Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. ETHOBOTAY, PROPAGATIO AD COSERVATIO OF MEDICIAL PLATS I GHAA 1 2 2 2 3 1 D. A. Ofori , B. Obiri Darko , A. Gyimah , K. A. Adam , S. O. Jimoh and R. Jamnadass 1 World Agroforestry Centre, United #ations Avenue, Gigiri, P. O. Box 30677-001-00, #airobi, Kenya 2 CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, P. O. Box 63, K#UST, Kumasi, Ghana 3 Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, #igeria Email:d.ofori@cgiar.org ABSTRACT Medicinal plants and plant-based medicines are widely used in traditional cultures all over Ghana and they are becoming increasingly popular in modern society as natural alternatives to synthetic chemicals. This paper studied the ethnobotany of medicinal plants through a socio-economic survey. Seed germination experiments were also carried out on selected medicinal plant species. It was found that the herbal medicine industry was a major source of income for 82% of the respondents. Almost 50% of the respondents were women with majority of them involved in marketing of the medicinal plant products. Out of 160 plant species marketed, 129 were collected in Ghana with Kumasi and Accra being the major marketing centres. Most of the species have multiple curative properties with over 46 diseases purported to be cured by herbal medicine. Over 100 species were reported to be in high demand, scarce or unavailable. Among the reported constraints to availability of medicinal plants were lack of cultivation, unsustainable harvesting, deforestation, wildfire and urbanization. Studies on seed germination showed that seven species out of the ten selected for conservation had good germination, ranging from 40-74% with an average of 63.3%. This suggests the possibility of cultivating medicinal plant species on commercial scale. Based on the results, it is suggested that linkages between all stakeholders should be strengthened in order to promote conservation and commercial production of medicinal plants. Furthermore, improving the knowledge-base of scientists, traditional herbal medical practitioners, policy makers and the public on the relevance and safety of traditional plant medicine could lead to the sustainability of the medicinal plants industry in Ghana. Keywords: Herbal medicine, socio-economic survey, seed germination, phenology, health care ITRODUCTIO health, nutrition, income, and provision of environmental services (shade, microclimate, Medicinal plants have always been considered as carbon sequestration, soil fertility improvement). healthy resources of life for people, however these Since these indigenous species are already adapted plants have for a long time been neglected in to the natural environment, they need to be treated terms of domestication and conservation, hereby as crops for the future in preparation for the threatening their sustainability. Nonetheless, these anticipated climate change and its associated species on farms, in home gardens and rangelands environmental instability and health problems. contribute to improvement of farmers’ livelihoods; Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. Access to healthcare facilities in Africa is very basic information for sustainable management but poor as approximately 80% of the population will also help to create the required awareness for relies on traditional medicine (WHO, 2008). In the integration of the species into the traditional Ghana, the ratio of medical doctor to patient is farming systems and provide the needed 1:10,000, hence majority of the people rely on silvicultural information for the cultivation of the traditional health care delivery (WHO, 2012). species. Such a program if properly developed However, over-reliance on wild collections results could serve as a foundation on which these in rapid depletion of the resource. The current rate important medicinal plants could be harnessed and of forest degradation, uncontrolled exploitation developed for the sustained use of mankind. The and use of genetic resources of indigenous objectives of the study therefore were: (i) to medicinal plant species without replacement is document indigenous information (formal and posing a threat to the continued existence of these informal) on medicinal plants through species. Furthermore, the parts of the plants often ethnobotanical studies, (ii) document phenological harvested for use are sometimes the same parts information and develop appropriate methods for used for anchorage, nutrient uptake, seed germination. photosynthesis and regeneration (Daharani et al., 2010; Ofori et al., 2011a). This has posed serious constraints to the natural regeneration as well as METHODOLOGY vigorous stand development, hence continuous existence of the species in natural ecosystems are Socioeconomic survey now greatly threatened (Adebisi, 1999). The silvicultural techniques of many of these species The Socio-economic survey covered eight regions are also not adequately understood (Sofowora, in Ghana (Western, Eastern, Ashanti, Brong 1993), hence the inability of the local Ahafo, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Northern communities to embark on their propagation and Regions) spanning across five ecological zones of their inclusion in their farms, homestead