CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: HOW SIGNIFICANT IS THE LOCAL CONTRIBUTION? AN INAUGURAL LECTURE, 2014/2015 PERCY CHUKS O.N, IANWA UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: HOW SIGNIFICANT IS THE LOCAL CONTRIBUTION? An inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Ibadan on Thursday, 7May, 2015 By PERCY CHUKS ONIANWA Professor of AnalyticalJEnvironmental Chemistry Faculty of Science University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF mADAN UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ibadan University Press Publishing House University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria. © University of Ibadan, 2015 Ibadan, Nigeria First Published 2015 All Rights Reserved ISBN: 978 - 978 - 8456-79-7 Printed by: 1badan University Printery UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • The Vice-Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administra- tion), Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic), The Registrar and other Principal Officers, Provost of the College of Medicine, Dean of the Faculty of Science, Deans of other Faculties and Postgraduate School, Dean of Students, Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen. Preamble I belong to the Department of Chemistry, that unique Department where even as a Professor, one may never have the opportunity of becoming the Head of Department before retiring! We can deduce easily from this that this opportunity of my giving this second inaugural lecture of the 20l4t15 session on behalf of the Faculty of Science, is a chance and rare priviledge for which I am thankful to God, my Dean and. my Head of Department. My lecture is the lih to be delivered from the Department of Chemistry since its inception. Our Department of Chemistry is organised into five specialist units: Analytical, Industrial, Inorganic, Organic and Physical. I belong to and currently coordinate the Analytical Chemistry unit which consists of ten lecturers out of the forty-two in the whole Department. The sub-discipline of Analytical Chemistry harnesses the subject matter of the other sub-disciplines towards the development of new analytical methods/techniques, and the assessment and improvement of existing ones. The other chemistry specialisations on the other hand employ the chemical analytical techniques in their operations. Details of the functions of analytical chemists and growth of the Analytical Chemistry unit in the Department _has already been reviewed by Prof. Oladele Osibanjo in his 2008 inaugural lecture which was the first from the Analytical unit. Mine is the second from that unit. In addition to fundamental research involving analytical methods development, most analytical chemists usually have another primary area of interest to which the analytical' techniques are applied. Thus, we have special application interests in food analysis, drug analysis, environmental samples analysis, and so on. I belong to the group which 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY specialises in environmental chemistry. My first exposure to research in Environmental Analytical Chemistry was as a final year project student of Professor Osibanjo during the 1971/78 academic session. I subsequently returned for the Masters programme in Analytical Chemistry and was supervised by Prof. S.O. Ajayi. My PhD programme was jointly supervised by Professors S.O. Ajayi and O. Osibanjo of the Department of Chemistry, along with Professor A. Egunyomi of the Department of Botany, on the use of bioindicators for monitoring atmospheric .heavy metal pollution. From then, these three eminent professors had shaped the direction of my future research. Chemical Environmental Pollution A more generalised definition of the term 'pollution' may be adapted from that of the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspect of Marine Pollution (GESAMP). By this, "Pollution is the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the natural environment, resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, impairment of quality of ecological media and limitation of their use, and damage to physical infrastructure with consequent economic loss". My lecture is expectedly limited only to the introduction of chemical substances that possess any of the usual characteristics of substances classified as hazardous; i.e. substances that may be explosive, flammable, spontaneously combustible, poisonous, corrosive, toxic, ecotoxic, powerfully oxidising, or capable of liberating toxic gases when in contact with air or water (UNEP 2006). Chemical environmental pollution began to attract global attention, particularly in the developed countries, only after the second world war, from the 1950s. This was catalysed by the numerous incidents of the period, such as the severe deterioration of air quality as evident in the catastrophic London smog and the Donora (USA) smog, the Minamata tragedy, and the palpable fear of radiation contamination from DllC1ear sesctors and we&flOfI§ teete. Rapid illdtIg(ffai development following the war years only aggravated the 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY · , environmental problems in the 1960s and 1970s, and drastic protection-related laws and regulations were quickly enacted by most of the developed world nations. A classical example of such regulations is the 1970 USA Clean Air Act (Gerard and Lave 2005). Chemical pollution can affect every environmental media, mcluding air, surface water, ground water, sediment, soil, subsoil and biota. The complex interaction amongst these components ensures that the contamination of one often results in subsequent contamination of some or all others. The most important sources of pollution have been well recognized to be anthropogenic activities related to energy generation and use, transportation, waste disposal, agriculture, industrial production, civil constructions, and household domestic activities. A minor contribution to chemical contamination may also result from non- anthropogenic phenomena such as volcanic emissions, forest fires and biogenic emissions. A wide range of chemical pollutants are known to have deleterious effects on human health (table 1). Epidemiological statistics related to toxic chemical pollution can be somewhat staggering. A 2012 report by the Blacksmith Institute (now known as "Pure Earth" from March 2015), an international. not-for-profit organisation dedicated to pollution control in developing countries, indicates that about 125 million people are at risk from toxic pollution across 49 low to middle-income countries. Of these, about 20 million are children, who unfortunately are usually most susceptible to the impacts of chemical pollution. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has also reported that globally in 2004, 4.9 million deaths (8.3 per cent of total) and 86 million disability-adjusted life years (DAL Ys, which address a blend of death and disease impact) (5.7 per cent of total) were attributable to exposure to selected chemicals for which data were available. It regards this as being underestimated (Pruss-Ustun et al. 2011) as data was not available for quite a number of important chemical substances. 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 1: Health Outcomes and Examples of Suspected or Confirmed Linkages to Chemicals Health effect Suspected or. Examples (not comprehensive) Confirmed ' Number of Chemicals '0 --), . Asthma (via non- .j N!A inorganics (chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid); other respiratory sensitization) organics (ethylene oxide); -" pesticides (acephate, diazinon, malathion, safrotin) Cancer 1070 aromatics (benzene); aromatic amines (benzidine, 4,4' -methylenebis 2-chloroaniline); '" . combustion byproducts (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, polyaromatic hydrocarbons); . fibers/dust (asbestos, silica); halogenated compounds (methylene - chloride, trichloroethylene); inorganics (sulfuric acid); . , metals (arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel); other organics (butadiene, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde); pesticides (chlordane, DDT) i;;~:,.: ..;~-•." ;) Diabetes N/A combustion byproducts (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin); metals (arsenic), pesticides (N-2-pyridlmethyl-N'p-nitrophenyl urea) '';:,' ",-'. 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . ",- Table 1 contd. 466 aromatics (benzene); halogenated compounds (carbon tetrachloride, pentatchloroethane ); .'< metals (beryllium, chromium compounds, mercury, nickel and compounds); " other organics (methanol, methyl butyl ketone); ~., pesticides (aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, mipafox, leptophos, cyanofenphos) Neurotoxicity 201 • aromatics (benzene, toluene); ~.; halogenated compounds (trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride); ~..:. inorganics ( hydrogen sulfphide, phosphorus); metals (arsenic and compounds, lead and compounds, manganese and compounds, methylmercury, tin compounds); pesticides (aldrin, carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, diazinon, endosulphan, endrin, ", fonofos); phthalates ( dibutyl phthalate); other organics (caprolactum, cumene, ethylene, ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, methanol, polychlorinated biphenyls) ,- Reproductive Toxicity (e.g. 261 halogenated compounds (l-bromopropane, 2-bromopropane); metals Impaired Fertility, Birth (chromium and compounds, cobalt and compounds, lead and Defects) ." compounds, mercury); phthalates (dibutyl phthalate, di(2-ethylehexyl)phthalate (DEHP), benzylbutylphthlate); other organics (n-hexane); pesticides (1,2- dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP), mirex) 5 \ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table J contd. Skin Burns/Irritation; 867 isocyanates (chlorophenylisocyanate , hexamethylene diisocyanate, methyl isocyanate, methylene bisphenyl isocyanate, naphthylene Serious Eye Irritation! 892 diisocyanate) ; Damage; other organics (caprolactam, hydroxylamine); pesticides (guazatine, dodemorph, paraquat dichloride, sabadilla) Respiratory Irritation 224 Skin Sensitizers (e.g. 997 acid anhydrides (maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride, trimellitic Dermatitis, Allergy) anhydride); amines (ethylenediamine, triethanolamine); Respiratory Sensitizers 114 diisocyanates (methylene bisphenyl isocyanate, naphthylene (e.g. Allergy, Allergic diisocyanate, hexamethylene diisocyanate, toluene diisocyanate); Asthma) metals (chromium and compounds, nickel and compounds); other organics (formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde) Source: UNEP (2013) 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The global community recogruses the critical risks to mankind from chemical pollution, and is taking steps to mitigate these. At national, regional and international levels, various organs have been established to stem chemical pollution through the sound management of chemicals and wastes. At the global level, not less than fourteen UN agencies and their subsidiaries are involved in the management of chemicals and wastes. Notable examples are UNEP, OPCW, UNFCCC, WHO, FAO, UNIDO, lAEA, World Bank, etc. Several international conventions and protocols also address the management of chemicals and wastes to achieve sustainability in "green" economies. Examples include the Basel convention, the Stockholm convention, the Rotterdam convention, the Montreal protocol, the Minamata convention, the Kyoto protocol, the Bamako convention, etc. Nigeria is signatory to most of these conventions. The magnitude of the global chemical pollution problem differs among countries. We may broadly place countries in three categories for the purpose of describing the magnitude of the problem. On one extreme are the very developed countries which produce, consume and export very large quantities of chemicals and chemical products, and should therefore ordinarily be expected to have the highest chemical pollution problems. This is not the case however, because this group of countries often possess the capacity to deploy appropriate technologies for very sound management of chemicals and wastes. Appropriate regulations are in place in such countries, public awareness is usually high, and offenders are adequately sanctioned. The result in such countries is that chemical pollution has to a large extent been effectively curtailed. The other extreme includes the least developed countries which produce, import and consume very low quantities of chemical products. These countries do not possess the expensive technologies for chemicals and wastes management.· However, due to the usually low emissions levels, the environmental burden of pollutants is low and 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY chemical pollution is usually often not yet at critical levels. The countries most at risk belong to the third or "middle" category. These include countries often described as "middle- income", "emerging", "transition", to which our dear country, Nigeria, rightly belongs. Here, production, import and consumption figures for chemical products are relatively high, albeit not as much as for the developed countries. Unfortunately, the infrastructure for the sound management of chemicals and wastes is either also non-existent or very poorly developed (Adegoroye 1994). Pollution control regulations are often mouthed and hardly ever enforced. The result is often higher magnitudes of pollution problems than those of the developed countries. In Nigeria, chemical pollution issues have never been the subject of serious national discourse. Even the highly politicised hydrocarbon oil pollution of parts of the Niger Delta is often regarded more as "their problem" by the majority of persons from the other zones of the country. Reasons adducible for the lack of interest in pollution issues may include a high level of illiteracy, extreme superstition and corruption. Among the literate elite, there is also the lack of awareness of the risk levels and of incidents of local chemical pollution incidents. The average Nigerian only exhibits a momentary fleeting concern for a form of pollution that is physically visible, such as floating oil in a river, and heaps of garbage on street comers. This is a rather unfortunate situation that portends grave dangers in the event of a major environmental catastrophe. Chemical environ- mental pollution is a global problem and Nigeria has been contributing to its growth and history. A few examplesfof our contribution to global chemical pollution issues will illustrate this. Heavy Metals Pollution Heavy metals are often described as metals whose specific gravity values are greater than 5.0, and which are also toxic to man when they occur above certain relatively low threshold concentrations. The mechanism of toxicity is often at the 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY cellular lever, and may involve processes such as binding by chelation, ion-exchange, ion-replacement, etc, to critical functional groups of enzymes and other molecular structures that are important in physiological functions. The most toxic and infamous three of the heavy metals are lead, mercury and cadmium. Mercury acquired its infamy through the "minamatal> incident/disease in Japan.' By the early 1950s, Chisso: Corporation, a plastic manufacturing company, had dumped about 27 tons of mercury compounds into the Minamata bay, on the coast of the Shiranui Sea. Fishes in the bay became contaminated, and those who ate these also became poisoned and developed the "Minamata" disease characterised by numbness of limbs and lips, difficulty hearing or seeing, tremors in arms and legs, difficulty walking, and even brain damage. Some of those affected went crazy and shouted uncontrollably (Harada 1995; Ekino et al. 2007). Subsequently, poisoned women gave' birth to. severely deformed children (fig. 1). According to the Japanese