Vol 12 No 2, JUNE 2015 ISSN: 1596-5953 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY vii Vol. 12, No. 2 1 Elevating Secondary School Students’ Learning Outcomes in Science with Mastery Learning and Guided Inquiry Strategies D. Adeleke and J. Irinoye 199 2 Information and Communication Technologies ’ Application in Nigerian Academic Libraries: Needs, Impact and Challenges in Tertiary Institutions P.O. Olaojo and GF. Alayande 207 3 Effect of Brainstorming Technique in Improving Female Students’ Achievement in Senior Secondary School Mathematics: A Study in Schools Effectiveness M. O. Oyeniyi and J. G Adewale 221 4 Effects of Communal Conflict on Enrollment, Attendance and Achievement of Primary School Pupils in Rivers State O. C. Opiki and J. O. Adeleke 232 5 Some Effects of Environmental Noise on The Academic Attainment of Students Attending Regular Secondary Schools in Ibadan Metropolis A. Osisanya and Y. E. Obalola 244 6 Primary School Pupils’ Knowledge and Perception of Climate Change P. A. Amosun and O.M. Odebiyi 258 7 Influence of Emotional Intelligence, Sense of Coherence and Self- Concept on Attitudes towards Help-Seeking Behaviour among Secondary School Adolescents in Ibadan Metropolis S..O. Salami, A.K. Taiwo and A. Ige 269 8 Predictors of Adolescents’ Vulnerability to Teenage Pregnancy among Rural Secondary School Students in Akinyele Local Government Area, Ibadan, Oyo State S. O. Oladeji 284 9 The Predictive Estimates of Some Psychosocial Factors on Psychological Wellbeing among Secondary School Adolescents in Ibadan Metropolis R.A. Animasahun 297 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vlll 10 Causes and Prevalence of Antisocial Behaviour among Students with Hearing Impairment in Ibadan, Nigeria O. O. Isaiah 311 11. Effects of Early Childhood Education Programme on Cognitive Development of Young Children in Oyo State M.D. Amosun 322 12. Psycho- Social Factors as Correlates of Aggressive Behaviour among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan AMJimoh 332 13 Economic Analysis of Private Costs of Technical Education in Oyo State of Nigeria , A. A. Tiamiyu 347 14 Strengthening Health Education Component of Health Care Delivery System for the Achievement of Health for all Nigerians O. J. Odelola 359 15 Behavioural Problems Among In School and Out of School Adolescents: The Legal Implications O.A. Moronkola and M. A Aworemi 370 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effects of Communal Conflict on Enrollment, Attendance and Achievement of Primary School Pupils in Rivers State O. C. Opiki and J. O. Adeleke Institute o f Education, University o f Ibadan, Ibadan, Abstract In s e c u r ity is a fa c to r th a t h a s p o te n c y , c a p a b le o f a ffe c tin g v a r io u s a c tiv i t ie s and engagem en ts in a com m un ity o r na tio n adversely . E n ro lm en t, a tten d an c e and learn ing o u tcom es in schoo ls, loca ted in th e areas rav ag ed by com m unal co n flic ts a re no t equa lly exem pted . This study therefore, investigated th e effects o f com m unal conflic t on enrollm ent, a ttendance , and ach iev em en t o f p rim ary schoo l pup ils in R ive rs S tate . T h is study adop ted a non-experim ental research design o f the causal com parative type. Stratified random sam pling techn ique w as used to se lec t 10 co n flic t a ffec ted and 10 non -a ffec ted p rim ary schoo ls in R ivers S tate. T hen 200 p rim ary f iv e pup ils and 10 teachers and 10 head te achers from each stra tum m aking a to tal o f 44 0 sub jec ts in all. School R eco rd S heet, E ng lish language(r= .88) and M athem atics(r= .84) A ch ievem en t Tests w ere used fo r da ta co llec tion . B o th D escrip tive and In feren tia l S ta tis tic s w ere adop ted fo r da ta ana ly sis . T he find ings rev ea led tha t to tal en ro lm en t in the a ffec ted schoo ls dw ind led , a ttendance reduced d ras tica lly and educational fac ili tie s w ere g ro ss ly u n a v a ila b le in th e co n flic t a ffec ted area . U n a ffe c te d sch o o ls exp e rien ced inc reased e n ro lm en t and a ttendance yearly d u ring th e fo u r years u nder study. T here w as s ignificant difference in the academ ic achievem ent 1324 02J)= 7.198, p< 0.05 betw een the a ffec ted and u naffec ted p rim ary schoo ls. It w as reco m m en d ed tha t edu ca tiv e approach sho u ld be em p loyed b y g rass ro o t gov ern m en t in the state to en h an ce p eacefu l coex istence . This w ill prov ide enab ling env ironm en t fo r schooling o f the young ones. N on-G overnm enta l O rg an iza tions as w ell as m ed ia shou ld a lso d irec t s ign ifican t e ffo rt tow ards educating com m un ities on effec t o f conflict. Keywords: C om m unal C onflict, E nro llm en t, A tte n d a n c e , C ogn itive A ch ievem ent in M athem atics and E ng lish L anguage. Introduction The N igerian history will be incom plete w ithout docum ented cases of conflict and violence which in the early sixties resulted to N igerian civil w ar of 1967 to 1970. M any lives were claimed and hopes dashed. Added to these were the fear of domination and marginalization of the minority by the dominant ethnic groups. The foundation of the present