Developments Digital Age Issues and Themes in Library and Information Science UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Developments in the Digital Age Issues and Themes in Library & Information Science Edited by Oshiotse A. Okwilagwe Luke Obasuyi AdetounA. Oyelude Jimoh Rafu UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd. G aaf Building, 110-112 Oyo Road, Orogun, Off University o f Ibadan, Second Gate, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Phone: 08023519154 stirlinghorden@ymail.com www.shrlinghorden.com University Post Office Saint Andrews Venue Box 20984 Venus Quarters Ibadan Mechanic Workshops, Sabo Oyo State, Nigeria. Jattu-Uzairue Edo State, Nigeria. © Oshiotse Andrew Okwilagwe Published 2016 ISBN 978-978-032-593-0 All Rights Reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose o f research or private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act o f Nigeria, this pubhcationmay not be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, except with the prior permission in writing o f the publishers, or in the case o f reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms o f licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd. Lagos, Ibadan, Benin City, Jattu-Uzairue. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Contents Dedication v Notes on Editors vi Notes on Contributors vii Foreword xx Preface xi Section A: Empirical Perspective on Intellectual Property Right in the University of Ibadan 1 1. Towards Exploration and Application of Theoretical Perspectives on Marketing Library and Information Services in Nigeria 3 Oshiotse Andrew Okwilagwe 2. Emerging Trends in Knowledge and Information Organisation 26 Rafiu Jimoh 3. Emerging Trends in Determining the Profile of Modern Information Users 72 Ransome Oboh 4. An Emerging Paradigm of Digital Reference Services 78 Christopher Ukpebor 5. Library and Information Science Practices: Contemporary Issues and Trends 90 Stella C. Nduka 6. The Role of Metadata in Information Processing, Access, Retrieval and Usage 95 Luke Obasuyi \ / i 7. The Potential of Web 2.0 for Library Services and the Academic Community 109 Oluwaseun Obasola 8. Towards users Effective Access and Utilisation of Open Access Resources 116 Luke Obasuyi 9. Implementing Knowledge Management in Academic Libraries 128 Abiola A.A. Omotoso UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY XV 10. Mobile Technology in Library: Delivering Library Services through Mobile Technologies 135 Olubukola Olatise 11. Global Knowledge Economy and EmergingTrends in Library and Information Service Delivery 142 Oseghale Osagie 12. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Use and Electronic Information Services (EIS) Provision in University Libraries 158 Helen Omolara Aribatise 13. Modern Professional Techniques in Information Retrieval 165 Luke Obasuyi Section B: Perspectives on Open Access Initiatives in Academic Libraries 177 14. Ethical and Legal Issues in Intellectual Property Rights Protection in the University of Ibadan 179 Adetoun A. Oyelude 15. Copyright Information Resource Management in the University of Ibadan: A Technical Plan 208 Okoroma, Francisca Nwakaego 16. Digitisation of Intellectual Property in the University of Ibadan: A Technical Plan 246 Alice A. Bamigbola 17. Perceptual Issues and Challenges in Publishing and Intellectual Property Protection in the University of Ibadan 269 Egberedu Mega 18. The Role of Librarians in Intellectual Property Rights Development in The Information Technology Age: A Case Study of Selected Nigerian Universities 300 Akinyosoye, Harry I. T. 19. Perception of the Development of Institutional Repository, Challenges and Benefits of Intellectual Property Protection by Lecturers in the University of Ibadan 338 Samuel O. Ogunniyi 20. Intellectual Property Rights Protection: A Case Study of the Role of the Information Professional in Ibadan Metropolis 369 Adewumi, Cecilia O.B. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY XVI 21. Librarians’ Perspective of Intellectual Property in University Libraries in Nigereia 387 Charles Ejesei Eruanga 22. A Proposal for Management of Intellectual Property Rights in the University of Ibadan 396 Adedeji Elizabeth Aderonke Section C: Perspectives on Information and Knowledge Organisation 433 23. Common Open Source Software Used for Integrated Library Management among Nigerian Private University Libraries 435 Adetomiwa Basiru 24. Use of Open Access for Enhancing Scholarly Publishing in Developing Countries 441 Farai Adenike Doris 25. Open Access Initiative: Development, Awareness, Benefits and Challenges 451 Ogunmodede Thomas A. 26. Issues in Open Access Initiative: Intellectual Property Rights Governance in Nigeria 475 Oye Peter Olorunleke 27. Digital Rights Management in Nigeria 483 Olubunmi Oludolapo Adesanya 28. Correlational effects of e-publishing and Open Access on copyright and the protection of Intellectual property rights in research 498 Agbo-Are Oyinlola A. 29. ICT Use and Electronic Information Services Provisison in University Libraries 505 Aribatise, Helen Omolara 30. Impact of Open Access on Scholarly Communications in Nigeria 521 Olubunmi Oludolapo Adesanya 31. Concept of Open Access: Its Implication to the Attainment of Nigeria’s Transformation Agenda 543 Akande Femi Titus 32. Ethical and Legal Issues in Information, Intellectual Property and Copyright in Open Access Initiatives in Libraries 556 Lauretta N. Ojei 33. A Survey of the Availability and Use of Print Resources in the Educational System in Nigeria 569 Oshiotse Andrew Okwilagwe & Christopher Ukpebor UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Global Knowledge Economy and Emerging Trends in Library and Information Service Delivery Oseghale Osagie Introduction Many advanced nations of the world acknowledge the place of library and information in national development. They value highly, the materials o f knowledge that are either housed in a purpose building infrastructure or electronically and systematically organised and made available for use as vital requirements for daily survival. The materials can broaden knowledge as well as sharpen and upgrade skills. They are a means o f investigating past events with a view to finding solutions to current problems o f keeping abreast o f current developments as well as serving as the repositories o f the heritage and civilisation o f the people. According to Human Development Report (1995), “Human development has two sides. One is the formation ofhuman capabilities - such as improved health, knowledge and skills. The other is the use people make o f their acquired capabilities - for productive purposes...” (UNDP, 1995:11). The principal mechanism for developing human capabilities, knowledge and skill is infoijnation. Consequently, in the modem societies, information has attained an unprecedented economic importance as a source ofknowledge, skills, competencies, scientific research, inventions and technological innovations. Therefore, library and information professionals have constantly challenging roles to play in enhancing societies’ effective participation in the global knowledge economy. This chapter examines globalisation as a concept and the emerging trends in the global knowledge economy. It discusses the activities and driving force of the knowledge economy. It highlights the challenges and key competencies required for success in the global knowledge economy. It stresses the need for the globalisation o f library services and the expected roles o f library and information professionals in enhancing the capacity o f individuals in developing countries to participate effectively in the inevitable global knowledge economy. The Concept of ‘Globalisation’ Wikipedia defines globalisation thus: Globalisation in a literal sense simply means International integration, that is, a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and functioning together. This process is a combination o f economic, technological, sociocultural and political forces. Globalisation, as a term, is very often used to refer to economic globalisation, that is, integration o f national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration and spread of technology. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 143 Globalisation is also defined as internationalism; however, such usage is typically incorrect as “global” implies one world as a single unit, while “international” (between nations) recognises that different peoples, cultures, languages, nations, borders, economies and eco-system exist. Obilade (2003) defines globalisation as the transformation o f a domestic matter to a matter o f international concern or regulation. However, the common trend in the various literature on globalisation is the fact that Information and Communications Technology (ICT), which has shrinked the world to a global village, leading to interconnected and interdependent world is an important driving force o f globalisation (Salawu, 2008). Furthermore, globalisation is a broad term with several dimensions. For instance, it is common to hear such terms as economic globalisation, globalisation o f education, globalisation o f sporting events and most importantly global knowledge economy, which is the focus o f this paper. Globalisation is usually recognised as being driven by a combination o f economic, technological, sociocultural, political and biological factors. It embodies the transnational circulation o f ideas, languages or popular culture. It is, in fact, a combination o f the free exchange o f goods, services and capital. Hallak (1998) notes that the phenomenon dates far back to the development o f international trade (the ‘silk road’, the ‘cities-world’ o f the middle ages). During the second half o f the nineteenth century, this phenomenon was highlighted by industrial revolution as a result o f colonial exploitation. The continuous modernisation o f international exchange process during the twentieth century and its ratification through international agreements (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT in 1974) maintained and placed emphasis on the globalisation o f societies. However, to meet the challenges o f globalisation, Hallak (1998) believes it would be necessary to prepare individuals for a workplace where responsibilities are constantly changing, where vertical management is replaced by networking, where information passes through multiple and former channels, where initiative-taking is more important than obedience, and where strategies are complex because o f the expansion o f markets beyond national borders. Therefore, education must help individuals to perform tasks for which they were not originally trained, to prepare for a non-linear career path, to improve their team skills, to use infonuation independently and develop their capacity for improvisation, creativity and lay the basis of complex thinking linked to the harsh realities o f practical life. Therefore, society must aim to allow every individual to develop freely. According to Hallak (1998), the individuals will have to find their points o f reference in society o f constant change that generates short-lived values. It is, therefore, imperative that the individual succeeds in delivering him self from set o f types o f stereotypical activity, both psychologically and economically, and discovers a taste for improvisation, invention and discovery. Schools must give the pupils the capacity to acquire the relevant knowledge and interpret new values that will, in turn, guarantee them the ability to remain up-to-date with evolution o f their environment. Hallak (1998) warns, however, that if concerted effort is not made to strengthen the individual, then human integrity is under threat by several influences which are now replacing traditional standards. Thus, the under-educated is fast becoming unproductive and an economic liability. The Global Knowledge Economy Defining the knowledge economy is challenging preciselybecause the commodity it rests on - knowledge - is itself hard to pin down with any precision (Brinkley, 2006). However, World bodies have conceptualised Knowledge economy and knowledge society in their own ways (Kashyap etal., 2010). The term “knowledge-based economy” results from a fuller recognition o f UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 144 the role o f knowledge and technology in economic growth. Knowledge, as embodied in human beings (as “human capital”) and in technology, has always been central to economic development. But only over the last few years has its relative importance been recognised, just as that importance is growing (OECD, 1996). Knowledge-intensive service sectors, such as education, communications and information, are growing even faster. Indeed, it is estimated that more than 50 per cent o f Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the major OECD economies is now knowledge-based. The World Bank Institute offers a formal definition o f a knowledge economy as one that creates, disseminates and uses knowledge to enhance its growth and development. A knowledge economy uses data as its raw material and transforms it using technology, analysis tools and human intelligence into knowledge and expertise. DTI Competitiveness W hite Paper (1998) defines knowledge economy as one in which the generation and exploitation o f knowledge has come to play the predominant part in the creation o f wealth. According to the White Paper, ‘It is not simply about pushing back the frontiers ofknowledge; it is also about the most effective use and exploitation o f all types ofknowledge in all manner o f economic activity. ’ Leadbeater et al. (1999) report that the idea o f the knowledge-driven economy is not just a description o f high tech industry but it describes a set of new sources of competitive advantage which can apply to all sectors, all companies and all regions, from agriculture and retailing to software and biotechnology. Knowledge-based economy relies primarily on the use o f ideas rather than physical abilities and on the application o f technology rather than the transformation of raw materials or the exploitation o f cheap labour. It implies that knowledge is being developed and applied in new ways. Product cycles are shorter and the need for innovation greater. Trade is expanding worldwide, increasing competitive demands on producers. The global knowledge economy is transforming the demands o f the labour market throughout the world and placing new demands on citizens, who need more skills and knowledge to be able to function in their day-to-day lives. Knowledge economy is an information-driven economy in which information constitutes the backbone o f economic, social and cultural development. The level o f individual well-being is contingent on the amount o f relevant information the individual is able to access, the reliability of information tools and technique available and his capacity to identify the means o f accessibility, adaptability and usability o f