government, some 2,955 people contracted the Minamata disease, out of which 1,784 died. " Fig. 1: Mother bathing a minamata-diseased "child", 9 ,I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Cadmium acquired notoriety through the "itai-itai" disease in Japan which resulted from the discharge of effluent containing cadmium compounds into the Jinzugawa River by the Mitsui Mining and Smelting Company around 1910. This con-taminated the drinking water and crops (particularly rice) irrigated with the water (Kasuya et al. 1992). Symptoms of the disease included kidney failure, softening of the bone, and severe pains in the bone (fig. 2). Fig. 2: A Japanese suffering from "itai-itai" disease. Lead has always been recognised as a neurological toxin, particularly to children. But the world did not have a classical case of lead poisoning-related disaster similar to those of cadmium and mercury, for reference, until Nigeria offered one in the form of the now classic incident of the Zamfara lead poisoning. The poisoning incident occurred in some seven villages within three local government areas (Anka, Bukkuyum and Maru) of Zamfara State (Lo et al. 2010; Plumlee et al. 2013). About 400 children are known to have so far died since March 2010, with about half of these deaths occurring within the first few months of the incident (Biya et al 2010; Blacksmith Institute 2011; Greig et al. 2014). This 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY lead pollution was derived from illegal artisanal mining for gold in these villages. The ores contained high levels of associated lead. The extraction procedure involved grinding, crushing, amalgamating and washing of the lead/gold bearing rocks, and some of these activities were carried out in the vicinities of homes (fig. 3). Soon, the topsoils, surface and ground water, as well as food items became contaminated. Children began to fall ill (fig. 4), and many died! Blood samples collected from 205 living children aged <5 years all revealed lead poisoning (2:10 JlgldL) , and 97% of children had levels above the threshold (2:45 JlgldL) for initiating " chelation therapy. Blood lead concentrations ranged from 33.3 to 445 JlgldL. Lead concentrations in' soil and dust ranged from 45 parts per million (ppm) to > 100,OQOppm; ~5% of family compounds exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standard (400 ppm) for areas where children are present (CDC'201G). In the words of top officials of the Blacksmith Institute (2011): "Never before has there been a lead poisoning epidemic of this magnitude anywhere in the world." Note that amalgamation, involving the use of very toxic mercury, is one of the steps involved in the artisanal extraction of gold . • Fig. 3: Crushing of lead/gold bearing rock in Zamfara. 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 4: A child being treated for lead poisoning in Zamfara State. The world rose to the occasion in support of Nigeria. To the rescue came several international agencies, including Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) which assisted with medical treatment and chelation therapy, the Blacksmith Institute and Terragraphics which carried out remediation by top soil replacement (fig. 5). The WHO,. UNICEF, USAID, and . others also supported. Aleogether, these organisations 'spent about US $2 million to execute the first phase of assessment, evaluation: treatment, evacuation' and vremediation. The Nigerian 'government, was then expected to provide the follow-up funding for the completion of the rehabilitation works. The Government eventually announced that it had completed the remediation at a cost of W837million (Nnodim 2013). 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 5: Evacuating lead-contaminated topsoil in a Zamfara village. Lead pollution also arises from the use of leaded compounds as anti-knock additives to gasoline. For this reasofi, the developed countries have all, since the 1980s, phased out the' use of leaded gasoline. Nigeria is one of the countries in the world that are yet to fully phase out the addition of lead to gasoline (table 2). Table 2: Amount of Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline, by Country Country Concentration, gIL Nigeria 0.65-0.74 Algeria 0.60 South Africa 0.33 Libya 0.60 Morocco 0.30 Tunisia 0.50 Sudan 0.40 United Kingdom (UK) 0.00 USA 0.00 Highest in the Worl'a 1.0 Source: Galadima et al. (2012) 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Pollution of Ogoniland Petroleum hydrocarbon oil pollution is of significant importance worldwide, and many classical examples abound. Most have resulted from major spill incidents during shipping accidents in international waters, or during accidents in the production process onshore and offshore. Celebrated classical cases include those of the Amoco Cadiz, Exxon Valdez, Atlantic Express, Gulf War spills, Deepwater Horizon, etc. The cases have all involved the spilling of hundreds of thousands of tons of crude hydrocarbon oils, with very grave consequences for the ecologies of the surroundings. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria has attained prominence worldwide for the political and humanitarian crisis arising from the ecological damage of the area due to crude oil pollution derived from the activities of oil companies. The problem was so visible and severe in Ogoniland (figs. 6 and 7) that the natives (Ogonis) resorted to self-help and forcibly shut down oil exploration and production activities in the area around the early 1990s. Subsequent illegal artisanal production of crude and refined oils by the natives in the region only further worsened the pollution problem (Pyagbara 2007). The Federal Government of Nigeria then had to invite the United Nations Environment Programm (UNEP) to carry out a comprehensive assessment of the crude oil-related pollution status of Ogoniland. 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 6: A village in Ogoniland in the midst of oil pollution. Fig. 7: An Ogoni man in his oil-polluted neighbourhood. 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Over a 14-month period, the UNEP team examined more than 200 locations, surveyed 122 kms of pipeline rights of way, reviewed more than 5,000 medical records and engaged over 23,000 people at local community meetings. Detailed soil contamination investigations were conducted at 69 sites. Altogether, more than 4,000 samples were analyzed, including water taken from 142 groundwater monitoring wells drilled specifically for the study, and soil extracted from 780 boreholes (UNEP 2011). The 262-page report, which is now a classical reference document, provided a systematic and scientific evidence for the contamination and damage of every ecological media in the region and called for a massive restoration and rehabilitation project by the Federal govern- ment, with adequate follow-up monitoring and assessment. The situation, once again, placed Nigeria prominently on the world map of chemical pollution problems. The Koko Toxic Waste Dump Incident The Koko toxic waste saga was a scandal of international proportion! Owing to the high level of public awareness of environmental issues in developed countries from the 1970s onwards, most communities in these countries refuse to allow industries to -dispose toxic wastes within their neighbour- h-oods. This has usually resulted in cland.sstine moves to trade such wastes to poorer countries where awareness is lacking or the money is critically needed (Vir 1989; Clapp 1994,2001). In 1987, following some unethical business agreements between some businessmen in Italy and one 67 years old Mr. Sunday Nana of Koko town in Delta State of Nigeria, five shiploads of highly toxic wastes departed the port of Pisa in Italy, headed for and deposited their deadly load on a portion of.land owned by Mr. Nana in Koko, for a rental fee of about $100 per month! 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 8: Section of stack of drums of toxic wastes dumped in Koko. The waste dumped in Koko consisted of about 3,780 tonnes of toxic materials that included about 8,000 drums of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), formaldehyde, asbestos dust, etc. (fig .. 8). They were clandestinely labelled as materials related to the building industry. Following the international uproar and diplomatic. row that resulted from the disclosure, the Italian government had to pay for the evacuation of the wastes back to Italy. But not before some damage had been done! Many of the 100 workers of the Nigerian Ports Authority who participated in the assessment and evacuation without the use of adequate protective gears became seriously ill and many received government compensation years later. Some of the drums leaked the toxic wastes into soil which was subsequently leached to contaminate water bodies in the area. Many cases of If, premature births were suddenly recorded in the local hospital during the period (Ihonvbere 1994). 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The Koko waste saga, though unfortunate, had its positive fallouts. The international community rose to the occasion and established the Basel Convention on the control of trans- . boundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal. The Federal' Government of, Nigeria immediately promulgated the Harmful Waste Decree 42 of 1988, which facilitated the establishment of the defunct Federal Environment Protection Agency (FEPA) that has now been replaced by the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA). These benefits notwithstanding, the episode represented another unfortunate contribution of Nigeria to the global database of international toxic waste/chemicals dumping. Incident of Smog in Lagos Smog is derived from the words "smoke" and "fog", and describes a hazy, toxic condition which overhangs the atmosphere of highly polluted large cities from time to time (fig. 9). It usually occurs early in the morning and lasts for several hours until disappearance towards late afternoon. Modem day type of smog is known as the "Los Angeles smog" or photochemical smog, or oxidising smog, and is mostly related to a high density of polluting automobiles in cities (fig. 10). Cities that have experienced smog incidents at some point in time include London, Los Angeles, Sao Paulo, New Delhi, Mexico City, Tokyo, Beijing, Cairo, New York, Calcutta, among others. It is currently the most significant environmental problem in some Chinese cities. 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 9: Smog over an Asian city. " . Lagos joined the league of these big "smoggy" cities on 12 October, 2005 when residents: woke up to behold a dense, hazy, eye-irritating and choking smog which reduced vitibility 'tremendously" and lasted till the later part of the day. Smog is known' to have deleterious ·effects on human health, physical strength. of materials (e.g. rubber), atmospheric quality; and on 'vegetation in· particular. There are three primary: ingredients for smog: nitrogen oxides, 'hydrocarbons and: ultraviolet radiation (Manahan 2000; Akinyemi 2007; Itua 2007; fig.lO). The first two are readily available in a city such as Lagos with a very high density of automobiles (about one million vehicles ply the streets of" Lagos daily). Reactions in hot internal combustion engines of automobiles .'readily yield nitrogen oxides. Unburnt hydrocarbons leak from many parts of automobiles into the atmosphere, and is supplemented by other sources such as household and industrial electricity generators. In the presence of sunlight, the nitrogen oxides undergo complex stepwise photochemical reactions that lead to the formation of the very active scavenging and powerfully oxidising hydroxyl radical. This radical oxidises the hydrocarbons to a variety of 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY oxidised particulate products which are suspended in the air and cause the poor visibility. The particulates include aldehydes, peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs), tropospheric ozone, and a variety of volatile organic compounds. The occurrence of a temperature inversion which inhibits thermal convection usually enhances the smog" phenomenon. It is rather surprising that, given the ready availability of the precursor ingredients, there has been only one major smog incident in Lagos. However, it should be noted that Lagos, and perhaps other fast growing Nigerian cities, such as Ibadan, Kano, Port Harcourt, etc, are very susceptible to incidents of smog. The classical case of the 1952 smog incident in London lasted for four days, and resulted in the immediate death of about 4000 persons, and varied health injuries to some other 100,000! (Bell et al. 2004). The toll for the Lagos incident has never been known! 0, Hydrocarbon free radicals react further with species such as NO... to produce P~l\.;,~a.ldehyde s, and other smog components. Fig. 10: GeneraIised mechanism of smog formation (Manahan 2000). 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Contribution to Global Warming via GHG Emissions Global warming and climate change are the topical environmental issues of the last ten years or more. It is already well established that anthropogenic releases of greenhouse gases (most especially carbon dioxide) is the prime cause of global warming. The greenhouse gases distort the natural heat balance of the earth by absorbing and trapping heat-bearing infrared radiation that is reflected from the surface of the earth into space. Global efforts have been targeted towards the reduction of this emission. Industrial production and other processes involving fossil fuel combustion lead to the release of large amounts of carbon dioxide which is the main culprit despite its relatively low global warming potential. About 50% of the total 2011 global greenhouse gas emission (43,372.71 MtC02e) was contributed by only six countries (China, USA, Russia, Japan, Brazil and India), out of about 188 countries for which the 2011 inventory was made (table 3). Nigeria is not a major contributor to this problem, being only the 25th largest contributor with 0.75% of the total. Nigeria is however the second largest contributor in Africa, next to South Africa. But, should Nigeria even be ranked up to the 25th contributor? Do we come anywhere near this ranking in terms of volume of manufactured goods that ought to lead to more fossil fuel combustion as is the case with China? We certainly are not. We .rank about 136 in Gross National Product. Our newly rebased high GDP has been derived mostly from sectors of the economy that are not high energy consuming. We have been contributing that much from gas flaring, cooking with firewood, kerosene, use of electricity, home and industrial generators, etc. Nigeria is clearly one of the countries that the global community can focus on to achieve some reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. However, the total contribution from Nigeria can still be significantly reduced if appropriate policies for this purpose are put in place and implemented. 