stage of conflict in Nigeria could be said to be the offshoot o f the civil war. The discovery and exploration of oil has further accentuated conflict and violence in Nigeria. It is however, widely believed by the people that the majority of the conflicts in the oil producing comm unities in the Niger Delta are rooted in oil. The conflicts are no less than people’s reactions to policies, laws and politics of the state towards oil exploration, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY IJES (2015) Vol. 12 233 production, transportation and storage (Collier, Elliott, Havard, Anke, M arta, Nicholas, 2003), This internal conflict and violence have become a plague that had eaten deep into the fabric o f the economy. These conflicts result from different value systems, aggressive competition for environmental resources, political and unhealthy competition for status among some community leaders. Past studies (B anjo,! 998; IFPCR, 2002) have show n that there is hardly a year w ithout a m ajor violent communal conflict in Nigeria. Since the Ogoni uprising in 1993, conflicts and their m anagem ent have been brought to the centre stage in the discourse. O saghae (1995) sees conflict as largely ethnic and identity problem. M ounting evidence from O m ow eh, (2001 ,1998 ,1995) suggests that violence and conflicts are far from being ethnic and identity crisis. Rather, conflicts were and are still rooted in the nature o f capitalist development, promoted by underdevelopment. The World Bank has identified 13 conflict-affected countries that are cm track to m eet the goal o f universal prim ary education, including Colom bia, El Salvador, Kpsovo and Sri Lanka (Buckland 2005). Nigeria, though described as giant of A frica, is still struggling to be enlisted on the roll. Som e international organizations see conflict as both a m ajor challenge and a m ajor opportunity, as the post-conflict environment may be fertile ground for substantial development and an im provem ent in the educational policy tha t is geared tow ards the understanding of the complexities of conflict on education (Buckland, 2005; Nicolai, 2003). In Rivers State, according to Akpaeti (2005), one of the causes o f conflict is the control of resources. A release from the D epartm ent o f State Service (DSS) cited by the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution (IFPCR, 2002) notes that since the creation of Rivers State in 1965, several bloody com munal clashes had occurred. F or instance, O goni and Andoni in 1993 to 1994, D um o A m a and Ogan Com m unities (O krika L .G A .) in 1993, and U m uechem ( Etche L .G A .) versus Shell in 1997-1998. These conflicts have im pacted negatively on the land and other environmental resources, thereby reducing the livelihood and development potential of the natural resource base o f the people. In spite o f the preponderance of conflict in rural communities as cited by IFPCR (2002), there is still a knowledge gap regarding conflict and resource development. Mentions are only made on the potential effect on human life and properties with little or no empirical information on its effect on schooling and learning achievement (Akpaeti, 2005). The Departm ent for International D evelopm ent D FID (2010) indicated that the key problems o f education emanating from communal conflicts includes but not limited to low education attainment among indigenes, poor enrolment and attendance in schools; poor academic perform ance; insecurity o f students and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 234 O. C. Opiki and J. O. Adeleke: Effects o f Communal Conflict on Enrollment, teachers in schools; poor educational facilities and amenities notably electricity, portable water, etc; high rate of school dropped outs; high illiteracy among women; paucity of study aids including laboratories, libraries, etc. Over half of the world’s primary-aged children out of school are estimated to live in conflict-affected fragile states (Nicolai 2004). Given that armed conflicts vary in duration, intensity and localisation, educational systems may be affected in different ways. Research has exposed many dimensions of the educational system that are negatively affected by conflict, especially with regard to existing inequalities within societies, whether by region, gender or ethnicity. Conflicts in the built environment are characterised by many socio-spatial (Albert, 1999, Verwimp, Bundervoet, and Akresh, 2010, Bundervoet, Verwimp, andAkresh, 2009), econom ic (Colleta, 2003) and physical (Abegunde, 2010) reactions from both the residents and the communities affected at large. Few of these that are educationally oriented are on conflicts and children education (Busterio, Omobono, Axelsson, andB annon, 2005), residents’ education and health (Tamashiro, 2010), education of children and ammunition (Fountain, 2000), education and peace (Fountain, 1997,1999) to mention but few. Specific ones on residents’ educational behavior during conflict; particularly on communities that have passed through conflicts in Nigeria are not common in literature. The effect of the communal clashes between the company and the community on the academic