information. As a global concept, knowledge economies pose serious challenges to both individuals and the society. For the individual, there is the challenge o f skill acquisition, information capacity, information accessibility, information-seeking behaviour, reading habit and enabling environment, while for the society, there is the need to acknowledge the role that information plays in enhancing socio-economic development, social security and educational development o f individual and invest in information products and services. In knowledge economy, “economic success is increasingly based on the effective utilisation of intangible assets such as knowledge, skills and innovative potential as key resources for competitive advantage. The term ‘knowledge economy’ is used to describe this emerging economic structure” (ESRC, 2005). Put more prosaically, we can say the knowledge economy is what you get when firms bring together powerful computers and well educated minds to create wealth (Brinkley, 2006). Considering the importance ofknowledge acquisition in the inevitable knowledge economy, the World Bank declares that: The emergence of the global knowledge economy has put a premium on learning throughout the world. Ideas and know-how as sources o f economic growth and development, along with the application of new technologies, have important implications for how people learn and apply knowledge throughout their lives (World Bank, 2003). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 145 The individual human being, like any other organism, is defined by the problems he confronts. The human is unique by virtue o f the fact that he must, as a matter o f necessity confront problems that arise from his unique biological and emotional needs. Since he is constantly in a state o f becoming (wanting to be something), he is decisive. The maintenance o f that state o f his humanity, and indeed, o f his survival, depends crucially on his ability and his potential to generate ideas and to seek information, knowledge and understanding. This is further enhanced by effective communication, freedom and unfettered access to relevant knowledge and information. Knowledge as a basic form o f capital can either be codified or Written down, or tacit and in people’s heads (World Bank, 1998), accumulation o f which Economic growth is driven (Romer, 1986; 1990). In a knowledge-based economy, knowledge is created, captured, acquired, transmitted and used more effectively by individuals, enterprises, organisations and communities to promote economic and social development (World Bank, 1998). A knowledge-driven economy, therefore, is one in which the generation and exploitation o f knowledge play the predominant part in the creation o f wealth (United Kingdom Department o f Trade and Industry, 1998). Knowledge, therefore, has become the third factor o f production in leading economies (Romer, 1986; 1990). In industrial countries, where knowledge-based industries are expanding rapidly, labour market demands are changing accordingly. Technology and knowledge are now the key factors o f production. Where new technologies have been introduced, demand for high-skilled workers, particularly high-skilled Infonnation and Communications Technology (ICT) workers, has increased tremendously. At the same time, demand for lower-skilled workers has declined (OECD, 2001). Investment is thus being directed to high-technology goods and services, particularly Information and Communications Technology. Computers and related equipment are the fastest- growing components o f tangible investments. Equally important are more intangible investments in research and development (R&D), the training of the labour force, computer software and technical expertise (OCED, 1996). Knowledge-based jobs in service sectors are also growing strongly. Indeed, non-production or ‘‘knowledge ” workers - those who do not engage in the output o f physical products - are the employees in most demand in a wide range o f activities, from computer technicians, through physical therapists to marketing specialists. The use o f new technologies, which are the engine o f longer-term gains in productivity and employment, generally improves the ‘ ‘skills base ” o f the labour force in both manufacturing and services. And it is largely because of technology that employers now pay more for knowledge than for manual work. Emerging Trends in Knowledge and Economics These trends are leading to revisions in economic theories and models, as analysis follows reality. Economists continue to search for the foundations o f economic growth. Traditional “production functions” focus on labour, capital, materials and energy; knowledge and technology are external influences on production. Now, analytical approaches are being developed so that knowledge can be included more directly in production functions. Investments in knowledge can increase the productive capacity o f the other factors o f production as well as transform them into new products and processes. And since these knowledge investments are characterised by increasing (rather than decreasing) returns, they are the key to long-term economic growth. Incorporating knowledge into standard economic production functions is not an easy task, as this factor defies some fundamental economic principles, such as that o f scarcity. Knowledge and information tend to be abundant; what is scarce is the capacity to use them in meaningful ways. Nor is knowledge easily transformed into the object o f standard economic transactions. To buy UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 146 knowledge and information is difficult because, by definition, information about the characteristics o f what is sold is asymmetrically distributed between the seller and the buyer. Some kinds o f knowledge can be easily reproduced and distributed at low cost to a broad set o f users; and this tends to undermine private ownership. Other kinds o f knowledge cannot be transferred from one organisation to another or between individuals without establishing intricate linkages in terms of network and apprenticeship relationships or investing substantial resources in the codification and transformation into information. Knowledge Codification In order to facilitate economic analysis, distinctions can be made between different kinds o f knowledge which are important in the knowledge-based economy: know-what, know-why, knowhow and know-who. Knowledge is a much broader concept than information, which is generally the “know-whaf’ and “know-why” components o f knowledge. These are also the types o f knowledge which come closest to being market commodities or economic resources to be fitted into economic production functions. Other types o f knowledge - particularly know-how and know-who - are more “tacit knowledge” and are more difficult to codify and measure (Lundvall & Johnson, 1994). Know-what refers to knowledge about “facts”. How many people live in New York? What are the ingredients in pancakes? And when was the battle ofWaterloo? are examples of this kind ofknowledge. Here, knowledge is close to what is normally called information - it can be broken down into bits. In some complex areas, experts must have a lot o f this kind ofknowledge in order to fulfil their jobs. Practitioners o f law and medicine belong to this category. Know-why refers to scientific knowledge of the principles and laws ofn ature. This kind ofknowledge underlies technological development and product and process advances in most industries. The production and reproduction o f know-why is often organised in specialised organisations such as research laboratories and universities. To get access to this kind ofknow ledge, firms have to interact with these organisations either through recruiting scientifically-trained labour or directly through contacts and joint activities. - Know-how refers to skills or the capability to do something. Businessmen j udging market prospects for a new product or a personnel manager selecting and training staff have to use their know-how. The same is true for the skilled worker operating complicated machine tools. Know-how is typically a kind ofknowledge developed and kept within the border o f an individual firm. One o f the most important reasons for the formation o f industrial networks is the need for firms to be able to share and combine elements o f know-how. \ / 1 know-who becomes increasingly important. Know-who involves information about who knows what and who knows how to do what. It involves the formation o f special social relationships which make it possible to get access to experts and use their knowledge efficiently. It is significant in economies where skills are widely dispersed because o f a highly developed division oflabour among organisations and experts. For the modem manager and organisation, it is important to use this kind ofknowledge in response to the acceleration in the rate o f change. The know-who kind ofknowledge is internal to the organisation to a higher degree than any other kind ofknowledge. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 147 Learning to master the four kinds o f knowledge takes place through different channels. While know-what and know-why can be obtained through reading books, attending lectures and accessing databases, the other two kinds o f knowledge are rooted primarily in practical experience. Know­ how will typically be learnt in situations where an apprentice follows a master and relies upon him as the authority. Know-who is learnt in social practice and sometimes in specialised educational environments (OCDE/GD, 96). It also develops in day-to-day dealings with customers, sub­ contractors and independent institutes. One reason why firms engage in basic research is to acquire access to networks o f academic experts crucial for their innovative capabilities. Know-who is socially embedded knowledge which cannot easily be transferred through formal channels o f information (OCDE/GD, 96). The development o f information technology may be regarded as a response to the need for handling the know-what and know-why portions o f knowledge more effectively. Conversely, the existence o f information technology and communications infrastructures gives a strong impetus to the process o f codifying certain types o f knowledge. All knowledge which can be codified and reduced to information can now be transmitted over long distances with very limited costs. It is the increasing codification o f some elements o f knowledge which have led the current era to be characterised as “the information s o c i e t y a society where a majority o f workers will soon be producing, handling and distributing information or codified knowledge. The digital revolution has intensified the move towards knowledge codification and altered the share o f codified vs. tacit knowledge in the knowledge stock o f the economy. Electronic networks now connect a vast array o f public and private information sources, including digitised reference volumes, books, scientific journals, libraries o f working papers, images, video clips, sound and voice recordings, graphical displays as well as electronic mails. These information resources, connected through various communications networks, represent the components o f an emerging, universally accessible digital library. Due to codification, knowledge is acquiring more of the properties o f a commodity. Market transactions are facilitated by codification, and diffusion o f knowledge is accelerated. In addition, codification is reducing the importance o f additional investments to acquire further knowledge. It is creating bridges between fields and areas o f competence and reducing the “dispersion” o f knowledge. These developments promise an acceleration o f the rate of growth o f stocks o f accessible knowledge, with positive implications for economic growth. They also imply increased change in the knowledge stock due to higher rates of scrapping and obsolescence, which will put greater burdens on the economy’s adjustment abilities. While infonnation technologies are speeding up the codification o f knowledge and stimulating growth in the knowledge-based economy, they have implications for the labour force. Knowledge and Learning While information technologies maybe moving the border between tacit and codified knowledge, they are also increasing the importance o f acquiring a range o f skills or types o f knowledge. In the emerging information society, a large and growing proportion o f the labour force is engaged in handling information as opposed to more tangible factors o f production. Computer literacy and access to network facilities tend to become more important than literacy in the traditional sense. Although the knowledge-based economy is affected by the increasing use of information technologies, it is not synonymous with the information society. The knowledge-based economy is characterised by the need for continuous learning o f both codified information and the competencies to use this information. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 148 As access to information becomes easier and less expensive, the skills and competencies relating to the selection and efficient use o f information become more crucial. Tacit knowledge in the form o f skills needed to handle codified knowledge is more important than ever in labour markets. Codified knowledge might be considered as the material to be transformed, and tacit knowledge, particularly know-how, as the tool for handling this material. Capabilities for selecting relevant and disregarding irrelevant information, recognising patterns in information, interpreting and decoding information as well as learning new and forgetting old skills are in increasing demand. The accumulation o f tacit knowledge needed to derive maximum benefit from knowledge codified through information technologies can only be done through learning. Without investments oriented towards both codified and tacit skill development, informational constraints maybe a significant factor degrading and prohibiting economic development. Workers will require both formal education and the ability to acquire and apply new theoretical and analytical knowledge; they will increasingly be paid for their codified and tacit knowledge skills rather than for manual work. Education will be the centre o f the knowledge-based economy and learning the tool o f individual and organisational advancement. This process o f learning is more than just acquiring formal education. In the knowledge-based economy, “leaming-by-doing” is paramount. A fundamental aspect o f learning is the transformation o f tacit into codified knowledge and the movement back to practice where new kinds of tacit knowledge are developed. Training and learning in non-formal settings, increasingly possible due to information technologies, are more common. Firms themselves face the need to become learning organisations, continuously adapting management, organisation and skills to accommodate new technologies. They are also joined in networks, where interactive learning involving producers and users in experimentation and exchange o f information is the driver o f innovation (EIMS, 1994). Knowledge Networks The knowledge-based economy places great importance on the diffusion and use o f information and knowledge as well as its creation. The determinants o f success o f enterprises, and o f national economies as a whole, is ever more reliant upon their effectiveness in gathering and utilising knowledge. Strategic know-how and competence are being developed interactively and shared within sub-groups and networks, where know-who is significant. The economy becomes a hierarchy o f networks, driven by the acceleration in the rate o f change and the rate o f learning. W hat is created is a network society, where the opportunity and capability to get access to and join knowledge- and learning-intensive relations determines the socio-economic position o f individuals and firms (David & Foray, 1995). The present age is that ofkno wledge revolution. Knowledge-driven economy is the prerequisite of development. Efficient utilisation of existing knowledge can create comprehensive wealth for the nation. Knowledge society has a component o f societal transformation and wealth generation. The societal transformation has to be through large-scale development in agricultural and rural sector. These in turn will lead to employment generation and high productivity leading to rural prosperity. A vibrant and dynamic knowledge society has to touch every member o f the society, including the farmers. Every stratum of the society should become a consumer o f knowledge, which will make them efficient in harvesting the fruits o f development. The basic constituents o f the knowledge society would be the knowledge workers who create quality knowledge products and the enlightened citizens who consume the profit (Kashyap et al., 2010). But in the traditional paradigm of information divide and trickle down, can we expect to easily establish a knowledge society with UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 149 uniform and equal access and distribution o f knowledge and information from top to bottom? Can there be some legislative tools of information strengthening at grassroots through which a common citizen may insist to get the required information for his betterment? Right to Information Act has emerged as that much-sought weapon for the deprived sections. Implications of Knowledge Economy In the emerging global knowledge economy, a country’s ability to build and mobilise knowledge capital is equally essential for sustainable development as the availability o f physical and financial capital (World Bank, 1997). Hence, the features o f the knowledge economy have important implications for libraries and information science. First o f all, knowledge is being developed and applied in new ways. The information revolution has expanded networks and provided new opportunities for access to infonuation. It has also created new opportunities for generating and transferring information. Knowledge networks and sharing of information have expedited innovation and adaptation capacity. Changes in ICT have revolutionised the transmission o f information. Semiconductors are getting faster, computer memories are expanding, and bandwidth is growing, and Internet hosts are expanding and multiplying. Cellular phone usage is growing worldwide, adding to the pace o f and capacity for change and innovation (World Bank, 2003). Small and medium-size enterprises in the service sector are becoming increasingly important players in terms ofboth economic growth and employment. Trade is increasing worldwide, increasing competitive demands on producers. This implies that countries that are able to integrate into the world economy may be able to achieve higher economic growth and improve health and education outcomes (World Bank, 2002). Unlike the slow, gradual evolution o f human labour in the past generation, present-day changes are occurring rapidly and with little or no warning. Unless society members anticipate these effects and prepare to cope with them mentally and in practice, job dislocations and forced geographical relocations may prove traumatic and imminent for employees and their families. Generally, managing knowledge in the organisation requires that one locates where a certain kind o f knowledge is, retrieve and store the knowledge, and then make it accessible to other employees. However, knowledge management also refers to the information that resides in the minds o f employees. Ideally, employees are expected to share what they know with one another. In daily work, employees are required to draw upon a variety o f knowledge to accomplish their jobs. The knowledge they need is not always found in their area o f expertise. In this case, they have to learn what they need to know from some other sources. The infonuation source can be a book, the Internet or some other person. Learning from some other person who is trusted and who is also an expert in the area in a face-to-face situation is a very efficient and practical way to learn (Davenport & Prusak, 1998: 94,95,100). Creating an atmosphere that encourages face- to-face meeting and discussion allows knowledge to be passed around and enhanced. Knowledge sharing, however, is still an ideal goal that many corporate organisations are now trying to reach. It is, however, the heart o f knowledge management. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 150 Skills and Competencies Needed in the Knowledge Economy Operating successfully in the knowledge economy requires mastering a set o f knowledge and competencies. Three categories o f competencies are needed (Rychen & Salganik, 2001; OECD, 2002a). These include: Acting Autonomously Building and exercising a sense o f self-making choices and acting in the context of a larger picture, being oriented towards the future, being aware of the environment, understanding how one fits in exercising one’s rights and responsibilities, determining and executing a life plan and planning and carrying out personal projects. Using Tools Interactively Using tools interactively as instrument for active dialogue; being aware of, and responding to the potential o f new tools; and being able to use language, text, symbols, information and knowledge, and technology interactively to accomplish goals. Functioning in Socially Heterogeneous Groups Being able to interact effectively with other people, including those from different backgrounds; recognising the social embededness o f individuals; creating social capital; and being able to relate well to others and cooperate and manage to resolve conflicts. The concept o f competency has several features. It is strongly related to context, as it combines interrelated abilities and values. It is teachable (although it can be acquired outside the formal education system) and exists on a continuum. Possession o f the key competencies contributes to a higher quality o f life across all areas (World Bank, 2003). Performing in the global society requires mastery oft echnical, interpersonal and methodological skills. Technical skills include literacy, foreign language, mathematics, and science, problem solving and analytical skills. Interpersonal skills include teamwork, leadership and communication skills. Methodological skills include the ability to learn on one’s own, to pursue lifelong learning and to cope with risks and challenges. These competencies are needed because o f the rapid proliferation o f scientific and practical knowledge, the shortening o f the useful life o f knowledge because o f continuous production o f knowledge, and the growing influence o f science and technology, which profoundly change the organisation o f jobs and lives. The consequences o f these changes cannot be reliably foreseen (OECD, 1996). However, a knowledge economy rests on four pillars (World Bank Institute, 2001): • a supportive economic and institutional regime to provide incentives for the efficient use of existing and new knowledge and the flourishing o f entrepreneurship; • educated and skilled populations to create share and use knowledge; • a dynamic information infrastructure to facilitate the effective communication, dissemination and processing of information; and • an efficient innovation system o f firms, research centres, universities, consultants, and other organisations to tap into the growing stock of global knowledge, assimilate and adapt it to local needs and create new technology. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 151 Relationship between Knowledge, Information and People Quality information becomes a powerful resource that can be assimilated by people. Knowledge workers and quality information provide the potential for information to have value. A database without knowledge workers using it produces as much value as a product warehouse without ordering customers. Knowledge is not just information known, it is information in context. Knowledge means understanding the significance o f the information. Knowledge is applied information and m aybe represented as a formula: Knowledge = f (People + Information + Significance). Knowledge is the value added to information by people who have the experience and acumen to understand its real potential. With the continuing evolution o f information technology, organisations are now able to capture knowledge electronically, organise its storage, and make it sharable across the enterprise. The advances in the Internet, intranet, the World Wide Web, and data mining are expanding the horizons o f sharable data in both data warehouses and in operational databases. It is possible, however, to have a wealth o f enterprise knowledge but still see an enterprise fail. Knowledge has value only to the extent that people are empowered to act based on that knowledge. In other words, knowledge has value only when acted on. Globalisation of Library Services One important implication o f globalisation (Salawu, 2008) is the evolvement o f global standards for library services. Libraries in developing countries have to cope with global standards in library organisations. This includes application o f ICT in library and information services delivery, provision o f current awareness services including selective dissemination o f information (SDI), access o f users to libraries through electronic access cards and regular survey o f users preferably through electronic access cards to obtain statistics o f library users (Obilade, 2003). Following the application of Information and Communications Technology, co-operation and collaboration o f libraries through interlibrary loan system as well as formation o f consortium has become a global reality. Thus, librarianship is now a global issue. The application o f ICT in libraries has widened the scope o f librarianship and conferred new roles on libraries. This situation has placed more demand on the ability o f librarians. In a consortium, member libraries are linked together through electronic information network. This reduces the costs o f acquisition of information materials and still allows users o f individual library to have access to a great number o f information materials that ordinarily one library may not possess. In order to create an ‘information workforce’ one that is professionally skilled, well-educated and well-informed o f worldwide condition, Salawu (2008) supports the 1995 Cveljo’s proposal that library and information science curriculum be revised to include global issues including information activities o f UNESCO and the organisation’s effort in bringing education to appropriate level worldwide, including education and training for library and information professionals, as well as information on communication, and behavioural aspects of the Third World countries that detennines the production, distribution and utilisation o f graphic and non-graphic records in contrast to those o f western society. W hat is important about this proposal is the need for countries all over the world to revise their library and information science programmes in order to produce competent highly skilled and knowledgeable information professionals that will be able to cope with the challenge o f the knowledge economy. According to Obilade (2003), compliance with the present minimum global standards may fonn the major criterion and requirement for course accreditation in library schools. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 152 The direct consequence o f globalisation and the information age in which the global community finds itself is the need for conscious re-examination and redirection o f library services in order to serve the global community. Librarianship under the influence o f the Information and Communications Technology has witnessed transformation. Library services now cut across geographical boundaries. The emergence o f the virtual library system in the 21 st century, in the words ofAtkinson (1990), is redefining and extending the traditional definition o f library and has rendered the definition o f a library with respect to a particular ‘locality’, or ‘particular institution’ or ‘geographical region’ inappropriate. There is need for libraries to rise to the challenges o f the new age in order to sustain their relevance in the scheme o f things. They need to contribute more effectively to nation building through provision of access to global information as well as contribution to global wealth o f information. However, a lot o f opportunities await them if they are able to adjust to the new epoch. The library and information profession has traditionally been considered the primary access point to new knowledge, emanating largely from basic research at universities and government laboratories. This new knowledge is generally termed “science” and has traditionally been distinguished from knowledge generated by more applied or commercial research, which is closer to the market and the “technology” end o f the spectrum (OCED, 1996). In the knowledge-based economy, the distinction between basic and applied research and between science and technology has become somewhat blurred. One sure way o f responding to the challenge o f globalisation is provision o f virtual library services. This can be achieved in two ways: group o f libraries can combine efforts and resources for this purpose, for example, formation of a consortium; secondly, provision o f facilities to access various virtual libraries within and outside the country. This implies strong emphasis on the application ofICTsin libraries. It is obvious that librarians need more than basic ICT skills to be able to cope with the challenge o f globalisation. This has placed greater demand on their ability and they need to rise to this challenge. Nurse (2001) lists skills required for the operation o f a virtual library as: Introduction to Personal Computers, Windows 98, PowerPoint, Spreadsheet Electronicmail, Advanced Internet Searching, Skills, Scanners, Basic Imaging Technology and CD-ROMs. Equally important are digitisation, electronic cataloguing and maintenance o f computer networks skills. Furthermore, apart from ICT skills, management skills (in planning, negotiating and persuading) as well as ability to analyse, practise and synthesise new concepts are very essential. This brings to the fore the issue o f subject background as a prerequisite for a career in librarianship. Librarians need to be well-grounded in disciplines other than librarianship. Therefore, Library and Information Science programmes need to be expanded to include courses in management, information science, archival studies, economics, international relations and so on. Knowledge Transmission and Transfer The library and information professional is a crucial element in knowledge transmission, particularly in education and training o f scientists and engineers. In the knowledge-based economy, learning becomes extremely important in determining the fate o f individuals, firms and national economies. Human capabilities for learning new skills and applying them are key to absorbing and using new technologies. Properly-trained researchers and technicians are essential for producing and applying both scientific and technological knowledge. The library and information professional, especially in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 153 universities, is central to educating and training the research workforce for the knowledge-based economy. The library and information professional is thus facing challenges in reconciling its knowledge production role, even more important in the knowledge-based economy, and its knowledge transmission or educational function. Many people believe that the primary mission o f the university is educational, reproducing and expanding the stock o f individuals that embody the accumulated knowledge and problem-solving skills needed in modem societies. The fact that universities are, to varying degrees, also involved in the creation o f new knowledge m aybe seen as a by-product or joint product o f their educational mission. In practice, the educational missions o f universities shape their approaches to conducting research through the assignment o f important research roles for students and their participation in technical activities. As universities attempt to find ways around fiscal limitations, there may be substantial variety in the extent to which they maintain the primacy of their educational missions. Resource constraints make it more difficult to maintain the necessary linkages and balance between research and education (OCED, 1996). Tire library and infonnation professional plays an important role in transferring and disseminating knowledge throughout the economy. One o f the hallmarks o f the knowledge-based economy is the recognition that the diffusion o f knowledge is just as significant as its creation, leading to increased attention to “knowledge distribution networks” and “national systems o f innovation”. Library cooperation provides structures which support the acquisition, storage, dissemination and use o f knowledge in the economy and the linkages between them. Libraries are crucial to the capacity of a country to diffuse innovations and to absorb and maximise the contribution of technology to production processes and product development. In this environment, the library and information professional has amajor role to play in enabling knowledge for technological progress and for developing a common cultural basis for the exchange o f information. Economies are characterised by different degrees o f “distribution power” in their ability to transfer knowledge within and across networks o f scientific researchers and research institutions. The distribution power o f an economy depends partly on the incentives and existence o f institutions, such as those ofhigher education, for distributing knowledge. Effective distribution of knowledge, however, also depends upon investing in the skills for finding and adapting knowledge for use and in developing bridging units or centres. There are thus choices to be made between investments in the production of, and in the capabilities for diffusing and using, scientific knowledge. In the knowledge-based economy, the library and information profession must balance not only its roles o f knowledge production (research) and knowledge transmission (education and training) but also the third function of transferring knowledge to economic and social actors, especially enterprises, whose role is to exploit such knowledge. They provide a means both for the efficient transfer o f economically Useful knowledge and for advanced training in skills required by industry. Emerging Trends in Library and Information Service Delivery With the introduction o f ICT in libraries, librarians, as information providers, now have opportunity to use modem tools to provide quicker, more sophisticated services to the users. Databases and reference sources can be queried via the Internet and World Wide Web; remote library catalogues are available on desktops; newsgroups and mailing lists provide a wonderful opportunity to discuss mutual concerns and electronic mail allows librarians to find out and contact those who might be able to help in providing information. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 154 In the prevailing situation, the librarian is called upon to assume new roles and perform tasks like guiding, facilitating, citing information resources and preserving access to information. Rao and Babu (2001) have addressed the question o f role o f librarians in the new environment o f exponentially growing Internet and World Wide Web. On one hand, it has been postulated that librarians would play a more dynamic role in this new environment as guides to information seekers in an explosive universe of information. The rise o f digitised information has also given opportunity to elevate the role o f librarians, hence the emergence o f a new breed o f librarians referred to as “Cyber librarian”, a specialist in locating information on the Internet (Hathom, 1997). In order to thrive and remain vital in today’s rapidly changing information environment, librarians must continually reposition themselves through proactive response to information explosion and changing information needs of their patrons occasioned by information technologies. Hathom (1997) has rightly declared that librarians should seize the opportunity to expand their roles by: • taking the library to users’ point o f needs; • developing evidence-based skills necessary for effective information delivery; • becoming key players in user education programmes; and • designing and managing electronic information systems. Taking the Library to Users’ Point of Needs Developing and maintaining a proactive disposition in library and information work is the direction o f the information profession. Librarians need to embark on aggressive awareness programmes that will alert the various users o f new information products and services. This can be achieved through print and electronic newsletters, handbooks and handbills. Moreover, libraries can render personalised information services such as Selective Dissemination o f Information (SDI) to their patrons. S DI is a deliberate attempt by librarians to conduct searches on behalf o f users based on their research profiles. The search results are then routed to recipients via e-mail either on intranet or on the internet. A number o f libraries now host websites where they place information about their libraries on bulletin boards and provide e-mail alerts to patrons. Another proactive approach at rendering qualitative library and information services in the new web environment is emphasis on liaison with users. Librarians should emphasise more on ‘getting out there’ rather than expecting users to come to the library. Librarians should be the first to know about the introduction o f new information products and services on the Web and be instant at circulating it to appropriate users, thereby reinforcing our position as ‘information gate-keeper”. Liaison with users will help in the selection o f e-resources, curriculum enrichment and information literacy programmes. Developing Evidence-based Skills in Information Technology The core skills associated with information professionals include information handling skills, training and facilitating skills, evaluation skills and concern for customer, which are all still relevant. However, librarians must change and adapt to the new information environment by learning about new technologies, especially the Internet and the Web, and be aware o f their strengths and weaknesses. The availability o f electronic documents on the Internet and the support extended by World Wide Web to access these documents have increased tremendously. In this scenario, it is imperative for librarians to acquire necessary skills in effective use o f modem tools and associated software to locate and retrieve the widely dispersed information in the cyberspace. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 155 Librarians need to acquaint themselves and gain a degree o f proficiency to effectively guide and train information seekers in their usage. Thus, librarians have to play the role o f facilitator in identifying, gathering and arranging information infrastructure such as network access, software access, licences and passwords to use and charged resources like EBSCO Host, Science Direct, HINARI-OARE- AGORA and so on. Librarians should develop the Internet search skills that will place them in better position to perform more complex searches than their patrons. Librarians should be found to be more efficient and more effective than end-users are at performing their own information searching activities (Griffiths, 1995). Therefore, librarians should develop evidence-based skills that will enable them to retain and improve upon this position. Knowledge o f search engines, online databases, Boolean operators and similar search methodologies should suffice. Becoming Key Players in the User Education Librarians have a critical role to play in the present digital library era as educators or end-user trainers. No matter how sophisticated interfaces and search engines are, people would still need to be educated regarding their usage. Users will need to possess an understanding o f essential information gathering skills and tools, and only professionals can do this. The areas in which the librarian gives training include use o f electronic journals from different publishers, use o f abstracts and indexing databases, databanks, CD-ROM publications and document delivery services. Designing and Managing Electronic Information Systems As mentioned earlier, librarians are in competition with the World Wide Web. In order to gain competitive advantage, librarians should not only use technology but also be involved in the design and management o f library information systems. It is not compulsory that librarians should be computer-literate, but it is necessary to participate in decisions that concern the selection ofhardware and software that would be applied to their operations. Many efforts at designing electronic information systems in Africa failed because o f apathy to computer on the part o f librarians. Moreover, we should not regard the Internet as an external source but as part o f our collection so we can work with IT specialists to maximise its use to the advantage o f our patrons. As asserted by Strong (1996), the Internet, though can provide some answers and facts quicker and more accurately, is not the answer to reference questions from users. Librarians must lend their traditional skills in locating, evaluating and organising infonnation in the creation, development and content filling o f a website for their parent institutions and the libraries. The role o f the librarian while creating a webpage is to deliver information about the library and its services like hours o f services, details o f library staff, library policies and an interface to the library online public access catalogue (OPAC). Librarians should not see themselves as inferior to computer specialists but as collaborates in progress. Conclusion J In the words o f Gregory (2005), ‘Librarianship is and will continue to be aprofession devoted to bringing users and information together as effectively and efficiently as possible. ’ The library and information professional is a crucial element in knowledge transmission, particularly in education and training o f scientists and engineers. In the knowledge-based economy, learning becomes extremely important in determining the fate o f individuals, firms and national economies. Human capabilities for learning new skills and applying them are key to absorbing and using new technologies. Properly-trained researchers and technicians are essential for producing and applying both scientific UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 156 and technological knowledge. The library and information professional, especially in universities, should be central to educating and training the research workforce for the knowledge-based economy. Recommendations 1. Libraries should maintain hybrid collections in order to satisfy the user community. 2. Virtual library projects should be well-funded to ensure their success. 3. For libraries to reap the benefit ofinformation globalisation, there is theneed for inter­ connectivity oflibraries to facilitate resource sharing and exchange ofinformation. Formation o f consortium is also desirable. All libraries should be networked with the National Library towards the formation o f National Information Network. Governments should finance libraries in this respect. Financial support from national and international organisations should be solicited. 4. Libraries should subscribe to databases o f digital materials, which have their origins in print format. 5. Furthermore, libraries should seek legal backing o ft he government to digitise their resources for wider access. 6. Universal standards in building and designing libraries, especially school, academic and public libraries, should be observed by concerned education authorities. 7. Standards in quality library personnel recruitment should not be compromised by education management at all levels o f the educational system in Nigeria. 8. For the new trends (ICT) in library operations to succeed in Nigerian schools at all levels, the Nigerian government should seriously address the deteriorating power situation. Bibliography Brophy, P. (2007). The library in the twenty-first century. London: Facet Publishing, pp. 107. Davenport, T.H. & Prusak, L. (1998). Working knowledge: How organisations manage what they know. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. DTI Competitiveness WhitePaper. (1998). Building the knowledge-driven economy. 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