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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
AND HEALTH IN NIGERIA
Essays In 'Honour Of
Professor Timothy Olayiwola Egunjobi
Edited By
Agbola, Tunde
Olatubara, CO.
Wahab, Bolanle.
Sanni, Lekan
. Ipingbemi, O.
~
Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
Faculty of the Social Sciences,
University of Ibadan, .
Ibadan. Nigeria.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
© Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Faculty of The SocialSciences
University of lbadan
Ibadan
First Published 2008
All Right Reserved
No part of this publication may/be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the authors.
ISBN: 978-.38385-8-X
Printed by: Ibadan University Printery
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Contents
CHAPTER Pages
SECTION A: The Honouree.
1. Professor Timoth Olayiwola Egunjobi: A Tribute
-Bisi Adesola 1
SECTION B:Conceptualisation of Environment and Health
2. Conceptualising Environment and Health
-Agbola and Nwokoro....................................... 18.
3. Shifting Paradigms m Environment Planning
and Heath
- Tunde AgboZa and Odufll.W~ 35
SECTION C: Health and Urban and Regional Planning
Interrelationshi p
4. Urbanization, Environmental Planning and Health
-Sanni & Ipingbemi 62
5. Water Development, Health and the Nigerian
Millennium Development Goals.
-M.K.C. Sridhar and E.O. Oloruntoba 83
6. Health '. and Health Care Facilities in Nigeria: I.
The Problems of Equity and.Equality
- 5.1. Okafor 113
7. Housing: The Health Implications
- Tunde Agbola anMJ. O. Omirin ..... :.. :............... 134
iii --.
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8. The Quality of Life: Determinants and Ca?e Study
Applications
-Prof Oladepo . 171
SECTION D: Urban and Rural Development and Management
9. Urban Planning and the quality of Life of Nigerians
Mrs. Folake Samuel. . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. . ... 197
10. Urban Management and the Governance of Nigerian
Cities.
- Soji Taiwo & Ayorinde, Dayo 215
SECTION E: Environment and Development
11. Community (SelfHelp) Development and the Growth
of Small Towns
- Deacon Oladoja , 249
12. Some Aspects of Physical Planning and Development
in Nigeria
- Bolanle Wahab 274
13. Gentrification of Urban Neighbourhoods: A Case
Study of the Mokola--Dugbe Commercial Strip
- Tunde Agbola & Olusola Popoola 327
14. Critical Issues in Sustainable Development
-C..0. Olaiubara., ~ 362
15. The Gasping Cities: Human Factors in Urban
Environmental Management
- Femi Olokesusi 364
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16. Environmental Education and Sustainable
Development
- T.A. Olurin (Mrs.) 401
SECTION F:Indigenous Knowledge
17. Indigenous Knowledge: The Revival and Applicability
of a Concept
-Prof Titilola :................ 450
>; '.
t
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ChapterTw~lve
Some Aspects Of Physical Planning And
Development In Nigeria
Bolanle Wahab
1.0 Introduction
Planning generally involves thinking ahead and makingadvance arrangements to achieve particular objectives.Planning can be applied to virtually all human activities,
right from the level of individual, the family or the
neighbourhood to that of the town, district or the society
(Egunjobi 1985:93-4).
We plan to solve problems, to allocate limited resources
to unlimited needs, to deal with changes, to guide settlement
growth in an orderly or desired pattern, and to prepare for the
future. Nearly all developments of land in certain respects are
planned even if not set out formally on drawing board with
the aid of set-square and T-square or, lately, with the aid of
computer. "As Keeble (1969:1) observes, the gradual
development of a medieval town or of a village may often
truly be said to be unplanned but the rate of 'growth of these
places has normally been so slow that each individual building'
can be erected as needed with full consideration of its
relationship with other developments.
In this kind of situation, unplanned growth may result
in satisfactory condition. Planning takes place every where,
every time and is done by everybody. One almost certainly
needs to plan for a house, either to rent or purchase or build; a
farmer needs to plan what to cultivate, what quantity, on what
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", size of land and when; a fun-seeker needs to plan for which
holiday resort to visit, where, when and for what length of
time; whi,le a nation certainly needs to plan for pOSsible
aggression, stronger economy and welfare of her citizens.
Planning in the formal way takes quite a number of
various forms and dimensions, such as economic planning,
social planning, physical planning, educational planning,
strategic planning, corporate planning, health planning and so
on (Egunjobi 1985:94).
Our focus in this paper is to highlight some aspects of
physical planning and development in Nigeria. As such, our
discussion will be limited to physical planning, economic
planning, and perspective planning. Each will be discussed in
relation to development. The discussions will be woven round
some of Egunjobi's works that bear relevance to the theme of
this chapter.
2. ConceptualIssues
2.1 Physical Planning
Planning is a word of many meanings. To some, it means blue-
print for the future; to others, it means government
responsibility to take whatever action is necessary to ensure,
that the economic system operates' efficiently. One common
meaning of planning is that planning is concerned with
deliberately achieving some objectives (which may be
individual or corporate), and it proceeds by evolving strategies
and actions arranged in a prioritized order or sequence. '.
Planning deals with the totality of human environment
and the activities that take place there-in, including economic-,
social-, cultural-, recreational and even political activities. The
term "planning" does not have a restricted definition as many
scholars have defined it. from several perspectives, for
example, Friedman (1964)Keeble (1969, 1983),Roberts (1974),
Bruton (1974),Ratcliffe (1974),Beekie (1975),Hall (1976).
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Apart from the problems of definition, many scholars
are wont to qualify the term with words that have spatial
connotation: 'Town and Country Planning'; 'Environmental
Planning', 'Land Planning', 'Land Use Planning', 'Spatial
Planning', 'Urban Planning', and 'Urban and Regional
Planning'. For the purpose of our discussion, "physical
planning" will be used.
As Egunjobi (1985:94) observes, the term "Town and
Country Planning" is the traditional reference term for
physical planning, especially in Britain and her former
colonies. This term is also used inter-changeably with 'Urban
and Regional Planning' in Britain and is almost exclusively
used to mean physical planning in the U.S.A. In Nigeria, many
state and local level planning agencies use "Town Planning"
(Town Planning Department or Division), while at the Federal
level, "Urban and Regional Planning" is used. There is no
uniformity in the term used by planning schools either. Until
the last 4 years or thereabout when the regulating/accrediting
bodies of planning programmes in Polytechnics and
Universities (National Board for Technical Education, (NBTE)
and Town Planners Registration Council (TOPREC)compelled
the schools to use "Urban and Regional Planning" to describe
their programme/ department, the planning schools used
either "Town Planning" or "Town and Regional Planning" ..
Formal planning began in most countries in the 19th
century, with rules for building development directed mainly
to achieving adequate sanitary and safety conditions. Much of
its ,.impetus stemmed from the realization that diseases, fire,
flood, quakes and other disasters could be reduced or
prevented by improving city design (Wahab 1987:5).Italy was
the first country to include "Town Planning" in legislation (the
Act of 1865), ten years before either Germany or Sweden. The
first British Planning Act was in 1909 while Nigeria had her
first one in 1863 - the Town Improvement Ordinance meant to
control development and urban sanitation in Lagos. This was
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.', followed by Township Ordinance No. 2.9of 1917, Lagos Town
Planning Ordinance of 1928; Nigerian Town and Country
Planning' Ordinance of 1946,Land Development (Roads) Law
of 1948, Building Lines Regulations of 1948, and finally the
Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree No. 88 of 1992
(the first truly 'indigenous' planning law for the country).
Physical planning is a many-sided study which
demands contributions from many areas of specialization, such
as civil/municipal engineering, architecture, anthro-pology,
history, ecology, social sciences, medicine/public health, estate
management, and even law, but which is firmly established as
a discipline in its own right. Benevole (1967) sees town
planning decisions as being political in nature. Ashworth
(1954)sees the planning of human settlement as philosophy in
its active application and that matters that town planning treat
are social in character.
One of the most popular definitions of what physical
planning is all about is that given by Lewis Keeble when he
wrote of the subject as:
the art and science of ordering the use of land and the
character and siting of buildings and communication
routes so as to secure maximum practicable degree of
economy,convenienceand beauty (Keeble1969:1).
Physical planning is defined by Bruton as:
A physical design of something which atready exists or
might exist in the future and this sort of plan is a
representation in a geographicalor spatial sense, of actual
physical structures or elements(Bruton,1974:7).
Physical planning is a conscious but comprehensive
approach to the orderly and healthy use and management of
the natural environment of human settlements. It does this by
systematically anticipating and achieving adjustment in the
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physical environment of part of or a whole settlement, given
the constraint of social, economic, political and human
resources.
Another way of describing Physical Planning is to see it
as the general disposition of land areas for various uses
(including residential, commercial, industrial, religious,
educational, health and transportation), the general location of
buildings and open spaces, and the provision of services and
channels of movement (vehicular and pedestrian) to offer the
required linkages among the activity areas so created.