achievement o f the pupils in the affected areas has not been studied and this has led to this study. Consequently, in an attempt, to improve our understanding and fill this gap of knowledge on Inter and Intra communal conflicts between oil companies and their host communities. The study attempted to answer questions related to child security, school attendance and enrolment and explore the effect o f conflict on educational behaviour of residents during and after conflicts in Nigeria, and suggest strategies to enhance the understanding of the educational status o f the people before conflicts struck and seeks to establish the degree of residents’ social interaction through attending educational institutions in discrete communities after conflicts. The fundamental issue in human needs is that in multiethnic societies, there must be distributive justice, otherwise frustrations will result in acts of aggression in the pursuit of the satisfaction of basic life requirements (Burton, 1999). Communal Conflicts in Okrika Local Governm ent Area and other areas, has engaged the attention of all segments of people like the government, individuals, organizations and the society at large, due to its devastating effects on schooling and learning achievement of the growing child, may be explained from economic theory. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY IJES (2015) Vol. 12 235 Com m unal conflict in O krika local governm ent area also involves violent struggle am ong groups typically organized along ethnic, religious and cultural lines. T he issues at stake in such conflic ts are n o t typically cultural b u t m ay invo lve struggle over economic, political and land/boundary disputes. A side the loss o f life and property and the d isp lacem ent o f people usually associated w ith com m unal conflicts its effect on schooling and learning achievem ent vis-a-vis establishing a cordial relationships betw een socio-econom ic characteristic o f the populace and their educational status, viewed in term s o f the functionality of, and accessibility to educational facilities availab le befo re and after conflict fo r the prim ary school pupils in O krika Local G overnm ent A rea cannot be over em phasized. This study therefo r investigated com m unal conflicts and its e ffec t on school and learn ing achievem ent o f the prim ary school pupils in O krika Local G overnm ent A rea o f R ivers State. O bjectives o f the Study T he m ain objectives o f this study is to exam ine the effects o f com m unal conflicts on enrollm ent, attendance and achievem ent o f the prim ary school pupils in Rivers State. In m ore specific term s the study intends to: i determ ine how com m unal conflict affects enrolm ent o f pupils in prim ary schools. ii. exam ine the im pact o f com m unal conflict on pupils attendance in prim ary schools. iii. determ ine the difference in pupils’ academ ic achievem ent in the schools affec ted by com m unal con flic t and those no t affec ted in O krika Local G overnm ent Area. Research Questions B ased on the above stated ob jec tives, the under listed research questions w ere raised to d irect the study. i. H ow did com m unal conflict affect the enrollm ent o f pupils in the affected and non affected prim ary schools in O krika Local G overnm ent A rea? ii. H ow did com m unal conflict affect the attendance o f pupils in the affected and not affected prim ary schools in O krika Local G overnm ent A rea? Research H ypothesis : There is no significant difference in the academic achievement o f pupils between schools in the areas affected and those no t affected by the com m unal conflict in R ivers State. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 236 O. C. Opiki andJ. O. Adeleke: Effects o f Communal Conflict on Enrollment,.... Methodology The m ethodology em ployed in this research includes; the research design, population, sample and sampling techniques, instruments and instrumentation, variables under study, data collection and analysis procedures was hereby p resen ted .. Research Design This study adopted a non-experimental research design of the Causal Comparative type. The research attempted to determine the causes of differences (if any) that exist between groups of individual (Udofia, 2005). Specifically, this research will investigate the difference (if any) in the schooling and learning achievements that exist between primary school pupils of areas affected by communal conflict and those in areas not affected by communal conflict. There is however no manipulation o f variables as the com m unal conflicts had occurred. The researcher simply investigated if it affected schooling and learning achievement-in areas affected. Variables of the Study The following constitute the variables investigated in this study: School enrolment, School attendance, and Academic achievement of pupils. Population of the Study The population of the study consist of all the primary school teachers, head teachers and pupils in Rivers State. Sample Stratified random sampling technique was used to select the study sample. Random sam pling technique was used to select 10 affected and ten unaffected primary schools in Rivers State. A primary five class was selected from each school from which 20‘pupils, 1 teacher and 1 head teacher were selected. In all, 440 subjects comprising 400 pupils, 20 teachers and 20 head teacher were used for the study. Instruments The following instruments were used for the study. 1. Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) com posed o f 10 mathem atics items generated from Primary 5 curriculum was developed by the researchers to measure pupils achievement in the subject. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY IJES (2015) Vol. 12 237 2. English Language Achievement Test (ENLAT) com posed o f 10 English Language items generated from Primary 5 curriculum also was developed by the researchers to measure pupils cognitive achievement. 3. School Record Sheet (SRS) was also developed in addition to the 2 main instruments to obtain necessary data from the respondents Validation of the Instrument All the three instruments were subjected to thorough scrutiny by an expert in Test development. All corrections m ade were effected with little m odifications as suggested by the experts. Test retest method was used to establish the reliability of the instruments. Similar sample (pupils, teachers and head teachers) consisting five primary schools outside target sample was used for the trial testing of the instruments. Two weeks interval was ensured between the first and the second administrations. The estim ated reliability coefficients are thus presented: Mathematics Achievement Test (r=.85) and English Language Achievement Test (r=.88). Data collection Procedure Data from the official records were collected personally by the researchers from the selected primary schools using SRS. The Achievement Tests were personally administered and retrieved on the spot by the researchers. Each of Mathematics and English Achievement tests was scored over 100. The Average o f students’ scores in English and M athematics was calculated to obtain achievement scores used in the analysis. DataAnalysis: Collected data were coded, and subsequently, analyzed using t-test to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level o f significance, while frequency count, percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to answer the two research questions. Results This section deals with the presentation o f analyzed data as well as the results. Hence the research questions were answered and hypotheses tested. Research question 1: How did communal conflict affect the enrollment of pupils in the affected and not affected primary schools in Rivers State? UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 238 O. C. Opiki and J. O. Adeleke: Effects o f Communal Conflict on Enrollment,.... Table 1: Average enrollment o f pupils for 2 years before and 2 years after crisis in 10 affected and unaffected primary schools respectively A fleered primary schools UnafTecled schools Total enrollment Total enrollment Before After Before After Year Year Year2 Year! Year2 Year Year! Year2 Yearl Year2 Average Average emofeneni 8264 9991 5952 6674 enrolment 10339 13073 13565 17622 Fig.4.1: Enrollment of pupils for 2 years before and 2 years after crisis in 10 affected and 10 not affected primary schools 4 Table 1 and Figure 1 show that the total enrolment figures in the affected school dwindled while enrolment in the unaffected increased steadily in the four years undo-study. Research question 2: How does communal conflict affect the attendance o f pupils in the affected and unaffected primary schools in Rivers State? Table 2: Overall average o f attendance o f pupils for 2 years before and 2 years after crisis in 10 affected and unaffected primary schools respectively. Affected primary schools • UnafTecled school Attendance of pupils Attendance of pupils Before After Before After Year , Yearl Year2 Yearl Year2 year Yearl Year2 Yearl Year2 Average 93 J4 74J 110 235.88 Average 124.3 213.2 578.38 492.60 attendance attendance UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIES (2015) Vol. 12 239 Y e a r 1 | Y ear2 Y e a rl | Year2 Y e a rl | Year2 Y e a rl | Year2 Average A v e ra g e A verage A v e ra g e attendance Before attendance After attendance Before attendance After conflict Conflict conflict Conflict Affected primary schools unaffected prim ary schools A v e ra g e a t te n d a n c e F ig . 4 .2 : A tte n d a n c e o f p u p ils f o r 2 y e a r s b e fo re a n d 2 y e a r s a fte r c r is is in the p rim a r y s c h o o ls . Table 2 and fig 2 show that the attendance figure o f pupils was generally low in the affected schools while that o f the unaffected schools increased sufficiently. H01: There is no significant difference in the academic achievement o f pupils between schools in the areas affected and those not affected by the communal conflict in Okrika Local Governm ent Area. Table 3: t-test on the difference in the academ ic achievem ent o f pupils between schools in the areas affected and those not affected by the com m unal conflict in Okrika Local Governm ent Area. t-c a l l-c r it p -v a lu e D e c is io n S c h o o ls N M ea n S D d f U n a ffe c te d 2 0 0 5 3 .8 5 15 .77 3 9 8 1 6 .247 1 .960 S A f fe c te d 2 0 0 3 1 .3 0 11.31 Decision rule: i f p<.05 reject H ; else retain H ; S= Significant, p<.05 Table 3 shows that there is significant difference in the. academic achievement o f pupils between schools in the areas affected and those not affected by the communal conflict in Rivers State t(J9g)= 16.25, p^.OOO). The null hypothesis was rejected. The mean difference was in favour o f the schools unaffected by the conflict. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY o® c 2 4 0 O. C. Opiki andJ. O. Adeleke: Effects o f Communal Conflict on Enrollment,.... Discussions The result shows that the total enrolment figures in the affected school dwindled while enrolment in the unaffected increased geometrically during the years under study. The result was consistent with some studies. Several studies have examined the quantitative impact o f conflict on education. Cross-country quantitative analyses show that states in civil war experienced a decline in enrolment between 1.6 to 3.2 percentage points, which means a decline o f64,000 students for a country with a normally enrolled population o f 4 million (Lai and Thyne, 2007). In a study on the hardest-hit cities in Germany in World War II, Akbulut- Yuksel (2009) finds that children who were school-aged during this period attained 0.4 fewer average years o f schooling and those in the most bombed cities completed 1.2 fewer years. This finding is echoed by Ichino and Winter-Ebmer (1998) in their research on Germany and Austria during the World War II. Parents may opt for keeping their children at home when school environment is not safe. Prolonged conflict in a community can retard education progress o f the school age children in affected area. It is also found in the study that the attendance figure o f pupils reduced drastically in the affected schools while that o f the unaffected school increased sequentially. The result was consistent with the study o f Lopez and Wodon (2005) who reported that within five years o f the genocide, enrolment rates in Rwanda returned to their pre-conflict levels. Smith (2003) does not observe any significant effect o f conflict on the completion of primary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but does find that those cohorts affected by the Bosnian war were less likely to complete secondary school. Miguel and Roland (2006) reported that, the most bombed areas in Vietnam, do not have lower levels o f literacy than regions not affected by bombing. A success that was attributed to high levels o fa id and resources distributed after the conflict, rather than to the lack o f impact ofconflict on education. The consequences o f conflict can be decreased access to schoql, preventing the opening o f schools, threatening children’s security while travelling to school and attending class. It was found that academic achievement o f pupils affected was lower than that o f their unaffected counterparts. This indicated that the communal conflict affected the performance o f the pupils. When put to statistical test the result was that there was a significant difference in die academic achievement ofpupils between schools in the areas affected and those not affected by the communal conflict in Rivers state. The Department for International Development DFID (2010) indicated that the key problems o f education emanating from communal conflicts includes but not limited to low education attainment among indigenes. Community where a pupil comes from can support or inhibit his achievement in school. Existence of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY IJES (2015) Vol. 12 241 conflict in such community can hinder concentration on study and consequently lead to low achievement. Conclusion Comm unal conflict always start in a small way, among few individuals. W hen conflict resolution becomes unattainable, the community as whole becomes a victim. Regardless o f the intensity of the conflict, certainly, it will come to an end. The consequent effect of communal conflict outlive it. The consequence may bear on enrolment various schools situated within the community, learners’ attendance in classes and w hat they achieve in school subjects. Peaceful co-existence in a community will surely pay back, hence every citizen should pursue it. Recommendations Based on the finding o f the present study, the following recommendations were made. The communities should avoid clashing with one another and this has a concomitant effect on the availability of educational recourses for teaching and learning. Government, Non-Governmental Organizations as well as media should direct significant effort towards educating communities on effect of conflict and the need for peaceful co-existence. Peaceful living among communities should be made an integral part of curriculum at both primary and secondary school levels. This will prepare the youths, active people in communal conflicts for a peaceful co­ existence with other clans and tribes. References Abegunde, A. A. (2010). An evaluation of the impact of communal conflict on the physical development o f selected settlements in Southwestern Nigeria. A Ph.D. Thesis. 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