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 3: 2011 Greenhouse Gas Emission by Selected Countries Country GHG Emission (MtCOze)* World 43372.71 Angola 223.35 Argentina 372.46 Australia 563.45 Bangladesh 128.85 Benin 16.98 Botswana 11.46 Brazil 1131.10 Cameroon 89.51 Canada 716.21 Chad 38.36 China 10552.61 Cote d'Ivoire 56.85 Cuba 53.83 Denmark 53.69, Egypt 286.32 Ethiopia , 124.61 Finland' , 70.19 France 487.39 Gabon {'.78 Germany 882.93 Ghana 28.03 Guinea 19.96 Hungary 65.75 India 2486.17 Iran 715.53 Israel 87.03 Italy 491.07 Japan 1307.41 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ta8le 3 contd. Kenya 46.26 Korea, Rep. (South) 687.74 Kuwait 195.68 Libya 117.00 Mexico 699.05 Morocco 88.45 Netherlands 205.76 New Zealand 70.95 Niger 19.83 Nigeria 324.51 Norway 50.00 Pakistan 308.38 Philippines 149.56 Poland 374.42 Portugal 74.02 Russian Federation 2374.31 Saudi Arabia 532.89 Sierra Leone 5.92 South Africa 456.85 Spain 351.59 Sweden 59.68 Switzerland 49.95 Turkey 403.65 United Arab Emirates 211.21 United Kingdom 543.55 United States 6550.10 Venezuela 267.00 Zimbabwe 20.85 * Data do not include land-use change and forestry Source: World Resource Institute (2011) 23 NIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Contribution to Other Global Chemical Environmental Problems Nigeria's contribution to global chemical environmental issues spans more than the examples highlighted above. A few more brief examples should underscore this. One source of exposure of children to lead is from the use of lead in the formulation of household interior and exterior paints, and in pigments for children's toys. There has been concerted global efforts to drastically reduce and even eliminate the inclusion of lead in paints and toys.' Some countries have since phased this out, while in 2009 the USA and WHO took proactive steps to initiate the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paints which was geared towards the phasing. out of the manufacture and sale of leaded paints. Today, Nigeria's paint still ranks among one of the highest in lead levels (Adebamowo et al. 2006, 2007; Nduka et al. 2008). The African Pesticide Stockpile Programme is another global issue bordering on a problem that is unique to several African countries, including Nigeria. Over the years, many African countries have accumulated a stockpile of obsolete hazardous pesticides dotted over many areas of each country. Obsolete stockpiles cause cancer, allergies, reproductive disorders, damage to the nervous system and disruption to the immune system (The World Bank 2013). Out of the estimated 50,000 tonnes of the stockpile, Nigeria is said to have a rather -disproportionately low contribution. of 6000 tonnes (Akinboade 201O)! But, did we have=to contribute at all? International organisations (especially the World Bank, GEF, FAO, WHO, WWF, UNEP, CropLife, etc.) and the governments of Germany, Canada, Japan, Sweden, .Switzerland and the EU have made significant progress at resolving the problem through prevention, safe evacuation and disposal (fig. 11). . 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 11: Disposal of obsolete pesticide stockpiles in Africa (World Bank 2013). Acid rain was perhaps the most serious global issue of the 1970s. The industrial emission of acidic, polluting gaseous oxides of sulphur and nitrogen was the major source. It became such a big problem due to the transboundary transport of this form of pollution, often far beyond the vicinities of the sources of emission. Global and regional cooperative actions were put in place to stem the tide of acid rains that destroyed vast expanses of vegetation, water bodies, and adversely affected respiration in the most susceptible of human populations. Today, acid rain is no longer a problem in Europe and the Americas. Unfortunately, it is still one in the Delta region of Nigeria, arising from indiscriminate and continuous gas flaring in addition to other industrial emissions (Nduka et al. 2008; Efe 2010). The transboundary shipment of electronic/electrical wastes (e-waste) from the developed countries and the subsequent dumping in third world countries has become a subject of global proportion, and is receiving huge international attention. Nigeria is one of such dumping 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY grounds of these end-of-lif~ electronic/electrical equipment which are ultimately disposed by dumping and burning, sometimes after stripping them of some useful components. Apart from their, nuisance values as solid wastes, these e- wastes contain very toxic substances such as metals (Cd, Pb, Hg, Li), polyvinyl chloride, brominated flame retardants, etc, which can be leached out into environment media, under certain environmental conditions (Olafisoye et al. 2013; Sindiku et al. 2014). It has been estimated that in 2009, about 3 million tonnes of such electrical/electronic equipments were imported into Nigeria, out of which about 75% were second- hand, and would soon end up in the dumps (Egwali and Imouokhome 2013; Breivik et al. 2014; Sullivan 2014). Managing the Problem: Need for Assessment and Monitoring The foregoing examples are still not exhaustive of evidence of Nigeria's contribution to the global chemical pollution problems. They however serve adequately to affirm that Nigeria's contribution is not insignificant. Almost every major chemical environmental issue has a Nigerian stamp on it. Should there be a world map drawn, of countries contribution to the global pollution problem, Nigeria will certainly be located with a bright spot. The solution to the problem lies in effective environmental management that must include the critical steps of assessment, monitoring, remediation, rehabilitation, prevention, reduction, sound disposal, public information, risk assessment, regulations and enforcement. Assessment and monitoring are the critical first few steps in the quest for scientific evaluation and decision making on the problems of the environment (fig. 12). Data obtained from environmental assessment are valuable for a variety of purposes such as understanding spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants, prediction of future status, land-use planning, risk assessment, planning of emergency response, formulation and enforcement of regulations, and determining the effectiveness of remediation actions. Much of 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY my research contribution to the solution of the problem is , related to the assessment of various components of environmental media, and the modelfing of data obtained for useful management decisions. WISDOM ~6. UNDERSTANDING "..B, ; "i ~ ~ KNOWLEDGE ~j '..• , ". •, cC ~e >•c-8-8 E• :> INFORMATION -~~! s ~I z:; ! .ii0.5 ! DATA' t...l,:. .E UlI- OBS ERVA'1'ION' c and .2 MEASUREMENT ~ ~> Increasl ng subjscllvity • Fig. 12: The staircase of knowing (Roots 1997), Some of My Contributions Analytical Methods Development and Assessment During some months in 1999 and 2000, I was on a Third World Academy of Science (TWAS)-sponsored study leave to the International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Sciences (lCENS) located on the campus of the University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica. ICENS had then completed a geochemical mapping of the topsoils of Jamaica and had obtained some startling results. The study showed naturally elevated levels of cadmium, lead and arsenic in some parts of the country. Analysis of the samples had been carried out mainly by neutron activation analysis (NAA) in addition to a few other techniques. There was then the need to analyse some plants, foods, and other biological materials to ascertain if these metals had also accumulated in them. The NAA configuration used at ICENS was noted not to be 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY sufficiently sensitive to determine some heavy metals at the levels at which they occur in many biological samples. Ordinarily, NAA is one of the most accurate and interference- free techniques for simultaneous multi-elemental analysis because of its none-destructive testing capability that frees it from losses associated with sample pretreatment. Usually in NAA, samples are directly irradiated with neutrons to induce radioactivity in samples. The gamma spectrum of such products are then analysed and the intensities related to the concentrations of the analytes. The neutron source at ICENS was a low-power research nuclear reactor (the Slowpoke-2) with a thermal rower of 20 Kw, and a typically maximum flux of about 10 n cm-2s-12 . I was charged with finding a way to improve the detection limit of the use of the Slowpoke reactor for NAA of biological materials. Working closely with my research hosts, Professor Gerald Lalor and Dr. Mitko Vutchkov, we reasoned that the biological matrix could first be converted into an inorganic-type matrix by a controlled dry ashing process, and the consequent mass-reduction factor then considered in the direct analysis of the ash. It was likely that this proposal would not be straight-forward as dry ashing itself often leads to some elemental loss, and the new matrix achieved would really not be exactly identical to the semi- inorganic ones usually more easily analysed by NAA. However, by careful control of the procedures of ashing, and the thermal flux of the reactor, we eventually succeeded in developing a sample treatment protocol which improved the detection limit, about tenfolds, for some 20 elements, with acceptable margins of errors relative to what would have been obtained for the unashed samples (fig. 13). While the dry ashing produced improved analytical results for samples that were of low ash contents, the increased background gamma counts observed in ashed samples was found to sometimes negate the detection limit gain, particularly in certain plant samples which had high ash contents but low levels of analyte (Lalor et al. 2003). 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 30.0I IJMedian • Standard Deviation I 25.0!-~============~-~-fH ~g., 20.0 ".0a 15.0.\-----------------:=-n-U-i't-1:rlH ~ !;! 10.0~-t-:3~ 5.0 '-__'_::I:_·;.;;____;.;.;._.•..•,.,._r:_.n___l._t:H1Ht-iIHJ ..i..rII ~I • I I I 0.0Ca Ti Fe Mn Na VKLa MgSm Cd Cr AI Zn Rb Dy Br Sb As CI Fig. 13: Relative errors of results from ashed samples compared to direct plant tissue analysis. In another of such studies, I assessed the features of analysis of moss plant samples by four very varied techniques, the atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS),· differential pulse anodic stripping votammetry (DPASV), direct current plasma spectroscopy (DCPS), and xray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) (wavelength dispersive configuration). The assessment was necessitated by suggestions in the literature that the disparities observed in metal levels in mosses from different studies may sometimes be due to differences in the analytical techniques utili sed. It had been suggested that the complex nature of the matrix of the moss may account for certain uniqueness in its analysis by different techniques. Since I was then studying levels of metals in mosses as indicator of atmospheric pollution, the assessment came in handy as not only a quality assurance tool for my own study, but a contribution to the controversy of the period. The equipment were made available to me in three different institutions in Sweden through the Swedish International Fellowship in Chemistry. My main observation was that results obtained by AAS, DCPS and DPASV did not differ significantly, while that obtained by XRF tended to be somewhat slightly but systematically higher. There were issues related to the difficulty with the standard addition 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY procedure by XRF for analytes such as iron that often occurred in very high concentrations in the moss samples. Given that matrix interference and particle/grain size are very critical in NAA, and that it is virtually impossible to obtain cheap matching standards for standard calibration curves, the only option had been to analyse by the standard addition method (Onianwa 1987). Study of Mosses as Bioindicators of Atmospheric Pollution / Direct analysis of air samples for pollutants may often be cumbersome, time consuming and expensive. Sometimes, only relativity in pollution levels between different areas is required, and in such cases the use of indicators becomes very valuable to attain cheap, integrative estimates of temporal and spatial variations in pollutant levels. As early as the 1970s, some moss species found in Europe had been identified for this purpose and applied in different modes (Ruhling and Tyler 1973; Rasmussen and Johnsen 1976; Onianwa 2001). Mosses are lower green plants that have the potential of being good indicators of atmospheric metal levels because they are epiphytic, have no developed vascular system and cuticle, and receive nutrients directly from the atmosphere. The leaves are known to contain chemical substances, including uronic acids, that can trap different kinds of pollutants. A preliminary investigation of some local species obtained from various parts of Nigeria appeared to reflect expected variations in pollution levels (Onianwa and Egunyomi 1983). We then carried out further empirical investigations on a few species to understand the sorption and accumulation characteristics towards metals. Some questions were clearly pertinent here; e.g., Can the active uptake sites be saturated? What are the accumulation capacities? Are some metals displaced, as in classical ion exchange systems, when other heavy metals are sorbed? Species studied for this purpose were: Rhacopilopsis trinitensis (c. Muell) Britt. Et Dix., Stereophyllum virens Card., and Thuidium gratum (c. Muell) Jaeg. Sorption was found to be high even at relatively high 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY heavy metal levels in various solutions (table 4), while exchange and displacement of other metals were minimal, suggesting some mechanism of ion exchange and chelation for the uptake, and a high accumulation potential (Onianwa et al. 1986a) (table 5). Subsequently, these and several more species were used to carry out a detailed survey of atmospheric heavy metal deposition patterns in the southwestern region of Nigeria. Gradients in ambient metal pollution levels were to a large extent reflected in the levels in mosses. Contour maps of heavy metal levels in mosses were derived. Some surprising local hot spots were also identified. For example, very high copper levels (100-1000 p,g/g compared to background levels of 10-30 p,g/g) were found in forest mosses around Ondo State, which appeared to have been derived from the heavy use of certain copper-based fungicides in cocoa farms of the area (Onianwa et al. 1986b, Onianwa and Ajayi 1987, Onianwa 1987). Subsequently, the study was also conducted for parts of the northern and southeastern regions of Nigeria (tables 6 and 7). We also addressed and proffered opinions on the controversies regarding inter-species variation in accumulation capacities of mosses, and the significance or otherwise of uptake of metals from the substrates. 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4: Sorption of Pb, Cu and Cd from Neutral Solutions by the Mosses Cone. of metals (p.g ml.i'} % Pb sorbed % Cu sorbed % Cd sorbed Rt" sv Tga Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg 10 90.0 94.6 92.5 80.4 71.7 79.2 95.3 85.4 90.8 20 87.2 93.6 95.5 85.6 80.8 87.6 95.8 94.3 93.4 50 90.2 98.2 95.0 87.9 86.6 88.8 96.1 99.4 95.9 80 90.7 96.1 95.0 87.1 87.0 91.2 94.3 94.9 93.0 100 79.8 93.1 92.5 85.1 87.5 91.8 94.8 93.4 93.0 200 91.6 94.8 95.6 84.0 89.2 88.2 90.0 88.7 85.8 500 97.3 99.0 94.3 65.0 59.4 50.3 74.7 68.9 61.7 1000 96.6 93.7 81.8 35.7 30.8 26.6 46.0 50.7 39.3 20 (mixed) 98.9 98.6 98.6 87.3 83.2 88.1 97.3 96.9 96.6 100 (mixed) 93.0 97.9 97.8 66.3 72.9 82.8 89.9 88.4 83.3 200 (mixed) 97.1 96.9 94.8 92.0 87.9 87.1 94.7 93.8 90.7 "Rt, R. trinitensis; Sv, S. virens; Tg, T. gratum 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 5: Proportion of Original Metal Contents released from Moss-Tis~ue upon Sorption of Pb Cone of Pb %Ca %Mg %Zn %Mn % Fe %Cu solution (p,g mL"') Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg Rt Sv Tg 10 1.0 0.7 0.6 12 5.6 3.4 21 8.0 2.6 NO 1.3 1.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 21 15 5.5 20 0.8 1.0 0.6 16 7.6 3.1 21 14 2.6 NO 0.8 1.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 26 16 23 50 1.2 J.l 1.2 19 6.0 5.7 22 8.0 0.9 NO 1.5 1.5 0.2 0.2 0.4 30 21 16 80 J.J I.5 J.J 18 9.2 6.0 17 12 2.6 NO J.J 1.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 21 16 8.2 100 1.2 1.6 1.6 20 14 7.6 25 8.0 1.7 NO 2.1 1.8 0.2 0.1 0.1 23 12 2.7 200 2.1 3.6 5.3 23 17 14 21 6.9 1.7 NO 2.1 2.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 23 15 8.2 500 5.9 28 30 68 39 33 .10 15 2.6 NO 4.8 7.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 26 26 2.7 1000 28 62 65 108 57 44 II 18 13 20 12 15 0.2 0.1. 0.1 21 16 3.0 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 6: Summary of Concentrations of the Metals in Roadside Moss Samples from the South-west Region of Nigeria Zones Pb Zn Cd Cu Ni Higher Pollution Mean 136± 77 99±34 0.35 ± 0.21 .26.3 ± 6.0 10.2 ± 2.7 Range 26.7 - 281 53.4-153 <0.05-0.70 ·i'l.4-38.1 5.2 - 13.5 Medium Pollution Mean 42 ± 19 150± 110 0.16 ± 0.17 17.8 ± 4.8 8.0 ± 2.3 Range 12.4 -127 31.6 - 496 <0.05 -0.77 8.1-29.7 3.6 - 15.7 Low Pollution Mean 14.3± 7.5 70±34 0.12±0.15 14.1 ± 6.2 7.0 ± 2.3 Range 6.6 - 33.3 26.3 - 140 <0.05 -0.65 8.1 - 30.9 3.5 - 13.5 Source: Onianwa and Ajayi (1987) Table 7: Summary of Results for Moss Metal Concentrations (ppm) in'Southeastern and Northern Regions Metal Parameter Northern Region South-eastern Region Average for Entire Study Area Pb Mean 44.4 58.8 -* Range 1.25 - 327 7.0 - 272 Zn Mean 38.2 60.7 50.9 Range 11.6-189 12.5-319 Cd Mean 1.38 1.01 1.17 Range <0.02 - 4.6 <0.02 - 4.2 Cu Mean 12.4 10.4 11.3 Range 4.0 -79.5 2.1 - 68.8 Ni Mean 5.38 5.78 I 5.60 Range <0.05 - 16.5 <0.05 - 18.1 *Difference between northern and south-eastern region is statistically significant 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Studies on Top-Soil Heavy Metals Pollution Topsoil is a critical sink for assessing the health of the total environment. It receives direct deposition from the atmo- sphere, leachates from runoffs, and direct deposition of solid wastes on it. It is not mobile and can thus integrate deposition over time. The soil can be a useful indicator of overall pollution of the environment as long as suitable control samples can be obtained to enable distinction between natural mineralization and anthropogenically derived contents. With several of my research students, I have focused assessment on topsoils in Ibadan and elsewhere mainly on heavy metals (especially lead) composition. We have studied a number of "hotspots" as well ana non-hotspot locations. One of the really alarming results was obtained in 1992 when we studied the distribution of lead and other heavy metals in soil and vegetation in the vicinity of a battery factory (the Exide Batteries Ltd.), which had been established in 1982 and located in the Kute area, near Monatan in Ibadan (Onianwa and Fakayode 2000). The factory, which derives its lead for battery production by smelting and refining impure lead obtained from scrap batteries, was surprisingly co-located with a primary school (now converted to a secondary school) right adjacent to it (fig. 14). Remember the Zamfara lead poisoning episode of 201O! Topsoil lead levels were as high as 4000 ppm within the playground of the then primary school, and declined gradually in all directions (table 8). Even at 1 km from the factory, the levels had not declined to nonnal background levels at control points within the city. The factory was thus a really dangerous hotspot of lead emission in all directions from the site. The questions I have since then asked are: Which facility was first sited at this location? The school or the battery factory? Who gave the approval for the location of the second facility? How knowledgeable on environmental pollution issues are staff of the town planning authority? In what ways could the exposure to such high levels of lead have affected the children? We note that the factory was shut down in 2000 purely for economic reasons of non-viability. 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Although lead toxicity is likely to be more fatal in children of less than five years, it is still significantly serious in adults where it is known to cause high blood pressure, muscular and joint pains, decline in mental functioning, memory loss, reduced sperm count, and miscarriages in pregnancy. We repeated the study in 2014 (Atere 2014) and still found levels of lead in soil still as high as 4000-5000 ppm in the outer perimeters of the factory. Heavy metals persist in the environment! Table 8: Concentrations (mg kg") of Lead in Soil and Plant aro~nd the Battery Factory Transect Distance from Soil Plant Factory (m) NW 0 2010 ± 1400 1350 ± 1050 NW 20 1160± 590 1090 ±780 NW 50 294 ± 150 830 ± 120 NW 100 150 ± 70 109± 68 NW 250 83 ±43 352 ± 56 NW 500 77 ±71 77±33 NW 750 39±23 52 ±25 NW 1000 290 ± 330 154± 230 SW 0 4100 ± 1800 970±730 SW 50 3150 ± 2000 780 ± 410 SW 100 2790 ±2000 440± 190 SW 250 2500 ± 1900 490± 270 SW 500 1450 ± 740 186± 100 NE 0 950 ± 890 3640 ± 2100 NE 50 860± 200 790± 580 NE 100 1060 ± 480 310 ± 230 NE 250 140± 36 170± 100 NE 500 104± 53 61 ±35 NE 750 69 ±39 79 ±41 W 0 3010 ± 2100 1710 ± 790 SE 0 590 ± 1500 24oo± 1500 SE 50 1400 ±6oo 2000± 1300 SE 100 830± 54 1110± 580 CTR*l About 15 krn 11.4±7.2 10.6± 6.4 CTR 2 About 15 krn 14.7 ± 9.1 9 ± 13 CTR 3 About 15 krn 10.5 ± 9.3 10.7 ± 9.0 * Controls 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 14: The school located directly beside the battery factory (April, 2015). Etim and Onianwa (2012) have also investigated lead levels in soils in the vicinity of the military shooting range in Ojoo area of Ibadan. As suspected, levels were very high at the impact bems or targets, reaching levels of 5680 ppm in topsoil amf 6370 in subsoil at this point, compared to about 20 ppm at background control points within the city. The shooting range is located in some remote location from normal residential area, and it is pleasing to note that migration of the high lead levels from the bems was not yet significant. At about 250 m from the bern, lead levels were within the background control levels. Copper levels were also elevated about IS-fold at the bem. Speciation studies indicated that most of the lead in the soil was held in the non- exchangeable soil phases. Further monitoring of this vicinity is essential. We have similarly investigated the levels of lead and other metals in topsoil and vegetation in several other 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY r important locations, including industrial estates in Ota and Ikeja (Fakayode and Onianwa 2002; Etim and Onianwa 2013), inside nursery school playgrounds and classroom dusts in Ibadan (Ibrahim et al. 2002), automobile repair workshops (Onianwa et al. 2001) and roadsides of Ibadan city (Onianwa 2001). Within the city of Ibadan, we have also determined topsoils contamination from hydrocarbon oils (Onianwa 1995), and aerial deposition of suphate-sulphur (Onianwa and Babajide 1993). The results generally provide baseline/current data that indicate some growing degree of contamination, and the need to be proactive to curtail the trend. Studies on Surface and Groundwater Qualities Water is a valuable resource for drinking, recreation, transportation, domestic cooking and washing, aquaculture, aquatic life support, livestock production, irrigation and industrial production. Each of these uses of water requires the water to possess certain specific characteristics. Water that naturally meets these characteristics is in very short supply in comparison to the magnitude of need. Of the estimated 1.4 x 1018m3 of water on Earth, more than 97% is in the oceans. Only about 35 x 1,015m3 of Earth's water is freshwater, out of which about 0.3% is held in accessible rivers, lakes and reservoirs (Shiklomanov and Rodda 2003; Pimentel et al. 2004). Unfortunately, much of the available freshwater is not fit for purpose due to pollution related to discharge of sewage, agricultural wastes, industrial effluent, municipal runoffs, municipal wastes, domestic/kitchen wastes, and oil spills (UN Water 2005). Water quality assessment is therefore critical for determining the degree of contamination of local resources. My research team has studied the qualities of a number of surface and ground water resources in various parts of the country. Sediments of rivers integrate the long- term conditions of surface water bodies and thus often represent a better indicator of water quality. Over a one-year period of monthly sampling, we investigated the quality 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY status ofQua Iboe and Cross rivers (Umoren and Onianwa 2012), each at seven specially selected, spatially dispersed and non-visibly impacted points. Apart from determining the general physicochemical characteristics of the waters and sediments, analyte concentration data was used, in conjunction with thermodynamic data and the PHREEQCI model, to carry out chemical speciation of the major ions. For the Qua Iboe river system, the speciation showed that the predominant species were the free ions of Ni2+ (97.6%), C02+ (97.7%), Zn2+ (92.6%), Cu2+ (70.2%1' and Pb2+ (62.0%) as well as the hydroxide species, CrOH + (58.7%) and chloride species, CdCe+ (82.3%). From the model calculations, solubilities of the .minerals atacamite, tenorite and pyromorphite showed positive values of the saturation indices, which indicate supersaturation and mineral precipi- tating conditions of the water for these species (table 9). 39 --~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 9: Saturation Indices of Some Mineral Phases at Some Stations in Qua Iboe River System Saturation Indices (SI) Phase log Formula SQ-! SQ-2 SQ-3 SQ-4 SQ-5 SQ-6 Ksp Anglesite -7.28 -7.80 -7.12 -3.15 -2.38 -2.70 -7.91 PbS04 Atacamite 3.04 2.42 .3.09 -12.55 -10.53 -11.79 14.26 CU2(OHhCI Cd(OHh -1.64 -1.41 -0.13 -10.61 -10.25 -10.35 13.73 Cd(OHh CdCr204 -4.00 -5.22 -0.14 5.09 4.82 4.15 15.00 CdCr204 Cerrusite -1.62 -2.13 -1.63 -2.16 -1.61 -2.05 -3.24 PbC03 Co(OHh -7.94 -8.24 -8.15 -8.43 -7.92 -7.98 12.30 Co(OHh Cr02 -7.17 -7.75 -6.13 -3.36 -4.00 -4.28 -19.14 Cr02 CuCr204 -6.71 -8.27 -4.31 5.13 4.73 3.93 16.22 CuCr204 Cuprite -1.23 -1.74 -0.84 -3.22 -2.09 -2.56 -1.91 CU20 Hydrocerrusite -1.52 -2.74 -1.77 -9.14 -7.95 -9.19 1.85 Pb3(OHh(C03h Malachite 0.25 -0.30 0.53 -6.23 -5.32 -5.85 5.90 CU2(OHhC03 Nantokite -7.13 -7.47 -6.96 -3.45 -2.32 -2.71 -6.77 CuCI Ni(OHh 0.89 0.64 0.64 -8.58 -7.88 -7.94 12.75 Ni(OHh Otavite -1.13 -1.22 0.58 -4.13 -3.32 -3.49 -1.77 CdC03 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 9 contd. Paralaurionite -2.51 -2.79 -2.76 -4.37 -3.71 -4.24 0.20 PbCIOH Pb3(P04h -4.41 -6.02 -4.72 -5.92 -5.15 -6.19 -19.97 Pb3(p04h PbHP04 -1.45 -2.16 -1.49 1.06 1.41 1.07 -15.73 PbHP04 Pyromorphite 4.04 1.45 3A4 3.19 4.96 3.06 -47.90 Pb5(P04)3C1 Smithsonite -3.43 -3.92 -3.44 -4.38 -4.07 -4.16 0.44 ZnC03 Tenorite 2.89 2.77 2.92 -3.34 -3.12 -3.35 7.65 CuO Tsumebite 0.65 -0.38 0.37 -9.62 -9.00 -9.94 2.53 Pb2CuP04(OH)3:3H20 Zincite 0.75 0.58 0.52 -6.18 -6.33 -6.36 11.20 ZnO ZnC03:H2O -3.19 -3.69 -3.22 -4.16 -3.86 -3.95 0.14 ZnC03:H2O CO2 -6.95 -7.25 -6.70 -0.94 -0.46 -0.53 -7.83 CO2 O2 -0.74 -0.72 -0.82 -0.74 -0.85 -0.78 -2.89 O2 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Akporido and Onianwa (2015) also assessed heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbon levels over a period of two years at some selected locations of the Esi river, a major water body in the Western Niger Delta region, with the purpose of fingerprinting the contaminants and determining the provenance. General physicochemical parameters for surface and subsurface waters were also documented during the study. Nickel:Vanadium ratios in the water and sediment tended to closely match the values for Forcados blend, which suggested that some contamination must have been derived from oil exploration activities in the area. One of my doctoral students (Olayiwola 2012) studied the Osun river system for which only very little chemical quality- related information was available in the literature. It was surprising to find out that even the Ogun-Osun River Basin Development Authority had never embarked on quality analysis of the river system, did not have the capacity/facility to so do, and had no existing quality data for parts of the river network. We sampled along the main course of the river and 31 of its tributaries, locating 90 carefully selected points for water collection and 63 for sediment collection. Sampling was carried out bimonthly for a period of 24 months at all these sites. Using the Pratti model, water from 37% of the sampling points were found not to be fit for drinking. Data obtained for BOD, phosphate and nitrate were found to give good time series model fits with high regressions, and were thus used to make a LO-year projection of the concentrations of BOD, phosphate and nitrate (i.e. 2008 to 2018) in water at some of the sampling points, baring changes in the current nature and trend of anthropogenic inputs. These three quality parameters are valuable for estimating gross organic pollution and the tendency towards eutrophication. Within the city of Ibadan, the rivers and streams have also been studied for the levels of various quality parameters (Onianwa and Essien 1999; Onianwa et al. 2001; Onianwa et al. 2012). 42 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Surface waters and sediments of lakes are particularly suitable for indicating the general levels and trends of pollution in an environment, particularly if the water body is not located close to a polluting hotspot. Lakes are fed by and drained by streams and rivers, but because they represent a large relatively stagnant mass of water, they tend to better reflect the degree of accumulated pollutants. Four lakes in Ibadan city were recently studied by my MSc student (Anazonwu 2012) to determine the physicochemical and heavy metals levels. The aim was partly to compare her data with that which had been obtained in a 1977-1979 survey carried out by Mr. Casper Mombeshora, then a doctoral student in the Department of Chemistry. This comparison should indicate if any significant changes in metal levels in the aquatic system had occurred over a period of thirty years. The data obtained by Mombeshora had been published as: Mombeshora et al. (1981), Mombeshora et al. (1983), Ajayi and Mombeshora (1989). The lakes studied by Anazonwu were the lIT A lake, the Awba lake of our University, the Agodi lake and the Eleyele lake. Mombeshora studied only the first three of these. The comparison (table 10) indicated mostly insignificant differences in surface water metal levels. Significant differences involving increases after the elapsed period were noted in the sediment contents' of metals such as Co, Ni, Pb and Zn. The factor of amplification was quite significant for lead in the lITA (x8.5) and Awba lake (xI6) sediments. As pointed out earlier, sediments are a better indicator of the overall status of the aquatic system than the surface water. 43 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 10: Comparison of Average Results obtained by Ajayi & Mombeshora /Mombeshora et al. (1977-79 studies) with that of Anazonwu (2012 studies) Lake Media Cone. Unit Study Cd Co Cu Cr Ni Ph Zn Awba Sediment mg/kg Anazonwu* 1.31 20.6 27.5 41.1 20.3 54.1 141 Awba Sediment mg/kg Ajayi &M.** 1.2 30.5 48.7 14.5 27.4 26.0 91.5 Agodi Sediment mg/kg Anazonwu 1.36 10.3 27.1 45.0 18.3 50.3 223 Agodi Sediment mg/kg Ajayi & M. 1.5 23.9 48.0 20.7 29.6 77.5 165 UTA Sediment mg/kg Anazonwu 1.13 18.0 20.7 48.0 26.6 21.0 74.0 UTA Sediment mg/kg Ajayi & M. 1.2 41.2 44.2 17.1 29.3 20.4 85.0 Eleye\e Sediment mg/kg Anazonwu 1.13 18.4 33.9 31.6 22.4 48.1 155 Eleyele Sediment mg/kg Ajayi &M. -*** Awba S. Water+ iJ,g/L Anazonwu 4.8 6.3 0.63 13.0 15.0 34.0 5.4 Awba S. Water iJ,g/L Mombeshora'" 5.8 1.9 0.9 1.1 2.1 1.6 Agodi S. Water iJ,g/L Anazonwu 5.9 13 3.8 15 15 7.7 13 Agodi S. Water iJ,g/L Mombeshora 8.4 2.6 2.3 1.6 4.9 4.7 IITA S. Water iJ,g/L Anazonwu 5.8 15.4 2.4 12 21.4 11 12 UTA S. Water iJ,g/L Mombeshora 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.3 1.5 Eleyele S. Water iJ,g/L Anazonwu 5.6 4.2 3.9 8.2 13 23 4.8 Eleyele S. Water gg/L Mombeshora * Anazonwu (2012) - conducted in 2012 ** Ajayi & Mombeshora (1989) - conducted 1977-1979 *** Not studied by Ajayi & Mombeshora and Mombeshora et al. + Surface Water ++Mombeshora et al. (1981) - conducted 1977-1979 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Impacts of Industrial Effluents Most thriving chemical material producing industries in Nigeria discharge their liquid effluent untreated or inadequately treated unto some land or water course. The impact on some small water courses is sometimes devastating as this often makes such waters no longer drinkable, "fishable" or "swimmable". Some of such water bodies become coloured, smelly and sterile with regards to aquatic life. The case is not different for some industries and streams in Ibadan. We have studied some Ibadan rivers with respect to the impacts of effluent discharges on them. In one case, a major brewery discharges partially treated, coloured waste into the Olosun River. Over a period of two years, we examined the characteristics of the river water and sediment at various locations up to 700m upstream and 700m downstream (as access would permit), as well as the somewhat hidden discharge point. It was observed that at 700m downstream, the water body was still stressed, as the natural self-purification capacity of the river had not restored the water to its upstream quality, particularly with respect to the level of nutrients and gross organic pollution parameters (table 11; Ipeaiyeda and Onianwa 2009). A similar study was carried out on the impact of the discharge of effluents of several food and beverage industries on the Alaro River in the Oluyole area of Ibadan (Ipeaiyeda and Onianwa 2011). For both river systems, we related the data on the dispersion of contaminant inputs downstream to the hydrology of the water courses and modelled this to produce a means of predicting the water quality parameters downstream. Etim and Onianwa (2013) also determined the impact of effluent discharge from the Ota Industrial Estate on the Oruku River. 45 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 11: Average Levels of Water Quality Parameters at Upstream, Discharge Point and Downstream of the Olosun River during Wet and Dry Seasons, 2004 Wet season 2004 Dry season 2004 Parameter Upstream Discharge point Downstream Upstream Discharge point Downstream pH 8.2 ± 0.26 6.9 ± 0.3" 7.1±0.4" 7.3±0.la 4.6 ± 0.2c 6.3 ± 0.3a Temperature 26.7 ± 0.6" 27.0 ± 0.1" 27.1 ± 0.2" 26.7 ± 0.6a 26.7 ± OS 27.0 ± 0.2a Total solids (mglL) 200 ± 16" 1960 ± 160b 1440 ± 120c 303 ± 15" 2430 ± no- 1880 ± 83b TDS (mglL) 147 ± 32b 1490 ± 71" 1160 ± 67d 204 ± 15b 1490 ± 87a 1220 ± 140b TSS (mg/L) 85.7 ±29.0b 476 ± 92" 284 ± 87c 99.3 ± 27.3b 940± 60d 674 ± 160e Turbidity (Fl'U) 8.3 ± 4.1b 38 ± 16a 20.7 ± 8.0c 8.0 ± 4.9b 32.3 ± 6.8a 20.9 ± 5.6ac Total hardness (rng/L) 107 ± 9b 298 ± 79" 214±51c 175 ± 52c 725 ± 380d 562 ± 2601 Alkalinity (mg/L) 77 ± 13b 173 ± 39" 126 ± 16" 120 ± 6" 298 ± 61c 224 ± 41c cr (mglL) 108 ± 1b 330 ± 42a 276 ± 32c 120 ± 2b 403 ± 28d 333 ± 23a N03· (mglL) 12.0 ± 5.0 b 50 ± 19" 33 ± 12c 12.9 ± 1.8b 53 ± 11a 37.3±9.1c NH3 (mglL) 2.81 ± 0.53b 16.8 ± 7.5" 9.9 ± 4.8e 3.08 ± 0.83b 15.4 ± 4.3a 10.4 ± 1.8e SO/ (mg/L) 9.7 ± 2.9b 40.2 ± 5.3" 25.4 ± 4.4e 14.6 ± 3.8b 40.6 ± 1.8" 27.8 ± 4.5e P043- (rng/L) 0.07 ± 0.02b 0.57 ± 0.06" 0.34 ± 0.05e 0.15 ± 0.03d 0.55 ± 0.12" 0.37 ± 0.08e DO (mg/L) 6.2 ± O.4b 1.71 ± 0.55" ~.91 ± 0.15c 3.3 ± 0.8e 1.36 ± 0.28" 2.2 ± 1.0e BOD (mg/L) 2.40 ± 0.46b 14.6 ± 1.9" 8.7 ± 2.2c 2.60 ± 0.47b 13.5 ± 0.95a 9.0±0.s< 46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table J J contd. COD (rng/L) 133±3S" 800±4S" 528± 110" 170±23h 1240±i()Od 883 ± 90" Ca (rng/L) 87.9±S.Sb 272 ± 76u 184±4S" 119±lOb 497±ISO" 377 ±130u Ni (rng/L) 0.08 ± 0.02b 0.15 ±0.02" 0.11 ± 0.02" 1.18± 0.16" 1.97 ± 0.45" 1.33 ± 0.19" Zn (mg/L) 0.37 ± 0.27b 2.03 ± 0.93" 1.24± 0.61" 1.12± 0.45" 6.81 ± 2.9" S.3±3.1" Cr (rng/L) <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.002 0.14 ± 0.13" 0.06 ±O.04b Co (mg/L) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.27 ± O.OSb 0.49 ± 0.17" 0.31 ± 0.08b Cu (rng/L) 0.20 ± O.13b 0.31 ± 0.158 0.23 ± O.13b 0.33 ± 0.09" 0.42 ± 0.14"" 0.36 ± 0.07" Cd (mg/L) <0.002 0.03 ± o.oi- <0.002 0.04 ± 0.01" 0.14 ± 0.09b 0.06 ± 0.03" Pb (rng/L) <0.05 0.07 ± 0.05" 0.02 ± 0.01b 0.06 ± 0.05" 0.24 ± 0.07" 0.12±0.02d Depth (m) 0.33 ± 0.14" 0.35 ± 0.168 0.25 ± 0.06b 0.26 ± 0.09b 0.28 ± 0.09b 0.19 ± 0.04" Velocity (m/s) 0.19 ± 0.01b 0.42 ± 0.02" 0.37 ± 0.02c 0.15 ± om b 0.41 ± O.Ola 0.33 ± 0.03" Note: Means within rows with different superscripts (a.b.c.d.e.f) are significantly different (p < 0.05) 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Another of my graduate students (Onwordi 2014), among other studies, investigated the physicochemical characteristics of the raw effluents discharged from several industries located in three industrial estates (Ikeja, Ilupeju and Isolo estates) in Lagos metropolis. The study was conducted for a period of two years, and sampling was carried out bimonthly. Industry types covered included food and beverages, textiles, pharmaceuticals, basic metals, paints, conglomerate, and a central treatment facility. None of the effluents, over the study period, met the regulated limits of NESREA. We further used the data to generate a model for predicting the gross organic loading (in form of COD) and the potential to cause eutrophication (in form of phosphate) of the effluent. Thus, from results of other parameters, it is possible to estimate what the COD and phosphate concentrations would be. The textile industry effluents were the worst con- taminated, and we examined different bench scale options for chemical treatment of the effluent, and monitored the· efficiencies via the COD levels after treatment. Application of fentoin reagent gave the best results. Pollution Associated with Solid Waste Management The nuisance value of municipal solid wastes is the most recognised and visible environmental problem in our local community today, but hardly is the invisible but severe pollution problem associated with such wastes known to the common man. The total elimination of wastes generation is impracticable, but minimisation is a laudable goal. In Nigeria, wastes are often unsegregated (except by scavengers within landfills), and what is ultimately disposed within the many poorly managed major dumpsites often includes degrade able and non-degradeable municipal and household wastes mixed with some industrial wastes. Burial, dumping and uncontrolled burning are the usual disposal practices, with attendant pollution of air, soil, surface water and ground water. 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Waste generation within the city of Ibadan has been estimated in several studies but is believed to be somewhat in the neighbourhood of l.6 million tonnnes per annum, with some 70-90% estimated to be biodegradable (Ogwuleka 2009; CPE 2010; Awopetu et al. 2014). The earlier dumpsites that are now disused were the Ring Road dumpsite (now the site of an ultramodern shopping complex; fig. 15) and the old Aperin dumpsite. Many scholars have studied these dumpsites from different pollution-related perspectives; and these include studies by members of my research group (Onianwa 1994; Onianwa et al. 1995; Aboho et al. 2011; Aboho et al. 2012; Ibeto and Onianwa 2011). Results from studies by my group have mostly indicated the elevation of topsoil levels of heavy metals, high levels of some metals and other contaminants in leachates, and minimal contamination of nearby ground water and surface water resources). The old dumpsites have now been replaced by newer ones such as the Lapite, Aba-eku and Awotan dumpsites. In a more recent study by one of my Masters students (Omobhude 2012), we segregated representative samples of the wastes from these newer dumpsites and determined the heavy metals contents of these materials (table 12). Using data on the relative composition of each material in the waste stream and the estimated loading of waste at each location, we estimated the total loading to be about 189,000 kg/yrlha. Using the USEPA Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (USEPA 1992, 2008), we also determined the leachability of the metals from each type of waste material studied. Etim and Onianwa (2013) have also assessed leachate characteristics at some solid waste dumpsite in Ota Industrial Estate. 49 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig. 15: The Shoprite shopping mall at Ring Road, and the former waste dump on which it was built. 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 12: Mean Concentrations (mg/kg) of Metals In Each Component of Solid Wastes from Awotan Dumpsite Component Cd Co Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn Ash 5.7±3.4 1O.0±6.7 8S±48 459±210 44±13 536±110 484±89 Metal 7.59±0.19 30.0±3.1 200±35 796±130 111±29 l11O±1600 431±110 Plastic 2.6±1.0 <0.18 29±16 29±27 11.9±4.7 335±540 85±53 Rubber 3.7±1.3 <0.18 1O.3±3.8 80±70 50±77 248±210 llO±61 Nylon 2.39±0.34 <0.18 14.0:t2.6 77±33 13.1±4.8 139±11O 109±67 Paper 5.5±6.1 0.8±1.4 253±370 44±12 17.7±9.1 59±19 70±10 Textile 2.02±0.45 94±160 26±370 80±25 20±14 60±30 115±61 Glass 1.82±0.81 <0.18 5.4±7.4 29±23 12.4±7.7 92±120 83±51 Kitchen waste 2.87±0.42 l.39±0.81 13.3±7.6 114±72 11.9±4.5 99±57 127±19 Hair 2.85±0.11 0.66±O.61 16.9±6.1 91±29 13.7±5.5 84±41 174±93 Palm kernel 1.8±1.6 0.9±1.l 14.1±8.9 31±15 8.3±4.5 35±26 113±27 Wood 1.40±0.40 0.15±0.20 18.3±7.3 17±14 27±22 12.0±6.1 77±34 Manure 3.53±0.98 O.57±0.60 19±10 46±29 17.8±4.4 75±52 255±72 Leather 3.l2±0.71 0.38±0.66 19±17 196±83 15.9±5.5 90±39 250±81 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY We have not only assessed solid wastes for their potential to contaminate the environment. Another of our projects was targeted towards a waste-to-wealth approach of utilizing the huge amount of wastes available, to a beneficial purpose. My doctoral student (Adekunle 2001) established a methodology for composting urban agricultural waste to extract a concentrate of biogenic, polymeric and polyfunctional fulvic and humic acids (Adekunle and Onianwa 2001). Combinations of these acids were tested on crops in greenhouse experiments and found to stimulate and enhance growth. More interestingly, through further research by Dr. Adekunle after graduation, the extract has found further application in bioremediation as an innovati ve and eco-safe nanotechnology-based technique which is now at the field- scale trial platform for remediation and restoration of petroleum polluted oil-based mud (POBM) and drill cuttings (Adekunle 2011). Heavy Metals in Foods The oral route is perhaps the most important route of entry of most toxicants into human tissues. When environmental media such as soils, air and water are contaminated with heavy metals, for example, the impacts on the adult man largely depends on the extent to which the metals get into human food items and drinking water. While assessing the environment media for specific toxicants therefore, it is also useful to assess the levels in foods and potable water. I noted early, however, that there was a sparcity of literature on the levels of toxic heavy metals in Nigerian foods. Earlier data on elemental composition of Nigerian foods were compiled by nutritionists who had been more interested in the contents of essential elements. It should be noted though that some elements could be essential at trace levels, and toxic above certain thresholds. But some elements such as lead and cadmium have no essential nutritional importance even at trace levels. I, therefore, mostly in the 1990s, studied several local Nigerian foods for their contents of heavy metals such 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY as lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, aluminium, etc, a'.d in some cases estimated the dietary intake from the consumption of these foods. The data generated are very valuable for assessment of the local exposure risks to these heavy metals (Onianwa et al. 1997; Ketiku et al. 1999; Onianwa et al. 1999a, 1999b; Onianwa et al. 2000a, 2000b). Pollutant levels in soil, soil chemical characteristics, and plant/crop type may be critical for determining soil-plant relationships and the transfer of pollutants from contaminated soils to plants. This necessitated one of my doctoral student's work which involved a survey of heavy metals in soils of selected farmlands of Kogi State (an important food producing state) and various crops grown in such farms (Emurotu 2014). Present level of contamination of soil and crops with most metals was found nqt to be significant, with very low risk associated with consuming such crops. Metal concentrations in crops parts were also generally lower than model-derived threshold limits for toxicity in plants. Inventory of Local Greenhouse Gas Emissions on Campus Some of my Masters students estimated the release of greenhouse gases on our campus, using a purpose-designed model known as the Clean Air-Cool Planet's Campus Carbon Calculator Model (CACPCCC). The model is widely in use in tertiary institutions in the USA (Sinha et al. 2010; Klein- Banai and Theis 2013), and the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment (an association of more than a thousand Presidents of tertiary institutions in the USA committed to mitigation of climate change) has made it mandatory for its member institutions to carry out biannual inventories of their greenhouse gas emissions. In applying the model, the organisational boundaries are determined by consolidated methodologies that attempt to account for greenhouse gas emissions from operations of facilities in which the institution has a partial ownership share or working interest, holds an operating license, or leases, or which otherwise represents joint ventures or partnerships of 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY some kind. These involve the equity share approach, the operational control approach, and the financial control approach. Details of the methodology cannot be described here. but it is worthy to note that input data for the University of lbadan was obtained from representative academic departments, the administration. residential areas, Works and Maintenance Department, farms and botanical garden. car parks, etc. Information obtained for the computation included: data on number of vehicles, electricity' COIlJ- smnption, staff travels, household electrical appliances" office electrical appliances and fittings, gasoline consumption, hours of operation of the University and private generators, solid waste generation, number of trees felled, fertiliser applicatioa rate, length of campus roads, etc. HiighligbilS of the findings (table 14) were as follows: • Much higher ORO emission levels were obtained during years 2005, 2006, and 2007 out of the 2005 - 2010 period. These appear to have been derived from much higher contributions from the energy sector during these earlier years. • Overall, the energy sector contributed to about 95% of the total emissions for the entire 2005 to 2010 study period. • The highest contribution to the energy sector was derived from purchase of municipal electricity. The only similar studies available for comparison of our results were those of some American Universities. Table 15 gives some of the comparisons for the 2009 and 2010 values. The emissions from the University of Thadan appeared to fall within the lower rung of the values for the American universities. We also carried out similar surveys for the public and private hospital facilities within the city of Ibadan. 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 13: Typical Output of the Clean Air Cool Planet (CACPCCC) Campus Carbon Calculator versions 6.6 _.M. QI!!L~~··_···I··_·~_~_~!!!·!_!!_·:!·_'··_·__··_·_.--.--.- -.-.- -..-.-- ..-- -.----- -.-.- --.---.-.-.--.-- ..-- - ----.---.-- -- -- ..- - - -.- ------ .. .-W-OR--K-S-H--E-E-T --··O·v·eUrvNiewIVoEf ARnSnuifayl -E6m-Fiss-i-o-n-s--------------- .·.--.-.---·-- - -- .-.- ---- .-.---- .-.- - --- .-. UNIVERSITY XXXXXXXX CH4 eCOl k Metric Tonnes ! - .••+..- - - -.-. --j- - _- ··----··-·--········+--·-·-····----i····-···-·-.·.·--·-····--·······-t·····················--········-········----·····-···-·1 i ). 1,4jl}='=~P:·--2!~26:S4·~·-.·5-~:t52::~I-=. =-T.l~7~5=~::~·~.:·L~!~X~}-=~=~=::==:~= -.-..'-.----.-- -.-..-.- ..- .-.-----------.--.-~--.-. ···---·-------t···------·--·-·-··----·-··· ..7- ,91- 2- .9--.--- --.- --. 436.3 2.1 11.5 Purchased Electrici 3,971,028.9 I 291,048,762.7 I 3,879.1 I 6,709.7 I 73,386.6 Purchased Stearn/Chilled Water 55 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 13 contd. 9,379.0 665,141.5 98.5 35.4 1,143.3 35,035.6 2,529,140.1 172.0 73.6 4,365.3 Directly Financed Air Travel Other Directly Financed Travel Study Abroad Air Travel Solid Waste (260,590.0) (12,332) Wastewater Paper Scope 2 T&D Losses 590,541.3 28,565,262.2 383.6 663.6 48,772.6 Offsets Additional Non-Additional Totals Scope 1 ~ 2..-1--,49..2-.-.4.--.-- .._2.-,-22..-6,-8.-45.5 _.._- 79-6.6-.-;-1T129.7 -- -24--,240-.3 . Scope 2 3,971,028.9 291,048,762.7 3,879.1 16 ~~O'P-~~. _. ~?_~,95tS._.~= JJ ,4~~??}:f=~ ::~I~I::=:J:,709.7 73,38..?~:;L.:.:::==·JII[6~.01:::=.:.~=~= ._~LScop~_s __ . .__ 3,327,477.1 325,774,562.0 5,329.3 I 7,612.1 19.2,~~_~_~..?.. _ All Offsets Net Emissions: I 109,536.9 56 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 14: Contributions from the Different Sectors to the Total Emissions on the University Campus during 2005-2010 Year Energy sector Transport Agriculture Waste sector Total emissions (MTeC02) sector sector (MTeC02) (MTeC02) (MTeC02) (MTeC02) 2005 522426.6 6029.7 11.5 9717 538,184.8 2006 485238.1 6198.2 11.5 9734 501,181.8 2007 450360.7 6641.2 11.5 10146 467,159.4 2008 337078.5 7239.0 11.5 10146 354,475 2009 92082.8 7682.9 11.5 9936 109,713.2 2010 95810.6 7921.2 11.5 12332 116,075,3 57 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 15: Net Carbon Dioxide Equivalence Greenhouse Gas Emissions (metric tons) for Some American Universities compared with University of Ibadan University Year of Study Net Emission Per Full- Per 1000 sq. (MT of CO2 e) Time Feet Enrollment Arizona State University 2010 269,364 4.0 19.6 California State University, Bakersfield 2009 10,127 1.5 10.1 Case Western Reserve University 2009 263,217 28.8 34.6 Clemson University 2009 139,080 7.9 20.8 Colorado State University 2011 219,074 8.5 22.6 Cornell University 2010 225,000 10.9 15.0 George Washington University 2009 128,183 6.4 16.6 Illinois State University 2009 123,768 6.1 19.0 Kennesaw State University 2010 97,494 4.4 28.0 Mississippi State University 2009 114,189 6.4 15.3 New York University 2009 136,486 3.3 11.5 Ohio University 2010 213,545 11.0 26.4 Seatle University 2009 23,787 4.3 10.7 University, of California, Berkeley 2009 193,300 5.5 11.9 University of Cincinnati 2010 432,202 16.9 30.2 University of Connecticut 2007 201,770 10.8 18.9 University of Florida 2009 350,312 7.3 17.5 58 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 15 contd. University of Illinois, Chicago 2009 290,806 11.8 19.8 University of Maryland, Baltimore 2010 169,516 27.8 27.7 University of Massachusetts, Amherst 2010 120,448 4.4 11.1 University of Miami 2009 243,065 16.4 22.9 University of New Hampshire •• ~I 2009 68,505 4.9 11.0 University of Oregon 2009 89,615 4.1 - 14.2 University of Pennsylvania 2010 182,866 7.4 13.4 University of Utah 2009 269,589 11.8 23.6 University of Vermont 2010 73,116 6.2 13.6 University of Wyoming 2009 120,238 10.9 16.6- University of Ibadan 2010 116,075 5.9* 5.3** *student pop. - 19,787; **existing campus area - 670.9 hectares / 30% building floors area 59 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Conclusions and Recommendations Mr. Vice-Chancellor, sir, ladies and gentlemen, I have within the very strict constraints of time allotted attempted to project some of the global chemical environmental problems, and highlight the fact that Nigeria contributes significantly in variety and magnitude to almost everyone of these forms of chemical pollution. I have also described some of my research studies that have been directed toward the first few critical steps of assessment and data generation in the process of achieving environmentally sound management of the Nigerian environment. Nigeria has both the capacity to reduce its pollution profile and to become an even more dangerous higher level polluter. I do not think it is a matter of choice. We must direct our nation in only one direction, one of becoming a cleaner, greener economy in which dangers of pollution related to chemicals and wastes are mitigated. The energy production and utilization sector is very key to achieving a significant reduction in our pollution emission profile. Because of the lack of adequate municipal electricity supply, there has been a preponderance of use of home electricity generators, domestic cooking with firewood, charcoal, sawdusts, kerosene and natural gas. These have resulted in tremendous amounts of emissions of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and a variety of other toxic organics. Indoor air pollution which results from this was the silent killer of about 95,300 Nigerians in 2004 (WHO 2004). I therefore urge the Federal Government to recognize the link between the generation of more electricity for home use, and the improvement of the health of the citizenry. All efforts should therefore be made to achieve a rapid and positive turn- around in our perennial electricity generation problem. The international community must also help Nigeria to solve its energy problem. What is the purpose of building windmills, solar/nuclear power and hydroelectrical systems all over Europe as a means of stemming global warming, when Nigeria alone can, and must have been cancelling the effects of all these efforts through the amounts of carbon dioxide 60 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY emitted daily from each of our homes, offices and factories with the increased use of imported private electricity generators. The emitted carbon monoxide knows no boundary and does not warm up only parts of Africa! I have already highlighted the critical need for regular assessment and monitoring of various environmental media- air, soil, surface and ground water, vegetations, foods, and other suitable indicators. Most of all the data that is currently available on the status of our environmental media have been obtained through .the praiseworthy efforts of individual academic researchers who are often limited in resources and so tend to limit the spatial and temporal expanse of their study (Abimbola and Olatunji 2011). What are the dissolved oxygen contents of various parts of the River Niger over the last few years? What was the average carbon monoxide level over the city of Ibadan yesterday? What was the chemical oxygen demand of the effluent from the Nigerian Brewery about midday yesterday? What is the average lead content of the topsoil within the Vice-Chancellor's lodge? We do not have answers to these. Yet, I can go online at any time and find information on the air quality within the last hour, of any major city of the developed countries. Government must take up the responsibility of environmental assessment and monitoring. The various State Environmental Protection Agencies, the Federal Ministry of Environment and NESREA have important roles to play in this regard. They must go beyond their traditional roles of being regulators and enforcers, to one of direct assessors and monitors. They must have functional laboratories, competent staff, effective data management and communication systems. It is time, for example, to develop and Air Quality Index system for Nigeria! This way, perhaps the Lagos smog and the Zamfara lead poisoning episodes could have been averted. I therefore call on all the agencies concerned with regulating the Environment to take on these additional roles, while governments make the necessary financial, personnel and technical facilities available for this purpose. 61 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ·Finally, Mr. Vice-Chancellor sir, I have had a rewarding management experience in the last six and half years of my position as the Coordinator of the University's Multi- disciplinary Central Research Laboratory (MCRL). I wish to express my gratitude for this opportunity. I also, with the kind permission of the Chairman of the MCRL Administrative Committee, would like to publicly acknowledge the special support which your administration has been giving to the MCRL. The need to adequately equip each and every department cannot be wished away, but recent realities of our indi vidual departmental financial and infrastructural situations has made the central laboratory model a very attractive and effective option which most Nigerian University's are buying into. The concern today, sir, of the MCRL Committee is a very deep-seated worry about the sustainability of the MCRL. We believe that perhaps the various governing organs of the University need to articulate this and propose a more enduring sustainability plan. As it stands now, the MCRL can only depend on the goodwill of the person of each vice-chancellor. We pray that the' administration will look into this. It is also on this note that I wish to reach out to the Federal Government to revisit the initial proposal of setting up and fully equipping six zonal. central laboratories, one of which was to be located on our campus. Funds were initially budgeted, but never released. If- we are to achieve the much touted technological development within a reasonable time, through home-grown research, then the issue of providing state-of-the-art laboratory facilities for departments and central laboratories cannot be over- emphasised. Likewise, I am aware that the Committee of Vice- Chancellors of Nigerian Universities are making very important arrangements to jointly subscribe to the very versatile and comprehensive Elsevier's databases, Science Direct and Scopus, to be made available to researchers in our universities. This move should be concretised quickly as it would go a long way in improving the quality of staff and students' literature searches, and hence the derived research 62 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY designs and project outcomes. I wish us all well in our academic pursuits under the present rather difficult circumstances. Acknowledgement I believe I can adapt/modify the poetic words of the great Winston Churchill and say that my life has been one in which "never was so much owed to so many by one person!" So many have influenced me positively, but I shall be constrained here to acknowledge a few and pray that I be forgiven by those for whom I am unable to find the space and time now. First I would like to acknowledge my academic mentors, Professors S.O. Ajayi, O. Osibanjo and A. Egunyomi, who were involved in the supervision of my research work for various degree programmes at the University of Ibadan, and have remained my very dear friends and colleagues in the true spirit of the academic tradition. I thank them immensely for the warmth of my experience of the tutelage under them. I have enjoyed being student under many great and true teachers at all levels of my education. I cannot remember them all, but I certainly will not forget my Secondary School teachers of EnglishlLiterature, Mr. Ralph O. Ekpeh (now His Royal Majesty, Eze Enugwu-Ukwu and Igwe of Umunri Clan) and MathematicslPhysics, late Mr. Patrick G.N. Okolie (alias Bonvie). They were' fantastic teachers who influenced me positively, and I still relish what their presence in front of the class meant to me. In our Department of Chemistry, I fondly remember enjoying and always looking forward to the lectures of Professors J.I. Okogun, E.K. Adesogan, B.B. Adeleke and J.I. Faniran. Our Department of Chemistry is one of the best places in the world to choose to be a worker/lecturer. The culture there has been one of peace, friendliness, cooperation, hard work and loyalty. I thank the current Head, the energetic, goal- getting, meticulous and very experienced Professor A.A. Adesomoju. I also thank my other colleague professors not 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY earlier mentioned: O. Ekundayo, R.A. Oderinde, Tim Odiaka, J.A.O. Woods (long-time, special friend), Kayode Adebowale, Bamiji Babalola, Dayo Olu-Owolabi for cordiality that makes the workplace pleasant to be. I extend the same gratitude to every other staff of the Department, but I must not fail to single out and mention the other members of my very dear Analytical Chemistry unit: Drs Adewuyi, Ogundiran, Adeyi, Ipeaiyeda, Adie, Etim and Alabi. I also appreciate the laboratory personnel who have directly worked with me: Mrs. Abdul-Waheed, Mrs. Opeseitan, Mrs. 'Oboh, Mr. Oluwadare, Dipo Ayodele, and Helen Johnson. I also cherish the friendship I always had and still have with some retired staff of the Department, in the persons of Mr. Chris Ehilebo, Mr. Perry Ahmadu, Mr. Paul Nwabueze, Mr. Iregbeyaoje and Mr. Tunde Abaire. I must not fail to appreciate the support that I have received from various academics in foreign institutions outside of this country. I therefore wish to remember and appreciate Professors, Gerald Lalor, Mitko Voutchkov, Bengt Nygard, Drs. Per Jenische, Ingemar Gustavsson, Mr. Charles Grant, and Perti Knutilla. I have also enjoyed the valued friendship of many in my Faculty, especially, Dr. Salam, Dr. Chukwuka, Dr. Jayeola, Prof. Sanni, Prof. Onilude, Prof. & Prof. Ugwumba, Prof. Farai (my Deanl), Prof. Hussain, Prof. Oladiran, Prof. Olayinka, Prof. Oyelaran, Prof. Sodipo, Prof. Amahia, Prof. Folorunsho, Prof. Ayoola, Prof. Ekhaguere (my oga sirl) and late Prof. Abimbola; Prof. Tijani, Prof. Aleru, Prof. Jonathan, Prof. Osonubi, Prof. Odebode, Drs. Bakare, Ogundare, Aiyelaagbe, Oyedeji, Aboaba, Dr. Oladosu. I also would like to appreciate the following special friends from other Nigerian Universities: Professors Kakulu, Odukoya, Sodipo, Arowolo, Kehinde Olayinka, Ogunfowokan, Bode Ajayi, Shaato; and Dr. Tunde Odesanya. I have very much enjoyed being a teacher, despite the limitation of material rewards from it. This has been partly due to my innate love for teaching, but mostly because I have interacted with so many wonderfully exciting students. I owe them the gratitude of the opportunity to teach them. In this 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY respect I want to thank my past Ph.D. students, Dr. Iheoma Adekunle, Dr. Sylvester Aboho (late), Dr. Ayo Ipeaiyeda, Dr. Sam Akporido, Dr. Effiong Etim, Prof. Jumoke Olayiwola, Dr. Jude Emurotu and Dr. Theresa Onwordi; as well as my M.Phil. student, Mr. Ini Umoren. The MSc students have been so numerous, but I still remember some special ones: Wale Babalola, J.J. Akpan, Kayode Busari, Shina Kadri, Ande Sesugh, David Omobusuyi, Ochuko Oputu, Avwioroko Ochuko, Dr. Nnorom Innocent, Dr. Onwudili Jude, Prof. Tsafe, Dr. Iyaka, Dr. Sayo Fakayode, Prof. Rufus Shaato, Dr. Iwegbua Maxwell, Itua Omobhude, Ugo Ewuzie, lfeoma Anazonwu, Prince Ogeleka, Eroms Ojo, Bablo, Joe Adoghe, Thomas Daniel and John Witemire-who have all now distinguished themselves in their chosen career paths. In the last six and half years, I have worked closely with quite a number of persons in the course of my assignment as Coordinator of the MCRL. In particular, I wish to thank members of the various Administrative Committees of the period, especially the Chairmen, Professor o.c. Aworh and Professor B.O. Oke, for being such wonderfully nice persons to work with towards a common positive goal. I specially thank Mr. Jimoh Ogundeyi for his companionship and friendship in the MCRL. I also thank the various staff: Mrs. Korede, Olomola, Balogun, Akinola, the gentlemen - Yusuf, Abiola, Busari, Oyedele and Oyetayo; and the associates - Joel Ajayi, David Omobusuyi and Chris Odeh. I have also enjoyed working with Dr Aremu Adegokc as we together plan for the soon-to-come transition to his Coordinatorship of the MCRL. I must acknowledge the following who have been very supportive of the well-being of my family in various ways: Prof. O.E. Fagade, Niyi & Oyinkan Adenipekun, Dr. Dawodu, Ify and Bokun Onyeonoru, Mrs. Eimunjeze, late Mrs. Maduemezia, Peter & Margaret Aziba, Charles & Vel Uwakwe, Uche & Ngozi Ugoji, Chris & Ngozi Okonji, the Anyanwus, Festus & Josephine Ikem, Mrs. Akang, Olachi Ukachukwu, Titi Busari, Tope Sodipo, Bimpe Samotu, Tope 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Oyedele, the Nnadozies, Mama Anthonio, Mrs. Ikotun, Mrs. Adeboye, Dr. (Mrs.) Babatola, Feyi Ademola-Adeoye, Dr. Chief & Chief (Mrs.) Abu, Mr. & Mrs. Sylvester Okwudishu, Jerry and Florence Akinwunmi, Hycinth and Sola Elueme, the Okechukwus and Aries Okonmah. My late father was so proud of his son, but did not see me acquire the PhD which he had prophesied would be my portion, on one occasion when he was teaching me arithmetic in Primary 2. He passed on as I was at the terminal stage of the MSc programme. I thank him for so much decency and honesty that was deep-seated in him, which he taught me by example, and also transferred to me genetically. I never tire of talking about him to my wife and children. My late mother cared so lovingly for his first son and her other children. May her gentle soul rest in peace. I thank each and everyone of . my siblings, especially Elvis, Nicholas, Elizabeth, Victoria, Michael, Vincent, Nwabuno Awele, Onwuyali, Obiageli and· their various spouses and children, for their love and care. I also appreciate my cousins, Diokpa/Chief George Eze Onianwa (present head of the Onianwa family), Ikechukwu Onianwa, Godwin. Onianwa, Ezenwani Onianwa and their families. My other cousins, the Nzemekas, the Ohais, the Okonmas, the Nwaobis, the Onianwas of Umueze, the Nzekwues of Ogbowele, the Nwaezeigwe's of Ezukwu, Okolies of Umuidi, and the Eluezes of Ogbowele are well appreciated. I very specially appreciate Professor & Mrs. Azubuike A. Elueze who have been a caring family to me on campus. In a warm and very special way, I recognise and appreciate my in-laws, the Umunnas-Uncle Odigwe, Larry, Hillary, Arnold and Ernest and their spouses and children. A very special gratitude is reserved for the matriarch of the family, my indefatigable, vivacious and wonderful mother-in- law, Mrs Patricia Ndudi Umunna. May the Lord continue to guide, protect and bless you. I also thank your committee of friends who never cease to honour my family with their presence at events such as this. It is a great pity that my late 66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY father-in-law, Mr. Lawrence Okoji Umunna, did not live to witness today's event, the type he would have been proud of. May his soul rest in peace. I must not forget to .acknowledge and appreciate the love of my related in-laws, the Nwabuokus, Mr. & Mrs. Sunny Egho, Mr. & Mrs. George Ohaegbu, Samson, Ify & Victoria Obona, Stella Umunna, Chekwube, Rosemary Akala, Edith Okonkwo, the Chukwujekwes, Austin & Esther Okafor, and so many others! ! The Catholic Parish of Our Lady Seat of Wisdom has been my church of spiritual reconciliation, adoration and worship. I thank the parish priest Rev. Fr. E. Ade Owoeye and his assistant Rev. Fr. Samuel Frederick, as well as the former assistant, Rev. Fr. Vincent Alabi. I also thank members of the Liturgical Committee and the Morning Star Choir of the parish. May the Lord bless you all in His holy place. I appreciate the highly' professional efforts of Mrs. Nike Farai and her team in editing the draft manuscript of this lecture. My children, Chizi, Nwanne and Awele, are sweet to behold. I thank God for them as they surround me and mummy with love and affection. It has been a sweet blessing watching you grow up to gradually become independent. You will reap the blessings of your obedience and faithfulness to your parents, in Jesus name. I trust that the Lord shall go and abide with you always. Now, for the love of my life, made specially in heaven to fit me - Patricia Obiajulu Onianwa. I cannot find the words that truly convey my inner feeling of thankfulness for your love and faithfulness all these years. I rush home after work every evening with positive anticipation, to meet you, knowing what awaits me: a pleasurable time to gist, to laugh, to play, to sing, to download the excitements and worries of the day, sometimes to dance for you. May God always grant us this sweet companionship together till very ripe old age. Amen. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Finally, but not the least: What is so special about me? Nothing! Nothing, but the abiding Grace of the Almighty Father, who fathomed my being and nurtured me to this day! He made it possible for me to have today, to write this lecture, to open my mouth and lift my hands to speak about His environment-the environment which He gave to us in majestic pristine condition. He has in His infinite mercy watched us degrade His environment! Forgive us Father, for we know not what we do! I give him the best of gratitude for this wonderful day .and opportunity. May the Grace of our heavenly Father abide with each and everyone of us. Amen. Thank you all for your kind attention. References Abimbola, AF. and Olatunji, A.S. (2011) "Urban Geochemical Mapping in Nigeria with Some Examples from Southern Nigeria. In: Mapping the Chemical Environment of Urban Areas Johnson, c.c., Demetriades, A, Locutura, J. and Ottesen, R.T. (eds.), Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., -s, pp. 570-580. Aboho, S.Y., Anhwange, B.A, Onianwa, P.c. and Ekanem, E.O. (2012) Assessment of surface water quality around dumpsites in the city of Ibadan metropolis, Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Chemistry 4(1): 39-44. Aboho, S.Y., Onianwa, P.c. and Anhwange, B.A (2011) Impact assessment of soil quality in relation to ·solid waste management in Ibadan, Nigeria. International Journal of Chemistry and Applications 3(2): 131-141. Adebamowo, E.O., Agbede, o.x., Sridhar, M.K.C. and Adebamowo, C.A (2006) An evaluation of lead levels in paints for residential use sold in the Nigerian market. Indoor and Built Environment 15(6): 551-554. Adebamowo, E.O., Clark, C.S., Roda, S., Agbede, O.A, Sridhar, M.K. and Adebamowo, C.A (2007) Lead content of dried films of .domestic paints currently sold in Nigeria. Science of the Total Environment 388(1): 116-120. Adegoroye, A (1994) The challenges of environmental enforcement in Africa: The Nigerian experience. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environmental Enforcement. Oaxaca, Mexico 1: 43-54. 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Adekunle, I.M. (2011) Bioremediation of soils contarniuatec, with Nigerian petroleum products using composted municipal wastes. Bioremediation Journal 15(4): 230-241. Adekunle, I.M. and Onianwa, P.c. (2001) Functional group characteristics of humic and fulvic acids extracted from composts of some agricultural wastes. Nigerian Journal of Science 35(1): 15-19. Ajayi, S.O, and Mombeshora, C. (1989) Sedimentary trace metals in htkes in Ibadan, Nigeria. Science 'of the Total Environment 87;/88: 77~'84. Akinyemi, M.L. OD07} Temporal and spatial variability of ozone concentration over four African Stations. Journal of Applied Sciences 7(6): 913-917. Akporido, S.O. and Onianwa, P.c. (2015) Heavy metals and total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in surface water of Esi River, 'Western Niger Delta. Besearcb Journal of Environmental Sciences 9(2,: :8;8-100. Anazonwu, I.A {lOll) ~'Heavy Metal Contents of Surface Water and 'Sediments (of Lakes i'1l Ibadan 'City",.M.Sc. Project, Department of Chemistry, f(jJ,n;jw:e1:SoiftyIbadan, 123 + xv pp. Anyadiegwa, A, Dada, 0.0. and Olanipekun, A. (2(i)07) Baseline Study: Towards Non-toxic Environment in Africa.' Country Report - Nigeria. SIDA, KEMI, BCRC Pretoria. 66pp. Awopetu, M.S., Awopetu, R.'G., Sample, B.D., Coker, AO., Awokola, O.S., Ful1en, M.A., Booth, C.A and Hammond, F.N. (2014) Municipal solid waste management and the role of waste-pickers in Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Research 2(3): 1-12. Bell, M.L., Davis, D.L. and .Fletcher, T. (2004) A retrospective assessment of mortality from the London smog episode of 1952: 'The role of influenza and pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives 112(1): 6-8. Biya, 0., Gidado, S., Haladu, S., Geoffrey; T., Nguku, P. and Durant, J. (2010) Notes from the field: Outbreak of acute poisoning among children aged <5 years---Zarnfara, Nigeria, 2010. Morbidity .and Mortality, Weekly Report (MMWR) 59(27): '846. Blacksmith Institute i(201l) UNICEF Programme Cooperation Agreement: Environmental Remediation - Lead Poisoning in Zarnfara. Final Report. September 2010 - March 2011. Blacksmith Institute, New York, 126pp. 69 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross (2012) The world's worst pollution problems: Assessing health risks at hazardous waste sites. New York: Blacksmith Institute, 52pp. Breivik, K., Armitage, J.M., Wania, F. and Jones, K.C (2014) Tracking the global generation and exports of e-waste. do existing estimates add up? Environmental Science and Technology 48(15): 8735-8743. CDC (2002) Managing Elevated Blood Lead Levels Among Young Children: Recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC Retrieved from http://www.cdc.govlncehlleadlcasemanagement/casemanage_ main.htm. on 20/0412015 Clapp, J. (1994) The toxic waste trade with less-industrialised countries: Economic linkages and political alliances. Third World Quarterly 15(3): 505-518. (2001) Toxic exports: The transfer of hazardous wastes from rich to poor countries. Cornell, USA: Cornell University Press. CPE (Centre for People and Environment) (2010) Landfill Recovery and Use in Nigeria (Pre-feasibility Studies of using LFGE). Final Report. Prepared for USEPA Methane-To- Markets Program. Grant Number: XA83367801. USEPA. 57pp. Efe, S.I. (2010) Spatial variation in acid and some heavy metal composition of rainwater harvesting in the oil-producing region of Nigeria. Natural Hazards 55(2): 307-319. Egwali, A.O. and Imouokhome, F.A. (2013) Managing' the Challenges of e-waste Recycling in Nigeria. Paper presented at the Proceedings of 2013 Science and Information Conference, SAI2013,689-695. Ekino, S., Susa, M., Ninomiya, T., Imamura, K. and Kitamura, T. (2007) Minamata disease revisited: An update on the acute and chronic manifestations of methyl mercury poisoning. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 262(1): 131-144. Emurotu, J.E. (2014) Heavy metal burden of soils and their accumulation Potentials in some food crops of selected farms in Kogi State, Nigeria. PhD Thesis, University of Ibadan. Etim, E.U. and Onianwa, P.C (2013) Heavy metal pollution in the vicinity of an industrial estate co-located with a housing estate in southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Protection 4: 91-98 .. 70 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Etim, E'.V. and Onianwa, P.c. (2013) Impact of effluent of an industrial estate on Oruku river in southwestern Nigeria. World Applied Sciences Journal 21(7): 1075-1083. _____ (2012) Lead contamination of soil in the vicinity of a military shooting range in Ibadan, Nigeria. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 94(5): 895-905. _____ (2013) Leachate quality characteristics. A case study of two industrial solid waste dumpsites. Journal of Environmental Protection 4: 984-988. Fakayode, S.O. and Onianwa, P.c. (2002) Heavy metals contamination of soil, and bioaccumulation in Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) around Ikeja Industrial Estate, Lagos, Nigeria. Environmental Geology 43(1-2): 245-150. Galadima, A., Okoronkwo, M.V., Mustapha, D.G. and Leke, L. (2012) Petrol in Nigeria: A fuel or a killer? Is shift to hydroisomerisation not overdue? Elixir Pollution 43: 6893- 6897, Gerard, D. and Lave, L.B. (2005) Implementing technology-forcing policies: The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments and the introduction of advanced automotive emissions controls in the United States. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 72(7): 761-778. Greig, J" Thurtle, N., Cooney, L., Ariti, C; Ahmed, A.O., Ashagre, T., Ayela, A., Chukwumalu, K., Criado-Perez, A., G6mez- Restrepo, C; Meredith, c., Neri, A., Stellmach, D., Sani- Gwarzo, N., Nasidi, A., Shanks, L. and Dargan, P.I. (2014) Association of blood lead level with neurological features in 972 children affected by an acute severe lead poisoning outbreak in Zarnfara State, northern Nigeria. PloS One, 9(4), e93716. Haagen-Smit, AJ. (1952) Chemistry and physiology of Los Angeles smog. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 44(6): 1342-1346. Harada, M. (1995) Minamata disease: Methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution. CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology 25(1): 1-24. Ibeto, C.N. and Onianwa, P.C. (2011) Preliminary study of the impact of poor waste management on the physicochemical properties of ground water in some areas of Ibadan. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences 5(2): 194-199. 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ibrahim, AO., Amuda, S.O., Onianwa, P.C., Bello, M.O., Adedosu, T.A, Adetutu, A and Owoade, O.A (2002) Pollution of Nigerian schools: Concentrations and chemical fractionations of lead and cadmium in some nursery and primary schools of Ibadan. Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology 9 (3): 4211 - 4223. Ihonvbere, J.O. (1994) The state and environmental degradation in Nigeria: A study of the 1988 toxic waste dump in Koko. Journal of Environmental Systems 23(3): 207-227. Ipeaiyeda, AR. and Onianwa, P.c. (2009) Impact of brewery effluent on water quality of the Olosun river in Ibadan, Nigeria. Chemistry and Ecology 25(3): 189-204. (2011) Pollution effect of food and beverages effluents on the Alaro river in Ibadan city, Nigeria. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia 25(3): 347-360 Itua, E.O. (2007) Vehicular emission (air quality) monitoring study in Lagos, Nigeria. Accessed on 2010412015 at www. environmental-expert. com Kasuya, M., Teranishi, H., Aoshima, K, Katoh, T., Horiguchi, H., Morikawa, Y., Nishijo, M. and Iwata, K (1992) Water pollution by cadmium and the onset of Itai-itai disease. Water Science and Technology 25: 149-149. Ketiku, A.O., Egbuche, P. and Onianwa, P.c. (1999) Aluminium content of infant foods and beverages in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Nutritional Sciences (19): 35-40. Klein-Banai, C. and Theis, T.L. (2013) Quantitative analysis of factors affecting greenhouse gas emissions at institutions of higher education. Journal of Cleaner Production 48: 29-38. Lalor, G.c., Onianwa, P.c. and Vutchkov, M.K (2003) Dry ashing preconcentration for micro-reactor based neutron activation analysis of food and plant samples. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 83(5): 367-374. Lo, v.c., Dooyema, C.A, Neri, A, Durant, J., Jefferies, T., Medina-Marino, A, Ravello, L., Thoroughman, D., Davis, L., Dankoli, R.S., Samson, M.Y., Ibrahim, L. M., Okechukwu, 0., Umar-Tsafe, N.T., Dama, AH. and Brown, M.J. (2012) Childhood lead poisoning associated with gold ore processing: A village-level investigation - Zamfara State, Nigeria, October- November 2010. Environmental Health Perspectives 120(10): 14~0-1455. 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Manaha~, S.E. (2000) Environmental Chemistry. 7th Edition. Boca Raton, Lewis Publishers. Mombeshora, C Osibanjo O. and Ajayi, S.O. (1983) Pollution studies on Nigerian rivers: The onset of lead pollution of surface waters in Ibadan. Environment International 9: 81-84. (1981) Pollution studies on Nigerian rivers: Toxic heavy metal status of surface waters in Ibadan city. Environment International 5: 49-53. Nduka, J.K.C, Orisakwe, O.E. and Maduawguna, CA. (2008) Lead levels iI1 paint flakes from buildings in Nigeria: A preliminary study. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 24(8): 539-542. . Nduka, J.K.C, Orisakwe, O.E., Ezenweke, L.O.,Ezenwa, T.E., Chendo, M.N. and Ezeabasili, N.G. (2008) Acid rain phenomenon in Niger Delta region of Nigeria: Economic, biodiversity, and public health concern. The Scientific World Journal 8: 811-818. Nnodim, O. (2013, July 29) Lead poisoning: FG completes environmental remediation in Zamfara. Punch Newspaper. Retrieved from http://www.punchng.com Ogwueleka, T.C (2009) Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria. Iran Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering 6(3): 173 -180. Olafisoye, O.B., Adefioye, T. and Osibote, O.A. (2013) Heavy metals contamination of water, soil, and plants around an electronic waste dumpsite. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 22(5): 1431-1439. Olayiwola, O.A. (2012) Spatial and Temporal Variations of Physicochemical Characteristics of Surface water and Sediment of Osun River in Southwestern Nigeria. PhD Thesis, University of Ibadan. 304 + xx pp. Omobhude, I.M. (2012) Heavy Metal Contents and Toxicity Potentials of Solid Wastes from Selected Dumpsites in Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria. M.Sc. Project, Department of Chemistry, Uni ersity of Ibadan. 132 + xviii pp. Onianwa, .C, Adeyemo, A.O., Idowu, O.E. and Ogabiela, E.E. (2000a) Copper and zinc contents of Nigerian foods and estimates of the adult dietary intakes. Food Chemistry 72(1): 89-95. 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Onianwa, P.C. (2001) Monitoring atmospheric metal pollution: A review of the use of mosses as indicators. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 71(1): 13-50. _____ (1987) A comparative determination of heavy metals in moss tissue by atomic absorption spectroscopy, differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry, direct current plasma spectroscopy and x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 28(3): 237-246. _____ (1988) Monitoring regional gradients in atmospheric heavy metal pollution: A comparative application of top-soil, epiphytic moss and plant litter as indicators. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 11: 25-3l. (1994) Heavy metal pollution around solid waste incineration dumps in Ibadan city. Nigerian Journal of Science 28(3): 275-280. (1995) Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution of urban topsoil in Ibadan city, Nigeria. Environment International 21(3): 341-343. . _____ (2001) Roadside topsoil concentrations of lead arid other heavy metals in Ibadan, Nigeria. Soil and Sediment Contamination 10(6): 577-59l. Onianwa, P.C and Ajayi, S.O. (1987) Heavy metal contents of epiphytic acrocarpous mosses within inhabited sites in south- west Nigeria. Environment International 13(2): 191-196. _____ (2001) Heavy metals contents of roadside mosses in the northern and south-eastern regions of Nigeria. Chemistry and Ecology 18(34): 187-194. Onianwa, P.c. and Babajide, A.O. (1993) Sulphate-sulphur levels of topsoils related to atmospheric sulphur dioxide pollution. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 25(2): 141-148. Onianwa, P.c. and Egunyomi, A. (1983) Trace metal levels in some Nigerian mosses used as indicators of atmospheric pollution. Environmental. Pollution 5( 1): 71-81. Onianwa, P.C and Essien, CA. (1999) Petroleum hydrocarbon levels in sediments of stream and rivers within Ibadan city, Nigeria. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia 13(1): 83- 85. Onianwa, P.C and Fakayode, S.O. (2000) Lead contamination of topsoil and vegetation in the vicinity of a battery factory in' Nigeria. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 22(3): 211- 218. 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Onianwa, P.c., Adetola, LG., Iwegbue, C.M.A, Ojo, M.F. and Tella, 0.0. (1999a) Trace heavy metals composition of some Nigerian beverages and food drinks. Food Chemistry 66(3): 275-279. Onianwa, P.c., Adeyemi, O.G. and Sofuwa, H.AA (1995) Pollution of surface and groundwater around Aperin solid waste landfill site in Ibadan city. Nigerian Journal of Science 29: 159-164. Onianwa, P.c., Ajayi, S.O., Osibanjo, O. and Egunyomi, A (1986a) Sorption and retention of Pb, Cu and Cd ions in three species of mosses used for air pollution studies in Nigeria. Environmental Pollution 11 (91): 231-238. . _____ (1986b) Accumulation patterns of heavy metals in forest mosses from the south-west region of Nigeria. Environmental Pollution 11(1): 67-78. Onianwa, P.c., Ikadeh, G.A and Nweze, S.E. (1997) Aluminium contents of some raw and processed Nigerian foods. Food Chemistry 58(4): 351-353. Onianwa, P.c., Ipeaiyeda, A and Emurotu, J.E. (2001) Water quality of the urban rivers and streams of Ibadan, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Education and Information 20(92): 107-120. Onianwa, P.C., Jaiyeola, O.M. and Egekenze, R.N. (2001) Heavy metals contamination of topsoil in the vicinity of auto-repair workshops, gas stations and motor parks in a Nigerian city. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 84(14): 33-39. Onianwa, P.c., LawaI, J.A, Ogunkeye, AA and Orejimi, B.M. (2000b) Cadmium and nickel composition of Nigerian foods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 13(6): 961-969. Onianwa, P.C., Ogunniyi, OJ. and Ogunnowo, AA (1999b) General physicochemical quality of drinking water in Ibadan, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Education and Information 18(2): 143-154 . . Onianwa, P.c., Oputu, O.D., Oladiran, O.E. and Olujimi, 0.0. (2012) Distribution and speciation of phosphorus in sediments of rivers in Ibadan, south-western Nigeria. Chemical Speciation and Bioavailability 25(1): 24-33. - Onwordi, c.T.. (2014) Physicochemical Characteristics and Amenability to Bench Scale Treatment of Some Industrial Effluents and Sediments in Lagos Metropolis. PhD Thesis, University of Ibadan. 245 + xxi pp. 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Osibanjo, O. (2008) Giving the Earth a Future: Chemicals, Waste and Pollution Risk Factors. University of Ibadan Inaugural Lecture Series. 54pp. Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M., Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, E., Clark, S., Poon, E., Abbett. E. and Nandagopal, S.(2004) Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues. BioScience 54(10): 909-918. Plumlee, o.s., Durant, J.T., Morman, S.A, Neri, A, Wolf, RE.,·<- ~ Dooyema, c.x., Hageman, PL., Lowers, H.A, Fernette, G.L., Meeker, G.P., Benzel, W.M., Driscoll, RL., Berry, e.J., Crock, J.G., Goldstein, H.L., Adams, M., Bartrem, c.t., Tirima, S., Behbod, B., Ian von Lindern, L and Mary Jean Brown, M.J. (2013) Linking geological and health. sciences to assess childhood lead poisoning from artisanal gold mining in Nigeria. Environmental Health Perspectives 121(6): 744-750. Pruss-Ustun, A, Vickers, e., Haefliger, P. and Bertollini, R (2011) Knowns and unknowns on burden of disease due to chemicals: A systematic review. Environ Health 10(9): 10-1186. Pyagbara, L.S. (2007) ''The Adverse Impacts of Oil Pollution on the Environment and Wellbeing of a Local Indigenous Community: The Experience of the Ogoni People of Nigeria". In: International Expert Group Meeting On Indigenous Peoples And Protection Of The Environment, organised by UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, in Khabarovsk, Russian Federation, August 27-29, 2007. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa on 20/04/2015. Rasmussen, L and Johnsen, L (1976) Uptake of minerals, particularly metals, by epiphytic Hypnum cupressiforme. Oikos 27: 483-487. Roots, E.F. (1997) Inclusion of Different Knowledge Systems in Research. In Terra Borealis. Traditional and Western Scientific " Environmental Knowledge. Workshop Proceedings, Northwest River, Labrador 10& 11 Sept. 1997. Ruhling, A and Tyler, G. (1973) Heavy metal deposition in Scandinavia. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2(4): 445-455. Shiklomanov, LA and Rodda, J.e. (Eds.), (2003) World water resources at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Vol. 13). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sindiku, 0., Babayemi, J., Osibanjo, 0., Schlummer, M., Schluep, M., Watson, A and Weber, R (2014). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers listed as Stockholm convention POPs, other 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY brominated flame retardants and heavy metals in e-waste polymers in Nigeria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, In Press. Sinha, P., Schew, W. A., Sawant, A., Kolwaite, K.J. and Strode, / 'S.A. (2010) Greenhouse gas emissions from US institutions of higher education. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 60(5): 568-573. Sullivan, J. (2014) Trash or treasure: Global trade and the accumulation of e-waste in Lagos, Nigeria. Africa Today 61(1): 89-112. ' The World Bank (2013) Obsolete Pesticide Stockpiles: An Unwanted Legacy of the African Landscape. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en on 23/4/2015 Umoren, Ll.I. and Onianwa, P. (2012) Surface water quality status and chemical speciation of Qua Iboe River system, Niger- Delta. Elixir 47: 9064-9073. UN Water (2005) Water for life decade: 2005 - 2015. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 2Opp. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2006) Strategic approach to International chemicals management. SAICM texts and resolutions of the International Conference on Chemicals Management. UNEP, Nairobi. 125pp. (2011) Environmental assessment of Ogoniland. "UNEP,Nairobi. 2(i2pp. - (2013) Global chemicals outlook: Towards sound management of chemicals. UNEP, Nairobi. 264pp. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) (1992) Toxicity . characteristics leaching procedure. Method 1311 - SW 846. "USEPA, Washington, DC. 35pp. .,' , (2008) Test methods for evaluating solid waste, physical/chemical methods. Document no. SW-846. 3rd '~ Edition. USEPA, Washington, DC. . ; " Vir, A. (1989) Toxic trade with Africa. Environmental Science & , Technology 23(1): 23-25. ~ ". ~ WHO (2004). Country profile of Environmental Burden of Disease. Acessed on 29.04/2015 from http://www. who. intlquantifying_ehimpacts/national/countrypro file/nigeria.pdf . ,,," World Resource Institute (WRI) (2011) CAIT 2.0. Total GHG Emissions Excluding Land-use Change and Forestry - 2011. Retrieved from http://cait2. wri.org/wrilCountry GHG Emissions indicator on 16/04/2015. ' 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY BIODATAOF PROFESSOR PERCY CHUKS ONIANW A Professor Percy Chuks Onianwa, was born on 10 April 1955 to the family of late Chief Frederick Okonwanji Onianwa (alias Oshimili) and late Mrs. Comfort Egobi Onianwa (nee Nwaezeigwe) of Ogboli quarters in Ibusa town of Oshimili North Local Government area of Delta State. He attended St. Augustine's Grammar School, Ibusa, from 1968 to 1972 and passed with a Division One. Between 1973 and 1974, he was at the Baptist Academy, Obanikoro, Lagos where he undertook his Higher School Certificate programme before being admitted into the University of Ibadan in 1975. In 1978, he graduated with a Second Class Honours, Upper Division, from our prestigious Department of Chemistry. Subsequently, he obtained the degree of M.Sc. (Analytical Chemistry) and PhD (AnalyticallEnvironmental Chemistry) from the same· Department in 1980 and 1985 respectively. Professor Onianwa joined the staff of the University of Ibadan on 01 November, 1980 as an Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Chemistry, and rose through the ranks to the position of Professor of AnalyticallEnvironmental Chemistry in 2001. Professor Onianwa's research interest is in the field of analytical methods development and assessment, and the application to environmental assessment,monitoring and modelling particularly with respect to heavy metals and other pollutants. He has published widely in mostly reputable international journals. He has collaborated locally and internationally in this respect, and has been visiting scholar to a number of reputable foreign research centres, including the University of Uppsala's Department of Analytical Chemistry, the Laboratory for Coastal Research of the National Swedish Environmental Protection Board in Drottinngholm, and the Statens Lantbrukskemiska Laboratorium (SLL), Ultuna, Sweden. He was also a Third World Academy of Science (TWAS) research fellow at the International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Sciences (ICENS), located on the 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY campus of the University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica. Professor -Onianwa has supervised and graduated eight PhD and one MPhil candidates, and scores of MSc candidates. He has held several administrative appointments in the University. He is the current representative of the Faculty of Science on the University -Appointments and Promotion Committee, and has in the past served on the Telephone r Committee, Student's Welfare Committee, Staff Disciplinary Committee, and several ad-hoc committees. He has, since September 2008, till date, held the position of Coordinator of our University's Multidisciplinary Central Research Laboratory (MCRL). Professor Onianwa has served as external examiner for PhD and MSc programmes to two universities in South Africa, and fourteen Nigerian Universities. He has also served on the National University Commission's accreditation teams to several first and second generation Universities. He is regular reviewer to thirteen international reputable journals, and in February 2013 was appointed substantive Editor of an Elsevier journal, the Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. He is a member of several professional organisations, including the Institute of Chartered Chemists of Nigeria (a fellow), Institute of Public Analysts of Nigeria (a fellow), American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry (UK), Council of Science Editors, International Society for Managing and Technical Editors, and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Since 2004, he has held the position of Chairman of Technical Committee on Chemicals and Cosmetics of the Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON). In February 2013, on the recommendation of the SON, he was appointed "Expert" to the Technical Harmonisation Committee (THC) , 05 (on Chemicals/Chemical Engineering products) of the African Standardisation Organisation (ARSO), the standardisation coordinating organ of the African Union, based in Nairobi. He was, also in 2013, appointed Member of 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNEP-WCMC (United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Group of Experts on the Development" of Indicators for the Global Assessment of Harmful Substances. Professor Onianwa has been involved in some assignments involving chemical pollution management issues for the ECOW AS Commission, and the Basel Convention Coordinating Centre for the Africa Region' (BCCC-Africa). He is happily married to Dr. Patricia O. Onianwa, Deputy Director of Nursing, and current Head of Nursing, University College Hospital, Ibadan. They are blessed with children . • 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY NATIONAL ANTHEM Arise, 0 compatriots Nigeria's call obey To serve our fatherland With love and strength and faith The labour of our heroes' past Shall never be in vain To serve with heart and might One nation bound in freedom Peace and unity o God of creation Direct our noble cause Guide thou our leaders right Help our youths the truth to know In love and honesty to grow And living just and true Great lofty heights attain To build a nation where peace And justice shall reign UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN ANTHEM Unibadan, Fountainhead Of true learning, deep and sound Soothing spring for all who thirst Bounds of knowledge to advance Pledge to serve our cherished goals! Self-reliance, unity That our nation may with pride Help to build a world that is truly free Unibadan, first and best Raise true minds for a noble cause Social justice, equal chance Greatness won with honest toil Guide our people this to know Wisdom's best to service turned Help enshrine the right to learn For a mind that knows is a mind that's free 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY