defined as the study of diseases and other problems in animal groups such as herds, flocks and other groups of animals, as in groups of men, that is in people or human populations (See the Glossary, ibid.). They also wrote as follows: - (ii) “Strict etymological considerations may not always be the best guide to word usage. If they were, epidemiology would have to be considered a special branch of epizootiology; and such other generally used terms as population and demography would apply only to a single animal species, man”. Now', because we agree with the truism in 'may not always be', we consider that from the point of view of systematics, the more embracing term Epizootiology should provide the framework for accommodating all the various species of animals that are group members, orders, families, genera and species belonging naturally to membership of the animal kingdom. Again they wrote: - (iii) “Epidemiology is a more commonly used and understood word than is epizootiology, and there is no need to use different words for the study of 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 diseases in populations of men versus populations of other animals any more than there would be to use two different words for pathology. In summary, epizootiology is not only unwieldy and often mispronounced, but also redundant” On the point that Epidemiology is being 'more commonly used', we do feel that progress is shown when a more commonly misapplied word is put in its right place and a basic and non-controversial one is adopted instead. In any case, many of the definitions of Epidemiology cited in tables 1.1 to i .8 above cannot by a stretch of imagination be construed to tally with the universal meaning of Veterinary Epidemiology or Epidemiology for Animals or even Epidemiology o f Animal Diseases. There are simply those so many definitions that refer to such meanings as relating to 'human communities', 'human populations', 'groups o f people', or simply 'man' as shown in the tables, with source and date in each case. Are they all wrong? Or have no choice and no right to determine and express the meaning they attach to what they were talking about? It would inerefore be rather farfetched to apply the same definition to the study of problems of cattle herds, sheep or poultry flocks, if farfetched explanations then become necessary. And with regards to the forbidden usage of different words for rathology, apart from the fact that that analogy appears to us to be a different kettle fish, morbid anatomy is being used for pathology, and we do have Departments of 'Veterinary Pathology' and 'Plant Pathology'. In any case, those who choose to quality the noun must be accorded their rights to do so, for a number of reasons. Now with regard to which of Epidemiology or Epizootiology is more readily understood, we dare say that the mere inclusion of the etymon 'zoo' '"ould indicate to even infants that one is dealing with animals other than r.umans. And as if making the point that simplicity is a virtue, the Lord .:esus said, “Verily 1 say unto you, except ye be converted, and become as tile children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven'’41.” This is an example of the spiritual dimension in social health as in psej, which relievers should remember. Moreover, as indicated earlier, I have seen a 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Ohtgasa, B. O., 2005 senior faculty member writing on the board at a seminar the word 'e p id erm io lo g y ' when what he meant was epidemiology. The message should be clear. Again, when presented with the 'words' epidemiology, 'epidermiology?' and 'epistemology', some faculty members had considered that the last named is a branch of one or the other of the first two. These were in real time situations, especially in these days where every veterinarian who in his own rights is a specialist in other disciplines readily claims to be an epidemiologist, especially where this is convenient for grabbing jobs meant for preferred individuals. This is often a matter of n e g a tiv e s o c io -e c o n o m ic ju r is p r u d e n c e (nsej). And finally, to say that the word epizootiology is redundant is globally debatable. When on one single trial, one of the authors went on the internet with the word 'Epizootiology' twenty-one thousand five hundred (21,500) articles came up from a single website. Another trial at another website (in 2004), produced 17, 300 articles under the title 'Epizootiology'. The printouts are provided as Appendix II (ib id .). So, how redundant is redundant? Only a few years ago, the announcement came that a new edition of the Oxford dictionary was being compiled, and it was to come out in sixteen volumes. If the word Epizootiology is not there, it would be surprising as the editors may not be happy. “Truth crushed to earth shall surely rise again.” Natural reality can never be suppressed for aye. Epizootiology is such a natural reality, that future generations of conscientious scientists will earnestly look for and avidly make use of the term in the context of systematics. Details are given in a previous publication here provided as Appendix 1 to this book (ib id .). 1.3 Objectives of Epizootiology 1.3 (a) M a in O b jec tive s o f E p izo o tio lo g y the main objectives of this multi-disciplinary course are: - (i) To provide sound basis for scientific thinking and a framework for relevant studies in systematics. This should include scientific promotion, practices and evaluation of preventive measures (pm) relating to problems in animal groups or populations in ecological communities from many interest angles: (ii) To promote the idea of conscious study of relationships of resource inputs, black box processes, product outputs, impact and fate of the 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone. I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 external environment and cost-effectiveness in resource management. This would impact on choices to be made from model options. It would also impact on the effects of chosen models over time thus facilitating triangulation to sound decision-making tools: (iii) To provide comprehensive basis for understanding problems associated with economic livestock (and general animal) production systems: (iv) To provide foundation knowledge for teaching, research, practices and promotion of veterinary public health (vph) as a branch of preventive veterinary medicine (pvm): (v) To provide sound materials and logic paths for the education for life of professional men and women in all sectors of the national economy. T his would be particularly relevant to those in the scientific institutions, health and agriculture sub-sectors in psej mode for total well-being objectives. 1.3 (b) Other objectives would include (vi) The provision of a utility framework for a model in relevant scientific thinking. This will tit into the concept that epizootiology is a scientific discipline with basic principles applicable across the practices of most professions: (vii) The establishment of an interdisciplinary bridge approach to the study, analysis and sound interpretation of systems' problems, associated risks and possible solutions. This is particularly important as most problems always fit into some systems, and only holistic approach would provide the best solution: (viii) The provision of enabling wisdom-base for the development of relevant model skills. Such skills would include capabilities in appropriate data collection and processing, risk identification, classification, evaluation and management, computer-based presentation, production of project design, management, implementation, monitoring, analysis, appraisal and re-appraisal. They would also include skills for study, control and prevention of problems in biological animal groups including human populations'. 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (ix.) The provision of wisdom-base for systems' thinking, linking the arts and the sciences for total well-being. A wisdom-base will not only illustrate the usefulness of systems' thinking, but will also provide linkages between the arts and the sciences, the humanities and sociology, etc. Thus, the comprehensive approach in relevant systems and sub-systems can readily lead to to ta l w e ll-b e in g 2 (x) Finally, the provision of epizootiological procedures for systematic recognition and study of groups and sp ec ie s of animals, their material and functional nature and their relationships with one another and with the common external environment (including its contents) will have been met. Pathways to cognitive understanding of the dynamics in the health status of d isc re te and d iffu se systems would have been established. Also, the relevance and significance of interactions and other events in the b la c k box of the n a tu ra l B IO S ''2 would have been made obvious. 1.4 Conclusion 1.4 (a) U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d R e le v a n c e o f E p izo o tio lo g y No one should try to fully understand the total relevance and importance of this group of ten objectives until he/she has gone through all the (theoretical, practical, tutorial and seminar) aspects of the course; not until he/she has studied the glossary, and has actively and fruitfully engaged himself/herself in relevant sc ie n tific th in k in g , such as the one going through recommended 'exerc ises in th e id e n tific a tio n o f re le v a n t issues, re la tio n sh ip s , p o in ts o f in te g ra tio n a n d c o o rd in a tio n f o r sy s te m 's su ccess ' mi 6 42.6 4, key phrase there is 's y s te m ’s su ccess '. And to identify the relevant and applicable system/s one could adopt the O P S T * a p p ro a ch and lo g ic pa th" l,6'4\ It should be noted that in our teaching of this and related subjects, we would often prefer to start by providing the appropriate tools of thought, introducing some logic paths, guiding the student on scientific thinking, providing examples, demonstrating relevant processes and procedural details, and holding tutorials for essential clarification. At the end, the candidate should be able to recount and list those objectives, which he/she has achieved. Full realization of many of the 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso. G O, Ijcigbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 objectives is expected at the end of the postgraduate course on Advanced (.Systematic) Epizootiology’1' \ which was designed and taught since 1979 in the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan. The greatest beneficiaries however, are those who continue to find the model thinking methods, logic paths and approaches of systematic Epizootiology applicable (with necessary adaptation and innovations) to most aspects and types of lifestyle and life's problems of man, lower animals, plants and substances, even matter, energy and forces throughout their lives. These are loaded statements. Yet appreciating their relevance should not be beyofid the capacity of students of veterinary medicine or diligent individuals of average intelligence in other disciplines. They should be regarded as tools of thought, materials for meditation and for heuristic learning, that the man of science may develop appropriate level of cognition that would sustain him to the greatest heights possible in his time and age. Non scholae, sed vitae discimus. 1.4 (b) For students o f Biology’, a course in Epizootiology will ensure that their knowledge of the lives and problems of living things is enhanced. The problems can then be classified, solution options visualized in terms of temporal and spatial implications, cost-effectiveness, statistical sensibility, causal relationships, global effects and basis for contribution to their control and design for their prevention. 1.4 (c) For students o f Agriculture, Epizootiology will reveal amazingly similar approaches in Epiphytology and the kinetics of the natural interdependence of plants and animals in agricultural, as in biological systems, vis-a-vis the requirements for and implications of optimum productivity. The animal aspects of studies of ecological communities' will be illustrated. A fuller understanding of environmental health hazards and problems will be readily achieved. 1.4 (d) For students o f human and veterinary medicine, it will be clear that Epi'scientology1"1 is an approach that can provide the soundest basis for the study, simplification, understanding and practices of preventive medicine in its widest sense. 1.4 (e) For students o f agricultural economics, geography, biometrics, computer sciences and most of the other aspects of technology, it would be 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 obvious that they have much to contribute to and much more to gain from their involvement in studies in Epizootiology. No longer would one attempt to roost in one's own cocoon, or put on one's usual professional blinkers, which often unfortunately has the effects of leading to embarrassingly narrow perspectives, even in the performance of otherwise acclaimed professionals. With all that challenge in mind, we wish our readers effective introduction to the path of wholesome education. 1.4 ( f F o r s tu d e n ts o f e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b le m m a n a g e m e n t a n d p re v e n tio n The holistic and integrative system approaches of epizootiology should prepare their minds and way for recognising the natural facts that recirculation through recycling (rather than dumping) is one the first principles for naturally creating and maintaining healthy external environment for the ultimate good of the system itself. 1.5 Teaching of Epizootiology 1.5 (a) As a multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary and multifaceted subject, with multiple objectives, people who contribute to and benefit from Epizootiology often come from various backgrounds, as just indicated. Also variable are their purposes and objectives (v id e su p ra ), as well as the uses to which they would apply their epizootiological knowledge, skills and wisdom. The first major point to realize therefore is that students of Epizootiology will often have some important background knowledge of some of the aspects of the subject and some specific goals, the achievement of which will be facilitated by a fundamentally holistic working knowledge of system approach to the subject (E p izo o tio lo g y ). It would enhance ready adoption of its cost-effectively productive logic paths and regular application of its examples in sc ie n tif ic th in k in g , if readers appreciate the fact that there are always many aspects to the teaching and learning of the subject. Here we can start by mentioning the authoritative {d id a c tic ), p a r tic ip a tiv e and h e u ris tic aspects of the teaching and learning of the subject. 1.5 (b) Adopting participative teaching-and-learning processes is therefore often in vogue. The procedures enable the Epizootiologist sen su s tr ic to to decide on which models, which illustrations and which examples 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone. I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 would be most appropriate and most readily apprehended by the candidates or at least for the majority of them. Even for students of veterinary medicine to whom the subject is being taught during the penultimate and finals of the 6 yearlong programmes leading to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM), the ultimate application of the knowledge, skills and the potential wisdom deriving will be variable. Therefore, previous relevant knowledge of teachers and students of Epizootiology in certain subjects have to be assumed or called to their memory through the participative teaching sessions. The subjects could include any or many of the following, namely: - Geography, Economics, other social sciences, General Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics (especially Arithmetic, Universal Arithmetic, Calculus and Statistics), Modern English usage, Information Technology and Effective Communication skills, Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology, Microbiology, Parasitology, Immunology, Clinical and other diagnostic procedures and Basic Computer Science. 1.5 (c) Recognizing the relevance of knowledge of General Biology, Basic and Universal Arithmetic, Statistics, Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology, Microbiology, Parasitology, Immunology and even that of economics, bionomics, social and environmental well-being issues have to be assumed or called to their memory through the participative teaching of Epizootiology. And where such knowledge is considered inadequate, the teacher of Epizootiology should give additional lectures in the basic subject before beginning the full-fledged teaching of Epizootiology. Such remedial lectures should enable the students to see the relevance of their contribution to and potential benefits from the principles and methods of Epizootiology. Obviously, it would be unrealistic to expect any individual (alone) to have in-depth know ledge of all those subjects. But every aspiring or established epizootiologist must first have an in-depth knowledge of some discipline in w'hich he can conduct, at some level, relevant didactic i authoritative) teaching or contribution to knowledge of the problem in hand. He must then be able to work out his ’relevance’ in the matter. He must be able to identify other relevant disciplines and issues, before considering the ’relationships, points of integration and coordination for achieving the objectives' of his group interest and/or mandate or mission 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso. G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 . That is a key statement that can open the gate to the philosophy of participative teaching and learning in Epizootiology. 1.5 (d) Adopting didactic, participative and heuristic teaching methods Hence, it should be obvious that both didactic and participative teaching procedures are relevant in Epizootiology. The heuristic component is mandatory. Tor, if all the necessary teachings were to be participative all the way, the whole effect would better be called discussions rather than teaching. Authoritative (or didactic) teaching should therefore be recognized deliberately in Epizootiology. These will cover the principles and methods of Epizootiology, identification and quantification of risks, 'epizootiological intelligence' activities and models, and the more esoteric and relevant aspect of basic and applied immunology, the clinical sciences, their social relevance and available technological leverages for their apprehension. Without the heuristic component, the learner's initiatives may not be adequately stimulated to the point of being self-dependent in thoughts development and decisions all being functions of cognition. 1.5 (e) In summary In summary the presentation of the course in Epizootiology will include lectures, tutorials, field practical, laboratory practical, bench (i.e. writing up and computational/data processing) practical', as well as the concluding seminar presentation (which requires some skills in both technical report writing and presentation) at the end of each set of exercises. Each set of practical exercises will be partly in the field; and this will usually be followed up with those in the laboratory. Findings in the field and the laboratory will then be followed by appropriate write-up, summary presentation in descriptive and analytical bench computation (data processing) to obtain the results from both the field and the laboratory data and their interpretation in the context of the system objectives. A brain-storming tutorial will always precede both the planning for the practical and the writing-up for the seminar presentation at every level. Only those who take active part in all those aspects will eventually achieve optimum benefits from the course of studies in Epizootiology. That also is a key statement that is worthy of note for both teachers and students at their various levels. a? UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiolua \ 1 suruoso, GO. Ijagbone, I. F. and Olngasa, B. O., 2;)05 1.6 The wisdom nugget: Studying Epizootiology can be quite exciting for the diligent, intelligent and wise. Hence we here present the pie chart of human wisdom” ----------------- Figure 1:1 Pie Chart of Human Wisdom Grace of God T 1.6(a) The pie chart o f human w isdom ^ Whatever is the subject in hand, you will always find that, (i) Some people or protagonists in the system would have the knowledge but no experience, or at best limited and inadequate experience: (ii) Others may have both the relevant knowledge and adequate experience, but are incapable of judicious use or application of both: (iii) Others still may simply lack the grace of God to participate effectively / efficiently; and it may or may not be their fault: (iv) Yet, others may just not have the essence or presence of the Spirit of light in their life and in their immediate environment. And so, whatever is the deficiency in any scenario of life and living, ultimate wisdom may never manifest in the activities of those involved, whatever the level of their knowledge. Therefore, whenever we say that 'knowledge is power', we must then also realize that 'wisdom is super power', especially that wisdom that relates to 'natural systems o f relationships' such as epizootiology and 'socio-economic jurisprudence'. The immediate answer lies in righteousness. 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, ljagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 1.6(b) Imparting and acquiring the knowledge Now, knowledge is neutral: it can be used for positive or negative purposes. Acquiring experience requires intelligence (which is given only by the Creator), diligence, patience, persistence, systems approach and respect for timeliness, which is man's part of the covenant. Judicious use requires the right values, attitudes, cultural development and healthy socio-political environment. Obtaining the grace of God6 45 6 46 is the prerogative of the Almighty whose nature may include some elements of democracy and some principles of covenant between Him and the person. The essence depends on the system in which the individual has a role and faith, but never the full control, which can only be achieved by all playing their roles and sharing the system's fate righteously. Hence, it is wise to play one's role honourably and to comply with requirements of the system an individual chooses to be part of. Believers should meditate on this as part of the social health dimension of epizootiological issues. As role players and stakeholders in the multi-disciplinary, inter­ disciplinary and multifaceted subject of Epizootiology, the authors of this book intend to bring the good news of realizable success to all interested in scientific and healthy living. This we intend to do by building the system of imparting the knowledge, training to gain experience and exerting effort to develop skills to the point of achieving competence to appropriate levels of confidence647, appreciating the grace of God and seeking earnestly to dwell in an environment full of His essence or in his presence which again is the spiritual dimension for those who must righteously achieve true success. Non scholae, sed vitae discimus. Figure 1. 2: Depicting how one may achieve veritable wisdom in six stages 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Stage 1: Obtaining the knowledge Stage 2: Gaining the experience Stage 3: Developing the skill Stage 4: Achieving competence Stage 5: Applying all judiciously Stage 6: Having the grace of God in an atmosphere filled with His essence True / veritable wisdom can only be achieved by going through those stages with God's grace, and in an environment filled with His essence. Unfortunately, some have knowledge but no experience: Some have inadequate and inappropriate knowledge and experience, but cannot apply them judiciously i.e. in positive socio-economic jurisprudential (psej) mode. Others try to achieve all the above without the grace and essence of God. Yet all strive to be leaders or achievers. No wonder, there are so many cases of failure and qualified success. 1.6 (c) G a in in g re le v a n t exp er ien ce: Hence, we can now triangulate to the fact that in the study of E p izo o tio lo g y , the first set of abilities to establish, and experiences to gain should start with the making of q u a lita tiv e and q u a n tita tive observations on factors, events, forces and circumstances that cause or contribute to problems and their aggravation or remission in groups or sy s te m s of objects (especially animals and people with the plants, minerals in their environment) in the specific types of geographical, ecological and meteorological locations and the immediate environment. This should be accompanied by recording and processing of the observations thus made in the right formats and with the right (d e sc r ip tiv e and a n a ly tic a l) tools, following appropriate scientific procedures. These are loaded statements that should be discussed in great detail (explained and exemplified) in classes, tutorials and seminars, by the tutors with their students and amongst the students themselves, until every interested, attentive and right-thinking learner has understood the relevant meaning and import of every word used in the current context. Students should ask simple questions, and their tutors should give crisp answers and v ice versa . Subsequent comments and discussion should lead to the processes of summary in terp re ta tio n and tr ia n g u la tio n 47, which should then be recorded for every set of observations and exercises in the logical sequence here recommended. Reasoned examination of objects, processes, systems and time (OPST) approach should provide answers for sources of the fa c to r s , eve n ts , fo r c e s and c irc u m sta n ce s mentioned above and in the working definition of E p izo o tio lo g y (and especially those of 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Veterinary' Epidemiology and Economics and other cognate disciplines known to the science of 'whatever befalls groups o f things or objects', i.e. Epi'scientology. Figure 1.3: Groups of animals and people forming relationships in diverse situations in which group problems may arise, and epizootiological approach may be the answer 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 OBJECTS (people, animals, plants and minerals), their inter-relationships and inter­ dependence in PLACES (in terms of location, geography and the ecosystem types), producing results of interactions over TIME. These are in summary, items of factors, events forces and circumstances for qualitative and quantitative observations in epizootiology. These are then subjected to descriptive and analytical PROCESSES, interpretation of the findings/results and their presentation in such a way as to aid reasonable decisions and actions towards the control and prevention of the type of group and environmental problems under study. Those who carefully follow this OPST logic path are not likely to be far from the truth, be they 'Epizootiologists', 'epidemiologists', 'veterinary epidemiologists' or 'epidemiologists for animals', semantics notwithstanding. 1.6(d) Developing appropriate skills Now is the time to rem ember again that 'Skill means practised ability'. Then the facts should be obvious that without commitment, diligence and application o f people's intelligence, little can be achieved in whatever endeavour one takes part. Figure 1.4: Depicting what may lead from demonstration of ability to development of towards achieving competence, confidence, peak in one's career, thus deserving congratulations and jubilation: 1.6 (e) Achievingfunctional level o f competence If the ability established in carrying out the processes described above is practised diligently, intelligently and sensibly (i.e. epizootiologically, which incorporates socio-economic jurisprudence modebM, practitioners in science and professional services are more likely to achieve appropriate skills, with reasonable level of competence and confidence in minimum time. The roadmap and the landmarks carefully laid out in the key statements above should lead on to the next steps without misgivings or doubt in the minds of Epizootiologists sensu stricto. 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY lnUtu.hu htr\ l:/)t:()tiliolography, meteorology and other climatic factors) of the place or area to oe \ isued and the time and date for the practical should also be discussed in 1 ance of the undertaking. ' 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Ohtgasa, B. O.. 2005 (iii) These needs and factors should have been structured and integrated in a database frame ready for use in the field, during the exercise. See subsequent chapters and the appendices for examples of recommended forms for data collection. Please note that: - i v ) It is not wise to be keeping records in long hand writing on the field: you should be recording numerical and non-numerical data on pre-prepared forms or tables. v) Inter-relationships (in ecology) should be recorded among other things. Formats for recording the inter-relationships should accompany the team. vi) Specimens of plants, animals, their remains and parasites should be collected into suitable containers prepared in advance of the visit and brought along for the purpose. vi i) The names, quantities and state of such specimens should be recorded on suitable forms brought from home base; the records should be in such organized form as would be convenient for the next (laboratory) stage of the practical exercises. Step III: (i) The next stage is the Laboratory aspect of the Practical exercise / training. (ii) This should start with a recording in a bound laboratory notebook or in duplicate book of what was brought from the field, how they are preserved, where they are kept in the laboratory, (iii) What tests are to be done on them and when or how soon they should be processed? What possible results to anticipate. And (iv) How such results are intended to be presented in statistical summary, analyzed form and interpreted either way, in order to shed light on the problems in terms of ecological epizootiology. 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Step IV: Reagents and equipment for the laboratory tests should be logically listed, obtained and ticked as correct, complete and ready for use before commencing the exercise. Step V: (i) The tests should be performed. (ii) The results should be recorded in a pre-determined format, to facilitate the (word and statistical) processing of such records of findings in the next stage of the practical. See subsequent chapters and the appendices for examples of formats for recording laboratory findings. Step VI: i i) This is the stage of data processing, on both the field and the laboratory findings. This processing should include non-numerical (facts) and numerical (figures) obtained: (ii) Both should cover descriptive and analytical processes: (iii) The non-numerical (i.e. words and graphics) processing should entail placement of the various variable factors into appropriate organized forms, tables, logic paths, algorithmic and flow-charting forms, statistical summary presentation and interpretation, suitable for decision processes by real-time and potential end users, as earlier planned for. All these should fit into a modern database management format. Modern database pre-supposes electronic/computer management. It makes recording and reporting uniformly and dependably informative and available for different uses and users. This is because, once you have a reasonable database format in a computer storage system, you can retrieve the materials in any of the many possible forms desirable for your need on each occasion. For example, a table of database material can be promptly retrieved as a chart, histogram or graph form, by using the appropriate computer application software (such as Excel, Lotus Freelance Graphics, Microsoft PowerPoint and several others). Thought should be given to possible adaptation of such records for reliably and adequately informative geographic information systems (GIS)64V. This provides for necessary interactive systems environment and functionality in advance. Records of findings at this stage should be made suitable for ready application at the next stage of the practical training. 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Step VII: Next is the stage of SEMINAR presentation. All the (staff and student) participants, other staff in the Department, as well as those in other departments in the entire Faculty should be invited to the Departmental/ Clinical seminar presentation forum. The idea is to present what we have done, what we have found and how we have interpreted them, for questions, comments and contributions, so that we can learn from others for our own improvement and edification. Also that the others may become aware of our efforts and findings for the edification of the entire Faculty. A department does not exist in a vacuum. It will always be an integral part of a Faculty. And that has system's implications. In fact, it will be wise for all the various departments, disciplines and interests to be actively involved and informed in all epizootiological exercises in the Faculty. Thereby all will appreciate their inter-related roles in preparing the basis for preventive veterinary medicine (pvm ). This is a key statement, the implications of which will keep recurring in all matters relating to Veterinary Degree Programmes worldwide. Step VIII: The final stage of an epizootiological practical (exercise or training) is the write-up and an appraisal of the benefits over costs, in terms of knowledge gained, financial involvement, justification for owning or using a vehicle, other forms of transportation and other equipment and reagents for epizootiological practical training and/or investigations. Necessary justification should also consider the involvement of various other academic, technical and secretarial staff at the inter-phase with realities on the ground and imaginable. That write-up should provide material for the departmental annual report, for comparison year after year, for further teaching in subsequent years and for publications as contribution to knowledge in the field. 1.7 (c) Conclusion: Efficient Resource Management Approach Adopting scientific, efficient resource management approach and positive socio-economic jurisprudence (psej)66 is the only way to ensure justification, sustainable survival and prosperity through the study of group and environmental problems and the application of the findings to the management and prevention of such problems. 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, ljagbone, I. F. and Olngasa, B. O., 2005 1.8 An Appraisal of Performance in Relation to Objectives: 1.8(a) Need fu r project appraisal At the end of each lecture, practical and the entire course, there shall be an appraisal of the level of achievement of the objectives stated at the beginning. Appraising what is achieved must of necessity be carried out by the lecturer, as part of the mandatory continuous assessment of the students' performance" Before then and even after that, wise, otherwise and clever students should have reviewed their own performance at the end of each practical exercise, in the field, in the laboratory, at the documentation level and in the seminar presentation. For what would be the need for stating the objectives of the course if at the end it is not considered which of the aims have been achieved? In any case, it should be realized that continual self-appraisal should be seen as a wise recurrent step by scientific thinkers, more so for Systematic Epizootiologists. But who is an Epizootiologist? See the glossary ofterms at the end of the book. 1.8(b) Recommended procedure fo r the appraisal Preferably, the lecturer/s should draw up a questionnaire for the students to complete at the end of the course; and this may be assessed as part of the continuous assessment, giving marks that would reward attentive students in their continuous assessment grading and marks. The questionnaire should include such questions as: 1. Students Names (SURNAME first and in upper case letters). 2. Matriculation Number. 3. Year / Stage of Study (e.g. Year Five / DVM IV). 4. Summarize what you learnt in Epizootiology in not more than fifty (50) words. 5. What is the relationship between the course you took in Epizootiology and the one in Preventive Medicine? 6. What is the relationship between the course you took in Epizootiology and the one in Public Health? 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, tjagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 7. What other courses that you have taken in the Department bear some relationship to some parts of Epizootiology? 8. What other courses that you have taken in other Department of the Faculty bear some relationship to some parts of Epizootiology? 9. How could you apply epizootiological knowledge base in named aspects of veterinary practice, research, livestock development and livestock production? 10. What are the relationships and differences between Epizootiology and other cognate disciplines such as Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, and Epidemiology of Animal Diseases? Signature.................................................. D ate ...................................... R ef......................................................................................................... 1.8(c) Conclusion True and properly conducted appraisal should always be regarded as a good source of dependable knowledge for continuing improvement in the delivery of the course in subsequent years. Therefore, a careful analysis should always be carried out, and records of the findings should be kept and referred to when planning subsequent practical exercises in order to achieve improvement year after year. An in-built self-appraisal like this has a lot of value in ensuring sustained in-house development. Remember the saying: - “Civilization began when man started keeping records o f his act, i• vi•t v i•e s. -n (S.i.t.m.) 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Chapter 2 EPIZOOTIOLOGY AND ITS COMPONENTS In this chapter, we shall consider what Epizootiology is all about; and in so doing we shall start by answering relevant question and then go on to consider relevant issues. 2.1 B e t w e e n t h e S i m p l e s t a n d a W o r k i n g D e f i n i t i o n o f E p i z o o t i o l o g y 2.1 (a) Simplest definition Epizootiology is the study of epizootics 2.1 (b) A working definition Epizootiology is the comprehensive (holistic and peripheral) study of the variable factors, events, forces and circumstances that may contribute to the occurrence, distribution, control and prevention of i l l - h e a l t h , d i s e a s e s and o t h e r p r o b l e m s in g r o u p s (herds, flocks or populations) o f a n i m a l s , as well as the valuation and quantification of their contributions to evolving effects by each of the variable factors resulting in the problem in each instance ' 1. The factors often considered include those of hosts, agents/parasites and the environment; they also include the nature of the relationships, events, interactions between the hosts and the agents and those of both with the common external environment and its other contents. There are many other definitions6 of the subject according to the context, objectives of the moment and the perspectives of those involved. For immediate further reading appendix I (ibid.) should be consulted. What is given here should be considered an example of a working definition. 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olitgasa, B. ()., 2005 W H A T A R E T H O S E P R O B L E M S * O T H E R T H A N D I S E A S E S AND I L L - H E A L T H , IN G R O U P S (HERDS, FLOCKS OR POPULATIONS) O F A N I M A L S ' W I T H W H I C H E P I Z O O T I O L O G 1 S T S A R E C O N C E R N E D ? T H E G I S T The problems which epizootiology is designed to study, in order to provide basis for their determination, control and prevention at herd, zonal, national, international and global levels include: - infirmities, deformities, other enormities, vices in people and animals, inclement weather, other environmental hardships, physical trauma, irritations of skin, mucous membranes and nerves, pressures, stresses, distresses, mental depressions, oppressions and/or torture, destabilization, disorientation, reduced capacities, incapacitations, training in wickedness, over stimulation, excitements, headaches, toothaches, joint aches, stomachaches, indigestion, herd malnutrition, starvation, water deprivation, reduced productivity, cessation of productive capacity, infertility, affections, infections, infestations, intoxications, other real and potential causes of diseases, morbidities and mortalities in groups, herds, or populations of animals and people (as in the case of zoonoses), vices in animals and man and negative socio-economic jurisprudence (nsej) an indication of social ill health in man, with repercussions on animals, other members ofthe biotic community, the environment and the ecosystem. Therefore, it is the factors, events, forces and circumstances' that contribute to the occurrence, distribution, control and prevention of th o se p r o b le m s that epizootiology is designed to cover. The cognitive learner should immediately see the relationships of those variables to one another and how they impact on the well-being, value and integrity of whatever species of biological animal the learner is interested in. U n le s s th e r e a d e r a p p r e c ia te s w h a t is e x p la in e d h ere , h e /s l ie w o u ld be l im it in g h im /h e r s e l f to o n ly th e ’study of infectious diseases', an e r r o r th a t w as o n c e p r e v a le n t w o r ld w ide. See Appendix / in th is b o o k . It is th a t h o lis t ic v ie w o f the v a r ie t y o f p r o b le m s , th e ir n a tu r e a n d the c o m m o n d e n o m in a t o r s th a t w o u ld lead c p iz o o t io lo g i s t s sensustricto to be a b le to say , w ith c o n f id e n c e , b a sed on r e q u ir e d c o m p e t e n c e th a t , 'A on scholae, sed vitae discimus'. A n d w e r e g a r d th a t a s o n e o f the m a r k s o f an e d u c a te d m a n . 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 2.1 (c) Study o fr elationships In any case, Epizootiology may be regarded as a science o{'natural relationships between groups (or populations) of biological animals, the plants around them and some of which they depend on (in the food and energy chain), their common external environment and its contents, which they share inevitably with other living things, and some of which provide them with shelter. Epizootiology also deals, essentially and by default, with the problems associated with the nature of animals as individuals and in groups. It includes considerations of their mass and volume, the dynamics of their life's activities, the internal environment of the individuals and species, causal factors leading to rises and falls in their fortunes, the types and shapes of their biorhythms and the temporal and spatial coefficients appertaining to the patterns and effects of their problems. Such details as are now concentrated in this short paragraph are the usual subjects of detailed explanations and discussions during lecture and tutorial periods in the proper teaching of the subject. 2. / (d) Study o f natural and evolving systems Eventually, students of Epizootiology are meant to get the firm idea that Epizootiology is the study of systems and relationships (including those in natural networking). By default the physical and functional nature of the systems have to be defined and simplified for adequate understanding in qualitative, quantitative and probabilistic terms. The nature, structure, roles and fate of the components and solution options have to be explained in a way that the basis of both cyclical and erratic changes in the systems can always be readily visualized and appreciated as matters of cognition and common sense. Such understanding should provide meaningful basis for the control and prevention of real, e\ olving and potential problems in the identified system. Some elaboration on each of these terms and tools o f thought will now follow. 2.2 Study of Relationships in Epizootiology 2.2 (a) Why do we study Relationships? We study relationships in Epizootiology (and in fact in many other affairs and circumstances of life) because such studies provide orderly ways of leading us to really understand the problem at hand. In fact, and in the first place, living things do not usuall) exist in a vacuum. 'Nature abhors a vacuum'. And that means that for everything created there will 3 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 always naturally be an environment, an external environment, the contents of which will include the object of our immediate concern among many other objects, animate and inanimate (See OPSTapproach, page 25). And when objects exist together, the usual chances are that they will likely interact (physically and functionally) in a significant way, and if kept together long enough to a significant extent. They could interact directly or indirectly, closely or remotely, physically and/or functionally, with a further chance of influencing one another, positively or negatively, lightly or intensely, thus generating actions and reactions, which may or may not be equal and opposite, et cetera. These realities should never be taken for granted when assessing systems' problems. One of the factors may act as stimulus, while the other would represent a response; one may be causal/ stimulus while the other may be the effect/ response. One may be independent, while the other may be dependent. The force of one may be great enough to deform the other, or to make the other one move in one or several directions and over some variable distances, over time, lirst breaking the inertia o f rest and causing some energy changes in the system. Food chain, energy chain, disease/problem chain, transformation of matter and its mass, over space and time, and the concepts of vector and scalar quantities are all results of actions and interactions in relationships within and amongst discrete' and diffuse' systems'". 2.2 (b) Physical and functional relationships The associated physical and functional relationships within a defined diffuse system may often be scientifically examined in detail according to the procedures of'OPST' approach, see page 25. In general, however, the first natural model equation goes thus: - A + B =>C (i); this represents a reversible state of the (building up or breaking down) process: A+ B <= C (ii); this is a breakdown process; the outcome is the breakdown ofC into A and B: 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Oliigasa, B. O., 2005 A + B => C (i ii); this is a building up process, the outcome being the build­ up of A and B to form C. The above are natural equations for catabolic (breaking down) and anabolic (building up) processes in a system. An epizootiologist should be familiar with good examples of these in nature. Changes associated with relevant model reactions and represented by the natural equations may evolve from modifications (deformation or remoulding), structural rearrangement of the constituent components, transformation of energy content, etc. Some or all of these may be considered desirable, while others may be undesirable, depending on the needs of the system and as perceived and judged by human intellect, immediate needs and desire. And in any case, man will always wish to be in control of the situation (as the good Lord allowed him64" ... Genesis 1:26, 28) for better, for worse. For the intelligence given to man has by default put man's fate in man's own hands to the extent to which man is able to observe the various natural laws, first of the systematics and also of symmetric and asymmetric relationships, ceteris paribus. 'Congruenta naturae vivendum est', as earlier mentioned, is again relevant here. It means 'It A wise fo r one to live in harmony with nature.' 2.2 (c) Living agreeably to nature or 'in harmony with nature' But how can this be if man has no sound scientific knowledge of 'nature'2 Hence it could never be a sin for mortal man to go in search ofthe knowledge (e.g. especially of the systems) that would enable man to control the other components of his environment, including knowledge of the close / immediate and remote forces that affect his survival and shape his destiny, or even determine his destination, provided he follows the natural rules ofthe systems and does not consistently seek to be destructive either directly of himself or of the system of which he is a part and parcel. This trend will be found relevant in the enforcement of environmental quality of natural resources and their management10, as well as in acquiring adequately sound working knowledge of systems. The study of relationships will ever remain relevant to all natural approaches to the acquisition of ultimate knowledge, as in Epi'zootiology, Epi'phytology and 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Epi'inanimatology, all being the usual components of Epi'scientology''. And even in Epistemology’ and other philosophical approaches to cognition, the thinking must always be in accord with what is natural. For unless we start by recognizing what is natural, we may never be certain that we are honourably living in harmony with nature and in tune with natural relationships, thus readily avoiding intractable problems. 2.3 Types of Relationships (Rr) Relationships may be classified according to how they come about, the nature of their components and according to the resultant effects. 2.3 (a) Type 1 Naturally occurring relationships and how they come to exist: Below is how some naturally occurring relationships result from physical forces, e.g. (i) By local winds (unstable and variable in direction) or hurricanes: (ii) By prevailing (regularly recurring in the same direction and seasonal) winds: (iii) By moving water (torrents, streams, rivers, melting ice): (iv) By lava of molten rock or avalanche: (v) By magnetic field effects (positive and negative forces): (vi) By gravitational force: (vii) By universal body movement e.g. of the earth around the sun, and of other celestial bodies in the orbits of one or the other or as meteors and meteorites. In general, the variable factors, events and forces that cause steady, seasonal, predictable and random movements and relationships influence the movements of dry and moistureladen winds, precipitation (leading to dews and rains), flooding, over-flooding and ebbing of rivers and lakes, rising and falling of ocean tides all causing many types of relationships that in their intricate ways produce significant effects on the diffuse and discrete systems of communities of men, groups of animals, plants and substances in the common environment. 2.3 (b) Type 2 - Natural perspective relationships These are natural relationships, (nought about consciously and sub­ consciously by living things for their own needs or as consequences of their survival activities. 4 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuntoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 At sub-conscious levels, the following examples may be considered: - (i) Epithelial cells Rr (ii) Rr between layers of tissue that form organs (such as heart, liver, kidneys) (iii) Rr between Gonadial cell types (in male and female organisms) (iv) Hair/head, head/neck, neck/shoulder, foot/hoof, toe/finger-nails Rr. All these are typical examples of important relationships that determine the nature (including the functions) of well-known discrete and diffuse systems and subsystems and their components. The need to always consider the objectives of the individual, vis-a-vis those of the sub­ systems and system to which the components belong, is one of the main concerns of the study of relationships within systems. The need also to find out how much of such objectives are achieved through coordination, and how they fail to materialize through lack of coordination will always be a lesson for the wise. Relationships at conscious level (especially in vertebrate animals) may include coitus, which in lower vertebrates and humans is a good example of consciously established relationships that is relevant to epizootiology. There are conceivably other relationships in this group. These may include (i ) Regular cohabitation and marriage: (ii) Establishment of an immediate family unit consisting of father, mother and offsprings: (iii) Maintenance of extended family of uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, immediate and remote/distant cousins, etc.: (Iv) Rr within societies, organized communities, professional associations, villagers, townsmen, statesmen and countrymen, are important Rr that has some basic rules in common with all the others mentioned above. 2.d (c) The scientific study o f relationships within systems The scientific study of relationships within systems, and the basic rules that maintain the relationships, provide examples of important model exercises in scientific thinking with which every civilized man has to be familiar, more so, for those who may be deciding the fate of others'0 4 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esiiruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 . Community leaders, managers of all sorts, be they of livestock production or development systems, or of any of the four estates of a nation's government. Those without the working knowledge of the rules of relationships within systems have often been the cause of national disasters, such as Nigeria and other developing countries have experienced from 1983° until the present day in matters of social, political and monetary management systems of the nation. Through misplaced priorities, mistaken enthusiasm, based on good intentions, narrow perspectives, limited awareness, low morals, poor education in systems imperatives and poor spiritual health, and the whole nation was plunged deeper and deeper into chaos, landing all in dire straits, in avoidable national debt and apparently intractable economic strangulation due to social ill-health and negative socio-economic jurisprudence, practised by the authorities. The results amounted to unmitigated failure of relationships within systems. And until we return to dedicated practice of system imperatives, the nation may remain at sea and in the doldrums. Figure 2.1: Relationships may be illustrated by methods of path diagrams as shown below: B ( i)-4 ▼ C A = causal variable factor B = Effeet/Effectors variable C = Effect/Effectors variable = Causal path Non-causal path (ii) *Cases Sufficient (Usually multifactorial) not necessary 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esumosa, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 (iii) (A + B + C) =>=>=> => (D) (X) =>=>=>=>=>=>=> (Y). => => => => (Z) 2.4 The Components of Epizootiology By definition {vide supra), Epizootiology is the detailed study of the problems of animal groups (or populations), that is, in more specific terms, of groups of animals such as herds, flocks, drove, flights, et hue genus omne. The usual objectives of such study is to provide information on problems associated with or arising from the various living activities,A of the animals, their interactions with one another and with the common external environment (including its content). Therefore, there should always be a biomedical component. Since such studies will usually require a statistical analysis (sample statistics) from which conclusions may be drawn (on population parameters), there is also a biostatistical component, which in strict sense should be largely a mater of biometrics. To be of societal use and value, the socio-economic implications of such effort (involving benefit/cost relationships) must be explored and spelt out in social, economic and financial terms 4. Those were the lines of thought which led one of the authors to state more than two decades ago that “A modern veterinarian must be biomedically literate, biostatistically numerate and socio-economically cost- conscious.” The tripod o f epizootiology Those three components (i.e. biomedical literacy, biostatistical numeracy and socio-economic cost-consciousness) were thus described as the tripod of Epizootiology. These are the three pillars of knowledge, usage, experience and eventually wisdom, on which the study of Epizootiology as basis for preventive measures are best founded. Hence epizootiology is the basis for vph and pvm practices6 L 6 ’’ 6 44 fo6. The understanding, ultimate knowledge, control and prevention of the zoonoses are best based on the systematic epizootiological approach6'". A more detailed examination of the three components will now be presented. 4 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 2.4 (a) The biomedical component Biomedical studies630 6:0 as a component of epizootiology is concerned with the study of the biology (i.e. forms, functions, life cycles and the habitat) of the hosts and the agents, as well as the study of the medical/disease implications of the relationships (or interactions) between the hosts and the agents/parasites, the parasite and its vector, and their common external environment/the habitat. In this way, full use is being made of the basic knowledge of biology, relationships (commensalism, symbiosis and parasitism) and the causes and courses of disease and other problems already covered in microbiology, immunology, parasitology and pathology, all now being integrated in a scientific (i.e. in a systematic and methodical) manner (videsupra). Two examples should suffice to illustrate this application to the various diseases and other problems of animals. But even these examples will only be mentioned here in outline, as an over-detailed digression at this point may derail the establishment of the trail of thought by which the components of the tripod of Epizootiology are shown to make up the platform for preventive measures. Details of the two examples will be found in a later section of these notes. Such details, according to the experiences of the lecturer were of course usually given during the lectures. The examples in outline will.be those of bovine brucellosis and trypanosomosis (otherwise known as nagana). (i) In the Epizootiology of bovine brucellosis6 37 6 3S "3\ the biomedical components will be concerned with the biology of cattle and of the various brucella species that have been known to cause identifiable and significant problems in the bovine species. Next the disease implications of the relationships between the hosts and the agents will be determined. Such determination pre-supposes, of course, that the type of relationship in diverse circumstances will have been established. Next will be the tracing of the natural history of Brucella abortus in the body of a cow, from the stage of mucous membrane contamination, through the establishment of infection, the transient bacteraemia that usually passes on to the intracellular sojourn, often disturbed by the chemo-attractant nature of erythritol, precipitating the subsequent migration to and proliferation of the brucella in the gravid uterus of the cow and in the foetal membranes 4 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 (See also Section 5.3 (b) (i) for the natural history of Bovine brucellosis). From this, battalions of the organisms eventually make their way to the exterior of the host's body, heavily contaminating the fomite contents of the environment and the appurtenances of the cowshed or byre. The usual outcome of all these events is ultimately a matter of probability, which will be dealt with under the next component. One important probability is the spread of the organisms to new animal and human hosts. Brucellosis is a zoonosis. (ii) In the nagana example, again, the biology of the bovine host and that of the trypanosome parasites, are the main concern. But then the biology and even the biometrics of the various (cyclical and mechanical) vectors, including their peculiar habitat/environmental requirements, also have to be studied. Tsetse flies660 (Glossina species), tabanids, stomoxys, their varieties and peculiar biological life styles661, requirements and spectrum of their relationships with other components of the biosphere, present a formidable course of study, which has already been or should have been covered under Entomology. The keen Epizootiologist is not usually contented merely to assume the detailed knowledge required to make his own summation studies meaningful. He asks his students some leading questions and if they seem to be fairly knowledgeable in the details, a measure of participative teaching-and- learning processes is established. Otherwise the teacher will, as a matter of necessity, resorts to a spell of digression, to establish the missing or forgotten knowledge, and to integrate it into his Epizootiological reasoning. Details of the nagana model will be presented in the appropriate section of the book. What is more important here is that the student/reader should note the wide scope of even the biomedical component of Epizootiology. The possibilities are not difficult to envisage; but the probabilities of the outcome in specific samples of cases is a matter of biostatistics, which will be considered under the second component (of the tripod of Epizootiology). 2.4 (b) The biostatistics component Once again, a quick reference to the definition of Epizootiology will remind one that it is the study of problems in animal groups or populations. Very often the total population is not available for study. On other 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuritoso, GO, Ijctgbone, I. F. and Ohtgasa, B. ().. 2005 occasions, even when all the units may be available, it would not be an economically sound proposition to study the entire group. In most cases the ideal and practical solution is to study samples from the identified population. Such samples in turn, have to be representative, so that conclusions drawn from the results of the sample statistics may be applicable to the population parameters at large. All that these mean is that statistical methods” have to be applied. Sample statistics have to be referable to population parameters. Already, the explanation has been given to show that Epizootiology is a science of relationships, and that some of the relationships can be shown to be of statistical significance, while others are the results of chance occurrences. Such distinctions are best made by the techniques and logics of probability, an important branch of statistics. And when we study the occurrence and distribution of a particular disease or problem in a given group (or population) of animals, we usually want to be able to extrapolate our findings to other populations in similar circumstances, and to be able to predict, not only the likelihood of similar occurrences in the future, but also the frequency and intensity of such predictable future events. It is only then that an appropriate preventive measure can be conceived, designed and implemented successfully. Biostatistics is therefore an inseparable/constituent component of Epizootiology as defined. This theme will be maintained throughout the book, and will in fact come up again for special mention with practical examples in the section on Mathematical Epizootiology {quodvide). 2.4 (c) Socio-Economic component (of Epizootiology) Now that we are now on the socio-economic component of our subject, it may be the right time to explain that when we talked of the tripod of Epizootiology, the full “gospel” actually reads thus as stated earlier: - "A modern veter inarian has need to be biomedically literate, biostatistically numerate andsocio-economically cost conscious”. That is a key statement. And what is good for the noble profession should also be good for all the other professions, disciplines and people earlier listed as having roles to play and a fate to share in the study and applications of our multi-disciplinary subject Epizootiology, as basis for 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugcisa, B. O., 2005 the prevention of problems in systems, groups, populations or communities. All the component members of the system must always be conscious of the social and economic implications of their role in society. Even in the normal practice of their profession, the benefits and costs must always be weighed in both economic and social health terms. So would any other person need to be, the moment he realizes that the ultimate goal of his total professional and/or scientific effort is to advance the well-being of man, the human race and all that is linked to its survival and the enjoyment of its being and brief sojourn on earth. The key words are 'being cost-conscious in both economic and social health terms' and 'of the need to advance not just human well-being' but total well being " Now, what is human well-being? There must be thousand-and-one theories on that alone. Our aim here however is practical. And so we would not shy away from the simplest approach, the simplest definition, and that which is readily apprehended and acceptable to common sense and the common man with a reasonable amount of that sense without which other senses are of limited value. The shortest meaning66' of well­ being is good health, happiness and prosperity “. A further analysis has led the authors to conclude that one could think of financial, economic, bodily, educational, moral, mental and spiritual well-being. Any vocation or profession that has nothing among all these to contribute in a positive manner must consciously or unconsciously be contributing to them negatively; and so, it is being part of the problem. Moreover a morally, mentally and spiritually healthy man will naturally cherish the values of honourable peace, being educated, being honourably law abiding and respective o f the rights o f other members o f society. He would therefore not contribute directly or indirectly to any violation of basic human rights in whatever circumstances that support the rule of sane laws and the security needs. One of the purposes of this course is to engage in a comprehensive study of the occurrence and distribution of problems in the biological animal systems and populations, with a view to being part of the solution. We would in fact be doing better to be able to contribute positively to necessary preventive measures. These are some of the 4 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 reasons for considering many kinds of relationships (Rr), so that we would be able to identify, foster and promote such Rr as would prevent or limit problems in populations. And socially speaking, laek of bodily, educational, moral, mental and spiritual well-being is always an important problem of human herds, if less so in animal communities the inversion w ill make sense when we come to consider ecological communities and their (systems) problems. Yet another objective of this course is to provide sound basis for the study and practices of pm (preventive measures/preventive medicine) in its widest sense*. It is important to realize that when we say that “ Prevention is better than cure” We would in fact be doing better if being cost-conscious and should therefore be saying Prevention is better and cheaper than cure And once we can say this from a firm belief in what we say, it should dawn on us that what we are doing is comparing the net benefits of cure with those of prevention and finding the latter better than the former. And once we go further to say that one is cheaper than the other, we must realize further that we are assuming a better benefit/cost ratio for preventive measure (pm) than for curative measure (cm). The key point therefore is that even pm has its own costs. That those Costs and benefits may be envisaged or/and measured in financial, economic and social, even in cultural development and political terms, is one of the key lessons in/of sociology and the understanding of national circumstances. A scientist or professional that shies away from such basic understanding, and he is contented with doing his thing in isolation of the nature and causes of societal problems, will sooner or later find himself irrelevant to society anywhere on our planet. And this cannot be our plan for the graduates of our universities, whatever their discipline, faculty or profession. * See details in Glossary of terms 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 An epizootiologist should be able to envisage the nature, relevance and importance of the social costs and benefits of his scientific efforts, discoveries and their applications in the direct and indirect promotion of human well-being, the survival of the human race and the enjoyment of the products of his labour. Therefore, without apology, we would insist that socio-economic cost-consciousness shall be reflected in all aspects of this subject. This is an indication of the usual recognition of the role and importance of the economists and other social scientists that are 'cie facto' members of the multi-disciplinary team in livestock agriculture as in veterinary public health (vph). And as mentioned earlier, they all have a lot to contribute to and not a little to gain from scientific studies in the discipline of Epizootiology, its principles, logic paths, methods, techniques and their applications in diverse circumstances. Direct applications of the philosophy of this component will be further expounded in the appropriate section of this book. The lessons are usually abundantly clarified during the didactic and participative lectures, tutorials, discussions, and seminars and even during the practical exercises, which are essential parts of courses in Epizootiology. 2.5 RECOMMENDED PRACTICAL EXERCISES 2.5 (a) Title o f Practical: Physical and Functional Relationship Study Physical and functional relationship studies are usually carried out on the University Teaching and Research Farm of the University of Ibadan (See Figures 2.2, 2.3, 4.15, 4.16, 4.27, 4.38, 4.39, 4.41, 4.43 and 4.44), which is used jointly and for cost-effectiveness by Faculties of Agriculture, Veterinary Medicine and related disciplines in other Natural Science and Technological Faculties ofthe same University. Similar studies and field practical training in Epizootiology were initiated and also carried out at the Dabagi Dairy Farm of the Usumanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto (UDUS) during an intensive teaching and training of the first final year and penultimate year students of Veterinary Medicine of that University in 1992 (see Figures 4.51 and 4.52). The procedures usually carried out at U.I., Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM) in Ibadan by one of the authors were followed at UDUS as part of 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 the course in Ecological Epizootiology, for which a special set of notes were prepared for the students. 2.5 (b) Preparation fo r the study. (i) Staff and students who are to participate in the practical exercise should meet, name and be tutored on the title / topic of the impending study and Held training: (ii) They should then discuss the nature of study title, and then the Teaching and Research Farm to be visited. The usual purpose of a teaching and research farm and the specific to be visited should next be presented to and thoroughly discussed with the students in the context of its geography, ecology, economics, and relevance in livestock production, veterinary public health (vph) potentials and preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) practice. Remember that Epizootiology is meant to provide the soundest and most broad-based knowledge for the practices of vph, pvm and economic livestock production. And that is a key statement, which should not be missed at any point during the course of studies by students of veterinary medicine. N.B. This occasion should be seen as presenting a good opportunity to engage deliberately in 'participative teaching'"1"1 ". The fact that this text would be available to both staff and students in advance of the exercise should facilitate necessary meaningful participation by both staff and students who are diligent enough to consult and meditate on the relevance, importance and substance of the planned exercise before the date and time scheduled for the practical exercise. Epizootiology is of course meant for diligent and committed staff and students only. Half-hearted interests (or divided attention or allegiance) can hardly bring out good results to the participant at any level in any subject based on system approach. (iii) Basis for 'Epizootiological definition of systems' problems, their descriptive prose and expository presentation, and their quantification, analysis, evaluation and benefit/cost consideration in relation to the Teaching and Research Farm under study and the problems of its contents should be taught to the students at this stage. 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 201)5 (iv) Expected contents of the Teaching and Research Farm should be listed and described following OPST approach'1 " ” J Remember that OPST means Object, Processes, Systems and Time factors. They provide tools o f thought and Junctional logic paths in systematic epizootiologicai reasoning. They are useful in visualizing and presenting both the literary (i.e. the qualitative) and the statistical (i.e. the quantitative nature of the system under study. The nature, definition and description of potential problems, their indicators and howto identify and record them during data gathering at the farm should be explained to and discussed with the students at this stage. A well-structured format for real-time data recording will always facilitate the processing of the data later. This point should never be missed. 2.5 (c) Designed forms fo r field data collection and recording: Forms to be used in the field for collecting data on objects, etcetera that would be observed on the farm must be constructed before going to the field. (i) Remember that objects are to be classified into animate and inanimate: {W) Animate objects should include plants, animals and microbes: (iii ) Plants should include trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and other species: (iv) Microbes should include bacteria, fungi and their spores, helminth and protozoan eggs and larvae as well as nymphs of relevant species of insects, water-insects such as cyclops, schistosomes, larval stages of flukes, mosquitoes and tsetse flies, (dangerous and beneficial) bacteria: (v) Animals (i.e. members of the biological kingdom so called) should include man, horse, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, insects, earthworm and others (recall studies in Biology and Zoology). They are all parts of the ecology of the study area when present. (vi) Inanimate objects should include: (via) Edaphic contents, soil, rock, mineral and micronutrient types. (vib) Meteorological or atmospheric content including water vapour, mist, dust, lead and other particles, the various gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and other exhaust gases from automobi les and other sources). (vie) Dust particles and micro droplets (as potential carriers of spores of fungi and bacteria, viral particles inside discarded cellular matter). 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY hum,tu, h u ! iMtimlo^v: hsiiruoso, (,.(), IjaghoHc, /. /•. : Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Ohtgasa, B. O., 2005 The seasonal migration of ruminant animals from the northern parts southwards just before the height of the dry season, are the direct consequences of the changing ecological conditions in the various parts of the country (see Figures 4.11,4.19, 4.20 and 4.57). The classification of tsetse flies (Glossina species) into forest, grassland and riverine species660 is an indication that the types of problems they cause will naturally be associated with such places where the particular types of vector would readily survive and prosper to the detriment of their hosts661. And when everything else is approximately right in a place for the hosts, the agents and the vectors to be there, then the close relationships and interactions occur, resulting in disease implications, the associated morbidities and morta ali ivti• es6.69.6.70 Even diseases and other problems caused by inanimate objects (see OPST, ibid.), such as lead or molybdenum poisoning, and those caused by plant poisoning' 1 "J2' " ' are often associated with the presence and abundance of such substances in the particular places. Living at high altitudes or in valleys or even on the slopes of hills and mountains is often associated with the peculiar problems of such places. 'Mountain vegetation' has its own peculiar problems reflected in the nature of the ecosystem, the role {niche) and fate of the flora and fauna components. So, it is usually not only the vegetation and the climate of a place but also the organic and inorganic contents of the soil that would determine the type of animal health problems, their volume and the usual outcome in a place. In addition, the animate and inanimate contents of the environment, as well as the topography of the place will often contribute to the presence or absence of particular diseases or health problems. The nature and extent, and even the usual outcome of diseases and other problems in groups of animals (and plants) and the population of human beings and their activities in a place are determinant factors of their survival and prosperity. Where a population is located, where it derives its sustenance (including the drinking and bathing water), where its remains eventually settle (dumped or in the chain of natural recirculation or recycling), the size of the uniform area, the expanse of the regular edaphic characteristics of the place, are all important variable factors that together determine the 6 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esunioso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 type, nature and volume of the problems in the local populations. Environmental factors may in fact contribute to the aggravation and remission of such problems. The “place” variable determinant factor should always be considered when studying the occurrence and distribution of problems in groups of animals over a temporal (time) scale. 3.2 (e) Description o f Time (Temporality) Whenever a problem or disease is identified in a group of animals, the natural questions of time that come to mind will always include (i) 'When did it s t a r t ? ( i i ) 'For how long has it been going on?' (iii) 'Has it been continuous or was it ever interrupted?' (iv) Has it manifested itself in a cycle of occurrence and disappearance (biorhythm)?' (v) 'How long are the identified phases of the cycle?' (vi) 'How long are the intervals?' (vii) 'On what day or in which month/s, season or year/s?' (viii) 'At what time or hour of the day or night does the problem usually start or stop, or increase, or decrease?' In summary, the description of time in relation to the occurrence, dist r ibut ion, persistence and d isappearance of epizootiological problems should always be directed towards answering the questions when? Since when? For how long? Flow often? At what time intervals? Etcetera. The usual idea is to find out what other determinant factors (See AND, OR; Boolean logic/algebra'"1, in the web o f causation ' are associated with the time of the occurrence, aggravation, remission and or termination of the particular disease (or other problems) in the particular group of animals or human population (i.e. people) in which the investigator concerned is interested. The fact that temporality is the most important factor in causal relationships (John Stuart Mill cited by Susser, M., 1979 "3l) will be taken up in the appropriate section of these notes. But briefly here the major point that stands to reason is that, if we consider that a problem may have been caused by a determinant factor A, we must be able to show that in the scheme of things A occurred before B. A father existed before his son. 3.2 (f) Group / Population, Place and Time Relationships As just concluded in the immediate past section of these notes, temporality is only one of the variable determinant factors that should 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 ways be considered when seeking to understand the nature of a problem r. a group of animals (including human population) as in the uses of alibi* end its proof in court cases. What is most important however is the association of a particular time measure with the specific place (distribution in space) and our target herd, flock or population and how often (i.e. how frequently) such associations occur over the months, or years or seasons as may be appropriate in each particular place. Recall that it has been explained earlier that Epizootiology is a science of relationships (Rr). It is indeed with the establishment of the relationships of population, place and time' 1 ' 1 on the scale of commonsense that the nature and role of a particular problem will be understood. Biological commonsense (otherwise known as 'biologicalplausibilityM) will for example allow us to see the absurdity of a seeming perfect relationship of a group of bulls, in any place and o\er any period of time, leading to a diagnosis of metritis in the bulls. Common sense, it has been said, is that sense without which all the other senses are meaningless. Remember the issues of 'biological plausibility' in the context of the prototype diagnostic computer called 'the Cambridge Box' (s.i.t.m. 1952)! 3.2 (g) Socio-economic jurisprudence (sej) as a cardinal issue in Epizootiology Even then, if all that Epizootiological approaches entail is the study of physical relationships of groups, populations, place and time with a touch of plausibility in the presentation mode, in the twinkling of an eye everyone of average intelligence, with minimum application to study, will soon become a doyen or doyennes Epizootiologist. And even on the philosophical scale, there is far much more to Epizootiology than all that have been said so far. For example, what one of the authors would like to refer to as the 'human factor ', with its positive and negative components, has a lot to do with the level of success that may be achieved in preventive medicine practice based on Epizootiological knowledge. Instead, we should always be interested in basing our judgment, decisions and actions on 'epizootiological wisdom' (See 'the pie chart of human wisdom, Figure 1.1,ibid.). * Sec details in Glossary of terms 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Human interests and passions have the tendency to oscillate between such positive virtues as selflessness, honesty of purpose and diligence on the one hand, and selfishness, proclivity to fraudulence and other vices on the other hand. Healthy passions are sometimes replaced by perverted passions known as perversions. All men always mean well and aim for good. But while some aim for the good of the system, others have self and the good of self as priority number one. On such occasions, we mayjustify the saying that for such systems the road to disaster, even to hell, is usually paved with good intentions. The travellers on the road are selfishly well- meaning individuals, often aiding and abetting one another to turn the world upside down, eventually putting the system in distress, even with the abundance of necessary knowledge and skills to go otherwise notwithstanding. These are indications of the social dimension, whereby we are sure when we say that being socially cost-conscious can be the determinant factor for success or disaster when all else is right or wrong. We therefore recommend that socio-economic jurisprudence (sej)6,’'6",t!'6'52' should always be part of the cardinal issues in epizootiological studies for the practice of preventive medicine, as for livestock development and production to which epizootiological wisdom has a lot to offer. Now, socio-economic jurisprudence (sej) has been defined in several non-contradictory ways according to the context in such references as just cited above and in many others else. Perhaps the cogent message here should be that sej means the wisdom of being conscious of the need to aspire to be socially (in addition to being economically) healthy in our epizootiological efforts and professional life. Then being socially healthy includes being mentally, morally, educationally, spiritually, law- abidingly, peace-lovingly and promotingly and security-consciously healthy. Those who are so healthy are said to be practitioners of positive socio-economic jurisprudence ipsej). And those who are unhealthy in those seven respects are identified as practitioners of negative socio­ economic jurisprudence (nsej). Without these traits, one can observe many otherwise diligent, intelligent and loving achievers perishing eventually on the altar of nsej. And so, the question is, “What does it profit a man to be a great achiever that nevertheless perishes because of his social ill- health?" Or. who does not know that failure in those seven respects never ends well? So, to ignore sej is to ignore the totality of ones efforts on which 66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasct, B. O., 2005 one would be eventually judged. The choice should be left to every individual. Democracy is all for the freedom of choice and acceptance of fate resulting from the deliberate choice made by each discrete* or diffuse syst. em 6.1 . 3.3 Analytical Epizootiology This section deals with the strictly mathematical aspects of Epizootiology. It is synonymous with the 'quantitative approach' and rests on the analytical branch of biostatistics, measures of probability and experience in interpretation of the results obtained from appropriate computations6 ’6. The candidate should recall that just as we have Descriptive Epizootiology we also have Descriptive Statistics (in another course). The interesting thing is that, the issues, events and variable factors and relationships being described in one are exactly the same as what is being measured in the other; namely the population parameters, the sample statistics, in addition to the attributes of animals in groups, the geography and ecology of places and times associated6 ' 6'6'77'6'76 with the problems in hand and events of immediate concern, all of which are important components in systems of Descriptive statistics, just as they are of Descriptive Epizootiology. Now, the mathematical / statistical components are the bare bones of the matter; the attributes provide the flesh. And who would ever wait to associate with the skeleton of a man walking in the street in broad daylight. He is more likely to 'pick race' on first sighting. Man is skeleton covered with flesh, even as quantitative knowledge has to be dressed up in qualitative garments to make sense. The quantitative expression 'One thousand out of a million' will only make sense when the natural questions 'of what?' and 'which?' are answered. Think about that for a moment. And you would appreciate the relevance and importance of relating qualitative descriptions to the quantitative measures in order to make sense of the whole issue or the nature of the system that is the matter. In Analytical Epizootiology> however, we are concerned with the formation and testing of hypotheses6 77, the construction of models6 77 6 so and formulae, and their examination and application to issues at hand, * See details in Glossary of terms 67 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 from which inferences are made on the probabilities, beyond the realms of our immediate observations. Relevant epizootiological data, which must be appropriate, accurate and adequate, must first be correlated to obtain the coefficient. They are then subjected to regression, with a view to catching a glimpse of the probable past in quantitative terms'’7' Predictive mathematical models are also made and tested, to forecast the quantitative growth or waning of specific population parameters in the foreseeable future681 The whole idea is to provide opportunities for better/greater understanding of the past and future behaviour of the modelled system/s, and to provide some quantitative basis for decision and planning” 6 84 ”s' for a better or preferred future state. Planning is usually concerned with how to ensure that the future will be better ’ than the presents in whatever aspect of the animal population parameters, in which the planner may be interested, towards enhancing the vari■ ous aspects otr* h7 uman wel7l7 -b» eing6.43.6.53.6.5(1.6.62.6.86 Important decision processes are often based on resultant predictions, having taken care of all the possible and operative variable factors or assuming that in addition to the key determinants all the other factors would remain constant or only varying within predictable limits. Otherwise our application of Boolean logic/algebra will have to be extended beyond the true ot false operands, thus going into AND, OR, NOT logical functions' M on our way to the truth of the matter; just as Revd. John Polkinghorne s has clearly pointed out that both science and religion are always 'searching for truth'. No contradiction. Apart from the few basic points mentioned above, it may be taken for granted that Analytical Epizootiology should be considered in detail at the postgraduate level and as a special lecture and for a detailed chapter in Systematic Epizootiology, which one of the authors treats as synonymous with Advanced Epizootiology, as taught by him to postgraduate students working for the MPVM (Master of Preventive Veterinary Medicine), MVPH (Master of Veterinary Public Health) and M.Sc. (Epizootiology) degrees of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria'” . To the extent to which the undergraduate candidates may be enthused to seek further knowledge of this branch of the subject, further details should be given during the 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, ljagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 lectures, tutorials and practical exercises of this course. The really enthusiastic student will eventually register for one or the other of the postgraduate courses in veterinary public health (vph), preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) or M.Sc. Epizootiology, for all of which Advanced (Systematic) Epizootiology is one of the core and compulsory courses. 3.4 Experimental Epizootiology Experimental Epizootiology is essentially a prospective study, potentially involving the two components of Descriptive and Analytical Epizootiology. It affords the experimenter the greatest opportunities for detailed investigations of a particular system, constructed to taste for specific objectives, with well-thought-out sets of observations, test and control models, and envisaging some interpretation in one way or the other, depending on the qualitative and quantitative outcomes of the experiment and the analysis of the data. In such empirical studies, the necessary inputs are so well controlled as to exclude undesirable interference, thus eliminating the chances of undesirable outputs such as noise, smoke or heat (See Natural BIOS and its black box in Figure 4.2). While activities in the black box are kept at a reasonable level of healthy relationships, and there are the chances of good (expected) overall performance, the resulting output (outcome) is thus kept fairly pure and predictably dependable. The indicators either way is usually clear even in the design of the experiment. Experimental Epizootiology will often require a deep understanding and a fair knowledge of not only the basic system to be modelled, but also of the constituent components, and a clear open mind for reading just the observed outcome rather than the investigator's mental pre-occupation. An example of experimental epizootiology conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria was the investigation of quality and public health aspects of smoke preservation of meats in Nigeria by Alonge6**. Experimental Epizootiology may be quite ’costly in terms of the material resources required. It will also demand a high level of discipline in keeping to the time scheduled in the original design and for the various sets of activities (protocols) that constitute the experimentation details. 6 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootic*logy: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugcisa, B. O., 2005 Parallel experiments may often be designed with variations only in one or the other key variable determinant factors, thus having multiple scenario effects and results. All of these are meant to elaborate on any tedious or knotty points, which may still require clarification after reading recommended textual materials such as the students' lecture notes or this book. Attendance at lectures will remain very important, even essential to achieve the appropriate level of learning or education earlier canvassed and recommended. Eye contacts between lecturer and students may reflect wistful responses, which should lead the lecturer to clarify any doubts in the students' understanding that would otherwise go undetected if students only learn by reading the hard copy of this book. Each has its own role to play in the teaching and learning processes. The wise would take advantage of both chances. 3.5 Summary and Conclusion 3.5 (a) In summary, In summary, epizootiology may be conducted in three phases, namely, at descriptive, analytic and experimental levels. The descriptive study is associated with the presentation of the relevant findings in summary as in descriptive statistics, which involves measures of central tendencies (mean, mode, median), and measures of dispersion (such as variance, standard deviation and standard errors of the means), as well as correlation coefficient a summary of relationships between independent and dependent, cause and effect, stimulus and response and such like pairs of associated variables. The analytical study is essentially mathematical, starting essentially with correlation of associated variables, measures of their symmetrical and asymmetrical relationships, and involving regression and predictive models and the inferential measures and interpretations beyond what could be deduced from direct observations. In an experimental study, both descriptive and analytieal methods are usually relevant. The idea is to get as close as possible to the true present, past and future nature of the problem at hand. The final uses of such information include the provision of basis for planning6 8<>, basis for decision processes and scientific basis for 7 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 preventive measures (pm) in their widest sense relevant to both vph and pvm studies, while being an essential part of Epizootiology itself. All such studies are best done in systematic manners, and using appropriate methods in each case. The outcome of such studies should not be seen as negating what may have been expected from the point of view of common-sensibility. An understanding of the positive and negative aspects o f human nature will always be relevant to the interpretation of the various results. Knowledge and skills in the appropriate areas will usually be necessary to achieve real and meaningful results, and this would always include computer skills for data processing. Data here should include numerical (quantitative), non-numerical (qualitative), graphics (pictures) and sound. 3.5 (b) Universal applicability o f epizootio/ogicalphilosophy Finally, all the methods and philosophy of Epizootiology are universally applicable to many other aspects of human endeavour. Just as one can study the Epizootiology of diseases (e.g. brucellosis, nagana, tuberculosis, cancer, etc) and conditions (e.g. coughing, sneezing, grunting/groaning), one can also study the Epidemiology of vices (such as lying, violence and gossiping). While the variable determinant factors may differ in each of the three groups ( diseases, conditions and vices and other problems), the methods (i.e. descriptive, analytic (counting and accounting) and experimental models) are very similar. They entail the description, summary presentation and analysis of the attributes of the groups of animals or population, their location (spatial distribution), temporality (temporal distribution) of the events and their interpretation for decision making, action taking, towards solving identified and quantified problems. And in real-life situations, Epizootiologists sensu stricto may have to study such vices as pecking, nibbling, paddling, etc, in animals. In man Epidemiologists and criminologists may have to study social vices and crimes (respectively), using similar methods and considering populations at risk/exposed/involved, distribution of occurrence, say in urban and rural areas, in schools or boarding houses, and even in family houses and in prisons, all over time. The similarities in the systematic approach and in methods are what make Epizootiology and allied disciplines good 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Ohigasa, B. O., 2005 examples of models in ^scientific thinking and methods of inquiry. Hence a good understanding of systems approach and of Epizootiological methods will carry an educated person a long way in conducting scientific thinking and investigations on the various problems of life. 3.5 (c) Recommended practice Irj order to build up epizootiological database infrastructure, a teaching department should each session plan to familiarise the students with the practical guidelines presented at the end of the various chapters in this book. They should also learn from other well-established programmes on community database development for the groups of students6 °. These groups should accurately keep record of qualitative and quantitative data, in specified formats, describing groups of plants, groups of animals, other groups such as of insects, extent of areas covered, people met, their population dynamics - all as part of their epizootiological studies and training. 3.6 Recommended Practical Exercises 3.6(a) Preparation fo r the study Before commencing a practical exercise, staff and students should meet to discuss the following: (a) Title of the practical study (b) The meaning of phases. Illustrate this with the various faces of a dice being cast. While it is the same object, it has six faces. It is when one knows what is on the face of each of the six faces that one can understand the true nature of the object dice. (c) Illustration of phases: It is important to look at one after the other face of the dice, until one sees the characteristics of the dice that one wishes to explore in detail. One may however not see expected characteristics until all the phases have been examined one by one. Explain to the students that an epizootiological practical is similar in that it has many phases. The phases to be examined are descriptive, analytic and experimental. (d) Importance of observation: To describe anything, one has to make observations. Such observations must answer the question what (and* * See details in Glossary of terms 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 what individuals and groups)? Where (located and how wide spread at any point in time)? And when (i.e. time when, since when, how often, for how long, at what intervals of time)? 3.6 (b) The fie ld exercises Students should start by observing and discussing the scene in the field during their practical Epizootiology. At this point photographs may be taken and video filming made. The more efficient observer will describe objects seen in the field more accurately than the casual observer. Deliberately looking at an object is often more informative than merely seeing an object. A good observer should use his eyes, not just for seeing, but also for looking. Apart from describing the forms, sizes, shapes, etc, the numbers, groups and the relationships of the objects to one another, one should also describe the quality and relative quantity of each group of objects (that are not just seen but) observed, inspected and examined for their various characteristics (form, shape, symmetry, consistency, solid, fluid or gaseous). In this case one is already going through numerical description of the group of objects in the field, as would be later presented and considered in the classroom. 3.6 (c) Purpose o f observational training The idea is 1. To inculcate in the students the need to be keen, sharp, deliberate and comprehensive observers, in qualitative and quantitative terms during this exercise. 2. Plan for a group of students to accurately keep record of qualitative and quantitative data, and materials collected as samples, describing groups of plants, groups of animals, other groups such as of insects, extent of areas covered, people m et... 3. Finally, one group should look for evidence of the meteorological, hydrological and edaphic contents and circumstances of the place, at the time of visit. The colour of the soil should also be noted, as this is usually a reflection of the iron (and other mineral contents). 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esiiruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olitgcisa, B. O., 2005 4. These groups should of course have been provided with tables and units of quantities in which to record the data to be collected before they go to the field. 5. When considering groups of animals, herd statistics should be recorded. Explain what herd statistics mean, show the students a sample table (e.g. of cattle herd statistics) and train them to design reasonable tables for recording flocks of poultry (layer and breeder), sheep and pig flock statistics. 6. Advise and instruct the students on how to make independent records w hile completing the data sheets for herd/flock statistics. 7. While in the field, Supervising Lecturers must also observe and make some notes and keep records on their own, in order to have basis for independent judgement when checking the students' reports and their data sheets. 8. Supervising Lecturers should encourage students on practical training to record their data and other findings in duplicate, even when they are using forms. 9. Remember that when back in the laboratory, you are going to process the data of descriptive epizootiology in terms of descriptive statistics. This would be difficult if the appropriate data is not collected. Also, if accurate and adequate data are not collected the outcome may be meaningless. It may defy sensible interpretation, or tempt the less upright to resort to guessing figures. These are key statements, and indications of what should be avoided. 3.6 (d) Laboratory Practical A record of materials brought from the field must be kept immediately on arrival in the laboratory. Each group of the various materials and samples must be counted and the number recorded. Mode of preservation from the field must be stated. Mode of preservation and where kept in the laboratory must also be recorded in the bound notebooks kept for the purpose in the laboratory. What processes (e.g. haematology, serology, 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 specimen identification, culture, histopathology, etc) which are to be carried out on each group of materials or samples should be recorded immediately on arrival in the laboratory. The next day, there should be a presentation session in the laboratory (so that students can point to or demonstrate what they are talking about... and answer questions on them). In such an exercise it would be advisable to follow the following steps: a) Get every group of students to present highlights o f the data they collected variously from the field in descriptive epizootiological (veterinary epidemiological) language: b) Get each individual or group of students to present their observations in descriptive statistics. And correct any mistakes in presentation: (c) Explain to or remind them that descriptive statistics mean summary presentation of the characteristics of the groups of plants and animals or human population in the area: Sorting figures from the lowest to the highest order of magnitude and presenting them as such is the usual beginning of descriptive statistical procedures on collected data; it provides the range. From this, you can get other statistical measures (such as mean, median and mode) of the sample, group or population: d) By calculation, you can get the variance and the standard deviation. Therefore, to present in descriptive statistics mode includes all the above. When a table is produced from the figures, it is part of descriptive statistics'. e) Although these things must have been taught during lectures, it is good to repeat to the students what they are doing when making this summary presentation: f) Graphs and charts, they should be told, are the best ways for establishing and visualizing relationships or associations between variables. Therefore, correlation coefficient should be worked out from such charts as an example of measurement of relationships. g) Now explain to the students how using the modern digital computer systems can facilitate such record keeping, data processing (including computations, report writing) illustrations, graphics integration, analysis of results and their interpretation for plans, decisions and action. Remember that Epizootiology is often a means to an end (and not an end in 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuriioso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 itself)- Take them into the computer room and do the whole gamut of descriptive statistics with the qualitative and quantitative data available. h) This is the point to emphasize how what we describe in descriptive epizootiology literally/qualitatively are the same things that we describe in descriptive statistics quantitatively and with measures of probability, ending with an interpretation of the results. 3. 6 (e) Recording, reporting and write-up fo r presentation a) Candidates should be led on how to write up all the above briefly and to make sense, in qualitative and quantitative terms. b) They should also write in such a way that slides for meaningful presentation can be made from the write-up. c) They should be given examples to work on for analytical processes. d) Analytical processes should start from the relationships established through correlation coefficient determination. Possible establishment of causal (asymmetrical) relationships should follow. This is the true beginning of analytical phase of epizootiology and biometrics. e) Students should be made aware of those facts without doubt. It is good to let the students know that such collections and processing of epizootiological data to obtain useful information can make important contribution to knowledge. When properly presented, they can result in useful and informative publications. As epizootiologists, all participants should have the moral and ethical configuration to publish together, whatever was done together. Plans for such publications should actually be discussed. It is not good to publish without first presenting the material at a departmental and a faculty seminar. This is because the contributions of colleagues in the form of comments, questions and criticisms can lead the wise authors to improve on the quality of the write-up for publication. Finally, it should be remembered that VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF) is concerned with the promotion of veterinary research and human resource development for social responsibility and positive socio-economic jurisprudence. Its publications in the Maiden edition of its Quarterly Bulletin of March 1997’ ’ will always be ofvalue in matters of resource management approaches, even in Epizootiology. 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Chapter 4 EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL APPROACHES 4.1 General Introduction: 4.1(a) Merits o f Epizootiological Approaches MERITS OF EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL APPROACHES It is important to note the following basic merits of epizootiological approach to the study and cost-effective resolution of herd/population problems. 1. T h e a p p r o a c h i s following issues, namely: - comprehensive, providing holistic (a) 'Human herds and/or animal and scientifically sound basis for populations' usually affected by the working towards the cost-effective disease in general and in particular achievement of total well-being in cases, places and circumstances: three dimensions as defined (b) A simplified, summarized and 2. It is based on systems logical function definition of the construct, and takes care of all p r o b l e m a n d a s u m m a r y relevant systems and subsystems, assessment o f the actual and qualitative and quantitative nature foreseeable status of the problem o f re le v a n t fa c to rs , fo rces , overtime: relationships, interrelationships and interactions, providing pigeonholes (c) The host, parasite, vector, (or slots) for all real and potential environmental {geographical and implications in perspective, in real eco log ica l / eco sy s te m a tic ), time and space distribution changes. economic (including bionomic), For example, in a congress actual financial and social health expositional paper presentation on (human factor) variables, through the E pizoo tio logy o f Bovine and over present, short time, long Trypanosomosis in Nigeria in time, foreseeable (visualizable / 197366', the body of the exposition envisionable) changes distribution included systematic treatment of the over space and time and likelihood 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 of effective control of any or all of b ioeconom ic), financial and the various determinant factors (in political terms. reality the entomological (vector), protozoological (parasite)) and 3. Expositions resulting from vertebrate host aspects in relation to epizootiological approaches are each other, one another and to the usually of durable relevance, environm ent (the geography, value and validity. ecology, ecosystems), as well as the For example, the work just cited, immunobiological (susceptibility though it was presented in St. Louis and resistance), all presented in Missouri in 1973, is still patently perspective. In facts and figures, the valid, valuable and relevant, thirty- actual financial prospects, the more three years later. The predictions e m b r a c i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c remain fulfilled. The summary and implications and the scope of the conclusion made then are still problem were presented. Putting all tenable in spite of billions of the above in m ajor system s Dollars, Pound sterling, Naira and perspectives, the disease was other currencies spent in many described as a major biological research institutes worldwide. The problem that had evolved over scenes stated in the exposition centuries and would therefore need remain a stark reality, simply well-coordinated epizootiological b e c a u s e t he s t a t e d we l l - systems approach in order to make coord ina ted ep izo o tio lo g ica l reasonable impact in minimum time system s approach was and at minimum expense (in social, never adopted. e c o n o m i c ( i n c l u d i n g 4.1(b) Body o f the General Introduction’. A scientific approach to the study of problems in animal groups or populations and their environment may be considered from the points of view of the various disciplines that may contribute to and benefit from the philosophy and techniques of epizootiology. As a result, there could well be a good number of approaches to the study. For example, there could be Agricultural, Biological, Environmental, Biomedical, Sociological, Socio-economics, Political, Cultural, Mathematical, Geographical, Ecological, Geological, Archaeological, and even Philosophical (in contra-distinction from practical/utility and pragmatic) approaches. In actual fact, the areas that have so far received significant attention in 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 literature are branches and combinations of some of the disciplines and interests just listed. The ecological approach (Pavlovsky, 19396'1 and others) may be considered a branch of the Biological approach (Ecology is a branch of Biology668. On the other hand Ecological Epizootiology has come to be accepted as synonym ous with Landscape and Geographical Epizootiology, with significant contributions from matters and studies of the environment or “Environmental Epizootiology”. By many, Mathematical Epizootiology is considered to be largely the same as Statistical Epizootiology (Statistics in turn being regarded as a utility branch of Mathematics). More correctly perhaps, all the “counting and accounting” and the associated computations, involving methods of Algebra, Calculus and the simple basic arithmetic processes (addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, exponential and factorial calculations) as applied to Epizootiology can well come under the discipline of Biostatistical Epizootiology. All these could not be the only possible combinations; the list may conceivably be quite extensive, especially in the context of 'non scholae, sed vitae discimus', thus covering most aspects of human life. For students, readers and teachers of Biology, Agriculture, Animal Science, the Health Sciences and the allied disciplines and professions, the combinations that would first come readily to mind would include the Biomedical, the Ecological, the Biostatistical and the Socio-Economic approaches. From these, the authors have decided to consider at some length the areas of knowledge that can be effectively pursued under the titles (i) Biomedical/Medical detection63" approaches; (ii) Ecological approaches; (iii) Mathematical approaches; and (iv) Socio-economic61 and Socio-cultural approaches. 4.2 Biomedical (Medical detection) Approach Here we are dealing with objective signs and subjective symptoms of physical and/or functional abnormality. This approach is based on the nature of observable and detectable abnormal changes in the forms, functions and the life-cycles and habitat (biology) of the animals and the clinical manifestations (or indicators) or the medical/disease implications of the interactions between the animals and their parasites, with the 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone. /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 obvious implications of the relationships between both and their external environment. Medical detection approach to the study of problems in herds of animals must of essence be based on the knowledge of the lives of those animals and at least some clear awareness of the pathological and clinical changes and manifestations that constitute the indicators of such problems. Biologists (including Agricultural Biologists), Pathologists, other Biomedical and Animal Scientists (including Zoologists) have roles to play and some knowledge to share in the field of medical detection approach to Epizootiology. And depending on the goal of the principal actor and the home-base system, any of these disciplines may provide leadership or rallying point for the relevant approach to such studies. Agricultural Biologists for example have been known to shoulder effective leadership in landscapeEpi'scientology. When diseases and other health problems in the group of animals or human population are the main concern and mandate of the system (e.g. Animal (Veterinary) and Human (Public Health) systems, leadership is often best provided by the Biomedical professionals, with the necessary support from and collaboration with other professionals and scientists. When Agricultural Biology is the main thrust of the home-base system, the Agricultural Biologist will best provide leadership. When Economic Livestock production is the main interest of the system, Economists, Animal Husbandry/Animal Science specialists or Veterinarians are the likely groups from which the leadership of such system may be chosen. A team leader in each of these cases means a bridge-builder who, knowing and being capable enough in his own chosen discipline, is also able and willing to show practical appreciation, not only of the relevance and substance but also the importance of the other disciplines and their participation. He is capable of bringing them to work together as members of a system whose total effort can produce the successes, which the particular system has as its objectives. Maintenance of animal health, human / public health, environmental sanitation, economic livestock production and the preservation of threatened species, are some of the distinct goals towards which teams of 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuntoso, GO, Ijagbone. I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Epizootiologists may cooperate to achieve success for the system. Such Epizootiologists will always have valuable roles to play in research, services and administration related to such systems. In this respect, the leaders in biomedical detection approaches in the Epizootiology of animal diseases are Veterinarians, and for human diseases they are human Doctors or simply physicians. Recent parallel developments in Agricultural. Biology have led to the specialization in Plant Pathology and in the opening of Plant clinics. Those knowledgeable in ecological community systems will at once be aware of the relevance of those specialist areas to the welfare of human and lower vertebrate animal populations, and of the importance of the work of Plant Doctors who must be knowledgeable, not only in Epiphytology, but also in Epizootiology. The reasons and relationships should be obvious. Animals and plants are connected by the universal environment, food and energy chains, and by extension, in the chain of the usual problems (including diseases). This is a major awareness readily appreciated through the studies of ecological communities, the interdependence and related advantages and disadvantages. Problems are never really solved in strictly compartmentalized (parochial and blinker-applying) systems. The common baseline and relevance of the basic philosophies and techniques will be readily shared if all imbibe of the science and culture of Epizootiology, even as these relate to Medical Detection Approach. Medical detection approach is concerned with the detection of signs, symptoms and other indicators of diseases and related health, survival and production problems. Veterinarians seek to detect such signs in their patients. Human Doctors have the advantages and disadvantages of having to deal with both signs and symptoms; the distinctions are dealt with under Diagnostic procedures cptodvide (q.v.) in section 4.2a below. 4.2 (a) Indicators ofdiseases and other problems In this sub-section, we shall consider the detection and consideration of indicators and other pieces of evidence of the presence of diseases and other problems in animal herds and human populations. Now, objective signs and subjective symptoms of physical and/or functional deviations 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 from normality are the usual indicators of diseases and related problems in animals and men. Such aberrations are usually described in terms of morbidity and quantified in terms of incidence and prevalence and the related rates and ratios. And when the problems result in the death of some or many of the affected animals the outcome is quantified in terms of mortality rate, which is indication of the proportion of animals that have died in the group. Measurements of mortality rates and ratios and of case fatality rates are important in the determination of the amount and value of losses due to the disease or other problems under observation. 4.2 (b) Morbidity and mortality measurements Morbidity is the number of animals that are detectably or observably ill. Morbidity rate is a comparison of the number that is ill with the total number exposed or at risk over a given period of time. A better term for morbidity is incidence. And incidence rate is the number of cases compared with the total number in the same group, herd or population at risk during a given period of time. Mathematically: (i.e. in terms of equations) Incidence Rate (IR)= Number of occurrences Total number in the group or population At risk/exposed during the given period Monthly IR = Number of cases that commenced during a month Total number of animals in the group or population at risk Whereas Incidence Ratio (Ir) = The number of cases that are ill The number of animals that remain normal in the same herd/flock/population at risk during the given period For example: - If in a herd of 100 cattle 10 individuals are found to be showing the signs of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) during the month of January, for that month (i) The Incidence Rate (IR) = 10/100 = 10% 82 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Whereas (ii) The incidence ratio (ir) = 10/90 = 11.11% If during the month of February 35 more cases develop, then The February IR = 35/90 = 38.89% Whereas (iii) The February ir = 35/55 = 63.64% Now, if on a day in March, all animals showing various stages o f the lesions o f FMD or anti-body titres compatible with positive infection are counted and found to be 69 in the same herd, with no mortalities so far, then (iv) The Prevalence Rate (PR) will be 69/100 = 69% If however there have been 9 deaths made up mostly of young calves succumbing to the disease, then (v) The Mortality rate i.e. Number of deaths Number of animals at risk/exposed = 9/100 = 9% (being the total number in the population) However (vi) The Case Fatality Rate (CFR) i.e. number of deaths Number of diseased animals =9/69 = 13% i The distinction between Mortality Rate and Case Fatality Rate (CFR) should be carefully noted. Incidence rate has been defined as a measure of the rate at which new events occur in the given population. It could also be defined as the number of occurrences commencing during the stated period of time, e.g. Monthly incidence is the number of cases commencing during the month in question; hence some authors use the term “the number of new cases”. Whereas prevalence may include previous cases that had occurred one or several months back, but which are still detectable by the usual methods of identifying affected animals. Prevalence is usually further categorized into point prevalence and period prevalence. Period prevalence usually refers to the number of cases known to have occurred during a given period 83 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epkootiology: Esuntoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 of time. Whereas point prevalence is the number of cases known to have occurred at any point in time when the number was counted. When the terms rate and ratio are used, the mathematical presentation must include both the numerator and the denominator, as earlier exemplified in the cases of mortality rates and ratios. The relationship between incidence and prevalence is represented mathematically by the formula P 1 x D where P = prevalence I = incidence and D = duration Table 4.1: HOW INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE ARE RELATED Definitions of INCIDENCE Definitions of PREVALENCE Author & Date “The incidence of a disease is the (i) “Point Prevalence is the frequency MacMahon number of cases of the disease of the disease at a designated point in and Pugh which come into being during a time (e.g. at the beginning of a period) (1970)"21 specified period of time.” “for a specified population at a specified time; point prevalence rate is The incidence rate is the number of the proportion of that population Halpin, B. cases per specified unit of which exhibits the disease at that (1975)"25 population”. particular time all cases of the disease then, irrespective of when the signs or “incidence is the frequency of symptoms started the numerator. events during a stated period of time”. The denominator is the total “It is often difficult to measure population at risk (affected and incidence directly since the exact unaffected)”. time of onset of illness is often uncertain. Therefore occurrences used instead are: (i) onset of symptoms and signs; (ii) time of diagnosis; (iii) date of notification (ii) “PeriodPrevalence is a measure of Attack Rates are special forms of the total number of case of a disease incidence rates expressing total known to have existed at some time incidence of a disease for which the during a specified period”. population is at risk only for a It is the sum of point prevalence and limited period of time, e.g. incidence. (i) neonatal diarrhoea of piglets; i.e. number of cases existing at the (ii) in an outbreak of foot and beginning of the period (period mouth disease which comes precedent) plus number of cases periodically and is limited in coming into existence during the period (epidemic) period incidence. 84 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O., 2005 The attack rate is stated as a Prevalence is the number of cases percentage without time, e.g. prevailing at a point in time in a 25/50 = 50% attack rate. given population. A secondary attack rate is based on Prevalence is 'the number of cases known incubation period of a prevailing at a certain time'. disease, since the primary case should have ended before the “Point Prevalence” is the total second attack occurred. number of cases existing at that “the incidence of a disease is the point in time, whether new, old, or number of new cases happening almost recovered” within a specified period”. 'incidence is the number of occurrences commencing during a given time in a specified population. NB: TIME FACTOR relates to: (i) Point in time at which observations are made (prevalence). (ii) Period during which events are counted (incidence). Hence the derivation of the formula P I x D where P = prevalence I = incidence and D = duration 4.2 (c) Scope o f medical detection Medical detection includes the various methods available to the biomedical sciences and professions for the detection, definition, and quantification of the various forms of disease, ill health and other problems. It includes the clinical, microbiological, parasitological, biochemical, pathological, immunological and even surgical components. Indeed all the methods of diagnosis available to the biomedical disciplines are included. And that is why we have such terms as 'Clinical pathology', 'Clinical immunology', 'Clinical parasitology', 'Clinical microbiology' and 'Clinical epizootiology'. Therefore, further details will be resumed in Section 5.4 of this book, which deals with Epizootiological diagnosis. In the meantime, we shall now consider Ecological approaches or simply Ecological Epizootiology. 4.3 Ecological Approach / Ecological Epizootiology 4.3(a) Introduction: Ecological approach to Epizootiology is the most comprehensive, most involved, most natural and most productive of holistic results of the 85 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, GO, Ijagbotie, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 four approaches discussed in this book. It is a biological approach, as ecology itself is a branch of Biology. As earlier defined, Ecology is the study of natural, physical and functional relationships ... between many groups of living organisms and their dynamic (though in places fairly uniform) environment (in cases of established ecosystems). Ecology can in fact also be defined as the study of ecosystems. And an ecosystem is a specific type of biological relationship between various species of plants, animals and other organisms. Among the animals it includes pray and predator relationships. Among others it includes producers and consumers, as well as saprobes and their common external environment, the dynamics of which eventually determine the nature, content, physical and functional structure of the system. An ecosystem is a community system and its environment; it is an example of a diffuse system'’'. And it is usually named according to its characteristics and the nature of its environmental components. 4.3 (b) Types o f Ecosystem Ecosystems can be classified in many ways. One of the ways is according to the nature of the environmental component. These are the various types of terrestrial, aquatic / hydrologic and atmospheric ecosystems, where the geosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere respectively form major parts of the biosphere in which each system is based. These types can be further sub-divided, as for example in an aquatic ecosystem, the water medium may be fresh, saline or brackish. Again, the components and nature of an ecosystem on an oceanic bed, a few miles down, will be significantly different from those in the surface water. In summary, the world major ecosystems have been classified''2 as follows: - World major ecosystems~6'9' are listed as 1. Boreal Forests 7. Scrublands 2. Desert Ecosystems 8. Temperate forests 3. Freshwater Ecosystems 9. Tropical forests 4. Marine Ecosystems 10. Mountains 5. Grassland Ecosystems 11. Polar lands 6. Savannahs It should be noted that interface areas between adjacent types of ecosystems also exist. This is a point at which diligent students would go 86 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 into the heuristic learning exercise on the physical and functional biological nature of the various types of ecosystem listed as 1 11 above, as well as some visualization of intermediate areas ad their contents in terms of prey and predators, consumer and producer, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores peculiar to each type of established ecosystem and mode of recycling. The tutors should lead and advise the learner on such effort. Factors that determine and sustain the various ecosystems are those that affect the patterns of life of the various plants, animals and other organisms at various trophic levels, all of which constitute the biotic content. The abiotic content includes the edaphic, hydrologic / aquatic and the meteorologic / atmospheric / climatic factors. Thirdly, there are the complex webs of relationships, interactions and interdependence affecting the food/nutrient chains, energy flows, temperature range and continuing process of evolution and balance or imbalance that naturally lead to the survival, prosperity or disappearance of species over time and space. In many cases the interference of man constitutes major factors on the fate of many species. 87 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuraoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Ecological Epizootiology: Gist Presentation I The various environmental conditions that Wishing you, diligent scientific meditation and naturally determine the distribution of animals delightful results from a smooth and pleasant (hosts, parasites, vectors, carriers, reservoirs...) run through of the exposition that now fol lows. and their problems (including diseases) and their distribution over space and time can be found in Again, it should be noted that the figures the scientific study of the geography and the which illustrate the geography, the ecosystem various types of ecosystem in every part of the types and their distribution in Nigeria (as for world and in diverse climatic and meteorological any other country or region) should provide conditions. This is a fundamental summary materials for heuristic learning and cognitive statement that can lead to reliable functional logic u n d e r s t a n d i n g d u r i n g w e l l - p l a n n e d paths for cognitive and heuristic learning, epizootiological tours of the various parts of the resulting in holistic understanding of ecological country. And this approach should be found approach to Epizootiology. Therefore, before quite applicable to similar studies in any other reading any further, the wise learner would stop at country in which the learner may be interested. this point now and meditate on the relevant To further aid such learning and equip the meaning of every unit of expression and the learner in a smooth transition to the level of weight and value in gold of every word in that 'Advanced (Systematic) Epizootiology', the small paragraph. Learning merely by rote at this adoption of the following wisdom nuggets, point can be quite ineffective, seriously counter­ already mentioned and described elsewhere in productive and unnecessarily time wasting. For, this book; see index and glossary sections) is of all the natural resources the good Lord gave highly recommended. They include the graciously and freely to man, the most abused is following tools of thought and introductory tim e, often with d ire and irreversib le approaches to sound scientific logic paths (sslp) consequences, when all is already too late. So, let to the necessary wisdom in the subject/s at hand. the reader, honestly (to himself) meditate now; to They are: meditate is to think deeply and quietly on a (i) OPST approach: specific issue/s. (ii) Natural BIOS: Now, a brief reference to the glossary (ibid.), (iii) 'Mental exercises in the identification of and a careful study of the figures that follow relevant issues, relationships, points of below should prepare a diligent reader's fertile integration and coordination for achieving m ind for effective understand ing and appreciation system success'6” . of the relevance and value of the knowledge base (iv) Pie chart of human wisdom (that goes in the text of the paragraphs that follow hereafter. beyond merely acquiring knowledge). Ecological Epizootiology: Gist Presentation II As epizootiology is presented here in such a holistic manner as to provide the soundest basis for preventive measures (pm) in the widest sense, no one haven diligently and intelligently gone through the text and illustrations here provided will ever remain the same or unconvinced that being an epizootiologist should be an essential achievement in worthy living. He would have learned to join the happy group, who very early on in their career have clinched to the belief in adopting the wisdom in the saying, 'Non scholae, sed vitae discimus' {ibid.). This is because wisdom in Epizootiology as presented in this book should provide the soundest basis 88 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. E and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (i) For the study and practices of'preventive veterinary medicine' (pvm): (ii) For the appreciation, study and application o f the concept and practices of'veterinary public health' (vph): (iii) For the articulation and practices o f 'prevention and control measures' (pcm) on many problems o f natural living, survival and optimal prosperity earned by the grace o f God and not through nsej measures. NB: I f and when in doubt about the import or meaning o f any o f the above, give us a shout and the authors w ill scientifically reason with you inpsej mode. And, as the spirit says: Figure 4.1: Work! Watch!! and Pray!!! Always seeking to be right and righteous and to remain so. There is no law in any of the Holy books, nor from the writings of the holy prophets that goes against those simple inj unctions, which are part of the wisdom nuggets for epizootiologists sensu stricto. Nor would a wise man ever ignore the spiritual dimensions of his being in serious matters as scientific learning and thinking. Being an epizootiologist is seeking to be a complete being in body, soul and spirit, neglecting nothing in the system. The Nigeria Environm ent M uch o f the teach in g , learning, w ork in g , w a tch in g and p raying on w h ich the text and illu strations in this b o o k are b ased co u ld b e fou n d in other p la ces than in N igeria . B ut sin ce it is o ften sa id that 'Charity b eg in s at hom e', so m e asp ects o f the N ig er ia scen e relevant to the teach in gs o f e p iz o o tio lo g y w ill n o w be p resented m o stly in annotated graph ics. B ut first w e m ust rem em ber, not o n ly the 'pie chart of human wisdom' ( ib id .), but a lso the w isd o m o n e co u ld acquire from natural input/output re la tion sh ip s m ediated in the black box (the u sual cu stod ian o f m o st re liab le in form ation in and about a system ). To illustrate th is, w e here present the N atural B IO S m ean in g 'Natural Basic Input and Output System'6 ', and w h ich is u n iversa lly ap p licab le to the con struct and stu d y o f m o st sy stem s in nature. 89 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.2: The Natural BIOS :(Basic Input/Output System) in Principle The lessons of the black box in a system: E N V I R O N M E N T ENVIRONMENT wfonaA-ioisei resource mpU (tTUfrmn heat .noi se 5 smoke ▼ \ ^ o r material) (unwanted output) ENVIRONMENT THE BLACKBOX where balanced, RESOURCE, timely and essential processes PRODUCT INPUT arid interactions are taking place; a science and art information boa OUTPUT * /V ra n g ln o ise ENVIRONMENT1 resource input (human or material) OUST •I.' noise/smoke ENVIRONMENT (utivvsnted oi.itput) E N V I R O N M E N T For the wise and diligent, there are lots of usefiil lessons to be learned from the nature of this illustration. Such lessons have earlier been listed in the original documen61 ['He knows enough, who knows howto learnl' (S.i.t.m. 1955)] Geography o f the Country Without a thorough knowledge and comprehensive coverage of the various aspects of the geography of the area, ecological epizootiology may be difficult to appreciate. Therefore, we present maps of the country showing the physical, topographical, vegetation and other aspects of the country of our immediate concern. The grid references should be noted. The grid lines of latitudes and longitudes should be noted, as they are important in the exact location of specific places on the ground. In this context, one should learn to overlap the vegetation, physical and other maps with the political map in order to make sense of the relationship in human geography and political administration. 90 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. E and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.3: Political map of Nigeria showing the various states and their capitals [Ref. Eunice J. Gill, 1979693] From three regions at independence in 1960, Nigeria has become divided into four regions, and later into 12,19,21 and now 36 states, as shown in this latest political map of the country. Figure 4.4: Natural vegetation of Nigeria: Forest and grassland vegetation From the points of view of the ecosystem and natural re so u rc e s for livestock production, all a sp e c ts of the natural vegetation of the country are important. Both the forest vegetation and the g ra s s la n d vegetation are relevant. Details are discussed in the t e x t o f this book. 91 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.5: Rivers of Nigeria M any o f the rivers in the country are tributaries o f the tw o m ajor ones, w hich are R ivers N iger and Benue. Their ecological significance are discussed in the text o f this chapter Figure 4.6: Physical Regions of Nigeria Physical regions d ivided into: - (a) L and areas that are m ore than 1,000m above sea level: (b) Land areas that are betw een 300 and 1000m above sea level: and (c) L and areas that are below 300m above sea level. The highest altitude in N igeria is on the Jos plateau; it is the peak o f Shere H ill, w hich is 1,781m (5,843 feet) above sea level and is no t far from Kuru. The im portance o f altitude in types o f conditions suffered by anim als should alw ays be considered. 92 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.7: Showing annual rainfall distribution in Nigeria Rainfall in the country varies from 400 to over 4,000m m per annum Figure 4.8: Mean annual temperature range between 21°C and 30°C Tem perature is a m ajor determ inant factor in describing the seasons in N igeria 93 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.9: The physical map of Nigeria showing plateaus and mountain areas which are largely free from tsetse flies The distribution of tsetse flies and trypanosomosis are important problems (causing nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in man) in Nigeria. Outside the plateau and mountain areas, the vectors and the diseases are widespread in most other parts of the country, representing intractable social and economic problems. 9 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In troductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugcsa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.10: Epizootiological/Disease Reporting Map of Nigeria: tscjss* vSjHO.tiKj Provision of alphabetical and numerical landmarks for establishing grid references for various places is a significant feature of the map. It is useful in the description of places and locations of problems in epizootiology, now enhanced by the uses of GIS and GPS technology (ibid). Figure 4.11: Nigeria’s trade cattle trek routes, along which control posts and quarantine stations are established Plant and fly surveys along the trek routes often enable the epizootiologist to visualize the types of toxic plants and fly challenges to which the trade cattle are being exposed along the routes. (Source: Epidemiology Unit, Federal Livestock Department (FED), 1978) 9 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.12 and 4.13: P hotographs taken along O kene-A buja road, N igeria: E xam ples o f shrubland and anthropurgic ecosystem s Shrubland ecosystem Anthropurgic ecosystem (Roadside mechanic area) V ario u s v ie w s o n a ro a d ru n n in g fro m so u th w e s t to n o r th e rn N ig e ria : S h o w in g v a r ia tio n s in th e e co sy stem * th a t a re is su e s in th e E p iz o o tio lo g y o f a n im a l g ro u p p ro b le m s in th e co u n try . [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1998)' Figure 4.14: A w atering poin t en route Southw est to N orthern N igeria A liver fluke area observed and photographed by Esuruoso, G.O., 1998 4.3 (d) Other methods o f classification'. Another way of classifying ecosystems is according to their evolution and development. Hence we have such groups as Autochthonous ecosystems, Anthropurgic ecosystems, Synanthropic ecosystems, etc. 4.3 (e) Anthropurgic ecosystems An Anthropurgic Ecosystem on the other hand, is a man-made system. Cultivated farmlands, village environment, township areas and roadside extensions are some good examples of ecosystems created by man or influenced by various human activities that tend to modify the natural 96 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijugbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. t)., 2005 composition of the native land (See Figure 4.13, a roadside mechanic area, and Figures 4.15, 4.16, Piggery Section ofU .I. Teaching and Research Farm). 4.3 (f) Autochthonous Ecosystem Autochthonous means native or indigenous. Hence an Autochthonous ecosystem is the indigenous system as found in nature, haven evolved in the natural processes of chance, selection, survival of the fittest, fitting into the nutrient and energy chains, etc, until the conditions and contents have become stable in type and in proportions of the various species and classes of flora and fauna in a dynamic equilibrium type o f stability \ The preys and predators in the system have continued to exist in such numbers as each would continue to survive and be there to fill its niche. The vegetational types have evolved in such a way that it would continue to support the herbivores in the system, as otherwise the herbivores would migrate out of the area or suffer extinction, forcing the carnivores also to find their way elsewhere. Such an autochthonous ecosystem is edaphic-based and climate- inspired. For example, the influences of the soil type and those of the seasonal weather (climatic and meteorological) conditions are essential factors that determine the evolution of the tropical rain forest, which is a good example of an Autochthonous Ecosystem. (See Figures 4.12, 4.14, 4.21). Any disturbance o f the balance in the biotic community (q.v. below) would also change the type of ecosystem naturally. And when the disturbance of such a native ecosystem is caused by human activities, the result would be an anthropurgic ecosystem. 4.3 (g) Synanthropic ecosystems ASynanthropicEcosystem is the third in this classification. The factors responsible for the evolution of such a system include both the edaphic and the human elements. The characteristics of the' soil type are one thing. The result of deliberate human activities is another. Sewage farms, polluted streams; rivers, ponds, lakes and irrigated agricultural lands and even rubbish heaps as in abattoir premises are examples of synanthropic systems. (See Figures 4.64 and 4.65). 9 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.15 and 4.16: E xam ple o f Anthropurgic ecosystems Part of University of Ibadan Piggery Section of the Teaching and Research Farm often used for detailed ecological content study and teaching as part of Ecological Epizootiology to students of Veterinary Medicine, U.I. from 1976-1991, and for postgraduate (M.Sc. Epizootiology, M.P.V.M. & M.V.P.H.) students from 1978-1998.The lush giant star grass (Cyanodon species) were planted and nurtured specially for the stock. The pawpaw trees are encouraged as they provide nourishment for both man and pig. [Photographs taken in 2004 by Olugasa, B.O.] 98 UNI ERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4 .17 and 4.18: M ore exam ples o f derived guinea savannah ecosystem along a m ajor south /north road route in N igeria Figures 4.17 Observe the early dry season vegetation, especially the drying elephant grass. Figures 4.18 Observe the early wet season vegetation, especially the sprouting weeds. [>Observations and photographs by Esuruoso, G.O., 1998] 99 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figures 4.19 & 4.20: More views off the trunk road running from Southwest to Northern Nigeria Figure 4.19: Dry season vegetation in the G uinea Savannah belt in N igeria Observe the unmade road/foot path that serves as part of the trade cattle route earlier shown in Figure 4.11 (ibid). [Observations and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1998] Figure 4.20: D ry season vegetation in the G uinea Savannah belt in N igeria: Observe a cattle herd grazing in the background; this is a common sight during the dry season in the country. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, GO., 1998] 100 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.21: P icture o f a R ainforest area o f South W est N igeria Taken off a road between Sagamu and Abeokuta. Observe luxurious Oil palm and Banana trees, which are characteristic features of the ecosystem of the rain forest [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O, 1998.] NOTES ON NIGERIA FLORA AND FAUNA (in the v a r io u s G e o g r a p h ic an d E c o s y s te m T y p e s ) Flora and fauna m e a n p la n ts an d a n im a ls o f a re g io n , e p o ch o r e n v iro n m e n t. T h e f lo ra an d fa u n a are th e m o st p ro m in e n t g ro u p s o f o rg a n ism s in an e c o s y s te m ; k n o w le d g e o f th e ir b io lo g y , i. e. fo rm s, fu n c tio n s , h ab ita t, l i fe c y c le s an d the d y n a m ic s o f th e b io -e c o n o m ic s o f th e ir s u r v iv a l an d p ro s p e r ity are a lw a y s e sse n tia l co n s id e ra tio n s in an e p iz o o t io lo g ic a l stu d y. S o m e o f th e p ro m in e n t m e m b e rs o f N ig e r ia 's f lo ra an d fa u n a w i l l b e m e n tio n e d h ere ; th e ir s y s te m a tic s w i l l b e re s e rv e d fo r o u r stu d y in A d v a n c e d / S y s te m a tic E p iz o o tio lo g y . T h e f lo ra ca n b e d iv id e d in to trees, sh ru b s, h erb s , g ra ss e s , o th er g re e n a n d f lo w e r in g p la n ts as w e ll as the n o n -f lo w e r in g an d c h lo ro p h y ll- fr e e m o s tly fu n g i species. A stu d y o f th e n atu re o f th e fo re sts o f the w o r ld w i l l s h o w th at th e v a r io u s fo re st ty p e s h a v e p e c u lia r d istr ib u tio n s o f th e species in the v a r io u s e c o s y s te m s . H e re w e sh a ll o n ly m e n tio n so m e o f the p ro m in e n t species in N ig e r ia , p ro v id in g m a te ria ls fo r h e u ris tic le a rn in g b y d ilig e n t stu d en ts a c c o r d in g to th e ir to p ic a l n e e d s an d in terests, an d fo r d e ta ile d treatm en ts in S y s te m a tic E p iz o o tio lo g y . 101 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Now, there will always be a number of reasons why an epizootiologist should be familiar with the species and families of plants in a study area. These reasons will among others include the fact that, it is among the plants that one would find: - 1. Preferred resting places for disease vectors and reservoirs, e.g. the trunks of the Tamarind and Acacia trees and others in the Sudan savannah region of West Africa, are known to provide preferred resting places for high infection rate tsetse flies such as Glossina morsitans snb- morsitans 6 .9 4 : 2. High moisture areas, about river beds being the most suitable habitation for riverine tsetse flies and other haematophagous flies, such as tabanids, stomoxys and culicoides: 3. Dry season browsing materials for cattle such as toxic flowering plants like Erythrophleum afncamim , Harms (Hausa: Semberu / Samberu) found in Kaiama cattle r a n c h a n d Tururubi (Hausa), which is common along trade cattle routes beyond River Niger bridge on the north-south treck: 4. Some survival browse plants such as Daniella oliveria (Hausa, Maje) f J for feeding cattle during dry season. 5. Some medicinal herbs and common vegetables for the various species of herbivores and omnivores, including man: 6. Medicinal trees, including Garcinia kola (Bitter kola, Orogbo; Yoruba) and Azadirachta indica (Neem tree) and others. 7. In addition, almost in every epizootiological study, the investigator would seek to know the relevant plants of the ecosystem in the area. For example, in the ecological epizootiology of bovine haemoprotozooan and helminth infections in parts of Nigeria, it was found useful to include tables of flora and fauna e.g. wildlife in parts ofBauchi, Kadunaand Kano, and Plateau states, common weeds in Plateau and Kaduna states and common trees in Plateau and Kaduna states of Nigeria6 96 (see Appendix IX) 1 0 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esttruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 111 v ie w o f th ese re a so n s w h y an e p iz o o t io lo g is t sh o u ld b e fa m ilia r w ith the species an d fa m ilie s o f p la n ts in a stu d y area , so m e o f the p ro m in en t and p rep o n d era n t tre e s o f the sa va n n a h lands o f N ig e r ia are lis te d b e lo w : Baobab697 is an African tree (Adansonia digitata) with enormously thick trunk and large fruit with edible pulp Tamarind: is a tropical tree, the Indian tamarind (Tamarindus indica)697 (Hausa, Tsamiya) with fruit, whose acid pulp is used in making eooling or medicinal drinks and other uses. Its seeds have a particularly hot, sour taste that evokes a peppery and burning sensation when ingested. Locust tree: This is the locust bean (Carob) tree (False Acacia tree)6 97 Kow'hai. Carob is a horn- shaped edible pod ofthe Mediterranean evergreen tree Ceratoniasiliqua. Acacia is a tree or shrub, of genus Acacia some members of which yield gum Arabic False acacia is the locust tree Robiniapseudo acacia (often grown for ornament) Doum palm tree (Egyptian palm-tree) is (Hyphaene thebaica) with edible fruit. Toxic plant found in Kaiama cattle ranch6 65 6 77 was Erythrophleum africanum, Harms (Hausa: Semberu / Samberu) Wildlife species in Borgu Game Reserve6 65: Fauna example of an ecosystem content mentioned for cognition Elephant Bushbuck Oribi Rodents variety* Buffalo Waterbuck Hippopotamus Birds variety** Hartebeest Red-flanked Duicker warthog Hyenas Details will be presented in the next volume titled Systematic Epizootiology *Booth, A. //., 197fw **Elgood, J. H„ 19 766'" Among the Primates found in Nigeria are Gorillas, Chimpanzees and Monkeys69* Small mammals such as the Pouched Rat (Giant Rat) Cricetomys gambiamis (Okete/Ewu) found to be reservoir of Haemonchus contortus and H. place for cattle, sheep and goats (Esuruoso, GO., personal observation). Prominent among the reptiles found in Nigeria are the following Gabon viper Puff Adder Alligator Python Green snakes Crocodile Cobra Agama lizard Terrestrial domestic vertebrate species found in Nigeria include Horses, Donkeys, Camels, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Rabbits, and Domestic Fowls consisting of the various nondescript indigenous breeds under range management and imported ones from chosen parent stocks being managed under intensive production systems. Birds like owls, other captive, wild and semi-domesticated birds including Guinea Fowls, Quail 103 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 and oth ers are a ll p arts o f the e c o lo g y o f the v a r io u s r e g io n s o f o u r co u n try and the o th er parts o f W est A fr ic a .. . T h e s e co n ten ts o f the e n v iro n m e n t are m e n tio n e d fo r e p iz o o t io lo g ic a l c o g n itio n h ere o n ly , w h ile th e ir d e ta ils w ill be p resen ted in the n e x t v o lu m e title d Systematic Epizootiology. 4.3 (h) Biotic Community It sh o u ld b e o b v io u s that the e v o lu tio n a n d 'co n stitu tio n o f an e c o s y s te m are im p o rtan t d eterm in an ts o f th e biotic community (Biocenosis) in the sy ste m . A m a jo r b io t ic c o m m u n ity is c a lle d a biome6M 6n E x a m p le s o f b io m e s r e c o g n iz a b le in the N ig e r ia n s c e n e are tropical rainforest and Forest swamps, G u in e a and S u d a n Savannah grasslands, th e arid/semi- desert area to the n o rth -east o f the co u n try , as w e ll as th e Mountain vegetation in the n orth east and south east p arts o f the c o u n try n e x t to N ig e r ia 's b o rd e rs w ith the C a m e ro o n s . S o m e o f the m o st p ro m in en t N ig e r ia 's F a u n a o f E p iz o o tio lo g ic a l im p o r ta n c e Table 4.2: SOME WILDLIFE SPECIES IN BORGU GAME RESERVE, NIGER STATE665 English Yoruba Hausa Zoological name Remarks Elephant* Erin Giwa Loxodonta Buffalo* Efon Bauna Africana Hartebeest* Ira Kunugba Kanki Syncerus caffer Bushbuck* Igala Mazo/Ganja Alcelaphus Reedbuck * Etu obeje Kwanta-rafi buselaphus Waterbuck * Otolo Gwambaza Tragelaphus Red-flanked Makuma scriptus *Duicker Esuro Batsiya Redunca spp. Oribi* Asiaro/Ogoro Kobus spp. Dorina Cephalophus Hippopotamus* Elede egan rufilatus Mugun Dawa Ourebia ourebia Warthog* Imado Hippopotamus Wild pig Gamsheka amphibiousPhacochoerus Africa's only Python** Ojola spp. large python Cobra** Agbadu Spitting cobra Gabon viper** Paramole Python sebae Described as Naja nigricollis Puff Adder** Oka not easily Bids gabonica provoked Green snakes** Bids arietans Some are Dendroaspis viridis described as egg-eater *Ref. Brown, L„ 1965 '"'a **Ref. Cansdale, G S. 19816"" 104 UNIVERSITY OF IBAD N LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Nigeria's Fauna of epizootiological importance TABLE 4.3: SOME WILDLIFE SPECIES IN YANKARI GAME RESERVE, BAUCHI STATE NIGERIA English Yoruba Hausa Zoological name Remarks African Loxodonta Elephant Erin Gina Africana Baboon Obo Bika Papio anubis Gorilla Gorilla gorilla Chiriipanzee Inaki Pan troglodytes Giraffe Agunfon Lion Kiniun Pantera leo Hippopotamus Elede egan Hippopotamus amphibius Duiker Etu Cephalophus rufilatus Monkeys* Obo Cercopithecus aethiops ♦Ref. Booth, A. H„ 19776’8 Table 4.4: N igeria's F lora o f E pizootiological relevance: A List o f Som e Poisonous Plants in N igeria English Yoruba Hausa Botanical/Family Remarks Tururibi Lasiosiphon /Dandana*** kraussiamts * Erythrophleum Samberu* Africana* Erythrophleum Erun* Gwaska* guineense* Dichapetalum barter i* Crotalatia retusa Crotalaria Chika saura* intermedia* Ayanamoigbo' Gloriosa species eg superba* Ege\ Paki', Manihot Cassava* Gbaguda Esculent a* Adapopo1 Omoso*. Otuke* Clematis hirsuta* Eti', Odundun’ Kalanchoelanceolate* Morea zambesica* Nerium oleander* 105 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 English Yoruba Hausa Botanical/Family Remarks Isu Omode* (Orin Ekiti), Paullinia pinnate* Kakansela' (Oyo) Esinsin uroro’ Urginea (Ise Ekiti) Nigritania* Cassia Cassia siamea Sapele Entandrophragma Mahoaanv cvlindricum** *Nwude, 1981<,,J**Gledhill, 198l“" ***Nwude,N. and Ibrahim, M. A., 1980'’11 ’Gbile,Z.O., 19846.104 N.B. This brief list is given for cognition, as the systematics will be presented in another volume, to the extent to which they are of relevance to the title 'Systematic Epizootiology'. Epizootiological relevance and importance of savannah grasslands (and the various species of grasses (Family Gram inea e ‘ ) T h e g ra ss la n d s p ro v id e n atu ral h o m e fo r the m o st im p o rta n t s p e c ie s o f both d o m e s tic an d w ild h e rb iv o re s , th e ir d ise a s e s an d o th er p ro b lem s. T h e y are p art o f the e c o s y s te m and th e re fo re a d e q u a te k n o w le d g e o f their fo rm s, fu n c tio n s , life c y c le s and d istrib u tio n o v e r sp a c e and tim e is im p ortan t in a ll c o n s id e ra tio n s o f e c o lo g ic a l e p iz o o t io lo g y . Nigeria's tropical grassland (the savannah) N ig e r ia 's tro p ic a l g ra ss la n d (the sa v a n n a h ) can be d iv id e d into th ree zo n e s , n a m e ly (i) D e r iv e d G u in e a S a v a n n a h , (ii) G u in e a S a v a n n a h and (iii) S u d an S a v a n n a h . T h e s e th ree z o n e s are fu rth er d iv id e d fo r an im al h u sb a n d ry p o ten tia l p u rp o se s into fo u r b e lts 1" ",l’ as s h o w n in the fo l lo w in g tab le. 106 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 Table 4.5: Some prominent grasses* of the various grass belts and grazing areas in Nigeria (Grasses and Legumes for Pastures and Fodder) Pennisetum Hyparrhenia Andropogon Cenchrus belt Belt type Type Pennisetum Hyparrhenia Andropogon Cenchrus belt which covers parts of purpureum, Rufa. gayanus, the upper Sudan savannah and is P. subangustusm H. Subplumosa, A. schinensis, characterized by the annual species Pantcum H. Chrysargyrea, A. pseudopricus, of Cenchrus such as C. biflorus, maximum. H. Cayanescens, A. tectorum, C. prieurii along with C. Ciliaris, Andropogon H. dissoluta, Chloris gayana, Eragrostis tremula, tectorum, Ctenium elegans, Aristida longiflora, Ilyparrhenia A. stipoides, Cymbopogon proximus, rufa. Sporobolus spicatus and H. subplumosa, Andropogon Rottbellici gayanus. Exa/ta, Imperata cylindrica and others Ref. Philip.'!. T. A.. 1 9 7 f m Also of relevance and importance are varieties of grasses (Family Gramineae) which include Banana trees, which are examples of tropical and subtropical fruit-trees (Musa sapientium), the finger-shaped pulpy fruits of which are eaten when ripe (usually yellow). Related to these are 'Plantain trees' which are Banana tree-looking piants, bearing fruits similar to banana and it is equally a tropical herbaceous species, but are usually much bigger than bananas, and are eaten either fresh but preferably fried (as Dodo, Yoruba) or cooked for geriatric reasons. Grass means plant or herbage (of family Gramineae which include cereal plants, reeds and bamboos) the blade/leaves and stalks of most of which are eaten by grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, camels, horses and giraffe etc. Grassland can be grazing land or pasture land if being so used. Bamboos are like tropical giant grasses (of genus Bambusa ", family Gramineae) with peculiar hollow stems used as sticks and building materials of sorts, while the leaves (especially the shoots) are used as food. Bamboos are prominent components of the tropical rainforests as well as 107 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 of the Guinea savannah land of Nigeria. They are prominent components of the flora of the various ecosystems in those regions. Biotope There are always much smaller areas of characteristic ecosystem. A biotope is the smallest area with relatively uniform conditions for supporting life. Each of the biotic components of an ecosystem usually has a role to play and a fate to share in the affairs of the system; each component has a 'niche'. And a niche is defined as the functional position of a living unit (a discrete system) in an ecological community. Every member of the community always has something to contribute apart from its mass. 'Every member matters, in addition to having mass and occupying space"'". The usual natural role is often concerned with their involvement in the recirculation of matter, nutrients in the food and energy chain characteristic of the community in each ecosystem type. “Matter and energy are neither destroyed nor created; they are in fact being transformed, recirculated, recycled, even if often dissipated in parts. The health of the environment is naturally maintained through healthy recirculation, as opposed to unhealthy dumping leading to pollution; and that should be seen as a fundamental knowledge and lesson for all who are wisely interested in environmental health studies and promotion. 4.3 (i) History o f ecological epizootiology6 (i) Introduction Adherents of various scientific disciplines and professions built up the body of knowledge on this approach. The development and its' eventual acceptance as a worthy cause can be traced back to the detailed work of individuals and their foresight in the careful documentation of their methods and experiences. Such people are far too many to be properly acknowledged in this type of presentation, without the risk of unnecessary distraction through an unduly long digression, which in turn may be counter-productive. Nevertheless, it will be useful to mention at least a few of them across the disciplines and the continents. 108 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esiiruoso. GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (ii) Pioneers Among the many pioneers and adherents were Frederick Kilborne669 who reported on the complex role of the arthropod vectors that transmitted malaria, Texas fever and Yellow fever. The complex nature of each successful transmission was only made meaningful when studied from the ecological viewpoint. Others6’9 have mentioned Karl F. Meyer, a Veterinarian in the USA, Robert Daubney in East Africa, Eugene Pavlovsky (a Zoologist) in the USSR, Howard Ricketts, a Physician in the USA, Charles Elton, an Ecologist in England, David Bruce in Malta and Africa, Theobald Smith6108 in the USA, Whittaker,668 an Ecologist also in the USA, and many others from a variety of scientific disciplines and professions across the world. Ecological Epizootiology is thus the most patently multidisciplinary approach to the natural study of problems in groups, populations and communities of living organisms as diffuse systems1'' '. The potentials for quantitative approaches, and therefore for the biostatistical aspects are extensive. To some of the pioneers, Ecological Epizootiology> is synonymous with Geographical Epizootiology and Landscape Epizootiology" ' . As a result of this reality, we shall here make a graphic presentation of the geography of a country (Nigeria) with which the authors are most familiar. The idea is to highlight those aspects of the country's geography that illustrate the various scenes that show the variety of flora and fauna complexes in which the various group problems of animals are likely to be encountered. Readers should recall that we have always categorized animal group problems as being related to their breed, breeding and genetics, feed, feeding and nutrition, as well as housing, mode of management practices and environmental situations. In other words, we consider the groups, the place or environment and time factors. In this context, we shall now consider and illustrate housing, management and environment issues in epizootiology. 1 0 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.22: Tropical C attle shed at U .l. T eaching and R esearch Farm This is model tropical cattle shed with good and effective air current and adequate space in the teaching and research farm of the University of Ibadan (U.l.). The farm is jointly used by the Faculties of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine. It also serves as a demonstration farm for farmers around Ibadan. The house is within the fenced premises of the farm. [ Observation andp hotograph by Esitruoso, GO., 1984']. Figure 4.23: E ntrance to the fenced prem ises o f a D airy Flerd farm in O ria/Irua, M id-W estern State o f N igeria , 1978 The fencing is effective in separating these imported dairy animals from contact with local flock. That also is an epizootiological issue. [Observation and photograph by Esitruoso, G.O., 1974 on Study of Brucellosis in the Daily Herd] UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.24: M okw a C attle Ranch in Northern N igeria, during a study visit, 1974 ■ ■: . , ■ j .. \ !.. * • ';* ?- '" * \ - f . “ - - l- . , . ■ / '.**■ ‘ V\4sV, . . . . w \ i 4 T ■ t ' * . f . S ‘ - 1 -. In spite of its expanse, even the Mokwa cattle ranch was effectively fenced in. The picture shows a newly acquired herd being moved for observation, inspection and epizootiological sampling for Bovine Brucellosis and Trypanosomosis. [Observation and photograph by Esunioso, GO., 1974\ Figure 4.25: N’Dama cattle at Western Livestock Company Farm, Fashola :-s 1 I UR • ‘ v . Ji , ■/ > V } V ; ** ^ ** 7 ■' , .. . C * > '• . * •*! % V ! * V - ' ’ V ? ' i t ' / * * m ■ A V ■' ” » vr In a tsetse fly environment, the N'Dama breed of cattle is usually considered the safest choice for beef production in southern Nigeria. And this is an epizootiological issue. [Observation and photograph by Esunioso, G.O., 198i\ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.26 and 4.27: N'Dama cattle, grazing in an oil palm plantation of the Nigeria Institute for Oil Palm Research (N1FOR), near Benin City (at long and close range) (i) Here the cattle are at constant risk of challenge by tsetse flies (Glossina species), especially the bush flies that are cyclical vectors of pathogenic trypanosomes, such as Trypanosoma vivax, T. congoleme and T. brucei: (ii) They are also exposed to Tabanids, Stomoxys, and other haematophagous flies, which are mechanical transmitters of the trypanosomes: (iii) The N'Dama breed of cattle survives in areas like this because oftheir natural resistance to the effects of trypanosomal infection. This does not however mean that they do not ever succumb to the infection. Many outbreaks of the disease were recorded in several N'Dama herds, and the mechanism of their superior resistance to the effects were described in both natural and experimental exposures of the N'Dama cattle to tsetse fly challenges in different parts of Nigeria (Esuruoso, G. 0 . 1984'’"". (iii) Therefore, the keeping of this species of Bos indicus in the oil palm plantation has epizootiological implications. It is a matter oftheir immunobiology6"" [Observations and photographs are by Esuruoso, G. O.] 1 1 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugctsa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.28 and 4.29: A healthy Zebu herd at a Livestock Breeding Centre in Northern Nigeria and a clinically ill Zebu herd in Western Nigeria during a dry season W ell-n o u rish e d a n d g iv e n p ro p h y la c tic tre a tm e n ts ro u tin e ly O u tb re a k o f t ry p a n o s o m o s is in Z e b u c a tt le , in W este rn N ig e r ia Ig b e ti A re a : D e riv ed sa v a n n a h z o n e a t th e p e a k o f d ry se a so n a f te r b u sh fire [O b se rv a tio n an d p h o to g ra p h b y E su m o so , G O ., 1984] UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.30 and 4.31: Tropical pig house at the Nigeria Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), Near Benin City. Pig house in the bush Pig house in a cleared area of the farm in the Black fly infested oil palm plantation area of NIFOR, Benin, Mid-Western Nigeria. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1984] Figures 4.32 and 4.33: Pig breeding at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm facility A breeding boar and a sow, and a nursing sow at the U. I. farm. Each group has its peculiar epizootiological problems Figures 4.34 and 4.35: Poultry Breeding at Western Nigerian Government Investigation and Poultry improvement Farm at Fashola, near Oyo town and Egg production house at the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Ibadan W hite Leghorn H ens w ith Rhode Island R ed C ocks Products are being used in com m ercial egg w ere used fo r im provem ent in brow n egg production production at U.I. 114 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.36: Forest products and major fishing areas in Nigeria This map is of epizootiological relevance to group problems of each locality (i) The forest products include, lumba and wildlife peculiar to the ecosystem, (ii) The fishing areas provide opportunities for tropical wild fish hunting Figure 4.37 and 4.38: Two fish ponds in the rain forest area of western Nigeria These are two of four fish ponds established along the path of a stream behind the consultancy services unit of the University of Ibadan. They are used in aquatic ecological studies and aquaculture for both undergraduate and postgraduate students in the University. They are presented here to remind us that the epizootiology of fish problems of husbandry, health and economics ofproduction are patently linked to the health of the aquatic environment. 115 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.39: Areas of grain production in Nigeria Grains are some of the energy chain food items for which both man and animals compete in energy flow system in the region. Hence their distribution has ecological epizootiology implications. They are therefore amongst important issues in considering the dynamics of problems, sharing and competition between man and livestock. Both issues are of both ecological and epizootiological relevance and importance. With housing, management and environment issues illustrated we shall now consider and illustrate essential stages in epizootiological study of herd problems. In this context, while a clinician may be content with treating a sick animal on the basis of his clinical diagnosis, an epizootiologist must do the clinical diagnosis and then follow up with detailed examination of the entire herd from which the sick individual has come. It is by this that he highlights the spatial and temporal extent of the problem, the proportion of the exposed hosts that have fallen ill, and from these the relevant economic and social importance of the problem/s. This is usually a deliberate effort of an epizootiologist. Thus the attitude to carrying out this deliberate effort demands special skills and experience, especially when dealing with a variety of local possibilities such as nomadic Fulani herds’126 and their extensive management system, and with settled institutional or government owned cattle herds6 65 and their intensive and semi-intensive management 116 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 systems. In this context we now illustrate essential stages in epizootiological study of herd problems, appropriate vehicles for an epizootiological field trip and some usual scenes on a field trip for investigation of herd problems. Figure 4.40: Essential stages in Epizootiological Studies of Herd Problems: If M (b) Laboratory investigation, (c) Computer processing (d) Seminar presentation and Publication Reader should note the progress: - 'Sjfp 'ijjl (i) From field/abattoir data and specimen collection and recording, to laboratory investigation, to t computer processing (including analysis) and documentation, to seminar presentation & j P'-l Jt publication: (ii) Those are some of the important and essential stages in every epizootiological inquiry [Observation, Computer data processing, illustrations and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1992] Figures 4. 41 and 4.42: Appropriate Vehicles for Epizootiological Field Study and Training 117 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A land rover on Epizootiological field study. Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1978 Provision of appropriate vehicles is one of the basic conditions for Epizootiological field studies, research and training of veterinary students; for example, land rovers, range rovers, other four wheel drive jeeps and station wagons have been found useful for our department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, at the University of Ibadan ab initio. [Observation, policy initiative, strategy for implementation and photographs by Esuruoso, GO., 1978] C a m e l a s m ea n s o f t ra n s p o r ta tio n e n -ro u te S o k o to to D a b a g i F a rm . [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, GO., 1992] Figures 4.46 and 4.47: Some Veterinary Students of Usunianu Danfodiyo University Sokoto (UDUS) on an E p iz o o tio lo g ic a l s tu d y tr ip e n -ro u te S o k o to to D ab ag i F a rm w ith P ro fe sso r G .O . E su ru o so 1992 (i) Depicting the dry season vegetation and geography oftheareaas part of ecosystem studies in Ecological Epizootiology. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 (Ii) D abagi is the location o f the Teaching and Research Farm o f U D U S faculties o f A griculture and Veterinary Science, som e 40 Km N E o f Sokoto town (iii) M aking observation en-route a study area is part o f the usual plan in epizootiological studies. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, GO., 1992)] Figure 4.48: A grazing cattle herd crossing the road This is a common scene in most parts of Nigeria. They are part of the subsistence extensive system of cattle management and they contribute to road safety problems, [iObservation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1977] Figure 4.49: Typical Red Bororo (Rahaji) cattle herd of Northern Nigeria This is the West African breed of cattle that is the most susceptible to demodicosis, strepthothricosis, listeriosis and trypanosomiasis; its meat is often watery at slaughter. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1969 ff] 119 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.50: Part of the defunct Western Nigeria Government's Dairy Herd at Ivvo Road, Ibadan T h e se w e re n e v e r k e p t o n z e ro g ra z in g a s so m e a re in o th e r p a r ts o f th e c o u n try , p a r tly to c o n tro l s tre p to th r ic o s is . [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1970]. Figure 4.51: Emaciated Bunaji (Red Bororo) Cattle R ed B o ro ro c a tt le in s e v e re T ry p an o so n ro s is : th is is th e W est A fr ic a n b re e d o f c a tt le th a t is the m o s t su s c e p tib le to d e m o d ic o s is , s tre p to th r ic o s is an d try p a n o s o n ro s is6 [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, GO., 1974] Figure 4.52: Bovine Papillomatosis (Skin Warts)in a Zebu Herd near Kano, Nigeria r-sw 19 out o f the 26 cattle in this herd had prominent lesions of the disease during our visit. They nevertheless looked robust in spite of the outbreak [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1968] 120 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.53: Another case o f B ovine Papillom atosis (Skin warts) in Nigeria O b s e rv e th e p e c u lia r lo ca tio n o f th e le s io n s an d th e fa c t th a t th e a f fe c te d an im a l m a in ta in e d its b o d y w e ig h t /D ia g n o s e d a n d p h o to g ra p h e d b y E su ru o so , G .O . 1968] Figure 4.54: A Sporadic case of Norcadiosis in a cow on a Government Farm at Fashola, Near Oyo in Nigeria O b s e rv e th e le s io n s a lo n g th e n e c k an d in th e d e w la p [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1984] 121 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijcigbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.55: A scene at Government Farm, Fashola, Near Oyo durina an eDizootiolosical visit for the studv of brucellosis T h e re is u su a lly a c ru sh fo r h a n d lin g th e a n im a ls o n th e s e fa rm s . [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1966.} Figure 4.56: A scene during an epizootiological trip to a Fulani herd in Igbeti cattle area Blood sampling for Brucellosis test of Fulani Herd. Fulani herdsmen may not have cattle crush but they know how to restrain their animals effectively for blood sampling. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1968] Readers should also recall that we have always categorized animal group problems as being related to their breed, breeding and genetics, feed, feeding and nutrition, as well as housing, mode of management practices and environmental problems. In other words, we consider the groups, the place or environment and time factors. In this context, we shall now consider and illustrate trade cattle route, control posts, cattle markets and abattoir environments as epizootiological issues in N igeria. 1 2 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.57: Various scenes of trade cattle movement on Jebba Bridge Railway line and Road (i) The Jebba Bridge, once the only link by rail between northern and southern western Nigeria: (ii) Users include trains, motor vehicles, local people/pedestrians, trade cattle, their drovers and the tsetse flies that follow them: (iii) The pictures show the type of hold-up on the multi-purpose bridge that used to be a daily bottleneck for travellers by road from Southern to Northern Nigeria and vice versa en-route Jebba. This constant event has epizootiological (including socio-economic and vph) implications, which an epizootiologist semu stricto can readily visualize as combined problems of animal groups and human populations at risk. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1972.] Figure 4.58: Entrance to Bodija Control Post and Cattle M arket of the State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ibadan (i) The Bodija Control Post and Cattle / Stock Market provide facilities for the official inspection ot'trade cattle (and other stock, especially the small ruminants) meant for slaughter on arrival from the north: (ii) Suspected / clinically diseased animals are usually isolated and kept under observation in special enclosures provided for the purpose; those due for destruction are then picked up from there, while others are released into the market: (iii) In the stock market animals are sold for slaughter, either in the nearby abattoir or for further journeys to other parts of the same and adjacent states; such animals must again be inspected, found safe and fit to travel before being issued with an official travel permit: (iv) The control post is therefore an important epizootiological intelligence centre, where problems of cattle herds in the north may be visualized in Ibadan, which is in the south-west. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G. O., 1994] 123 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.59: Scenes at the Trade Cattle Control Post, Ibadan Trade cattle at the Municipal Abattoir Ibadan on arrival from the North, 1969. [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G. 01969.] Figure 4.60: Trade cattle at the control post and cattle market, Bodija Ibadan Observe the swelling due to reaction to infected injection ('KumburaHausa) of Trypanocidal drugs en-route the journey down South to their slaughter [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1984] 124 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olngasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.61, 4.62 and 4.63: Some related scenes at the Sokoto State Abattoir: Slaughtering of Camels (i) & (ii) d e p ic t in g so m e s ta g e s in th e S la u g h te r o f c a m e ls an d ( i ii) T u b e rc u lo u s le s io n s in a C a m e l 's lu n g s ; so m e o f th e s tu d e n ts w e re e n c o u ra g e d to c a r ry o u t an epizootiologlcal survey ( in c lu d in g th e la b o ra to ry a n d v p h a sp e c ts ) o f th e d ise a se is s la u g h te re d c a m e ls o v e r a c o n v e n ie n t p e r io d o f t im e . [Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O., 1992] Figures 4.64 and 4.65: Sokoto Abattoir premises: Examples of synanthropic ecosystem (i) T h e fre e o p e n a re a c o n s is t in g o f fe n ce d -in b a re lan d a n d p a r t o f th e d ra in a g e sy s te m : (ii) T h e h e a p s o f o rg a n ic w a s te p ro d u c ts , c o n s is tin g o f h o rn s , h o o fs , t r im m in g s a n d b o n e - b e in g in c in e ra te d fo r c o m m e rc ia l p u rp o se s b u t s till a ttra c tiv e to ro d e n ts w h ile s till th e re : B o th s itu a tio n s d e p ic te d h a v e e p iz o o tio lo g ic a l ( in c lu d in g socio-economic a n d vph) im p lic a tio n s . [Observation and photographs by Esuruoso, GO .1992] 12 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Epizootiological data from stock movement, the events in which they are involved en-route, their sale, further movement, eventual slaughter, and disposal of their products and wastes should provide surveillance information on their diseases and other problems over time and across the country. Again as we have always said, animal group problems are usually related to their breed, breeding and genetics, feed, feeding and nutrition, as well as housing, mode of management practices and their environment. In other words, we consider the groups, the place or environment and time factors. In this context, we shall now consider and illustrate the choosing of a suitable location for a field station for studying livestock health and productivity as part of infrastructure for teaching and research for a faculty of veterinary medicine in Nigeria. Figures 4.66 and 4.67: Dry season vegetation and geography of the site chosen for a Teaching and Research Outstation at Eruwa for the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan Field outstation, chosen for U.l. by Esuruoso, G. O. Identifying a flowering plant's family and Ayanwale, F. O. on an initial surveillance tour in 1978. at Eruwa Field station, considering This was after others such as Professor Sellers and his epizootiological implications: public relations team had convinced the Eleruwa [Observation and photograph by to give some land to our Faculty o ('Veterinary Esuruoso, G. O. 1978] Medicine, and he (The Eleruwa) had permitted the Faculty to choose an area suitable for use as our teaching and research out-station. Observation and photograph by Esuruoso, G.O.. 1978 126 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 We have always recommended that students of epizootiology should carefully study all aspects of the subject and thereby have a comprehensive database on the flora, fauna (vectors, hosts and agents) edaphic and climatological systems of the place. This will enable clear indirections of potential problems including diseases, productivity levels intoxication by plants and exposure to poisonous snakes, and thus control and prevent them before much damage is done. (Hi) Present situation Having presented something of the past situation and the pioneers (section 4.3 (i) and (ii) above), we shall now briefly indicate the present situation. An Internet search in 2001 produced over 2000 articles from a single station on Epizootiology alone; another search in November, 2004 produced 17, 300 scientific articles from one web search. And yet another search in 2005 produced 21,500 articles on Epizootiology (see Appendix II to this book). Going through some of those articles it was clear that ecological epizootiology has continued to advance in many fields of scientific endeavour. No wonder, it is the most productive of all the stages discussed in this book. It gives the opportunity for visualizing problems in natural settings. And when the settings change, the effects are usually obvious to common epizootiological sense. Moreover, the multi­ disciplinary nature continues to be taken advantage of, whereby surveillance in various disciplines have continued to make use of the key areas of the subject, namely the biomedical, statistical, socio-economic and geographical aspects. Global Positioning System (G PS)n4y’611,9 and Geographic Information System (GIS) 6 are two issues that fit into the concept of Geographical / Ecological Epizootiology. Thus, Geographic Information System (GIS) '’ w ! : is now being actively employed in visualizing and aiding the tracking and early diagnosis of herd, group, population and community problems (see section 5.6 of this book). Also global positioning system (GPS) is being used to monitor groups of animals and their migratory patterns, yielding useful knowledge of the system. It is, by the way, the same GPS that is being applied in modern cars for real-time effective navigation by automobile 127 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootio logy: Esitntoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and O In gas a, B. O., 2005 drivers who can afford such vehicles. Also, the GPS is being seriously applied to monitor seasonally migrating wolves. Special collars are tied round their necks and these send out signals, which are detectable and accessible by electronic receivers of the signals even on the GPS. It should be obvious that in this case, information and expertise from geography, computer technology, biological sciences and social studies are being used. This brief account should be enough to emphasize the importance of ecological Epizootiology and its composite disciplines in the study of animal group, human population and a variety of community problems. To us Geographical Epizootiology is synonymous with Eco-systematic Epizootiology ' Hence a good understanding of the relevant terms and issues in ecosystem studies should be addressed. (iv) NidciUty o f diseases An account of the ecosystem approach is naturally never complete without mentioning the nature of associated locations and the usual environmental factors. From such lines of thought the theory of nidality and foeality of disease and other problems was propounded and developed by scientists like Eugene Pavlovsky' " (1938, 1939 & 1959). The word nidality is derived from “nidus” meaning nest. The idea was that every disease has a favoured nest in the ecosystem, where all the factors and conditions necessary for its establishment and maintenance are fully met. The soil type, the plant and animal contents, the vector, host and agent, the climatic factors, and the appropriate numbers and relationships necessary to maintain the disease are always present. This is in effect the import of the nidality and foeality " of diseases and other problems of animal populations in ecological communities1’''8. (v) Breaking the weakest link That being the case, the removal of a critical factor or condition, and in fact the breaking of the weakest link in the natural history of a disease will usually afford the cheapest way of controlling the disease or at least its extent, maintenance or spread. In this way, several authors had in the past regarded African trypanosomosis as an entomological problem , indicating that if the insect vectors, especially the tsetse Hies responsible for the 128 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, 1. F. and Otugasa. B. O.. 2005 cyclical transmission were removed, the problems would be solved. But it was later found that trypanosomosis still occurred where there were no Glossina species. Other flies like Stomoxys and Tabanids have provided alternative vector links through mechanical transmission. Others had described trypanosomosis as a protozoological problem. They thought that if effective trypanocides were developed to eliminate the parasites in the blood of affected hosts, the problem would be solved. However, as far back as 1973, some researchers had questioned both of these ideas' 1. The full story of the natural history of this major problem will be related in the appropriate section of this book and during the lectures on the specific disease or groups of diseases caused by trypanosomes. The occurrence and distribution of animal population problems are best visualized in natural / ecological community settings, where the findings become most meaningful. (vi) Natural history approach Nevertheless, the theory of nidality and locality of diseases have been found most useful in many other cases where the natural history approaches have been adopted. For example, when animals are prevented from grazing in lead areas of the country, lead poisoning is reduced. When there is a natural barrier to the free movement of rabid animals, rabies have ceased to occur on the other side of the natural barrier. Whereas an alkaline environment as in silages has provided a suitable nidus for Listeria species of bacteria to proliferate, the result had been the occurrence or “outbreak” of listeriosis in the cattle herd feeding on the silage. Jungle yellow fever is a risk taken by hunters and foresters who frequent the jungle areas where there are sub-human primates in which the viral agent is maintained, while the appropriate mosquito vectors are also in abundance. In each of these and other similar cases the theory of nidality has fitted into the ecological approach to the study of the problems and their control in specified areas. (vii) Baseline in ecological approaches Even at the risk of saying the obvious, it must be of cardinal importance for students of Ecological Epizootiology to realize and keep in mind always, that: 12 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 (a) A particular disease or problem A particular disease or problem will not occur where the host, or the agent, or the vector (where appropriate) or a suitable environment, or any other critical condition does not exist. Bovine brucellosis cannot occur where there are no cattle. Rabies will not occur in man where there has been no natural or artificial means of inoculating the virus into man; etc. (b) A particular disease will disappear A particular disease will disappear from a geographical area: (i) If and when the conditions for maintaining the parasite/agent have ceased to exist; (ii) If the usual or other means of contact between the host and the agent have been effectively broken; (iii) If the life-cycle of the agents or vectors has been effectively interfered with; (iv) If all the potential hosts have disappeared; (v) If a solid herd immunity has been established, etc. These examples are far from being exhaustive; there are many others, which are matters of common sense, sometimes of biological, ecological or biomedical commonsense and understanding. The application of the knowledge gained in the study of Biology, Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry, Parasitology, Microbiology, Immunology / Immunobiology and even Botany and Toxicology must always be handy and applied in Ecological Epizootiology. Plant poisoning cannot occur unless the animals have access to toxic plants. And the detection of members of a family of toxic plants on the ranch is an indication o f the risk to animals grazing on the field. The usual approach is to ensure that field practical exercises on this subject are based in potential areas for each type of problem around the country where the college is located (see recommended practical exercises below), usually starting from the teaching and research farm including field stations of the college or university. 130 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 4.4 M athem atical Approach Mathematical approach to Epizootiology or Mathematical Epizoo­ tiology is synonymous with Statistical Epizootiology. It is one of the three essential components (the tripod) of epizootiology as earlier explained. 4.4 (a) Justification'. Epizootiology is, among other things, the comprehensive study of problems and the basis for their control and prevention in populations of animals. Obviously then it could never be enough just to study the qualitative nature or attributes of those populations and their problems. One must also instinctively seek to know, not only the sizes of the populations, but also the value, the volume or quantity, the extent and intensity of the various problems, as well as the amount of damage done, the degree of losses caused, the relative and total contributions of each determinant factor to the undesirable outcomes of the problem, and the value of real and potential benefits that may be derived from the control and prevention of the usual damages and losses appertaining should also be of interest to the epizootiologist. All these are quantitative measures, in their various units, that have to be taken, compared, computed, interpreted and translated into useful knowledge about each population of concern and about its specific and general problems. They then have to be recorded, summarized, reported, presented and disseminated as information basis for reasonable decisions and salutary actions in the relevant systems. Mathematical tools provide one of the essential means of doing all these. 4.4 (b) Objectives The objectives of mathematical epizootiology can be readily derived from its justification in the preceding paragraphs above. The justification can be seen as bordering on the profiles, and acting as the indicator of the need. But in order to give a complete picture of what the studies are expected to involve, what questions to answer, what outcome to produce, and what problems are to be solved, the following objectives will be listed - i.e. we carry out mathematical epizootiology in order: (i) To be able to determine the size and value (but not necessarily the importance) of the populations or groups in problem; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esitruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugusa, B. O., 2005 (ii) To understand how to measure in each case, the size of the problem and the (financial, economic and other social) values of the potential damage occasioned by the problem without intervention, with limited or on full- scale intervention and with early or late intervention; (iii) To be capable of calculating the physical, environmental and biological implications that are being, or can be associated with the problem as matters of facts and figures; (iv) To be trained to quantify the relative and real contributions of the various variable determinant factors of the problems (including diseases); (v) To learn how to measure the rates and ratios of the occurrence of the disease/problem over time (frequency) and over specific locations (spatial distribution) leading to figures of incidence* and prevalence* (of the problem); (vi) To know the methods for placing values on, and for measuring the worth of the problems/diseases in populations in terms of losses suffered, benefits foregone using various simple mathematical methods and specific statistical techniques; (vii) To learn how to calculate the correlation coefficient of the associations/relationships that lead to the problem; (viii) To be able to work out the probability of the outcome of the problem in hand and ofthe chances of future occurrences in view of established and potential relationships involving the hosts, the agents, and vectors of the diseases and their environment; (ix) To be able to determine mathematically/statistically the significance of results obtained by the various tests and techniques; (x) To be able to calculate and make sensible deductions on the specificity, sensitivity, validity and significance ofthe various quantitative techniques used in the definition ofthe problems/diseases; 132 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (xi) To be able to understand and interpret the values of the tests of significance generally; to know not only what they mean or prove but also what they do not prove or mean to prove (i.e.) their limitations; (xii) To be able to engage in the formulation and mathematical testing of hypothesis, design, sampling methods appropriate for each problem and present the statistical summary of the results in a form useful for valid decision making processes; and to be able to appreciate the value and uses of, and where possible carry out regression analysis and predictive mathematical modelling all in attempts to shed light on the nature of problems in animal populations and to come as close as possible to the truths of their causation and the magnitude of the damages done by them at every stage of the problem's evolution. This listing is not meant to be exhaustive, nor is it meant to be always invariably applicable in all cases and for all circumstances. Experience will prove when and where one or the other objective must be achieved as a means to the end of controlling the problem in hand or of preventing anticipated ones. What these guidelines are meant to achieve include the provision of tools of thought and the appropriate logic paths for the students to work on in real-time operations. It should always be remembered however, that knowledge of and experiences in epizootiology are the materials that could provide the soundest basis for preventive veterinary medicine, which is synonymous with preventive medicine in its widest sense63. This is only possible if the tools of thought are properly utilized. 4.4(c) Methods o f mathematical epizootiology In a nutshell the methods are those of descriptive and analytic statistics applicable to the science of epizootiology. Starting with the simple process of counting the numbers of animals that are sick, dying or dead, out of how many exposed or at risk, and then applying the basic arithmetic operations i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponential and factorial measures. 133 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O., 2005 Next one should obtain the skills for representative sampling, in order to obtain figures for the sample statistics which could be extrapolated to the population to obtain the parameters* on the basis of probability and of sound sampling technique. 4.4(d) Sampling methods Sampling is a process of picking a number of objects, from a particular group, population* or the universe* of such objects. The idea is to be able to make statistical inferences from the results obtained from the sample/s and extrapolate same to the population from which the sample was taken, and not to a different or larger population. It is to be noted that measures of sample statistics i.e. mean, median, mode, variance, standard deviation, standard error, error of means, etc are exactly the same as measures of population parameters. And if the sample is large enough and is adequately representative of the population, then the value of sample mean is very close or the same as that of the population mean (u). Whatever relationships may be claimed to exist between samples and populations can only be justified, explained and acceptable on the basis of probability. This is a key statement. Methods of sampling, on the other hand, may be random (i.e. representative and probabilistic i.e. stochastic), or non-random (i.e. Non­ representative and non-probabilistic/non-stochastic). Maybe in a textbook of this nature a graphic presentation of the sampling methods will be more readily appreciated, thus: - Sampling may be (i) Non-random (i.e. non-representative, non-stochastic) OR (ii) Random (i.e. representative,probabilistic/stochastic) Random Sampling may be (iii) Simple OR (iv) Stratified An example of simple random sampling is Epsem sampling which is “an equal probability of selection method” by which all the relevant population units have the same probability ofbeing selected from: *See glossary section o f this book for details. 134 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 There could also be other types of sampling, such as (v) “Grab" type or “sampling of convenience” (a non-probabilistic method i.e. the “man-in-the street” method e.g. every herd whose owner stops to water his beast at the brook and allows blood sampling from some of the beasts). (vi) Cluster* in which each unit selected is a group e.g. (a) N'Dama bulls on the Teaching and Research Farm (TRF) and (b) Bunaji heifers on the TRF. (vii) Systematic sampling, which involves selection on a simple rule. E.g. selecting odd-numbered calves/cows in a herd. OR Selecting calves bom during every third month of the year. Although such sampling obviously has its merits, it also has the danger of incorporating errors, which will invalidate generalizations from the results. Generalization from the outcome of Grab sampling is of course mostly unsound. But is still used when it is the only possibility of assessing the parameters needed. Other methods of sampling include: (viii) Purposive sampling the quality and value of the outcome will of course depend on the purpose or selected bias prepense. And in any case, the application of the result can only relate to the specified purpose generalization interdict (oder verboten). (German, meaning that 'it is forbidden to generalize'. And (ix) Multi-stage sampling involves selection processes in two or more stages, especially where definite/suitable frame could not be found ab initio. The first selection stage then provides materials for the frame of the second and/or subsequent selections. For example, in a survey of some diseases of cattle in Nigeria, the first stage may involve selection of some cattle states in which the survey may be realistically conducted. The knowledge gained about the structure and apparent distribution of herds in those states can then be used to construct a frame for subsequent stage sampling of choice all based on methods appropriate in each case. Care should be taken to ensure the validity of the methods chosen at each stage; the more clearly the bases are stated the better the chances of achieving sound interpretations of the results. 4.4 (e) Sampling Theory Notwithstanding all the above, a working knowledge of sampling theory will enhance the chances of adopting the most suitable method for each particular enquiry or survey. Now, sampling theory is the speculative view or supposition that should be considered, studied and, if suitable, used in the expression of relationships between samples and the populations 135 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 from which the samples are taken. Earlier in these notes, mention was made of the nature of and relationships between sample quantities (i.e. statistics) and population quantities (i.e. parameters). It can now be explained that parameters are quantities, which are constant in the case, considered but vary in different cases; and examples include population mean and standard deviation. Whereas sample statistics are the quantities, which include sample mean, sample variance and standard deviation as examples. It is the usual expected, foreseeable and observed relationships between these quantities that are the concern of sampling theory. 4.4 (J) Uses o f sampling theoty Sampling theory is useful (i) In estimating unknown population quantities (i.e. parameters such as mean, variance, etc) from the knowledge of corresponding sample quantities (i.e. statistics such as mean, variance, etc). Such estimations of course have the chances of being closest to the truth if the samples are representative, large enough and fairly free from the various sources of error in arriving at the sample quantities; (ii) In determining whether observed differences between two samples are due to chance variation or are real and significant differences. And it is usually a matter of probability; (iii) In making statistical inferences about a population based on the statistics of samples taken from the population, with some indications of the accuracy of such inferences based also on probability theory. In addition to all these the relevance of tests of hypothesis and tests of significance to the theory of decisions, all based on the theory of probability, may be briefly mentioned at this stage. Statistical decision theory deals with the philosophy of making decisions about populations based on information obtained from samples from the populations. To make such decisions one starts with some statistical hypotheses, which are assumptions or guesses about the population, which may eventually be proved right or wrong. Such an 136 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 assumption is called the null hypothesis (H0) e.g. to decide whether the contents of A is different from those of B we start by saying, there is no difference and any observed difference is due to method or time or nature of sampling. Alternative hypotheses to null hypothesis ideas are called assumptions and they form the basis for the formulation of relevant hypothesis. Hypothesis is supposition made as basis for reasoning without assumption of its truth; it is the usual starting point for scientific investigation. Groundless assumptions however, have no place is such efforts. Good assumptions are based on some existing facts. The next step wi 11 be to prosecute the experiment, collect data, which are then processed, finally analyzed and interpreted. The information thus obtained will be made available to decision makers and those who are charged with the duty of tackling and controlling the problems at hand. The most important message here is that before data are collected, their processing must have been envisaged, so that the data may be suitable, adequate and accurate enough for the purpose. An Epizootiologist is better off working with sound Biostatisticians and other disciplines from the very beginning of an investigation, before the data collection or sampling is commenced. These facts will be demonstrated during the practical exercises that will be associated with this section of the course. 4.4 (g) Statistical procedures The usual first stage in any statistical inquiry is to collect data that will be suitable for descriptive statistics of the sample, which may properly represent the group or population from which the sample has been collected. It should be noted here that the usual sources of descriptive statistics for a group of animals are the same as those that supply the data for descriptive epizootiology. In either case, the usual outcome is a summary description of the group or population within a stated range. For example, when we study the weight of a group of cattle and find the mean to be 300Kg, we may then find and say that the statistics of the weights for that group / population is '300Kg plus or minus 15 Kg'. Our result is thus a summary of the weight range into which all the members of the group would fit. What we have just said here is the interpretation of our 1 3 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 findings. Very often, it is the proper interpretation of the result that determines the value of the statistics. The usual next stage is analytical statistics. This should be seen as starting from measures of association (relationship) between uniformly varying factors or events along the X and Y axes of a functional system. The next step is the determination of dependent and independent associations between a pair or groups of variable factors or events. And the next is the determination of causal relationships, otherwise known as asymmetrical associations. Following these are experimental studies in modelling and simulation that enable forecasting within reasonable assumption levels. For what is reasonable should be a matter of tact; it is a matter of common sense in which the relationships between dependent and independent variables are defined. And it is that which identifies / indicates where preventive measures are judiciously defined. This is a point where statistical procedures directly complement analytical epizootiology. The actual beginning is measure of correlation, or to be exact and in quantitative terms, it is a matter of correlation coefficient (r). Positive Correlation is of course a measure (which like probability) has a range from 0 to +1. Negative correlation extends to 1. Thus correlation coefficient has a range from 1 to + lit then goes on to include other procedures mentioned in the immediately preceding paragraph, and ending in interpretation for decision and useful action. Flence statistical procedures contribute to resource management toolkit in the epizootiological approaches. 4.5 Socio-economic and Socio-cultural Approaches Animals and their problems, the uses to which they are put, the ways in which they are regarded and treated, the values placed on them and their (humane) management for the production of food and w'ork all are usually part of the culture of human societies. The creatures also have their own natural culture, w hich means lifestyle. Under socio-economic approaches, one should rightly and properly consider such topics as 'resource management approach as well as socio-economic jurisprudential approaches ^ . These two topics will however be properly presented under Advanced/ Systematic Epizootiology (>.l 138 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Otugasa, B O 2005 4.6 Recommended Practical Exercises A planned and well-organized trip to and tour of the teaching and research farm of the college (or university) is highly recommended for a start. Other extensive livestock production farms and ranches should also be visited and investigated. 4.6 (a) Before and during planned visits (i) The geography of the region should be studied along the way, from the starting point to the farm. The nature, contents and volume of the vegetation along the route should be observed, discussed, noted and recorded on paper and by a camera or cine-camera with the implications and in relation to the weather, climate and prevailing meteorological circumstances. What the nutritional status of the animals, and what other problems at that time of year should be envisaged and discussed en-route; (ii) On arrival on the farm, the grid reference of the location should be identified on the map and the geographical north, south, east and west orientation should be established. The presence and any effects and direction of local and prevailing winds should be recorded and discussed. The weathercock should be located and observed, the rain gauge and its records should be located and recorded; 4.6 (b) Examples o f recommended formats For recordingfield and laboratory data: See tables below. The type of format/ tables below may be used for the purpose of gathering data both during a field study visit and in the laboratory. 1 3 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Field Visit datasheet Form 1 Date of visit: Time of visit: Name of Farm: Owner of Farm: Location of farm: Farm Manager: Address and Phone, etc Animal species: Breed/s Size of each group (population) of animals on the farm (i) Bovine (ii) Ovine (iii) Caprine (iv) Porcine (v) Equine (vi) Leprine (vii) Canine (viii) Feline (ix) Others Table 4.6: Herd statistics S/N Species Number Total Breed* Male** Female** Number Remarks*** Bovine Ovine Caprine Porcine Equine Canine Feline Avian Turkey Domestic fowl Guinea fowl Duck Quail Ostrich Others * Specify e.g. Dairy/Beef: Broiler/Layer ** Specify Neutered/Entire ***Specify husbandry, health and production history from Manager 140 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Table 4.7: Record sheet for morbidity and mortality over 5 years Total Species of Number Five Three Two One Remarks Animal on farm years Four years years year ago now ‘ago years ago ‘ago ago % % % % % % Redu Redu Redu Redu Redu Redu No ction No ction No ction No ction No ction No ction B o v in e O v in e C a p rin e P o rc in e E q u in e C a n in e F e lin e A vian T u rk ey D o m e stic fow l G u in e a fow l D u ck Q u ail O s tric h O th e rs The fu ll details o f each table should accord with the purpose o f the visit and investigation according to the lecturer leading the students. 4.6(c) Species and numbers ofanimals on thef arm (i) Species and numbers of livestock herds and flocks on the farm should be recorded, as on the table above. Questions should be asked (from the attendants and the farm manager) about the history of the farm, the common problems of the herds, records and patterns of morbidity and mortality over the past 5 years or so, the productivity of the stock and the population parameters of the various species of livestock; (ii) Physical observation and close inspection of the animals should be carried out in order to form opinions about the health status of the herds and the conformation of the individual animals; 141 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso. G.O, ljagbone, I. F. andOlitgasa, B. O., 2005 (iii) Records of routine preventive treatments and vaccinations should be sought, obtained and recorded; the types and sources of drugs and vaccines used on the farm should be recorded; (iv) Facilities for handling, sheltering, watering and feeding the livestock species should be examined and discussed with the farm staff and between the tutor and his group of students; (v) An ecological tour of the farmland should be undertaken during which the flora and fauna contents and their species and volume should be studied directly and indirectly; and samples should be taken for full identification of unfamiliar specimens especially of the predominant species. This can be achieved in the following ways: - • By identifying and tracing tracks and other pieces of evidence of the wildlife species in the area. These should be studied and investigated in detail starting with discussions with the local human population. Pieces of evidence such as snake casts (through ecdysis), faecal pellets, decaying carcasses and skeletons, types of bush meat caught by local hunters, presence of carrion birds will aid such ecological enquiries. • By the group of students going grazing with the animals following the shepherds and asking questions all the way about feeding, watering and related problems noted over the past five years and during different seasons. • By carefully identifying specimens of plants, remains of animals and samples of ticks and blood from the animals. These should be taken for further identification and laboratory analysis back on campus. Haematophagous flies caught during the visit, i f engorged, could he processedfor blood meal identification tests in the laboratory. 4.6 (d) On arrival back home (i) On arrival back home, students should be requested and encouraged to submit written reports on the field exercise to their tutors within 48 hours of arrival from the field trip. Since we recommended that such reports should routinely be prepared in duplicates using A4 or foolscap 1 4 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 duplicate books, each student should always keep a carbon copy of what he/she submits to his/her tutor following every field training. In actual fact, the evaluation of the student's report should provide materials for the continuous assessment marks of the student at the end of the course. (ii) Figures obtained from this exercise should be kept for future exercises in mathematical epizootiology which may involve exercises in descriptive statistics (i.e. measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion and correlation) and in analytical statistics (including regression analysis, mathematical modelling and other predictive techniques). It will usually be of much value to the students if figures obtained from real-life practical surveys are used for the exercises in statistical epizootiology. The topic will be resumed in the appropriate sections of chapter 5 of this book. (iii) Recording the details of specimens brought from the field and their preservation and processing in the laboratory should be carried our as earlier explained in the first chapter of this book. Remember that facts and figures from laboratory findings are to be computed, and then used in seminar presentation later. 4.7 Details of some practical training exercises Recently conducted for DVM students in Ibadan: Investigation of a disaster affecting pigs 4.7 (a) Introduction When a swine epizootic occurred in groups of pigs in South Western Nigeria in 2001 ' a class of epizootiology students at the University of Ibadan (U.l.) was involved in the investigation. This was an example of participative teaching and learning process. Comprehensive information about the nature and causation of the disease was provided. Basis for the control and eradication of the disease was also established. The students had thus learned by taking part in a real case in real time. They were able to collate their data and produce respectable scientific publications67' 6!w, which was also a form of training for them in scientific communication. Some details of their actual activities will now follow. 143 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 4.7 (b) The objectives o f the investigation are stated below. i. To visit affected farms and make observations on the clinical signs of the disease; ii. To visit affected farms and carry out a structured interview on date of outbreak, what events, factors or forces the farmer considered to be the most responsible source of the outbreak on his farm. What was the initial population of pigs on the farm? How many became clinically ill over time? How many died over time? How many were culled? How many survived? The remaining stocks on the farm now, are they the survivors or new ones (if any)? iii. To visit affected farms and collect blood samples and other tissues samples from some; pigs showing clinical signs of the disease and some that were not showing the clinical signs of the disease for laboratory confirmatory diagnosis of the cause of the disease; iv. To visit a town planning office in Ibadan and obtain the paper map of one affected local government area within Ibadan city, so that the pattern of entry and spread of the disease within that area could be prepared and presented based on the data gathered in i iii above; v. To make use of conventional symbols to identify and locate pig herds on the obtained map of a local government area. To include on the map, date of occurrence of the disease in each herd, source of entry of the causal agent into the herd and ports of entry into the entire local government area selected; vi. To use GPS Toolkit e.g. Margellan 360' to collect the precise geographic coordinates of each farm visited in a selected local government area and to upload the saved farm coordinates into a prepared digital map of the same local government area on a GIS, especially using Arc view GIS software to design a map1' 1 on the pattern of spread of the agent that can be manipulated on a computer system; a comprehensive study and wider community-based presentation of which may lead to effective formulation of control strategies. 144 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 vii To find out if convalescent survivors were immune protected against the disease and if their offspring received the antibodies from their dam. viii. To find out which chemical disinfectant was effective in killing the causal agent of the disease in a premise. This was to be determined through farm visits to see outcomes of efforts made by farmers with regards to use of different disinfectants; ix. To collect data on social, economic and financial effects of the disease outbreak upon pig farmers and their families within the same chosen local government area; x. To proffer clear interpretation of how the outbreak occurred and pattern of spread based on all available information derived from the investigation. 4.7 (c) Location o f investigation and groups o f investigators Ibadan South West Local Government Areas was selected for mapping of the disease spread" \ The class was divided into 4 groups each to work on some aspects of the ten objectives listed above. 4.7 (d) Achievements o f the groups The four groups of students achieved the following respectively: - (i) Produced a confirmatory diagnosis of the cause of the disease in selected farms visited and affected by the epizootic; (ii) Prepared a digital map of the spread of the disease within Ibadan southwest local government area; (iii) Determined immune response to and carrier status of convalescent survivors, and the efficacy of two disinfectants in the control of the causal agent of the disease. The two disinfectants monitored were (i) Sodium Hypochloride(JIK' bleach) and Lysol; (iv) Determined social, economic and financial effects o f the epizootic on pig farms in Oyo State of Nigeria. In effect, the findings were: Financially 29,044 out of 31,916 pigs were reported dead; and these were worth 1 4 5 UNIVERSITY OF IB DAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiologv: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 N 113,939,000 at current market price in 2001. Economically, some of the piggeries closed down which meant some of the workers lost their jobs and means of livelihood. Socially, families were destabilized and at least one person was reported to have died apparently as a result of the distress. In addition, some others carried out panic selling of their pigs which further complicated the spread of the disease and increased the financial loss. Each aspect of the outbreak investigation represents one or more approaches of epizootiology earlier described in this chapter, namely: medical detection approach, ecological (geographic) approach, mathematical approach and socio-economic approach. 1. Confirmatory diagnosis of cause of the disease The students and teachers in this group (Group A) made the following records of case history, clinical signs and laboratory findings on farms visited: Case history: Each farm affected had experienced a sudden onset of loss of appetite in pigs, weakness, and sudden death within one to two days after manifestation of loss of appetite in one or two pigs. The larger pigs in the herd were affected first, especially newly farrowed sows, in-sows, dry sows, boars and gilts'’111. Thereafter an entire herd was affected with the disease and most of the pigs died. Rapid spread of the disease from one farm to another was noted. Clinical signs: Anorexia, weakness, cutaneous hvperaemia, petechial haemorrhages noticeable on ventral side of thigh and abdomen, echymotic haemorrhage found at the back of the ears, especially at the base of the pinnae. Fever was observed especially on first and second days during clinical signs. The body (rectal) temperature on first and second days ranged between 40"C and 42"C. Pregnant sows aborted their foetuses. Aborted foetuses died few hours later. Blood discharged from natural body orifices including the nose, mouth, ears, anus, prepuce and vulva. All pigs in a herd were usually affected. Very few pigs recovered and survived. Table 4.8, provides population of pigs on 306 farms affected in Oyo State in 2001. 146 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Oltigasa, B. ().. 2005 There were 271 small-scale farms (comprising of 1 200 pigs), 28 medium scale farms (comprising of 201 500 pigs) and 7 large-scale farms (comprising of 501 and more pigs) in the affected population. Table 4.8: Population of pigs on farms affected by African swine fever (ASF) in Oyo State in 2001 (Based on reviewed reports submitted by farmers) Total Farm size Piglets Wenners Growers Finishers Gilts Sows Bowers Number of Pigs Small 6504 4878 2981 1897 1084 1626 542 19512 Medium 1604 1 596 1232 1148 784 728 252 7644 Large 1008 S 12 7S4 714 476 672 294 4760 Total 9,416 7,286 4,997 3,759 2,344 3,026 1,088 31,916 Differential diagnoses: The case history and clinical signs presented above suggest that any of the following five d iseases '1 could be considered as possible cause of the outbreak. These are given in order of priority: - i. African swine fever ii. Classical swine fever i i i. Encephalomyocarditis of pigs i \ . I laemorrhagic septicaemia v. Anthrax Group A investigators ranked the possibility of causation in the order listed above with African swine fever rated highest and Anthrax least. The use of laboratory diagnostic support for a confirmatory diagnosis was done first for African swine fever. The immunoblotting assay, being a reliable confirmatory test for ASF was used. What should be done in laboratory diagnosis of ASF in countries free from the disease but suspecting its presence as was the case in Nigeria is to direct efforts towards isolation of virus by inoculation of pig leukocyte or bone marrow culture, and where possible, carry out the detection of genome DNA by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), (OlE, 2000); ""2 preferably in that sequence. Elowever, due to limited resources, what was 147 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology; Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 actually done by group A was detection of antibodies against ASF virus by immunoblotting assay. And in order to still carry out virus isolation and detection of genome DNA by PCR, tissue samples were sent to three other laboratories including: (i) Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Technologia Agraria y Alimentaria (IN1A), in Madrid, Spain for virus isolation. (ii) National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) in Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria for PCR and Indirect Enzyme Linked Immnunosorbent Assay (I ELISA) and; (iii) Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (0 VI) in South Africa for PCR. The results obtained from these laboratories, using the other three diagnostic techniques were compared with that of the immunoblotting assay. Immunoblotting assay confirmed all samples that tested positive on virus isolation and PCR. It should be noted that where the resources are available, immunoblotting assay was relatively easier to use, highly sensitive and specific for ASF confirmatory diagnosis. It was however costlier in application for large sample size testing compared to I-ELISA. Group A investigators visited ten farms6 "3 from which clinically affected and not yet clinically affected pigs were bled. Sixty-seven pigs were bled for serological diagnosis, out of which 35 sera samples were tested using immunoblotting assay technique. Samples of spleen, hepatic lymph nodes, mesenteric lymph nodes, and the liver, collected from 7 pigs among 67 bled were sent to and tested for ASF genome DNA by PCR at the NVRI Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria and at OVI, South Africa (Permit No 13/1/130/4-017)" " "'"3. ASF virus was isolated from the samples sent to IMA, Madrid, Spain (Permit CISA-INIAof 19 October 2001)6 "3. In all these, 24 samples tested positive by immunoblotting assay, 5 samples tested positive by PCR and two samples by ASF virus isolation. Table 4.9 provides names of farms visited, the local government areas where the farms were located, and numbers of pigs bled. Usually approximately 15ml of whole blood was collected from each pig. Blood was allowed to clot for serum to form and be collected. Figure 4.68 shows the process of bleeding a pig through the anterior vena-cavae. This was a 148 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 specific training for the students. The ten farms from which samples were collected had pigs that were positive for African swine fever6 "3. This was confirmed on immunoblotting assay by the presence of ASFV specific antibodies in the test sera which was indicated by presence of specific bands at IP 23, 25, 25.5, 30, 31, 34, and 35 positions on immunoblotting strips, see Figure 4.71. Table 4.9: Farms from which blood samples were collected for laboratory tests Location Local Number Num S/No. Name of Farm of Farm Government of Pigs Number ber Area bled Tested Posi five 1. T e a c h in g and U n iv e rs ity o f Ib a d an N o rth R e se a rc h F arm Ib a d an 15 10 7 2. M u re w a F a rm s F .jioku V illag e L ag e lu 4 2 2 J-y. T im a d e F a rm s A jib o d e V illag e A k in y e le 2 2 2 4. G o v e rn m e n t lw o R o ad , Ib ad an L ag e lu 4 2 2 F a rm 5. O b iw a le F arm O lo g u n e ru V illa g e Id o 4 2 1 6. A la b a ta F a rm A la b a ta V illag e lse y in 10 5 3O 7. O sh ig b e sa n B a rik a , Ib a d a n Ib a d an N o r th 4 2 i F a rm s 8. S h a b a F a rm A b a d in a , Ib a d an N o rth 1 1 i U n iv e rs i ty Ib a d an 9. A n o n O B J F a rm s O ta , O g u n S ta te A d o -O d o /O ta 8 4 2 10. L o rd s F a rm M o o re P la n ta tio n , Ib ad an so u th 15 5 3 Ib ad an w e st Total 67 35 24 The bands were dark blue in colour. The positive control sample had six clear bands with two faint bands. The negative control sample had no bands at all. The group obtained negative results on bacteriological tests carried out for the possibility of Bacillus anthracis, causative agent of anthrax and negative result for Pasteurella multocida causative agent of haemorrhagic septicaemia. Encephalomyocardits virus was negative on isolation test at the University College Hospital (UCH) Ibadan, Virology department. The method o f immunoblotting assay African swine fever immunoblotting assay is a serological diagnostic procedure that detects antibodies against African swine fever virus that are present in test serum samples. The toolkit is made up of nitrocellulose 1 4 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 filters containing positive labelled African swine fever proteins, standard positive and negative sera samples, and the indicator system. Prelabelled nitrocellulose were produced from the complete and quantitative transfer of ASF proteins from sodium-dodecyl-sulphate (SDS)-gels while preserving the antigenic properties of the proteins under denatured conditions (Pastor et al, 1989)6" J. Fifty nitrocellulose strips (or immunoblotting strips) already labelled with African swine fever virus (ASFV) proteins; standard positive and negative reference sera samples were obtained from Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Technologia Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA) in Madrid, Spain. The method described by Pastor et al (1989)61 was used in carrying out this test. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution was prepared with PBS tablets (sigma), dissolved in 200 ml of distilled water. This provided a buffer solution pH 7.2. Two grams of non-fat dry milk was added to 100 ml of PBS pH 7.2. This PBS-milk 2% buffer was used to dilute sera samples and for blocking on immunoblotting antigen strips (this will be described below). A chromogen, 4-chloro-1 -naphtol (Sigma-Aldrich) was used to detect presence of ASFV immunoglobulins in the reaction. 12 mg of4-chloro-l- naphtol was dissolved in 4 ml of Methanol. The 4-chloro-1-naphtol Methanol solution was slowly added to 20ml of PBS buffer pH 7.2. A characteristic white precipitate was formed. The precipitate was removed with a filter paper. Figure 4.69 shows the filtration of 4-chloro-1-naphtol precipitate. The substrate of 4-chloro-1 -naphtol Methanol solution, with 8 H,0, was used as chromogen. This was prepared just before use. Each test serum sample (1:50 dilution in PBSmilk 2% solution) was incubated at 37°C for 45 minutes on an immunoblotting strip. The strip was washed 4 times with 0.5ml of PBS milk 2% solution for 5 minutes at the last wash. Protein A-peroxidase conjugate was then added (0.5 ml at a 1:1000 dilution in PBS-milk 2% solution) and incubated at 37°C, in continuous agitation. The strip was washed 4 times. The substrate H202 with 4-chloro-1-naphtol (0.5ml) was added to the strip. The reaction was stopped after 10 minutes with running water. See Figure 4.71 for result of immunoblotting assay. 150 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4 .6 8 ,4 .6 9 and 4.70: B leed ing a p ig through anterior vena-cava, filtering o f 4- ch loro -l-n ap h to l precip itate in m ethanol solution (the chrom ogen) and w ashing o f im m unoblotting strips w ith P B S-m ilk 2% buffer to obtain test results on sera sam ples collected from pigs Fig 4.71 Result of immunoblotting test carried out on serum samples collected from clinically ill pigs and convalescent survivors at U.I Teaching and Research farm VSral Pronin (IP] Kilo Dalton iKdal Specific i f f* # # fit5 2 5 f t t P M f t i f S f 0,_1 P ‘i 4 t m anfi&ody edwipWv on Iff## of 2 p*§» i #«} ?) wfetTeft witliPSP sitM M the f W Urtverjiify of co'rvfswi'ed' eonttof positive (CP) and conftol negative(Ct-ft sera sam ple* Porn flfHA) Madrid*, ftpatrt' 151 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY J u c to r y Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O , Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B . O., 2 0 0 5 Confirmatory diagnosis Based on the test results of immunoblotting assay, virus isolation, PCR I-ELISA, the cause of 2001 swine epizootic in southern Nigeria was confirmed to be due to ASF. Five tissue samples were sent to IN1A for virus isolation. Isolation was made from two of them. We however tested all the 10 pigs with the immunoblotting technique; 7 of them were positive. Three out of five samples sent from Alabata farm tested positive on PCR. The three samples out of five also tested positive by immunoblotting assay. Use of the I-ELISA with its 96 WHO wells was more economic compared to individual nitrocellulose strips used in immunoblotting assay. Thus responsible for the larger coverage by NVRI""' using the I-ELISA compared with the small test coverage size at the University of Ibadan by immunoblotting assay. Immunoblotting assay was sensitive and specific for ASF confirmatory diagnosis, but its use in large size screening was not economically advantageous. Since ASF has no effective vaccine for its control at the moment, the group of students thus prescribed strict hygiene measures including restriction of movement of personnel, affected and in-contact pigs, pig products, farm equipment and effective disinfection of farm environment to be maintained by farmers’7' 6 89. This real-time practical training for students is an example of what teaching in epizootiology should inculcate. 2. Preparation of a map of ASF 2001 spread in Ibadan southwest local government area of Ovo State The initial pattern of spread of ASF in 2001 in southern Nigeria was investigated using Ibadan southwest local government area as a case study. To ensure accuracy of map design, global positioning system (GPS) was used to collect geographic data and geographic information system (GIS) was used to display, edit, and analyse the data presented on a map. Location and distribution of pig farms, and their physical and functional relation in space with lake, streams and roads in the area were described on the map. The map showed direction of spread of ASF in the area. A strong positive coefficient of area correspondence (Ca = /) was obtained for ASF outbreak, road networks and transportation to pig farms" \ A weak Ca was obtained for streams and lake. The outbreak pattern was random but 152 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory EpizOotiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 showed positive correlation to trade route for pigs and pig farm inputs. The initial pattern of spread was stock-trade route related. Increased contamination of the environment resulted in spread along stream. Group B investigators identified seventeen pig farms in Ibadan southwest local government area during the 2001 ASF outbreak mapping exercise. Two of the farms had suspended operations at the time of visit, on accounts aside from ASF outbreak. The group made a list of the farms, dates of ASF outbreak on the farms as provided in Table 4.10. We then used modern geographic data collection tools to map out the outbreaks. Table 4.10: Locations and dates of 2001 ASF outbreaks on pig farms in Ibadan southwest local government area of Oyo state, Nigeria Position of Initial Longitude Latitude Date of S/No. Name of Farm date of populatio (Degrees) (Degrees) outbreak n of pigs outbreak on herd 1 . Ade Bode 3.85802 7.39297 07/04/2001 1 st 134 2 . Popoola 3.86182 7.36098 09/05/2001 2 nd 176 j. Lord's 3.84005 7.38950 12/05/2001 3rd 607 4. Bascol 3.84508 7.39200 21/05/2001 4th 971 5. Adepoiu 3.87475 7.35225 01/06/2001 5 th 90 6 . Dibiam 3.83572 7.38672 06/06/2001 6 th 160 7. Oiih 3.82350 7.38953 08/07/2001 7th 4 4 8 . Akanmu 3.82328 7.38553 08/07/2001 7th 214 9. Tony Jay 3.83109 7.38569 10/07/2001 9th 126 1 0 . Okusanmi 3.84225 7.36703 20/07/2001 1 0 th 178 1 1 . Kehinde 3.86624 7.38403 23/07/2001 1 1 th 134 1 2 . Adeyemi 3.82150 7.38940 10/08/2001 1 2 th 127 13. Kunlex 3.82678 7.38977 12/08/2001 13th 46 14. Oyeneye 3.84105 7.37739 21/08/2001 14th 14 15. Itelorun free-range 3.88561 7.36806 11/09/2001 15th 157 16 Caroline 3.88543 7.36774 - - 0 17. Mama Elelede 3.88566 7.36569 - - 0 In presenting the figures of longitudes and latitudes of the pig farms, five places of decimal was used to ensure what we considered as adequate precision in locating the farms in view of their proximity to one another. 1 5 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.72 and 4.73: Use of the GPS and GIS tools for geographic data collection and management in ASF outbreak investigation As technology advances, so do our capabilities for disease diagnosis and tracking. GIS technology is one of such advancements that is becoming a more common part of everyday life649. Schools or departments teaching epizootiology should therefore aspire to have the GPS and GIS equipments for carrying out this type of exercise. Students can then be trained to use them Group B investigators used GPS to obtain Pig Farm location coordinates and those of free-range pigs. They recorded their readings in decimal degrees. A paper map of Ibadan southwest local government area was obtained from Ibadan southwest Town Planning Office, Ring Road, Ibadan which they converted to a digital map, using a digitizing tablet (Summer Sketch 3(R), see Figure 4.74). Digital maps of streams, lake and roads in Ibadan southwest local government area were obtained from Department o f Geography, University of Ibadan. They used a desktop and a laptop computer with Arc View GIS Demonstration Edition software license installed on them. They keyed values of pig farm location coordinates into the GIS with other data gathered during field investigation to produce a map of the initial pattern of ASF outbreak in the local government area. 154 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.74: A veterinary student using Sum m er Sketch III (a d igitiz ing tablet) at the U niversity o f Ibadan, N igeria , ind icatin g the usefu lness o f such equipm ent in ep izootio logica l studies A digitizing tablet is used to convert a paper (analogue) map into a digital map to be used in geographic information systems. Training students in this use is considered an essential aspect of a course in Epizootiology. Method used fo r designing spatial spread pattern o f ASF 2001 outbreak This subsection provides details of the steps taken to illustrate especially the integration of GPS readings into GIS for plotting points, using Arc View GIS Demonstration (Demo) Edition for the benefit of those that may not be familiar with the use of the GPS and GIS tools in biological risk management" 49. The step-by-step order of achieving these tasks is provided for easy assimilation. Starting from the welcome window into Arc view GIS application software (see Figure 4.75) to accessing the File menu in Arc View Demo Edition are illustrated to open a new table. New project was selected to access the new project window. We clicked on Tables, opened a new table and added fields to the new table created, which was named pig farm s.dbf see Figures 4.76 and 4.77. In a sequential order, we created ten fields with seventeen records each as shown in Figure 4.77. Fields created were; (i) Identification (ID) No. (ii) Name of Pig Farm (iii) X-CoordLong (iv) Y-CoordLat (v) Date of ASF outbreak (vi) Initial population of Pigs (vii) Number clinically ill pigs 155 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (viii) Number dead (xi) Number culled (x) Number of Survivors. Into each record field, the group typed in data obtained from field investigations at the individual farms. Figure 4.77 shows the table, pig fa rm .db f created in Arc View project. The group used the longitude (X-CoordLong) and latitude (Y- CoordLat) fields to create points representing pig farms and points of ASF outbreaks in Ibadan southwest local government area of Oyo state in 2001. In sequence, we carried out this task. In the menu bar, we clicked on Window, then on Viewl to make the view window active. See Figure 4.78. Figure 4.75: Showing Arc View GIS window that welcomes users to the software A new GIS project may be created with a new view or from a blank project with a table using this window. Notice Demo Edition on the top left comer of the window, above the menu bar. 156 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijugbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.76: Show ing steps in Arc V iew G IS w indow for open ing a new project and creating a new table for capturing p ig farm s coordinates and population data The blue background on File, New Project and on Tables indicates activity of this menu and the options. Clicking on Tables opens a new table into which data from GPS and other sources including data collected through interviews and observations may be typed. This is a way of integrating GPS into GIS for plotting locations of pig farms and designing a map of ASF outbreak. Figure 4.77: Showing pig farm table created in Arc View GIS Demo Edition © P ig farms, dbf / f ‘ d fjg F & m y '■Caofit Ir ^ ia i p o j N u m b er d j M w /w , M M w iA r t\4 N ttnh& L ;fe£] 1 A d e B od e 3 356 :02 ; 7 3 3 2 3 7 0 4072001 - S' 134 101 I f l i 2 Pc-pOQJo I 3 8 6 1 8 2 7 .6 8 3 8 f 05092001 176 176 169 0 7 ' 3 . L o rd 's 3 8 4 0 0 5 7 3 2 3 : V 0 5 1 2 2 0 0 ! 6 0 7 . 575 494 j : 81 j ......4 B a s e d T .......3 8 4 5 0 6 7 3 3 2 0 0 0 5 2 1 3 0 0 ! ......971 '• 919 i 7 9 0 c,-' ’ 1 2 9 j 5 : A d e p o ju 3 .37475 7 35225 0 6 0 1 2 0 )1 86 33* 73 p 121 b ; Di&s&m 3 3 . 3 7 , .....7 3 3 6 7 2 ' 0 6 0 6 2 0 0 ! '6 0 113 149 * e 4 ; 7 . O jh [ 3 .3 2 3 5 0 ; .......7 M 5 3 { 07082001 44 44 X . r 8 ; 8 j A k a n m i [ .......3 8 2 3 2 8 1 ........7 .3 8 S 3 t ' 07082001 *214 214 2 1 4 * c ' ' o l 8 ; T o n y Jay ! .........3 831 OS ■ t S k s T *0 7 1 0 2 0 0 1 .... 26*' 1161 * i i o * i t 6; 1 0 ; O kusa n m i V 3 8 4 2 2 5 i ...... 7 .3 6 7 0 3 ? 072132001 91 ; 911 ' 68 s r 8 ! 1 1 1 K e N n d e | 3 S B S 2 4 7 3 8 4 0 3 * 07232001 178 178 1 3 4 * 36 f t ; 1 2 ! A de ye rw ■ R 215 0 ... 7 3 8 9 4 0 * 08102001 127 1 2 ? ' 1 1 5 ...... 0 * 1 2 * 13 i Kur>le» * ? 3 8 3 7 " 08122001 46 30 ] 30 15 ...... T1 1 4 1 O y e n e j* } 3 8 4 1 0 5 ; 7 3 7 7 3 9 ! 082 12 0 01 " ...............14 1 4 ; 14 ’ 0 u 1 5 : U d o iu r i fre e ran * 3 8 8 5 6 1 1.......7 3 6 0 0 6 * ' n i i y j o . 1 5 7 ' 157 ■ 1 5 0 * .... ? ' Q j 16 C aro line 3 8 8 5 4 3 ........T 3 6 7 7 4 ? 0 0 ] 0 0 : 01 1 7 ; M a m a E le le d e ; 3 .8 8 5 6 6 *7 3 6 6 6 9 * 0 ; 0 : oT o j oS m The records in this table provided in 10 columns and 17 rows were created in Arc View project by us i ng the steps in edit mode to add field and records to a new table. 157 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 F igu re 4 .78: S h ow in g steps in A rc V iew for op en in g a new v iew to d isp lay a m ap o f p ig farm s ArcView GIS Demo f dition Eile Edit View Xheme Etaphic-s Window Help m ® bS" V « W lile loiXl.^1 Cascade Arrange Icons _ !□! x | New Open | Prin 1 Viewl ESI ■EHai € > T ables <£> Cherts _ Layouts fS> jd ■w Blue background on Window, Viewl and on Views indicates activity of this menu and the options. Clicking on Views opens a new view into which geographic data from existing folders and files on the desktop (or laptop) could be added. Locations of pig farms were then viewed on the screen in this way. A click on View in the menu bar and then on Add Event Theme was done. A dialogue box appeared. In the dialogue box that appeared, the group specified pig farm s.dbf for table to use in creating an event theme that would be added to the new view. We specified X-CoordiLong for the required X field and Y-CoordiLat for the required Y field (see Figure 4.79). We then clicked OK. Pig farms appeared as points on the view. The group added roads, streams and lake to the view. Roads, streams and lake were available in a folder named Ibadan southwest local government area as shape files. We made pig farm theme active in the view, they then accessed the theme menu and clicked on auto-label to display names of farms at their respective locations on the view. The result is shown in Figure 4.80. 158 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.79: Arc View GIS Add Event Theme Dialogue box This dialogue box enabled the students to use Arc View GIS to produce an event theme of pig farms on a new view using the x and y coordinates of points taken by GPS and typed into a new table, named pig farms.dbf Up till this point work done by the students in Arc View GIS had been in data view mode. Figure 4.80 shows how maps in Arc View data view appear. To complete their design of 2001 ASF outbreak in Ibadan southwest local government area the group transferred pig farms displayed in data view to layout view where it was possible to insert title of map, north aiTow, scale bar, and a legend. Thus presenting the map in cartographic convention. The result is shown in Figure 4.81. A map of ASF outbreak created on Ibadan southwest local government area gave two advantages to the study group, namely (1) it provided spatial insight for helpful questions to ask and hypotheses to 159 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiologv: Esuruoso, (1.0, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 consider in the pattern of spread of the disease. With appropriate hypotheses, it would be possible to investigate and describe events that contributed to ASF spread systematically. (2) The map was a suitable visual aid for community members including pig farmers to comprehend and share views on the outbreak events with the students group while drawing up a mini-plan for reducing the risk of further spread of the disease, and some possible control strategies. Figure 4.80: Data V iew display o f pig farm locations identified and A SF outbreak points in Ibadan southw est local governm ent area in 2001 The locations of seventeen (17) pig farms visited for collection of geographic data by Group B DVM students under supervision of a lecturer at the Department of Veterinary Public I lealth and Preventive Medicine of the University of Ibadan, during the ASF outbreaks of 2001'' 160 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Spatial spread pattern o f ASF 2001 outbreak The first farm to experience the disease in Ibadan southwest local government area was Ade-Bode farm. The farmer had embarked on slaughter of pigs within the farm premises. Slaughtered pigs were either from her stock directly or from a farm elsewhere that had finished pigs. Pre-slaughter pigs from the other farms were kept on this farm for usually three to four days. Some of the boars brought in for slaughter were used to serve sows and gilts on heat on the farm. It was noted that on the 7lh of April, 2001, one of the boars brought for slaughter and used to serve gilts on heat developed clinical signs of ASF and died on 9"' April. The in-contact pigs developed ASF starting from 14Ul April 2001. All in-contact pigs in succession developed the clinical signs and died. 134 pigs on the farm were eventually infected. Only 10 recovered as convalescent survivors. On this farm it was confirmed that the main source of the outbreak was stock trade related. The source farm from which the newly introduced pigs came had witnessed outbreak of a disease with similar clinical signs. This was probably the reason for selling out their pigs. As several pigs died, they were buried close to edge of a fish pond in the farm yard. A stream runs through the edges of the fishpond yard. There is high possibility of environmental contamination with ASF virus by this event of burying ASF viraemic pigs without sterilization. And by extension the downward flow of the stream may equally spread the contamination to other pig farms especially free range pigs that may feed along stream sides. This hypothesis was considered in the last outbreak point in the study area. Such contamination may contribute to spread of disease6 ' 161 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 4.81: Spatial d istribution o f P ig farm s in 2001 in Ibadan southw est local G overnm ent area presented in A rc View G IS layout view What separates GIS from other types of information databases is that everything is based on location (georeference) such as latitude and longitude coordinates. Georeferenced data on pig farms in Ibadan south west local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria were used to produce this map. In addition to names of farms, date of outbreak was used to label the map. Thus, the spatial distribution map presented with dates of outbreaks resulted in clues to pattern of ASF outbreak on pig farms in Ibadan southwest local government area in relation to streams, lake and roads. Epizootiological questions that may not have been readily perceived if ASF outbreak related data had remained on tables and graphs only now became obvious. Thus, questions such as 'is there positive correlation between proximity of pig farms to streams and lake in the sequence of outbreaks?' Or, is such observed correlation, if any weak or strong? Is road proximity to farm of any importance in the sequence of outbreaks? These are relevant questions that arose by looking at the maps produced. The next 162 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G. O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 set of questions was 'how do we find order in the apparent disorderly pattern of outbreak? Is there a geographic phenomenon that cuts across al l these features (lake, streams, roads and farms proximities) that may be considered as a unifying force responsible for sequence of outbreaks? Figure 4.82: D ates and sequence o f A frican sw ine fever outbreaks in 2001 on p ig farm s in Ibadan southw est local governm ent area Labelling of georeferenced pig farms with dates of ASF outbreaks in place of names of farms is a step to preparing pattern of initial spread of the disease in a study area. ASFoutbreak had a strong positive coefficient of area correspondence6" 4 (Ca= 1) to road networks and transportation to pig farms. This is a measure of spatial overlap showing perfect correspondence. The coefficient of area correspondence of ASF outbreak to lake and streams flow to pig farms was weak Ca= 0.1. This is a measure of spatial overlap showing negligible areal correspondence. 163 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epiz< •otiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 C a = area covered jointly by both phenomena______ total area covered by the two phenomena Figure 4.83: Pattern of initial spread of ASF in Ibadan southwest local government area in 2001 SdS212001 Ade Bode Adeyen 081020 1̂ 22001 iWP7;£°I Akan 07 082I 1 l Tony J a y \ V ' "•* kahinde ' < ''0710200.1 , . 07232001 Caroline' ■Mama Elelede Pig fa rm s .. ASF O u tb re a k s e q u e n c e /S t re a m s R o ad s 1 Lake J Ibadan s o u th v -e s t ig a The pattern of outbreak is shown in red arrow line. Roads, streams and lake have relative roles associated with the spread of the disease across farms. The pattern of spread shown here is multi-directional and linear. It was irregular in direction. The first outbreak point was in the north central area, while the second outbreak point was in the south central area. The direction from 2nd to 3rd outbreak points was northwest ward, affecting two farms in succession to become the fourth and fifth outbreak points. Sixth outbreak point was a location in south east area in the vicinity of the second outbreak point. Tow farms fitted into the seventh outbreak point having occurred on the same day and both were in northwest area ASF 164 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizaotiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 continued to spread to another farm in northwest area to become the 9th outbreak points. The 1 O'1' outbreak point was in the mid western area. The eleventh outbreak point was in the north east. The 12th, 13th and 14th outbreak points were in the northwest area. The last outbreak point was in the mid eastern area. In all of these points, six farms out of seventeen were within 100 meters distance of streams and used the water from the streams for the purposes of farm sanitation without pre-treatment of the water. These farms included Ade Bode, Bascol, Kunlex, Oyeneye, Itelorun and Caroline. Roads network reached all the farms. The selling and buying of stocks and pig products which were carried out along defined routes may be a link between roads, farms and the spread of ASF. Thus, transportation of these commodities from one farm to another was shown to be responsible for pattern of the initial spread of ASF in the local government area. Specific commodities purchased and transported to pig farms included brewery wastes (spent grain) fed to pigs and obtained from a few common depots in Ibadan. The movement of farm workers from one herd to another, especially to farms initially unaffected, may be contributory to the spread of the virus. Popoola and Lord's Farms were the second and third outbreak points respectively. The in\ estigators did not find specific clue to source of outbreak on Popoola farm. But on Lord's Farm, outbreak was traced to eight after sales return pigs, brought to the farm based on an initial opinion that they were poisoned at their own usual premises out of which three were clinically ill. The supposed poisoning was in fact clinical ASF cases. Returned pigs died and in succession other pigs on the herd of approximately 607 pigs were affected. Five hundred and eleven became clinically ill. Five hundred and one died representing 98% case fatality rate. Twenty-three pigs were culled, 10 recovered as convalescent survivors. Forty one piglets and 22 weaners that did not show clinical signs at first later developed the typical clinical signs and died. The survivors were not retained on the f a r m ' t h e y were slaughtered for home consumption on the farm. The outbreak of ASF among free-range pigs by streamside in September 2001 at Itelorun farm area in Oke Ado district of Ibadan was considered due to contaminated environment of the stream by farms with 16 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O Ijagbone, I. E and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 earlier outbreaks, located upstream in the local government area. This, though may explain the spread of ASF to free range pigs by streamside at this location, it was only an hypothesis. This geographic map of ASF is a special purpose statistical map designed to demonstrate particular features such as location of pig farms, roads, streams and lake and concepts such as transportation and trading, that may present a graphic theme about ASF outbreak 2001 in Ibadan south west local government area. Mapping of the physical features associated with ASF outbreak and abstracting ideas about the disease spread gives a clearer visualization of the problem and for making of plans for its control. There were six farms within 100 meters of streams and that used water from this source for farm sanitation without prior treatments. It may be useful to have a query builder to select features. Therefore, we used it for selecting pig farms located within 100m distance of streams and thus to indirectly arrived at the coefficient of area correspondence in the spread of ASF by streams in the study area. See Figure 4.85. 166 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 4.85: Selected pig farms within 100 meters distance of a stream \ tB No. Y-Cm dst PjtsdASFajbM M d ' w M & w r f P f e Nim ter cu i v | P ant ! 1 Ad s Bode 3 8 5 8 0 2 7 3 9 2 9 7 0 4 0 7 2 0 0 1 1 3 4 1 3 4 1 0 1 ! 2 3 : 0 Pant 4 Based 3 .8 4 5 0 8 7 .3 9 2 0 0 0 5 2 1 2 Q 0 1 97 1 9 1 9 7 9 0 ; 5 2 1 2 9 : Pant 1 3 K u n te i 3 .8 2 6 7 8 7 .3 8 9 7 7 0 8 1 2 2 0 0 1 4 6 3 0 3 0 ! 1 5 1 ! Pant 1 4 Q y e n e y # 3 8 4 1 0 5 7 3 7 7 3 8 0 8 2 1 2 0 0 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 4 1 4 0 0 ^ Pant 1 5 lld o u n lie e ia n 3 .8 8 5 6 1 7 .3 6 9 0 6 ( H 1 12001 1 5 ? 1 5 7 1 5 0 1 7 0 ; Point 1 6 Caroline 3 8 8 5 4 3 7 .3 6 7 7 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 ? Pant 2 P tp o d a 3 8 6 1 8 2 7 3 6 0 3 8 0 5 0 9 2 0 0 1 1 7 6 1 7 6 1 6 3 0 Pant 3 Lad's 3 8 4 0 0 5 7 3 8 9 5 0 0 5 1 2 2 0 0 1 6 0 7 5 7 5 4 9 4 ( 3 2 81 Pant 5 Adepoju 3 8 7 4 7 5 7 3 5 2 2 5 0 6 0 1 2 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 7 9 ; 5 1 2 - Pant 5 : D t a m 3 8 3 5 7 2 7 .3 8 6 7 2 0 6 0 6 2 0 0 1 1 6 0 1 4 8 1 4 8 8 4 Pant 7 ! Q p h 3 8 2 3 5 0 7 .3 3 9 5 3 0 7 0 8 2 0 0 1 4 4 4 4 3 6 : 0 8 Point 9 :A k a n m u 3 8 2 3 2 8 7 3 8 5 5 3 0 7 0 8 2 0 0 1 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 - 0 0 Pant 3 Tony Jan 3 8 3 1 0 9 7 3 8 5 6 3 0 7 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 2 6 1 1 6 1 1 0 : 1 0 6 i P o in t 1 0 :0 k u s a m r s 3 8 4 2 2 5 7 3 6 7 0 3 0 7 2 0 2 0 0 1 91 91 6 8 ; 1 5 8 'P a n t 11 Kehmde 3 8 6 6 2 4 7 3 8 4 0 3 0 7 2 3 2 0 0 1 1 7 8 1 7 8 1 3 4 3 6 8 Point 1 2 Adeyetn 3 8 2 1 5 0 7 3 8 9 4 0 0 8 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 1 5 ; 0 1 2 Pant 1 ? MamaElelede 3 8 8 5 6 6 7 3 6 5 6 9 0 0 0 : 0 0 E Six farms were selected here (1, 4, 13, 14, 15 and 16) and promoted to the top of the table. An attribute table displays selection result and gives yellow background colour to items selected. Figure 4.86: African swine fever outbreak sequence in 2001 in relation to streams in Ibadan southwest local government area Points of first outbreak and last outbreak in Ibadan southwest local government area (with green arrow pointers) were both within 1 0 0 meters distance of a stream 167 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugctsa, B. O., 2005 In the meantime, fourteen states were confirmed to have had outbreaks of ASF in Nigeria between 1997 and 2004 through diagnostic tests results obtained at the National Veterinary Research Institute"11’. Figure 4.87 below presents states affected. The study area covered by students at Ibadan thus represents small sample coverage of what was happening across the country. Thus, the students had an opportunity for disease investigation in a part of Nigeria. F ig u re 4 .8 7 : L o c a tio n s o f c o n fir m e d A fr ica n sw in e fe v e r o u tb r e a k s in s ta tes o f N ig e r ia (1 9 9 7 -2 0 0 4 ) Map designed by Dr. B.O. Olugasa based on data published by Majiyagbe el at, 2004'’"'. Using I-ELISA diagnostic technique and a larger quantity for national coverage, the NVRI was able to carry out confirmatory diagnosis for all states of the federation that witnessed the outbreak and submitted samples for laboratory tests. 168 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitnioso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Ohigasa, B. O., 2005 3. Determination of virus carrier status of convalescent pigs on farms Group C investigators found out that convalescent pigs (survivors) were significantly resistant to the virus. This was due to the fact that all the convalescent pigs basically experienced typical clinical signs of ASF but recovered. While other pigs within the same pens and herd developed the clinical signs and died, these ones remained fully recovered. It was also observed that when an unexposed boar to ASF was used to serve convalescent gilt, the boar developed full clinical signs within three days of serving the gill and died within two days of clinical signs. This situation suggested that convalescent survivors were carriers of the ASFV. The resistance shown was considered to be antibody mediated. T ab le 4 .1 1: I lln e ss p a tte rn a n d d e a th s in 2001 A S F o u tb r e a k o n A p ig fa r m in Ib a d a n , O y o S ta te , N ig e r ia Day of N um ber Number Clinical of Pigs Clinically Num ber Age group Dead Signs on Farm ill Dead I 55 1 0 Nil 9 55 j) 0 Nil -» 55 3 1 Dry s o w 4 54 3 1 n I n - so w a n d a G r o w e r 5 52 8 0 Nil 6 52 8 0 Nil 7 52 10 4 In -S o w s a n d B o a rs 8 48 9 1 N u r s in g S o w 9 47 10 5 Dry a n d I n - so w s 10 42 1 0 ' 6 Pig le ts , B o a r a n d G il t 11 36 16 1 F in i s h e r 12 36 16 1 F in ish e r 13 36 A17 G il ts 14 -> 14 5 n i J e t s 15 27 12 (1 P ig le ts a n d F in ish e rs 16 21 8 3 P ig le ts 17 18 6 i Gil t 18 17 6 i Gilt 19 916 8 G r o w e r s 169 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 21105 2 0 14 6 2 Growers 2 1 1 2 5 2 Weaners 2 2 1 0 4 2 Weaners 23 8 4 2 Weaners 24 6 3 2 Weaners 25 4 2 1 Grower 26 3 1 0 Nil The days in the table covered 13th September through 8 th October 2001.Location of Farm: Iwo Road, Lagelu local government area of Oyo State. Date of visit: 15th September 2001. Breed of Pigs: Large white. Name of Farm owner: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oyo State. Initial population of pigs was 55. Name of Farm: Government Farm, Ibadan. Number clinically ill on each day implied the obviously ill ones and is independent of the number that died on that day. In other words, the number that died in a day is also included in the number clinically ill. Thus for example on day 3, there were 3 clinically ill cases out of which one later died the same day. Figures 4 .88 ,4 .89 and 4.90: P icture of a pig that died suddenly w ith blood discharge from the m outh, at U .I. Teaching and R esearch Farm (See a post m ortem section of the liver, ibid.) ASF outbreaks in 2001 and 2002 devastated the piggery section of UI Teaching and Research farm at Ibadan with its high morbidity and mortality rates. Convalescent survivor 170 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 The piglets of convalescent survivors also showed resistance against the virus. A serological test of the presence of specific antibodies against ASFV in the piglets of convalescent survivors was done. These piglets had antibody passed to them from the dam, probably via colostrum. Figure 4.91: An ASF convalescent survivor sow with nine piglets Piglets of convalescent survivors had maternal antibodies to ASF in their serum samples. They were resistant to the disease. Non-implementation of slaughter policy resulted into diverse styles of restocking carried out by farmers. Some farmers depopulated all survivors and disinfected their premises with hypochloric acid and Lysol in alternate pattern. This group of farmers restocked with pigs that were confirmed ASFV-free. Restocking this way was successful. Another group of farmers restocked with the convalescent survivors, which were carriers, without disinfecting their premises. This was also successful in that outbreaks were forestalled. This situation whereby ASF virus carriers exist along with ASF virus free pigs makes future outbreaks risk high. 4. Social and economic effects of African swine fever 2001 outbreaks on pig farms in Oyo State of Nigeria Group D investigators compiled social and economic effects of 2001 ASF epizootic on pig farms and farm families. It was found that a variety of social damages ranging from a farm family that lost the life of a wife as an indirect consequence of the disease, up to a family that had to recall the 171 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 children from schools of training occurred689. Most farmers were destabilized and vigorously pursued a dire resort to herbal trials for possible remedy to ASF. Financially, 29,044 out of 31 916 pigs were reported dead; and these were worth one hundred and thirteen million, nine hundred and nine thousand Naira (N113,939.000) at current market price in 2001. See Table 4.12. Economically, some of the piggeries closed down which meant some of the workers lost their jobs and means of livelihood. Socially, families were destabilized and some others carried out panic selling of their pigs which further complicated the spread of the disease and increased the financial loss. Figure 4.92: 2001 ASF death and illness time curves on Government Farm, fharian- Ovn Stntp. NiopriSl ( 1 "tlh Sspntpmhpr thrrmah Rthnrtnl->pr9nni 1 in Daysafter onset of clinical signs —......N u m b e r D ead N u m b e r Clinically 111 This investigation may be further enhanced if the researchers could produce a time related line graph for each farm that witnessed the outbreak. In economic terms, massive culling of pigs at significantly low prices and high death rates up to 100% on some farms were recorded. Farm environment witnessed massive burial of carcasses and exposed dead pigs were found in some pig pens. There was no form of compensation to the farmers affected. This outbreak was a typical epizootic. Where the facilities were available, farm families adopted risk-sharing strategies in 172 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 the form of diverting into fish farming, poultry production and wage/salary earning jobs. Sharing risk with fish farming in particular gave effective financial returns to some affected farmers and the courage to undergo gradual physical, mental and social re-stabilization. Table 4.12: Financial loss due to ASF 2001 outbreaks in Oyo State, Nigeria Age No. Unit price Lost value Lost value G roup Dead (Naira) (U S D ) Piglets 9.314 1,000.00 9,314.000 79,616.67 Weaners 6.053 2,000.00' 12,106,000 100,883.33 Growers 3,791 3,000.00 11,373,000 9,477.00 Finishers 3,428 5,000.00 17,140,000 142,833.33 Gilts 2,344 8,000.00 18,752,000 156,266.67 Sows 3,026 11,000.00 33,286,000 277,383.33 Boars 1,088 11,000.00 11,968.000 99,733.33 Total 29,044 - 113,939,000 941,491.69 Two years later many of the farmers had adjusted and stabilized physically, mentally and socially. But pig production in this part of the country may be in continual risk of outbreaks of ASF due to carrier convalescent survivors. Group D investigators integrated their findings on social and economic effects of ASF outbreaks on pig farms into geographic maps of the outbreak created by group C. They compiled a summary of financial losses from the outbreak on the various farms. This was in the range ofN 113,939,000 at current market price in 2001. They compiled this in anticipation that government may wish to compensate farmers through the animal health authorities in Oyo state, Nigeria. 173 U IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 4.93 and 4.94: A pig farmer and a veterinary student assessing workability of a miniplan on ASF control. A group of public health veterinarians assessing a miniplan It is important that all interest groups should understand and accept the miniplan to ensure effective implementation. In assessing workability of a mini-plan for control of ASF, Groups A, B, C and D reckoned that a successful plan management depended on the quality of the mini-plan, leadership, and the degree of public participation in each local government area. The condition set was to put together a miniplan in an open and organised fashion with well-researched and carefully analysed information, so that the management of the plan should become somewhat obvious. This partnership strengthened the arms of farmers for collective bargaining for state assistance on the effect of ASF on pig farms. It also cleared doubts about authenticity of claims since many farmers in attendance were aware of the situations when they happened. They were able to contribute to planning information for ASF control. The investigators in these practical exercises found that Epizootiology provided opportunities for environmental systems description and community studies on problems affecting animals and by extension man. They recommended that group leaders in epizootiology (which may be a professor or teacher) must show a long-term commitment to planning, guaranteeing continuity and an open planning process. Eleven Doctor of Veterinary Medicine students that actively participated in this exercise 174 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 eventually developed topics for their DVM project reports based on the exercise (see Appendix VI). Summary and Conclusion While these exercises provided the classes of DVM students with opportunities for real-time case studies in 2001 and between 2002 and 2004 on a topic of epizootiological importance, the following issues were considered after these exercises for training undergraduate students. (i) The exercise by the students was limited to a small area of the outbreak. Therefore, it is obvious that a comprehensive study of such a problem should involve much of the area or a representative sample of the area affected. By this, the coverage will provide more realistic information on the pattern of the disease, the magnitude of the losses, and the implications of the outbreak in social, economic and financial terms. 1 7 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Chapter 5 APPLICATIONS OF EPIZO O TIO LOG ICAL PRINCIPLES AND M ETHODS 5.1 Introduction Epizootiology, as defined and explained earlier, is never an end in itself; it is usually meant to be a means to many possible ends. One of the major ends is that of prevention of group problems, i.e. problems of groups of animals (herd, flock, pack, hoard, flight, shoal, and human population), family systems and relationships. Another useful end is the cost-effective control of such problems, based on appropriate knowledge (of factors, events, forces, circumstances, relationships, interrelationships and interactions) provided during relevant epizootiological studies. Therefore, some of the applications of epizootiological principles and methods are as listed above and discussed below. In ultimate terms, epizootiology is meant to provide the soundest basis for preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) or preventive measures (pm) in the broadest, strictly holistic and deepest sense. Hence pvm is preventive measure (pm) in the most comprehensive and holistic sense. This has to be so. since what veterinarians seek to prevent are never limited to the problems of lower vertebrate animals; they include human problems (which is a major aspect of veterinary public health (vph) practice, which is most apparent in (but is not limited to) food hygiene and control of zoonoses). The prevention of degradation of the external environment, which is shared by most types of living things in each ecological zone and is affected by all meteorological and edaphic factors in each type of ecosystem are important aspects of veterinary public health and preventive medicine being contributions to community development and environmental health. More so, all these would be in vain without due attention to the internal environment of each vertebrate animal species, which is a major aspect o f immunobiology. These are key statements that would be taken up in greater details during advanced studies in systematic epizootiology. 176 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruosa, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 5.2 Classification of animal group /population problems The principles, methods, components, phases and approaches of epizootiology have been presented in the preceding four chapters of this book. The ultimate goal is to explain how these principles and methods can be applied to investigate, elucidate and then solve the problems of animal groups or human populations in a defined geographical location, over a stated period of time, through the cheapest and natural means at our disposal. We should be aiming at breaking the chain of events leading to the problems at its weakest link. The first steps therefore are to identify, define, describe, explain and then classify the varieties of the usual problems affecting such populations, be they of livestock, or of pets or companion species, or of beasts of burden, of wildlife or even of Homo sapiens*. One natural way of identifying and classifying the various problems of members of the biological animal kingdom is to consider the various essential activities of their living as a baseline for all the species as well as the nuances, whereby some prefer the words epidemiology for animals to epizootiology sensu stricto. In brief this should involve a study of their breeding, feeding, nutrition and their living conditions in relation to their habitat or external environment (all of which should properly come under husbandry practices in the case of livestock). It should also include the study of the natural ways of coping with, controlling and surviving their pests and other enemies in the common environment, maintaining their normal hygienic practices, their bionomics, as well as how they maintain their health so as not to succumb to their usual problems should also be studied. What we have mentioned above in brief is a major section in Systematic (i.e. Advanced) Epizootiology, especially covering community studies, which is the treatment of the same subject at an advanced level. The most im portant thing to note at this in troductory / elem entary (Epizootiology/Epizoology) level is that animal breeding, feeding, nutrition, living styles in relation to habitat, patterns of reactions to their enemies and how they maintain their health with or without human interventions, are each associated with some peculiar problems. The understanding of such problems in their proper perspectives is the first *See Glossary' section of this book for details 177 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 essential step towards solving or controlling them and the associated undesirable effects. This topic will be resumed under epizootiological diagnosis in sub-sections 5.4 below). But in the meantime it may be useful to consider the natural histories of some diseases and other problems in groups / populations of animals. 5.3 Natural histories of diseases and other problems in animal herds (or populations) 5.3 (a) From an epizootiological point of view, diseases constitute only one of the many groups of problems to which the principles and methods are applicable. There is almost no limit to the varieties of problems in animal populations, as in human herds to which the methods are applicable, howbeit with appropriate modifications according to the nature of the problem and that of the variable determinant factors ... and their relationships with one another. Nevertheless, in order to show that epizootiology is a natural continuation of the scientific stories already started in anatomical, physiological, immunological, other biological, pathological, microbiological and parasitological studies, the examples of the natural histories of diseases to be cited here will be those also applicable to the teachings of those other disciplines. 5.3 (b) (i) The natural history o f bovine brucellosis Classical bovine brucellosis is the one caused by interaction between cattle and the bacterium called Brucella abortus. The student should recall his knowledge of bacteria as obtained during the earlier course in Bacteriology (or Microbiology). That knowledge will be assumed. Hence, we need not repeat here the classification, morphological, biochemical and other characteristics of B. abortus. But we would say that the knowledge is relevant. And building on that essential foundation, we shall continue here with the natural history (not of Brucella per se, nor of the cattle sufferer but) of bovine brucellosis as a disease, being the outcome of a system o f relationships between a species of Brucella organisms and some species of domestic cattle i.e. Bos indicus and Bos Taurus). Remember also that by definition Epizootiology is a study of relationships.* In the present case, it is of an asymmetric (i.e. causal) relationship between a parasite B. abortus and its host cattle (Recall *See Glossary section of this book for details 1 7 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Jjagbone, I. F. and Olitgasa, B. O., 2005 Theobald Smith's infectious diseases as parasitism6"’*, type of relationship. Cattle is the host, brucella is the agent/parasite. The disease (brucellosis) is caused by the parasite (Brucella abortus) in the bovine (cattle) species. Hence it is called Bovine brucellosis. But it occurs in various scenarios, depending on how and where the event begins and where and how it ends. 5.3 (b) (ii) The usual beginning The usual beginning of the relationship is either by contamination or by ingestion or by direct inoculation. Obviously the mode of first contact (“the first impression or encounter of each other sort o f ’) is an important variable determinant of the nature and outcome of the subsequent relationship and the problematic aspect of it, or so would be our first epizootiological assumption. The assumption should provide a ready basis for some hypothesis, based on established knowledge and amenable to hypothesis as well as experimental testing. But first we should try to trace the course of a relationship that starts with contamination. 5.3 (b) (iii) Scenario /: Relationships commencing with contamination Abortion is one of the cardinal signs" of bovine brucellosis. When this occurs the organisms are shed in their millions with the uterine and vaginal discharges from the aborting cow. In one way or the other, the natural orifices of potential hosts are contaminated. The outcome of this then depends on the number of organisms, the resistance of the hosts and the ability of the brucellae to survive and establish themselves on the mucous membranes of their new hosts. If the organisms survive, they will then invade the tissues of the host. They may find their way into the labyrinth of lymphatic capillaries under the hosts' mucous membrane. There they are readily picked up by the phagocytes (microphages and macrophages), and then transported into the various local lymph nodes in the area. There they multiply and burst out of the cells, finding their ways into the blood circulatory system, thus producing the stage of bacteraemia. In the blood, the organisms are exposed to the defense mechanism of the host. The serum antibodies are attracted to combine with them, and with serum complement they become susceptible to phagocytosis and elimination from circulation. Eventually, the organisms that evade phagocytosis settle into the cells of the lympho- 1 7 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O. Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 reticular system where they remain quiescent, until something triggers off their multiplication and release into circulation again. One of the factors that trigger their multiplication and circulation is a polysaccharide substance called erithritol, which seems to have its origin in the gravid uterus of cattle. So that the brucellae eventually invade the uterus, the placenta and the blood of the foetus, where they again multiply astronomically. And when abortion or even “normal” calving occurs, the bacteria are discharged in large quantities into the external environment, in the byre or on the field where the cattle are grazing. From there other susceptible hosts (man or lower vertebrate animals) become infected through contamination, leading to infection or through ingestion of contaminated materials by the host, also resulting in clinical infection of the new hosts. 5.3 b (iv) Scenario II: Relationship commencing with ingestion When brucella organisms are ingested by cattle, either with infected or contaminated milk or with grass or other feed items, the organisms find their way into the blood circulatory system. This is the first stage of bacteraemia and fever. The rest of the cycle of events proceeds as for the scenario 1, starting with contamination and up to bacteraemia. Fever is usually an indication that the organism is getting round the body via the blood circulatory system. As this stage is repeated from time to time, the patient is said to have undulant fever. It is of more significance in man than in cattle. 5.3 (b) (v) Scenario III: Relationship commencing with inoculation Whenever virulent brucella organisms are accidentally injected into cattle, acute inflammation occurs at the site of injection. The first phase of bacteraemia occurs being marked by severe fever. The rest of the cycle of events proceeds as for other scenarios, except that the clinical signs and the effects on the host are more severe and most dramatic. 5.3 (b) (vi) All scenarios To a greater or lesser extent, the undulant nature of the fever associated with the disease, especially in man (brucellosis is a zoonotic disease) is manifested also in the lower vertebrate species. Periods of high fever are 180 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 followed by spells of remission until abortion or “normal” calving occurs in cattle (or severe debilitation, mental derangement and agonizing death occurs in man; it is never a pleasant situation in man if the disease is not effectively controlled). It should be noted that peaks and troughs of clinical signs are usually associated with appropriate immunological (and other biological) responses of the host. These responses are indicated by rises in the titre of the various types of (early and later) anti-bodies and cell mediated immune (cmi) responses, all of which may be detected and quantified by appropriate immuno-diagnostic tests. The actual course of the disease and the likely outcome at every stage and of every scenario can be predicted by epizootiological methods on the usual scale of probability if all the variable determinant factors and events have been carefully, accurately and adequately defined, monitored and measured in the appropriate units and at the appropriate levels of specificity, sensitivity and validity. What all these points indicate is that by following the appropriate methods of Epizootiology the natural histories of the various diseases and other problems in groups / populations of animals (and people) can be comprehensively uncovered and thereby facilitate their natural control and determination at every conceivable stage. It should also be noted how the knowledge and skills obtained from studies in the other disciplines (and more appropriately the actual participation of those other disciplines) become relevant to the efforts of the epizootiologists. Again, it is here emphasized that Epizootiology is a multi-disciplinary, even inter­ disciplinary subject, right from the stage of definition and diagnosis of the problems, their nature and their volume. Hence Epizootiological diagnosis will next be considered in the following section. 5.4 Epizootiological diagnosis 5.4 (a) What is diagnosis? Diagnosis means making statements about the occurrence, nature, causation and likely course of a disease (or other problems). Diagnosis is usually preceded by case history, relevant observations, further 181 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 investigations, acquisition of specific knowledge, application of experience of previous cases of similar nature and the results of specific tests have been achieved f Diagnosis therefore usually consists of expressions of observations made and interpretation of results obtained at the end of study tasks by various disciplines, at various stages, in the course of disease, other problems and their undesirable effects. For human problems, such statements of feelings and observations would usually start from the patient himself/herself e.g. when he/she says “I have fever.” For veterinarians the very first statement is often made by the client/owner of the patient (e.g. when he/she says “My dog is coughing” or that “My dog is behaving abnormally”, “My horse is lame.”, “My pigs have worms.”. And in this case of bovine brucellosis, “My pregnant heifers are aborting.” It is to be noted that such statements made by the owner is a form of diagnosis at the level of the owner. But then, the physician or veterinary clinician is next given the opportunity to examine the patient before making his own statement of diagnosis. And that would be the stage and expression of clinical diagnosis. The clinician may, for example conclude that the patient has metritis, or in other circumstances pneumonia. But he could also take specimens from the patient and send same with specific requests to a bacteriologist, virologist, parasitologist, haematologist, immunologist, or histopathologist for further investigation in their various laboratories. Each of these will also then make their own statements of diagnosis after conducting their own investigation (tasks) on the same problem. Hence we could have stage-wise clinical, microbiological (bacteriological or v iro logical), haem atological, im m unological, cytological, histopathological and/or parasitological statements of diagnosis whichever one or group is relevant to the suspected disease or other problem, as determined by the clinician or clinical epizootiologists, whichever one encountered the problem first. Moreover, epizootiological diagnosis fundamentally takes into account factors, forces, events and circumstances of - Groups or populations of hosts, agents, vectors and reservoirs of disease: - Places in geographical and ecological terms: - Time in terms of dates, season/s, when, since when, duration, how often, trends, peaks and troughs: 182 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 - symmetrical and asymmetrical associations, interactions, dependence and interdependence in terms of food, nutrient, energy requirements and chains, also in terms of mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, chance and ephemeral associations with or without climax or stability in the relevant ecosystem: and - in terms of environmental health, degradation, sustenance of natural variety of species, their survival, threatened state, increasing and decreasing prosperity. These are all in the context of community health. The usual conception is such that an epizootiological diagnosis may not be considered or adjudged to be complete or holistic unless those classified issues are given due consideration, depending of course on the nature of the system's problem being considered, the context and level at which it is being considered, the objectives of the system and that of the exercise, project or programme. Thus, epizootiological diagnosis will always cover the scope ofbeing as comprehensive as the protagonists may think necessary and optimally cost-effective, and depending on the availability of resources or as much as the system's capacity for resource management approach may permit. Following the systematics, logic paths and tools of thought just presented, epizootiology will readily prove to be the soundest tools, not only for determining the most reliable prognosis, but in choosing from the most appropriate or optimum of solution options for control, extermination and prevention of the group problem in hand and its envisaged extension or worsening. It will also lead the way to wisdom in minimizing the adverse or undesirable effects of group problems (i.e. problems of herds, flocks, populations et hoc genus omne) cost- effectively in financial, economic and social terms, these being issues in socio-economic jurisprudence (sej), which is always of cardinal concern in epizootiology. 5.4 (h) Phases o f Diagnosis Eventually the Epizootiologist comes round to look at all those early statements. Or, he ab initio seeks the help, collaboration or cooperation of any or rarely all of those other disciplines. Or he approaches the problems partly along the line from the points of view of the relevant disciplines. But in addition he looks, not only at the sick and the dead, but also at the 183 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 apparently normal members of the group / herd / flock / population in which some members have fallen ill or have become overtaken by the problem and are dead; he looks at the entire group or population (cohort) at risk or exposed, or at representative samples from the group or population of his concern, and also at similar but unexposed groups / populations as controls. As a result of his investigations, the Epizootiologist then makes his own statement of diagnosis, which is usually most embracing, and likely to provide materials that may guide sound and conclusive decisions or actions for control and prevention of the group problem and that of their environment. Triangulation In summary and conclusion, we could say that diagnosis is a network of activities and pronouncements on which epizootiologists and adherents of cognate disciplines, base their decisions on the nature of and take appropriately cost-effective management actions on group problems. Diagnosis is therefore a stage-wise affair; and epizootiological diagnosis is the fulcrum on which the understanding, definition, simplification, control, eradication and prevention of diseases and other problems in specific groups of animals (and/or human populations) revolve. Proper diagnosis is a network or system of accurate and adequate observations, investigations, tests, data processing (including computations, summary presentations and analysis) and interpretation of the results that may guide us to make valid decisions and take effective actions in the control and prevention of problems in populations of men, women, children, adults or mixtures of all the above (that being a matter of Epi'demiological diagnosis), as in groups (herds, flocks, etc) of animals (that being a matter of Epi'zootiological (which includes epidemiological diagnosis) and in groups of plants in lots and plots, crops, forests, and fields (that being a matter of Epi'phytological diagnosis), or and of mineral elements and substances (that being the concern of Epi'inanimatological diagnosis). For example, it was concluded that a sero-epizootiological diagnosis could be based on antigen and antibody ELISA technique. And these were found to be valuable adjuncts to clinical and parasitological methods of diagnosing animal trypanosomosis, studying the epizootiology of the disease, and monitoring the effectiveness of control methods6 184 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 The usual starting point is to consider which group/s of objects is/are having the problem/s to be diagnosed. And when considering matters affecting objects, which may be animate or inanimate, one could learn a lot from the “OPST approaches and logic paths” enunciated by Esuruoso'11 6 44,. And that is the basis for comprehensively covering the wide scope of problems, to which epizootiological (more than any other logical) principles and methods may be applied. The epizootiologist always has interest in groups of animals, people and things in their surroundings, wishing to know as much as possible about their nature, reactions and interactions with and exposures to one another, all of which may contribute directly or indirectly to the occurrence, distribution and magnitude of manifested problem/s at hand and over time. Such comprehensive concern is the basis for the practice of veterinary public health (vph) and preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) which are the first ends to which epizootiology (as presented in this book) is the soundest means of reaching. That is a key statement. Read it over and over again, until you fully understand the import and achieve cognitive knowledge of the implications. And if still in doubt or at sea, go into heuristic learning or discuss with an intelligent colleague around or ask your teacher to expatiate. 5.4(b) (i) Traditional Phases/Stages o f Diagnosis Also in the traditional way, diagnosis may be considered in phases/stages, as may be appropriate for each type of problem being considered. The phases are: - (i) Initial or tentative diagnosis: ifx) Differential diagnosis: and (Hi) Final/definitive diagnosis. And while in other disciplines all these stages are applicable to the individual patients or casualties, not necessarily related in usual location, real time implications or shared circumstances of living and culture, epizootiological diagnosis is by definition concerned with the problems of entire groups or populations at risk or exposed due to sharing of the 185 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 fortunes and misfortunes of an immediate environment, in a given geographical location, over a stated period of time, in qualitative and quantitative terms, of problems-current, evolving or planned (for prospective studies), past (for retrospective studies), and even in predicting the future events and probable outcome of real-time exposure or potential exposure to harmful agents (infective, toxic or otherwise causing unpleasant health status). We shall therefore now consider at some length, the characteristics. 5.4 (c) Epizootiological Diagnosis and other group problems Epizootiological diagnosis is usually based on types of diseases and other problems of groups of animals and population of people in defined geographical areas over time. By examining or studying the mode, volume, distribution and speed of occurrence, incidence, prevalence and usual course of a disease or other problem in a group (herd, flock) of animals or populations of humans, the following types of disease and other group problems (as defined below) may be diagnosed epizootiologically as: - (i) A sporadic disease / problem: (ii) An enzootic / endemic disease or problem: (iii) An epizootic / epidemic occurrence: (i v) A point epizootic / point epidemic occurrence: (v) Propagative enzootic / epizootic (endemic / epidemic) disease. Nor is the above list meant to be comprehensive, exhaustive or exclusive of other possibilities. In fact, one can immediately think of panzootics and pandemics, which are indications that the diseases or other group problems so described tend to manifest global dimension in their distribution. They tend to be capable of worldwide distribution if not rapidly contained at the point of first detection. Perhaps one should note here that such group problems may include diseases, syndromes, and other group problems, such as terrorism, suicide bombing, corporate fraud, depletion of ozone layer, et hoc genus omne based on the wicked nature of 186 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuntoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 man and man's inability to live within the laws of nature. The consequences are ultimately everyone's problem. But now, as befits an introductory presentation of the subject, we shall concentrate on the usual outcome or summary description and presentation of the nature of such groups of problems listed as (i) to (v) above. We describe in words and tables, and illustrate in graphs, charts and histograms as the case may be. Representations of frequency distribution Frequency distribution may be represented in various forms, namely in tables, graph, and histogram form. Examples of these are shown in Tables 5.1 Figure 5.1 (graph) and Figure 5.2 (Histogram) below. In further representations, only table and graph forms will be used in this book. Each graph is drawn from the table that precedes it. Table 5.1: P resentation o f Frequency distribution o f sporad ic outbreaks of diseases (or other group problem s) Months Frequency January 0 February 0 March 0 April 15 May 0 June 0 July 0 August 1 0 September 0 October 0 November 1 2 December 0 Annual Total 37 [E.g. Anthrax outbreaks (or Hooding of animal house/s)] (Also expressed below in graph and histogram) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 1 igure 5.1 F requency distribution o f sporadic outbreaks o f d iseases Figure 5.2 Frequency distribution of sporadic outbreaks of disease •t 2115 «t ’O ' * nJ______ L •*' ./ / >■' / < • ' s * /y * » V* -c* o* M O N T H S □ Series 1 Table 5.2: Presentation o f Frequency distribution o f enzootic / endem ic presence of d iseases (or other group problem s) Months Frequency January 25 February 18 March 2 0 April 23 May 30 June 25 July 2 0 August 19 September 1 0 October 15 November 18 December 2 0 (Also expressed in Figure 5.3 below as a graph) [e.g. Total: 245 Bovine brucellosis in nomadic herds in Nigeria] 1 8 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 F ig u r e 5 .3: G raphic presentations o f enzootic / endemic d iseases and other group problem s Table 5.3: Presentation of Frequency distribution of epizootic / epidem ic (occurrence of) diseases and other group problems of animals and people Months Frequency January 0 February 15 March 5 April 1 0 May 2 0 June 15 July 25 August 35 September 40 October 45 November 50 December 60 Total: 320 (This is also expressed in Figure 5.4 below as a graph) [e.g. Rinderpest and Pest des petit Ruminants in Nigeria] 189 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 5.4: G raphic presentations o f epizootic / epidemic occurrence o f diseases and other group problem s o f anim als and people MONTHS An epizootic/ epidemic is a disease that occurs in sudden outbreaks; quickly affecting high proportions of the group/s of animals (or people) at risk or exposed e.g. Newcastle Disease of poultry (or 'flu' in the case of people). For deeper understanding, it should be noted that the term epizootic (or epidemic) is a function of the pattern of occurrence as well as of group, spatial and temporal (i.e. speed of spread in the) distribution of the disease/s in question6 Table 5.4: P resentation o f Frequency distribution o f (the occurrence of cases in) a point enzootic / ep idem ic (outbreak of a disease/s or other group problems of animals or people) Months Frequency January 1 0 February 8 March 1 0 April 15 May 5 June 75 July 1 0 August 5 September 1 October 0 November 0 December 5 Total: 144 (This is a iso expressed in graph form (Figure 5.5 below) e. g. Haemonchosis in yearling dairy heifers at Ikorodu farm settlement6' " 6 190 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olngasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 5.5: Line Graph presentation of p o in t epizootic / epidemic (ocurrence of) diseases (or other group problems) (i) A point epizootic / point epidemic is a sudden rise and fall in the number of animals/people affected by the outbreak of the disease as a proportion of those at risk and exposed in the geographical area. (ii) Other possibilities include propagative enzootic disease outbreaks as is the case of Bovine brucellosis in cattle ranches in Nigeria678'6'81. Once one or two cases are established on the ranch, the potential for affecting more and more proportions of susceptible animal species at risk on the ranch is readily realized. For example, in one year, we diagnosed a brucellosis prevalence of 2% in the breeding female cattle in a ranch, and advised the authorities to cull or remove the positive reactors from the ranch; but this was not done. Four years later, when the prevalence of the disease was again investigated, it was found that 78% of the animals had been affected. The frequency distribution of propagative presence of such a disease is provided below. T a b le 5 .5 : P r e s e n ta t io n o f F r e q u e n c y d is tr ib u t io n o f th e o u tb r e a k o f a propagative enzootic d is e a s e Months Frequency January 15 February 20 March 45 April 55 May 25 June 30 July 35 August 38 September 68 October 78 November 78 December 85 Total: 562 (This is also expressed in graph below as Figures 5.6, e.g. Bovine brucellosis on ranches in Nigeria681 191 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 F ig u r e 5 .6 : L in e g r a p h p r e s e n ta t io n o f a propagative enzootic / endemic (or ev e n a propagative epizootic / epidemic (ou tbreak o f ) ) d is e a s e (or o th er p rob lem Line graph of Bovine brucellosis occurrence on a ranch in Nigeria 6 78-8 sl Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is another good example of propagative epizootic occurrence. Flence we provide a table and graphical representation of the epizootiologically diagnostic indicators. T a b le 5 .6 : P r e s e n ta t io n o f f r e q u e n c y d is tr ib u t io n o f F o o t a n d M o u th D is e a s e (F M D ) o u tb r e a k s in N ig e r ia Months Frequency January 15 February 20 March 45 April 55 May 25 June 30 July 35 August 38 September 68 October 78 November 78 December 85 Total: 562 (This is also expressed in graph below as Figures 5.7) 192 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esnriioso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 5.7: Line graph presentation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in N i g e r i a 8 0 6 0 S ' 0 ------------ 1------------ 1------------ 1-------------------1------------ 1-------------1------------ 1------------ 1-------------1-------------1------------ 1------------ Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. An epizootic / epidemic disease is a sudden occurrence or outbreak of a disease to a much higher level than would normally be expected. FMD is a good example of a propagating epizootic and enzootic year after year. It is of major economic importance. As a practical exercise, students should produce a histogram or bar chart of the frequency distribution from each of the data sets provided in tables 5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5 and 5.6, and submit same to their lecturer, who may decide to use the submission as part of materials for continuous assessment that would count at the end of the course. Every year outbreaks of FMD are recorded throughout the country. Once it is established, many other cases are diagnosed in the surrounding herd. The strains and serotypes of one particular outbreak have been found to be the same for the initial spread. But very soon, a new serotype has evolved, accounting for the problems of getting a vaccine for the control of the disease. The vaccine has to be specific for the strain and serotype that is prevalent at the time the vaccine is being administered. And since changes take place very rapidly, even a multivalent vaccine may not prevent the spread and toll any outbreak may cause in a particular instance. This is also one of the reasons why the slaughter policy is the main control method for FMD in the United Kingdom" h'117. It is very expensive; but it is considered cheaper than allowing the disease to become enzootic/endemic in the country. The economic losses in calf mortality and loss of milk yield are so great, that they would be intolerable. Above is also part of the reasons why the United Kingdom would not import meat, milk or live animals from countries like Nigeria, where FMD is probably enzootic/endemic. Every epizootiologist should know a lot 193 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso, GO, ljagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 aoout the pattern and problems of most of these diseases of economic and international importance, and thereby reflect the reality, both in their management and in giving advice to Government and entrepreneurs on livestock industry development and production in the country. Much greater details may be obtained from the experts in our universities, research institutes and consultancy outfits throughout the country. 5.5 Epizootiological intelligence activities The following activities are usually discussed under the general tilL Epizootiological intelligence; they are: 5.5 (a) Survey ofdiseases and other problems Disease surveys are basic investigations that lead to information on the occurrence and distribution of the specific disease in populations of animals in defined geographical areas. Time distribution studies enable the investigator to report on the incidence or prevalence of the disease investigated. Usually, representative samples of the group or population units and individuals within the units are examined. Very often also it is the prevalence surveys that are carried out. But this may be followed by periodic say annual incidence surveys (see monitoring). A disease survey may take the form of clinical, pathological, serological, microbiological, parasitological, haematological, or a combination of any two or more of these. A comprehensive survey is the epizootiological form in which most of the above, as may be relevant to the type of disease, are carried out. Remember, epizootiological intelligence has holistic and peripheral components. It also has biomedical, statistical and socio-economic aspects, costs and benefits that must be carefully investigated and reported on in both qualitative and quantitative terms. This is another point in the study of epizootiology where the working definition of the discipline should be recalled and applied, starting with the tripod of epizootiology and 'the gospel according to Saint Gabriel1*". He is not a true epizootiologists who only stops at the ec/tolalia level of learning6 M). 5.5 (b) Monitoring o f diseases and other problems Disease monitoring is usually a series of follow-up investigations, updating the facts about the nature and volume of a disease or diseases in a given group population of animals month after month, year after year, with 194 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 changing seasons and other environmental circumstances etc., in a defined geographical area. Monitoring may be done with or without an ongoing control or eradication programme or to assess the effects of some control programme. Changes in the numbers and age groups in the herd may provide useful indication of the states and effects of the disease. An initial survey or prevalence study is followed by periodic incidence studies, and the establishment of a trend or pattern of occurrence, remission or reduction or spontaneous disappearance of the disease, where applicable. One of Murphy's laws (s.i.t.m.) says that “Left to themselves, things always go from bad to worse”. This should be regarded as largely true. But a scientist must always keep an open mind while collecting numerical and non-numerical data on whatever problem he is studying. There could well be some instances when left to themselves 'things may go from bad to good'. Human interference can sometimes aggravate a problem. Think of our environment. Facts and figures from monitoring can only yield useful information if reliably collected and appropriately processed. Remember that such processing includes descriptive, analytical and interpretation components. These are done with the right tools, making proper use of modern technology and the associated computer leverage. Today, he who cannot do computer-assisted processing and has no inkling of the power of information technology can sure not be a useful epizootiologist. 5.5 (c) Surveillance o f diseases and other problems Disease surveillance has been defined ’ ’ as the continuing scrutiny of all aspects of occurrence and spread of a disease that are pertinent to effective control. It usually involves the systematic collection and analysis of data on the variable determinants of the disease, its occurrence, spread, effects, as well as its socio-economic and financial implications at every level. Uniform, practical and analytical methods and tools are used in disease surveillance. The parameters of changes in herd structure, place, local geography, meteorology, and other environmental events over time are carefully considered in surveillance activities. Those then are the topics on which surveillance data are collected and processed to determine the nature, level and implications of detectable changes. Trace-backs are essential aspects of disease surveillance. For example, information on a group of animals brought to the local abattoir for 1 9 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 s'aughter may need to be traced-back to the markets through which they had passed and to the farms from which they originated. Records of their health status at the beginning of the journey should always be made. Information on their exposure en-route and any increase or decrease through death or culling should also be noted as important materials for epizootiological surveillance. Also all the tools and methods of the clinical, microbiological and pathological disciplines are usually applied in Epizootiological Surveillance as may be appropriate for each case. The holistic and peripheral aspects of Epizootiological surveillance of diseases and other problems in groups of animals or populations are the sources of information usually necessary for the control and prevention of the problems of any group of animals, whether migrant or resident in a place. 5.6 Risk Studies 5.6 (a) Introduction to risk studies In section 7.16 of the glossary to this book we defined, classified and explained the relevance, importance, types and general concern usually accorded risk and the need to study risks and apply the wisdom from such studies. The wise reader would pause, refer to and peruse that section of the glossary at this point and before going any further. However, for the purposes of necessary introduction in this section, we would like to start by observing that life itself is a risk, and risk means the 'probability of an undesirable event occurring'. Here we use the word 'probability' advisedly. We could have chosen the equally correct word 'possibility'. The reader should do well to remember that 'possibility' is qualitative, w'hileprobability is quantitative. Not only should we be aware that risks may occur because they are possible, but we must also be able to measure the chances of its occurrence in given contexts and circumstances. Our findings should then be expressed as measures of probability having values between zero and 1, each meaning 'certainty' in negative and positive senses respectively. It is then from such findings and reasoning that we obtain information, which could guide our decision making and our steps in the implementation of our various projects and programmes. 'To be or not to be' will no longer remain an unanswered 196 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 question. That is one of the cardinal reasons why we must study risks in qualitative and quantitative terms and as an important aspect of epizootiology. In other words, we should be aware of risk as a fact oflife. Then we must be able to identify and quantify the types of risk that may occur in the practice of our discipline, and put our thumbs on the ones that should concern us most. We should then seek optimum ways of controlling / managing inevitable and preventing preventable risks642'6'67. Management here should mean minimizing the unpleasant effects of what may occur. And preventing should mean making it impossible or highly improbable that they would occur. And that if they in fact do occur, their effects would be neutralized by an alternative loop that would automatically take over when a component of the system fails. Note that we are now dealing in system's mode towards achieving system objectives cost-effectively and efficiently. Now, the first set of risks that should concern an epizootiologist should be the risk of his patients, members of the human race and the environment getting into intractably problematic situations, being exposed to disease agents, being infected by them, taking ill and hopelessly dying in large numbers before their time. To this must be added the risk of not being able lo make proper diagnosis of a problem/s before our patients, ourselves or our environment are overwhelmed, thus threatening our survival and putting our system's prosperity in a far distant future. All these are related to our expression of prognosis whenever we make our diagnosis. Therefore, we have decided to examine in some detail such new tools as geographical information system (G1S), as an example of “biological risk visualization, management and tracking tool under section 5.6(b) below. 5.6 (b) Application o f geographic information systems (G1S) in risk studies Animal health risk studies6"4 comprise of visualization, measurement (evaluation), assessment and management aspects. GIS helps us to achieve these four effectively. Visualization aspect makes GIS technology application in epizootiology to be a more exact science. Animal health risk visualization is an example of scientific visualization. Scientific visualization is a method that incorporates computer (especially graphics) 197 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 that can transform data into visual models, which could not have been seen ordinarily6 By applying scientific visualization to the study of locational and spatial data, it then becomes geographic visualization (GVIS)6 "s. Animal health risk visualization may in turn be described as the application of geographic visualization methods to an assessment of health risk in animal groups/population at a specific location and time. 5.6(c) What is GIS9 A GIS649 6110 is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data related to positions on the Earth's surface. G1S is used for handling maps meant to be definitive of the problem at hand to support decision making in planning and management of land use, natural resources, environment, transportation, urban facilities, natural risks, administrative records and in our case, animal health risk studies' 4 '. The use of GIS in veterinary medicine and epizootiology dates back to late 1970s. Canadian scientist, Dr. Rowland R. Tinline, applied GIS retrospectively to the pattern of spread of the Foot and Mouth Epizootic during 1967-68. He applied the GIS technology to generate data from which incubation period of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) was obtained. Thus gaining a better understanding of the disease pattern and how it spread from herd to herd M9. Much was learned about FMD by using GIS and could be appl ied to focus the control of future outbreaks worldwide 4 . Capturing of spatial and non-spatial data related to animal population, distribution and their problems is a major component of a GIS project on risk study. Many countries have already established facilities for full application of the technology. For example, in the case o Nigeria, an earth observation satellite called Nigeria Sat 1, for the country was successfully launched into space on 26 September 2003 in Siberia, Russia. By this, it is hoped that there will be improvements in the availability of real-time data from satellite to enhance integration with GIS for problem solving applications in Nigeria. Nigeria Sat 1 satellite captures and records earth surface images of Nigeria on daily basis at a 32m pixels resolution. This is a low resolution equipment and is suitable for large scaD capping only. 198 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O. Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 not for detailed small scale mapping that would show individual buildings, including houses, streams, roads and built cities clearly. It may not be useful without adaptation, for precise animal health risk studies. It could be regarded as a fore-runner of our awareness of the technology. However, in order to carry out geographic mapping of cattle herd movement pattern and therefore their problems, across Nigeria on a GIS, one would require a high resolution equipment like the Ikonos satellite capable of producing 0.5 to lm pixel resolution images. This will effectively aid in visualization of the spatial distribution of cattle and their movement pattern across Nigeria, especially in relation to land use, vegetation cover, water resources and seasonal changes within the country and throughout a year. Non-spatial data can then be obtained and integrated w'ith this. In this context, it could be mentioned that a group of scientists at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria and collaborators at Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, USA once designed a pilot project that would utilise data from Ikonos satellite to focus on ring vaccination of cattle against Contagious Bovine Pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP) in five cattle producing states in northern Nigeria. The selected states were those that had extensive surveillance records for the disease. The design was completed in June 2004 but could not be executed due to lack of funds. The project aimed at discovering more effective and efficient method for the control of CBPP in Nigeria61-1 was a prototype design for GIS application in animal health risk study in Nigeria. We hope that in future funds wall be available to carry out such project. 5.6 (d) Risk assessment and visualization with Community Viz software ’ 6.84,6.85 A GIS software that was found suitable for the assessment of animal group/population health risk in a place is CommunityVizbM' 68\ This software is produced and marketed by the Orton Family Foundation in Bolder, Colorado, USA in collaboration with Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) in Redlands, California, USA. CommunityViz software has a module called Scenario Constructor, an impact analysis software that works as an Arc View 3.x extension. Scenario Constructor649 199 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 "M was used to analyze the potential impacts of an accidental release of biological agents on a cattle farm in form of incidence. The analysis quantified the spread of the agents and the resulting disease. It also assessed the risk involved in such a scenario. Scenario Constructor enabled an epizootiologist to estimate the number of ill cattle that would result, and to visualize the necessary decontamination area. The analyst found CommunityViz software to be a “suitable and efficient tool684” because of its advantages listed below: Community Viz GIS software has the following advantages: (1) Provides interactive animal health risk visual model, which is not usually available on a farm. An interactive visual model of this type is valuable both before and after an accidental release or deliberate use of a biological agent on a farm. (2) CommunityViz makes impact assessment easier in that, it allows data set-up in Scenario Constructor module. It also makes health risk impact assessment simpler by its impact assessment tool. The impact assessment tool prompts user to select appropriate disease agent from options, which makes it user friendly. (3) Since epizootiologists are always making use of observed visual information, the use of GIS will only enhance the normal process of determining prognosis and providing information needed for cost effective practices of animal health and production. The dialogue boxes that prompt the user for values to be selected from provided options make CommunityViz impact assessment tool interactive and user friendly. This provision makes it simplified for individuals that have little or no previous knowledge of GIS, but are familiar with the click and drag activities, using the mouse and arrow keys on the computer. The user however would need to have adequate knowledge of infectious agents and their characteristics in order to be able to use the Scenario Constructor for impact assessment and related procedures. Users of CommunityViz software are still constantly coming up with new ways of putting this GIS decision-support software to work on animal health risk studies. A sample case study is presented below. 200 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 5.8: CommunityViz illustration o f risk o f d isease outbreaks in accidental release o f d isease causing agents on a cattle farm ft.- t3 * *. — « ," i— --— ~t 3 Community Viz window, showing automated themes6 84 and risk indicators associated with accidental Release of FMD on a cattle farm as an hypothetical case study. Notice the bar charts on the right side that quantify associated risks. A case study of accidental release of FMD In order to further demonstrate the usefulness of this system, three automated themes are shown in the Figure 5.8 above. They are (i) **Vaccination history, (ii) **Accidental release of FMD1 ! 6 80, and (iii) **Deliberate use of FMD. An automated theme is identified based on the presence of two asterisks (**) on it. An automated theme is a theme on GIS that is able to compute needed values spontaneously from variables, constants, constraints and automated (auto) data, based on pre-defmed fonnula that was given to it during scenario design and set-up. The result computed was called an indicator of the scenario outcome. The results of three indicators were displayed on the screen in Figure 5.14 above. Note Arc View GIS 3.3 on top and a title scenario: biological risk visualization on animal farm. The three automated themes are: (i) FMD vaccine protection status of herd 201 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Oiugasa, B. ()., 2005 (ii) Probability of FMD in Accidental Release' "4 (iii) Probability of FMD in Deliberate use6'84 Conditional values for total herd FMD vaccine coverage for farms were retrieved from tables that contain vaccination status of all animals in each herd684. Com mum tv Viz scenario predictive model summed up the number of protected animals and then expressed the proportion of vaccinated animals as ratio of herd population, this was presented as percentage, i.e. multiplied by 100 (Unit is %). A different arithmetic formula was used to define the needed model for determining the other two indicators, namely probability of disease in Accidental Release and probability of disease in deliberate use. The formulae were defined and set-up in CommunityViz Scenario Constructor Formula Wizard. For the purpose of this introductory book, details of formulae set-up6 84 in CommunityViz may not be required here. It is however sufficient to note that while ** Vaccination history was a point feature **Accidental release of bio-agent was made a polygon feature. A polygon feature is one that covers an area as opposed to a feature that covers a point or a line (linear) position. **Deliberate use of bio-agent was made a line feature on the map. These symbols weix selected to illustrate potential spatial pattern that may be assumed when these events do take place. 5.6 (d) (i) Spatial datasets fo r scenario setup in CommunityViz Set-up of a scenario for animal health risk assessment and visualizatioi i requires a number of datasets - both spatial and attribute datasets were required. Our case study' M was based on an hypothetical cattle farm in Black Hawk County, Iowa State in the United States of America. Spatial dataset of Black Hawk County in Iowa State 1. Aerial photograph of Black Hawk County 2. Land parcels shape file 3. Farm footprint shape file 4. Farmland area boundary shape file 5. Stream shape file 6. Sub division shape file 7. ** Accidental release automated theme 8. **Deliberate use automated theme 9. **Vaccination history 202 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Objectives o f the case study 1. To use a hypothetical cattle farm as an example 2. To design a scenario for accidental release of FMD for example. 3. To quantity the spatial spread and disease impact on a group of cattle. 4. To apply CommunityViz software to construct the scenario and to assess the disease outbreak impact. An impact assessment indicator that was used to account for health risk outcome on the hypothetical farm and in the event o f an accidental release of FMD virus was the estimated number of clinically ill cattle in first 10 days. Illustrations are made in the paragraphs below. The scenario assumed that the natural route of entry of FMD virus was used. CommunityViz allowed changes to be made to route of introduction (and spatial spread ability), and infectivity of agent so that the assessment could be refocused as necessary. Figure 5.9: Estimated sum of clinically ill cattle during the first 10 days of exposure to FMD virus being a result generated by a predictive model set-up in CommunityViz (a GIS) software This bar chart provides a visual display of the risk impact assessment in CommunityViz 5.6 (d) (ii) Scenario view and scenario theme properties set-up To make the indicator work efficiently in CommunityViz, several auto data were needed to be defined and set up in scenario theme properties of **Accidental release theme, and also in the scenario view properties (which served as the large-scale scenario property) where variables, snapshots and indicators were set up. 203 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory’ Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Fig 5.10: CommunityViz Scenario properties w indow for setting up scenario elem ents, includ ing variab les, constants, ind icators, snapshots, tab les and for securing the setup w ith a lock S cenario P ro p e rtie s : bio logical risk v isu a liza tio n on an im al f a rm Scenario Source: ||O ti»ok^cal_iisk_v*sualiKattarr jd D ralfee r ra ta l i le e ' - N e w V a r i a b l e D is ta n c e - > T 4 Q ‘fa e t ' ' 11441 f e e t ’ D i s t a n c e 7 0 r> 5 0 1 511 fe e b Scenario 0 i s t a n c a t a l e t m to o t p rin t' 4 2 f e e t1 - F o re ig n - A n im a l D i s a a e s e - Elements FfrtfD v ra c m a tio m p r o t e c t io n p e r io d 1 3 801 d a y s V a r ia b le is r e f e r e n c e d ! in; P i o p e r t i e s t i» 'V a n a W e - D i s t a n c e d 5 G f e e t 1 ComnuinitvViz in c r e m e n t ' M in im u m 'V a iU e M tawnmiimV^Kia? D e f a u l t 'V a lu e This dialogue box enabled an epizootiologist to set up a model for prediction of outcomes based on predetermined properties of FMD scenario. The model was then saved on a central GIS. Figures 5.11 and 5.12: CommunityViz d ia logue boxes that prom pt user to select the nam e o f the agent and the route o f adm inistration from a set o f options I kiPf i link a (I lOtti I a Mp ) N mnr ITMfP' Wtaitowlter These dialogue boxes were created and were able to function because they were already set up in the scenario view and scenario theme properties. They made CommunityViz user friendly in risk impact studies 204 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figures 5.13 and 5.14: Dialogue boxes that prompt user for a value for infectivity of agent and allow user to change agent's incubation period respectively f ti m L'Ir I 'jv e ii ' l i 'J t ii 'j lv - ik *1 I I' Ml* Uinibiitton |tri1oil itluvs* 1° AT i i _ IOJ 20 |-----“ | 123 m Where the infectivity of a disease causing agent is experimentally studied to be different from what it was known to be, alternative values as a ratio of the known value may be set up and selected in CommunityViz. In the same way, if the incubation period varied, CommunityViz allows changes to be made as may be necessary. The variables created and set-up are as follow: Category I: Animals with Clinical Signs — Number of Animals with clinical signs (initial value) 0 Category II: Disease Incubation Period — FMD incubation period days 3 days Category III: Disease agent Infectivity FMD infectivity 1 Category IV: Sum of Animals with Clinical Signs — Animals with FMD clinical signs (initial value) 0 General Route of Administration (Spatial spread variability) 0.7 The snapshot defined and set-up was: 1 Estimated number of ill cattle in new exposure 205 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugusa, B. O., 2005 Figure 5.15: Snapshot of model resources for estimating ill cattle in latest new exposure xj Scenario: biological_risk_visualization on animal Farm ____ Snapshot Value I * — - (Snapshot) Estimate ill cattle per exposure - 42 Description: Th e maximum value from attribute Estimate ill cattle in theme M“ Deliberate use. Only consider selected features. Current Value: 42 Previous Value: 42 (MLd A snapshot defined this way enable the computation of risk impact to take care of dynamic changes in initial population’ The Estimated sum of clinically ill cattle (ESCIC) in 1st 10 days is computed by the impact assessment too using the formula below: ESCIC = [susceptible population exposed snapshot estimate of ill cattle per previous exposure] x [Agent spatial spread ability] x [Agent infectivity] / [Incubation period] Where, Effective population at risk in subsequent exposure is y. Y = a b where, a = Initial cattle population on farm (in this case 1000) b = Number (snapshot) of clinically ill cattle now. The indicator formula measures overlap with features in farmland area boundary and manipulated the auto data, variables and snapshot to estimate ill cattle in the 1 st 1 0 days. FMD Scenario Impact Assessment procedure ' (SIAP) This means determination of impact which in this case is the estimated number of clinically ill cattle within the first 10 days of exposure to FMD virus. It entails the following steps: i. Make **Accidental release automated theme the active theme on the computer screen by clicking on it; it then appears raised. ii. Click on Community Viz on the tool bar at the screen top. A drop down menu list appears. 206 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 iii. Click on impact assessment on the dropdown menu. There appears an extended list of menus. iv. On the new list, click on Indicator chart. The indicator window with title “Estimated sum of clinically ill cattle 1st 10 days” appears. v. Now click on the Edit toolbox on the toolbar at the top of the computer screen. An Edit scenario box appears. vi. Click on sketch and then draw a rectangle at any point within the farmland area boundary. A series of dialogue boxes to prompt the user to select name of bioagent, bioagent route of introduction and for infectivity of agent are then displayed. Make appropriate selections and the result will be displayed. The scenario impact assessment in this way is flexible in that it allows modifications in the infectivity, spatial spread ability and incubation period of an agent, thereby allowing real time (spontaneous) adjustments to refocus the assessment of the estimated sum of clinically ill cattle within the 1st 10 days. F ig u r e 5 .1 6 : C o m m u n ity V iz d ia lo g u e b o x e s fo r v a r y in g th e s p a t ia l sp r e a d a b ility o f a g e n t % xj Route ot Adrmnutratiori (Spatial sptead variability Route of Administration (Spatial spread variability 0.5 05 A r B * , . . . ; . ; r . . v L) 0.5 gj a 0 i----------1 7 CommunityViz sc e n a rio im p a c t a s se s s m e n t is f le x ib le a llo w in g m o d if ic a t io n s w h e n n e c e s sa ry in th e sp a tia l sp re a d a b ili ty o f a n a g en t, th e re b y a llo w in g u se r to re fo c u s e s tim a tio n o f su m o f c lin ic a lly ill c a tt le w ith in 1st 10 d ay s. 5.6 (d) (iii) Visualization o f farm decontamination areas necessary A simple approach to visual display of area to be decontaminated may be obtained by creating one or two commonly recommended radii around the point of administration of pathogen, the animal house and areas to which the agents have spread. This may be straightforwardly done in GIS visualization mode by defining specific distances e.g. 100 feet or 200 feet radius. This procedure is called buffer line drawing. 207 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 F igure 5.17: C om m unityV iz v isual d isp lay o f boundaries o f areas requiring decontam ination fo llow ing exposure to d isease causing agent The circumference created in this figure depicts boundary of minimum areas for disinfection 5.6 (e) Other GIS hardware and software and their benefits to risk studies P e rso n a l d ig ita l assista n ts ( P D A 6 122,6 123) in fo rm o f h an d h e lp c o m p u te rs are h a rd w a re that ra n m o b ile G I S an d G P S s o ftw a re an d a llo w f ie ld data to b e c o lle c te d an d re -la id b a c k to a ce n tra l G I S , w h e re a n a ly s is c o u ld b e m a d e to u p d a te an d v a lid a te r isk p r e d ic t iv e m o d e ls , fo r e x a m p le , the p ro b a b ility o f o u tb re a k o f F M D ( fo r e x a m p le ) an d s u c c e s s o f rin g v a c c in a t io n s tra te g ie s a g a in st the d is e a s e in a p art o f N ig e r ia . T h e s e m a p p in g to o ls w h ic h in c lu d e la se r ra n g e fin d e rs are n o w a v a ila b le w ith m u c h e a s ie r u s e r-fr ie n d ly s o ftw a re an d at m u ch lo w e r c o s ts than in th e p ast fe w y e a rs . T h e u se o f th e se d e v ic e s p ro v id e a s y s te m that re lie s o n G P S p o s itio n e d c o n tro l p o in ts64" an d a la s e r ra n g e fin d e r to r e m o te ly p o s itio n fa rm s, ab a tto irs , v e te r in a r y la b o ra to rie s , v e te r in a ry c lin ic s , q u aran tin e sta tio n s, an d w ild l ife lo ca tio n s . T h e d e v ic e s e n a b le id e n tific a tio n o f r is k areas, a c t iv e d is e a s e area s, and c o n v a le s c e n t ca rr ie r a n im a l g ro u p s o r p o p u la tio n o r re s e rv o ir h o st a n im a l a reas a c ro ss a co u n try . T h is a p p ro a ch is in ten d e d to b e n e fit a n im a l h ea lth an d the v e te r in a ry in stitu tio n s in a co u n try , b y fa c ilita tin g r is k s tu d ie s and im p le m e n ta tio n o f d ise a s e an d o th er p ro b le m s co n tro l stra te g ie s . T w o 208 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuriioso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 examples of mobile hardware that could be used to run GIS and GPS software concurrently are the Dell Axiom PDA61"’ and TrembleGeoXT PDA6125. TrembleGeoXT is a rugged hand held PDA that is dust, water and shock resistant. Dell Axiom PDA"124 and TrembleGeoXT PDA" " are capable of using Microsoft Windows Mobile 2003 operating system' 1 ~4 software that gives a user friendly environment for running GIS and GPS software concurrently. Suitable mobile GIS software appropriate for use on these PDAs is the ArcPad, a product of Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) of Redlands, California. ArcPad"121 is mobile GIS software that enables PDA users to download spatial data from GPS software on the same PDA and to then insert and edit other attribute data about the locational (geographic coordinates) data collected by the GPS. Thus, mobile GIS with GPS software on a PDA enables collection of complete spatial and attribute data on the field on a single PDA unit. In addition to this, wireless email connectivity on Dell Axiom and TrembleGeoXT each allows field data collected to be sent directly to a central GIS, avoiding the need to travel long distances to a central GIS where analysis could be carried out on the data collected to update and validate predictive models. A central GIS in this case may be a desktop computer running CommimityViz software on Arc View3.3 or 8.3 software. In the same way, a central GIS facility in addition to using remote sensed images to guide predictive models and make automated suggestions on risk situations in the locations from which data have been supplied, could also send out results of its predictive models to field PDA units and to guide field workers with actual GIS layers and coordinates that can make field workers to navigate to specific places where actions, such as animal vaccination are needed to be carried out based on risk predictions. In this way field workers across a country are made to become active members of a larger spatial data exchange. Global position system (GPS) software suitable for use on the Dell Axiom PDA example mentioned here is the Pocket GPS Navigator (iGPS- 360) convertible receiver. Based on this technology, a GIS/GPS facility could be used for coordinating spatial data exchange between laboratory diagnostic staff and field veterinarians involved with animal health risk 2 0 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory lipizootiolitgv: lisunuiso. 0.0, (jtigboDe. /. /•. t/z/c/ Oltigasa, B. () . OKI? studies. This facility sets in place a two-way information communication from the field to the laboratory through a central GIS and vice versa. A central GIS is needed to analyse the data supplied and to offer automated suggestions on risk impact in each location based on combined data from the field and the laboratory. The focus of this section has not been to address issues of cartographic importance in GIS map presentation, which is assumed, would be learned elsewhere and possibly applied as part of the recommended practical exercises in this chapter. In summary, these other GIS/GPS hardware and software when used with a central GIS hardware and software like a desktop PC running CommunityViz on Arc View, is capable of making animal health risk studies in a country a complete work system. This may affect animal health service delivery positively at community level in a developing country. CommunityViz with its flexible capabilities when used in animal health risk assessment studies meets the needed learning and discovery processes required in risk visualization. Morgan and Henrion cited by Fite6"* recommended a flexible risk study procedure in 1990. The recommended qualities might have been reasonably attained in CommunityViz software as impact assessment tool coupled with data supply from mobile GIS/GPS facility. This is in the form of numerous feedback loops made available and with which intermediate results were used to restate the problem and to refocus risk impact analysis. The experience of these authors confirms the benefit of this integrated GIS/GPS capacity in animal health risk study. Figure 5.18: A veterinary laboratory sta ff inputting d iagnostic test results into the com puter for an im al health risk study 210 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. O., 2005 A computer terminal linked to a central GIS facility is an essential interface for integrating laboratory diagnostic findings with spatial data from the field used to carry out risk analysis. 5.7 General Nature of Model Epizootiology Laboratories 5. 7. / Introduction D e fin itio n a n d d e sc r ip tio n o f an ep izoo tio logy> la b o ra to ry An epizootiology laboratory is a place with appropriate space requirement, suitably located in a teaching or research organisation where all the necessary equipments and reagents are housed, all the biological materials are preserved and all relevant practical laboratory exercises relating to epizootiological projects are carried out, recorded and the results analysed, interpreted and prepared for publication and dissemination. The procedures would normally include: a) . Acquisition and systematic organisation and installation of major and minor equipment, chemical and biological reagents, sterile distilled water source, bleeding needles, skin disinfectants, universal and Bijou bottles, other minor vessels and equipment needed, formats for field data collection, recording and preservation, specimen processing protocols all to be checked prior to making each field trip and on arrival from the field: b) . Deposition of materials collected from the field, prior to their processing, recording of the various types of materials, their quantities or volumes and their mode of preservation: c) . Fully identifying, recording and describing materials collected from the field and brought into the laboratory, for example, animal remains, flies, ticks, other parasites and blood sucking arthropods: d) . Actual performance of necessary tests and analysis on the materials: e) . Computer-based data processing, analysis, interpretation and initial documentation in preparation for seminar presentation: Because of the usual nature of such materials, and the need to ensure that they would neither spread the disease agents they may contain, nor contaminate the environment or the personnel themselves, special facilities are usually provided in a typical epizootiology laboratory. Such facilities may include maximum biohazard security sections (like shower- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruaso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 in shower-out and sterile protective clothing rooms) and safe disposal vessels etc. Each section of the laboratory would of course have its own peculiar needs. For example, a bacteriology laboratory section would not have exactly the same needs as a chemical pathology section. Needs for haematology would be different from those for serological tests of sorts, etc. 5.7.2 Three grades o f Epizootiology Laboratories For teaching and practices in all aspects of epizootiology, appropriate laboratories are one set of essential systems of infrastructure'02. The others include a network of appropriate vehicles and other field requirements. We talk of systems of infrastructure as both the material (physical) and the immaterial expertise/human function components, which must be such that can maintain the functionality at cost-effective usage level for each grade of laboratory. Three grades or types of such laboratories may be described. (a) Type I Epizootiology laboratories are those needed by institutes of Epizootiology. These must have in-house facilities for clinical, pathological, microbiological, parasitological, immunological (CMI and serological), and computer-based analysis, documentation and presentations. There must be a well-structured database, technical documentation, information management and communication facilities for which both the material and trained human resources are integrated for positive socio-economic jurisprudential (psej) operations: (b) Type II Epizootiology laboratories are those based in individual departments of Epizootiology or Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine. Such a Department needs not have the complete facilities of Pathology, Microbiology, Parasitology and Chemical Pathology, in as much as within the institute or faculty there are such Departments of Parasitology, Pathology, and Microbiology which are committed as a matter of policy, realistic and active cooperation for receiving and proper processing of specimens and returning results there-from in prompt and timely order to the epizootiologists. Further information on the nature of the required system of cooperation can be obtained on request from the Academic Consultancy Services Unit 212 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 of VetAcademic Resource Foundation6"3 (VARF). This organisation will provide realistic information on specimen requirements and management, integration formats on request. Such a department of Epizootiology or Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine should however be fully responsible for all aspects of field specimen and data collection format design, database management, analysis, documentation, recording, reporting, dissemination and appraisal. All forms of agreement in and for maintaining ethical relationship with the collaborating departments must be established, preferably ab initio. Modes of sharing of resources and responsibilities should be agreed upon. Collaboration in presentation and publication must be established early on in the relationship pattern. (c)Type III Epizootiology Laboratory is that of a small epizootiology or occasional project unit in any form. Such a unit may arise as providing the functions of an epizootiological intelligence project or programme. Remember that epizootiological intelligence activities (ibid.) may be any or all of 'group problem surveys', 'group problem monitoring', 'group problem surveillance' and result appraisal in any of the above. Examples of epizootiological intelligence activities are: (i) Bovine brucellosis survey in Sokoto (or in any other named) state; (ii) Survey of the prevalence of trypanosomosis in goats in Oyo state as in any other geographically defined area; (iii) Monitoring of contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP) in trade cattle coming into Ogun (or any other) state; (iv) Prevalence studies of Canine tuberculosis in N igeria; (v) Pan-African (programme for the) Control of Epizootics in Africa (PACE)6 40. All the above are examples of epizootiological intelligence (El) activities which may come in form of projects or programmes. 5.7.3 Physical and Functional Nature o f Epizootiology Laboratories (a) An Epizootiology laboratory should have the following space allocations and major items of equipment among others: 213 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone. I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (i) Bench area with stools or chairs where there are leg room; (ii) Fridge and freezer areas, each opening freely without blocking one another; (iii) Hot and cold running water emptying into deep sinks for drainage into predetermined gutter areas without polluting the surrounding environment; (iv) Appropriately located UV culture hoods, bacterial culture incubators, water bath incubators at 37°C and 28°C. (b) An Epizootiology laboratory should have the following items of major equipment: (i) Standard centrifuge, cold centrifuge, ultra-centrifuge, micro- haematocrit centrifuge, auto-analyser connected to an appropriate laptop PC; (ii) Adequately spacious fridges, freezers, cold boxes, et cetera (iii) Standard laboratory balance, analytical and chemical balance; (iv) Spectrophotometers, radioactive counters, depending on expected nature of teaching and research (v) Light microscope, background illuminated microscopes, dissecting microscopes, others; (vi) Water distiller; (vii) C 0 2 and enriched 0 2 tissue culture incubators, cylinders and assured sources of refills; (viii) Glass drying oven. (ix) Others (c) An epizootiological laboratory should have regular supplies of the following minor equipments. (i) Assorted centrifuge tubes for assorted heads; (ii) Various sizes of serological test tubes with caps; (i i i) Plate agglutination test boxes; (iv) Consignment of microscopic slides; (v) Assorted vene-puncture (bleeding) hypodermic needles, Eppendorf syringes, others (vi) Burettes, Pipettes, racks, assorted glass syringes, Grosses of Universal bottles, Grosses of Bijou bottles, ice packs for use in cold boxes; 2 1 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esumoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. cwd Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 (d) An epizootiology laboratory should have regular inexhaustible supplies of the following reagents; (i) Disinfectants (ii) Antiseptics; (iii) NaOH, KOH,NaCl,NaHCO, crystals and salts; (iv) Acetic and other organic acids; (v) Nitric, sulphuric and other inorganic acids; (vi) KM n04, Formalin, Industrial Ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, Boric acid, Citrate, Mucous Heparin, Methiolate, Sodium azide (NaN2); (vii) Agar gel, DEAE cellulose and other media for molecular sieve separation. (e) An epizootiology laboratory should have (i) Named specific requirements for planned projects; (ii) Materials for collecting, preserving and forwarding tissues and other specimens for investigation in parasitology, bacteriology, histopathology, chemical pathology and serology laboratories. (1) Bound record books for recording in-coming and out-going specimens. (g) Duplicate and triplicate record books for field and laboratory use (h) Forms for routine recording and reporting of processed materials. ( i) Other project-specific requirements. 5. 7.4. Various types o f tests and investigation in an Epizootiology laboratory (a) Specimen identification on arrival from field trips: (b) Presentation, processing and disposal of gross specimens: (c) Preservation, processing and disposal of Bacteriology specimens: (d) Parasitological investigation: (e) Haematological analysis: (f) Serology investigation: (g) Analysis of body fluids e.g. CSF (cerebro-spinal fluid): (h) Sputum culture 2 1 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (i) Swabs culture 5.7.5 Charts o f Standard values and interpretation o f results Charts of Standard values and interpretation of results should always be readily available in an epizootiology laboratory. Establishment of details of processes and procedures all the tests and investigations listed in this section are functions of each laboratory, according to the nature of programmes and projects envisaged when setting up each laboratory to meet identified needs then and from time to time. 5.8 Conclusion In this chapter, some of the applications of epizootiological knowledge and intelligence activities have been briefly mentioned. Often many more examples and greater details are provided during lectures. This conclusion is meant to provide global coverage for a variety of ways for potential application of the science while maintaining perspectives for relevant areas of human endeavour. Moreover, the text is meant to help students to obtain greater insight into epizootiology during the planning and execution of their DVM projects and to provide students with community- based learning experiences during the practical exercises that usually follow each set of lectures on the subject. They will also find this training experience useful during their community service aspects of the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) programme. Readers should be aware of this, so that they can think of whichever meets their immediate needs and guiding them in 'living agreeably to nature'. One or the other of the following scenarios may provide thought patterns for your particular situation and circumstances at any stage. The scenarios presented have diverse composition in shared areas of work systems that may be useful to veterinary officers in government service of a country or to private practitioners 6M. Exploring shared areas of work systems in a community, may well be recipes for success at all levels of veterinary services. It thus becomes easier to view the community in this context as including people or societies at private sector, institutional, local government, state, 216 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 federal and national levels. All these must be considered as existing at farm, sub-urban and city areas. In any case, when we talk of epizootiology as being a multidisciplinary subject, we may here go further to emphasise its relevance to the thought patterns and visions of many other professionals. It is therefore useful to note that all applications of epizootiology blend with clear and detailed systematic wisdom about resource development and management at every critical level of organized human and natural (ecosystem) communities. Epizootiological orientation provided in this chapter should point out to readers that wisdom for preventive medicine, and in fact for preventive measures generally have their bases in the principles of epizootiology as a branch of episcientology. The methods, which would often be in parallel with those of other cognate disciplines when rightly applied, will always solve relevant problems. By working within community-based veterinary public health systems, the equivalent situations are readily conceptualised and appreciated when such common language as preventive measure is widely applied. All are trying to prevent one problem or a system of them in natural communities or groups. For clearer understanding of community planning, interventions, building necessary systems of infrastructure, one would find out that the methods of epizootiology will often provide the necessary answers. And when we talk of community planning’86 and building of infrastructure, engineers, law enforcement agents, environmental specialists and others are usually involved. The language of epizootiology will often unify their tools of thought and logic paths towards achieving the necessary preventive measures in holistic ways understandable to all concerned. Our immediate concern here however is preventive medicine, which entails understanding and control of biomedical factors, problems and their effects through the application of remedies, vaccines, hyper­ immune sera, chemo-prophylaxis, as well as by veterinary public health practice. Examples of teamwork experience in epizootiological projects and veterinary public health practice by these authors culminated in such publications as (i) Actualization of strategies for privatized preventive 2 1 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 ' eterinary services to nomadic herdsmen in southern N igeria'12'’ (ii) Actualisation of strategies for beef quality control in south western Nigeria"1 and (iii) Blueprint on infrastructure for livestock development and production, and standards of veterinary services nationwide in Nigeria" 2. These experiences indicate the importance of social responsibilities of veterinarians in resource development in Nigeria and in which epizootiologists are presented as model examples of bridge builders across the various expertise in resource development and their economic management. Our immediate concern for preventive medicine includes social responsibility component. This relationship is one reason behind an interesting observation that was made and then captioned in a rhetorical question that 'Why on earth do we still have Rinderpest and what in the world is being done about it'?"1 s. This remains an important question especially since the Rinderpest vaccine is one of the best vaccines in the world. The problem is most probably due to a neglect of social responsibility in vaccine delivery system as part of epizootiological orientation for capacity building needed in community-based practice of preventive veterinary medicine. Community and societal resistance to change may on the other hand be due to the phenomenon often referred to as 'long habits die-hard'. Fortunately recently available technological leverage64’ enables us to work at solving problems related to vaccination coverage effectiveness. Remote villages, cattle kraals and some obscure locations in some developing countries may now be monitored using the evolving new GIS technology. These technologies are slowly but surely being absorbed into epizootiology and community extension programmes and projects. Professional commitment to holistic approaches of epizootiology in projects planning and implementation may prominently influence the chances of success of the various projects, which are important to most professionals. Simply by virtue of extensive fieldwork involved in epizootiological applications, there is high tendency for exhaustion. Thus, the need to fit the job to the worker and not the worker to the job has become very necessary. 218 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Extensive fieldwork involved and ergonomic6129 considerations to fit the job to the worker may have culminated in the adoption of PDAs running GIS/GPS units6122 that are now used for animal health data collection and thematic map design in epizootiology. Where there is compromise in usage of appropriate tools, we may find a situation captioned as 'person- environment mismatch', and the job of an epizootiologist may inadvertently be laborious and sometimes compromised. Then the question may be asked 'shall we square the hole or round the peg?'6''3". In this connection, it has been observed that usually the most neglected and least integrated sector of the economy is the local government system, as it happens both at home and abroad ,)V>' " and managing the work system challenge at this level may become a useful contribution to the practice of local government planning. Also epizootiological study of zoonoses such as tuberculosis and rabies at local government level 131 is another important area of application of epizootiological principles and method to community health system delivery and administration. Abattoir wastewater run-off at rural, suburban and urban locations with their contamination of streams 6J32 and near surface well water constitute another area of veterinary contribution to the health of people, their water systems and general environmental sanitation. These have been identified as some of the areas of veterinary contributions to public health6 Further achievement in epizootiological orientation for students and people generally may also depend on the keenness of the individual's interest and their inquisitiveness. The approach in this chapter has heuristic value for students who are likely to be interested in later taking a postgraduate course either in Epizootiology per se (i.e. (M.Sc. Epizoot) or in Preventive Veterinary Medicine (MPVM), Veterinary Public Health (MVPH) and allied disciplines, which will enhance their ability to effectively and harmoniously work with other professionals, contributing to community development and realization of the people's yearnings for better living. 2 1 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuritoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 Figure 5.19: Internal relationship of veterinary public health and preventive medicine courses taught from DVM III to DVM V at undergraduate level in the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria l1J| Starting from veterinary biostatistics, through epizootiology and up to computer application in veterinary practice, a curriculum in veterinary public health and preventive medicine permits development of knowledge and skills in geographic data management and animal health risk studies, essential for epizootiology and community planning and development. And by working with personal digital assistants that run global positioning system and geographic information systems technologies, veterinary students are enabled to acquire skills in mapping diseases and other problems in local communities such that may foster college and community connections and meet needs and aspirations of the disadvantaged. 220 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Figure 5.20: Internal relationship of veterinary public health and preventive medicine courses in relation to Epizootiology as a common foundation course at postgraduate level EPIZOOTIOLOGY including Epidemiology Information Technology & Communication, Seminar presentation, other Veterinary Economics deliveries, presentation and documentation (including Food and Meat Hygiene SEJ*, Organization of Veterinary Services, Technical Report Writing) Food Preservation Fish Health & Husbandry Extension Services, Drug Residues and t Microbial Resistance, t Other issuesImmunology Animal Husbandry Biostatistics Animal Health Jurisprudence Production Economic I OS Ib-1 JT *dc = o . . . i 6.1. 6.6. 6.48. 6.51S o c io - e c o n o m ic j u r i s p r u d e n c e 221 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 5.9 Recommended Practical exercises Teachers, covering new areas and locations of epizootiological problems, should use the guidelines that have been given for the conduct of practical exercises. Projects based on disease reporting, monitoring and surveillance should be designed by each lecturer to cover current problems in the state or across the country. Survey of parasitic, bacterial and viral diseases and infections should be designed and taken to nearby cattle ranches, piggeries and poultry flocks. In Appendix V, a list of suggested project topics is provided. All that is necessary is for both staff and students to exercise gumption and thereby provide material for teaching and training in epizootiological intelligence activities. In choosing such project topics, it should be remembered that epizootiological methods and surveillance might cover not just diseases per se but other problems of herds, flocks and groups of livestock. Nutritional surveys are relevant. Rainy season problems may be surveyed. Inadequacy of water supply during dry season may be used as a project topic for epizootiological investigation. One Example of Recommended Practical Exercises given in detail here is Epizootiological Map Design. 5.9 (a) Disease reporting map Previous nation-wide arrangement for disease reporting should be resuscitated and taught as major topic in undergraduate epizootiology. In this connection, the epizootiology reporting map (see Figure 4.10) produced by the Federal Livestock Department should be consulted. The process should then be upgraded by the addition of GIS technology as discussed in detail in this book. 5.9 (b) Epizootiological map design Teachers and students may start this practical exercise by identifying issues of local importance in a community and then explore avenues that may enable students to contribute to community health planning practice through a project in map design. Map design in this case should be a useful product of each one of the recommended project topics provided in Appendix V. Map design gives a reasonable sense of fulfilment in epizootiological orientation to resource development and management in a community. By establishing connection between a college (where 222 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 epizootiology is taught) and a community within the same local area, students may be encouraged in the use of geographic information systems projects, thus providing the effective tools to administration and planning in the communities. Where G1S facilities are not yet available in a community area, students and their teachers may work with interested members of the community or with other teachers and students in a school that has a department of Geography and Resource Development. The possibility of collaborating to setup a small scale GIS facility could be explored. Where the facilities already exist, the following steps may be taken (i) Make a project description form In your group project description form, provide a scope guideline to meet the following specifications: (i) small scale (ii) simple (iii) relates to epizootiology (iv) appropriate for students (v) flexible deadline (vi) specific deliverables and (vii) meets community needs6 w. (ii) Prepare a digital map o f the city or town Your city may already have an original map data in form of a simple pencil or ink drawing; simply a paper map format with various details of features on it. This paper map may then be converted to digital format on a digitizer. The digitizer is linked to a computer, and computer software processes the information as it is received from a movable cursor. There is a menu on the digitizer surface that can be activated by the cursor and that is integrated to the software. Using these features on a digitizing tablet (small, or tabletop digitizers for small map sheets are called tablets 6" 9) allows users to create features that show spatial distribution of their original project idea on the digital map of a city. In carrying out this step of the map preparation, the group should work with a member of the community that has knowledge and experience in the use of the digitizing tablet (see Figure 4.74). The group in so doing would learn the art of digitizing by apprenticeship. 223 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 (iii) Show spatial distribution o f your project idea on the digital map o f the city Capturing map data and storing them into vector format means that the map components in the file are recorded in discrete points, in x-y locations in Cartesian, two-dimensional space The points, lines and polygons are possible with vector file manipulation6" 7, which is most suitable for maps containing lines (such as rivers, roads, streets, coastlines and political boundaries). A line can be digitized in this way by selecting points along the line and by pressing a button on the cursor. Continuous digitizing may be done, and the machine is made to save the recorded features. The vector digitizing software allows for a variety of options, such as polygon development, area measurement, and others. (i v ) Explore the map created in Arc View The group may now transfer the saved digital map into a GIS software such as Arc View" LT Use this software to create simple attribute tables to include name of property owners, name of farms, roads, rivers, etc. Display the result in ArcView map display mode. Insert cartographic standards, such as a north arrow, scale bar, and map key. Print out the map and make a group discussion or seminar on your newly created map, explain what you learnt about relationship of features in the community studied. 224 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 6.0 BIBLIO G RA PH Y 6.1 Esuruoso, G.O. (1993) Fundamentals of Epizootiology. 129pp. A mimeograph produced by Academic Consultancy Services of VetAcademic Resource Foundation (VARF) U.l.RO. Box 14400, Ibadan, Nigeria 6.2 Esuruoso, G. O. (1994) increasing Role and Importance of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics in Veterinary Education, Practice and Development. Paper presented at the 31s' Annual Congress of the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association (NVMA), held at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Mimeograph Published by Academic Consultancy Services, U.l.P.O. Box 14400, Ibadan, Nigeria 6.3 Esuruoso, G.O. (1984) Opportunities for postgraduate studies in Preventive Veterinary Medicine at the University of Ibadan: 35 pp. Printed by J. Olatunji Printers and Co. (Nig.) Limited, 4, Alhaji Oropo Street, P.O.Box 40, Ikenne-Rento, Ogun State, Nigeria 6.4 Esuruoso, GO. (1994) Clinical Management, Veterinary Jurisprudence and Economics of Practice; pp 1-31 in Proceedings of a seminar on Effective Management of Veterinary Practice; 54pp. Held at Ikeja Airport Hotel, IKEJA, Lagos State, Nigeria on 27"’ April, 1994,. A publication ofthe Veterinary Clinician Forum, Lagos 6.5 Esuruoso, G.O. 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(1997a) Social responsibilities of professionals in Nigeria. .VARFQuarterly Bulletin Vol. 1 (No. 1)pp 1 28. 6.54 Olugasa, B. O. and Esuruoso, G.O. (1999) Exploring shared areas of work systems for veterinary officers and private practitioners: A recipe for success at ail levels. Pp 71-75. In: Proceedings of the 36'" Annual Congress of the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association (NVMA). Held at Arewa House, Kaduna, Kaduna Slate. Published by NVMA, Kaduna, Nigeria. 6.55 Esuruoso, GO. (1995) The practice of preventive veterinary medicine in a devastated national economy. Paper presented at the 32"“ Annual National Congress of the NVMA, Held at the N VRI, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria. 228 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 6.56 Schwabe, W.C. (1984) Veterinary Medicine and Human Health. Third edition. Waverly Press Inc. Baltimore. 608 pp 6.57 Esuruoso, G.O. (1996) Prevention and abatement of zoonotic diseases. 254-279. In: Sofoluvve, G.O., R. Schrarn and D.A. Ogunmekan (Edts) Principles and Practice of Public Health in Africa. Vol 1.530pp. University Press Pic, Ibadan 6.58 Esuruoso, G. O. (1974) Bovine Brucellosis in Nigeria, Vet. Rec. 95 (3), 54-58 6.59 Esuruoso, G.O. (1989) Diagnosis of Brucellosis 30 pp. Proceedings of International Workshop on Veterinary Diagnostic Procedures 18-27 September 1989, Held at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. (A publication of the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association (N VMA). 6.60 Adeyemi, I.G. (2001) Epizootiological features of tsetse fly infestation of University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm. 267pp. A PhD thesis in the Department of Veterinary Public Flealth and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 6.61 Esuruoso, G. O. (1973) The Epizootiology, prevalence and economic aspects of bovine trypanosomiasis in Nigeria. 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Being the report of an official investigation carried out at the request of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Natural Resources, P.M.B. 1383, ILORIN, Kwara Slate, Nigeria (Ref.VKW/16/Vol.III/747 of 2nd August, 1983 and Ref. GOE/VPHPM/UI1210384) 6 . 6 6 Esuruoso, G.O. (1992) Lecture Notes on Epizootiology: 92pp. A mimeograph prepared for DVM undergraduates classes in some Nigerian Universities. (Obtainable from Academic Consultancy Services, U.l.P.O. Box 14400, IBADAN, Oyo State, Nigeria. 6.67 Last, J. W. (1983) A Dictionary of Epidemiology 144 pp (Publ. Oxford University Press, New York, Ox ford Toronto). 6 . 6 8 Whittaker, R. II. 2nd Edn. (1975) Communities and Ecosystems; 385 pp. (Published by Macmillan Publishers Co. Inc. New York). 229 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G. O, ljcigbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 6.69 Kilbome, F. (1939) Infectious diseases as parasitism 6.70 Nuru, S. (1973) Epizootiology of canine rabies and its public health significance in Kano State, Nigeria Nig. Vet. J. 2 (2), 49 - 54 6.71 Schoental, R. (1965) Toxicology of natural products. Far East Med. J. 1:291-296 6.72Nwude, N. (1981) Some stock poisoning plants of Nigeria. J. Anim. Prod. Res. 1 (2) 109- 122 6.73 Kingsbury, L.M. (1964) Poisonous plants of USA and Canada. Prentice Flail Inc., Englewood 6.74 Walsh, S.J., Billsborrow, R.E., McGregor, S.J., Frizzelle. B.G., Messina, J.P., Pan, W.K.T., Crews-Mayer, K.A., Taff, G.N., and Baquero, F. (2003) Integration of longitudinal surveys, remote sensing, time series, and spatial analyses: Approaches to linking people and places. Chapter 4 In: Fox, J., Rindfiiss, R.R., Welsh, S.J., Mishra, V. (Eds.) People and the Environment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Dr., Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusettes 02061 USA 6.75 Adewale, G.A. and Olugasa, B.O. (2005) Geographic mapping of African swine fever 2001-2 outbreaks in southern Nigeria, Vol. 1 pp383-387, In: Wrzesien A.K.R. (Edited) Animals and Environment: Proceedings ofthe 12,h International Congress on Animal Hygiene. Published by Warsaw Agricultural University, Warsaw, Poland 6.76 Hugh-Jones, M.E. and Wright, P.B. (1970) Studies on the 1967-8 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic: the relation of weather to the spread of disease. J. Hyg., Camb., 68:253-271 6.77 Tinline, R.R. (1972) Lee wave hypothesis for the initial pattern of spread during the 1967-8 foot-and-mouth epizootic. In McGlashan, N.D. (Ed.) Medical Geography. 301pp. Published by Methuen and Company, Ltd, London, 6.78 Esuruoso, G.O. and Van Blake, E.H. (1972) Bovine Brucellosis in two southern states of Nigeria: 1 An investigation of selected herds. Bull. epid. dis. Air. 20 (4), 269-274 6.79 Samson, R.L. and Morris, R.S. (1994) The use of survival analysis to investigate the probability of local spread of foot-and-mouth disease: An example study on the United Kingdom epidemic of 1967-1968. Kenya Veterinarian 18(2) 186-188 6.80 Zeiler, M. (1999) Modelling our World: The ESRI guide to geodatabase design. 199pp. Published by Environmental Systems Research Institute, (ESRI) 380 New York Street, Redlands, California. 92373-8100 United States of America 6.81 Esuruoso, G.O. (1974) Bovine Brucellosis in two southern states of Nigeria: II. The incidence and implications of infection in range cattle: Bull. epiz. dis. Afr. 22 (1), 35-40 6.82 Henderson, R.J. (1969) The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in Worcestershire. An epidemiological study: with special reference to spread of the disease by wind-carriage ofthe virus. J. Hyg. Camb., 67:21-33 230 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 6.83 Sanson, R.L., Liberona, H. and Morris, R.S. (1991) The use of a geographic information system in the .management of a foot-and-mouth disease epidemic. Prev. Vet. Med., 11:309-313 6.84 Olugasa, B.O. (2004) Biological risk management and visualization with GIS. Academic Vizions - Spring 2004: The Quarterly E-Newsletter from CommunityViz. CommunityViz 1035 Pearl St, Suit 300, Boulder, Colorado 80302 United States of America 6.85 The Orton Family Foundation (2003) Getting to know CommunityViz, 3pp with Evaluation CD, Produced by CommunityViz 1035 Pearl St, Suit 300, Boulder, Colorado 80302 United States ofAmerica 6 . 8 6 Hoch, C.J., Dalton, L.C. and So, F.S. Ed. (2000). The Practice of Local Government Planning. Third Edition. 496pp. Published by the International City/County Management Association (in collaboration with the American Planning Association) for the ICMA University. ICMA, 777N. Capitol Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002. 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Published by Univasidad Autonoma Metropolitan, Mexico City, Mexico. 6.90 Knapp, C.L. and The Orton Family Foundation Community Mapping Program (2003) Making Community Connections 173pp. Published by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 380 New York Street, Redlands, California. 92373-8100 United States of America 6.91 Pavlovsky (1939). Cited by Ferris, D. H. (1967) EPIZOOTIOLOGY: pp 261-320 In: Advances in Veterinary Science, Vol. 11 (Publ. Academic Press, New York & London). 6.92 Encyclopaedia Britannica(2002) Deluxe Edition 6.93 Eunice J. Gill Ed. 2nd Ed”. (1979) Oxford/Philip Atlas for Nigeria; 123pp. Published by Oxford University Press, London; in association with University Press Limited, Ibadan, Zaria, Kano, Owerri, Benin City, Lagos: Printed in Great Britain by Cook, Hammond & Kell, Mitcham Surrey 6.94 Baldry, D. A. T. (1969) Distribution and trypanosome infection rates of Glossina morsitans sub-morsitans Newst. Along a trade cattle route in south western Nigeria. 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(1967) Epizootiology: pp 261 -320 of Advances in Veterinary Science, Vol. 11 (Publ. Academic Press, New York & London). 6.108 Smith, T. (1939) Cited by Ferris, D. H. (1967) Epizootiology: pp 261-320 of Advances in Veterinary Science, Vol. 11 (Publi. Academic Press,New York&London). 6.109 Steede-Terry, K. (2000) Integrating G1S and the global positioning system. Published by Environmental System Research Institute (ESR1) Redlands, California, USA 6.110 Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2001) Geographic Information Systems and Science. 454pp. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex PO!9 1UD, England 232 UNIVER ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O , 2005 6 .111 Babalobi, 0 .0., Ayoade, G. O., Olugasa, B. O., Oluwayelu, D. O. and Oyedele, O. (2003) Differential diagnosis of a swine epizootic of unknown etiology in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, lsr..1. Vet. Med., 58(2/3); 8 6 89 6.112 OlE (2002) Manual of standard diagnostic tests and vaccines 2000. Chapter 2.1.12: African swine fever. Published by Office International des Epizootics 6.113 Olugasa, B.O., Oluwayelu, D.O., Adewale, G.A., Ayoade, G.O., Ijagbone, l.F, Babalobi, O.O. and Agbede, S.A. (2005) Confirmatory diagnosis of African swine fever outbreak by immunoblotting assay in southern Nigeria, Vol. 1 pp343-347, In: Wrzesien A.K.R. (Edited) Animals and Environment: Proceedings of the 12"' International Congress on Animal Hygiene. Published by Warsaw Agricultural University, Warsaw, Poland 6.114 Pastor, M. J., Laviada, M.D., Sanchez Viscaino, J.M. and Escribano, J.M (1989) Determination of African swine fever virus antibodies by immunoblotting assay. Can. J. Vet. Res.,53: 105 107, 6.115 Ijagbone, F.I. (1995) Sero-epizootiological evaluation of Enzyme Linked- Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) in the diagnosis of animal trypanosomiasis. 290pp. A PhD thesis in the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 6.116 Esuruoso, G.O. (1969) Health problems in the dairy herds in western Nigeria. Proc. Agric. Soc. Nig. September, 19-22,1969: Benin City, Nig. agric. J. (6 ) 48 6.117 Henderson, W.M. (1970) Foot-and-mouth disease: a definition of the problem and views on its solution. Br. Vet. J., 126:115-120 6.118 Dent, B.D. (1999) Cartography: Thematic map design. Fifth edition 417pp. Published by WCB/McGraw-Hill, New York, United States of America 6.119 Fite, R.W. (2000) Animal health risk assessment in theory and practice. JAVMA Vol.217, No 12 6.120 NigeriaSat-1 (2003) Images and operations of Nigeria earth observation satellite: NigeriaSatl. 6.121 Roth, J.A. (2004) Personal communication 6.122 Ashok, W. (2000) PDA Solution: Recent advances in GPS/GIS data collection. (www.ugic.info/sw ug2000/proceeding.html) In. Proceedings ofESRI South West Users Group ArcGIS 2000 Conference, November 6 9. Held at Moab, Utah. USA 6.123 Ron, R. (2003) Barebones introduction to PDA/GPS in the classroom and field. Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, USA 3pp. (http://oregonstate.edu/~reuterrr/NWACC/docs/pdaintro%20.docCourse) 6.124 Dell (2003) Dell Axim X30 Pocket PC Running Window Mobile 2003 Second Edition. www.pdabuyersguide.com/Dell_axim_X30.htm 233 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 6.125 TGE (2003) GPS platform for GIS field requirements. Trembel GeoExplorer Series. http://www.tremble.com/geoxt.shtml 6.126 Esuruoso, G. O. and Olugasa, B.O. (1997) Actualization of strategies for privatized preventive veterinary services to nomadic herdsmen in southern Nigeria; Epidermiologie et Sante Animate 31.2.22.1-3. Published by Foundation Marcel Merioux, Paris France. 6.127 Olugasa, B.O., Cadmus, S.I.B. and Atsanda, N.N. (2000) Actualization of strategies for beef quality control in south western Nigeria pp 67 71 in Vol. 1, Proceedings of the 10lh International Congress on Animal Hygiene l*6 6 ,h July, 2000 in Maastricht, the Netherlands. Printed by Wijidbij Vaasted, published by Animal Health Service in the Netherlands. 6.128 Rossiter, P.B. (1994) Why on earth do we still have Rinderpest and what in the world is being done about it? The Kenya Veterinarian 18 (2) 503-504 6.129 Obonde, D.J. (1987) Ergonomics at work. 395 pp. Published by John Wiley and Sons Ltd, New York 6.130 Moerdyk, A.P. (1983) Person-environment mismatch: does one square the hole or round thepeg?S. Afr. J. Psychol. 13(3)66 70. 6.131 Cadmus, S.I.B., Olugasa, B.O. and Ogundipe, G.A.T. (1999) The prevalence and zoonotic importance of bovine tuberculosis in Ibadan, pp 8-10 in the Proceedings of the 36lh Annual Congress of the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association held in Arewa House, Kaduna, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Published by NVMA, Kaduna, Nigeria. 6.132 Coker, A.O., Olugasa, B.O. and Adeyemi, A.O. (2001) Abattoir wastewater quality in south western Nigeria Pp 84-86 In: People and Systems for Water, Sanitation and Health Published by Water Engineering and Development Center (WEDC), Loughborough University, United Kingdom. 6.133 FAO/WHO (1975) The Veterinary Contribution to Public Health Practice 79 pp. Technical Report series No. 573 (Publ. WHO, Geneva and FAO Rome). 6.134 Olugasa, B.O., Esuruoso, G.O. and Erhime Oghre-Ikanone (2003) Teaching animal hygiene at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp 371-375, In: Vol. 1 Proceedings of the ll'h International Congress on Animal Hygiene. Published by Univasidad Autonoma Metropolitan, Mexico City, Mexico. 6.135 Ormsby, T., Napoleon, E., Burke, R., Groess, C. and Feaster, L. (2001) Getting to Know ArcGIS desktop. 541 pp. Published by Environmental Systems Research Institute, (ESRI), 380 New York Street, Redlands, California. 92373-8100 United States of America 234 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 7.0 GLOSSARY 7.1 In tr o d u c t io n This glossary is meant to provide a list, definitions and explanations of words, phrases and clauses from a growing sub-language that seeks to expound profound levels of epizootiology sensu stricto and of cognate disciplines (such as epidemiology, epornithicslepornithology and epiphytology), with common structures, methods and systematics. Hopefully, readers will be provided with the appropriate shades of meanings that will enable them to fully grasp the principles and methods of scientific thinking about, and enquiry into group (or population)problems (not only diseases) and solution options for their control and prevention. Not unexpectedly, the growth of a discipline or a science is usually inevitably associated with the coining of new vocabulary and the adaptation of existing ones to usher in new shades of meaning relevant to the new pervading and growing science or discipline. Epizootiology can never be an exception. Hence this glossary will contain new words providing tools for giving expressions to the thoughts and conceptions of the growing discipline. For example, Epi-scientology is the culmination of a group of new words based on the generic structures of existing ones, such as Epiphytology, Epizootiology, Epidemiology, et hoc genus omne. The senses in which these established and the new words are used in the text of this textbook and related lecture notes are the ones being reflected in this glossary. 7 .2 (A ) (Al) Agent = an object (i.e. a living or non-living thing) that causes, instigates or precipitates action or problem e.g. a disease agent which may be a parasite, a bacterium, a virus, other microbes, toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, poisonous or simply irritating substance or nuisance factor. ((A2) Alibi = evidence that one is in a different location at the material time from the implicating one. (A3) Approach = method and direction of going about a task or a problem the aim being to understand the nature of the problem and the best (optimally cost-effective) way to solve it. It should be noted here that when we speak of cost-effectiveness we are thinking in terms of social, economic, financial (i.e. socio-economic jurisprudential (sej)) and temporal terms, not just in money terms and over an unlimited duration. See asymmetrical logic paths for causal relationships. (A4) Asymmetrical In terms of Epizootiology and cognate disciplines, asymmetrical associations are relationships that have plausible, reasonable, scientific, magnitude, directional and temporal components. Asymmetrical relationship is synonymous with “causal relationship”. It is a relationship between a causal variable and its effect. If A 235 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 causes Y, then A must have existed or occurred before Y. (See Symmetrical Association/Relationship for contrast both are useful in Epizootiological scenarios). (A5) Autecology = the comprehensive ecology of individual organisms and populations including physiological ecology, behaviour studies and population dynamics (see dentecology). 7.3 (Bl) (Bl) Bacteraemia = the presence of bacteria in the circulating blood of vertebrate animals. Bacteraemia should be distinguished from septicaemia. The latter term is used when the circulating micro-organism is also actively multiplying its kind while in circulation. (B2) Biocenalogy/Biosociology = the ecology of the population of many species in a whole community, in an entire ecosystem (terrestrial and aquatic) (Europe) (See Synecology (UK). (B3) Biology = the study of living things (plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and viruses with particular reference to their forms, functions, life cycles and their external environment (i.e. habitat). (See Botany, Zoology & Ecology). (B4) Biocenosis — biotic community (see section 4.3 2e of these lecture notes). (B5) Biome= a major biotic community (e.g. the savannah grasslands ofNigeria. (B6) Biotope = the smallest area with fairly uniform conditions for supporting life (and an ecological community). (B7) Biomedical = relating to the biology and the medical/disease implications of biological (i.e. living) activities (such as breeding, feeding, interaction with other living organisms, excretion, etc.). (B8) Biosociology = see Biocenalogy with which it is synonymous. (B9) Biosphere = regions of the earth's crust where living organisms are found because their surrounding will support life. The three components of the earth's biosphere are atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere. (BIO) Black box = this is the area where processes take place in a computer-based system. It is where the most reliable information about any system can be obtained. When there is an air crash people always ask for the black box; this is because the black box contains all reliable information about the flight and the operations of the aircraft and hence the clue to the disaster. 236 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (B ll) Bridge Builder = A bridge-builder is a discrete component of a diffuse system. Where human systems are involved, a bridge-builder is a specialist who, apart from having his own area of specialization also has the knowledge of the other components and how they fit into the system. A bridge-builder is the most suitable leader for the effective utilization of all the expertise of the other components for the over-all success of the system. A general manger, a senate leader, a head of a faculty or college and even a DVS (Academic) should be a bridge-builder in the appropriate system. This is a person who is highly specialized academically but can also recognize the importance and the major roles of all the other specialists across the institution. (B12) Bamboo (B13)Banana tree 7.4(C) (Cl) Causal Relationship = this is synonymous with asymmetric relationship. It is directional and must be based on time. If A causes B, then A must exist before B. It is an important aspect of cause/effect association. (C 2 ) C e te r is p a r ib u s ; Latin, meaning 'A ll o th e r th in g s b e in g e q u a l ' (C3) Chain = in these notes we mentioned the following (I) energy chain; (ii) food chain; (iii) and production chain. It is good to remember that matter and energy can neither be destroyed nor created. They are just being transformed in a chain of events. For example, solar energy is being transformed to chemical energy working through the food chain. (C4) Climate = Climate is the reflection of temperature, pressure, wind, light and moisture content in the atmosphere. It affects all aspects of life and living conditions in the area. (C5) Cognition = this is the highest level of learning. It means that the learner is able to see, foresee, perceive and imagine the trends in the knowledge of things in which he is interested. Cognition is the faculty of knowing, perceiving and conceiving the true situation. (C6) Contamination = this describes the first contact between a host and a problem agent. If the agent gets into contact with the host, many outcomes are possible, including a nil outcome, e.g. bacteria contaminating the conjunctiva of an animal may be washed away by the tears of the host. The next steps after contamination may be establishment, proliferation, toxin production or invasion leading to infection of the host. 237 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (C7) Cost = in this text we include financial, economic and social costs. Any veterinary activity must consider the possible costs side by side with the benefits. Therefore, being cost-conscious means always considering and comparing the costs and the benefits of the events. It also means choosing the scenario that produces positive result where benefit is greater than cost in whatever term (financial, economic and social). (C8) Congruenta naturae vivendum est = this means that it is a wise thing to live agreeably with nature, instead of trying to create one's own environment and conditions. 7.5(D) (Dl) Death = the end of every living thing. It is relevant to note that a dead organism would naturally return its constituents into the general circulation. It is from this fact of life that the saying in Latin “Patriam inservindo consumur” which means when a living organism is no longer serviceable to fatherland it is consumed by fatherland becomes established. In the same breath the environmental health will be maintained if dead animals are placed in positions where their remains will enter again into circulation most readily. Recirculation is more conducive to healthy environment than dumping. (D2) Dependent (see independent variable also) = Here Dependent means consequent upon or subordinate to. A graph is usually drawn with an independent variable in the abscissa (or x axis), while the dependent variable is in the ordinate (or y axis) position. In a frequency graph dependent variable is in the Y-axis while independent variable is in the X-axis. Examples of dependent variables are: effect, response, outcome/output. The independent variables for these include cause, stimulus, input, time, etc. (D3) Diagnosis here means a statement or description of a problem, its nature and its probable cause/s. We emphasize here that diagnosis is a network of activities starting from the statement of either the patient or the owner in the case of animals (Esuruoso, G. O., 1989). “My calf is sick” is a basic diagnosis. Then follows the statement of the clinician who says he is sick of liver disease. Then the pathologist, who may say 'it is r suffering from necrosis of the liver.' The microbiologist may then say that the necrosis is caused by Fusiformis/Spherophorus necrophorus. Then the epizootiologist may say 'it is an enzootic problem in calves reared inside animal houses with damaged and contaminated floors; the incidence may be up to 20%. It is to be observed that epizootiological diagnosis summarizes and makes use of all the other diagnoses listed earlier, thus providing both qualitative and quantitative information of the problem at the levels of species, groups or populations. For further details, see 'Epizootiological diagnosis' below (ibid.) (D4) Diffuse System (also see discrete system) = A Diffuse system is one in which the individual components cannot have a meaningful individual existence, e.g. the circulatory system, and an ecosystem (quod vide Section 4.3.1 of these notes). (D5) Discrete System = A Discrete system is one in which the individual components have meaningful individual existence, e.g. in a human society system, the components are individual human beings; the faculty system the individual components are departmental. 238 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B O. 2005 (D6) Descriptive = Whether it is used in terms of epizootiology of biostatistics, what the advocates are describing include the population of hosts, the places of their existence (including the environment) and the time factor (i.e. when? How often? Or frequency, etc). In the study of the English Language one can write a descriptive prose. In this case it provides a description of the subject as opposed to a discourse. (D7) Discourse = A discourse is an extensive presentation in which components of systems are not only described, but the questions why? How? And when they become what they are, will also be attempted. History is an example of Discourse in prose writing. It is different from narrative and persuasion. (D8) Disease = A disease is an aberration from normal health caused by a specific or group of agents. It is only one of the problems of animal populations being studied by the methods of epizootiology. Diseases are not the only problems of animal populations. Deprivations and exposure to inclement weather are also problems that can be studied by the methods of epizootiology. 7.6 (E) (El) Ecology = this means the study of ecosystems. It is also the study of ecological communities. Ecological communities include the plant component, the animal component, the inanimate environment and its components, and the interactions among all the above. Such interactions often result in population dynamics, transformation of energy and matter, maintenance of disease chains, new creations, deaths, recirculation of matter and environmental health. All other definitions of ecological terms have been presented in the substance of the text. (E2) Edaphic = this means relating to the soil, e.g. edaphic factors these are determinant factors of the spilthat may dictate the survival of certain plants in certain areas of the earth. (E3)Epus£ientolog}’ — Epi means upon or what befalls a group of things. Scientology means systematic and methodical acquisition o f knowledge of. Therefore, epi- scientology means the systematic study and acquisition of knowledge of the natural problems of populations of objects, animate and inanimate. The animate component consists of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms. Epi-scientology should be seen as consisting of the following major branches: (i) EpL'phytology (the study of the problems of plant populations); (ii) Epizootiology, which means the. study of the problem:? of animal populations; (iii) Epi-inanimatology i.e. the study of the problems of the inanimate environment and its components. Since Epizootiology has been divided into sub-branches like epidemiology (the study of human population problems) epornithics (the study of the problems of birds) 239 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 populations etc, it is conceivable that one could as well have the following: Epi- bovidology (the study of cattle population problems) Epi-equinology (the study of equine population problems) Epicaprinology (dealing with natural problems of populations of goats) et cetera. (vi) Epizoology = is the study of the occurrences in the lives of animal populations, without particular reference to their disease problems. But this is sometimes taken as synonymous with epizootiology in certain sense. (v) Epizootology = the term is sometimes used, in some schools, to mean the study of the infectious diseases of animals. But in our school, it means the comprehensive (holistic and peripheral) study of factors, events, forces and circumstances that contribute to the occurrence, distribution, intensity, volume, control and prevention of problems (including, but not limited to all forms of diseases and conditions) in groups (herds, flocks, droves, et hoc genus omne and populations) of animals in defined geographical / ecological areas (ecosystems) over stated periods of time. Under the term factors should be included contribution of hosts, agents, and the environment. Events should include definable and quantifiable interactions between the hosts and the agents, as well as those between both and the environment over time. Epizootiologist = is someone who practices or is knowledgeable in the science, art, technology and/or socio-economic definition, cost-effective management and prevention of epizootiological problems. (SeeEpizootiology). An Epizootiologist sensu stricto is one who considers the social health status o f all human resources involved in preventive and control measures as an essential and important aspect o f the actual control activities, capitalizing on self-respecting resource-management approach. (E4) Epizootiological Diagnosis: Following is a gist presentation of deep thoughts relating to Epizootiological diagnosis First, it has been said in so many words and in different places in this book, that epizootiological diagnosis is the pinnacle of systems' and systematic diagnosis. It learns from, takes advantage of, adds to and builds on other forms of diagnosis of group problems, putting everything in perspective, so that the true epizootiologist may lead the way to preventive and control/management measures (pc/mm) in their soundest and widest sense. This can never be a trivial or joking matter. Moreover, epizootiological diagnosis fundamentally takes into account factors, forces, events and circumstances of - groups and species of hosts, agents, parasites, vectors, reservoirs: - places in geographical and ecological terms: - time in tenns of dates, seasons, hours, duration, when, since when, till when, how often and trends? - interactions, dependence and interdependence in terms of food, nutrient, energy requirements and chains, also in terms of types of relationships; mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, chance, ephemeral or till-death-do-us-part associations, peaks and troughs, with or without climax or stability in the relevant ecosystem and in 2 4 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 terms of environmental health, degradation, sustenance of natural variety of species, their survival, threatened state, increasing and decreasing prosperity. An epizootiological diagnosis may not be complete or holistic unless those issues are given due consideration, depending of course on the nature of the system being considered, the context and level at which it is being considered, the objectives of the system and that of the exercise, project or programme. Epizootiological diagnosis will always have the scope for being as comprehensive as the protagonists may choose and the resources or resource management approach adopted may permit. The human social health factors, as spelt out in the body of socio-economic jurisprudence level, and therefore including the mental and mentality, moral value indices, educational status, spiritual dimension, being either honourably law-abiding, peace-loving and promoting and security conscious or otherwise. Hence, epidemiology is only a branch of Epizootiology sensu stricto. As without those considerations of the effects of man's own powerful influence, the result of and from any truly scientific and holistic study cannot be predictable. Nor can we rightly and righteously equate the role of man to those of lower vertebrate species by equating a part to a whole. Following the systematics, logic paths and tools of thought just presented, epizootiology will readily prove to be the soundest tools, not only for determining the most reliable prognosis, but in choosing from the most appropriate or optimum of solution options for control, extermination, prevention and even proper presentation of the group problem in hand or envisaged. It will also lead the way to wisdom in minimizing the adverse or undesirable effects of group problems (i.e. problems of herds, flocks, populations et hoc genus omne) cost effectively in financial, economic and social terms, these being issues in socio-economic jurisprudence (sej). 7.7(F) (F1) Fauna = this means animals, especially vertebrate animals in an ecosystem. (F2) Feral = Feral animal simply means wild (undomesticated) animal. (¥3) Flora = this means the plant components of an ecological community. (F4) Food Chain = this is a major aspect of ecology, in which living things are divided into primary producers, other producers, consumers, predators and preys. The green plant with its chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight, is the primary producer of carbohydrate from simple elements and components like water (H20) and carbon dioxide (C02). Herbivores consume the green plants to obtain the carbohydrates which they then convert into meat i.e. proteins. These are secondary producers of food. Carnivores like dogs, and omnivores like man, are consumers of both the plant and the meat of herbivores. This is the trend in food chain in nature. Food chain is linked to energy chain. 241 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, ljagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (F5) Frederick Kilborne = He is one of the earlier epidemiologists who showed the usefulness of ecological approaches to epizootiology. 7.8(G) (Gl) Garcinia kola (Bitter kola) tree (40-90ft height) (Orogbo, Yoruba) C3" (7.5cm) fruit. About 4 - 6 brown seeds embedded in a pulp. Its wood is termite proof and its seeds are medicinal. Its branches are used as chewing sticks in local communities while its pulp is edible (G2) Geographical Epizootiology - this is synonymous with landscape epizootiology. It means the ecological approach to epizootiology in which the various ecosystems associated with vegetational, topographical, climatic and economic regions of the earth are characterized and presented as such. In this study the nidality (and focality) of disease (as proposed by Pavlovsky) is highlighted. (G2) Geographic Information System (GIS) A GIS is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data related to positions on the Earth's surface. GIS is used for handling maps of one kind or another to support decision making in planning and management of land use, natural resources, environment, transportation, urban facilities, natural risks, administrative records and in our case, animal health risk visualization and management. (G3) Grasses members o f the family o f f lowering plants (Gramineae). They include cereal plants, reeds and bamboos, the blades/leaves of all the grazing materials that characterize the Guinea and Sudan savannah landscapes of the tropical and sub-tropical parts of Africa. See section 4.5 of this book {ibid.). 7.9(H) (HI) Hawkins 1985, Joyce M = This is the name of the compiler of the Oxford Paper Back Dictionary (2nd Edition) 1985, from which the definition of science as used in these notes was taken. By her, science means a branch of knowledge that requires systematic study and method. 7.10 (L) (LI) Landscape Epizootiology = this is synonymous with geographical epizootiology (quid vide). (LI) Locust is any of the various African and Asian short-homed edible grasshoppers (insects) of family Acrididae, migrating in swarms and consuming all vegetation of the places they migrate through and to. They are the cause of important epizootiological problems for livestock and people due to their massively destructive feeding habits. Also see Locust eater birds. 242 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (L2) (L) Locust eater birds e.g Yellow-throated Long-Claw bird (Macronyx croceus) Elgood, J.H. (1976). Birds of the West African town and garden. 6 6 pp. [West African Nature Handbook, Longman] 7.11 (M) (Ml) Mortality - this means the number of deaths in a given period in a stated location. Mortality rate means the number of deaths divided by the number of individuals in the same population. Details and examples are given in the body of these notes. (M2) Multi-Stage Sampling = this is a method of picking representative members of a population according to their various stages of life and similar criteria. For example, if there is a population of cattle with 2 0 0 adults, 150 yearlings and 1 2 0 calves, one may take representative samples from the adults, from the yearlings and from the calves. 7.12 (N) (Nl) Niche = means the functional role of component of an ecosystem. (N2) Niclality = (Pavlovsky, 1938 & 1939) = This is the theory that every disease problem has its nest, i.e. a special place where all the conditions necessary for maintaining the disease is always available. The weather is always right; the host and the agents are always on hand to interact and produce the disease. This is called the nidality (and focality) theory of disease. There is always a focus where all the conditions are rife for maintaining the disease. 7.13 (O) (01) Objects and Processes (OPST) = This is a logical system of viewing and considering animal population problems in such a way that no determinant factor can be omitted unconsciously. In this case O stands for Objects, and objects include animate and inanimate objects. Animate ones include plants, animals, fungi and microbe; inanimate include all the elements and rocks of the geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. P stands for processes and these include building up (anabolic) and breaking down (catabolic) processes. S stands for the system into which the objects, the processes and the problems fit. For example, bacterial problems; bacterial breakdown processes could fit into human problems and human living processes. T means the Time factor in the temporal relationships appertaining to the events and processes that define the problems to be studied, controlled and prevented. Here we should recall that temporality is the most important factor in asymmetric (causal) associations. (02) “O ther Problems” include Malnutrition, (Mineral / micronutrient deficiency and lack of supplementary salt licks, Dry season starvation, Dry season water deprivation, Toxic plant poisoning, Venomous snake bites, Botulism and other intoxications, inclement weather, extremes of ambient temperature, thunderstorms, lightning stroke, other stresses and distresses, infertility, etc. 243 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 7.14 (P) (PI) Prosper (vi.) To prosper is to attain a desirable level of prosperity, which is a component of human and animal well-being. The three major components of well­ being are good health, happiness and prosperity. Prosperity is a state above mere survival. This is important in considering the socio-economic component of epizootiology. By this doctrine one cannot engage in an epizootiological study without considering and paying attention to the well-being (i.e. the health, happiness and prosperity) of the population involved and included in the study. (P2) Protocols = One classical method of planning an investigation or a research is to design and write down a protocol of the procedures. From the beginning such a protocol is always written in imperative mood, and it is best divided into algorithms with a flow chart system. Such a flow chart will also have the necessary loops (see Appendix III). (P3) Population = This is a group of objects (animal, vegetables, or substances) that have related or similar attributes and other characteristics but varying in parameters to a measurable extent (see Population Parameters as opposed to sample statistics). (P4)Parasites = A parasite is a living organism that derives its livelihood from another living organism without damage to itself but with much damage to and interference with the life of the host (see parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in the text). (P5) Prevalence = This has been defined in the text where examples are also given. (P6) Purposive Sampling=This has been defined and listed in the text. (P7) Population Dynamics means how the population increases and decreases, e.g. increase may be due to new births or immigration into the group. While decrease may be due to deaths and emigration out of the group. These changes have fundamental basis and effects on the health of the environment in an ecological community (q.v.).In lower vertebrate species, we talk of 'group dynamics'; the group can be herd, flox, flight, etc. 7.15 (Q) Quod vide (q.v.) = Latin phrase meaning, “Which you should see”. 7.16 (R) (Rl) Relationship: This is synonymous with association. Two types of relationships are important to epizootiology. These are symmetric and asymmetric relationships. Symmetric relationships are said to be mathematical and non-causal. For example, Prevalence (P) = incidence (I) x time (t). Therefore, if the value oft changes that of P too will have to change; and if the value of 1 changes the value of P too will have to change. Therefore, symmetrical relationships are mathematical and can be expressed in formulae. On the other hand, asymmetric relationships are not necessarily 244 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuritoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 mathematical but they are biologically plausible. For instance, it is not always that one male and one female produce an offspring. (R2) Risk m e a n s the probability o f an undesirable event occurring. There are in fact relative and attributable risks. Relative risks indicate the chances of an undesirable or accidental event occurring to a sub-group due to one out of many factors being generally present and relevant to all members of the main group. Whereas attributable risks are measures of chances of an unlucky event occurring to any individual or sub-group. Usually the event is due to the fact that the individual or the sub-group is exposed to a causal factor/s to which the other sub-groups making up the main group are not exposed. The occurrence, or the level of it, is then said to be attributable to the unusual factor to which the sub-group is singularly exposed. Following are examples of risk indications in the body of this book: Page 9, under section 1.2 (v), (vi) of this (b) Risk equation book (a) Associated risks and possible Page 47 under sub-section 4.3.3 (a) of solutions this book (b) Risk identification, evaluation and Without the risk of management Page 48, under section 4.3.3 (f) of this Page 11, under section 1.4 of this book book (a) Identification and quantification of (a) Jungle yellow fever is a risk risks Taken by hunters or foresters (b) The risk of saying the obvious... Page 32, under sub-section 3.2 (c), (iii) of this book Page 49, under sub-section 4.3.4 (b) of Group or population affected, at risk this book and/or exposed Risk to animals grazing on the fields ... Page 37, under section 3.5 of this book Page 51, under section 4.4.3 (a) of this Populations at risk book “How many exposed or at risk?” Page 44, under sub-section 4.2 (b) of this book Page 6 8 , under sub-section 5.4.1 (b) of (a) Total number exposed or at risk this book Over a given period of time '...A t r isk ...’ 245 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 7 .1 7 (S ) (5 1 ) Socio-economicjurisprudence (se j) The term socio-economic jurisprudence (sej) first appeared in Chapter one of the Book, Esuruoso, G. O. and Idris Abdulkadir (1984) Livestock Development in Nigeria 1983 2000,329 pp. [A publication of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lagos. Nigeria],The author now considers that sej should always be part of the cardinal issues in all epizootiological and livestock development and production studies for the practice of preventive veterinary medicine in Nigeria, until the apparently intractable abysmal failures caused by nsej as the major human factor are under control nationwide.] (5 2 ) S o u n d S c ie n t i f ic L o g ic P a th s (ss lp ) ( i) OPST approach: (ii) Natural BIOS: (iii) Mental exercises in the identification of relevant issues, relationships, points of integration and coordination... (i v) Pie chart ofhuman wisdom (that goes beyond merely acquiring knowledge). (v) S.i.t.m. (usually written s.i.t.m.) means 'stuck in the mud, i.e. the actual source of the quotation is forgotten in the time being or may no longer be readily remembered; this author is not the original source in any case. 7 .1 8 (W ) . ( W 1) W o r k in g d e f in i t io n N.B. A working definition is the one that a diligent investigator would put before himself, and systematically plough through, obtaining relevant, accurate and adequate data of facts and figures on all of the variables before subjecting them to collation, processing, summary (i. e. descriptive statistical) presentation, analysis and interpretation of the results in a manner that could aid decision making. 246 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 P O S T S C R I P T Introductory epizootiology is meant for all students and teachers at technical and higher institutions who value systems' approach to the definition, understanding and choice of solutions to most problems that detract from the well-being of man, animals, plants and the common external environment. Thus, students of human and veterinary medicine, biology, all aspects of agriculture, industrial engineering, economics and computer science will find this text very refreshing and rewarding. This is easily appreciated for those who have consciously or unconsciously imbibed the principles of systematic thinking. Consciously, some have earlier leamt about the first author's methods in this matter. Whenever he was presented with a problem to deal with, he started addressing the issues by going through an intellectual exercise, which he described as: - “As exercise in the identification of relevant issues, relationships, points of integration, and coordination, for the understanding and articulation of solution options for achieving systems' objectives”. Other people have adopted this and similar methods and have succeeded in readily solving group problems. In that context, anyone who sits down and asks how relevant the text of epizootiology is to his own science and profession will readily agree that epizootiology provides the soundest basis, tools o f thought and logic paths for articulating (group problems') preventive measures at cost- effective levels. He would readily see the relationship of his own science and profession to that of others. He would also appreciate the essence of being a bridge-builder across the various intellectual disciplines and the learned professions. He would thereby aspire to be an epizootiologist (or an episcientologist) according to his primary professional / vocational concern and/or assignment. Whoever does so should look forward to making critical and constructive contribution to the next stage of the development of this discipline, which by the grace of God will soon come out under the title Systematic Epizootiology. Teachers and learners using this book should feel free to get in touch with the authors. This would enable us to know who may be invited to contribute to further work in the immediate future development o f the discipline towards various identified worthy ends. For epizootiology is often a means to logical conclusions in social, economic, financial, environmental and other matters of health, wealth, life, death, survival and prosperity for all (members of the relevant system) in whatever context. Professor G O . E S U R U O S O FCVSN (2 0 0 4 ) 247 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O. Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 PO STSCRIPT GIST PRESENTATION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EPIZOOTIOLOGY: There are veterinarians who prefer the title E p id e m io lo g y for the study o f diseases in groups o f anim als. O thers, probably not feeling com fortable about that, the reality on ground and the associated assum ptions, have chosen the title 'E p id e m io lo g y o f A n im a l D ise a se s ' . Yet others prefer the title 'V e te r in a r y E p id e m io lo g y ' . With these, one w onders w hether to expect som ething like 'hum an epidem ics', especially as the term 'animal epidem ics’ has been used. Then, could one expect interest in 'human epidem ics '? And that is not the end. Considering the econom ic relevance o f anim al health and husbandry, a re sp ec tab le in te rn a tio n a l body has the title 'V eterinary Epidem iology and Econom ics' (VEE). They have preferred the com posite title that em phasizes the relevance and im portance o f econom ic considerations in relevant veterinary studies. Obviously, this relevance and im portance o f econom ic considerations is a glaring reality, which is also taken care o f in Epizootiology. Thus, Epizootiology here, and as conceived, designed, taught and practiced in the Ibadan school since its inception in 1975, also inculcated the relevance and im portance o f social health needs and benefit-and-cost considerations. This is in addition to the relevance and im portance o f econom ic considerations w isely canvassed by the International Society for Veterinary Epidem iology and Econom ics (1SVEE). Hence, in the teaching of Epizootiology we started by saying that 'A modern veterinarian must be biomedically literate, statistically numerate and socio-economically cost-conscious'. We named this as the gospel according to Saint Gabriel in reference to the original author of the saying and campaign. Surely, as m uch contradictions in unsafe contradistinctions could be avoided, if one im bibes the natural system in which epidemiology is seen as a branch o f Epizootiology simpliciter. That in fact is the basis for the structure o f the text in this book. 248 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esumoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. 0., 2005 The study o f epizootics as in PACE (Pan A frican (Program m e for the) C ontrol o f Epizootics) then fits in naturally; and m atters o f 'A n im al epidem ics', 'Veterinary epidem iology' and 'Epidemiology o f animal diseases' can still be used as a m atter o f choice and as conceived by their authors, ju s t as astronauts and cosm onauts accom m odate one another, thus cooperatively w orking together on earth and even in outer space, being one o f the benefits o f evolving global dem ocratic practices. Epidemiology Branch of medical science that studies the distribution of disease in human populations and the factors determining that distribution, chiefly by the use of statistics. Unlike other medical disciplines, epidemiology concerns itself with groups of people rather than individual patients and is frequently retrospective, or historical, in nature. It developed out of the search for causes of human disease in the 19th century, and one of its chief functions remains the identification of populations at high risk for a given disease, so that the cause may be identified and preventive measures implemented. Epidemiologic studies may be classified as descriptive or analytic. In descriptive epidemiology, demographic surveys are used to determine the nature of the population affected by the disorder in question, noting factors such as age, sex, ethnic group, and occupation among those afflicted. Other descriptive studies may follow the occurrence of a disease over several years to determine changes or variations in inddence or mortality; geographic variations may also be noted. Descriptive studies also help to identify new disease syndromes or suggest previously unrecognized associations between risk factors and disease. Analytic studies are conducted to test the conclusions drawn from descriptive surveys or laboratory observations. These studies divide a sample population into two or more groups, selected on the basis of suspected causal factor (for example, cigarette smoking) and then monitor differences in Inddence, mortality, or other variables. One form of analytic study is the prospective-cohort study, in which members of a population are followed over time to observe differences in disease inddence. In addition to providing dues to the causes of various diseases, epidemiologic studies are used to plan new health services, determining the inddence of various illnesses in the population to be served, and to evaluate the overall health status of a given population. In most countries of the world, public-health authorities regularly gather epidemiologic data on specific diseases and mortality rates in their populaces. (Copyright @ 1994-2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.) 249 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Appendices UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitritoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A P P E N D IX I: T H E I N C R E A S I N G R O L E A N D I M P O R T A N C E O F V E T E R I N A R Y E P I D E M I O L O G Y A N D E C O N O M I C S IN V E T E R I N A R Y E D U C A T I O N , P R A C T I C E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T Presented below is a previous (1994) exposition on Epizootiology and Epidemiology for historical perspectives and for promoting understanding of the basis for our choice of the title 'Introductory Epizootiology'. In fact, other alternative titles found in literature include 'Veterinary Epidemiology' , 'Epidemiology for Animals' and ' Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics' (VEE). The details are reviewed in this Appendix I to show how each of the various authors (or groups of authors) had chosen one or the other of the titles in the context and circumstances of their presentation and application without let or hindrance. Then interested people had simply sought to understand what the authors mean, just as our readers should start by seeking to understand what epizootiology means. Moreover, we have said in the introduction section of this book, that what we consider to be the closest alternative title to Epizootiology as taught in our University is 'Veterinary’ Epidemiology and Economics'. Hence, to acknowledge the relevance and importance of the emphasis in that title, also to bridge the gap of understanding and show the relationship between Epizootiology and VEE, the title of the discourse presented below is “The Increasing Role and Importance o f Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics in Veterinary Education, Practices and Development". The major addition in our construct, teaching and practice of Epizootiology as a natural, wholesome and holistic system is the inculcation of the relevance, need and importance of socio-economicjurisprudence for realistic system development and cost- effective application of our science (Epizootiology), as presented in this book, whereby among other things it is meant to provide a pre-requisite for advanced / systematic epizootiology as well as ensuring that it provides the soundest basis for veterinary public health (vph) and preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) practices as defined (Esuruoso, G. 0., 1984). “31st Annual Conference of The Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association: Venue: The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Date: 24 28 October, 1994. Theme o f Symposium: M anaging our vision for the im provem ent o f veterinary services in Nigeria. 2 5 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, ljagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ().. 2005 Title o f this paper: THE INCREASING ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMICS IN VETERINARY EDUCATION, PRACTICES AND DEVELOPMENT Presented by. Professor G O . Esuruoso (BVMS, MSc., Ph.D., MRCVS) Chief Executive, Academic Consultancy Services, and Professor of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, U.I.P.O Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State, Nigeria. ABSTRACT The art and science of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery has always had Epizootiological basis. But Epizootiology (or Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE)) was never a subject in the curriculum of Veterinary education worldwide until recently and even now it is only in a few veterinary institutions. About a century ago however, Epidemiological concepts started appearing in the educational horizon of the biomedical sciences and professions. Afterwards, about the middle of this century, Epidemiology was being mentioned in passing when teaching or considering the spread and effects of infectious diseases in human communities, as in 'populations' of food animal species. Today, “Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE)” is already recognized as a major (composite) discipline that should be integrated and presented as a subject in its own right and as part of the Veterinary curriculum, and existing as a separate Department of modern Faculties of Veterinary Medicine. It is now clear that any institution that, for any reason whatsoever, is slow in realizing this development may soon find itself out of date. One alternative is to have the composite discipline as a major unit of, and providing the basis for “Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine This presentation is m eant to bring forth the highlights o f the contributions now being m ade, as well as new horizons being attained through the developm ent o f the com posite discipline o f Veterinary Epidem iology and Econom ics (which is the closest alternative to Epizootiology) as an essential tool for studying and controlling health and production, and related problem s in anim al herds, flocks or populations and in public health practice. O bviously, education in such m atters is an essential first step tow ards im provem ent o f Veterinary services in any country. The situation in N igeria can never bean exception. 251 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 CONTENTS Title Page Abstract Content 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Theme of the Conference 1.2 Title of This Paper 1.3 J u s tif ic a t io n 1.4 Objectives 2. VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMICS (VEE) (EPIZOOTIOLOGY) 2.1a Choosing between Epizootiology and VEE 2.1b What it is all about? 2.1c Conclusion 2.2 What Former and Increasing Roles? 2.3 What Importance Before and Now? 3. VETERINARY EDUCATION 3.1 What it was formerly 3.2 What it is now 3.3 Important Changes 4. FORMS OF VETERINARY SERVICES 4.1 In the Past 4.2 Evolving Scenarios 4.3 Importance of Changes 5. DEVELOPMENT 5.1 At National and Regional Levels 5.2 At International Level 5.3 Implications of Evolving Trends 6 . PLANS FOR IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 6.1 Change Appreciation 6.2 Change Management 6.3 Change Indicators 6.4 Plans to take care of the changes 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 8 . BIBLIOGRAPHY 252 UNIVE SITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa. B. ()., 2005 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Theme of the Conference: “Managing our Vision for Improvement ofVeterinary Services in Nigeria”. Where there is no vision, the people perish; but he that keepeth the law, happy is he. (Proverbs 29:18) So, this meaningful theme assumes that we have a vision. If we do indeed have a vision, it is then further assumed that this vision is a positive system's (as opposed to a negative and selfish) one. It also assumes that our vision is not just for today or tomorrow but for the foreseeable future. It is assumed that such vision can form the foundation for a better future and so can be built upon by generations yet unborn. If the foundation be destroyed, what can the righteous do? (Psalm 11: 3) That the vision does not contradict laws of nature and equity written on all sane and civilized human minds, and of natural relationships that can honourably sustain a nation; and such as does not oppose the principles and objectives of sound and healthy systems and sub-systems in which normal human beings thrive and prosper as a group. It is thus assumed that such vision is not contrary to the provisions of the country’s Constitution if in fact the country has one subsisting even now. It is in fact assumed that the system in which we are interested is that of one Nigeria. It is then assumed that Veterinary Services in this context, covers provisions for animal health, animal disease control (8 .1 ), economic livestock production, the enthronement of humane practices, improved veterinary contribution to public health (8 .2 ) and contribution to a nation-wide safe physical and social environment. It is assumed that our vision is an open arrangement, as opposed to a secret design or hidden agenda, that all the components of that vision will be ethical, not divisive, not selfish, not counter-productive, also not anti-social, not anti-human rights but in fact being in support of corporate diligence and efficiency in productivity (instead of encouraging idleness and the wasteful utilization of resources) in realistic and economic terms. Finally, it is assumed that such vision will be defensible before man and God (an indication of spiritual health), Beloved, if our heart condemns us not, then have we confidence toward God. (1 John 3:21) And so, the implementation of our vision would be expected to be without prevarications in all sectors of our system at local, national and even at international levels there would be transparent honesty and accountability being maintained by all and as part of our vision for veterinary services of the future in a democratized society. What a mighty lot of assumptions? What a tall order of expectations? one may wonder. Could we really mean all that and perhaps more? 253 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 But yet, more still could be said about a worthy vision for the improvement of Veterinary services in one Nigeria. But the main point is, If we assume that these criteria are there, and we are wrong; and they are not there, then our purposes are futile and our vision puerile, thus'makingan-ass-of-you-and-me' (ass-u-me). And I dare say, that could never be the intention of this august gathering, nor of our noble profession, whatever the present odds, whatever the attenuating circumstances. So, we owe it a duty to let those assumptions run through our conscious minds during our wakeful existence. Let us all start thinking hard, and by that I mean thinking actively and acting thoughtful all the time. Do not be deceived, God cannot be mocked; a man reaps what he sows. The one who sows to please his sinful nature, from that nature will reap destruction. The one who sows to please the Spirit, from the Spirit he will reap eternal life. (Gal. 6: 7-8). 1 have seen enough of this life to testify that man does not exist in body alone. For if however, our assumptions on these criteria are perfect, clear to our conscience, and laudable in the short and the long run, then we must quickly go on to educate ourselves about the implications of such assumptions about our general and specific objectives and responsibilities and on how we would go about trying to achieve those laudable objectives, and how to discharge our responsibilities honorably. “For the exercise of will power is in action and not rest or indolence” (s. i. t. m.). The quality of a vision, in the long run, would obviously depend on the level of education and wisdom of the visionary or visionaries (and not merely on the good intentions of “some missionaries”). It would also depend on the ability of the planners to be realistic, as well as on the ability of the executors and even the developers of the vision to abide by the rules and the universally accepted conditions for sustaining a civilized society in a 'social (as opposed to anti-social) free-market economy'; you sure know where 1 am quoting from! The BBC of course. Those that would put into practice, the improvement that we now foresee as good and possible, must be not just men of timber and calibre, but men of substance, who would be accountable to the nation (not to themselves to the exclusion of the people), not self- appointed, not dictatorial not the apostles of “the only way is our way”. For these are some of the nagging evils of the day. And in this respect also, the resources (8.3) for such improvement must be realistically checked and found to be there, suitable (especially in terms of the human components), applicable and adequate before embarking on grandiose visioning and planning for which we have neither the leadership nor the followership to realize/ 'actualize'... as they now say. The system must also be ready for the type of improvement that we envisage. The people must be clearly committed not through the barrels of guns or the evils of settlement and “egunje” for these unfortunately, are some of the prevailing realities of our present corporate existence, yes! Managing our vision! The word “managing” is a good one; but it may mean 'managing for the good of all', or 'managing for the pleasure of a few'. It is hoped that our assumptions on “managing” is an expression of our ambition to provide for the overall good of the 254 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F and Olugcisa, B. O., 2005 faithfully toiling masses in a democratic system, as opposed to pandering to the whims and caprices and the greed of a deceiving and enslaving, idle-rich, violent, lawless and socio-economically devastating, oligarchic, self-appointing disasters as the nation continues to endure. For sure, they are obviously lost, who do not see the connection between the activities of these manipulators and the subsisting predicament of the entire nation. “That action is best Which procures the greatest happiness For the greatest numbers” (Francis HUTCHESON: 1694 1746) Is that our corporate belief? Or would we rather continue to cope with “the fewer men, the greater share of horror” of loot? We sure need to put on our thinking cap I dare say! We must then see “managing” at three levels, namely: (i) At the level of individual (discrete) systems (8.4, 8.5) a matter of self­ management (8.6) (ii) At the level of the diffuse (societal) system (8.5) i.e. system's management (8.6); and (iii) Change management at all levels (including all levels ofrisks and of society). For management is a network of activities encompassing not less than eleven possible distinct components, starting from self-management (8.6), including risk management, and ending with change-management (8.6) envisaging perpetual changes while the sun lasts. And many must have learnt the hard and painful way how violent and drastic, and devastating, even flabbergasting most changes have been in the recent past in our ailing economy; as for example, the purchasing power of the national currency having been devalued to less than one hundredth of what it was only nine years ago while the trend continues. Have we then a vision for anticipating and managing that change? that persisting trend? Who does not realize that it is the value of your labour and mine and everyone else's who labours in this country that is being destroyed? And while the greedy and reckless, corrupt and shameless, the emerging and waxing idle rich thrive and prosper with glaring arrogance, the hopes of pensioners have been shattered, and that at the tail-end of their mortal existence though they had earlier served their country with accepted dedication and loyalty. And yet the band plays on courtesy of unending and violent changes, worsening mismanagement and unparalleled endurance of the toiling masses. Tell us! Who had visions of the presents back in 1985? - When the unfortunate turn of events was allowed. Tell us! Who planned and who allowed the mismanagement? - By brute force, naked violence and lawlessness against those whose visions were sane, superior and socially enlightened. The above is a necessary preamble, in order to show how relevant in Epizootiology the socio-political events are, how important it is for us to think clearly and realistically when we choose the term 'vision', how to manage a vision, 255 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 and how we want to improve the veterinary services in the country in spite or/and in view of the on-going privations, for the lot or for a few? A careftil study, a constructive meditation and a realistic drawing board approach will always be necessary in order to achieve any desirable progress at all. 'Be not deceived, beloved...' What a vision have we to tread the road that is paved with good intentions, but leads directly and surely to hell and destruction? What vision for correcting the present ills, for undoing the damages, for returning the nation to the path of sanity? Or, do we think that things will spring back to the good old days, simply by our 'young men seeing vision' and our 'old men dreaming dreams'? Das ist die Frage! Die Beantwortenjetzt? If maggots are in the flesh, and we choose to ignore the fact, If we decide for whatever reason, to pretend that they are not there, And we prefer not so much to think, let alone talk about the matter, The chances are that, they will continue unabated to destroy the flesh. Then who suffers, but the entire system of human and material resources? 1.2 Now, the title of this paper is “The Increasing Role and Importance of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE) in Veterinary Education, Practices and Development”. For an initial clarification, Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (VEE) will be treated in this paper as the nearest acceptable alternative to Epizootiology. Students of Epizootiology (8.7; 8.4; 8.5) will recall that by definition, and therefore by default, Epizootiology already included more than just the biological and the statistical contents. The tripod of epizootiology (8.6; 8.8; 8.9; 8.10) consists of bio-medical, statistical and socio-economic components. The increasing importance of VEE (8.11) is significant because VEE was never a subject in its own right in the syllabus of traditional education in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery. But over the last fifty years or so the subject has been found to be capable of providing the foundation for building on a good Veterinary education for all systems, all occasions, all times and for the good of many sectors of the economy. For although there are many other logical approaches, but the most useful, the most comprehensive, and the one with the most reliable logical path is the Epizootiological (or Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics) approach. In receptive, knowledgeable, wise and initiated minds, it is capable of providing a solid foundation for education, understanding, practices and development of the veterinary system of any country. This is the reason for the choice of the title about which we should all is up-dated; if indeed we are to manage our worthy vision properly and for the improvement of veterinary services in the country, for now and for the foreseeable future. 1.3 Justification As the awareness and knowledge of any subject increase, and the nature of the relevant problems becomes better understood, the need will usually arise for modifying the procedures for tackling the problems. The development of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics from about 1975 (8.10) has shown that the methods based on the principles of this composite discipline are capable of 256 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 providing good basis for a universal approach towards the establishment of adequate understanding and control strategies for various problems relevant to the practices of veterinary medicine. Though in a limited sense or scope, one can in fact say that the various problems of animal populations have social (educational, bodily, mental, moral and spiritual) and even environmental contents, dimensions and implications. From that standpoint we can then fruitfully address, comprehensively explore and control relevant problems through epizootiological (or VEE) principles, methods, and literary and statistical logic paths. And if we agree that an epidemiologist is one who thinks in an epidemiological manner (8.12), then an Epizootiologist could be regarded as one who thinks epizootiologically, broadly, comprehensively, and in somewhat more than three dimensions and from several points of view. And through the various (literary, statistical and socio-economic logic paths) i.e. epizootiologic paths, a basic understanding of the art and science can be readily acquired. It has been realized that population approach which is the basis of epizootiology, [Epidemiology, Epornithology Epornithics, et hoc genus omne], and the economic implications (the costs and benefits of the events) could provide the philosophy for tackling most population problems of health and production and of animal and human (societal) well-being (8.5). In epizootiology in particular, its comprehensive approach covers the tripod (8.8, 8.9, 8.10 and 8.5) on which the foundation of Preventive Medicine in its widest sense has been laid. This doctrine emphasizes the reality that, more often than not, prevention is not only better than cure, but that it is also often cheaper and more convenient. The socio-economic component of Epizootiology (8.6) makes provision for covering the non-biological factors, events, forces and circumstances that may contribute positively and/or negatively to the problems of populations (be those of men, or of lower vertebrate animals, of particular interest, livestock, wildlife, companion species or sports animals). The need for improvement in the veterinary services of this country will be better understood if the more comprehensive, three (biomedical, statistical and socio-economic) dimensional approaches afforded by epizootiological thinking are adopted. It would ensure that all concerned would be properly educated for the services and have the chances of being fully aware of the envisaged or what constitutes desirable development. Hence the justification for making this presentation. 1.4 Objectives The general objective of this presentation is to create awareness (among all concerned) of the intricate and vital changes taking place in the fields of education, veterinary services and development, towards a better future for human society. The specific objectives are to state the areas in which changes and improvements in the effective demand and supply of veterinary services and by implication, in veterinary education and development, are taking place in the international arena. Nigeria is a member of the United Nations. This is not surprising, as no lasting progress is ever made in isolation. No country exists in a vacuum. Interactions, exchanges, collaborative efforts and inter-dependence in matters of trade, livestock agriculture, education, government and the overall well-being of humanity are taking place. It is part of the objective of this paper to sensitise all concerned to recognizing identified problems in a global scene, as otherwise all our visions and 257 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 good intentions may come to naught. We ought to be educated properly in these matters. We ought to be developing our human resources. We ought to maintain our continuing education oath (8.13) as veterinary surgeons. “They know enough who know how to learn”. (Education of Henry Adams, 1838-1918). 2. VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY & ECONOMICS (VEE) OR EPIZOOTIOLOGY 2.1a Choosing between the (linguistic purist's (8.12) one word “Epizootiology1 (8.5, 8.7), and the four-word alternative “Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics' (VEE) (8.11), one is at least reminded (among other things) of "O f Studie, he took m ost care and m ost heed: N ought a word speaks he m ore than was needed” . (Dan Chaucer, well o f English undefiled, on Fame's eternal beadroll worthy to be filed; Edmund Spenser, c. 1552-1599); [*Cited in the University of Glasgow' Veterinary School B.V.M.S. (1959 1964 Class) Year Book.] And now, whether that* be a vice or a virtue, or simply a preference, may not always matter; but it is obviously not a matter of life and death, nor of'nailing the coffin' (8.11) of one or the other of two well-conceived alternatives open to academics in a truly democratic and free conscience (and the much talked of 'academic freedom') environment. But whatever the matter, 'a word is enough' will still be appropriate, at least 'for the wise', and especially for those w'ho accept the adage, maybe according to personal inclinations and/or experiences, and perhaps of intentions, and as a matter of conscience. Everyone to his choice, and 'Epizootiology', come rain or shine, for those w'ho thus understand, perhaps those who also believe that “Brevity is the soul of wit.” (Shakespeare, Hamlet I, ii 90) 2.1b What it is all about: Epizootiology has been shown to provide literary, biomedical, mathematical and socio-economic logic (even algorithmic and flow'charting) paths for the comprehensive and systematic consideration, study, understanding and control of all forms of problems, including infectious and non-infectious diseases, conditions, malnutrition, all forms physiological aberration, dysfunction, social- ills, natural disabilities including infirmities and deformities and other enormities in groups of animals and populations of men, and in relation to their internal and external environment, in specified locations overtime. For plants, the equivalent term is Epiphytology, and the meeting point forboth will be found in the studies of ecological communities (of plants, animals, microbes/saprophytes and the inanimate environment (or biosphere) w'hich both plants and animals and even the saprophytes share, take from and contribute to. Many, probably due to 258 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 prolonged misuse, prefer the term 'Epidemiology for animals', which may be regarded as providing a necessary clarification and therefore an acceptable form of terminological inexactitude, having thought of the fact that Epidemiology is often being regarded and defined as 'the study of disease patterns in human populations'. Some have preferred the term Veterinary Epidemiology - probably for the avoidance of doubt. And others still “Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics” which is a further compromise simpliciter. all of which and more have been covered under the single word 'Epizootiology'. So, we now ha\ e Epizootiology (the original term (8.12), Epidemiology (long used by respected and accomplished scientists). Epidemiology for Animals (once used by some equally respected ones), Veterinary Epidemiology (a logical and acceptable compromise term), and Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (the now de facto choice of many that spells it all out, in so many words for the avoidance of doubt and in view of the obvious compromise nature.) as alternative terms according to the choice, or the context, or even the preference or the academic politics of individuals or groups. It is therefore not surprising that in the international community there would be people who would be grieved by the linguistic purists' approach of epizootiology (8.12). And some may even be waging war to nail the coffin (8.11) of this most productive foundation of scientific thinking on problems in biological (including ecological), biomedical, socio-economic and environmental systems. John W. Last (8.14) and his collaborators did make a tremendous effort to produce a dictionary of epidemiology. The 1SVEE further contributed to improvements of later editions. The pros and cons of the nomenclature were considered; but this may well have to remain a matter of opinion, perhaps of judgment, even of consensus when it is convenient, of following the crow'd when considered safe, or taking a stand in spite of the odds, and the risks, and the raging war. In fact, about 1978, Lilienfeld (8.15) wrote a succinct review on the definitions of Epidemiology in recent literature. He listed up to 23 such definitions. And in the discussion that followed, he seemed to have introduced three others. Today people are still defining epidemiology (and epidemiologists) according to the context of each presentation and the other circumstances appertaining to their objectives. And now, for the avoidance of doubt, I present below, tables (A to G) which contain many (but by no means all) of the definitions that have been used or cited in recent literature for Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, 'Epidemiology of animal diseases (formerly called epizootiology by linguistic purists', 'Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics' and Epizootiology' simpliciter. TABLE A: Definitions of Epidemiology in terms of infectious/communicable diseases A1. 1927 FROST (8.15) “The science of the mass-phenomena of infectious diseases, or as the natural history of infectious diseases, concerned not merely with describing the distribution of disease, but equally or more fitting it into a consistent philosophy”. 2 5 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A2. 1931 S T A L L Y B R A S S (8.15): “The science of the infective diseases, their prime causes, propagation and prevention”. A3. 1951 M A X C Y (8 .1 5 ) ; “That field of medical science which is concerned with the relationships of the various factors and conditions which determine frequencies and distribution of an infectious process, a disease, or a physiological state in a human community”. A4. 1 9 6 3 C O C K B U R N (8.15) “The study of the Ecology of infectious diseases”. A5. 1975 (p. 1) L O W E C.R. & K O S T R E Z E W S K I J (8.16): “The study of the spread and decline of communicable diseases in human populations and the prophylaxis and control of those diseases”. TABLE B: Definitions of Epidemiology in terms of diseases, conditions, laws and circumstances: Bl. 1934 GREEN WOOD (8.15): “The study of disease as a mass phenomenon”. B2. 1938 Paul (8.15): “Concerned with circumstances where disease is prone to develop”. B3. 1943 AYCOCK (8.15): “Epidemiology must understand disease, not so much as it affects the individual, or as it behaves under th'e eye of the observer at any one time or in any one place, but as it imposes itself on groups of people, *even if they extend across boundaries set by men for econom ic, political and social purposes”. B4.1958 STAMLER (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of disease in populations”. B5. 1958 L1L1ENFELD (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of distribution of a disease or condition in a population and of those factors which influence their distribution”. B6. 1961 REID (8.15): Epidemiology 'deals with the characteristic behaviour of such diseases within the complex matrix of human populations'. B7. 1952 PEMBERTON (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of the laws governing the distribution of diseases in the community'. B8. 1963 GORDON (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of disease as it occurs in nature'. B9. 1970 FOX et al. (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of factors determining the occurrence of diseases in populations'. 260 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 BIO. 1970 MACMAHON & PUGH (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of the distribution and determinants of disease frequency in man'. B11. 1973 SARTWELL (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of the distribution and dynamics of disease in human populations'. Explanations: 1. Distribution implies the selection of people for attack by a disease in relation to age, sex, race, occupational and social characteristics, and place of residence, susceptibility, exposure to specific agents or whatever other characteristic is pertinent. 2. 'Dynamics' refers to temporal distribution, and is concerned with trends, cyclic patterns, and intervals between exposure to inciting factors and onset of disease. 3. Disease includes observed overt disease, detection of humoral antibodies, inapparent infections (lab-detected), physiological aberrations e.g. elevated temperature, high blood pressure, impaired pulmonary function, injury, genetic traits, and other health related characteristics. (Comment: Why not simply say, “Epidemiology is the study of problems (including diseases) in populations”? (8.5): B12. 1973 and 1975 (p.I)* LOWE & KOSTREZEWSKI (8.15 and 8.16): Epidemiology is 'the study of the factors determining the frequency and distribution of disease in human populations'. B13. 1974 MAUSNER & BAHN (8.15): Epidemiology is 'the study of the distribution and determinants of disease and injuries in human populations'. B.14.1974 FRIEDMAN (8.15): “The study of disease occurrence in human* populations”. B15. 1975 LASAGNA (8.15): Epidemiology is'the science** dealing with the incidence, spread and control of disease”. B16. 1976 SINNECKER(14): “C oncerned with mass outbreak of disease”. B17. 1975 Brendan HALPIN (8.12): says that (a) “The study ofthe patterns of disease is known as Epidemiology”. (b) “Epidemiology of animal diseases (formerly called epizootiology by linguistic purists)...” (c) “The study of animal epidemics was at one time called ep izootio logy , as distinct from the term epidemiology, which was reserved for human studies'. “It is clear that there are not 2 separate sciences, but one epidemiology with two aspects, one dealing with diseases usually seen in man, and the other with those seen more commonly in animals (Mulvihill, 1972)”. 261 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, ljagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 B18. 1985 BLOOD, D.C. (8.17): “Epidemiology is the study ot'diseases in groups”. B19&B20 1977 SCHWABAetal. (8.18; p. 3) (B19) (p.3) “Epidemiology is the study of diseases in populations”. (B20) (p.281) Alternative Definition:* “the study of the health status of populations” Explanations*: (a) (p.281) “1. Strict etymological considerations may not always be the best guide to word usage. If they were, epidemiology would have to be considered a special branch of cpizootiology; and such other generally used terms as population and demography would apply only to a single animal species, man. Epidemiology is a more commonly used and understood word than is cpizootiology, and there is no need to use different words for the study of diseases in populations of men versus populations of other animals any more than there would be to use two different words for pathology. In summary, epizootiology is not only unwieldy and often mispronounced, but also redundant. As an alternative definition for epidemiology, we believe “the study of the health status of populations” to possess considerable merit”. (b) Epidemiology is one of “three parent diagnostic disciplines”, namely (i) clinical diagnosis (ii) pathology and (iii) epidemiology (see “Diagnosis of Brucellosis” (8.31)). “They complement one another, and their distinctly different tools may be applied sequentially to the solution of diagnostic problems, although use of all three may not be necessary in such instance”. The epidemiological approach to diagnosis is a holistic one, which contrasts with the more reductionist's approaches of clinical diagnosis and pathology. These authors also explain that epidemiology provides the means for describing disease patterns and events in populations. They recognize that statistics is relevant and essential to the study of epidemiology. B21. 1985 BENNETT, F.J. (8.19): “Epidemiology has been defined as the study of the distribution, the determinants, and the deterrents of disease”. TABLE C: Definition of Epidemiology in terms of health, ill health and disease Cl. 1967 TAYLOR (8.15): “The study of health or ill-health in a defined population”. TABLE D: Definition of Epidemiology in terms of preventive and community medicine. Dl. 1975 MORRIS(8.15): “The basic science ofpreventive and community medicine”. TABLE E: Definition of Epidemiology in terms of disease and/or physiological condition. 262 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O . 2005 El. 1976 L1LIENFELD(8.15): 'The study of the distribution of a disease or a physiological condition in human populations and of the factors that influence this distribution”. TABLE F: Definitions of Epidemiology in terms of observation methods, total established facts and reasoning (or philosophy) thereof and related social factors. FI. 1978 LILIENFELD, David E. (8.15). (p. 89) “Hence Epidemiology is a method of reasoning about disease that deals with biological inferences derived from observations of disease phenomena in population groups”. F2. Ibid. (p.90) “Epidemiology at any given time is something more than the total of its established facts. It includes their orderly arrangement into chains of inference, which extends more or less beyond the bounds of direct observation. F3.1976 WHITE, K..L. and HENDERSON, M.M. (8.20). “Epidemiology is the science** of that which is on the people”. F4. 1975 HOBSON, W. (8.21): “Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants ofhealth and disease in populations, and part of its province is the study of the related social factors. Indeed, every epidemiological variable is in some sense a sociological variable. The factors affecting the distribution of disease in populations may be biological or environmental and both have social implications”. (Comment: Perhaps one may add that basic attributes such as age and sex are biological terms; and like marital status they also have social meanings.). TABLE G: Definitions of VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY / simply EPIDEMIOLOGY according to context and reflecting the interest and thinking of theauthor/s. G1. 1979 LEECH E.B. & SELLERS K.C. (8.22): “Veterinary Epidemiology is a study of variable material (the recorded observations about disease) in variable hosts (the population) living in an environment in which climate, topography and nutrition define other main groups of variables. Results of such a study contribute to a “natural history o disease”. G2. 1994 NDIR1TU,G.C. (8.23): “Veterinary Epidemiology is the study of disease within livestock populations and its effect on their demography and productivity”. (Livestock demography 1) G3. 1985 ELLIS, P.R. (8.24): “Epidemiology is the study of systems of problems of sub-optimal productivity”. 263 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 G4. 1986THURSFIELD, M. (8.25): “Epidemiology is the study of disease in populations and the factors that determine its occurrence, the keyword being populations”. “Veterinary Epidemiology involves observing animal populations and making inferences from the observations". The 4 approaches are descriptive, analytical, experimental and theoretical. Notes: Is Epidemiology a science? - Earlier epidemiologists were trained microbiologists involved in the investigation of outbreaks of infectious diseases. - Now the approaches of epidemiology / epizootiology are applicable to parasitological studies of life cycles and dynamics of infections / infestations by helminths, arthropods and protozoans. - To geneticists studying inherited defects in population -To nutritional studies investigating deficiencies and/ortoxicities -Toother sciences, etc. TABLE H: EPIZOOTIOLOGY: DEFINITIONS & EXPLANATIONS HI. 1993 ESURUOSO, G.O. (8.5): “Epizootiology is the comprehensive (holistic and peripheral) study of the variable factors, events, forces and circumstances that contribute to the occurrence, distribution, control and prevention of ill-health, diseases and other problems in animal populations, as well as the valuation and quantification of the variable factors and their contribution to the problems in each instance. Explanations: Epizootiology is a science of natural relationships between biological animal groups or populations, the local plant populations on which the animals depend (for food and shelter) in the universal food, nutrient and energy chains, and their external environment and its contents which they share inevitably with other living and non-living things. H2. (Ibid) Epizootiology is a study of systems and relationships on which models of scientific thinking in operational research methodologies may be fruitfully based, for solving general and specific problems of animal groups (herds, flocks, etc.) and those of related human populations and of their environment. H3. Epizootiology is the qualitative and quantitative study of the factors, events, forces and circumstances that contribute to the occurrence, distribution, effects, limitations, control and prevention of whatever problems may befall a group or population of animals over a specific period of time. But by far the simplest, perhaps simplistic or heuristic definition of epizootiology is the next one (H4.) H4. Epizootiology is the study of epizootics. 264 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Notes: (a) Epizootiology is the natural mother of Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, Epomithics / Epomithology and other .species-restricted disciplines, which are the offshoots. There should be no problem in establishing the systematics of naming such other related spheres of learning and potential application (to further the cause of being specific) as recently exemplified under “Episcientology” (8.5). (b) Epiphytology is a “sibling” of Epizootiology. (c) “Epi-Inanimatology” is potentially the other “sib” (8.5). This approach brings into limelight the relevance, implications and importance of 'Ecological Community’ (8.26) approaches, and of the inclusion of the environmental components in the universal (and comprehensive) study of health determinants and related problems (including those of the environmental problems of pollution and degradation), as well as the understanding and control of'whatever may befall' them. It bursts the bounds (and thus breaks the bonds) of sectionalism, parochialism and isolationism demolishing the walls of misunderstanding, thus making prevarications about overlapping meanings and shades of meanings henceforth unnecessary. It also (positively) creates the bridge for transparent understanding among the various biological and biomedical, even the physical scientists and professions and also the humanities. There is no longer need for shying away from the 'purity', exactitude and subtle shades of meaning of related (but not exactly appropriate) words available for scientific and social expressions in the study of mass problems. Interested readers should see “Public understanding of science, the report of a Royal Commission, 1986, admonishing scientists to communicate by dropping jargons that are not understandable as to the public as matters of fact. “Scientists must learn to communicate with the public” (8.27) Obviously, consistency in the choice of exact words is one of the essential elements of proper communication of science (as it is of literature). By a simple test of association, if one says anything .. .zoo... the mind of any citizen with not less than average intelligence is more likely to go to a congregation of vertebrate or mammalian animals lower than man, rather than to a group of men, until the problem of mortification comes in, when he may regard the face of some of the inmates of the zoo and his own face and general anatomy in a mirror. He at once sees that epizootiology is more likely to conjure up in the simple mind 'the study ofproblems that befall groups of animals, including especially those which are in the evolutionary scale just lower than (but not excluding) human beings with their distinct communities. '...Simple mind... and practical too!' starting from the lower rungs of the evolutionary ladder (regarding the vertebrates and especially the mammals) and naturally going up to the 'highest' group / population of men. Simplistic! Do you think? “Verily I say unto you, whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not enter therein”. (S> Mark 10,15). 265 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO. Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. ().. 2005 By the same token, neither demography nor epidemiology would (except by a stretch of imagination ofthe highly learned, widely read and specifically initiated or indoctrinated few) send 'the general public' thinking of livestock let alone their problems. Rather epidemiology to the minds of the majority of common literate citizens anywhere in the world today honestly speaking, will intuitively go to “people” and “whatever befalls them”, instead of to livestock and their problems. Little wonder it was recently (in 1994) observed (8.11) that “Fifteen years later...’’quote he, 'Most veterinarians can by now pronounce epidemiology and many can even spell it”. It was once recently said No wonder! Especially if one realizes that to pronounce and spell it properly, the uninitiated (like this author) may have to contend with such possibilities as “epidemiology” and “epistemology” while meaning epidemiology. And whereas, (with at most a minimum care and attention) no such confusion would arise with the more appropriate (more etymologically exact and better understood by most members ofthe public at cognitive level) word “Epizootiology” - - as there must be very few who are not already familiar with the twin 'oo' in the household word 'zoo'. For if the 'oo' in zoo or in epizootiology tends to get stuck between their teeth, even little children will help to put them right both in the matter of pronunciation and in that of spell ing and obvious meaning. And in any case, there must be today, in all parts of the world, scientists who would prefer to use words whose esoteric meanings may be readily derivable as a matter of fact, i.e. of common sense, without requiring such verbal callisthenics as would eventually end up with the conclusion that \ve have decided in any case'. Sure, for a group to decide is acceptable in democracy and naturally. Hence some call their space travellers Astronauts, while others call theirs Cosmonauts; and the difference has never been found to be an obstruction to peaceful co-existence, not to cooperation on earth and in outer space. Bravo! So also let it be with Epidemiologists for animals and Epizootiologists sen.su strseto. Finally, a positive exercise in creative etymological thinking to meet a crying need for better systematics (in scientific terminologies), would among other things, justify the introduction ofthe word “Episcientology” (8.5) as a “mother- discipline” (or a “root discipline” to avoid confusion with “mothers of wars”) a reasonable proposition it would seem, to the cognitive mind perhaps. From such a base, every branch of the science (of “what befalls groups”) would fall into its proper place without further need for continuing the futile controversy about justifying a long standing and widespread misuse of a scientifically derived term (and perhaps because the more suitable alternative tends to get between the teeth of some decent, respected, but simply unpractised individuals who should simply be advised to practise and get onto the side of universal and 'public understanding of science' (8.27). The right words (with the right shades of meaning for each occasion) will always provide the ultimate understanding, at least cost, avoiding unnecessary verbal gymnastics and obviously unfruitful contentions. Such has often been the method of ultimately sound science and durable heritage in which every word is put into its right and proper use sooner or later. Scientists are bound to follow sound scientific example sooner or later. 266 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 2. lb CONCLUSION: It should be noted from the above, that forth (40) different definitions have been culled from existing literature. And the list is by no means exhaustive. Thirty-three of these define Epidemiology. Four (G1 G4) of them define Veterinary Epidemiology. And two (HI &H2) define Epizootiology (followed by relevant notes / explanation where considered necessary, for further enlightenment of the open-minded reader). Five of the examples (A1 A5) above define Epidemiology as the study of infectious diseases in populations. Twenty-one (B1 B21) define Epidemiology as the study of diseases and/or conditions and laws. One (Cl) defines Epidemiology as the study of health and ill-health. One also (Dl) defines Epidemiology as the basic science of preventive and community medicine. One (El) defines Epidemiology as the study of disease and/or physiological conditions. Four (FI F4) define Epidemiology as observation methods, reasoning, inferences and total established facts of diseases including sociological variables. Veterinary Epidemiology is defined in four ways (G1 G4). G1 defines Veterinary Epidemiology as the study of variable materials in variable hosts. Whereas G2 defines Veterinary Epidemiology as the study of diseases within livestock populations. G3, which is actually a definition of Veterinary Epidemiology, defines Epidemiology as the study of systems of problems of sub optimal productivity. Many of the definitions (e.g. A3, A5, B3? B6, B7, B10 (man), B11, B12, B13, B14, EI, F3 ('the people') of Epidemiology relate to diseases and health problems in man, human populations, human community, or 'the people'. Some consider Epidemiology as a science (e.g. A2, A3, B15, F3, Dl (basic science). Whereas others thought of it as a philosophy. Others indicated that a bit of both ingredients (e.g. A1) should always be present. Some address the subject from the biological viewpoint. Most see the relevance of biomedical contents. A few agree that studies of the social (e.g. F4), and indeed the socio-economic factors and implications must complement the biomedical and statistical considerations. Finally, Epizootiology was presented as a comprehensive study of the factors, events, forces and circumstances that contribute to all sorts of problems (including ill-health, diseases, sub optimal productivity and social, economic, cultural constraints) in biological animal populations and with particular reference to the vertebrate species of which man is the most eminent member. This definition establishes Epidemiology, Veterinary Epidemiology, Ornithology and related sciences as offshoots of Epizootiology; its sib is Epiphytology. Epidemiology and Veterinary Epidemiology (regarded as synonyms in today's usage and coverage by respected authorities) are both sciences. Economics is a social science. Therefore, Epizootiology both as originally conceived and practised and as here defined (8.5) is a science of much more comprehensive scope than either. Science is a branch of knowledge requiring systematic study and method, especially one of those dealing with substances, animal and vegetable life and natural laws(8.28,p.591). 267 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Economics is the science concerned with the production and consumption or use of goods and services; (8.28, p.202) *For additional information, interested persons may consult Fundamentals of Epizootiology” (8.5) which is available from Academic Consultancy Services, U.I.P.O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State, Nigeria: Tel. 02 810 3164. GSM 0803 4100566,0803408 1811. In any case, this author considers that Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics” is an acceptable alternative title, which spells out many of the areas covered by Epizootiology and has been used for at least 15 years (8.11), except for the reasons already highlighted in the preceding sections of this text (q.v.) and the fact that epizootiology covers a lot more than either epidemiology or economics sensu stricto, as a matter of course, following the definitions given in table H above. And in spite of the working definition (HI above), it should be noted that even Epizootiology admits of shorter definitions, such as in (H2) also given above. HI may be regarded as the working definition to which constant references may be made by the beginner, so that he/she would be constantly reminded of the comprehensive coverage under that title. Whereas, the shorter definition H2 assumes some previous knowledge of the contents of HI. Definition H3 may be worthy of special note. “Epizootiology is the comprehensive study of the factors, events, forces and circumstances that contribute (or may contribute) to the occurrence, distribution, control and prevention of ill-health (including diseases and other (biological, social, economic and environmental) problems of animal groups and/or people (or human populations) in a given area over a period of time. The valuation and quantification of the variable determinant factors and their individual and total contributions to identified problems in each instance should always form an inseparable part of epizootiological efforts. In a follow-up to such definition, the point should always be made that the study of relationships is an important aspect of epizootiology. Causal and non-causal relationships (John Stuart Mill cited by Susser, 1979 (8.29), also by Last, J.W., 1983 (8.14) are quite relevant. In its full blown form, and in its universal sense, epizootiology covers matters of food or nutrient, energy and disease (or problem) chains and their relationships to one another in ecological communities (8.26) and the various problems of animal groups or populations, vis-a-vis those of the associated plant communities and the common environment (or the biosphere (8.5))”. 2.2 What former and increasing roles? The former role of 'Epidemiology', 'Epidemiology of Animal diseases', 'Veterinary Epidemiology' and ’Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics' was to illuminate the understanding of the matrix of human diseases, animal diseases, animal health, the productivity of livestock, the ecology of the zoonoses, related problems, the biological and economic basis for real and conceivable control options and the overall implications of possible positive interventions and non­ intervention, especially in relation to economic livestock production projects and development programmes. First, epidemiology was all about problems of infections and communicable diseases; later it included all diseases, conditions and ill-health. First it was thought of as a way of thinking; later it was recognized as a science. First 268 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esiiruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 it dealt with diseases of livestock; later it included diseases of public health importance. Whereas in Epizootiology and particularly as readily obvious in Ecological Epizootiology, a natural and unquestionably sustainable system approach to established relationships was adopted. Basic similarities and glaring distinctions in the forms, functions, habitat and lifecycles between man and lower vertebrate, and most especially lower mammalian species are considered to be the essential characteristics of relationships in an epizootiological system. And this readily fits into the nature of the various ecosystems, in w'hich the role, needs, interests and deliberate (positive and negative / social and anti-social) actions of man cannot be assumed to be exactly the same as those of the lower species, even in spite of the basic similarities. Anthropocentricity is a phenomenon in reality, but there is no way we could expect a herd of cattle to express their desire and reactions to events in an ecological community in the same manner and at the same level as man would. Therefore whatever 'befalls people' must be seen as epidemiology; and that should be seen in the light of what may 'befall' the lower animal species group members of the ecological community. You cannot in its totality equate the implications of what 'befalls' populations of people with that which 'befalls' a herd of cattle or a flock of sheep. And so, among group members of ecological communities man is the only species that can most severely and effectively mar or make the survival or destruction of the system by deliberate effort and in minimum time, while yet recognising and being able to make the greatest and significant difference in matters of environmental health maintenance or degradation. And so also in the final analysis, the triangulation of what happens to people can never be to the same end as what happens to a pack of hounds or hyenas. But because they are both members of the animal kingdom, the study of their problems should be seen as epizootiology, leaving epidemiology for the study of people's problems, and as a branch of epizootiology. And whoever prefers to use one term or the other for all should hold on to the rationale to do so without seeking to disparage those who prefer the other, especially the natural, matters of evolutionary scale system approach and have also been called linguistic purists as if meaning to be derogatory. 2.2.1 Increasing roles Epidemiology and Economics as a composite discipline has now grown (8.11) to be a very important tool in the study and control of problems in livestock production, livestock health and livestock development. The discipline has continued to grow, making use of and trying to catch up with developments in the powers and versatility of the modern digital computer and especially the personal computer (PC) series. The personal computer, in its various sizes, in terms of hardware and software, memory capacity and speed of operation has provided very powerful tools for epidemiological investigation, problem analysis, modelling and simulation experiments, and theoretical epidemiology (8.25) generally and aids for decision making. In particular, custom-designed application software for word processing, database as well as spreadsheets and graphics have been widely applied in Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics. Also, developments in geographical information network systems are being taken advantage of in epidemiological communication methodologies. Molecular epidemiology is new; and applications 269 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 for the design and analysis of genetic engineering projects have already started yielding useful results including the generation of relevant data forepizootiological investigation and problem solving. The institutionalization of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics into the regular curriculum for Veterinary education in the universities is being called for loud and clear (8.23). The next decade will likely see even greater revolution in the increasing role of the discipline for solving major problems of livestock health and production in very smart ways. Much more could be said about the power of the personal computer system and the advantages of applying it to Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics. The best desirable results will however be obtained where all the elements in the tripod of epizootiology (8.5) are routinely included for careful consideration in all relevant studies. This means that certain factors, events, forces, circumstances and systems that are now being considered as having only peripheral or tangential determinant effect will soon be found to be of major importance in the determination of success or failure in major development projects in certain circumstances especially in the developing countries. I am referring in particular to the socio­ economic, cultural, political, human and material resource management (8.3), all taken together and in turn in the design and evaluation of national projects and programmes. One is reminded here of one of Murphy's Laws, which states that “nature always sides with the hidden fault”. For, if there is a fault in a system, and the fault is either hidden or ignored, nothing would stop it from destroying the entire system (sooner or later), however well-conceived and whatever the amount of good intentions. Identified faults of that nature include monstrous lack of socio-economic jurisprudence, gross political mismanagement and a null sense of accountability; these are some of the social (perhaps one should say the 'anti-social') factors not often considered in the epidemiology and economic analysis of development programmes in Africa. And unless the issues are realistically addressed, the problems may persist and even worsen. This is the explanations for the seemingly intractable problems of certain nations manifesting as lack of development with the attendant evils ignorance, poverty, hunger, misplaced priorities, mass idleness, persistent primitive nature, official violence and lawlessness, certain types of civil disturbances and wars, et hoc genus omne. 2.3 What importance before or now? In the heydays of Epidemiology and Economics, its application to commercial livestock production, health and husbandry were first recognized. Now it is including its importance, not only in public health, but also in companion animal health management. The methods and principles of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (and better still of Epizootiology sensu stricto (8.5) are now being applied with fruitful outcome in the cost-effective management in each system. Now that you've got some idea of what it is all about, that is what Epizootiology and V E E are all about in a nutshell and with at least 40 definitions and explanations, you are set on the road to making your own independent decision and choice, in a democratic way according to your own principles 270 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esumoso. G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 3. V E T E R I N A R Y E D U C A T I O N 3.1 W hat it was formerly As mentioned in the introduction, Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (or even Epizootiology) was never established as a discipline in its own right in the traditional veterinary curriculum. It was often mentioned in passing usually after defining a disease syndrome. 3.3 What it is now The indications for the need to recognize this discipline on its own merit have been overwhelming in the last ten years. Suggestions have been made (8.23) that Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, as a discipline and department on its own should be institutionalized. Anyone familiar with the strides so far and its uses already established will not argue against this proposition. One could however see some viable alternatives. Such alternative is the one developed ab initio by the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine at the University of Ibadan starting from 1975. In that programme, Epizootiology with its tripod and systematic approach was made the most important subject that should provide the soundest basis for Preventive Medicine (8.8) in theory and practices. The principles and methods of Epizootiology were found to be quite relevant and useful with additional benefits (8.9, 8.5) in the consideration of the natural history of epizootics, zoonoses and the socio-economic implications of the basis and the practices of preventive medicine (or measures) (pm); the fact that the words “medicine” and "measures” are being used interchangeably is an indication of the general applicability of epizootiological methods. Biological, biomedical, social, economic, political and cultural problems may be fruitfully investigated by epizootiological procedures. Vices in people and in domestic animals may be studied by parallel methods of the various branches of epizootiology. Thus, we sometimes talk of the epidemiology of gossip; and why not? The main questions are similar; they may include 'What group of people'? 'In what places'? 'How widespread'? 'At what times'? 'In what circumstances'? 'What are the benefits and costs'? 'What incidence rate'? etcetera. 3.3 Important Changes While some members are submitting the arguments and reasons for establishing a Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics in Veterinary Faculties, others tend to prefer and proffer alternatives. Such alternatives include the suggestion that there should be a unit of Epidemiology and Economics in every one of the traditional departmental units that make up the model institution or faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Others think that the establishment of the discipline may be more readily acceptable if it is part of a department of preventive veterinary medicine (or veterinary preventive medicine) or of veterinary public health and preventive medicine. Veterinary departments in Government Ministries of Agriculture are also being encouraged to have a unit or division for Epidemiology. Others think that such a unit should be based in the planning and a similar division of the ministry. The argument must surely continue in other forums. And it will be realistic to agree that such decisions would often depend on what is already on the ground, the existing organizational structure, the socio-political circumstances 271 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 and personalities. What is now quite desirable and worthw hile is that the established discipline should be given its due recognition in every faculty or school of veterinary medicineand in all state orministerial veterinary departments. 4. F O R M S O F V E T E R I N A R Y S E R V IC E S 4.1 In the Past This presentation will be limited to situations in some developing countries for obvious reasons. In the past veterinary activities were considered as social services. They were carried out by Government Veterinary Officers and supporting civil servants at lower cadres. All were in the paid employment of governments. No charges were made for the goods and services. Livestock and pet owners were in fact being encouraged, even 'wooed' to submit their animals for modern veterinary (preventive and curative) interventions. For the pets, the expected benefits are in the areas of humane values and public health. For livestock, the preservation of the natural resources and support for possible international trade in livestock products were paramount in the m ind of government. 4.2 Evolving Scenarios Good reasons have now been found to devolve veterinary responsibility largely to the private sector. Government ministries are being encouraged to concentrate mainly on regulatory and mass disease control and eradication campaign activities. The establishment and maintenance of infrastructure and livestock extension services are also to be carried out by government agents. Where the free service was formerly given, cost-recovery, commercialisation and later privatisation of veterinary services are now being considered in turn, as the three stages through which the necessary changes could gradually take effect. 4.3 Importance of Changes When fully privatised or largely so, it is envisaged that veterinary services would be largely cost-effective (8.7) being delivered with 'increasing efficiency' (8.30). Fewer veterinarians would be expected to perform all the required duties more efficiently, as in the open (competitive) market economy for professional services generally. Such changes must be reflected in modifications in the educational system. Adjustments in the curriculum, shifting of emphasis in the schedule of lectures and types of practical and clinical training, improved use of material and human resources, retraining of some personnel these are some of the ways the faculties may attempt to cope with the evolving changes. Further details of the needs have recently been documented in the proceedings of the Lagos Veterinary Clinical Forum (8.7) copies of which are being made available at this conference. These represent the major importance of the evolving and impending changes in veterinary services especially in developing countries like Nigeria. 5. D E V E L O P M E N T 5.1 A t National and Regional Levels The nations in the African region are already feeling the impact of the necessary changes that must take place. Not only are the pressures on because of the seeming over-production of Veterinarians, but also because of the socio-economic predicaments of the various nations. The situation seems to be very similar in both 272 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 the Eastern and Western sub-regions of Africa at least in certain important respects. In Central Africa, as well as in Southern Africa, little differences may be noted. Unfortunately, most of the vast changes and developments in Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics are being largely initiated from outside Africa. As a result, certain determinant factors peculiar to the region are not being adequately taken care of. It would seem that there should be greater scope for collaboration between scientists from the developed countries and those in Africa for the mutual benefits of their various countries. 5.2 At International Level Development programmes initiated in Africa are usually supported by a multi­ national group of staff. Most of the funding is also from donor agents from outside the African region. Therefore, the useful influences of the donor agents are encouraging the African staff to take active note of and make efforts to participate in the developments. Being biomedically literate and skilled in the use of the modem computer systems is the usual minimum being required of veterinarians in developing countries. Very often, the helping or donor countries are generous enough to provide both the equipment and the training. A little bit of enthusiasm and industry on the part of the African counterparts is often quite rewarding. The identification and training of suitable young veterinary graduates is only the first step towards a better future. Very often, the need to achieve appropriate posting and provision of necessary equipment for such motivated youngsters are the beginning of problems that lead to the mismanagement of even the human resources. There had been occasions in the past when political under-development and lack of socio­ economic jurisprudence in high places are the main causes of intractable problems. Both the local protagonists and the foreign donors and their agents would do well to be aware of this leaven. 5.3 Implicationsol'EvolvingTrends One simple fact is that any developing country, that for any excuse or even good reason fails to recognize the trends and/or to take appropriate actions will be left behind and in chaos in matters of the studies and effective control of their country's animal health and production problems. Therefore, there is the crying need for us to plan for the improvement that forms the substance of our vision being promoted at this year's conference and symposium. 6. P L A N F O R I M P R O V E M E N T A N D D E V E L O P M E N T 6.1 Change Appreciation It would seem that a clear appreciation of the changes taking place in the socio­ economic environment of our country is the step towards recognizing the nature of necessary improvement in our professional services. First we must appreciate the demand and supply situation for veterinary services. We must identify the type of services (and ethics) that would improve the economy. We must then strive to provide such services with all the resources at our disposal and with maximum efficiency. We must know that paid employment opportunities are dwindling and that the purchasing power of resources available to the country is falling; what a million Naira could purchase ten years ago, may now require one thousand million. The error or judgment is continuing people thinking that their lot would improve by juggling with prices (40% increases at a time, so many times), aggravating 273 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 inflation, and looting the treasury to support a few irresponsible and violent and arrogant idle rich including people of 'timber and calibre', though of little substance. Whereas, what is most needed is industry; every able-bodied man and woman should be diligently, honestly and fully employed on all working days, instead of more than half of us being engaged in money laundering, oil shifting, contract falsifying, all forms of unproductive, fraudulent practices, 'egunje' (graft, Yoruba) and the rest covered in loud and empty talking the voice going up, but the spirit remaining low. For our part, the need for all (or at least the majority) of us to practise our profession according to the ethics to which we all swore is now, more than ever before, most urgent. Seeing this situation as it now exists is the first change appreciation we all ought to internalize on the literary, quantitative and socio-economic paths of systematic epizootiology (8.5). To ignore these things is to continue to deceive ourselves. We borrow from external sources, but make no serious effort to pay back what we owe the external benefactor and we have the gut to go around in 'babcm'riga' (flowing robes, Hausa) telling the external sources not to take notice of our wasteful and irresponsible activities. With the finest epidemiological and economic systems in the entire universe, all will still come to naught. The totality of'what befall' us (episcientologically) is what we must address and then try to change our ways and methods too. 6.2 Change Management(8.7) A lot of changes occurring rapidly in an underdeveloped environment can lead to massive confusion apart from anything else. Change management should be one of our first priorities. So, people must learn to recognize changes and also learn howto cope with them including coping with the professional implications of the violent changes. Unfortunately, these are easier said than done. The development of appropriate human resources at all levels will definitely hold the key to success in change management. This aspect thus devolves on our educational institutions, including our faculties of veterinary medicine, and the staff and authorities of the institutions the systems approach. 6.3 Change Indicators The fact that governments are no longer able to absorb all graduating Veterinarians, not because there are no sick animals to be treated, but because of budgetary constraints, is a major indicator that changes have occurred and will continue to occur. The fact also that most of the nations that are in debt to one another are 'unable' (or unwilling) to pay even the interests to their creditors is a good indicator that changes are taking place, the magnitude of which is barely being noticed. Other major and serious indicators are wrapped up in the social, cultural and political situations in most of these countries, such as have just been described in section 6.1 above. A veterinarian cannot shut his eyes to such social, cultural and political situations and at the same time still hope to perform or prosper ethically and effectively in such circumstances. Such situations must be addressed by all of us identifying our role, correcting our inadequacies for there lies our fate whether we know it or not, whether we agree or disagree with the voice of epizootiological reasoning with its in-built provision for socio-economic jurisprudence (sej) as an essential component. Those are some of the items of change indicators. Recognize them and plan to change the undesirables. 274 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 6.4 Plans to Take Care of Changes It would seem that the first step is education. Volumes can be written about this. But this is not the forum for that. But it may be useful to remind ourselves of the following facts. In this country alone, there are at least five Faculties of Veterinary Medicine where suitable candidates are educated to the appropriate levels for being accepted into the profession. In each case, the curriculum has been carefully designed before approval by both the universities concerned and the National Universities Commission (NUC) with its highly dedicated Chief Executive and the staff. In addition, the Veterinary Council of Nigeria (VCN) which has the statutory professional mandate to ensure the standard of veterinary education, the suitability of the graduates to practise the profession, the registration of qualified candidates, the continual improvement in the standard of professional practices, and the maintenance of the ethics of the profession, has always been blessed with suitable and hardworking members. 1 f anyone is in doubt as to the validity of this declaration, he had better ask questions after this paper. And better still, and for even more authoritative and up-to-date information on the various aspects of veterinary education and professional practices in Nigeria, enquiries should be directed to the authorities of the various universities, the NUC, the VCN, the Federal Ministries of Education, Information and Agriculture, or even in general matters the information section of the Academic Consultancy Services (ACS)*. Its VatAcademic Division will usually be prepared to exchange views with such interested colleagues on relevant matters. The ACS is in fact in a position to provide reasonable guidelines for programmes in self-development and self-improvement at all levels. This is a piece of useful information and notan advertisement. Finally, it should be remembered that education has a decisive role in the development of all aspects of human society, not less so for the human resources component (8.3). Unfortunately, at the moment, all aspects of our national life and even the very existence of the majority of Nigerians are being disastrously threatened by the political situation in the country today. It is therefore the height of deception, including self-deception, to try and separate the prevailing political imbroglio from the worsening state of education including veterinary education in this country. Sound teachers are dropping their chalks and many are leaving our shores. Those that remain are being starved of funds for the tools of their jobs. Laboratories are largely empty and what remains is either unserviceable or there is no means of servicing them. Merely lip service is being paid to even the so-cailed “maintenance culture”; the priorities of the authorities are obviously elsewhere. They themselves are in dire need of education in what they profess to be the only authority, the only source of know-how and solutions. One wonders whether they do know this for if they do, why should they be choosing to incarcerate those with alternative views? With such posture and proclivity, they would probably never get such education, because it may well be above the present status and state of their individual and corporate mind and spirit. Among other effects, these may mean that the foundation of all our vision is effectively being threatened. Therefore, one of the questions that should be bothering our mind, disturbing our sleep and appearing and growing on our lips today must be "If the foundation be destroyed, what can the righteous do?” (Ps. 11:3) 275 UNIVERSITY OF IBADA LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Then of course, we must all work together as a team in a worthwhile system to realize our vision for the nation to manage effectively (rather cost-effectively), the problems that befall us all realistically and epizootiologically”. 7. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T The author is grateful to the organizers of this (31st Annual NVMA'94) Conference for inviting him to present this paper, which is considered relevant to the year's theme. He is also grateful to his Secretary Mr. Sam A. Ofei for typing some of the drafts; and to his two DVM (U.l.) students Mr. Babasola O. Olugasa (DVM V) and Miss Atinuke Adeduro (DVM IV) both of who helped in various ways in collating some of the materials and in projecting the slides at the presentation. His daughter Miss' Lola Esuruoso of the University of Lagos entered the text of the manuscript into the computer system. And his dear wife Victoria gave support in various ways to him. May God bless them all; Amen. And now unto God eternal, invisible but always noticeably present in my life, invincible but always effectively solving all my problems, the only wise God my creator, be all honour and glory, for ever and ever, Amen. 8. B I B L I O G R A P H Y 8.1 FRN (1989) Animal Diseases (Control) Decree (No. 10 of) 1988; ppA4.77-A501 of Extraordinary Federal Republic of Nigerian (FRN) Gazette No. 13, Vol. 75, Lagos; 26th February, 1988 (Printed and Published by the Federal Government Press, Lagos,Nigeria: Official code: PGPL87/288/10,000). 8.2 FAO/WHO (1975) The Veterinary Contribution to Public Health Practice 79 pp (FAO of the United Nations, Rome). 8.3 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1994A) Resource Management Approaches to Education in Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics. The Kenya Veterinarian 18 (2), 591. Proc. 7th ISVEE'94,15-19 August, 1994. Nairobi, KENYA. 8.4 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1992) Lecture Notes on Epizootiology: 92 pp. A mimeograph prepared for DVM undergraduates classes in some Nigerian Universities. (Obtainable from Academic Consultancy Services, U.l.P.O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State, Nigeria). 8.5 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1993) Fundamentals of Epizootiology; 129 pp. A mimeograph prepared by the VatAcademic Division of Academic Consultancy Services, (U.l.P.O. Box 14400, IBADAN. Oyo State, Nigeria. 8.6 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1994b) Clinical Management, Veterinary Jurisprudence and Economics of Practice; pp 1 31 of the Proceedings of a seminar on Effective Management of Veterinary Practice; 54 pp 27th April, 1994, Ikeja Airport Hotel, IKEJA. Lagos State, Nigeria. (A publication of the Veterinary Clinical Forum, Lagos). 276 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 8.7 FERRIS, Deam H. (1967) EPIZOOTIOLOGY, pp. 261-320 of Advances in Veterinary Science, Vol. 11 (Publ. Academic Press, New York and London). 8.8 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1984) Opportunities for Postgraduate Studies in Preventive Veterinary Medicine at the University of Ibadan; 35 pp. (Printed by J. Olatunji Printers and Co. (Nig.) Limited, 4, Alhaja Oropo Street, P.O. Box 40, Ikenne-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria). 8.9 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1985a) Ten years of Curriculum Development for Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine. 24 pp. Proceedings of the First Seminar of Deans of Schools and Faculties of Veterinary Medicine in Africa 8 13 May, 1985, Conference Centre, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 8.10 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1985b) Veterinary Epidemiology & Economics in the Undergraduate Curriculum; pp. 430 437 of the Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (4'h 1SVEE); 18-22 November, 1985, Singapore. (Published by Singapore Veterinary Association, c/o City Veterinary Centre, 40 Kampong Java Road, Singapore 0922). 8.11 MORRIS, R.S. (1994) The Epidemiological Approach to Animal Health Building on Strong Foundation; pp. 1-3 of the Proceedings of the 7th 1SVEE, Nairobi, Kenya. 1994. (Published by the Kenya Veterinarian, 18 (2) 15 19 August, 1994. 8.12 HALPIN, B. (1975) Patterns of Animal Disease; 184 pp. (Publ. Bailliere Tindall, London). 8.13 VCN (1985) Veterinary Ethics in Nigeria (A publication of the Veterinary Council ofNigeria (VCN) Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria). 8.14 LAST, J.M. (1983) A Dictionary of Epidemiology; 114 pp. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, N.Y., Toronto). 8.15 L1LIENFELD, D.E. (1978) Dellnitions of Epidemiology; Am. J. Epid. 107 (2), pp. 87-90. 8.16 LOWE, C.R. and KOSTREZEWSK1, J. (1975) Epidemiology: A Guide to Teaching Methods; 266 pp. (Publ. For the Int. Epidemiological Assoc, by Churchill Livingstone). 8.17 BLOOD, D.C. (1985) The Role of Clinicians and Epidemiologists in the Welfare of Food Animals Perspectives and Interactions; pp. 21-32 (of the Proceedings of the 4th 1SVEE, 18-22 November, 1985, Singapore). 8.18 SCI IWABE, C.W., RIEMANN, H.P. and FRANT1, C.E. (1977) Epidemiology in Veterinary Practice; 303 pp. (Lea& Febiger, Philadelphia). 8.19 BENNET, F.J. (1985) Epidemiological Principles and their Application in African countries; Ch. 5, pp. 47-54 of G.O. Sofoluwe and F.J. Bennet, eds. Principles 277 UNIVE SITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Estiruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 and Practice of Community Health in Africa, 642 pp. (University Press Limited, Ibadan). 8.20 WHITE, K.L., and HENDERSON, M.M. (1976) Epidemiology as a Fundamental Science; 235 pp. (Oxford University Press,N.Y.). 8.21 HOBSON, W. (1975) The Theory and Practice of Public Health; 685 pp. (Oxford University Press, London). 8.22 LEECH, F.B. and SELLERS, F.C. (1979) Statistical Epidemiology in Veterinary Science; 158 pp. (Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd., London). 8.23 ND1RITU, C.G. (1994) Institutionalization of Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics; pp. 4-6 of the Proceedings of the 7th 1SVEE, 15-19 August 1994, Nairobi, Kenya. The Kenya Veterinarian; 18 (2), 4 6. 8.24 ELLIS, PR. (1985) Expanding the Responsibilities of the Veterinarian; pp. 127-132 of the Proceedings of the 4th IS VEE, 18-22 November, 1985, Singapore. 8.25 THURSFIELD, M. (1986) Veterinary Epidemiology; ISBN-0-408-10861-4 (British Library Cataloguing Data). (Publ. Butterworth & Co. Publishers Ltd., U.K.). 8.26 WHITTAKER, R.H. (1975) Communities and Ecosystems; 365 pp. (Macmillan Publications Co. Inc., New York). 8.27 The Royal Society (1985) The Public Understanding of Science 41 pp. Report of a Royal Society ad hoc group endorsed by the Council of the Royal Society. ISBN 0 85403 2576 (The Royal Society. 6 Carlton House Terrace, London SWIY 5 AG). 8.28 HAWKINS, Joyce, M. (1985)The Oxford Paperback Dictionary 2nd Edn. 791 pp. (Oxford University Press). 8.29 SUSSER, M. (1979) Causal Thinking in the Health Sciences; 181 pp. (Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, Toronto). 8.30 SCH1LLHORN VAN VEEN. TAV. and DE HAAN, C. (1994) New Trends in the Organization and Financing of Li vestock and Animal Health Services. Proc. 7th 1SVEE’94. 15 19 August 1994, Nairobi, Kenya. The Kenya Veterinarian 18(2), 24 25. 8.31 ESURUOSO, G.O. (1989) Diagnosis of Brucellosis 30 pp. Proc. Int. Wksh. Vet. Diag. Procd. 18 27 September 1989. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan (A publication ol'the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association (NVMA). 2 7 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A P P E N D I X II: RESULT OF THREE WEB SEARCHES FOR “EPIZOOTIOLOGY” Results of three web searches for “Epizootiology” are presented below. In the first search in July 2001, 2,170 documents were found, representing published scientific literature on Epizootiology of one animal group problem or the other. The second web search in November 2004 produced 17,300 documents, representing published scientific literature on Epizootiology in 2004. The third w as 24,100. This shows that, people who in 1994 ff. said that the word “Epizootiology” was archaic, redundant and is no longer being used were obviously not correct. Epizootiology remains in active or rather in very active service till this day (November 23,2004). Google Search: EPIZOOTIOLOGY Web Results 1-10 of about 17.300 for EPIZOOTIOLOGY. (Epizootiology of chronic wasting disease in free-ranging cervids.., Click here to read Epizootiology of chronic wasting disease in free-ranging cervids in Colorado and Wyoming. Miller MW, Williams... www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query ,fcgi?cmd=Retrieve& db=~ubMed&list_uids=l 1 085429&dopt=Abstract-§IDJjl~rM9.„' History and epizootiology ofrabies in Canada" History and epizootiology of rabies in Canada. Tabel H, Corner AH, Webster WA, Casey CA. Publication Types: Historical Article. MeSH ;.ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve& db=PubMed&list_uids=4608858?,.dopt=Abstra c;: - Similar pages [More results fromwww.nebi.nlm.nih.aovl Wiley: Epizootiology of Insect Diseases Wiley> Life & Medical Sciences> Comparative Biology> Zoology> Epizootiology of Insect Diseases.. Related Subjects,... www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ WileyTitie/productCd()47187812X.html- 31k- Cached - Similar pages Epizootiology definition- Term to be defined, Definition, Synonyms & Keywords. Epizootiology, - "the study of the natural history of disease in animal populations."(B36),212.187 . 155.84/.../Glossary&References contents! KeywordsContents/E/Epizoolioloyy.htm - 2 1< - Cached -Similar pages 279 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G. O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O. . 2005 E p iz o o tio lo g y o f c a n in e d is te m p r in N e w J e r s e - ra c c o o n E p iz o o tio lo g y o f c a n in e d is te m p e r in N e w Je rse y ra c c o o n s . R o sc o e D E . N e w Je rse y D iv is io n o fF ish , G a m e a n d W ild life , T ren to n 0 8 6 2 5 - 0 4 0 0 . .., w w w ..v iro lo g y j .c o m /p u b m e d /8 3 5 5 3 4 0 - S im ila r p a g e s P a th o lo g y a n d e p iz o o tio lo g y : E c o to x ic o lo e v E C - N W F P a th o lo g y a n d E p iz o o tio lo g y T eam is p r im a r i ly re sp o n s ib le fo r d o c u m e n tin g th e im p a c ts o f c h em ica l c o n ta m in a n ts a n d o th e r e n v iro n m e n ta l s tre s so rs o n o rg a n ... w w w ..n w fs c .n o a a ..g o v /re se a rc h / d iv is io n s /e c /e c o to x /p a th .c fm - 1 8 k - C a c h e d - S im ila r p a o e s N C O R E : A B M fo r E p iz o o tio lo g y W e b S T A T - F re e W eb S ta tis t ic s E p id e m io lo g ic a l c o m p u te r m o d e ls h a v e c la s s ic a l ly c o n s is te d o f p o rtio n s o f th e p o p u la tio n , o r " c o m p a r tm e n ts .. , w w w .n c o re m ia m i.o rg /A B M /p ro to _ e p i.h tm - 9 k - C a c h e d S im ila rp a g e s T ic k R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry - L im e D ise a se r ia e s .c e ls .u r i .e d u /re s o u rc e s / t ic k la b /ly m e 4 .h tm l- 8k - C a c h e d - S im ila r p a g e s W D S V P ro je c t — E p iz o o tio lo g y H e a lth P ro g ra m D e p a r tm e n t o f M ic ro b io lo g y a n d Im m u n o lo g y C o lle g e o f V e te r in a ry M e d ic in e C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity I th a c a , N e w Y o rk 148 5 3 -6 4 0 1 E p iz o o tio lo g y in F e ra l... 7 k - C a c h e d - S im ila r p a g e s P IE R C W ild life H e a lth E p iz o o tio lo g y a n d C o n tro l - h ttp :/ /w w w .g o o g le .c o m /se a rc h ? h l= e n & lr= & q = E P IZ O O T IO L O G Y 280 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esumoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 G o o g le S e a rch : E P IZ O O T IO L O G Y P a g e 2 (21 N o v 2 0 0 4 ) h ttp : / /w w w .g o o g le .c o m /se a rc h 7 h l= e n & lr= & q = E P IZ O O T IO L O G Y R e tu rn to W ild life H e a lth E p iz o o tio lo g y a n d C o n tro l o f A v ian D ise a se s in E n d a n g e re d F o re s t B ird E lab ita t in S o u th K o n a , H a w a ii . I t ... B io lo g y .u sg s .g o v /p ie rc /P M E p iz o o lio lo g y .h tm -1 O k - C a c h e d - S im ila r p a a e s Search within results I Language Tools I Search Tips 1 Dissatisfied? Help improve Google Home Advertising Programs - Business Solutions @ 2004 G o o g le W ith 2 ,1 7 0 d o c u m e n ts , r e p re se n tin g p u b lis h e d sc ie n tif ic l i te ra tu re on E p iz o o tio lo g y o f o n e a n im a l g ro u p p ro b le m o r th e o th e r, fo u n d in Ju ly 2 0 0 1 ; p a rtly sh o w n in th is a p p e n d ix , it is o b v io u s th a t, p e o p le w h o in 1994 ff. sa id th a t th e w o rd “ E p iz o o tio lo g y ” w a s a rc h a ic , re d u n d a n t a n d w as n o lo n g e r b e in g u se d , w e re o b v io u s ly n o t c o rre c t, a n d th e ir p o in ts o f a rg u m e n t m a y a p p e a r to so m e as p ro b a b ly m is le a d in g , b u t c h a lle n g in g to e p iz o o tio lo g is ts s e n s u s t r i c to . T h e s e a re b e lie v e rs in th e fa c t th a t, th e sc ie n tif ic d isc ip lin e c a lle d “ E p iz o o tio lo g y ” a s d e f in e d , d e s ig n e d , s tru c tu re d , ta u g h t, p ro m o te d , a p p lie d a n d b e in g d e v e lo p e d s in c e 1975 in o u r s c h o o l (a s in o th e r p la c e s w o r ld w id e ) , a n d as p re se n te d in th is b o o k , is c a p a b le o f p ro v id in g th e s o u n d e s t b a s is (a n d w isd o m ) fo r a c c o m p lish in g p re v e n tiv e m e a su re s in its m o s t sy s te m a tic a n d h o lis tic se n se . A lso see th e re le v a n t p a r ts o f A p p e n d ix I a b o v e . In a n y case , d e m o c ra c y a llo w s th e ch o ic e , ju s t a s A s tro n a u ts and C o sm o n a u ts s till w o rk to g e th e r b o th on e a rth an d in o u te r sp a c e . So w h y can 't E p id e m io lo g is ts , V e te r in a ry E p id e m io lo g is ts , E p id e m io lo g is ts 'f o r a n im a l d ise a s e s ' a n d E p iz o o tio lo g is ts (w h o m so m e d e sc rib e d as l in g u is t ic p u r is ts ) w o rk to g e th e r, in s te a d o f s tr iv in g to n a il e ac h o th e r 's c o ffin as so m e sa id in 1994 . T h at p ro n o u n c e m e n t c o u ld w e ll b e an e x a m p le o f nse j a s d e f in e d in th is b o o k , as e ls e w h e re s in c e 1984. B u t, to u s it w a s a c h a lle n g e b y g o o d fr ie n d s . 281 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A P P E N D I X III: K N O W L E D G E BASE: FR O M B IO L O G Y T O E P I Z O O T I O L O G Y Biology is the study o f living things, i.e. their form s, functions, life cycles and habitat* (i.e. *external environment) Living things include members o f (a) Plant kingdom including unicellular, non-cellular & multi­ cellular organisms (b) Anim al kingdom unicellular or non-cellular, multi-cellular (c) Others UNICELLULAR / NON-CELLULAR PLANTS AND ANIMALS Unicellular/Non-cellular Animals Unicellular / Non-cellular plants 1. Amoeba species 1. Spirogyra (structures mucilage cellulose cell wall pyranoid nucleus 2. Paramecium species 2. Zygnema (cytoplasm vacuoles c cell sap) 3. Euglena species 4. Others METAZOANS (i.e. multi-cellular animals) can be divided into two main groups, namely (i) D iploblastic (two-cell layered) coelen tera tes with outer (ectodernal) and inside (endodernal) cells layers, thus having ectoderm, endoderm and coelenteron, which the enclosed hollow space, e.g. hydra which is radially symmetrical. (ii) Triploblastic(three-celllayered) coelom atesw ith (a) outside (ectodermal) (b) inside (endodermal) and (c) Middle (mesodermal) layers o f cells (ectoderm outermesoderm coelom innermesoderma endoderm), e.g. flukes and tape worms which are bilaterally symmetrical. 282 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 A n im a l s u b - k in g d o m I n v e r te b r a te 5 c la s s e s ( \) Insecta e . g . c o c k r o a c h e s , g r a s s h o p p e r s , m o s q u i to e s , t s e t s e f l ie s , h o u s e f l ie s , b u t te r f l ie s , b e d b u g s , b a t t e ry m o th s , w a s p s , a n ts , b e e s . ( i i) Crustacea e .g . c r a b s , p r a w n s , w o o d lic e , w a te r - f l e a s ( c y c lo p s ) a n d b a r n a c le s ( i i i ) Diplopoda e .g . m i l l ip e d e s ( W) Arachnida e .g . t ic k s , m ite s , s p id e r s a n d s c o r p io n s . (v ) Myriapods NB (1 ) I n s e c t s a c c o u n t f o r a t le a s t 7 0 % o f a ll a n im a l s p e c ie s . (2 ) O v e r 1 0 0 0 s p e c ie s o f c o c k r o a c h e s k n o w n ; 2 im p o r t a n t d o m e s t i c s p p a re ( i) Blatta orientalis ( o r ie n ta l c o c k r o a c h ) ( i i) Periplaneta americana ( A m e r ic a n c o c k r o a c h ) N.B. T h e i r e p iz o o t io lo g ic a l im p o r ta n c e w il l b e d i s c u s s e d a t th e r ig h t le v e l o f Systematic Epizootiology o r th e i r r e le v a n c e in vph a n d pvm w il l b e d i s c u s s e d in th e r i g h t t e x t s to f o l lo w th is o n e D. V. A n im a l K in g d o m c td . P h y lu m A r th r o p o d a ( D ip lo p o d a c h i lo p o d a a v a i l in d a ) C la s s e s - in s e c ta - c r u s t a c e a n s - a r a c h n id a - myriapods Sub-Kingdom Invertebrata (insecta Crustacea ) Classes 1. I n s e c ta c o c k r o a c h e s , g r a s s h o p p e r , 1 0 0 0 s p e c ie s k n o w n e .g . B la t t a 2 . C r u s t a c e a C r a b s , p r a w n s , w a te r f le a s , w o o d l ic e a n d b a r n a c le s 3 . D ip lo p o d a M i l l ip e d e s 4 . C h i lo p o d a c e n t ip e d e s ( h a r d t ic k s < ix o d id o s e < s o f t t i c k s 5. A r a c h n id a t ic k s , m ite s , s p id e r s a n d s c o r p io n s S u b - K in g d o m V e r te b r a ta / P h y la / C la s s e s - Pisces (fishes) - Amphibia ( f r o g s , to a d s , e tc .) - Reptilia (snakes, turtles, tortoise, etc) - Avis (domestic and wild birds) 283 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 - Mammalian (domestic and wild species o f Bovidae, Equidae, Swidae, Caprine, Canidae, Felidae, etc, also including sub­ human primates and Homo credits him self Sub-Kingdom VERTEBRATA The first and immediate concern o f Veterinarians studying Epizootiology is to be able to protect, prevent and solve the life problems o f mostly vertebrate animals, based on appropriate knowledge o f w hat may befall them in diverse situations and circumstances, and in their relationships with other animals, plants, saprophytes and the common inanimate environment and its content (on the principles o f 'Q uicquidplantatur solo, solo ceditr). Eventually the Epizootiologist would need to be familiar with the problems o f other groups o f animals listed as m em bers o f the animal k ingdom {videsupra).He is concerned with herds, flocks, et hoc genus omne and populations in terms o f what m ay befall them by disturbing their biological forms, functions, life cycle and their habitat (environment) Teaching o f Epizootiological Approaches in this comprehensive m anner will enhance cognitive knowledge o f the system. 284 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizooliology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijcigbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 APPENDIX IV: HIGHLIGHTS OF SOME ' TO O LS O F T H O U G H T AND PROCEDURES IN EPIZOOTIOLOGY (IN PRACTICE) (1) Observe (2) Describe (3) Classify (4) Quantify (5) Summarize and present in descriptive terms (Descriptive statistics) (6) Summarize and present in analytical terms (Analytic statistics) (7) Interpret and present in a form that would aid decision and reasonable/desired action (8) Disseminate outcome to likely beneficiaries or by publication or direct communication (9) Decide / recommend on what to do next (answering the relevant ‘'"Andso what" question. (10) Consider, discuss and implement type o f intervention that would be cost-effective (11) Study outcome (12) Point-Appraise (13) Analyze and reorganize. Descriptive, analytic, experimental, simulation/ modelling theoretical practical measures Stop and observe Describe (qualitatively) - Quantify (biometrically, econometrically, sociologically, financial value-wise and impact-wise Determine worthwhileness Decision (no action further action observe etc. PO IN T APPRA ISAL Analyze, present (in prose and in seminar), justify, recommend, seek peer assessment and publish. 285 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 ESSENTIAL SIDE ISSUES: THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN GOING ON AN EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL TOUR (R e f .G O E /U I /2 6 /0 6 /9 1 ) First Aid Box It is essential that you have your first aid box supplied with such things as Wound dressings; bandages; etc - T.B.C. /iodine tincture - Fluid electrolyte or the proportionately mixed salts (for replacement therapy) - Clean potable water, Take some o f your 'antis' with you, for example: - - Anti-pyretic - Anti-malaria - Anti-histaminics - Anti-biotics - Anti-toxins, etc and o f course things like Andrews liver salt / Eno powder “Entero sedith” “Entero se - what? Et hoc genus omne* *Bu/ A p p e n d i x X: For detailed exposition in Systematic Epizootiology (A) Recall three stages in Fundamentals o f Epizootiology The following five stages o f Epizootiology 1. Awareness, identification and observation o f problem, its nature and possible importance. Ending essentially with Systematic and methodical (i.e. scientific) observations and exercises in the identification o f relevant issues, relationships, points o f integration and coordination for systems success. 2. Description (Descriptive Epizootiology) o f the disease/problem in the population in terms o f relevant person, place and time factors (i.e. answering the questions who? Where? And when?). 286 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Jjagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 3. Form ulation o f hypothesis about (possible and probable explanations) the occurrence and distribution o f the disease/problem. 4. Testing (i.e. proving or disproving) the hypothesis by case-control (retrospective) or follow-up (prospective) studies (o f events and circumstances in the population on which the hypothesis about the problem was formulated). 5. Experimentation (controlled trial) to show the validity o f the hypothesis sustained (in 4 above).Followed by Conclusion, Summary and Triangulation. (B) Essential Training before Field Practical should include Discussion on Epizootiology Pathways and Logic paths Map Reading and identification o f places by G rid References 1. EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL FACTORS 2. EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL EVENTS, 3 EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL FORCES 4. EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL CIRCUMSTANCES 1. Factor o f disease and other problems specific. Other factors - contributory [non-specific, playing a predisposing part in production o f disease and other group problems] Intrinsic/integral factors genetic constitution: hereditary and internal environment [causal agents are - Metabolic an integral part - hormonal o f the host] - behavioural Hereditary - genetic structure o f the animal = an abnormality o f structure or function - mutation o f genes and somatic cells, caused by ionizing radiations e.g. x-rays - some obvious, in some cases, a hereditary abnormality requires certain environmental influences for its manifestation. 287 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esitruoso, GO. Ijagbone. /. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 Extrinsic/external factors: - - non-living agents (physical & chemical agents) & living agents Disease is a dynamic process develops in the host examined as a result o f an interaction between causal agent, the host and other factors o f the environment. Health should mean successful adjustment o f body form and function to forces tending to disturb them. Health and disease are the results o f active processes disordered structure and function. Epidemiology the study o f all those factors that contribute to the etiology establishment and spread o f human or animal disease, defect or disability in the individual and in the community. Aetiology o f disease study o f all the factors which contribute to the production o f disease - agent - host resistance - factors influencing these. 288 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiologv: Esnrumo, G O, Jjagbone, I. F. and Ohigasa, B. O., 2005 A P P E N D I X V: M O D E L A P P R O V E D C O U R S E C O N T E N T FOR U N DERGRAD UATE EPIZO O TIO LO G Y AND RELATED COURSES (A ls o S e e M o d e l A p p r o v e d C o u r s e C o n te n t f o r A d v a n c e d E p i z o o t io lo g y f o r P o s tg r a d u a te S tu d e n ts (E su ru o so , 1 9 8 4 ) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE UN DERGRADUATE COURSES DETAILS OF COURSES, TITLES, DESCRIPTIONS A N D UNITS DVM Course Class Comment Number (Year) Course Title Course Description Units VPH 401 DVM Wildlife Wildlife types and values; distribution o f biotic III Ecology, communities; wildlife capturing, restraint and Management handling. Care o f zoo animals; methods for and diseases sampling and studying of various wildlife species; organization of game animal species. Territorial aspects o f distribution. Diseases of wildlife species. Also amphibians and aquatic animals other than fish and shellfish. VPH 402 DVM Veterinary Veterinary recording and data types. Classification 2 III Biostatistics and tabulation of data, descriptive and inferential Units statistics, sampling methods, variations, rate and ration, mean, median and mode, normal and other distributions, standard deviations and variance, chi-square and students T-tests. Elements o f vital statistics. Uses o f statistics in veterinary practice and research work. VPH 501 DVM Epizootiolog Introduction and definitions o f Epizootiology and 2 IV y and Epidemiology: History, Scope and uses in Units Wildlife veterinary practice, research and business: Ecology and Diseases Occurrence, frequencies and implications of diseases in animal populations: The epidemiology of infectious and non-infectious diseases: Wildlife (inc. Fish) Ecology 289 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso. G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 VPH 502 DVM Food (Meat, Principles o f Meat Hygiene, Biological and 3 IV Milk) chemical bases o f meat hygiene; anatomy relevant Units Hygiene to meat inspection; ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection procedures. Descriptions o f various categories o f slaughter facilities in Nigeria. Basic construction principles o f a functional abattoir, meat by-products; potable water; supply canning, freezing, smoking and other preservation methods. Water, meat and milk-borne diseases. Food micro flora and spoilage; food poisoning; specific food- borne diseases from beef, pork, poultry, fish and shellfish. Control o f vermins; detection o f residues in meat; effluents and disposal. Milk and milk products; inspection and laboratory examination for milk quality. VPH 503 DVM Zoonoses Concepts, definitions and classifications o f 2 IV zoonoses. Study of specific zoonoses. Bacterial, Units viral and parasitic zoonoses. Bedsonial, rickettsial, protozoan and fungal zoonoses, with emphasis on prevention, early detection, control and eradication. VPH 504 DVM Veterinary Prevention o f diseases in zoological gardens, 2 IV Preventive prevention o f zoonotic diseases. Mass action Units Medicine, against diseases; chemoprophylaxis, Extension chemotherapy, seroprophylaxis, serotherapy and immunization procedures in Preventive Veterinary Medicine (PVM). Prevention and control o f occupational hazards to Veterinarians, farmers and butchers. Protection o f Consumers organization and function of veterinary services in State and Federal Ministries. Veterinary private practice; aims and functions of FLD, NLDC, NSPCA, NVR1, NAPR1, N1TR, NVMA; Veterinary and Animal Health Schools. Introduction to Veterinary Jurisprudence in Nigeria. Laws and legislations; Diseases o f animals Act (Laws o f Nigeria Chap. 54 o f 1958; the Pharmacy Act o f 1966 amendments the Federal Veterinary Public 290 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 APPENDIX VI: SOME EXAM PLES OF EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL PROJECT TOPICS FROM WHICH STUDENTS MAY CHOOSE In the choice of final year's projects, students often require their tutors to guide them on possible project titles. Therefore, we suggest below, a sample list of useful titles from which the students may be advised to choose. But in any case, their supervisors would still have the last say in the final choice of each student who wants him to supervise his final year project. Therefore, the list given below is only to give some idea of possibilities. 1. Ecological Epizootiology of a University Teaching and Research Farm: 2. Ecological Epizootiology ofEruwa Field Station: 3. Epizootiology of disease and other problems of groups (herds, flocks, etc) of livestock (including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, rabbits) and other animals (dogs, cats, horses, donkeys, camels) in geographically / ecologically defined areas (e.g. township, village, farm, forest reserve, game reserve, range and according to management practices, such as intensive, semi-intensive and extensive system: 4. Epizootiology of disease and other problems in local, resident, trade and migrant cattle and other livestock in control posts and/or abattoirs and in the premises of slaughter slabs: 5. Study of animal, human and environmental health risks and problems in a local abattoir: 6. Surveys of hydatidosis, brucellosis, tuberculosis, trypanosomiasis, trichinellosis, salmonellosis, anthrax, et hoc genus omne in named local abattoirs: 7. Descriptive presentation of benefit/cost situations in named local poultry flocks (a) for breeder projects (b) for broiler projects for layer projects and the types of measures being taken and quality of results being obtained by the owners: 291 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 8 . OTHERS to b e su g g e s te d b y th e le c tu r e r s according to the priorities of epizootics of economic and public health importance in the area and at the time - with cost-implications in social, economic and environmental quality or level of degradation terms. In the case of ASF 2001, eleven Doctor of Veterinary Medicine students that actively participated in this exercise eventually developed topics for their DVM project reports based on the exercise. Titles of their project reports are listed below: (1) OLUFEMI Ayowale Olugbenga (2002) The use of immunoblotting technique in the diagnosis of African swine fever in clinically ill and convalescent pigs 44pp Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Pathology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria. (2) LAWAL Omowumi (2002) The application of immunoblotting assay in confirmatory diagnosis of African swine fever in Oyo State of Nigeria. 39pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria (3) ADEITAN Olatunde (2002) Sensitivity and specificity of 4-chloro-l- naphtol in detecting African swine fever antibodies in an immunoblotting assay 56pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Physiology, Pharmacology and Biochemistry in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IB AD AN, Nigeria. (4) ABIODUN Yetunde (2002) Binding pattern of protein A-Peroxidase conjugate to pig immunoglobulins in African swine fever immunoblotting assay. 55pp Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Physiology, Pharmacology and Biochemistry in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IB AD AN, Nigeria. (5) ADEOYE Keji (2002) A review of neutralizing antibodies against African swine fever virus with a case study in Ibadan, Nigeria. 40pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria. 292 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (6 ) OLURO Akindele (2002) Preparation of the digital map of African swine fever outbreaks in Ibadan southwest local government area of Oyo State Nigeria. 79 pages. Being a project report submitted to the department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D VM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IB ADAN, Nigeria. (7) OGUNWALE Ibironke (2002) Preparation of digital maps of African swine fever outbreaks in Ibadan North Local Government area of Oyo State, Nigeria. 60pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria. (8 ) ADEWALE Gbenga Adeniyi (2004) Description of a decision support system for the control of African swine fever in Oyo state of Nigeria. 91pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria. (9) SANGOSANYA Adepeju (2004) Implementation of a decision support system in the control of African swine fever outbreaks 2001-2002 in Oyo state, Nigeria. 94pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IB ADAN, Nigeria. (10) AGBAJE Michael (2004) Determination of the viral carrier status of African swine fever convalescent boars at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm 2001-2002. 64pp Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IBADAN, Nigeria. (11) OBELAWO Ayodeji Michael (2004) Determination of antibody titre in African swine fever convalescent sows and their progenies at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm in 2001 and 2002.43pp. Being a project report submitted to the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree of the University of Ibadan, IB ADAN,Nigeria. 293 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esiiruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 APPENDIX VII: EPIZOOTIOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE FORMS One of the approaches of epizootiology is to ensure that data collection is systematic, methodical and recorded in a manner that would aid processing and reporting. Therefore, some frameworks for data collection are provided in the following sample forms for usual epizootiological intelligence activities. When visiting a cattle herd, some descriptive herd statistics that should be gathered include details provided in the following forms. The forms should therefore be duly completed, starting with whether this is a beef, dairy or dual-purpose herd? 1. Type of Herd 2. Name of Owner/ Company 3. Location / Address 4. Officer in charge 5. Date of this data collection 6 a. Veterinary Doctor/ Research Officer (in charge/collecting data) 6 b. Organization and Address NB: An evaluation of the students' report should provide materials for at least part of the continuous assessment of the students' performance at the end of the course. Forms for collection of data on Breeding Cattle Herd Statistics Form XI: Un-organized Cattle Herd Statistics NOT RECOMMENDED Sub-Groups Numbers Sub-total Remarks Young Cattle Adult Cattle Old Cattle Castrates Total 294 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasci, B. O., 2005 Form X2: Organized Cattle Herd Statistics - RECOMMENDED Age Group Numbers Sub-total Remarks Male calves Female calves Male Yearlings Yearlings female Young bulls Service bulls Heifers Empty Cows Pregnant Cows Nursing Cows Castrates/Fatteners Old/Spent Bulls Old/Spent Cows Total Form X3: Live weights of the various age groups It is often useful to have some clear idea of the live weights of animals for various reasons. For the administration of drugs, estimation of growth rate, evaluation of nutritional efficiency or weight loss due to various reasons, calculation of financial worth of the animals. There are many ways in which the live weight of animals may be obtained. The most accurate is by actual weighing of each or groups of animals. Next is the measurement of heights at the withers and around the flank and then converting to estimated weight by calculation using a conversion index. This is useful where there is no farm-weighing machine. Yet another way is by informed opinion of experienced veterinarians and farmers. This is obviously unacceptable in strictly scientific communications. Therefore, it may be difficult to complete form X3 in an extensive system of husbandry. 295 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Form X3: Live weights of individuals in the various age groups Serial Age 1 2 3 4 5 Weight Mean live No. group Range (kg) weight (kg) 1 Male calf 2 Female calf -Jy Male yearling 4 Female yearling 5 Young bull 6 Heifer Service 7 Bull 8 Empty Cow 9 Castrate/ fattener 10 Pregnant cow 11 Nursing cow 12 Spent/old cow 13 Spent/old cow 14 TOTAL Calf One year old and under Yearling = Older than one year, but less than two years Heifer = F emale of two to three-and-half years old Young Bull = Male of two to three-and-half years old Service Bull = Male between three-and-half and ten years old Cow = Female that has calved at least once, usually aged between 41/2 and ten years old Old Bull Male above ten years old Old Cow = Female above ten years old Castrates = Male that has been neutered 296 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Form X4: Total live weight of each age group We can summarize the data in forms two and three above in such a way as to obtain the sum of live weights in each cattle age group on the herd. This is calculated by multiplying the number of individuals in an age group with the corresponding average weight for that age group. The result is recorded in the form provided below (Form X4). This is a summary of the herd's total live weight. The benefit of this lies in the fact that one can compare different farms on their stock carrying capacity. Also the result will provide cogent statements for the remarks column in form 2 , e.g. 'so much weight would be available for sale in the month of August, 2002'. S/No. Age Group Mean live weight Total count Total weight kg (kg) (Mean x Count) 1 . Male calf 2 . Female calf 3. Male yearling 4. Female yearling 5. Young bull 6 . Heifer 7. Bull 8 . Cow 9. Castrate/fattener 1 0 . Pregnant cow 1 1 . Nursing cow 1 2 . Spent/old cow 13. Spent/old cow Gross total live weight of herd When this form 4 has been completed, the student and instructor would obtain a good idea about the carriage capacity of the farm herd. This piece of information may be interpreted in terms of the financial worth and economic implications of the herd. This is a reason why one International Group of Veterinarians and Scientists call this discipline Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics. Epizootiologists however refer to this aspect of Epizootiology as the socio-economic component of Epizootiology. 297 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Form X5: Milk production capacity data-sheet is the fifth recommended form for cattle herd statistics practical. The form is as shown below: Form X5 Cow Week of Daily Milk Calf intake Off-take of Calf intake Off-take of Identity lactation yield (kg) of milk(kg) milk (kg) of milk(kg) milk (kg) No. (morning) (morning) (evening) (evening) No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Total *Moming and evening milking It should be noted that when the epizootiological investigation is at an abattoir, the following table would be useful for economic assessment, because we already know that epizootiology has economic basis and implications. The individual weight of parts of the body of a cattle breed is provided for in Form 6 . A weighing scale is carried along to the slaughter house. Each butchered part is picked, weighed and recorded. * Form X6a: Weights of slaughtered cattle and the various parts thereof 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 *Produce 6 b Standard average obtained from Figures in a place. It is always very useful for students of epizootiology to be informed about the individual dead weight of food and non-food animals and the weight of 298 U Cattle wt.N Live wt. (kg.)IV Head (kg.)E Neck (kg.)RS RightITLeftRigYht hand 4 legs (kOg.) Lungs (kg.)F Heart (kg.) IB Liver (kg.) AD Spleen (kg.) A Intestines N Skin kg. LI Udder kg. BR Pennis & A Stomach RY Utenus (Kg) Total dead Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 their body parts. The students should then be given the opportunity to collect such data on a format designed by themselves. Necessary calculations (in the form of descriptive statistics) should then be carried out to show that the data collected are meaningful, providing summary presentation of the group of carcasses or animals. Forms for collection of data on Herd health statistics Having determined the farm herd carriage capacity, then, each of the three epizootiological approaches namely: (i) Medical detection approach (ii) Ecological approach and (iii) Mathematical epizootiology would now be practically applied to collect data on the following factors in relation to the herd health, husbandry and hygiene status. 1. The influence of environmental factors (climate, water, soil, feeds etc) on a herd of cattle in terms of their health and productivity; 2. Measures to prevent the formation and spread of diseases and other problems in the herd; 3. The keeping, feeding and care condition which correspond to cattle species- specific peculiarities, age and purpose of keeping the herd, so as to equally guarantee the welfare and high productivity expected of the herd. In the case of medical detection approach to epizootiology, a clinical examination of ill cattle and those performing sub-optimal (all picked at random) is physically done to determine and characterize the present indicators of disease and related problems. The clinical signs, symptoms and pathological lesions of the type of ill health that is present in the herd are identified and recorded in a specified epizootiological data form (Form 7). Form X7: Cattle Breed Sex Age Case Clinical Diagnosis Recomm identifica History Findings endation tion NO. 1 No. 2 In form 7, column 8 a list of differential diagnoses and then a tentative diagnoses should be clearly separated and underlined in the column on diagnosis. The recommendation in epizootiology may include, isolate the cattle, collect specific samples for laboratory examination, treat to cure, cull, 299 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 condemn (i.e. slaughter and burry), vaccinate the entire herd against the envisaged problem. A second form to be completed in medical detection approach (form 8 ) is on mortality, morbidity and case fatality rate. See below. Data should be collected to show the following (a) Description ofthe problem/disease (b) Number of animals in the herd at the beginning of the problem (State date) (c) No sick among each age group Since the problem started) (d) No dead among each age group since the problem started When more than one visit has been undertaken, one can then compare increase in no sick, no well, and no dying as proportions of the total number of animals in the herd. There are many other possible tables according to type of herd or flock, purpose of keeping the herd and history of the herd. Therefore, the number of these tables are not exhaustive; more may be added during lectures and training of students. For each type of problem encountered during the training, appropriate forms for data collection should be designed, discussed, produced and taken along for completion on the farm when visiting to observe and evaluate the nature and extent of the group problem. Grid references, topography, vegetational type and status, ecological and meteorological conditions ofthe location should also be noted and recorded. Evidence of human activities in the area should also be noted and recorded. All such records, in words, tables, pictures and sound should be kept in such a manner as would readily be amenable to meaningful statistical processing. Numbers should be accompanied by units of measurement of whatever parameters are being recorded. 300 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 (A) Example of Cattle Herd Statistics of Animals Examined and Sampled Cows and mature heifers (years and above) 19 Heifers (over 2 years and under 4 years old) 12 Yearling Heifers 5 Heifer calves Nil Total females (sub-total for herd) 36 Mature Bulls (4 years old and above) 1 Young Bulls (2 years and under 4 years) 5 Yearling Bulls 1 Bull calves Nil Total males (sub-total for herd) Grand total (number of animals examined) 43 Cows and mature heifers (4 years and above) 19 Heifers (over 2 years and under 4 years old) 15 Yearling Heifers 11 Heifer calves Nil Total females (sub-total for herd) 45 Mature Bull (4 years and above) 1 Young Bull (over 2 years and under 4 years old) 6 Yearling Bulls • 1 Bull Calves Nil Total males (sub-total for herd) 8 Grand total (No. of animals in the herd) 53 N. B. Such statistics provide intelligence information on the productivity status of the herd i 301 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 (B) Examples of Tables of Herds Statistics Adult 2-4 yr. Adult female Old (yo Yearling bulls 2-4 year Bull cattle ung) fern females Heifer (4-8 ye old bulls Yearling calves (19) ales ( 1 2 ) (5) calves ars)(1) (5) bull (1 ) (-) Mean 6.04 6.40 7.35 6.82 8.61 rbc counts X106 / mm3 Mean 36.64 37.08 36.2 43 37.83 34 % PCV Mean 58.68 62.92 63.8 71 58.33 64 % (8 .2 2 ) (8.81) (8.93) (9.94) (8.16) (8.96) Mb** (gm %) Mean 7.86 7.73 9.73 7.77 9.95 wbc counts XI03/ mm3 Mean 76.83 78.55 82.80 75 79 75 % Lymph ocyte counts Mean 19.17 15.45 14.60 25 16.40 13.67 Neutro phi 1 counts Mean 0.25 0.29 0 . 1 2 0.33 0 . 2 1 0.51 N/L** Ratio Stand 0.37 0.39 0.43 0.31 0.28 ard de\ ia tion of N/L** Ratio Key: (i) N/'L** Neutrophil/Lymphocyte ratio (ii) (14gm) Mb* = 100% Haemoglobin 302 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiolog)>: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 APPENDIX VIII: “SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY (IN A FOUR-FOLD CLASSIFICATION) TEST” Sensitivity (SI) and specificity (S2) tests and their interpretation are presented here as used in epizootiology. (SI) S e n s itiv ity : Biological tests may vary in their sensitivity. A very sensitive test will ensure that all truly affected or diseased individuals will be picked up by the test as positive. But almost invariably borderline or even some negative individuals may also be picked up as positive by a super sensitive test. There are usually some underlying biological reasons for such reactions. Nevertheless, it is important to be able to quantify the sensitivity of commonly used screening and diagnostic tests. Matherqiltically the formula for calculating the sensitivity of a test (S) is Sensitivity (S 1) = No, of true positives Total number of diseased individuals Specificity (S2) : A non-specific test is one, which will produce a lot of false positives; and this would be misleading in various circumstances. But specificity can be viewed as a matter of degree; some tests may be more specific than others. Mathematically (i.e. for the calculation of specificity), the formula is Specificity (Sp) = number of truly negative individuals total number of non-diseased individuals (See 2 x 2 contingency table) 2 x 2 Contingency Table True Status of Animals True Status of Animal; Result of Diagnostic Diseased Non-diseased Total or screening test Positive a b a+b Negative c d c + d Total a + c b + d a + b + c + d 303 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Interpretation of specificity and sensitivity test results From results thus obtained, and depending on the particular disease and the objectives of the test operator, one may want to know the predictive value of positive and negative test results. The formulae for these are: - (O-Pmftct/veva/weofpositivetestresult Pv+ = a /a + b = (a ) a + b and (ii) Predictive value of negative test results Pv. - d /c + d = fd ) c+d One objective may be that we want the test to pick up all positive cases, even if some doubtful or negative cases will be included. We want to leave no chances of retaining any case that would have the remotest probability of being positive. Then the higher the sensitivity the better. On the contrary, one may prefer a very specific test so that only truly diseased animals are picked up (even at the risk of missing some of them). Both are measures of probability. “Sensitivity and Specificity (in a Four-Fold Classification) Test” No. of Diseased No. of Non- Total No. Test results Animals Diseased Animaf. of Animals Positive (a) (b) fa + b] Negative (c) (d) [c + d] Total [a + c] [b + d] a + b + c + d Sensitivity = a/a + c Specificity = d/b + d Predictive value (of positive test) = a/a + b Predictive value (of negative test) = d/c + d 304 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 “S e n s it iv i ty a n d S p e c if ic i ty in a Four-Fold (Classification) Test Test results Diseased Animals No. of Non- Total No. of Diseased Animals Animals Positive A B a + b Negative C D c + d Total a + c b + d a + b + c + d Example Test results Diseased Animals No. ofNon- Total No. of Diseased Animals Animals Positive a = 2 0 b = 5 a + b = 25 Negative c = 1 d = 125 c + d= 126 Total a + c = 2 1 b + d= 130 a + b + c + d= 151 a (true positive) = 20 a + c =21 Sensitivity =20/21 =20/21 x 100 = 95% d (true negative) = 125 b +d (total non-diseased) = 130 Specificity = d/b+d =125/130 = 125/130 x 100= 96% 3 0 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijcigbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 APPENDIX IX: S O M E E P I Z O O T I O L O G I C A L D A T A B A S E M A T E R I A L S F O R N I G E R I A A : Common Trees in Lere Local Government Area of Kaduna State And Bassa Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria No. Hausa name English name Botanical name Sampling location 1 Aduwa Desert date Balanite Bassa LGA of aesyptiaca Plateau State 2 Alilliba - Cordia abyssinica Bassa LGA of Plateau State 3 Ararrabi Frankincense Boswellia Bassa LGA of tree dalzielli Plateau State and Lere LGA of Kaduna State 4 Uwar Magunguna Violet tree/wild Securidaca Bassa and Lere wistaria lonyipedunculata LGAs 5 Bagaruwa Egyptian thorn Acacia nilotica Bassa and Lere tree adansonii LGAs 6 Bagaruwan namiji " Acacia nilotica Bassa and Lere nilotica n LGAsFarar kaya White thorn tree Acacia sieberiana Bassa and Lere LGAs 8 Bauren kiyashi Fig tree Ficus spp. Lere LGA 9 Bauren rail Fig tree Ficus spp. Bassa LGA 10 Cediva Fig tree Ficus thonningii Bassa and Lere LGAs 11 Dabino Date palm tree Phoenix Bassa and Lere dactvliflora LGAs 12 Doka Doka tree Isoberlinia doka Bassa and Lere LGAs 13 Doka rafi Doka tree Berlinia Bassa LGA grcindiflora 14 Dorawu African locust Parkici Bassa and Lere bean tree clappertonia LGAs 15 Dufuwa, sarkakiya Rope Acacia Acacia Bassa LGA ataxacantha 16 Durum i Fig tree Ficus polita Bassa LGA 17 Dushe (shrub) Acacia tree, Acacia seyal Lere LGA shittim wood 18 Karkara (Kumbar African catechu Acacia Lere LGA Shaho) tree polyacantha carpvlacantha 19 Farin baure Fig tree Ficus capensis Bassa LGA 2 0 Farin baushe Fig tree Ter min alia Bassa LGA laxiflora 2 1 Farin doka Fig tree Isoberlinia Bassa LGA dalzielli 306 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 2 2 Gamii Fig tree Ficus platvphilla Bassa LGA 23 Gardaye Acacia tree Acacia Bassa LGA macrostachya 24 Gawo Apple Ring \cacia albida Bassa LGA Acacia 25 Gwanno Acacia tree Acacia Bassa LGA macrothyrsa 26 Giginya African fan Borassus Bassa and Lere Palm aethiopiim LGAs 27 Gwandar daji Wild Custard Anmona Bassa LGA Apple senegalensis 28 Janganye Red Leafed Combretum Lere LGA Tree hypopilinum 29 Kadanya Shea Butter tree Butyrospermum Lere LGA parkii 30 Kaikayi - Parinari Lere LGA polvandra 31 Kawuri Fig Tree Ficus kawuri Bassa and Lere LGAs 32 Kokiya - Strychnos spinosa Lere LGA 33 Kuka Baobab Tree Adansonia Bassa and Lere digitata LGAs 34 Kurna Christ's Thom Zisyphus Bassa LGA spina-christi 35 Mandaci Mahogany Tree Khaya Bassa LGA senegalensis 36 Madacin dutse Mahogany spp. Ekebergia Bassa LGA senegalensis 37 Madobiya African Teak Pterocarpus Bassa LGA erinacius 38 Madobiyar rafi Teak spp. Albizia zygia Bassa LGA 39 Malga Cassia Tree Cassia arereh Bassa LGA 40 Namijin kade Scrubby Oak Lophira Bassa LGA lanceolata 41 Nonon giwa Sausage tree Kigelia Bassa LGA aethiopica 42 Rimi Silk cotton Tree Ceiba pentandra Bassa LGA 43 Sai da jini - Mimosa pigra Bassa LGA Sharan labi Jerusalem Thorn Parkinsonia Bassa and Lere aculeata LGAs 45 Shiwaki Bitter leaf Vernonica Bassa and Lere amygdcdina LGAs Olarinmoye, A.O. (2000) 307 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 APPENDIX X: RECOMMENDED ATTENDANCE REGISTER FOR ALL LECTURES AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN EPIZOOTIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE fRef. GOE/DVPHPM.UI/ 030319771 RECORDS OF UNDERGRADUATE AND POSTGRADUATE TEACHING [Essential for monitoring lectures and practical training given and attended] Class: Session: ............................ D ate:.............................. Period: .............. No & Title of Course: Lecture/Practical/Tutorial/Seminar: Main Topics Covered: Tutor's N am e:..................................... Signature:..............................Date:....................... ATTENDANCE REGISTER*: __________ [*Recommended model, used by DVPHPM.UI since 1976] Candidates' S/No Names (Surname Degree/s Matric. No. Degree in Held view Signature Datein capitals) 1 * 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. [Students should record below the attendance sheet (here) their Questions, Comments, Remarks and Requests (related to the Lecture / Practical/Tutorial), for which there is no time to give immediate answer] 308 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 INDEX 0.5 to 1m pixel resolution images 198 32m pixels resolution 197 4-chloro-l-naphthol / 4-chloro-l-naphtol 149, 150, 291 Abattoir 110, 131, 137, 138, 139, 140 Accidental release 199, 200, 201,202, 205 African swine fever outbreak 146, 148, 149, 162 (virus)166, 167, 170, 229, 230, 232, 291,292 Agricultural biologist 80 Agricultural biology 81 Agricultural economics 19 Agricultural systems 25 Alabata 148, 151 Analytical 22, 27, 33, 56, 60, 67, 6 8 , 69, 70, 76, 137, 142, 194, 213, 284 Analytical epizootiology 67, 6 8 , 69, 137 Analytical statistics 137, 142 Animal group problems 7, 96,109, 121, 125 Animal health 63, 80, 137, 172, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201,207, 208, 209, 218, 219, 220, 226, 228, 232, 233, 234, 252, 267, 269, 272, 276, 277, 289 Animal husbandry 80, 106, 137, 220 Animal nutrition 62, 109, 121, 125, 138, 176, 221, 242, 257, 262, 263,294 (malnutrition) 38, 242, 257 Animal population 12,59, 60, 6 8 , 77,81, 127, 128, 132, 177, 179, 238,239, 256, 263, 266, 278, 288 Animate and inanimate content 1,40, 53, 63, 238, 242 Annual rainfall 93 Annual temperature 93 Anthrax 146, 148, 186,290 Anthropurgic ecosystem 96, 97, 98 Approaches 3, 12, 19,20,41,42,65,76, 77, 78, 79,81,85,86, 8 8 , 109, 128, 137, 145, 176, 182, 184,217,229,241,255,256, 261,263,264, 275,285, 293, 298 Appropriate 17, 18, 19, 21,22, 24, 25, 27, 31, 33, 47, 51, 55, 56, 60, 64, 65, 67, 6 8 , 70,71,74, 116, 117, 127, 128, 129, 132, 134, 142, 159, 175, 177, 180, 182,183,184, 194, 195, 199, 206,208,210,211,213,218, 222,234, 236,240,247,264,265, 272, 273, 274, 283, 299 Appropriate language 60 Arc View 143, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161,208, 209, 223 Assessment 35, 77, 142, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201,202, 205, 206, 209, 227, 232,284, 293,297 Associated 17,39,40,41,45,60,62,63,64,67,70,79, 127, 131, 136, 163, 165, 176, 180, 194, 200, 234, 241,244, 247,267 Association 43, 65, 75, 131, 137, 182, 224, 227, 228, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 242, 243, 248, 249, 264, 276, 277 309 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, 1. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 ' Assumption 22, 35, 36, 37, 178, 247, 252, 253 Asymmetrical 70,76, 137, 182,234 At risk 62, 71, 82, 83, 84, 122, 132, 184, 189, 190, 195,205,244 Attributable (risk), 244 Autochthonous / Autochthonous ecosystem 96,97 Automated suggestions 208,209 Bacillus anthracis 148 Bacteraemia 46, 178, 179, 235 Baobab 103,306 Bar chart 192, 200, 202 Basis for planning 70 Being an epizootiologist 8 8 , 89 Benefit 1,20,21,22, 34,45,49,50,51,52,55,59,78, 130, 131, 154, 193, 207, 209, 237, 247, 248, 256, 270, 271, 272, 290, 296 Bio-agent 201 Biocenology / Biosociology 235 Biocenosis 104, 235 Biological agent 199 Biological plausibility 65 Biological risk 154, 196, 200, 227, 230 Biological systems 19 Biologists 80 Biology 3, 19,21,46,47,53,79, 80,81,86, 101, 129, 235,246, 278,280, 281 Biome 104, 235 Biomedical (literacy, studies, sciences, scientists, professionals, disciplines, common sense, factors) 2, 7, 45, 46, 47, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 126, 129, 198, 216, 235, 247, 250, 256, 257, 258, 264, 266, 270, 272 Bionomic 21, 77, 176 Biorhythm 39, 64 Biosociology 235 Biosphere 3, 47, 8 6 , 235, 257, 267 Biostatistics 45, 47, 48, 56, 67, 79, 109, 136, 219, 220, 238, 288 Biotic community 38, 97, 104, 235 Biotope 108, 235 Blackbox 16, 18, 69, 89,90, 235 Boolean 64, 6 8 Borgu game reserve 103, 104 Bovine trypanosomosis 77 Brain-storming 22 Breed, breeding and genetics 109, 121, 125 Breeding centre 113 Bridge builder 217, 236 Brucella 46, 177, 178, 179 310 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugctsa, B. O., 2005 Brucellosis 46, 47,71, 110, 111, 121, 129, 177, 178, 179, 181, 187, 190, 191, 212,228,229,261,277,290 Buffer line 206 Bunaji 62, 119, 134 Cambridge box 65 Camel 103, 107, 117, 124, 290 Carnivores 87, 97, 240 Cartographic standard 223 Case fatality rate 82, 83, 164, 299 Causal relationship 19, 56, 64, 137, 234, 236, 267 Characteristic white precipitate 149 Chromogen 150 Climate 12, 63, 97, 138, 236, 262, 298 Climate-inspired 97 Clinical diagnosis 116, 181,261 Clinical epizootiology 85 Clinical immunology 85 Clinical microbiology 85 Clinical parasitology 85 Clinical pathology 85 Clinically ill 113, 143, 150, 154, 164, 168, 169, 202, 205,206, 291 Coefficient of area correspondence 151, 162, 165 Cognate disciplines 6 , 36, 183, 216, 234 Cognition 18, 19, 22, 39, 42, 51, 103, 104, 106, 236, 271 Cohort 183, 248 Commensalism 46, 182, 239, 243 Common sense 39, 49, 65, 129, 137, 265 Communicable diseases 6 , 7, 8 , 9, 258, 259, 267, 310 Communication 21,60, 142, 209, 211, 220, 232, 264, 268, 284, 294, Community development 175, 218 Community planning 216, 219 Community Viz 198,^199, 200, 201,202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,230 Computer application 33, 219, 310 Confirmatory diagnosis 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 167,232,291 Congruenta naturae vivendum est 1, 41, 237 Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) 198, 212 Contamination 46, 152, 160, 178, 179, 199, 206, 207, 218, 236 Control post 95, 121, 122, 123, 290 Convalescent survivor 144, 150, 160, 164, 168, 169, 170, 172 Correlation coefficient 56, 70, 75, 76, 131, 137 Cost 34, 45, 49, 50, 52, 55, 69, 193, 207, 237, 256, 265, 270, 291 Cost-conscious 7, 45, 49, 50, 51, 55, 6 6 , 237, 247 Cost effective / control / usage 12, 199, 211 3 1 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Cost effective achievement 77 Cost effective management 12, 183, 239 Cost effective prevention 12 Cost effective resolution 77 Counting 55, 132 Counting and accounting 71, 79 Data, accurate 13, 6 8 , 72, 73, 74, 136, 245: adequate 13, 74, 136: appropriate 17, 6 8 , 74, 299: Database 32,33,72, 126, 161,211,212, 268, 305, laboratory 138: numerical 32: processing 17: sheet 74 Data collection 17, 28, 32, 53, 55, 136, 152, 153, 210, 212, 218, 232, 293, 299: qualitative and quantitative 67: sheet 32: recording 53 Death 82, 83, 145, 168, 171, 180, 195, 237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 246, 257 Decontamination 199, 206, 207 Definitive diagnosis 184 Dell Axiom PDA 208 Dependent 22, 40, 70,137,237 Descriptive 12, 13, 22, 25, 33, 52, 60, 62, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 132, 136,142,194,238,245,248,263,284, 285, 288, 290, 293, 298 Descriptive epizootiology 60, 62, 67, 74, 76, 136, 285 Descriptive statistics 13, 62, 67, 70, 74, 75, 76, 136, 142, 284, 298 Desktop computer 208 Determinant factor 59, 60, 63, 64, 6 6 , 70, 71, 78, 93, 130, 131, 177, 180, 238,242 ' Diagnosis 84, 85, 126, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 153, 167, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 196, 228,232, 237,239, 240, 261,277, 291,298, 299 Diagnostic test 167, 180, 209, 232, 302 Dialogue box 157, 158, 199, 203, 204, 206 Differential diagnosis 184, 232 Diffuse 42 Diffuse system 18, 40, 43, 67, 8 6 , 109, 236, 237 Digital map 143, 144, 153, 154, 222, 223, 292 Digitizing 222, 223 Digitizing tablet 153, 154, 222 Digression 46, 47, 108 Discourse 238, 249 Discrete 18, 40, 43,223,236 Discrete system 42, 67, 108, 237, 254 Disease 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8 , 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 37, 38, 40, 46, 48, 59, 60, 62, 63,64,71,77,78, 79, 80,81,82, 83,84, 85,88, 94, 95, 102, 106, 112, 119, 122,124, 125,126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 134, 142, 143, 144, 145,146, 160, 162, 163,165,167, 170, 171, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201,202, 204, 207, 210, 219, 221,224, 225, 228, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 3 1 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ()., 2005 239, 241,242, 247, 248, 250, 252, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271,275, 276, 278, 280, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 298, 299,302, 303, 304 Disease reporting 95, 221 Dynamic equilibrium 97 Ecological approach 79, 85, 8 8 , 128, 241, 298 Ecological epizootiology 32, 52, 58, 79, 85, 8 8 , 90, 98, 102, 106, 108, 109, 115, 118, 126, 127, 128, 129,231,268, 290 Ecology 9, 31, 32, 52, 53, 67, 78, 79, 8 6 , 103, 219, 235, 238, 240, 259, 267, 288 Economics of production 115, 220 Ecosystem 27, 38, 58, 62, 63, 77, 78, 8 6 , 87, 8 8 , 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 114, 118, 124, 127, 182,216, 228, 235,237, 238, 239, 240, 241,242, 268, 277, 308 Ecosystematic 77 Edaphic 55, 63, 73, 87, 97, 126, 175, 238 Empirical studies 69, Endemic 185, 188, 191, 192 Energy chain 39, 40, 81,97, 108, 115,236, 240, 263 Entomological 78, 127 Environmental epizootiology 79 Environmental health 7,19,^108, 175, 182, 220, 237,238,268,290 Environmental systems 173, 198, 208, 229, 230, 233, 258 Environmental Systems Research Institute 198, 208, 229, 230, 233 Enzootic 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192,237 Enzootic disease 190 Ephemeral association 182 Epicaprinology 239 Epidemic 10,'13, 84, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 224, 229, 230,247, 248, 260 Epidemiology 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8 , 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,26,36,60,71,95, 176, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234, 238, 240, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261,262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 275, 276, 277, 287, 288, 296, Epi-inanimatology 238, 264 Epiphytology 4, 19, 81, 234, 257, 264, 266 Episcientology 216, 238, 264, 265 Epistemology 5, 16, 42, 265 Epizoology 3, 176, 239 Epizootic 12, 14, 37, 142, 144, 151, 170, 171, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 212, 229, 232, 248, 263, 270, 291 Epizootiological approach 45, 65, 77, 78, 137, 283, 298 Epizootiological database 72, 305 313 UNIVERSITY OF BADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. ().. 2005 Epizootiological diagnosis 85, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185,237, 239,240 Epizootiological intelligence 22, 122, 193, 212, 221, 293 Epizootiological knowledge 20, 36, 59, 65, 215 Epizootiological laboratory 213 Epizootiological map 55, 221 Epizootiological orientation 216, 217, 218, 221 Epizootiological point of view 177 Epizootiological surveillance 195 Epizootiological wisdom 8 , 65, 6 6 Epizootiologist 21, 27, 28, 35, 41, 47, 51, 57, 61, 65, 71, 76, 81, 8 8 , 89, 95, 102, 116, 122, 130, 136, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 192, 193, 194,196,199, 203, 211,217, 218, 237, 239, 246, 256, 265, 280, 283, 296 Epsem sampling 133 Equation 40, 41, 82, 244 Erithritol 179 ESR1 198,208,229,230, 231,232,233 Experience 23, 24, 25,28,44,45,46,67, 108, 116, 132, 145, 160, 168, 181, 209,215,216,217, 222,257, 294 Experimental epizootiology 69 Exposition 77, 78, 8 8 , 249, 285 Exposure 112, 126, 184, 185, 195,202,204, 205,207, 238,260 Eye contact 70 FAO 233, 275 Fate to share 48, 108 Fauna 58, 62, 63, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104,105,109, 126, 141, 240 Feed, feeding and nutrition 109, 121, 125 Feral 240, 279 Field practical 22, 51, 129, 286 Flora 58, 62, 63, 97, 101, 102, 105, 107, 109, 126, 141, 240,289, 305 FMD 83, 192, 197, 200, 201,202, 203, 204, 205, 207 Focality 127, 128, 241,242 Focality of disease 127, 128 Food chain 40, 236, 240 Foot and mouth disease 84, 191, 197 Formalin 214 Frederick Kilborne 109, 241 Frequency distribution 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192 Fundamentals of epizootiology 224, 267, 275, 285 Geodatabase 229 Geographic coordinate 143, 208 * See glossary section o f this book for details. 314 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G O, Ijaghone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O.. 2005 Geographic information system (GIS) 33, 126, 151, 154, 196,219,222,227, 230.231.241 Geographical epizootiology 79, 109, 127, 241 GIS 95, 126, 143, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 161, 196, 197, 198,199, 200, 202, 203, 206, 207, 208, 209, 217, 218, 221,222, 223, 230, 231, 232, 233.241 Gist presentation 8 8 , 239, 247 Global Positioning System (GPS) 126, 151,231 Glossary 35, 50, 60, 65, 67, 72, 8 8 , 133, 176, 177, 195, 234 Glossina 47, 63, 102, 112, 128, 230 GPS 95, 126, 127, 143, 151, 153, 154, 156, 158,207, 208,209,218,232, 233 Grab sampling 143 Grace of God 23, 24, 28, 89, 246 Gramineae 106, 107,241 Grasses 53, 106, 107, 231, 241 Grassland 62, 63,86,91, 104, 106, 107,235 Groups of animals 14, 26, 42, 45, 61,62, 63, 64, 71, 72, 73, 74, 126, 175, 183, 184, 185, 195,247,257,264, 294 Groups or populations 16, 47, 59, 78, 181, 184, 207, 237, 263, 267 Haemorrhage 145 Hawkins 228, 241, 277 Health implications Health system delivery 218 Heparin 214 Herbivores (see, carnivores and omnivores) 87, 97, 102, 106, 240 Herd problems 12, 116 Heuristic learning 87, 101, 184 Highly subjective 60 History 9, 12, 46, 47, 108, 127, 128, 139, 140, 145, 146, 177, 180, 200, 201, 231,238, 258, 262, 270, 278, 288, 298, 299 Human factor 65, 77, 245 Human herd 50, 77, 177 Human wisdom 10, 11, 12, 13, 23, 28, 65, 8 8 , 89, 245 Hypothesis 132, 135, 136, 160, 165, 178,229,286 Ill-health 8 , 11, 12,37,38,44, 6 6 , 261,263,266, 267 Immunobiology 112, 129, 175 Immunoblotting 146, 149, 150, 151,232,291 Immunoblotting assay 146, 147, 148, 149, 151,232,291 Immunoblotting strips 148, 149, 150 Immuno-diagnostic 180 Impact assessment 199, 202, 205, 206, 209 Incidence 10, 59, 82, 83, 84, 85,131, 185, 193, 194, 199, 229, 237, 243, 260,270 Incidence rate 82, 83, 84, 270 3 1 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Incubation period 85, 197, 204, 205, 206 Inculcate 73, 151,247 Inferences 11, 12,68, 133, 135,262,263,266 Infrastructure 12, 125,211,216,217, 227,271 INIA 147, 149, 151 Inkling 65, 194 Interdependence 19, 81, 87, 182, 239 Interdisciplinary 17 Internal relationship 219, 220 Internet search 126 Interpretation 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 28, 33, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 134, 136, 137,144,181,183,194, 210, 215, 245, 302, 303 Intervention 62, 131, 176, 216, 267, 271, 284 Jebba bridge 122 Judicious use 23, 24 Jungle yellow fever 128, 244 Jurisprudence 8 , 16, 23, 28, 34, 44, 65, 6 6 , 76, 182, 220, 224, 227, 240, 245, 249, 269, 272, 273,275,289 Karl F. Meyer 109 Key statement 1,2, 22, 27, 34, 48, 52, 74, 133, 175, 184 Knowledge base 2, 3, 7, 36, 8 8 , 281 Land areas 92 Landscape epizootiology 109, 241 Legumes 107 Listeriosis 118, 128 Location coordinate 153 Locust tree 103 Major ecosystems 8 6 Making statements 180 Mathematical epizootiology 48, 79, 130, 132, 142, 298 Medical detection approach 80, 81, 145, 298, 299 Meditate on 1,2, 24, 30, 52, 8 8 Merit 77,261,270 Meteorological 25, 73, 8 8 , 97, 138, 175, 299 Monitoring 17, 183, 193, 194, 212, 221,307 Morbidity / Morbidity rate 59, 82, 140, 169, 299 Mortality 82, 83, 84, 140, 169, 192, 242, 248, 299 MPVM 68,218, 231 Mucous membrane 38, 46, 178 Multi-disciplinary 3,16, 20, 24, 48, 51, 126, 180 Multi-Stage Sampling 134, 242 Murphy's law 194, 269 316 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Mutualism 182, 239, 243 MVPH 6 8 , 218 Natural BIOS 18, 69, 8 8 , 90, 245 N'Dama cattle 111, 112, 113 Natural history 9, 12,46, 47, 123, 128, 177,231,258,262,270, 278 Natural vegetation 91 Nature 1, 7, 19, 18, 24, 28, 29, 30, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 50, 51, 52, 53, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 70, 71, 72, 77, 79, 8 6 , 87, 89, 90, 97, 101, 109, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 142, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 193, 194,210,211,212,213,215,231,234, 237,240, 242,248,252,253,255,258,259 ,268, 269, 272, 285, 299, 30 Negative control 148 Niche 108, 242 Nidality 127, 128, 241,242 Nidus 127,128 NIFOR 112, 113 Nitrocellulose 149, 151 Noise, smoke or heat 69 Nomadic 116, 187,216, 233 Non-numerical data 32, 194 Norcadiosis 120 Nsej 8 , 16, 28,38, 6 6 , 89, 245,280 Null hypothesis 136 Numerical data 32,194 NVRI 147, 151, 167, 227,289 Objective signs 79, 81 Objects and Processes 53, 242 Observational training 73 Observations 11, 12, 25, 27, 55, 6 8 , 69, 70, 72, 75, 85, 99, 100, 112, 143, 156,180,181,183,248, 262, 263, 285 Oil palm plantation 112, 113 Omnivores 87, 102, 240 Opportunity cost 59 OPST 18, 25, 27, 40, 53, 61,63, 8 8 , 184, 242, 245 OPST approach 40,53,61,88,184,245 Organic and inorganic 63, Outbreak mapping 152 Outstation 125 PACE 14,212,248 Panzootic 185 Paper map 143, 153, 222 Papillomatosis 119, 120 Parasites 32, 37, 46, 47, 79, 8 8 , 128, 210, 239, 243 317 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esunioso, GO, ljagbone, /. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Parasitism 46, 178, 182, 229, 239, 243 Participative teaching and learning 22, 142 Pattern of spread 143, 144, 151, 152, 159, 163, 197,229 Pavlovsky 79, 109, 127, 230, 241,242 PBS 149, 150 PBS-milk 149, 150 Peculiar to each type of established ecosystem 87 Period prevalence 83, 84 Personal Digital Assistant 207, 219 Phagocytosis 178, 179 Physical and functional nature 39, 212 Physical regions 92 Pie chart of human wisdom 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 23, 28, 65, 8 8 , 89, 245 Plant clinic 81 Plant doctors 81 Plant pathology 15, 81 Point prevalence 83, 84, 85 Population at risk 82, 84, 205 Population dynamics 59, 72, 235, 238, 243 Population parameters 45, 48, 67, 6 8 , 133, 140, 243 Population quantities 135 Positive control 148 Positive correlation 137, 152, 161 Possibilities 47, 62, 116, 185, 190,265,290 Postgraduate students 6 8 , 115,288 Poultry breeding 114 Practical exercises 22,30, 32,36,51,69, 72, 129, 136, 138, 173,209,215, 221,307 Practice of preventive veterinary medicine 217, 219, 227, 245, 317 Predictive 6 8 , 70, 132, 142, 201,202, 207,208,303 Predictive model 70, 201,202, 207, 208 Pregnant 145, 181,294, 295, 296 Prevalence 82, 83,84, 85, 131, 185, 190, 193, 194,212,228,233,243 Prevention 7, 9, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 27, 29, 30, 34, 37, 39, 45, 49, 50, 89, 130, 175, 182, 183, 195, 228, 234, 239, 240, 256, 259, 263, 267, 289 Prevention and control measures Preventive veterinary medicine (pvm) 7, 17, 34, 69, 175, 184, 218, 224 Prey and predator 87 Probability47, 48,61,67, 76, 131, 133, 135, 137, 180, 195,201,207, 229,244, 303,317 Prognosis 182, 196, 199, 240 Project topic 221,290 Prominent grasses 107 Propagative enzootic 185, 190, 191 Propagative epizootic 191 318 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. F. and Ohtgasa, B. O., 2005 Prosperity 22, 34, 49, 63, 87, 89, 101, 182. 196, 240, 243, 246 Protocol 69, 210, 243 Protozoological 78, 128 Psej 8 , 15, 17,25,28, 29, 34, 6 6 , 89,211 Purposive sampling 134, 243 Quantification 12, 22, 37, 53, 85, 244, 263, 267 Quod vide 48. 81, 237. 243 Rahaji 118 Random sampling 133 Recirculation/recycling 20, 63, 87, 108, 237, 238 Recommended practical exercise 51,72, 129, 138,209, 221 Recommended practice 72 Recycling 20, 63, 87 Red Bororo 118, 119 Relationship 1, 2, 9, 13, 16, 21,23, 27, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41,42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 56, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 84, 8 6 , 87,88,89, 90, 127, 131, 133, 134, 135, 137, 175, 177, 178, 179,212, 219, 220, 223, 234, 235, 236, 239, 242,243, 245,246,249. ,252, 259, 263, 267,268,283,285 Relative 73, 108, 130, 131, 147, 163. 244 Report writing 22, 75, 220, 227 Representative sample 174, 183, 193,242 Resolution 77, 197, 198 Resource management approach 7, 34, 76, 137, 182, 224, 240, 275 Review 5, 6 , 35, 55, 146, 23 1,249, 258, 291 Rinderpest 188,217, 233,318 Risk 17, 22, 62, 71, 82, 83, 84, 108, 112, 122, 128, 132, 154, 159, 170, 171, 172, 183, 184, 189, 190, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201,202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 209, 219, 227, 230, 232, 241, 244, 248. 254. 258, 290, 303 Risk assessment 198, 201,209, 232 Risk management 154, 227, 230, 254 Risk study/studies 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 207,208, 209,219 Risk visualization 196, 197,200, 209,241 Road network 151, 162 Role to play 70, 108 Run-off 218 Saint Gabriel 193,247 Sample quantities 135 Sample statistics 45, 48, 67, 133, 135, 243 Sampling 111, 121, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 242, 243,288,305 Sampling theory 134, 135 Satellite 197, 198,232 319 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esuruoso, G.O, Ijagbone, I. E and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Savannah 62,86,99,100, 102, 104, 106, 107, 235, 241 Savannah grassland 62, 104, 106,235 Scarce resources 55 Scenario 23, 62, 70, 178, 179, 180, 198, 199, 200,201,202, 203,205,206, 215,235,237,251,271 Scenario constructor 198, 199, 201 Scenario element 203, Science of relationship 48, 65 Scientific basis for preventive measures 319 Scientific thinking 2, 3, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 43, 72, 234, 258, 263 Scientific, scientifically 2, 3, 13, 16, 17, 20, 24, 25, 30, 35, 41, 43, 46, 49, 51, 57, 60, 61, 70, 72, 78, 8 8 , 89, 108, 109, 126, 136, 142, 177, 196, 197, 228, 234, 240, 245, 258,.263, 264, 265, 278, 280, 294 Seasonal migration 63 Sej 8 , 28, 65, 6 6 , 67, 182, 220, 224, 234, 240, 245, 273 Seminar presentation 22, 34, 35, 116, 142,210 Sensu stricto 20, 21. 71, 89, 122, 176, 234, 239, 240, 265, 267, 269,280 Shape file 201 Shrubland 96 SIAP205 Sigma 149 Simplest definition 37, 49 Simplification 19, 183 Skill/s 1, 17, 20,21,22, 24, 25,27,29, 66,71, 116, 133, 180,219,272 Snapshot 202, 203, 204, 205 Social dimension 6 6 Socio-economic approach 79, 137, 145 Socially cost-conscious 6 6 , Socio-economically cost-conscious 7, 55, 247 Socio-economic jurisprudence 8 , Spatial spread /ability / variability 154, 160, 202, 204, 205, 206 Specific group 183 Sporadic 120, 185, 186, 187 Sporadic disease 185 Statistical epizootiology 79, 130, 142 Stochastic 133 Students 3, 7, 19, 20, 21, 25, 30, 31, 35, 39, 47, 51, 52, 53, 57, 6 8 , 70, 72, 73. 74, 75,76, 79, 8 6 , 98, 101, 117, 124, 126, 128, 132, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148,151,153,154,158, 159, 167, 173, 174, 192, 215, 218, 219, 221,222, 246, 255, 275, 288, 290, 291,293, 297, 298, 299, 307 Study of relationships 16, 39, 41, 43, 177, 267 Study trip 118 Subjective symptoms 79, 81 Summary presentation 5, 6 , 8 , 22, 33, 71, 75, 183, 298 Summer Sketch III 154 320 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Introductory Epizootiology: Esnruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Surveillance 125, 126, 194, 195, 198 Surveillance of disease 194, 195 Survey of disease 193 Symbiosis 46 Symmetrical 70, 182, 235, 243, 281 Synanthropic 96, 97, 124 Synanthropic ecosystem 96, 97, 124 System approach 3, 20, 52, 127, 268 System in distress 6 6 Systematic epizootiology 19, 6 8 , 101, 103, 104, 106, 127, 137, 175, 246, 249, 273,282,285 Systematic manner 71 Tamarind 102, 103 Teaching and learning 20, 22, 70, 142, 227 Teaching and Research Farm 51,52,53,58, 96, 98, 110, 114, 118, 129, 134, 138, 148, 150, 169, 228, 290, 292 Team leader 80 Technology 19,21,29, 95, 127, 153, 194, 196, 197, 198, 208,217, 221,224, 239,249 Temporality 61,64, 71, 242 Tentative diagnosis 184 The road to disaster 6 6 Theobald Smith 109, 178 Theory of nidality 127, 128 Tool/s 7, 17, 18, 19, 25, 30, 39, 53, 8 8 , 130, 132, 137, 143, 152, 153, 154, 182, 194, 195, 196, 199, 205,207, 209,216,218, 222, 234, 240,246,250, 261,268,274,280,284 Toolkit 137, 143, 148 Tools of thought 18, 19,30,39,53,88, 132, 182,216, 240, 246,284 Toxic plant 95, 103, 129, 242 Trace-backs 194 Trade cattle/trek route 95, 100, 102, 121, 122, 123,212,230 TrembleGeoXT 208 Triangulation 17, 25, 28, 183, 227, 268, 286 Tripod of epizootiology 7, 45, 46, 47, 48, 193, 255, 269 Truth 16, 27, 6 8 , 132, 135, 136,230 Two-way information 209 Ultimate success 29 Undulant fever 179 Universal applicability 71 VARF 57, 76, 211,224, 227, 228 Vegetation 62,63,90,91,97, 99, 100, 104, 117, 118, 125, 138, 198,241,299 3 2 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY !'■: Juctory Epizooliolog)': Esitruoso, GO, Ijagbone, I. F. and Olugasa, B. O., 2005 Vehicles 116, 117, 122, 127,211 Vertebrate species 103, 1 79, 240, 243, 266 Veterinary public health (vph)/systems 7, 12. 17, 19,51,52,68, 69,89, 117, 159, 175, 184, 211,212, 216, 218 , 219, 220, 226, 228, 230, 231,232, 249, 250, 270, 276, 288, 291,292, 307 Veterinary public health practice 216, 226 Virology department 148 Visual display 202, 206, 207 Visualization 87, 165, 196. 197, 198.200,201.206, 209, 230,241 Vph 7, 12, 17, 45, 51, 52, 6 8 , 69, 71. 89, 122, 124, 175, 184, 218, 228,249. 282, 288, 289, 307 Wastewater 218, 233 Weakest link 127, 176 Web of causation 64 Well-being 2, 17, 18. 21,49. 50, 51,68, 77, 243, 246, 256 Well-coordinated 78 Whatever befalls groups 26 Whittaker 109, 228, 277 Wildlife species 103, 104, 105, 141,288 Wireless email 208 Wisdom in epizootiology 8 8 Wistful responses 70 Working definition 13. 26, 30, 31, 37, 193, 245, 267 Working knowledge 1,20, 41,44, 134 Yellow fever 109. 128,244 Zero-grazing , Zoology 53, 235, 278 Zoonoses 45. 175,218,267,270,289 3 2 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY