ISSN:1118-8995
ma 1of
ei•ences
. Volume22 Number1 June2015
Citizens Partici a ion in Election in Nigeria:
An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
Remi E. Aiyede and Afeaye A. Igbafe
Real exchange Rate and Manufacturing Sector
Performance In Nigeria
Hassan Ojor Ozekhome and Nuhu Mohammed
Ascal Deficit and Exchange Rate Movement:
Empirical Evidence from Nigeria
Adedeji Daniel Gbadebo and Ahmed Adekunle
Enhancing Rural Development in Nigeria Through:
Stock Market Awareness
Samson E. Edo and Josephine E. Isenmila
Indirect Monetary Policy Instruments and Balance of
Payment Performance in Ni«eria .
G.G. Goshit, R. Anga and O.B'. Gomwalk
Determinants of the Utilization of Primary Health Care
in Benin City
Edorodion Oye Erimona and Monday Ohi Asikhia
Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth:
Evidence from Ghana and Nigeria
Peter I. Sede and Eseosa J. Sowemimo
Capital.Market Developmentand EconomicGrowt~ in Nigeria
Nosakhare L. Arodoye and Samson E. Edo
ForeignDirect Investment and PovertyReduction in Nigeria
Odusanya Ibrahim Abidemi
Publication of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
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Benin Journal of Social Sciences
Editor-in-Chief
Samson E. Edo
Professor and Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Editor
OffiongJ. Offiong .
Professor, Department of Political Science
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Associate Editor Business Manager
Anthony I. Monye-Emina Onovughe o. Ike1egbe (Mrs)
Professor, Department of Associate Professor, Department
Economics & Statistics of Geography & Regional Planning
University of Benin, University of Benin,
Benin City, Nigeria. Benin City, Nigeria.
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Abbi Kedir, Senior Lecturer, University ofLeicester,U.K
Edwin Muchapondwa, Professor, University ofCape Town, South Africa
John Anyanwu, Professor, African Development Bank, Tunisia
Festus Egwakhide, Professor, University ofIbadan, Nigeria
AndrewOnokerhoraye, Emeritus Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Milton Iyoha, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Mike Obadan, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Christiana Okojie, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Patrick Igbinovia, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Anthony Chokor, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Chike Okolocha, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Isi Ikhuoria, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Augustine Ikelegbe, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Kokunre Eghafona, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Raphael Udegbunam, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Ovuyovwiroye Odjugo, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
Mercy Anyiwe, Professor, University ofBenin, Nigeria
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BENIN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL
SCIENCES
Volume 22, Number 1, June 2015
Contents
Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011
General Elections in Benin City. 1
Remi E. Aiyede and Afeaye A. Igbafe
Real Exchange Rate and Manufacturing Sector Performance inNigeria 17
Hassan Ojor Ozekhome and Nuhu Mohammed
Fiscal Deficit and Exchange Rate Movement: Empirical Evidence
fromNigeria 32
Adedeji Daniel Gbadebo andAhmedAdekunle
Enhancing Rural Development in Nigeria Through Stock Market Awareness 49
Samson E. Edo and Josephine E. Isenmila
Indirect Monetary Policy Instruments and Balance of Payments
Performance in Nigeria 65
G.G.Goshit, R. Anga and o.B.Gomwalk
Determinants ofthe Utilization of Primary Health Care in Benin City 84
Edorodion Oye Erimona and Monday Ohi Asikhia
Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth: Evidence from Ghana
and Nigeria 94
Peter I.Sede and Eseosa J. Sowemimo
Capital Market Development and Economic Growth in Nigeria 111
Nosakhare L. Arodoye and Samson E. Edo
Foreign Direct Investment and Poverty Reduction in Nigeria 140
Odusanya Ibrahim Abidemi
111
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Benin Journal of Social Sciences, Volume 22, Number 1, June 2015
CITIZENS' PARTICIPATION IN ELECTIONS
IN NIGERIA: AN ANALYSIS OF THE 2011
GENERAL ELECTIONS IN BENIN CITY
Remi E. Aiyede
Afeaye A. Igbafe
Abstract
Elections are ways by which citizens select their representatives into various
elective positions in the state. There are series of activities which citizens take part
in; particularly pre-elections activities that facilitate this process of selection.
Utilizing the survey method of data gathering, the paper examined the
participation of citizens in elections in Nigeria. Using Benin .City as the study
area, the research sampled the opinions of citizens regarding their involvement in
the 2011 general elections. The study found that citizens' participation in the 2011
elections in Benin City was low. It revealed that political apathy exists among
citizens in the political system as the citizens' level of participation in the
elections, was restricted to voting alone. The paper also identified some factors
that attract and repel citizens as it regards their roles in elections as well as the
reasons for political apathy in the 2011 elections in Benin City. The study
concludes that citizens' participation in the elections revolves largely around the
spectator level.
Keywords: Elections, Voting, Citizens, Political Participation, Political Party ..
Introduction
Citizens' participation in elections is an aspect of political behaviour that focuses
on the ways in which individuals involve themselves in activities that impact on
the electoral process. Electoral processes refer to the ways by which elections are
conducted in a political system to choose those who will occupy leadership
positions (Omolayo, 2007). The level of involvement of citizens in the electoral
process is to an extent contingent on the level of confidence they have in the
system. Therefore, the people must not lose confidence in the process if the
system is to continue enjoying the support of the citizens. The opportunity for
citizens' participation in elections in Nigeria came with the introduction of the
elective principle in the Clifford Constitution of 1922. Ever since, Nigeria has had
Dr Remi E.Aiyede, Department of Political Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Email: eAai1:ede~eya,hoo.comAfe~ye gba Department of Political Science, University of Benin, Benin City.
Emall: afeaye@yahoo,com
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Rem; E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
quite a number of elections; the major ones being the elections of 1959, 1964,
1983,1991, 1992, 1999 and 2003 (Olaniyan, 2007). And lately, there have been
the 2007 and 2011 general elections. It is assumed that citizens are increasingly
becoming more aware of their roles in elections but the willingness to participate
actively has been called to question.
Elections are the technical means of ensuring popular participation in
government. It is a means of building support, choosing leaders and making
policies. Indeed, elections are the specific fundamental method of realizing
government of, by and for the people (Ejue &Ekanem, 2011). Citizens are
supposed to be a part of the electoral process. Economic development has
momentous political consequences on participation. The more economically
strong citizens are, the higher the potential for mobilizing them for electoral
participation (powell, 1983; cited in Olaniyan, 2007). Questions have arisen as to
what prompts citizens to participate in elections in Nigeria. Do they need to be
politically inclined :firstbefore they can contribute to the electoral process? Or is
participating in elections just a fulfillment of their civic responsibility?
The participatory level of citizens in electoral activities in Nigeria is an aspect of
political behaviour which does not seem to have captured the attention of many
political scientists and social commentators; and as such, research in this area has
been quite limited. Although there have been several researches on election in
Nigeria such as voter turnout, election observation and the likes, only a few
scholars have pointed out the role citizens play in ensuring a robust election
process. To spur the interest of scholars and non-scholars alike in this research
area and to improve the knowledge in it, the paper sets out to examine the political
roles played by citizens in elections in Nigeria with particular reference to the
2011 elections in Benin City by attempting to determine the level of participation
of citizens through getting to know what political activities they engage in. And it
also attempts to identify those factors that stir or discourage citizens' participation
in elections.
Research Questions
This study seeks to find answers to the following questions which would serve as a
guide to the attainment of the objectives of this work.
• Are citizens' participation in elections restricted to voting alone?
• Are citizens' participation in elections connected to their economic status?
• What are the factors that motivate citizens to contribute to elections in
Nigeria?
• What level of political participation is common to the electorate?
The 2011 Election Environment
The year 2011 was a promising year for Nigeria as far as the democracy project
was concerned. This was because in April Nigerians went to the polls to vote for
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 20ll General EJections in Benin City
members of the National Assembly, President and Governors in the fourth
nationwide elections since the transition to democratic governance in 1999
(Gberie, 2011). The political atmosphere was filled with expectations on the one
hand and overwhelmed with tension on the other. Expectations because
progressive changes were anticipated following the electoral reforms initiated
with the setting up of an Electoral Reform Committee (ERC) headed by retired
Justice Muhammed Uwais, which climaxed with the appointment of Prof.
Attahiru Jega as INEC chairman, a widely acclaimed political scientist with a
reputation for great integrity (Omotola & Aiyedogbon, 2012). This was in line
with the resolve of the government of Nigeria to deliver a free and fair election
following the discredited elections of 2007. The tension in the 2011 election
environment was brought about by the undue politicization of the decision of
President Jonathan to contest for the office of president which was viewed by
some northern elites as a violation of the zoning principle which is operational in
the PDP, the party to which the president belonged.
-
The enthusiasm of citizens towards the 2011 elections was low. The massively
flawed elections of2007 amongst other things accounted for the low enthusiasm.
The average turnout in the 2007 election hovered around 50%. INEC on its part
was beset with an uphill task of trying to re-gain public confidence as far as the
conduct of the 2011 election was concerned. Omokri (2011) identified personality
as a major factor responsible for the flawed elections of 2003 and 2007.
According to him, "the personality of the man at the head of the body conducting
the election and his relationship with the president who appointed him as well as
the enabling law, impact on the electoral process." By implication, Omokri's
emphasis was that the integrity of the head of the election management body plays
a major role in the outcome of elections in Nigeria With the emergence of
Attahiru Jega as INEC chairman, the election environment of2011 became very
sensitive to activities and actions of political and non-political actors.
Parties commenced vigorous campaigns in an attempt to woo the electorates. The
dominant political parties in the 2011 elections were the ruling People's
Democratic Party (PDP), All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP). Action Congress of
Nigeria (ACN) and the newly formed Congress for Progressive Change (CPC)
led by Muhammadu Buhari. Parties were notable for their elaborate and well-
funded political campaigns and the level of mobilization was unprecedented
(Omotola& Aiyedogbon, 2012).
The 2011 election environment was not devoid of ethno-religious tension. Groups
like the Northern Political Leaders Forum (NPLF) openly promoted regional,
sectional and/or religious interest above national interest (Omokri, 2011). While
groups in the Niger Delta openly pushed for the support ofGoodluck Jonathan for
re-election and accused prominent traditional rulers in the north for sponsoring
the insurgency so as to make the country ungovernable for president Goodluck
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Remi E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
(Osumah, 2013 cited in Otoghile & Igbafe, 2014) and to create tension within the
polity. The NPLF was formed in August 2010 for the sole purpose of pressurizing
the PDP to cede power to the North in fulfillment of the 'zoning' principle within
the party (Omokri, 2011). This was based on the fact that president Yar' Adua died
before completing his first term in office.
The 2011 elections were also caught in the web of the security crisis in Nigeria.
There were lots of communal and sectarian violence; and political thuggery was
commonplace in the run-up to the election. For example, on March 3, unidentified
persons lobbed bombs at the PDP campaign rally in Suleja, Niger State, killing 13
people and injuring scores more (Gberie, 2011). Due to the ethno-religious
tension that was created in the election environment where divisive campaigns,
ideologies and tendencies were promoted, violence broke out in a number of
states in the north after the elections when it was clear that Muharnmadu Buhari, a
northerner had lost to incumbent, President Goodluck Jonathan. This forced
!NEe to postpone the date of the subsequent gubernatorial elections in certain
states until security could be guaranteed (Aiyede, 2012).
The elections of2007 were fraught with irregularities to the extent that there were
1,250 petitions and 6,180 electoral litigations in the courts (Gberie, 2011). This
was because according to Gberie (2011), there was unprecedented rigging, ballot
stuffing, falsification of results, intimidation of voters and direct assault of the
people. The electorates have observed that their votes do not determine the
outcome of elections. This placed a burden on !NEe; which had to institute a
process of restoring public trust in the commission's ability of delivering credible
elections, which would in turn entrench an electoral process that attracts high
citizens' participation. The process of restoring public confidence was all
encompassing. In other words, the responsibility of restoring public trust was not
that of !NEe alone; civil society organizations, political parties and other
stakeholders had a role to play. This led to the popular slogan 'one man one vote' in
the political campaign in the 2011 elections as a precursor to attracting high voter
turnout and popular participation. The campaign called for the right of electorates
to decide who leads them through transparent, free and fair elections (Ekhareafo
&Ngonso, 2013). The 2011 elections held inApril and the outcome of the process
was regarded as a remarkable improvement when compared with the 2003 and
2007 elections.
Literature Review
Elections constitute the central institution of a democratic representative
government. This assertion hinges on the fact that, in a democracy, the authority
of government is derived solely from the consent of the governed (Omolayo,
2007). The principal mechanism for translating that consent into governmental
authority is the holding of a free and fair election. Elections in democracies play
the vital role of ensuring representation of popular will and, subsequently, helping
to secure the legitimacy of the political system (Independent National Electoral
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
Commission & Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2011). Elections are part of a process
that brings to light the strengths and weaknesses of a political institution in society
as a whole. It also shows the level of political consciousness and participation of
the citizenry (Ejue & Ekanem, 2011). The citizens' participation impacts upon the
electoral process, and this participation is what makes election quite momentous.
This is because citizens' participation in elections is one of the ways by which they
take part in the decision making processes of the country. That is, they decide on
those who will act on their behalf in various sectors of the political system. It must
be noted that citizens' participation in elections does not constitute voting at
general elections alone but a host of other pre-election and often times post-
elections activities such as participating in the registration exercise, taking part in
campaign rallies, attending political symposia, campaigning for candidates etc.
Voting is the legal, political and social mechanism through which the citizens are
able to show their participation in elections as well as exercise their interests and
express their needs. For citizens to participate actively in elections, citizenship
education is sine qua non. There are two different types of citizenship education.
The first is meant to prepare non-citizens to become legally and socially accepted
as citizens. The second type of citizenship education is the one taught in schools as
an academic subject just like sociology or history. The aim is to ensure that
individuals acquire certain fundamental and basic knowledge to qualify as a
citizen. In Nigeria, citizenship education is a recent development and is taught in
all tertiary institutions with a variety of names such as Nigerian Peoples and
Culture (NPC) amongst others (Ejue & Ekanem, 2011).
In theory, elections enable citizens to choose and guide their government (Roskin,
2006). Democracy provides the platform for people to participate in choosing
their leaders. In order for election to successfully accomplish this purpose, citizen
participation is very critical. Citizens' participation is essentially nation-building
through the thoughts, words and actions of a critical mass of the people. This is a
process where citizens take responsibility for the current state and future outcome
in the country and then with courage, step out to participate in activities that will
lead to its development (Udoh, 2012). One of the ways citizens could achieve this
aim is to participate actively in elections. Citizens' participation in election could
take various forms such as, citizens working for a political party of their choice,
working for a candidate running for an elective position, running for political
office, attending party meetings, attending political rallies and symposia,
campaigning for a candidate, campaigning for a political party, registering to vote,
and casting their votes on election days. Participating in election activities helps to
deepen democracy; since an increased participation of citizens in elections places
pressure on elected officials to live up to campaign promises.
There is the assumption that when citizens participate in elections, it makes the
elections more credible and less likely to be hijacked by political miscreants.
Elections are supposed to be free and fair. Mackenzie (1967), cited in Okoosi-
Simbine (2012), identified four conditions for the conduct of a free and fair
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Remi E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
election. These are: an independent judiciary to interpret electoral laws, an
independent, competent and non-partisan Electoral Management Body (EMB) to
manage the elections, a developed system of political parties and a general
acceptance by the political community of the rules of the game. Also, there are
three vital requirements for delivering free and fair elections in Africa and they
include: an independent judiciary, an independent, competent and non-partisan
EMB and a developed system of political parties (Igbuzor and Edigheji, 2003;
Okoosi-Simbine, 2012). Citizens' participation in elections in Nigeria with
reference to Benin City is contingent on these key requirements particularly an
independent, competent and non-partisan electoral management body in which
case is the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). INEC should be
able to build the confidence the citizens have in it to deliver credible elections.
Okoosi-Simbine (2012), asserted that, "good elections are generally considered
to be those in which there is effective participation of all, women and men alike as
organizers, voters and candidates."
Political participation has been a substantive area of interest for both sociologists
and political scientists, mainly because it pertains to the quintessential act of
democratic citizenship and it is one of the oldest concepts in the comparative
study of politics (Lamprianou, 2013; Omotola and Aiyedogbon, 2012). Yet it
remains an essentially contested concept, with a variety of definitions on parade,
each of which is either too general or too narrow (Omotola and Aiyedogbon,
2012). Nelson (1979) cited in Omotola and Aiyedogbon, (2012), defines political
participation as an 'action of private citizens intended to influence the actions or
composition of national or local government. Diemer (2012) cited in Lamprianou
(2013), referred to political participation as an "engagement with traditional
mechanisms in the ... political system, such as voting in elections and joining
political organizations". Political participation has to do with the nature and
extent of citizens' individual involvement in the political process of the society
(Dokpesi, 2006). And elections are part of the political process of society.
Citizens' participation in elections could involve a wide range of political
activities that take place in the build-up to election. The decision and willingness
of individual citizen to take part in elections can be explained under the levels of
political participation. According to Milbrath (1965), cited in Ruedin (2007),
political participation is conceptualized in a hierarchical manner; persons who
engage in the topmost behaviour are likely to perform those lower in ranks also.
Participation is conceptualized in terms of different levels as shown in the
pyramid (hierarchy) below;
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 201l General Elections in Benin City
Figure 1:Hierarchical level of Political Participation
Holding office
Candidate for office Gladiator
activities
Attending a political rally
Transitional
Donating money to a party
activities
Contacting an official
Wearing a button
Trying to talk someone into voting a certain way
Spectator
Political discussion activities
Voting
Source: Ruedin, D. (2007). "Testing Milbrath's 1965 Framework of Political
Participation: Institution and SocialCapital". Contemporary Issues and Ideas in Social
Science, Vol.3 (3).pp 1-46.
The spectator level of citizens' participation in the political process is through
political discussions especially with like minds, and more importantly exercising
their voting rights. An individual who carries a party sticker on his or her car is
also involved at this level. The number of citizens participating at this level is
higher than the number of citizens participating at other levels put together. At the
transitional level, citizens are more involved in the political process. Here
citizens attend meetings, make financial contributions to the maintenance and
electoral success of their political parties and participate by assisting political
candidates to win elections. Citizens involved at the gladiator level are at the
highest level of participation in politics. At this level, individuals seek elective
positions which compel them to canvass for votes from the electorates. Citizens
that participate at this level are also likely to perform the activities oflower levels.
They are gladiators in the sense that they are involved in the most competitive
aspect of political activities (Dokpesi, 2006). Moving from one level to the next in
the hierarchy is dependent on the individual characteristics. For example, an
extremely passive citizen is unlikely to become involved in politics (elections) in
the first place or someone comfortable with overt political acts is unlikely to put a
sticker of the chosen political party on his or her car (Ruedin, 2007).
It is instructive to mention that in Milbrath's hierarchy of political participation; at
the bottom of the hierarchy are the apathetic citizens. The politically apathetic
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Remi E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
citizens are those who seem not to know or are not interested in the series of
political events in the community to which they belong. A citizen's feeling of
indifference to the happenings within the political world around himlher may be a
function of several factors (Dokpesi, 2006). A citizen's participation in elections
means an involvement in activities of any of the different levels. But a survey of
the participation of the generality of the citizens may show that their participation
hovers around a particular level.
Methodology of Study
This study was conducted in Benin City. The study utilized the survey method of
data collection which involved the use of a structured questionnaire. The
participants for this research were drawn from the three (3) Local Government
Areas in Benin City namely; Egor, Ikpoba-Okha and Oredo using the cluster and
convenient sampling methods. Citizens of voting age were sampled and four
hundred and fifty (450) copies of the questionnaire were administered to
respondents to provide information on their participation in the 2011 elections.
The questionnaire was administered and collected by hand through the services of
research assistants and this was done at ward level of the three Local Government
Areas. The completed copies of the questionnaire were analysed using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 16. Simple
frequency and percentage were used to show the strengths and weaknesses of
variables. .
Analysis of Results
From the survey, it was discovered that majority of the respondents were male
(63.3%) while the female respondents had 36.7%. Majority of the respondents
(40%) fell within the age bracket of25-34 years, followed by 35-44 years (23%).
This shows that majority of the respondents were in their youthful ages were
active participation is expected to be high. This is again followed by respondents
below the ages of25 years (16.7%). And respondents within the age bracket of 45-
54 years (13.3%). While respondents under the ages of 55 and above constituted
the lowest with only 7%.
The study revealed that citizens' participation in the 2011 general elections in
Benin City was poor and limited to registration and voting alone. Specifically,
Table 1 shows that majority of the citizens did not work for any political party
during the build-up to the elections with 90% of the respondents affirming this.
The same result goes for citizens that never worked for any candidate (political
office aspirant). The study also shows that attendance at political party meetings
and rallies was poor. 80% of the respondents did not attend any political party
meeting while only 13.3% of the respondents attended political rallies. In
campaigning for political parties or candidates, citizens' participation showed a
slight difference from that of attendance at political rallies as only 16.7% ofthe
respondents were involved in one form of campaign activity or the other for the
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
candidates of their choice. Investigation also revealed that 90% of citizens did not
carry party sticker neither on their cars nor did they have them (stickers) pasted on
the door of their offices or at homes. While a minute 3.3% of the respondents
received money to campaign for party candidates. In the area of registration and
voting in the 2011 elections, the field survey revealed that 93.3% of the
respondents registered to vote while 83.3% came out to cast their votes on
elections days. This shows that some citizens who participated in the registration
exercise in 2011 did not come out to cast their votes. They appear to be apathetic to
election matters. They feel that their participation in elections begins and ends
with taking part in the voters' registration exercise. And this is attributable to some
factors
Table 1:Citizens' participatory level in election activities
Questions Responses Frequency Percentage
WORKED FOR A POLITICAL Yes 45 10
PARTY No 405 90
Total 450 100
WORKED FOR ANY Yes 45 10
CANDIDATE No 405 90
Total 450 100
ATTENDED ANY POLITICAL Yes 90 20
MEETINGS No 360 80
Total 450 100
ATTENDED POLITICAL Yes 60 13.3
RALLIES No 390 86.7
Total 450 100
CAMPAIGNED FOR A PARTY Yes 75 16.7
OR CANDIDATE No 375 83.3
Total 450 100
GOT MONEY TO CAMPAIGN Yes 15 3.3
FOR A CANDIDATE No 435 96.7
Total 450 100
CARRIED STICKERS OF Yes 45 10
PARTIES ON CARS, OFFICES No 405 90
ETC. Total 450 100
REGISTERED TO VOTE IN THE Yes 420 93.3
2011 ELECTIONS No 30 6.7
Total 450 100
VOTED IN THE 2011 Yes 375 83.3
ELECTIONS No 75 16.7
Total 450 100
Source: Field Survey, 2013.
Arising from the findings that some citizens registered but did not vote during the
elections required some investigations as to the causes of such behaviour. Table 2
shows that majority ofthe citizens believe that good governance is a major factor
that would attract them to participate in elections. Eighteen point six percent
(18.6%) ofthe respondents identified good governance as the highest motivating
factor. This means that citizen could be motivated to participate in elections if they
are experiencing good governance. That is, if the citizens feel the positive impact
of government in the society. This can be linked to the assertion of Mackenzie
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Remi E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
(1967), Igbuzor and Edigheji (2003) cited in Okoosi-Simbine (2012), on the key
requirements for delivering a free and fair election. The presence of an
independent judiciary, independent, competent, non-partisan EMB, developed
system of political parties and general acceptance of the rule of the game by the
political community are indicators of good governance. A system where the rule
oflaw takes precedence and is over and above every citizen regardless of social,
economic and political status in the society. Another factor which followed
closely is voters' education with 13.3%. Proper voters' education improves
citizens' participation in elections in the country; it creates awareness and
enlightens the citizenry on how they can actively participate in election matters in
the society. National duty and integrity of candidate were the least motivating
factors with 6.7% respectively.
Table 2: Factors that attract citizens' participation in elections.
Factors Frequency Percent
-- 30 6.7
Political contribution 45 10
Good governance 84 18.6
Ethnicity 46 10.2
Security 45 10
Voters' education 60 13.3
Honesty 30 6.7
Antecedents of candidate 40 8.9
Selfless service 40 8.9
National pride and duty 30 6.7
Total 450 100
Source: Field Survey, 2013
The economic status of citizens appears to be a factor that affects participation in
elections as indicated in table 3. This is because from the survey conducted about
two-third of the respondents affirmed this claim. It is often said that those who
participate in elections are not usually the down trodden but the elites in the
society. This explains why some people do not take part in political activities.
There is also the perception amongst citizens that participation in politics is
somewhat the exclusive right of the rich alone. This shows that the economic
status of citizens affects their participation. And this finding can be linked to the
work of Powell, (1983) cited in Olaniyan, 2007. According to Powell, "the more
economically strong citizens are, the higher the potential for mobilizing them for
electoral participation." The security of the ballot box is of utmost importance if
citizens are to participate actively in elections. This is because vote according to
Nwolise (2012b), is the link between the electorates, the candidate and the post
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
itself. Therefore, the votes of the citizens must be protected to avoid rigging
during election. Table 4 below shows the factors that discourage citizens from
participatinginelections.
Rigging on the other hand appears to be the major factor that discourages citizens
from participating in elections as 30% of the respondents affirmed this position in
table 4. The problem of rigging has impacted negatively on the participation of
citizens such that people see ballot boxes being snatched and taken away by
political thugs thereby discrediting the outcome. The implication of this is that
their votes do not count in the long run given the time, resources and commitment
theyput in. According to Nwolise, (20 12b), the vote is the most critical element of
anelection. Therefore, the security ofthe vote is of utmost importance. To prevent
rigging, INEC chairman Attahiru Jega urged citizens to vote and stay at a safe
distance from the polling station to protect their votes until after the count and
declaration of results (Nwolise, 2012b). There have been incidences of
intimidation of innocent citizen by gun totting boys on election days that shoot
sporadically into the air to scare the electorates for the purpose of snatching ballot
boxes. This has made a lot of citizens to stay away from polling centres for fear of
becoming victims of circumstance.
Table3: Citizens' participation in connection to their economic status
Question Responses Frequency Percentage
Does the economic status of Yes 270 60
Nigerians affect their No 180 40
participation in elections? Total 450 100
Source: Field Survey, 2013.
Table 4 Factors that discourage citizens from participating m e ections
Factors Frequency Percent
Rigging 135 30
Corruption 49 10.8
Electoral violence 40 8.9
Lack of party ideology 31 6.9
Lack of performance 35 7.8
Poor integrity of candidate 35 7.8
Insecurity 53 11.8
Poor political culture 72 16
Total 450 100
Source:Field Survey, 2013
From this study, it appears that apathy on the part of citizens is largely due to lack
ofconfidence in the electoral system. This is because the study revealed that more
than two-third of the respondents lack confidence in the electoral system. Table 5
shows that rigging is the most cited reason for citizens' lack of confidence in the
electoral system as 30.5% ofthe respondents said they do not have confidence in
the nation's electoral system because of the massive rigging that takes place
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Remi E. Aiyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
during elections. Also, government influence/interference is another reason with
12.6% of the respondents affirming this position. Many citizens are ofthe opinion
that government interferes in the operations of the electoral management body
(Independent National Electoral Commission, INEC) and this discredits the
elections. This has resulted in repeated calls for the chairman ofINEC not to be a
direct appointee of the head of the executive arm of government. Respondents
also identified insecurity, corruption, and inability to conduct a free and fair
election by INEC as reasons for their lack of confidence in the electoral system.
Table 5: Citizens' confidence in the Electoral System
Question Response Frequency Percentage
Do you have confidence Yes 165 36.7
in the electoral system No 285 63.3
which !NEe is in charge
of? Total 450 100
Reasons for the lack of Lack of Free and Fair Election 30 10.5
confidence in the Rigging 87 30.5
electoral system Government
Influence/interference 36 12.6
Bad Government 25 8.7
Electoral Malpractice 33 11.6
Corruption 15 5.3
Insecurity 15 5.3
Lack of Good Integrity 19 6.7
Lack of Improvement 25 8.8
Total 285 100
Source: Field Survey, 2013
From the findings in this study, it has been discovered that the general
participation of citizens in the 2011 elections in Benin City was quite poor. And
the poor participation of citizens in the 2011 elections is a function of institutional
and socio-economic factors, i.e. the inability of INEC to build citizens/voters'
confidence in the electoral processes and outcomes by conducting credible
elections and the economic status (income) of citizens. The analyses revealed that
the citizens' participation in elections in the 2011 elections in Benin City is
restricted to registration and voting alone on elections days. The survey has
shown that citizens' participation in elections is at the spectator level.
Reasons for Political Apathy in the 2011 Elections in Benin City
One reason that can be adduced for political apathy in Benin City during the 2011
elections is insecurity. In attempting to emphasize the importance of security in
every sphere of human endeavor, Nwolise (2012a) writes: "security is not only a
primary value for every person, group, nation, and the world; it is the most sacred
value, the ultimate value and the value that determines every other value." This is
because unless one is assured of his physical security and safety, everything else
will be meaningless (Zabadi, 2001). Security threats stem from violence during
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
elections which emanate from attempts to manipulate the process by godfathers
and their thugs and political elites, the assassination of political opponents and the
creation by several politicians of private 'armies' (Nwolise, 2012b). These trends
have made citizens apathetic towards the electoral process. Citizens are
concerned about their safety while performing or attempting to perform their
civic duties; and except they are assured of their physical security and safety
during elections, the electoral process will be meaningless to them.
The security of ballot is another dimension associated with the problem insecurity
during elections in Benin City. Many citizens are of the opinion that results of the
elections do not reflect the actual voting pattern of the electorates. They often
assert that election figures have been tampered with. Nwolise (2012b) while
pointing out the significance of votes asserted that: .
"One right citizens do not surrender is the right toparticipate
in the democratic governance of the state, especially to elect its
leaders, and the frustration of this right may engender violence
and insecurity. Unscrupulous politicians, especially mercantile
godfathers in pursuit of their undemocratic political plans and
ambitions, may unleash mayhem on the people. The incumbent
government may deploy the defence of security apparatus
against the people in an attempt to ensure that its favoured
candidate wins. Where such a move is suspected the people
themselves may organize toprotect their votes and to checkmate
the state. "
The aftermath of such revolt by citizens often result in security breaches that have
led to the destruction of lives and property during elections. The problem of
insecurity arises from institutional failure; either by INEC or security agencies in
terms oflogistic challenges, inadequate preparation or systemic breakdown.
Bad governance is another reason for political apathy. A government exists to
initiate and execute policies for the general welfare of all citizens; the material
progress of society; the protection of live and property of citizens, the
maintenance of security, social order, law and public order; the maintenance of
justice, equity, peace and stability and the maintenance of the territorial integrity
of the state (Ikelegbe, 2013). When government fails in its duties to the state, the
citizens tend not to identify with it. When the welfare of the citizens is not
paramount rather attention is shifted to paying allegiance political godfathers, a
crisis of governance results and citizens see the quest of politicians as a means to
primitively accumulate wealth.
Lack of good integrity of candidates is yet another reason adduced for political
apathy in Benin City. Political parties are known for presenting candidate with
questionable character to stand for elections. Some of these candidates are people
who have served in the state civil service and are known for their lack of
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Remi E. ,:iyede, Afeaye A. Igbafe
patriotism. Due to the fact that citizens have no control over who a party presents
as its flag bearer, they become very disinterested to participate in elections. In the
2011 elections in Benin City, most candidates ran for a second term of office,
many of whom failed to perform or make any significant change or impact on the
general welfare of citizens in their first term in office.
Conclusion
In this study, attempt was made to bring to the fore the level citizens participated
in elections in Benin City. Some questions were raised and answers provided. The
study revealed that most ofthe citizens did not attend political meetings or take
part in political rallies; neither did they campaign for any political party or
candidate but merely registered and voted. This study identified various factors
such as security, good governance candidate's integrity etc. that attract citizens to
participate in elections as well as factors i.e. rigging, poor political culture,
insecurity etc. that discourage or repel them from getting involved in election
matters. Investigations showed that when citizens perceive that the government
or an administration is good, they become interested in participating in elections.
Also in this survey, rigging was identified as the major factor that repels citizens
from getting involved in elections. There is the belief among the citizens that their
votes would not count. A good number take part in the voter registration exercise
and eventually get registered but this does not reflect on the voting pattern as
many of those who registered do not turn up on elections days to cast their votes.
Citizens are yet to show a significant level of interest in election matters in the
state and there exist some form of political apathy among citizens within the
political system. By and large, from this study, investigation revealed that
citizens' participation in the 2011 elections revolved around the spectator level as
the data got from the survey carried out reflected this position.
Recommendations
In order to increase citizens' involvement in election matters given the fact that
there will be many more general elections in Nigeria, the following
recommendations come in handy.
First, the problem of voters' apathy due to insecurity, rigging, electoral violence,
lack of performance etc. should be aggressively tackled. This can be done through
proper voters' education. Citizens should be sensitized on issues of elections and
the need and importance of actively participating. The mass media and civil
society have a major role to play in this.
Second, the curriculum for citizenship education should be renewed. Courses on
citizenship should be introduced into the curriculum of universities in the country
and student should be made to offer such courses to improve the knowledge of the
youths on issues that pertain to their rights, duties and responsibilities as citizens.
This would in turn spur the interest of youths to participate actively in elections. A
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Citizens' Participation in Elections in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2011 General Elections in Benin City
subject of similar nature but less technical to enhance easy understanding should
also be introduced into the curriculum of post-primary institutions.
Third, to encourage voters to turn out on election days to exercise their franchise,
adequate security must be provided. Electoral violence has become too rampant
at polling units in Nigeria during elections and this has continued to scare
electorates from active participation. Political thugs and gun totting boys shoot
into the air to intimidate people and hijack the process. With heavy security
presence, this trend could be stemmed. While doing this, government should be
discreet as not to excessively deploy security personnel because the undue
militarization of the environment could in turn scare voters from participation.
Fourth, while accepting the fact that it is quite difficult to completely eradicate the
influence of government in elections in Nigeria due of the nature and character of
the political system, government interference in elections should be reduced to
the barest minimum. INEC should be independent and free from all forms of
pressure either from the government and/or political elites in the society. Also, the
appointment of officials for INEC should not be done by the executive arm of
government alone but in conjunction with the three arms of government.
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