gardens Ghana, i.e. Wet Evergreen Forest, Moist Semi- and conservation plots. deciduous Forest South east and North west, Savannah Transition, Coastal Savannah and Currently, there is an increasing global interest in Guinea Savannah (Figure 1). To facilitate natural products because of the perceived side information acquisition from respondents, local effects associated with synthetic drugs. Field and national fora of the traditional herbal industry observations however show that most traditional were attended to introduce the project and to medical practitioners rely on wild collections from establish a rapport with the groups. A list of the natural forest which unfortunately are members and their contacts was compiled during constantly dwindling at an alarming rate. these meetings which assisted in locating Nonetheless, there have also not been adequate respondents for interviews. concerted efforts at addressing the large scale cultivation of the species, either in farming Three sets of structured questionnaires, each systems or pure culture at private or government specifically designed for a category of respondents levels. Furthermore, indigenous knowledge on (i.e. medicinal plant suppliers, marketers and these plants is not adequately documented for traditional medicine practitioners) were possible future development. Therefore a holistic administered. The questionnaires were first tested study addressing the ethnobotany and propagation on a nearby urban market (Kumasi Central of selected medicinal plants will not only provide Market) where all three categories of respondents Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. were encountered. A total of 301 male and female Data were collected through one-on-one respondents were interviewed at markets, plant interviews and information gathered comprised collection and distribution points, herbal clinics local plant names, part(s) used and major uses, and homesteads. In each region surveyed, urban sources of collection and supply, availability and centres were first visited to interview plant demand trends, threats to availability, indigenous marketers and herbal medical practitioners. This cultivation techniques and measures to ensure assisted in identifying supply sources and continued availability of medicinal plants. distribution points. Supply sources mainly in rural communities were then visited to interview plant Phenology and seed germination collectors/suppliers, although some of them were interviewed at the distribution points on urban Ten tree species were used for this study. Five of markets. them (Khaya senegalensis (Desr.), Rauvolfia vomitoria, Pycnanthus angolensis, Kigelia africana, and Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides) were selected based on their importance in Ghana (Table 1) and five others (Securidaca longepedunculata, Tamarindus indica, Morinda lucida, Alstonia boonei and Vitellaria paradoxa) also selected based on their importance in other West African countries, namely Benin and Nigeria (Jimoh, 2009). A survey was conducted within the distribution zones of the selected species and five trees of each species were labeled and monitored weekly. Records were taken on dates of first flowering and duration of flowering, fruit formation and fruit maturity from September 2007 to December 2009. Matured seeds were collected and seed germination experiment conducted. For each species, seeds were collected from all the five trees and bulked together. One hundred seeds were sampled from each seed lot and germinated in sand with four replicates and 25 seeds per replicate. Records on day of first germination, duration of seed germination and total number of seeds germinated were taken. Figure 1: Map of Ghana showing the sample sites for Data analysis the socioeconomic studies: WE = Wet Evergreen, ME = Moist Evergreen, MSD-N/W = Moist Semi-deciduous Data generated from the socio-economic study North West, MSD - S/E = Moist Semi-deciduous South were subjected to simple descriptive statistics of East, CS = Coastal Savannah, TS = Forest-Savannah means, percentages or proportions, and summaries Transition Zone and GS = Guinea Savannah presented in tables. In order to assist collectors and those interested in seed propagation, the months in which flowering and fruiting occurred Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 31 UNIVER ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. were presented for each species. Data on seed The mean age of the respondents was 48 years. germination were analyzed by computing the The productive age group, ranging from 31-60 mean seed germination percentage as well as the years, constituted about 70% of the respondents. length of seed germination period for each species using Microsoft Excel 2010. Collection and distribution of medicinal plants RESULTS Majority of the medicinal plants are gathered locally from the wild in forest reserves and on Characteristics of respondents farms from all ecological zones in the country and often supplied to clients at their work places, A total of 301 people interviewed were made up market centres or to middlemen. Distances of 151 herbal medicine practitioners, 90 marketers travelled to collect plant parts range from 1 to 26 and 60 collectors. It