3. The Purpose of Physical Planning
The main purpose of physical planning is to create an
improved, protected and sustainable human environment, by
which is meant both its appearance and the need to ensure that
the living and working condition in settlements are healthy
(Wahab 1987:6). Wahab goes further to identify some other
purposes or reasons for physical planning: .
(i) to preserve some older buildings for their invaluable
role in the economic life of a city (see Jacob 1961) open
space and historical development;
(ii) to conserve some economic, medicinal and ecologically
sensitive trees;
(iii) to save the country side from great deal of thoughtless
urban sprawl, the menance of the violent and
discordant element of our urban environment (that is,
the vehicular and motor-cycle traffic), and the
"despoliation of rural hinterlands; '"
(iv) to prevent unsightly advertisement and ribbons of
houses, shops and kiosks (that are usually built on or
very close to main roads in major Nigerian towns and
cities) which often obscure good vistas, urban aesthetics
and, most of the time, create hazards for traffic.
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(v) to create order in the functional relationship of land and
traffic ways such that the use of urban spaces and the
traffic ,ways are properly co-ordinated to prevent chaos; ,
(vi) to ensure orderly and economic organisation of human
activities to achieve maximum efficiency in the supply,
use and distribution of scarce resources while reducing
waste and increasing wealth. This is an economic
purpose of physical planning, and
(vii) to make people's lives happier by creating a physical
environment which is conduce to health, which allows
convenient and safe passage from one part to the other
while promoting social intercourse. This is a social
purpose of physical planning.
Physical planning, as Egunjobi (1985:95) observes, is
concerned with distribution and arrangement in orderly,
balanced and consistent forms, or different competing land-use
types and structures in space to achieve economy,
convenience, beauty, good healthand security.
Physical planning is the art and science of spatial
organisation. It is primarily concerned with the allocation, use,
development, control and management of land, including all
activities that take place there-on for the overall benefit of the
, community. The task of physical planning, according to Crook,
is "the prevention, the control and the promotion of changes
which have, which are and which might occur within the
physical environment" (Crook, 1974:85).
~ The Nigerian Institute of Town Planning (NITP) defines
the purpose of town planning as being concerned with the
spatial ordering of land use both in the urban and rural
settings for the purpose of creating functionally efficient and
aesthetically pleasing physical environment for living,
working, circulation and' recreation (NITP, 1997 quoted in
Soile, 1998:128).
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IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
"
One of the main tasks of physical planning is to
generate development. The regulation of the use of land and
communication is a conscious and' deliberate attempt to
promote development. In order that even developments may
take place in all parts of the country, physical planning is
undertaken, for instance in Nigeria, at three levels:
(a) Federal;
(b) State, and
(c) Local.
The Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Law of 1992
explicitly provides for physical planning activities that may go
on at each of the three levels such that there will be no conflict
in functions. Part I section 2(a)-(j) gives 10 planning
responsibilities to the Federal Government, including
formulation of national policies, preparation and
implementation of 5 types of development plans, formulation
of planning standards for the country, and development
control over federal lands (FRN 1992: A1018). The Federal
Government has responsibility for the preparation of National
Physical Development Plan, Regional Plan, Sub-regional Plan,
Urban Plan, and Subject Plan (FRN 1992:A1017).
Part I Section 3(1) and (2) stipulates 6 planning'
responsibilities of State Government, which include
formulation of a state policy for urban and regional planning
within the framework of national policies, preparation and
implementation of 5 types of .development plans, -and
development control on state lands (FRN 1992: AlD18-lD19).
The State Government is expected to prepare Regional Plan,
Sub-regional Plan, Urban Plan, Local Plan, and Subject Plan
within the state.
Part 1, section 4 of the Nigerian Urban and Regional
Planning Law (1992) gives 2 main planning responsibilities to
Local Government, which are mainly the preparation and
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implementation of 4 types of development plan (town, rural,
area, local, and subject plans), and the control of development
within its area of jurisdiction other than over federal or state'
lands (FRN 1992:A1019). .
Across the three levels of government in Nigeria, two
planning responsibilities are common, the first is the
preparation and implementation of development plans, while
the second is .the control of development. These two
responsibilities centre on development - inducing and
controlling development. One can, therefore, not agree less
with those who describe physical planning as being all about
development.
While carrying out the planning responsibilities
specified in the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Law
(1992), the planner's duty is all embracing: to see to the
economic, social and political activities and physical land use-
in short, the totality of the human environment. For instance,
when, one plans for a housing scheme he/she must also plan
for where residents will work (industries); where they will buy
essentials (commercials); where they will relax after the day's
work (recreation); the school their children will attend
(education); how they will move from place to place
(transportation network); and where they will find solace
when ill (health) and so on. Thus, thephysical planner needs' to
comprehend all the factors that make up the backlog of life and
provide for them appropriately (Wahab, 1987:21).
However, as important as the physical planner's role is
to the survival of humans in-the living environment, he enjoys
no public respect, recognition or esteem especially in Nigeria.
The mass media (both print and electronic) is daily awash with
one blame and condemnation and another on the planners for
most ills or hazards that befall cities, towns and even rural
hinterland: collapsed buildings, blown-up roofs, high-rise flats
and neighbourhoods, ghettos, empty office blocks, traffic
congestion, desolate streets, hawkers' invasion of roads, road
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accidents, abandoned public convenience, and so on. The
planner's labour is never appreciated; the public hostility is
displayed most in the process of development control.
4. Relationship of Physical Planning to other Types of
Planning
Physical planning is a distinct type of planning concerned with
spatial organisation. However, it is related to other types of
planning, such as economic planning, social planning, health
planning, and perspective planning, among others, in the sense
that they all can be translated into physical and spatial terms.
In the following paragraphs, the relationship of physical
planning to some of the other types of planning are discussed.
4.1 Physical Planning and Economic Planning
In one of his works, Franklin (1982) identifies three
contributions expected of (physical) planning within a
territory. Two of these are relevant to the discussion in this
chapter. They are: .
(i) to provide a planned spatial framework of
development for the physical environment within
which a balanced programme of social and economic
development can be carried out, and
(ii) to provide a legislation necessary for the planning,
control and implementation of the physical
development process (Franklin, 1982:18).
~
From the foregoing, the concept of development comes
out clearly as one of the issues of concern of physical planning.
Maximum utilization of the economic and social resources of
human environment in a way that will benefit all humans in
any given territorial space or community without
discrimination as to status, sex, location, and physical
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,
a1tributes. This is, perhaps, what Palmer (1981) means when he
describes physical planning as "the redistribution of the
resources and benefits of an unequal. society" (Palmer 1981,
quoted in Kadiri 1998:40).
In the economic sense, development, as observed by
Kadiri (1998:42) "is often associated with growth which is
related to some national accounting aggregate, usually the
Gross National Product ,(GNP)" Economic planners, therefore,
help to formulate the national economic plans.
The economic results of good planning conduce to
increased happiness, though indirectly. A proper spatial
relationship between the communities in a region and the
constituent parts of a town, and an efficient arrangement of
communication routes all result in human activities being
carried on more efficiently and less wastefully, and thus
increase wealth (Wahab 1987:7). Hence, the physical planner
contributes to the national economic development by helping
to "solve problem of hunger, poverty, unemployment and
inequality" (Keung, 1982, quoted in Kadiri 1998: 42) and also
by "creating opportunities for individuals to have all the basic
needs" (Kadiri 1998:43).
There is a close relationship between economic
development planning and physical planning. "While the
former concerns itself with investment issues that could lead to
a higher level of development, the latter addresses itself to
aspect of the spatial organisation of developmental projects"
(Egunjobi and Wahab 1990:363). However, in spite of this
obvious relationship, the two forms of planning have been
operating independent of each other' in Nigeria. The
consequence is that while various economic development
plans produced and operated by the country since 1946 have
recorded high rate of economic growth and development, "the
national spatial structure efhibits such characteristics as
disorderliness, lopsidedness and low environmental quality"
(Egunjobi and Wahab 1990:363).
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~
I
The situation in Nigeria in the last six decades is such
that while "Economic planners have been promoting economic
growth with little or no appreciation of its spatial implication"
(Barlour, 1972), town planning activities have, inmost cases,
been limited to development control within the boundaries of
only a few settlements (Adeniji, 1975). In this way, both
economic planning and physical planning, as now practiced in
the country, are impotent in dealing with the country's
planning problems (Egunjobi 1993a:63). '
It, therefore, means that "there is need for more socio-
economic intervention than physical ones" (Kadiri 1998:43),for
the country to achieve meaningful economic and physical
development. There is also the need for better communication
and coordination between economic planners and physical
planners. However, before the required integrative framework
is presented, it is necessary to briefly highlight the past
economic development plans in the country and their physical
planning provisions.
The first attempt to have a development plan for
Nigeria was the Ten-year (1946-56)Plan of Development and
Welfare for Nigeria approved on 7th February, 1946 by the
then Legislative Council. The Plan, which was meant to be
executed under the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund,
took effect from 1st April, 1946, (Egunjobi and' Wahab
1990:364). The plan was a package of schemes aimed at
providing roads, water, hospital, schools, electricity and
related social services seen as prerequisite for any policy of
wide economic development (Egunjobi 199~a:64).
'. The Ten-yea/Plan was revised due to rising cost which
rendered some estimates unrealistic coupled with the lack of
support for the original plan in 1954 when Nigeria adopted a
federal system of government. This resulted in five
development programmes, one for each region (Egunjobi,
1993a:64).As Olomojeye (1999) observes, the 1955-62plan was
fashioned within the framework of the Federal Constitution
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•
~nd exhibited much of the previous ten-year plan in that it
featured mainly sectoral allocations, with agriculture, transport
and communication leading. Its direct contribution to town
and regional planning is nothing to write home about
(Olomojeye, 1999:81).
The first indigenously-inspired National Development
Plan was formulated in 1961 to cover the period 1962 to 1968.
The six-year plan was aimed at achieving a growth rate of 4%
and to develop opportunities in education, health and
employment with a planned public investment of 2,366million
naira (Egunjobi 1993a:64).However, the plan paid no attention
to the problem of urbanization in different parts of the country
and its effects on rural areas, despite the fact"that the 1952and
1963 census clearly indicated the high rate of urbanization
(Egunjobi 1993a:65). The military coup d'etat of 1966, which
culminated in a civil war that lasted till 1970, truncated the
plan.
The Second National Development Plan 197Q-1974was
launched in September, 1970 by the then Federal Military
Government to cover the then twelve states of the federation
created after the civil war to replace the former four regions.
The plan aimed to achieve a growth rate in the GDP of 6.6%
per annum, with a total capital investment of 2,050 million
naira. 'As with previous development plans, the 1970-74plan
contained no definite population and urbanization policies,
except the establishment of a National Population Council to
coordinate all external aid supports for family planning
activities in the country (Egunjobi 1993$1:65). An important ~.
premise of the plan is that lithe location of public sector
projects shall be guided solely by economic considerations"
(Federation of Nigeria, 1970:218).
The Third National Development Plan (1975-80)
envisaged a capital prograJilme of 30 billion naira and a
growth rate of 9%. Unlike previous development plans, this
aimed at improving those areas which had direct bearing on
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the quality of life of the people which included housing and
country planning, and communi ty development (Egunjobi
1993a:364).The plan recognized the fact that Nigeria had paid
little attention to physical planning and was, therefore, to
embark on the development of new areas of settlement, urban
renewal schemes, reconstruction of township roads and drains
(Federation of Nigeria, 1981:313)."The weakness in the policy,
however, was the lack of awareness of the inter-relatedness of
these items with one another and with general economic
development targets" (Egunjobi 1993a:65).
In addition, the objectives were not followed, as
developments during the period was totally urban, biased. The
policy of even geographical distribution of the benefits of
urban-based industrialization was not attempted. In the plan
period, however, housing received an allocation of N2.6 billion
(5.2%)of the planned total expenditure in all sectors (Egunjobi
and Wahab 1990:364).
The Fourth National Development Plan (1981-85) was
the first to be drawn up by a civilian government. The plan
had a projected capital expenditure of about N82b to achieve a
growth rate of 7.2%. it aimed at fostering economic and social
development in Nigeria of all the development plans made so
far, this plan gave the greatest attention to physical planning
. by allocating NO.9b (6.98%) to Town an Country Planning by
all the governments (Egunjobi and Wahab 1990:364).Housing,
Water, resources, population, environ-mental planning and
protection, and integral urban and rural development
ptogramme also featured. The plan noted the role of physical
planning as a tool for achieving National Development
objectives.
Three-year Rolling Plans succeeded the Fourth National
Development Plan. "Their implementation environment (was)
plagued with negative forces- a huge debt burden, declining
petroleum proceeds ... ad less funds accruing to the Federal
Government - (made) it unable to provide financial impetus to
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
..
ltster social services and town planning progrmmes"
(Olomojeye, 1999:84).
4.2' Consequences of Non-Integration of Economic
Development Plans With Physical Plans
The review of past development plans in Nigeria, as contained
in the preceding sections, shows that the various governments
(colonial, civilian and military) pursued high economic growth
rates and actually achieved them. This was, however, at the
expense of adequate attention to even distribution of resources
and services to all settlement (urban and rural) in the country.
According to Egunjobi and Wahab (1990:365),there are gross
disparities among the various spatial components of the
country as well as socio-economic groups which need to be
redressed in order to put the word "development" within a
.more meaningful perspective. They identify such disparity as:
(i) Disproportionate concentration of industrial
activities in a few city regions-with such major city
regions as Lagos, Port Harcourt and Kano still
maintaining their pre-eminence in industrial and
commercial activities desprite the emergence of 33
other state capitals. Egunjobi (1993a:66) observes
that on the basis- of the past economic planning
strategies, Lagos metropolitan area has a
disproportionate concentration of industrial
activities, while the remaining are located around
Ibadan, Abeok~uta, Kano, Kadua, Z~aria and Ios.
These places experience a high population of rural-
urban immigrants with the attendant problems of
overuse of amenities, inability of the cities to meet
the employment, housing, health, education,
recreation and transportation needs of the migrants.
This is overcrowding, traffic congestion and slum
formation. Waster mana-gement, electricity and
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
water supply, orderly physical development, and so
on become harculean tasks. "No thought is given to
how the geographical space could be or6anized to
brig about a reasonable balance between growth ad
the distribution of growth" (Egunjobi, 1993a:68)..
(ii) At the rural end, the story is more pathetic. As a
result of migration to urban areas, there is great
depletion in the population of able-bodied humans
to men primary production sector, vacant houses,
impassable earth roads as a result of infriquents
maintenance, isolation, low produ-ctivity and lack of
infrastructural facilities and services.
(iii) Adverse environmental impact of industrial
activities where these C activities are located,
especially in the oil producing area of the Niger
Delta. Inceasant oil spillage has created very severe
health, unemployment, and environ-
mental! ecological hazards in those areas. The
response from the communities in the Niger-Delta
area in recent times, is in the form of arm insurgence,
kidnapping of expatriate oil workers, blowing-up of
flow stations and pipe-lines. These actions have
affected crude-oil production in the country,
especially between January and April 2006, with its
spill-over effect on rising price of crude oil in the
world market. ~.
~'
From the foregoing discussion about the position of
physical planning in Nigeria, Egunjobi (1993a:70) gave the
following conclusions:
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-~> (a) Physical planning has for a long time been limited to
development control, slum clearance and the provision
of high-income housing.
(b) Planning activities were confined to city boundaries.
"Rural area were hardly included in any planning
scheme and overall urban transport, public utility and
social services were hardly ever considered as falling
within the purview of town planning authorities"
(Mabogunje, 1973).
(c) The relation between economic planning and physical
planning was not made explicit. The latter was treated
in the former as a sub-sector, as reflected in the meager
allocations to it. Moreover, there is general absence of
planning organizational freamework to embrace the,
two.
4. Integrating Economic Planning and Physical Planning
Egunjobi and Wahab (1990)observe that the close relationship
between economic development planning and physical
planning has not been accorded the necessary recognition in
. Nigeria. Earlier in this chapter the economic benefits of good
physical planning were stated. While economic development
planning concerns itself with making broad investment
decisions according to available resources that may lead to
incre~ase in the Gross Dome~stic Product and Gro~ss National
Savings, Physical Planning engages in the translation of these
into spatial terms. In other words, physical planning is
concerned with rationalization of the activities and structures
in space in such a way as to maximize the distribution of
benefits of economic growth, as well as minimize its adverse
effects on the environment and the health of the people
(Egunjobi and Wahab 1990:367).
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conomic development planning and physical plannin
are different sides of the same coin and there is, therefore,
need for both types of planning to be integrated and made I
operate within the same framework. A planning organisatic
which embraces both physical planning and econom
planning on equal basis is a way of ameliorating existir
planning problems. Such integration does not exist at presel
between town and country planning and economic plannin
While economic planning is highly centralized, town plannir
operates at the local level. Egunjobi (1993a:71) proposes the u:
of Regional planning as an integrative mechanism. Region
planning, according to him, is an instrument for socii
economic policy. Its objectives are: First., "a rational spati
pattern of production, rational in the sense that it conforn
with the general economic and social goals of a countr
second, the development of every regions in a country i
. accordance with its natural, economic and social condition
and third, the securing of a harmonious territorial balaru
between sectoral activities and development of every region 2
within the framework of a unified national economic complex
(Alayev, 1974:155-156). Egunjobi (1993b:94) goes further j
propose Regional Planning approach as an effective tOI
towards an accelerated and sustained development of rur
areas of Nigeria, thereby bringing positive. changes in the oru
neglected rural environment.
Meanwhile, Egunjobi and Wahab (1990) prese]
perspective planning as the integrative mechanism to brin
economic planning and physical planning together to enhanc
the needed improvement in the qualitvof life of the nation
inhabitants. They opine that perspective planning is a ne-
approach to economic development planning and should 1
captured to give physical planning its rightful position.
A perspective plan is a series of objectives and methoc
in respect of a distant future expressed in the forms of gener,
guidelines and approved by competent authorities (Unite
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"Nations, 1971). At the level of national economy, it has been
defined as concerted measures by the government directed
towards the achievement of a stable and balanced socio-
economic development of the country (Hannan,' 1989:194). The
need for perspective planning arose out of the realization of
the fact that a five-year period is too short for consideration of
problems such as development of natural resources, education
and comprehensive health programme (Egunjobi and Wahab
1990:366).
Nigeria's first perspective plan is intended to tackle the
technical and financial problems facing the long-term
development of the Nigerian economy. At the' same time, its
broad framework accommodates short period rolling plans as
well as the annual budgets of the federal and state
governments in the major capital development areas .
. (Anyanwu, 1989:55). '
The duration of a perspective. plan could be one to two
decades; it could. even cover a period of thirty years.
Perspective plans help in providing continuity in operations
between fiscal years or in the event that there is a change in
administration. The plans are necessary for the determination
of the main directions of economic development for the
solution of crucial problems in the way of progress, for the
complex . development of separate regions: for the
improvement in the quality of hiring of the people, and even
expansion of basic industries (Egunjobi and Wahab 1990:367).
Perspective plans are futuristic and so, by nature, are
amenable to harmony with physical planning. Both aspects of-
planning for development have considetable time frame. While
the past economic plans were mostly formulated within five-
y~ar periods, perspective plans span over a period of on~\ito
three decades. This, according to Egunjobi and Wahab (1990),
fits perfectly well within the. frame of local plans at the
local/rural level, or physical planning which, in the form of
Master (Development Plans at the urban level, or Regional
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plans at a broader geographical/administrative level or
National Physical Plans, looks at what the future spatial
structures will be in the next twenty-five to, thirty years. The
two types of planning, therefore, have identical time span and,
in addition, also have in-built mechanism for modifications,
adjustment or revisions to accommodate unexpected emerging
new situations. While perspective plans give broad indications
or guidelines about future development, physical plans are
necessarily general guideline regarding future land uses.
The conclusion of Egunjobi and Wahab (1990) is that
attention to physical aspects of national development will
assist in rationalizing the national spatial structure, narrow the
gap between the rural and urban sectors, minimize regional
disparities in the level of development and mitigate the
adverse. environmental impacts of industrial and other
development-related activities.
5. The Role of Cities in National Development
Urban centres are the loci of power and prestige-economic,
political and social. They are where the action is, in terms of
innovation and control. Tremendous qualities of capital have
been invested in them and their development and
redevelopment represent an ongoing process (Agbola, 205:3).
Cities in Nigeria, as in other nations of the world, play
critical roles in the development of the nation. According to
Egunjobi, (1998:25) "indeed cities are a driving force behind
national and international development. While attesting to the
positive roles cities play in national development, Wahab
(1998:14)observes that "cities are engines of economic growth.
In Nigeria, cities such as Lagos, Kaduna, Enugu, Port-Harcourt
and Ibadan generate abundant revenues for urban government
while providing the required earnings/income for individuals
to meet their welfare requirements".
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""'t'
4. While one is tempted to be carried away by these '
positive developmental roles of cities, there is the counter
notion from the anti-urban or anti-city school of thought,
which continuously emphasizes the negative roles of cities "as
resulting from urban development activities" (Egunjobi,
1998:25). Most of these cities have become heavily plagued
with such environmental problems as desertification,
deterioration of urban physical quality, land degradation
(Egunjobi, 1993:33),overcrowding, pollution of all types, rapid
urbanization, poverty, street children, unemployment and lack
of basic services (Wahab, 1998:14).The urban centers, rather
than providing comfort and being centers of arts and
civilization, have simply become urban jungles (Agbola,
205:10). "
While there are proponents of the positivism of the roles
of cities in development on the one hand, and negativism on I
the other, there are the "arbitrators", the liberals or "the I!
neutral school that believes that urbanization is inherently II
neither good nor bad". (Egunjobi 1998:25).
Whether we see cities as a good phenomenon in the
national development or a bad occurrence/product of human
activities, cities are an inevitable product of human existence
whose continuous growth no one can ever stop not even the
most sophisticated 21st Century scientific or technological
devices. Cities are the phenomenon that people of the modern
world especially the developing countries in Africa must learn
to live in and cope with.
5.1 '!> Urbanization (City G~owth) in Nigeria ~
Urbanisation, a global phenomenon, is a process of spatial
concentration of urban population that is hinged 0 some basic
push and pull factors called urban transformation forces
(Agbola 2005:4).Egunjobi (1998:•26)observes that, in Africa, theurban population as a proportion of the continent's total
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populatio . in 1960was only 18.3percent. And that in 1990 the
proportion was 33.9 percent which retained her as the least
urbanized region of the world. He goes further to state that the
real concern about urbanization in Africa is not its sheer size
but the rapid rate at which it proceeds'. He illustrates this
position with a table containing the average population growth
rates of Lagos, Abidjan, Dakar, Ibadan, Conakry, and Accra
from 1950 to 1999. As Agbola (2005:2)observes, rapid urban
growth in African countries reflects substantial migration to
cities from rural areas and also natural population increase
among city residents.
Table 1: Annual Average Population Growth Rates in Urban
Population (West Africa: 1950-2000)
Annual Average Growth Rates (%)
City/Country 1950-1959 1970-1979 . 1990-1999
Lagos (Nigeria) 10.2 8.0 5.3
Abidjan(Cote d'Ivoire) 11.8 8.6 5.0
Dakar (Senegal) 5.1 5.1 4.4
Ibadan (Nigeria 2,9 2.7 4.0
Conakry (Guinea) 11.2 8.3 5.7
Accra (Ghana) 4.7 1.9 3.1
Source: Egunjobi (1998:27)culled from UN (1990)
From the Table 1 above, Egunjobi observes an
astronomical annual average growth rates in the population of
the six cities between 1950 and 1959 ranging between 2:9
'. percent for Ibadan to 11.8 percent fo~ Abidjan. However, he
notes a decline in the rate of growth within the 1970-79period
and yet a further projected decline between 1990 and 1979.All
said the growth rates which stood as 3.1.percent (Accra) and
5.7 percent (Conakry) were still among the highest in the
world Egunjobi (1998:27).
"! .
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Falade (2005:3)avers that the level Ot irbanization in
;' West Africa in 2001 was 38 percent and by 2015 the level ~f i
urbanization should have risen to 42.5 percent. By 2015,seven I,
countries would have attained an urbanization .level of more
than 50%: Mauritania (60.7%), Benin (53.5%), cote d'Ivoire
(51%)/ Ghana (51.1%), Liberia (55.5%), Nigeria (55.5%) and
Senegal (57.9%).
Although urbanization in West Africa preceded
colonization, it was largely under colonial rule that the major
cities and the urban systems that exist today were defined. The
colonial policy in West Africa was targeted at promoting rural-
urban migration because low population density in the urban
environments was equated with scarcity of manpower and an
absence of development (Agbola 205:4).
On the trend of urbanization in Nigeria, Egunjobi
(1998:27)hints that, as at 1932/less than 7 percent of Nigerians
lived in urban centres of a population of 20/000 people and
above. The proportion rose to 10 percent in 1952 and 19.2
percent in 1963/which is more than triple what it was in 1932.
He adds that the urban population as at' 1998was between 35
and 40 percent. He concludes that Nigerian cities were among
the fastest growing in the world with growth rates of 12.5
percent for Lagos and between 7-10 percent for Ibadan, Kano
and Enugu. These rates compare favourable with those of
Seoul 7.8 percent, Amman 10.5 percent, Yaounde 8.7 percent,
and Bagdad 7.5 percent. According to Abola (2005:2)/ an
average of 33 people enters Lagos every minute and only a
fraction leaves at the end of the day.
5.2 Positive Roles of Cities
Some of the positive roles of cities in development, which
Egunjobi (1998:28-29)calls "the pretty face of urbanization",
are, according to him: -::»:
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(i) ~ alue added per worker in the urban area is around
three times in the rural areas coupled with the fact
that nearly 60 percent of the GNP (and 80 percent of
the increment in national output) of developing
countries is derived from urban areas;
(ii) Lower mortality (mainly infantile) and natality;
(iii) Bring about new behaviours, invent new social
relations through the opportunities they offer for
contracts, expression and creativity (especially in the
area of enterprises and jobs) (Beauce 1990);
(iv) Serve as centres of power, performing
administrative, religious, educational, cultural and
leisure functions, and
(v) Stronger generators of revenues than villages; cities
and towns are major contributors to national,
provincial and local tax revenue.
The Negative Roles of Cities
The negative role of cities in national development is what
Egunjobi (1998) terms "the ugly face of urbanization". He
highlights the following negative side of urbanization:
• Environmental degradation;
• Growth of slums and squatter settlements;
• Traffic congestion:'. :::.
• Air and water pollution;
• Deteriorating infrastructure;
• Shortfall in service delivery;
• Unwholesome public health
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·!t,
e Social instability;
• Retarding growth of intermediate c~ntres, and
• Impersonal relations, anonymity and social
disorganiza tion.
As stated in-the previous paragraphs, urbanization is
more of a modern 21st century phenomenon whose rate of
growth is very difficult to halt. More big cities will develop
and the already big ones will grow bigger. As this happens so
will those problems associated with city growth increase in
number and magnitude such that the "ugly face" of cities will
overshadow" the pretty face". This will be calamitous.
.In order to reduce the negative consequences of city
growth to national development, inclusive physical planning
approach has to be judiciously and consciously applied.
Physical planning is a handy and effective tool that can be.
applied to control urbanization in a sustainable manner to
achieve meaningful, efficient and healthy national
development in Nigeria. Inclusive and participatory urban
planning and management is capable of reinvigorating and
revitalizing our existing and future cities. When this happens,
the national economy will be healthier and human
environment will be better managed and maintained. As
Hague (2005) suggests, there can be no sustainable
development without sustainable urbanization and these can
be no sustainable' urbanization without a renewal and effective"
form of planning - that form of planning has to be pro-poor
(Hague 2005:4).
Both the Sustainable Development and the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) constitute internationally
accepted goals for the 21s't century to which all nations,
including and especially Nigeria, have subscribed to
implement. Nigeria has been very active in the
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experimentation of the sustainable cities programme of the UN
(Habitat) since 1995when the Sustainable Ibadan Project (SIP)
took-off. Later, the Sustainable Enugu Project and Sustainable
Kano Project were added. The Sustainable Ibadan Project has
been adjudged as very successful, with a number of
demonstration projects show-cased as lessons of experience in
participatory urban environmental planning and management
to address developmental problems of cities in a collaborative,
participatory, holistic ad sustainable manner (Wahab 1998).
Some of the demonstration projects include: (a) Odo-Osun
(formerly Odo-Akeu) natural spring development (at Oke-Ofa
Baba-Sale in Ibadan North LGA), (b) Pace-setter Organic
Fertilizer Plant at Bodija Market (Ibadan North LGA), (c)
Agbada-gbudu Natural Spring Development (Ibadan North-
LGA), Bore-hole and Toilets Improvement Projects at Bodija
Market (Ibadan North LGA), Community-based Waste Sorting
Centre at Ayeye-Agbeni area (Ibadan North-West LGA).
With respect to the MDGs, Nigeria has put in place an
elaborate framework to ensure adoption and implementation
of the MDGs principles. There is a Senior Special Assistant to
the President on MDGs (Mrs. Arnina J. Ibrahim). A Minister is
in charge of implementation. In addition, the Nigerian Institute
of Town Planners, in collaboration with Commonwealth
Association of Planners, organized a 2-day international
conference tagged "West African-CAP-NITP world Planners
Congress Agenda setting Workshop" in Abuja from 14-15
November, 2005, preparatory to Canada 2006World Congress
where the MDGs were further discussed under the UN
umbrella.
In the next decade or two, Nigerian government at the
federal, state and local levels have to show greater
understanding of the need to control urbanization to achieve
sustainable national development through rational and
conscious planning. Physical planning must be seen and used
as an inevitable instrument to achieve the desired improved
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·' standard of living for the citizens. Physical development plan~\
must be prepared for all categories of settlements, urban
management agencies must network and be better coordinated
for effectiveness, white a public-private-popular sector
partnership in urban planning and management activities
must be encouraged as a matter of policy.
6. Physical Planning as Instrument of National
Defence
Human settlements are concentrations of activities and people.
They, according to De Blij (1993), are purposely grouped,
organized clusters of houses and non-residential buildings.
The smallest cluster of houses is called a hamlet (which may
contain about a dozen buildings) and a bigger cluster is the
village. A settlement may either be rural or urban (based on
population size, number ad complexity of facilities, and so
forth); inform or pattern, it may be linear, dispersed, and
compact or nucleated (Wahab 1996:66).
From the time of the early man, the siting of human
settlements is governed by such factors as defence, fertile and
well-drained soil, availability of water, accessibility, and
climate. This was the way early settlements across the world
. were founded before the industrial revolution and the coming
of European-derived formal planning.
It will be wrong to say that early settlements were not
planned just because their founding was not preceded by
drawings by a few "foreign technocrats" who, in most cases,
.,. did not live in such',settlements they planned for others. As
Egunjobi (1985)rightly observes,
Planning of human settlements and the environment in
general has been an age long exercise ... In the early times,
planning might not have been as formal as it is being
conceived in modem times; nonetheless, cities were
subjected to some sort of planning (Egunjobi 1985:93).
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r
Traditional settlement and cities in the ancient world
are, according to Wahab (1996:67),' cognitively clear and
legible, perceptually complex and rich. Elements of the town
are conceptually related, closely linked and self-explanatory.
Settlements in the same major geographical region of the
world possess the same form in their overall layout. As
Lagopoulos (1972) observes, with the exception of certain
linear settlements, all African settlements are organized
around a central feature either concentrically (south of the
equator) or quadrilaterally (north of the equator). The layout of
most Yoruba traditional settlements, according to Wahab
(1996:67), is very similar, based on an unwritten
concept/technique that is universally adopted to the extent
that the Oba's (King's) palace and the town market form the
centre (and a major landmark/reference point) from which
other areas or elements of the settlement take off.
Hall (1976) also attests to the statement that all
settlement of pre-modern time was planned by their founders
who are no less intelligent that the computer-age planners:
Many cities both in the ancient and the medieval world
were planned, at least in the sense that their existence and
location were laid down consciously by some ruler or
some groups of merchants (.Hall,1976:20).
\
In the modern times, and especially after the industrial
revolution in Britain, som'e other factors apart from the ones
earlier stated are considered in the siting or creation of new
towns or settlements. Abuja, the new federal capital of Nigeria,
was located based on its geographical centrality, among other
factors. This is similar to the relocation of the capital of
Tanzania from Dar-es-Salarn to Dodoma. Ajoda New Town, in
, .
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.,
•
~ ~
Egbeda Local Government area of Oyo State, was created to
decongest Ibadan City.
The factor of defence in the planning of settlements was
considered by Egunjobi in one of his works. He opines that
physical planning and defence are closely related: "Whether
planning is viewed in its ancient connotation, or interpreted in
the modern and formal context, it has always had defence
implication" (Egunjobi, 1985:93).
Egunjobi further contends that physical planning can
and should be used to promote national defence. He elucidates
the argument using the structure of classical Roman towns
which was a rectangular area enclosed by defence walls and
ditches with a grid layout of roads. In Britain, such medieval
towns as Winchelsea on the Sussex coast, Flint, Conway and
Caernarvon in North Wales were all fortified towns. Nigerian
towns such as Kano, Zaria, Kaduna, Benin, Iseyin, Oyo, Desha,
were walled round for defence purposes. Ibadan, for instance,
was surrounded by a wall about 16 kilometres in
circumference. In addition, Ibadan, Okeho, Ilaji-Oke, Iganna,
Ado-Awaye, Saki and Iseyin (Oyo State) and Abeokuta (Ogun
State) Okene (Kwara State), Idanre (Ondo State) are a few of
early settlements in Nigeria sited in consideration of the
natural security offered by the chains of hills in their locations.
The advent of formal planning in the period just before
the Industrial Revolution created a new dimension to the
relationship between planning and defence. Seventeenth and
eighteenth century towns, rather than being surrounded by
'lodefencewalls, had 'ibroad formal avenues' where mobile
armies could (easily) deploy themselves "(Egunjobi 1985:95).
This was the Baroque Era described by Hall (1976:20)as "the
expression of a new style of warfare".
From the foregoing paragraphs it can be established that
informal physical planning Was effectively used to facilitate
defence in traditional (early) towns through the use of
designed walls and ditches. While defence walls and ditches
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have been discontinued in contemporary times (though we
seem to have transferred to individual houses), lithe
implications of modern physical planning for modern defence
cannot be discounted" Egunjobi 1985: 96) identifies the
following contributions that physical planning could make
towards defence efforts and the eventual socio-economic
development of the nation. He calls them three principles
which are basic to physical planning:
(i) Influencing the territorial distribution of strategically
important projects to avoid over-concentration in
few places. Projects such as industries, military
institutions and installations, airports, water
reservoirs and refineries should not be concentrated
only in a few areas for social and strategic reasons. A
concentration of a few of them in a few enclaves can
facilitate invasion by aggressors or dissidents. If they
are fairly dispersed through the application of
physical planning principles, if anyone or two of the
strategic locations are attacked, the other locations
will offer launching bases and sources of supplies by
the defence troops.
(ii) Guiding exact locations of projects to keep away
from shes that are vulnerable to attack. Based on
defence consideration, location of strategic
establishments or heavy projects should avoid,. as
much as possible, disputed areas, including, and
especially, frontiers or national boundaries, e.g.
Nigeria/Cameroun, Nigeria/Chad and Nigeria/
Republic of Benin borders. Physical planners can
and should make provision in their designs and
proposals for the continuous defence of strategic
establishments after being constructed e.g. hydro-
electric dams, regional gas processing plants,
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petroleum refineries, national satellite village,
Egunjobi (1985) states further that the physical
planning of airports should take account of defence
factors, such that every airports is able to
accommodate jet fighters with adequate reserve
areas for physical occupation of troops in time of
invasion. There are no evidences that our major
airports are equipped with such defence facilities.
(Egunjobi 1985:97).
(iii) Ensuring efficient linkage among projects. Physical
planning principles should be used to relate the
planning of communication lines to defence
purposes. Different modes (road, rail, water, air)
should be coordinated into a single efficient national
communications network with proper alignment of
the lines.
For physical plarming to be able to play its roles in
national defence, Egunjobi (1985:98-99) concludes with the
following suggestions:
(a) Formulation of national land-use policy which will
spell out the quantity,.spatial distribution, location,
sizes of projects and their linkage from which
national land-use plans will be prepared to cover
stipulated periods.
(b) Effective coordination among the different levels of
public decision-making bodies.
(c) Setting up of Corps of Physical Planners in each of
the three armed forces (the Navy, the Airforce and
the Army) that will routinely advise on location of
strategic projects with defence implications in view.
They will monitor projects and liaise with civil
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physical planners and socia-economic development
agenCIes.
7. Women in Development
Participatory urban planning and management tools
emphasize a deliberate (not voluntary) effort on the part of
policy makers and development officials to involve all ,
stakeholders in development initiative(s) at every stage of a
programme/project without recourse to age, sex, religion, !
tribe, handicap (or physical stability). The sex variable is j
included on the realization over time that women were most of i
the time excluded from participation in development activities I
from programme/project identification conception to I
implementation, management and review. One reason for this I
is the wrong status accorded women: "Women's traditional II
position is to be seen and not heard" (Egunjobi 1991-92:56). 1
Unfortunately/ there is hardly any development i
activity /programme/project which does not require the input .1\,
of women or whose implementation does/may not impact on
women directly or indirectly, at work, market, neighbourhood,
home (as wife or mother). 1
Egunjobi (1991-92:55)observes that:
women the world over always lagged behind their -I,1
male counterparts in terms of status, prestige, power
and esteem. Consequently, women as a group have
been given appellations such as: unequal partners in
J. development, neglected or forgotten resources in
development, or an untapped source of power. .. they
are the least educated; they participate less than men
in politics.
The above predicament of women, especially in Africa,
not withstanding, Egunjobi observes that African women not 1
only contribute significantly to national development, they 1
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~also perform leading roles in the organisation and sustenance-
~of families. To wrestle themselves from the dominance of men
African women, have in many instances "inspired frictions,
struggles, agitations, conflicts and even rebellions". (Egunjobi
1991-92:55) .
In the area of agricultural production, women
predominate in about half of African societies. The proportion
of female-managed rural households in Africa ranges from 5
percent in Niger to as high as 45 percent in Kenya. As head of
rural households, women make all important agricultural
decisions and carry out all agricultural tasks, including
ploughing and planting while, among the Haya of Nigeria, the
husband controls the farms and collects the income (Egunjobi
(1991-92:56).
Besides family development (procreation, birth, child
rearing and home management), and agriculture, housing
development (house building or construction and
management.) is the third aspect of national development
where women contribute greatly. It is universally accepted that
the housing sector constitutes a key sector that can revamp an
ailing economy_ If the economy of a nation is rearing collapse,
all that is require is for some funds to be injected into housing
and, in no time, that ailing economy will bounce back, as many
jobs will be created for unkilled labour, artisans, professionals,
building materials ,manufacturers, distributors, retailers,
transporters, fuel marketers, land speculators and financial
institutions. By extension, the education sector will also have a
share, as participants in house building will earn enough
income and make some savings from which to, pay their
children's and wards' school fees. Farmers will also enjoy more
sale of their farm produce. It is a long chain of positive impacts
on the economy.
The role of women in housing development cannot be
ignored. In traditional house. construction, women will carry
clayish soil from where it is needed. Whenever the soil is to be
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worked ~on into malleable (swish mud) women will supply
the required water and also prepare the meals which
everybody would eat. Women are involved in all the stages of
house construction: foundation, walling, roofing and ceiling.
Interior decoration and floor screeding with local materials
(sea shells, pieces of "china-wares" or breakable plates for
floor; and mixture of cow-dung and indigo leaves known as
"boto" or "igbole-aja" for smoothing the floor) are mainly
women's job. In modern house building, women's role is even
greater. They carry sand and water to prepare cement-sand-
water mixture for block-making, to set the blocks, to form
concrete lintel, slabs and decks, and so on. Some women are so
energetic that they mix concrete at construction sites. They
create humour which keeps men working harder on site.
In the area of commerce, African women dominate and
constitute a far larger proportion of the daily and periodic
markets than men.. Women have in uncountable instances
spearheaded political struggles and liberation wars against
foreign invasion, colonial enslavement and exploitation.
Egunjobi (1991-92) highlights a few of such instances: In
Angola in the seventeenth century, Anna Zingha, Queen of
Matamba and Central Africa's first political figure-led the fight
against the Portuguese colonialists. The Zambian Women's
League of the African National Congress fought against their
discrimination in entering shops owned by whites and
choosing what to buy for their families, and also the right to
brew beer for their husbands and/or sell for household
money. In 1929, women in Aba, Nigeria, rioted against the
colonial administration and the na, tive authorities on a ru~mour
that taxation would be levied on ~omen. .
Women's struggle for emancipation has forced many
governments to evolve policies and enact legislations meant to
accord women legitimate roles, opportunities and incentives
aimed at empowering women to play active and tangible roles
in national development. United Nations Charter of 1945 and
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• the 1948 Universal Declar-ation of Human ?ights and also
~Agenda 21 of the United Nation Earth Summit of 1992 in Ri~
De Janeiro, among others, have enshrined the principle of
equality and women participation in development. The
Sustainable Cities Programme of the UN (Habitat), as being
operated by the Sustainable Ibadan Project (SIP), places great
emphasis on the inclusion of women in every Working Group
(WG), Sub-Working Group, training workshops, sensitization
and/or consultation programme. This has paid-off as women's
participation in most of the SIP activities greatly facilitated
quick/ smooth resolutions, consensus, resource mobilization,
and advocacy of the Environmental Planning and
Management (EPM)process.
The core of the institutional framework in Nigeria for
women recognition in national development is the National
Commission for Women at the federal level. There are
equivalent agencies at the state level. In Oyo State, there is
Ministry of Women Affairs and Community Development and
the Commissioner in.the Ministry is always a woman. As at the
time of writing, Mrs. Falilat Titilayo Akande, a retired school
principal and Permanent Secretary, is the Commissioner.
Various enlightenment and education-awareness
programmes embarked upon by the Women Affairs Ministries
and some external donor agencies, especially UNICEF,
UNESCO and UNDP, have encouraged many parents to enrol
their female children in schools - from primary to tertiary
levels. Many professional associations in Nigeria (e.g. Nigerian
Institute of Town Planners, Nigerian Institute of Architects)
have sizeable female memberships that are competing
effectively with their male counterparts. With th~ recent
election of Mrs. Shears, in 2006, as the President of Sierra
Leone, one is tempted to say that the period of discrimination
against women is nearly over and women can now
conveniently and freely cqntribute to physical planning and
development of Nigeria to the best of their ability.
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In he .area of physical planning education, it is heart -
warming to note that in the last two decades every planning
school in Nigeria has female students, some of whom are
competing very well with their male colleagues. In fact, the
then TechnicalCollege. Ibadan (now The Polytechnic, Ibadan)
which had the first Town Planning School in Nigeria had two
female pioneer students (who were twin sisters) - former
Taiwo and Kehinde Sogunro-Pitan. They are both at present
Fellows of the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners. In fact,
Kehinde (now Mrs Kehinde George) retired as a Chief Lecturer
in the Department of Urban ,and Regional Planning, Yaba
College of Technology, Lagos, Nigeria. Similarly quite a
number of planning schools have female faculties, although at
a very low proportion (a reflection of the low female student
enrolment in planning programmes). The Department of
Urban and Regional Planning, The Polytechnic, Ibadan, as at
the time of writing, has Mrs. Olurin and Mrs. Agbola as female
lecturers out of a total of 12. With female empowerment, and
flexible time-tabling of academic activities in favour of
housewives/married and working-class females, the
enrolment of· females in urban and regional planning
programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate levels is
bound to increase. This will positively impact on physical
planning and development in Nigeria.
8. Public Participation III Physical Planning and
Development
As noted in an earlier section of this paper, cities and towns are
s.entres of civilization, ~generating development and social,
cultural, spiritual and scientific advancement (UNCHS,
1997:3). However, uncontrolled urbanization has resulted in
the sporadic growth of slums (residential, commercial and
industrial) characterized by highly unsanitary environment. As
Wahab (2004:147) observes, squatters have invaded every
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\,vailable space, such as designated open/recreational areas,
school grounds, markets, railway set-backs, derelict lands, and
under-developed government acquisitions. Commercial
.squatters (hawkers, vendors etc.) are constantly invading not
only right-of-ways but vehicular lanes thereby forcing
motorists and pedestrians to struggle for passage within the
remaining less-than-half of the road space as found in Sango,
Agbeni, Oje, Ayeye, and Agodi-Gate areas of Ibadan.
The rural settlements in Nigeria do not fare better. They
are faced with qualitative housing problems, lack of basic
facilities and amenities, low standard of living, abject
poverty, and rural-urban migration [all of which have
slowed down their physical developments considerably]
(Wahab2004:147).
A sustainable transformation of our urban slum and
neglected rural settlements require, to use 'Nahan's (204)
expression, a genuine alliance and collaboration between local
and other governmental agencies, the private sector, and
grassroots organisations "based on consensus, partnership,
accountability, transparency and active participation" (Wahab
1998:27). .
. The National Urban Development Policy document for
Nigeria is very comprehensive and can adequately address the
problems of our slum and squatter settlements. However, this
may only be possible if the public sector will promote and
facilitate active and full participation of the grass-roots sector
'.
.lointhe planning and managementof the process of urban and
rural development (Wahab, 2004:47). Aburnere (1998:1)
observes that "any (development) strategy that did. not involve
.1 the people, the stakeholders can hardly succeed".
l Olujimi and Egunjobi (1990:165)observe that the rural• areas of Nigeria harbour over 70 percent of the entirei population and are characterized by inadequate provision of
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infrastructure, poverty, and neglect in terms of development,
policy formulation and implementation. They opined that in
order to achieve a meaningful development of the rural areas:
the importance of involving the rural dwellers in the
initiation, planning and implementation of rural
development schemes has become relevant, hence the need
for public participation in rural development (Olujimi and
Egunjobi, 1990:165). '
8.1 Public Participation:Definition and Concept
The word 'participation' means open, popular, and broad
involvement of the people of the community in decisions that
affect their lives (Carry, 1973:11).To participate means a share
in decisions about goals and objectives, about what should be
done, how and by whom. Participation, to public
administrator, may mean an access to the decision-making,
process, while to the grass-roots; it means involvement in
decision-making and taking action in issues affecting their
daily lives or the right to select their representatives (Wahab
2004:147).
Public or community participation (Okpala, 1982),
citizen participation (Graves 1972,Burke 1968. Mogulof 1970; .
Palmer ad German 1974; O'Riordan, 1977, Agboola 1988) or
grass-roots participation (Wahab 2004) is a concept defined
severally by several scholars from different perspectives. The
common feature is that public or citizen or grass-roots
.participation is a concept that" evolved from self-help and the
provision of more responsive local services in a movement
towards the re-examination of the whole social and economic
structure" (Olujimi and Egunrnjobi 1990:165).
Magulof (1970) sees citizen participation as an act or a
series of acts by which the people (i.e. the governed) have the
opportunity to influence the distribution of benefits or losses
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which may be vested upon them. To Palmer and German
(1974), quoted in Olujimi and Egunjobi 1990:166). Citizen
participation. is . any activity or action' which enables·
individuals, old ad young, rich and poor to have an input in
the decision-making process and to playa role in improving
the quality of life in the environment.
Agbola (1988)examines citizen participation as a means;
as an end in itself; and as a basic need. He further observes that
citizen participation is the active process in which the persons
in question (e.g. rural dwellers) take part in the initiation and
implementation of decisions and assert their autonomy in
taking these initiatives.
Grass-roots participation according to Wahab (2004:147)
is a concept used to refer to the need for local involvement in
the sustainable. urban and, by extension, rural planning and
management process. It is a means and a process employed by
urban and rural communities to effect changes, increase
control over resources and regulative institutions, through
sharing and then transfer of power as social groups to control
their own lives and improve their living conditions. Grass-
roots participation I the context of rural development (such as
provision of deep well or boreholes, classrooms blocks,
construction of earth roads and bridges, building of primary
health centre, cassava or palm-oil process mills) means the
active involvement of the local or village people in the
identification and assessment of environmental, social and
economic problems, prioritization of the problems,
formulation of the appropriate issue-specific strategy(ies), '.
formulation of actor-specific action-plans, project packaging
and implementation, project management and monitoring or
review. Grass-roots participation is therefore a mean of
addressing developmental problems of rural communities.
Olujimi and Egunjobi (1990) applied the concept of
public participation to examine the extent of the involvement
of the inhabitants of 1/ Ajowa group of villages" in the
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!
conception, planning and execution of "Ajowa Village
regrouping scheme". The scheme was purposely conceived to I
achieve rural development in the then Western R::~gionof
Nigeria in 1955.
Ajowa villagers demanded for a separate local
government administration of their own from Ikaramu Local
Government Council. Ajowa means "they have come
together". In March 1955, Ajowa Local Government Council,
which was made up of 12 scattered villages, was created. The
scattered nature of the settlements hindered provision of
amenities and this forced the village heads to decide to move
their villagers from the original locations and regroup together
at Daja - a geographically central village with very large
expanse of land. This was to enable them have a larger
settlement that could attract development grants for rural
infrastructure.
A physical plan otherwise referred to as 1/Ajowa Village
Regrouping Scheme" was prepared by the Town Planning
Division of the Ministry of Lands, Ibadan on the invitation of
the Heads of 1/Ajowa group of villages" in 1955 (Olujimi and
Egunjobi 1990:167). On the level of participation of Ajowa
villagers in the scheme, Olujimi and Egunjobi noted the
following:
(i) The village heads at a meeting held on October 2nd
1954 with Chief R.A. Olusa, a Community leader
from, and Hon. Member, Western Region House of.
10 Assembly saw the need and agreed to relocate to
Daja, the Headquarters of Ajowa Local Government
Council, to attract rural infrastructural facilities. This
is the lowest level of participation in the Arnstein's
(1969)ladder of citizen participation.
(ii) Chief Olusa, in collaboration with the other village
heads, selected Daja on behalf. of the people. This is
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'-
token/ representative participation which is what
Arnstein calls "Degree of Tokenism", representing
the 3rq, 4th and 5th rungs in the ladder. Olujimi and
Egunjobi (1990:168) states that four of the twelve
villages later refused to move to the scheme site
claiming disagreement on the choice of Daja.
(iii) The objectives of the Physical (Master) Plan of Ajowa
Scheme were formulated exclusively by the Town
Planning Division without involving the villagers or.
their representatives. The actual preparation and
final adoption of the plan were undertaken by the
Town Planning Officials and the Regional Minister
for Lands, Chief Odunjo, without the involvement of
the villager. It, thus, became and imposed plan whose
process was devoid of partnership, consultation and
citizen control.
(iv) Implementation strategies were devised which
involved the participation of the people through the
formation of Ajowa Community Council whose
members were drawn from all the eight quarters in
Ajowa and the quarters-chiefs to monitor the
development of the scheme. Under this
arrangement, the community undertook the
construction of the blocks of classrooms (1958),
Ajowa Community Hall (1956), erection of
temporary sheds:\(957) and 2 block of market-stalls
(1959) in Ajowa market.
(v) Ajowa Town Plannning Authority, established in
December 1959, had 10 appointed Board members
drawn from Ajolva Community (WNG, 1959). This
enlisted the support of the community towards the
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
success of the scheme which they (villagers)
henceforth saw as II their physical development
scheme ", thereby "accepting the scheme in spite of
its deficiencies (Olujimi 1988).
The Ajowa scheme scenario contrasts sharply with the
Bodija Market Community Association in Ibadan, where, in
1996, a borehole project was conceived, initiated, planned,
implemented and managed through the active involvement of
the entire members of the association through their section
leaders/representatives. Base-line information on population
of market operators and surrounding residential
neighbourhood (e.g. Akingbola), existing water supply
facilities, and the possible! feasible sources of water in the
market area was collected and analysed with active
participation of the representatives of the market men and
women.
The project was anchored on the sustainable Ibadan
Project (SIP) Working Group, with technical support and ideas
on sensitization and mobilization freely offered by the SIP- .
Technical Support Unit (of which this writer was a member).
The SIP-Trust Fund provided 0% of the cost of the project as
grant and 70% as loan to the Association. Within 12 months of
project commissioning in December 1997, the Association was
able to pay back the loan and also purchased a generating set
from the user-charges collected from people' who draw water
from the borehole. This is an example of
inclusive/participatory urban infrastructure planning and
development.
Olujirni and Egunjobi (1990:71) 'eoncludcd that, in spite
of the poor involvement of Ajowa people generally in the
planning stages of the scheme by the technocrats, the people
still made the implementation of the scheme a success by
embarking on self-help projects. They emphasize the
importance of the knowledge, experience and insights of rural
dwellers in identifying the scope and dimensions of local
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needs, the most effective channel of change, and the typ~ '01
change they will support:
In a community-initiated scheme ...physical planners need
to involve the would-be Beneficiaries adequately in the
plan preparation stage in particular and at all other stages
in general. Their involvement will allow for getting to
know what they want, and how they want these needs
provided. This will eventually encourage the acceptance of
such schemes by the rural people" (Olujimi and Egunjobi
1990:171).
O'Riordan (1977:159-161)reports two' case studies of
citizen participation in planning process. There is the Creater
Vancouver Regional District's (CVRD) 'Liveable Region'
programme, which IS a goals-oriented participatory
experiment designed to elicit opinions from a broad cross-
section of citizens as to the kinds of urban community in which
they would like to live. A full-time participation co-ordinator
(a planner) was hired to work with any citizen groups in the
region to assist them conceptualise their frustrations and
aspirations, help them prepare alternative proposals to existing
plans to which they were opposed, and also activate their
interest in regional implications of municipal planning
schemes -' zoning codes, shopping centers, open space
provision, and so on; In 1973,nine citizen's -Task forces (called
policy committees) were established, eight of which finally
reported. The committees dealt with transportation,
government and social services, recreational, health and public
protection; education, environmental management ~ and
pollution control, residential living, and government and
society. The participation co-ordinator encouraged as many
citizens as possible to participate and largely left the
committees to handle their won affairs. The prescriptions of
the citizens Task Forces, were accepted in principle lay of
CVRD, particularly the concept of limiting population growth
and urban sprawl.
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ORiordan 91977:161) reports that, in 1968, Vancouver
City Council initiated an innovative participatory planning
process consisting of three stages of council-citizen inte~action.
In the first stage, professional planners would select key areas
within the city and prepare' questions known as 'issues' which
would be open to public discussion by interested citizens and
citizen groups. In stage two, the planning department would
produce conceptual schemes (known as 'alternatives') for the
areas under consideration to which council would invite public
response. The most preferred alternatives would then be
turned into specific designs (proposals) either by the planning
staff or by consultants. At stage three, the proposal would then
be subjected to final public discussion and, where necessary,
public hearings. He observes that this experiment offered a
rare opportunity for direct consultation by citizens with
planning officials. _
The Vancouver experiment was similar to the
participatory process adopted for three projects in Iowa State,
USA I 1997which the Department of Communityand Regional
Planning of Iowa State University, Ames, was contracted. The
first project was Spatial Redistribution and Strategic Planning
of Country Offices in Tama and Toledo, commissioned by the
Tama County Board of Supervisors, Toledo, Iowa. The second
was LeClairre Road Improvement and City Expansion. Plan as
a growth management strategy to guide the development of
the fast-growing small town community very close to the
Quad cities (Betterndorf Davenport (in Iowa) Rock Island and
Moline (in Illiois). The third was a health-planning project.
~ Community-Based Health Case Needs and ~Services Program
for Pocahontas County, Iowa, commissioned by Pocahontas
Board of supervisors and the Country Hospital Board.
The three projects were given out as design practicals to
students under CRP 432, Advanced Planning Studio, on which
Prof. Duane Shinn and the author of this chapter served as
316
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~ project investigator and Instructor, respectively. Each of the
projects went through the following process:
(i) , Preliminary discussion and clarification of project
objectives and terms of reference with country
officials;
(ii) Collection of base line information and presentation
of data to country officials and cross section of
citizens.
(iii) Presentation of alternative proposals (options) to
county officials and citizens.
,(iv) Development of preferred alternative and final draft
and presentation to county officials and,
(v) Presentation of final 'plan document to county
officials.
The above process ensured the participation of both
country officials as well as citizens and citizen groups. Most
meeting were held at community halls and Board rooms,
especially in the evenings when most citizens would have
closed from work and could spare some time. Citizens had a
say in what the problem was and how they wanted it solved in
a consensus manner.
The Vancouver and Iowa example of citizen
participation in planning is not being experienced in Nigeria.
Planning policies, schemes, development control and, in many
instances, land acquisition for planning purpose is devoid of
citizen involvement. It is the sustainable Ibadan Project (an
extra-local level environmEjntal planning and management
programmes) that is attempting to evolve citizen participation
in urban management. Even then the EPM process is
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experiencing a hitch in its 4th principle/stage, i.e.
institutionalization at the level of government (Oyo State and
the 33 local governments). Since 2002, SIP has held several
sensitization meetings with local government functionaries
and stakeholders to encourage them to set up in each local
government council and each ward in LGA, Development
Project Committees (DPC), with the aim of adopting EPM
principles in their routine development activities. Up till the
lime of writing this paper (April 2006), none of the 11 Local f,"
Covernment Councils and no single ward has established a t
development project committee that will have representative -i
of key stakeholders as members. It is only the SIP Working !
Group in Waste Management and water supply that are on
ground.
The Nigerian public may be said to not be keenly
interested in participating in any physical. planning matter.
They detest planning regulations and have reservations for ply
- officials whom they see as just "development controllers" (to
use Kaditi's (1998)expression) or development police. There is,
therefore, great apathy on the part of the Nigerian public,
which Daini (1989) captures in the following words: "Planning
today has remained unpopular as it had been in the past (with) ;"
general apathy on the side of the public" (Daini, 1989quoted in i
Kadiri 1998:47).
There is therefore the need to encourage and
accommodate true citizens and community participates
in the planning process. The professionalplanner plans of
" "what will be", the rest of the society-shouldcounter with
alternative plans for "what should be". It is only by so
doing that plans for improvement of community living
can be seen as participatory and more acceptancesto the
relevant community, thus lowering resistance to their
implementation (Soile,1998:141).
9. Conclusion
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~Planning takes place everyday in every human endeavour and
in all settlements, be it rural or urban. In the pre-industrial era,
human settlements and the activities that went on in them
were planned, though informally. In Nigeria, the founding of
traditional settlements followed some loosely-defined criteria,
among which were the factor of defence and availability of
land and water. The siting of struictures and designation of
land for various uses were based on the king's (Oba's)
authority, in consultation with his chiefs.
The British colonialists came to Nigeria and, in
furtherance of their drive to export agricultural materials from
the country to develop their industries back in Britain; they
introduced the concept of segregation .in residential pattern
and classification of settlements into 1st, 2nd and 3rd order
settlements. They planned their own residential enclaves at the'>'
. expense of other areas of the town. The Bubonic Plague of 1926
in Lagos led to the introduction of the 1928 Planning
Ordinance to guide the development of Lagos. From then on,
there were series of other planning ordinances and laws in the
country, the latest being the 1992Nigerian Urban and Regional
Planning Law.
Between 1928 and 2006 (78 years), one expects that
physical planning would have been properly entrenched not
only in the nation's constitution and all facets of the citizens's
life but also in the routine economic development plans
prepared by the government. This paper has pointed out how
past governments in Nigeria have failed to integrate physical
planning with economic development planning. The
consequence of the non-integration has ~lso been discussed.
The argument of this paper is that physical planning is
basic to all developmental activities in the country and must be
given the deserved recognition. Unless economic development
planning is fused into physical planning, which will translate
projected growth into spatial /equirements, unplanned growth
of small and large settlements will go on unabated.
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1
Uncontrolled urbanization with its attendant problems will
continue to confront the already impoverished citizens.
While physical planners will want to regulate physical
developments the public's hostile attitude is a problem. The
Nigerian public must understand the benefits of planned
environments and be receptive to planning officials through
active participation. In turn, planners in the public service
must be more accessible and friendly with the "ignorant"
public.
Physical planning only become strong, relevant to
societal needs and influential through their ability to dearly
describe and demonstrate the nature and value of the skills
and services they have to offer (Soile1998:143).
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