was observed that the km. Accra and Kumasi are the major markets or medicinal plant industry is a major source of distribution centers where suppliers deliver livelihood and income for 82% of the respondents, products to marketers for wholesale or retail particularly, the marketers and practitioners who distribution to consumers. Out of the 160 engage in it as their major occupation (Figure 2). medicinal plant species reported to be marketed Three nationalities were found to be involved in and used, 129 were reported to be collected in the industry with 98% being Ghanaians and the Ghana. Most of the plant species have multiple minority from Nigeria and Benin. Approximately curative properties, thus were applied in treating equal proportions of the respondents belonged to more than one disease condition. both gender with majority of the women in medicinal plants marketing. Thirty percent of the respondents had no formal education with the majority of the educated having the basic level of education. Figure 2: Major occupation of medicinal plant collectors, marketers and practitioners interviewed Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. Table 1: Major plants frequently collected and used by herbal medicine practitioners, parts collected and uses Botanical name Common/Local plant No. of Part used Uses name practioners (N=151) Bark, root Piles, blood tonic, fevers, infertility, Khaya sp. Mahogany 78 stomach and menstrual disorders Bark, leaves, Anaemia, stomach and menstrual Pycnanthus seeds disorders, toothache, blood tonic angolensis Otie 38 Bark Anaemia, rheumatism, infertility, Ricinodendron stomach ulcer, loss of appetite heudelotii Wama (samandua) 31 Bark, roots, Sexual weakness, piles, hernia, Rauvolfia leaves, seeds madness, skin rashes vomitoria Kakapenpen 30 Bark, leaves Measles, stomach disorders, blood tonic, malaria, waist and body pains, Alstonia boonei Nyamedua 28 hernia Bark, root, Waist pain, ulcer, sexual weakness, Paullinia leaves, stem piles, rheumatism, bone fracture, pinnata Tuoatini 27 impotency, fatigue Root, bark Rheumatism, waist and body pains, toothache, abdominal sores/pains, cough, hypertension, wounds, family Zanthoxylum planning, urine retention, diabetes, bone zanthoxyloides Oyaa (kanton) 22 fracture Bark, root Sores (wounds), blood tonic, Trichilia rheumatism, hernia, cough, menstrual monadelpha Tannuro 22 problems, diabetes Bark, root, Fevers including malaria, typhoid, leaves gonorrhea, bone fracture, high blood pressure, rheumatism, candidiasis Morinda lucida Konkroma 21 Leaves Stomach sores, skin rashes, fever, headaches, jaundice, bilharzia, whitlow, Ocimum cough, inferility, ease child birth gratissimum Nunum 21 Bark Anaemia, fever, chest pain, piles, Spathodea infertility, rheumatism, fibroid, campanulata Kuakuanesuo 19 gonorrhea, Bark Waist pain, piles, infertility, Terminalia rheumatism, stroke, fibroid, family ivorensis Emire 18 planning, stomach sore Bark, root Fever, cough, infertility, stomach Zanthoxylum seed disorders, diabetes, waist pains gilletii Okuo (kwakuobese) 18 Gonorrhea, infertility, stomach and Anthocleista Wudifokete menstrual disorders, hernia, fever, nobilis (bontodie) 17 Bark constipation, piles Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. Bark, fruit, Anaemia, fever/malaria, hypertension, Tetrapleura seed high blood pressure, snake bite, loss of tetraptera Prekese 15 appetite Bark, root, Fever, sexual weakness, anaemia, waist Alchornea leaves pain, gonorrhea, skin rash, hernia, cordifolia Gyama 13 measles, stomach sore Fevers including malaria and typhoid, blood tonic, urine retention, bilharzia, Mangifera Bark diarrhoea, hypertension indica Mango 12 Azadirachta Leaves Fever, typhoid, rheumatism, skin rashes indica Neem 12 Bombax Bark, leaves Skin rashes, blood tonic, fever, ulcer, buonopozense Akonkodee (akata) 11 bone fracture, loss of appetite Kigelia Bark, root Piles, rheumatism, infertility, sexual africana Nufuten 11 seed, fruit weakness, waist pain Table 1 shows the most frequently collected plants scarce and rare or unavailable. The first 10 and 46 disease conditions were reported to be mentioned by the respondents are shown in Table treated by these plants including: fever, 2. Deforestation, wild fire and urbanization were impotency, stomach disorders, ante-and post-natal mentioned as the major sources of threats to the disorders, hypertension, diabetes, skin disorders, sustainability of the herbal plant industry. In sexually transmitted diseases and general aches addition, an increase in demand for natural and pains among many others. medicines arising from popularization of traditional medicines which are known to be cheap Demand and availability and also believed to be very effective in treating common ailments such as malaria and other Demand is increasing for most species due to diseases (see Table 1) has also led to increased increased recognition of natural plant cure. Over harvesting. 100 species were reported to be in high demand, Table 2: High demanding and scarce medicinal plant species in Ghana Botanical name Local name Frequency of mentioning the species Khaya spp. Mahogany 123 Pycnathus angolensis Otie 57 Rauvolfia vomitoria Kakapenpen 44 Terminalia ivorensis Emire 39 Alstonia boonei Nyamedua 38 Trichilia monadelpha Tanuro 36 Ricinodendron heudelotii Wama 35 Paullinia pinnata Toantini 32 Guarea cedrata Kwabohoro 29 Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides Oyaa 24 Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 34 UNIVERSITY F IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. Sustainability of plant medicine industry It was observed that improper harvesting methods were employed for the collection of plant parts. Particularly, severe removal of tree bark (Figure 3) and roots (Figure 4) can kill the tree. Furthermore, uncontrolled collection of fruits and seeds adversely affect regeneration of the species (see Table 1 for parts collected), usually without permits from the communities that own the resources and /or Forest Services Division. Sixty percent of the respondents suggested cultivation of endangered medicinal plant species to ensure sustainability of the medicinal plants industry. Thirty percent were of the view that medicinal plants could be protected for sustainable use through controlling illegal collection from the wild while 10% suggested improved harvesting methods to prevent destruction of medicinal plants. Even though, 98% of the respondents acknowledged medicinal plants cultivation would be a profitable venture, only 25% of the herbal Figure 3: Severe removal of tree bark (Khaya ivorensis) practitioners were making efforts to cultivate or can kill the tree through blockage of translocation of retain some species on farms and gardens for their water and minerals salts own use. Some of the major factors constraining cultivation were lack of planting materials, information on silvicultural methods and land for cultivation. Phenology and propagation With the exception of Vitelaria paradoxa whose fruit maturity period extends from March to September, flowering of the species generally began from October to April, while fruit maturity also occurred from December to July (Table 3). Seed germination ability ranged from as low as 7% for V. paradoxa to as high as 74% for Khaya senegalensis. The duration of seed germination Figure 4: Severe removal of roots and pruning of shoots also varied considerably, ranging from 8 to 28 of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides.This harvesting method days for Tamarindus indica to 70-120 days for V. interferes with tree survival, flowering and fruiting and paradoxa (Table 3). hence regeneration of the species. Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. Table 3: Flowering, fruiting periods and seed germination of some selected high demanding medicinal plants Species Flowering Fruit maturity Seed germination Duration % Germination Khaya senegalensis February to March December to January 7-42 days 74 Morinda lucida January to April April to July 9-90 days 65 Rauvolfia vomitoria February to April May to July 54-90 days 60 Pycnathus angolensis January to April February to May 28-56 days 68 Khaya africana January to March March - June 9-28 days 40 Alstonia boonei October-November January - February 10-40 days 66 Tamarindus indica January-April March-July 8-28 days 70 Vitelaria paradoxa October-February March-September 70-120 days 7 DISCUSSIO AD COCLUSIO (e.g. Khaya spp, Alstonia boonei, Pycnanthus angolensis and Morinda lucida). Firewood Traditional plant medicine industry is widespread extraction, charcoal production and overgrazing and is increasingly vital for affordable health care also constitute major threats in the Dry Semi- in Ghana. It is also a major source of livelihood deciduous and Savannah forest ecozones. and income for a large proportion of the Invariably, potential exists to cultivate these respondents who engage in it as their major valuable plant species in farmlands as a means of occupation. However sustained availability of the diversification of income through sale of the medicinal plants is becoming questionable products (Monela et al., 2005), since no seed because majority of the plant species traded in germination difficulties were experienced in most Ghana (126 out of 160) are obtained from wild of the species tested (Table 3). collection and their demand also outstrips supply. As a result, a number of them are becoming rare Naturally, planting medicinal tree species by small and threatened. Even though demand for plant holder farmers is subject to the normal constraints medicine is on the increase for most species, only faced by farmers in developing new profitable few respondents were found to be engaged in business. More important factors constraining cultivation of medicinal plants. cultivation are lack of access to superior germplasm and absence of well-functioning Major constraints to conservation of the species markets for products. Other areas requiring include unsustainable methods of harvesting, attention are research and training on sustainable wildfires, deforestation and harvesting for timber harvesting of plant parts and conservation since Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. the parts harvested are mostly leaves, seeds or medicine has led to the emergence of many herbal fruits, bark and roots (Table 1, Figures 3 and 4) as clinics or centres in the country and contributing has also been reported by other scientists (Dharani to making health care delivery accessible to many et al., 2010; Ofori et al., 2011a). These plant parts people as well as improvement of livelihoods. are nevertheless very essential for the regeneration and sustainability of the species and if collection is not regulated, their sustainability will continue to ACKOWLEDGEMET be at risk. Other areas for attention should include chemical composition, processing and packaging We thank the African Forest Research Network (Rukunga and Simons, 2006; Daharani et al., (AFORNET) for funding the Ethnobotany project 2010). through Grant No. 35/2006. The sustainability of medicinal plants would benefit from creation of partnerships to influence REFERECES the current rate of biodiversity loss while seeking innovative ways for improving the people’s Adebisi, L. A. (1999) Biodiversity conservation livelihoods. Through partnerships and and ethnobotany of selected sacred groves in Osun involvement of the beneficiaries, stakeholders will State, Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Ibadan. collectively embark on the development of p. 198. methods for sustainable harvesting, conservation, propagation, supply of quality germplasm for Daharani, ., Rukunga, G., Yenesew, A., planting and market development. Typical Mbora, A., Mwaura, L., Dawson, I. and successful examples are the adoption of Jamnadass, R. (2010) Common antimalarial trees participatory tree domestication in Cameroon in East Africa: A description of species and a (Tchoundjeu et al., 2008) and the Novella guide to cultivation and conservation through use. partnership (Private-public partnership) to Dawson, I. (Ed.) World Agroforestry Centre, promote the domestication of Allanblackia species Nairobi, Kenya. p. 96. in East, West and Central Africa (Jamnadass et al., 2010; Ofori et al., 2011b). Furthermore, efforts Jamnadass, R., Dawson, I. K., Anegbeh, P., should be made to strengthen linkages between all Asaah, E., Atangana, A., Cordeiro, C., stakeholders to promote conservation and Hendrickx, H., Henneh, S., Kadu, A. C., commercial production of medicinal plants, as Kattah, C., Misbah, M., Muchugi, A., Munjuga, well as improvement of knowledge base of M., Mwaura, L., dangalasi, H. J., Sirito, C. scientists, traditional medical practitioners, policy ., yame, S. K., Ofori, D. A., Peprah, T., makers and the public on the relevance and safety Russell, J., Rutatina, F., Sawe, C., Schmidt, L., of traditional plant medicine. Tchoundjeu, Z. and Simons, T. (2010) Allanblackia, a new tree crop in Africa for the The establishment of the Centre for Research into global food industry: Market development, Plant Medicine at Akuapem Mampong, and the smallholder cultivation and biodiversity Department for Herbal Medicine under the Faculty management. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, of Pharmacy of the Kwame Nkrumah University 19:251-268. of Science and Technology for research (collection, conservation and characterization of Jimoh, S. O. (2009) Ethnobotany and medicinal plants) and administration of plant conservation of some selected medicinal plants in Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ethnobotany, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants in Ghana D. A. Ofori et al. West Africa. Final Report submitted to Rukunga, G. and Simons, A. J. (2006) The AFORNET. potential of plants as a source of antimalarial agents. PlantaPhile Publications, Germany. p. 72. Monela, G. C., Chamshama, S. A. O., Mwaipopo, R. and Gamassa, D. M. (2005) A Sofowora, A. (1993) Medicinal Plants and study of the social, economic and environmental traditional Medicine in Africa. John Wiley and impacts of forest landscape restoration in Sons Ltd. p. 289. Shinyanga region, Tanzania. IUCN and Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Forestry and Tchoundjeu, Z., Atangana, A., Asaah, E., Beekeeping Division. Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. Tsobeng, A., Facheux, C., Foundjem, D., http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/flr Mbosso, C., Degrand, A., Sado, T., Kanmengne, _final_report _ shinyanga_june2005.pdf. J., Mbile, P., Tabuna, H., Anegbeh, P. and Uzeni, M. (2008) Domestication, utilization and Ofori, D. A., Gyimah, A., Obiri, D. B., Adam, marketing of indigenous fruit tree in West and K. A., Addae, A. and Jimoh, S. O. (2011a) Central Africa. In: F. K. Akinnifesi, et al (Eds) Ethnobotany of some selected medicinal plants. Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Tropics: Technical Note No. 4, Forestry Research Institute Domestication, Utilization and of Ghana. p. 28. Commercialization. pp. 171-185. Ofori, D. A., Kehlenbeck, K., Munjuga, M., WHO (2008) Traditional medicine. WHO fact Asaah, E., Kattah, C., Rutatina, F. and sheet No. 134. http://www. who.int/ mediacentre th Jamnadass, R. (2011) Allanblackia species: a /factsheets. Accessed 10 January, 2013. model for the domestication of high potential tree nd crops in Africa. Oral presentation, 2 international WHO (2012) World Health Statistics. Accessed th symposium on underutilized plants: Crops for the 10 January, 2013. www.who.int. future – Beyond Food, June 27 – July 1, 2011, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. p. 8 Ghana J. Forestry, Vol. 28 (1), 2012, 29-38 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY