RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED VARIABLES ON ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE BY * IYABODE OLUREMI aDELUSI (nee ADEYEMI) B.A. , M . PHIL o (IBADAN), P.G.C.E. (LONDON) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN. JULY, 1982 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY i ABSTRACT The study investigates the relationship between selected sociological, psychological, pedagogical and environmental variables and achievement in English as a second languaoe generally, and in the four selected language skills of aural discrimination, reading comprehension, lexis and structure, and guided composition. The sample consists of two hundred and thirteen first form students from eight secondary grammar schools in Ibadan. The schools were randomly chosen after a 'prestige rating' of all the grammar schools in the City. The Instruments used for the study were a home environment questionnaire, a school environment questionnaire, a home background questionnaire, an attitude and motivation scale, a standardized intelligence test, and an UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - ii - English langyage achievement fcest. With the exception of the intelligence test, all research instruments viere developed or adapted by the researcher. The instruments were administered to subjects in their schools by the researcher. All tests were administered on the same day in each of the schools. Responses obtained from tests and questionnaires were analysed using the following Statistical methods:- (i) Pearson Product Moment Correlation. (ii) Multiple Regression Analysis. Results obtained indicate that some sociological, psychological, pedagogical and environmental variables influence achievement in English as a second language, in the order in which they are listed above. Age, however, had negative correlation on achievement in English as a second language, at the junior secondary school level. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - iii - On each of the specific language skills, it was observed that the most influential variable on each language skill differs. It is therefore concluded that while overall achievement in English as a second language, at the level investigated, is dependent on sociological, psychological, pedagogical and environmental factors, achievement in each language skill is influenced most by a specific factor than other factors. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY IV DEDICATION TO: MY Pa RENTS MOSES ABEJIDE ADEYEMI JANET DUDUYEMI ADEYEMI (WHO EPITOMIZED THE BEST IN PARENTHOOD AND MARITAL DEVOTION) MY HUSBAND OLADIPUPO BABATUNDE ADELUSI (A RARE GEM) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My indebtedness to the underlisted people, collectively and individually, is so great that I wish I had a more expressive word than 'Thank you ’ to Show my gratitude. First, my thanks go to the students and staff of the schools investigated for their co-operation which made the execution of the whole project possible. For the able guidance, thorough supervision, selfless and indispensable assistance of my Supervisor, Professor Pai. Obanya, I am grateful. His encouragement at every stage of this project will for ever be cherished. To have been supervised by such a thorough, competent and understanding Supervisor with a high degree of expertise was a real blessing. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY vi To Professor P.O. Okunrotifa for his encouragement, objective and thorough criticism of my initial efforts, I am deeply grateful. His concern about the successful execution of the project also merits my thankSo For the demonstration by Emory University and Georgia State University, Atlanta, that knowledge has no cultural bounds, I thank them. Allowing me the use of all available research facilities in the Compilation of this work is commendable. I am particularly grateful to Dr John Neel of Georgia State Centre for Educational Research. For the Statistical analysis I am indebted to Mrs Juanita Sinclair and Dr Bob Byers of the Programming Section, Statistics Department of Emory University, Georgia. Mr Folabi Bamgboye and Mrs Faparusi of Ibadan University also deserve thanks for their ready assistance at every stage of the Statistical analysis. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY vii The secretarial assistance of Mr Sylva Okwudishu must not go unacknowledged since he had to make some sacrifices to get the typing done on time. To Mrs 'Bolu Okunrotifa, 'Bisi Adetuyibi and Miss Adesoro Adeyemi, for their reliability and invaluable help at every stage of this project, especially when I feel so low-spirited about many things concerning the project, I am grateful. To all my friends here and in Oakhurst in Atlanta who were as anxious as I was to see the work successfully completed, I am very grateful. Much of the credit for the timely completion of the project goes to my husband whose insistence that I must combine thoroughness of execution with speed, prompted me to finish on tine. His confidence in my limited ability, his moral supporj:, t»is desire to see me achieve most of life's worttawhile ambitions is praiseworthy. « Finally, to my children - Adedapo, Adedolapo, Ademola and Adetokunbo whose assistance in various little but appreciated ways I cherish, I say 1Thank you'. * UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I CERTIFY THAT THIS WORK WAS CARRIED OUT BY: - MRS IYABODE OLUREMI ADELUSI IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN. Professor & Director of Institute of Education, University of Ibadan. (SUPERVISOR) JULY, 1982. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ix - TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ..... .... i Dedication .... iv Acknowledgements .... v Certification .... viii Tabl^ of Contents .... ix List of Appendices .... CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION. lo lo Background to the Ascendancy of English Language in Nigeria 1 1.2. Linguistic Position of English in Nigeria .... 20 1.3. Factors Promoting the Pre- > Eminence of English in Nigeria Today «.o. .»o. 26 1.4. Problems Inhibiting the Teaching and Learning of English 46 'N ' 1*5» English in the Nigerian School System .... .... 53 1.6. Public Examining in English Language .... .... 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY X - Page :nA io/« English and Nigeria's Socio- * / Political and Economic Advancement .... .... 81 The Problem .... .... 85 • 1.9. The Main Focus of the Present Study .... .... 89 1.10. Significance of the Study.... 92 CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF LITERATURE. 2.1. Introduction .... .... 93 2.2. Sociological Variables and Academic Achievement .... 95 2.3. Environmental Variables and Academic Achievement .... 105 2.4. Achievement in Language Learning 124 2.5. Factors of Achievement in Second Language Learning .... 126 2.6. Psychological Variables and Second Language Learning .... 131 2.7. Sociological Variables and Second Language Learning .... 168 2.8. Environmental Variables and Second Language Learning .... 178 UNIVE 0R 0COSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY xi Page 2.9. Pedagogical Variables and Second Language Learning ..... 188 2.10. Relationship Between Studies Reviewed and the Current Study 199 CHAPTER THREE - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. 3.1.1. The Sample ..... ..... 203 3.1.2. Teachers ..... ..... 204 3.1.3. Schools ..... ..... 204 3.2. Instrument for Data Collection 207 3.2.1. Home Background Questionnaire 207 3.2.2. Socio-Economic-Status Measure 208 3.2.3. School Environment Measure 209 3.2.4. Intelligence Test ..... 213 3.2.5. Attitüde and Motivation Scale 214 3.2.6. English Language Achievement Test .... ..... 215 3.2.6.1. Test of Aural Discrimination 217 3.2.6.2. Reading Comprehension Test 218 3.2.6.3. Test of Vocabulary and Structure ..... ..... 219 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY xii Page 3.3. Validation of Instruments .... 220 3.3.1. The Intelligence Test .... 220 3.3.2. Attitüde and Motivation Measure 221 3.3.3. Socio-Economic-Status Measure 221 3.3.4. School Environment Questionnaire 223 3.3.5. English Language Achievement Test .... .... 224 3.4. Data Collection .... 227 3.5. Methods of Scoring .... 229 3.6. Methods of Data Analysis .... 234 CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS. 4.1. Psychological Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language .... 236 4.2. Pedagogical Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language .... 241 4.3. Sociological Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language .... 245 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY xii i Page 4.4. Environmental Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language .... 246 4.5. Summary of Results .... 252 CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1.1. Sociological Variables and English Language Achievement 256 5.1.2. Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement 260 5.1.3. Pedagogical Variables and English Language Achievement 264 5.1.4. Environmental Variables and English Language Achievement 267 5.1.4.1. Parental Encouragement to Communicate .... 2 70 5.1.4.2. Provision of Non-Textbooks for Learner's Reading 271 5.1.4.3. Parental Encouragement to Read Often .... 274 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY XIV Page 5 o 1„ 5 o lo The Findings in Terms of Reading Comprehension 277 — ̂o 1_L o S' o 2- o The Findings in Relation to Lexis and Structure 281 Jolo5a3o The Findings in Relation to Guided Composition 284 5.2. Implications of Findings 287 5 o 2 „ 1 „ Implications For Parents 288 5 „ 2 „ 2 „ Implications for Educational Administrators 293 5o2„3. Implications for Teachers of English „.„. 296 5 a 2„4„ Implications for Second Language Learners 298 Implications for Second Language Learning Theory 300 «' o w o Limitations of the Study 301 5 „ 4 „ Suggestions for Further Research , „ „ „ 3 0 3 BIBLIGGRAPHY O O O O o o o o 305 APPENDICES o o o o o o o o 324 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 0 LO C\J00 LO XV LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Domain of English Language Usage in Nigeria .... .... 33 2 o Number of Students Registered for Language Arts Courses in Ibadan University ...» .... 75 3 » Correlation Between Overall English Language Achievement Test and each Subtest ...» 226 4. Scoring of Selected Aspects of School Environment .... 232 5. Scoring of ADELAT Subtests.».. 233 6. Correlation Between Some Psychological Variables and Achievement in English ... 237 7. Relationship Between Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement .... .... 238 8„ Intercorrelation Between Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement .... 239 9. Relationship Between Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement Subtests .... 240 UNIVERSITY OF IB DAN LIBRARY XVI Table Page 10, Correlation Between English Language Achievement and the Pedagogical Variables Investigated 241 11. Regression Coefficient of Pedagogical Variables with English Language Subtests ..... 243 12, Relationship Between Socio-Economic- Status and English Language Achievement .... ..... 245 13. Correlation Between Home " • t- Environmental Variables and English Language Achievement 247 14. Correlation Between English Language Achievement, the Process and the Status Variables of the Home .... ..... 248 15. Relationship Between Variables Investigated and English Language Achievement .... ..... 249 16. Relative Influence of the Variables Investigated on English Language Achievement .... ..... 250 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY xvii appendices APPENDIX 1 - List of Schools Investigated. APPENDIX 2 - Home Background and "Socixr-Bctmomic- Status Measure. APPENDIX 3 - School Environment Measure. APPENDIX 4 - Intelligence Test. APPENDIX 5 Attitüde and Motivation Scale. APPENDIX 6 English Language Achievement Test. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background to the Ascendancy of Enqlish Lanquaqe in Nigeria Nigeria illustrates keenly competitive educational and economic developmental Systems in which English Language proficiency is vital. The importance of English Language in several aspects of Nigeria's national life is sine-qua-non, and dates back to the colonial era. Though several factors were responsible for this, the most essential was economic factor. As early as the seventeenth Century when the British first arrived in Nigeria, their aims were, initially, scientific and religious. With the discovery of the source of the River Niger, and the unpleasant discovery that most of its length was not navigable, that the river was crocodile-infested the surrounding areas mosquitoe-1aden and therefore not habitable for whites, the scientific objective was achieved but British enthusiasm was dampened. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 Interest in the Niger area thenceforth became primarily commercial. Intensifying commercial activities with the area became the prime objective of the British. With the abolition of the Slave Trade in the 1830s, the volume of Britain's legitimate trade with West Africa, especially Nigeria, increased. The attention of British enterpreneurs was now focused on Nigeria. As the commercial houses increased and expanded, the need to employ natives as clerks and Interpreters (go-betweens) became necessary. Knowledge of English therefore became a necessary requisite for employment in the commercial houses» Nigerians who had to engage in commercial activities with the British in various capacities therefore had to learn English. As the volume of British commercial activities with Nigeria increased, philantrophic and humanitarian individuals and organizations such as the Church Missionary Society became interested in Nigeria. The primary aims of these groups were evangelization and the spreading of British culture UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3 and civilization to 'the benighted people of the West Coast'.^ The year 1842 witnessed the beginning of Christian missionary activities, the inception of western education, and consequently the expansion of English language in Nigeria. Since the missionaries' aim was to use formal education as an instrument for proselytization, missionary schools were rapidly increased and expanded. Consequently, within a decade of the inception of the first missionary school there were scores of Christian mission schools in Nigeria. The core of instructional content in the schools were Reading, Writing and Arithmetic. In all the schools, except the very elementary, the language of instruction was English. With Western or Christian education therefore came the teaching of English Language in schools, and the attempts of indigenes to imitate the culture of the missionaries, language inclusive. The rapid expansion and seeming monopoly 1 1. Omolewa, M. The English Language in Colonial Nigeria - A study of major factors which promoted the language. Journal of Njqerian English Studies Association 7 (1 & 2) 1975, p. 105. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 of formal school education by the missionaries, and the instructional content of the schools continued to reinforce English Language. The realization that wider, effective and rapid evangelization lay in sending out Catechists who could speak local dialects fluently, in encouraging new converts to worship and to read the Bible in their ov/n language prompted the missionaries to re-examine their language policy in Nigeria« Translation of the Bible into Nigerian languages, teaching and Publishing in local languages were embarked upon« The realization that meaningful and deeper communication between man and his God is better made through the medium of his native language led to various attempts to develop indigenous languages, especially Yoruba, Igbo and Efik« Attempts were also made at reducing the major Nigerian languages into the written form. Bibles, Dictionaries, Writing and Grammar books in local languages were also prepared. while the promotion of indigenous languages was favoured and fostered by most missionaries operating in Nigeria, some preferred the promotion of English UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5 language. Some of the reasons for their preference were the limitations of local languages as instructional media in higher education, and the importance and usefulness of English as a language of international communication. Hope Waddell, in 1848, appreciated that English might become a common vehicle of communication throughout the West Coast, therefore he advocated its active promotion in Methodist Mission Schools. i The recommendation in 1926 2 that Nigerian Languages should be used as the medium of instruction in primary schools was frowned upon by some Missionaries. Stacey (1926) 3 of the Wesleyan Methodist in a letter to the Advisory Committee on Education in Tropical Africa wrote: 1« Omolewa, M. The Ascendancy of English Language in Nigerian Schools, 1882-1960. West African pJpo.u rn8a6l- 89o.f Modern Languages 3, June 1978, 2. Memorandum on Vernacular Education in Africa. 3. Stacey, H.W. Letter to the Advisory Committee on N1a92t6i vei_ n EOdmuoclaetwiao,n Mi.n Tropical Africa, Eebruary UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6 We cannot agree that the Mother Tongue should be the basis and medium of all elementary education in Tropical Africa. Yoruba is as yet very far from adequate as the medium of instruction even in such elementary and important subjects as Geography; and it is impossible in the case of Arithmetic.l The Catholic Mission seemed to have deliberately pursued a policy of English language promotion in al effort to produce educated men and women, who would be sufficiently influential to halt the Protestant Sect, and to protect the future interest of the 2 Catholic Church in Nigeria.........^' The performances of pupils and priests-in-training were measured in terms of their achievement in English. While the efforts of some missionaries were geared mainly towards the promotion of indigenous 1 1. Stacey, H.W. Letter to the Advisory Committee on Native Education in Tropical Africa, February 1926 _in_ Omolewa, M. Op. cit. 2. Omolewa, M., Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7 languages, some of their educational practices ensured the ascendancy of English language in Nigeria. One of such practices was the prohibition of the use of Nigerian languages in many secondary boarding schools except on Saturdays and Sundays. With so much of British cornnierei.al and missionary activities going on in Nigeria, the 'laissez-faire' attitude of the British government to these activities gave way to active participation in the affairs of the country. The constant inter-tribal wars which often disrupted cotntnercial and missionary activities forced the British to annex Lagos in 1861 to ensure some stability and protection for the Missions and the commercial houses. British government's active participation in education became inevitable with the declaration of the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos. British government's participation in education had a setback effect on the language policy of the missionaries in the established schools. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 8 In 18821, the education code stipulated that English should be the medium of instruction in education in the Southern Protectorate of Nigeria. The need for effective colonial rule led to the inevitability of teaching English to natives who became ’assistants' to colonial administrators. A colonial elite was thus created of officers who had to learn and understand English to be able to function effectively in the colonial administration. Proficiency in English Language became an automatic qualification for elitism, a vital job qualification, and a Status Symbol. The 'liberation struggle' 2 which promoted Africans to learn the colonial master's language, the search for economic freedom through employment by the colonialists led to the overt importance accorded English language and customs by the natives. 12 1. Fafunwa, B. History of Education in Nigeria. P19l7y4m,o utph. : 12C2l.arke, Dable and Brendon Ltd., 2. Omolewa, M. The Emergence of non-standard English in Nigeria in Ubahakwe, E. (Ed.) Goals in Language Education. Ib7a3dan. University of Ibadan Press, 19 , p. 7. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 9 - An understanding of the colonial Situation in Nigeria is therefore fundamental to an understanding of the importance of English language during the colonial era. Colonization, according to Fanon's 1 conception, goes beyond territorial expansion and annexation, but also entails super-imposition of the culture (language inclusive) of the alien race on that of the indigenous culture because of the latter’s control of socio-economic and political sources of power. 2 The economic substructure during the colonial era was also a superstructure because proficiency in English language was a vital requisite qualification for better salaried jobs in the colonial Civil Service, the commercial houses, and the schools. Proficiency in English language 1. Fanon, A. in Jinadu, A. Language and Politics - On the Cultural basis of Colonialisra. Cahiers Detude Africaines 6631-46A. Vol. XVI.. 2. Ibid. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 therefore afforded an opportunity for upward social mobility became an automatic qualification for elitism since it presents an opportunity for social (and economic) advancement in the riaidly strati.f.ied colonial Situation, 1 In the Niqerian context however, the English language was also promoted for reasons of communicative efficiency because of the rthnic heterogene!ty of the country. The English orieoted language policy of the colonial govenment was however re-examined after the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report in 1922 criticized the form o r education provided in (Nigeria), and recorrmenced the use of the vernacular in education. The r^port stated that the vernacular was essential as a mjdium of instouction if the child was to develoo a sound mind, oood character, and interest in agriculture or industry. 12 1. Jinadu, A„ 0p„ cit. 2. Fafunwa, B. History of Education in Nigeria. Clarke, Dahle & Brendon Ltd., Plymouth, 1974, p. 12. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 11 The report therefore prompted the colonial government to reverse its language policy in education. In 1926, the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Native Education proposed the use of indigenous languages in education. He remarked that the teaching of English to Africans too early might have a denationalizing effect on them. The proposal, which was very unpopulär, especially among Nigerians, was viewed as a deliberate attempt to keep the natives down educationally because: Western education, and especially a knowledge of English language would equip them with the skills and techniques essential for the improvement of personal status in the (existing) economic and social structure.l A newspaper editorial made the followina comments about the proposal: 1 1. Coleman, J. Nigerian Background in Mazrui, A. The Political Socioloqy of the English Language, The Hague, Mouton, 1975. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 In Nigeria, the language of most work and business is English, and to exclude the teaching of English from any school except the very elementary ones would be unjust to the people, and a hindrance to the progress of the community.1 The attitude of Nigerians towards English language was based on their conception of the important role of English proficiency in an individual's and the Nation's social and economic advancement. This therefore reinforced the use of English as an instructional medium in education. The certification System in education during and after the colonial era also gave English ascendancy over indigenous languages. In all government examinations, at most levels of instruction, the award of a viable Lificate was dependent on passing English language examination. 1. Editorial. On the Advisory Committee's Tpe. nt2a8t. ive Memorandum on the Vernacular, In Leisure Hours. XVII (191) March 1926, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 13 No matter the degree of a candidate's excellence in other subjects, his failure in English language would result in no valuable certificate award. This curious paradox in the certification System, and the fact that English is almost invariably a compulsory paper in all examinations resulted in the studying of English with religious fervour, since it was viewed as an instrument of upward mobility in the social and economic set-up. Fanon also claimed that the purpose of the colonial education set-up and the overt importance which the colonizers' languages have received in the political, educational and social set-up of the ex-colonies was a means of deciding who to hand over power to. It was also a means of co-opting the national burgeoisie of the former colonies into a world-wide Imperialist network. This view is definitely not shared by most Nigerians whose attitude towards the British in the colonial and post-colonial era was one of admiration. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14 Viewed primarily as phi1antrophlsts and innovators, the activities of the Missionaries in the field of health, religion, and education continued to reinforce that image. To learn and to imitate the ways of the 'whiteman' was to be desired. From the equation of Western education with proficiency in Enqlish language emerged the simplistic syllogism that if being educated implies knowing the whiteman’s language, then being civilized implies the same. A reappraisal of the factors that led to the ascendancy of English in Nigeria by Omolewa (1978) '1 proved that the colonial government had no definitive language policy in Nigeria. In Support of this thesis, he said that some Britons in top administrative posts in the colonial government were encouraged to learn 1 1. Omolewa, M. The Ascendancy of English in Nigerian Schools 1882-1960. West African Journal of Modern Lanquaqes. (3) June 1978, pp. 86-96. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 15 vernacular languages (at least for utilitarian purposes) because "no one can feel at home with the ^ savage who does not speak his language". Omolewa also quoted Westerman, who in a memorandum on Africa submitted to the British Government said that "by taking away a people's language, we cmernitpapll e ionrd idveisdturaolyi tiyt"s. 2soul and kill its Even Lord Luggard, the first Governor of Nigeria after the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates was said to have shown open contempt for indigenous culture, including language. He also advocated the teaching of indigenous values to pupi. ls. Other evidences adduced by Omolewa to show that the colonial government was not directly responsible for the ascendancy of English. language 1. Omolewa, 8M.8 Op. cit. 2 Ibid, p. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 16 - in Nigeria were the indifference of the Colonial Government to provide formal education until 1943, and the Institution of annual prizes for the best writers in Nigerian Languages. i The colonial System of education, especially the 'model institutions1 * System created an educated elite. A form of social stratification based on certification from these institutions made English the language of the intelligentsia. The Education Ordinance of 1882 which stipulated the use of English at the level of secondary education in Nigeria, and the payment of government grants-in- aid to schools on the condition that reading and writing are taught in such schools, ensured the dominance of English in the school Curriculum« The continued importance which English enjoys in Nigeria is dependent, to some extent, on the people's choice and preference. In establishing a language tradition in a country, the final 1. Omolewa, M. Op. cit. • King's College, Lagos and Government College, Ibadan were founded to serve as models in Grammar School Education. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 17 decision----- lies with the people. And the people continue to accord English very high prestige for some very realistic and sound economic and educational reasons. Though English became very important in the affairs of the nation and of individuals during and after the colonial era, the spread of English was considerably slowed down in the North owing to several factors. Prior to the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates in 1914, formal missionary or Western education was hardly allowed in the North. The fallacious syllogism which led to the equation of English Language with Christianity and Western Education conditioned the minds of Northerners against both. In Northern Nigeria* therefore, there was a comparative insulation of the area from English language primarily because of the Islamic religion which 1. East, R.M. Modern Tendencies in the Languages Choice of Northern Nigeria. Africa 10 (l) 1937, p. 105. * Northern Nigeria is defined in the study as that area of the country shaded in the Map in Appendix 1. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 considered English as 'the language of the Kafir (unbelievers)'. The Hausa language rivalled English language in the North because it was, until very recently, the official (Native) administrative language and the basis of most literary and educational programmes. It was also the medium of communication in the commercial and social life of the people. The Hausa language has therefore been in use along-side English language as the official language in Native Authority Administration, and for everyday communication. There was also higher literacy figures in Arabic than in English through- out the then Northern Region because in 1961, there were eleven times as many Koranic schools in the North as there were Western Elementary Schools in the South. The Indirect Rule and the use of Hausa language in Local Authority affairs gave the colonial administrators a link with the ruling Emirs of the North who were very powerful in their domains at that time. 1 1. Fafunwa, B. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19 Though the trend in most independent African zountries is to revive indigenous cultures, including language, at the expense of those inherited from former colonial powers 1, English still enjoys / -r.paralleled importance in the educational, social, political and economic life of the nation, owing to several interacting factors. It remains Nigeria's «indow on 2 , and gateway to 3 the outside world. It is still the language of the Judiciary, the Legislature, and of Administration at federal and state levels. 1 1. Bamgbose, A. Mother Tongue Education - The West African Experience. (Rev.) Hawkes, N. International Review of Education 24 (3) 1978, pp„ 424-426„ i. Macwardt, A„H,, English as a Second Language0 Teaching English as a Foreign Language (edo) A1l9l6e5r „, B„ McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 3. Tomori, H„0„ Some observations on the learning of English in some Nigerian Primary Schools» MoA» (Ed) Thesis. London University, 1967, p= 19. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20 1... . Linquistic Position of Enqlish in Nigeria Sevsral factors are responsible for the continued importance of English in Nigeria, two decades after the attainment of political independence„ One of these is the socio- iirguistic-environment in which English functions in Nigeria» It comes in contact with many indigenous languages and dialects. Estiraates of the number of languages spoken in Nigeria ränge from 150 to 400„ Tiffen reported over 50, Greensberg 248, Bamgbose 400 ■1 , and others over 400 2o The difficulty of defining the Nigerian linguistic Situation is summed up by Oke (1972) 3 who pointed out that: 1 1. Olagoke, D„0„ The Mother-Tongue and ESL in Nigerian Education _in_ Ubahakwe, E0 (Ed.) The Teaching of English Studies, Ibadan University Press, 1979, p„ 19«, 2. Oluikpe, B, A Neglected Problem of English Language Education - Journal of the N19i7g4e,r iap.n E33n«,qlish Studies Association 6 (2) 3. Oke, Do Language Choice in Yoruba Edo Area. ODU New Series 7. 1972«, U IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 21 1 t is almost impossible to define the Nigerian speech community because in between the typological poles there will be gradations of similarities or differences which will complicate definition . A super-imposition of English language on the multi- olicity of indigenous languages in Nigeria is an -nfavourable social and linguistic climate for Inglish to thrive« Languages spoken by up to 300,000 persons have been op«erationally defined as the country's major languages» As at 1966, the following were the country's major languages and the estimated number of Speakers:* Culled from Bamgbose, A» Op» eit» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 22 (i) Hausa - 15,000,000 Speakers (ii) Yoruba - 10,000,000 Speakers (iii) Igbo - 6,000,000 Speakers (iv) Fulfude - 3,000,000 Speakers (v) Kanuri - 3,000,000 Speakers (vi) Ef ik - 1,000,000 Speakers (vii ) Tiv - 1,000,000 Speakers (viii ) Izo - 780,000 S p e a k e r s (ix) Nupe - 500,000 Speakers (x) Bini - 300,000 Speakers (xi ) Urhobo — 300,000 Speakers Of these languages, Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, and Efij< :an be offered as examination subjects at the Ordinary Level in the West African School Certificate« 2 The English language can therefore be termed a unifying factor in this country of widely divergent and multiple ethnic groups. Io Bamgbose, A. Linguistic Background« 2» WAECo Regulations and Syllabuses for the School Certificate and General Certificate of Education (Ordinary and Advanced Levels) 1981« Academy Press Ltd«, Lagos, 1981, p« 5« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 23 The heterogeneity of the linguistic environment in which English functions in Nigeria has given rise to some language problems that have implications for the effective learning and mastery of English language«, Some of these problems are similar to the language Problems identified by Selinker (1972) in his analysis of the social conditions under which language learning and communication take place. These are: language transfer, transfer of training, over­ general ization of linguistic materials. Folarin (1981) commented on language transfer as a source of error in English for the Nigerian learner. He said, through the psychological process of analogy, which every normal learner employs to varying degrees to ease learning processes, the Nigerian learner of English is apt to make mistakes 1 1. Selinker, A. Some Social Aspects of Language Learning. TESOL Quarterly 1972. 2. Folarin, A.B. A Practical Linguistic Framework for Error Analysis in the Written English of Nigerian Students. University of Ibadan, Ph.D. Thesis 1981. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 24 in the use of sounds and structures in English that appear similar to some sounds and structures in his particular native language. Language interference as a source of some errors made by Nigerian learners of English was pointed out by scholars like Afolayan, Tomori and Taylor, English language rea-ding problems of undergraduates in Ibadan University could, according to Taylor (1966) A be traced to linguistic interference. Tomori (1963) 2 also observed that specific errors made by final year primary pupils in some Nigerian schools could be traced to linguistic interference from their mother tongue with English. Whitehall (1967), was said to have agreed with Taylor, and to have gone further to outline some of the structural differences underlying the problem. 1« Chapman-Taylor, r . Report of the Reading Skill Improvement Course, University of Ibadan, 1966 in Folarin, B. Op, cit,, p. 19. 2. Tomori, S.H.O. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 25 -folayan (1968) in listing the linguistic problems z f Yoruba users and learners of English used the structural differences between Yoruba and English Language to explain the second language performance ieviations among Yoruba learners of Englisho The implications of these are that some syntactical, phonological and semantic errors in English language learning would depend on the learner's geographical location, and the Nigerian language in use in the area, This would also mean nhat the English language teacher in an area can onl de very effective if he is proficient in the local language, and can observe and point out to students che phonological, syntactical differences between English and the local language« His ability to help prevent errors arising from language transfer, and over-generalisation of linguistic materials could also er.hance his students' achievement in second 1 r> language learning. 1 1. Afolayan, A, The Linguistic Problems of Yoruba Learners and Users of English, London University, Ph,D„ Thesis, 1969, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 26 1,3, Factors Promotinq the Pre-Eminence of Enqlish in Nigeria Today, The language Situation in Nigeria makes it iifficult if not impossible for inter-ethnic, and sometimes intra-ethnic communication among Nigerians, except through the medium of English. The serious- -ess of such a Situation is highlighted by Van Cott ~1966) -1 who remarked that not to have a (native) language in common with one1s compatriot is to have a stranger for a countryman, a potential Situation for breading suspicion and distrust. A paradoxical Situation therefore emerges resulting in the reinforcement of the importance of English language by the linguistic and social factors which hinder its effective learning and usage. 1. Van Cott, H„ The Role of English in Nigeria,R„ Jacobs (Ed.) Ford Foundation Project on the Position of English in Nigeria, 1965, p. 39. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 27 Socially, English is a language of social- •ceiiency ■i because it makes inter-ethnic and intra- et5'.r.ic communication possible and easier. This viewi shared by both literate and non-literate _gerians, and by foreigners. In the Report of a E_r.ctional Literacy Experiment with some tobacco farmers of Oyo State of Nigeria, reported by James, farmers indicated their willingness to understand English so that they could communicate effectively -Ith their educated relations, officials of the inistry of Agriculture, and of the Nigeria Tobacco Zompany. Bamgbose (1971) 2 also agreed with the social expediency of English language in the Nigerian context. He says (educated) Nigerians have recourse to English when uncertain of the appropriate form of address as required by indigenous 12 1. James, S. Three Basic Functions of English Language in Nigeria. Ubahakwe, E. (Ed.) Varieties and Function of English in Nigeria, Ibadan: African University Press, 1979, p. 258. 2. Bamgbose, A„ The English Language in Nigeria in The English Language in West Africa, J. Spencer (Ed.) Longmans, London, 1971, p. 37. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 28 language, or where Speakers do not share a common indigenous language. He wrote: 'myself have found.......that in talking to a Yoruba person whom I'm not sure whether to address as 'you singulär’ or 'you - plural' (the choice of which depends on Status, age, familiarity, etc.). I often either talk in English or, if I wish to be less formal, talk in Yoruba, but switch to English whenever I have to use the second person - pronoun singulär’.^ That educated Nigerians are not as literate as they are in their mother-tongue or any other language of inter-ethnic communication also gives English ascendancy over indigenous languages. The social value of English language to Nigerians in terms of interraction with other Speakers of English has been observed and remarked upon by non-Nigerians. Spencer (1971), reported by Richards (1972) 2, remarked that it is through English that an average educated West African 1 1. Bamgbose, A. Op. cit. 2. Richards, J. Social Factors, Interlanguage and Language Learning - Language Learninq 22 (2) Dec., 1972. \ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 29 .especially Nigerian) breaks the bond of West African traditional life, and enters into some kind of relationship with the westernized sectors of societyo Grieve (1966) •1 also referred to English as a vehicle of African cultures as well as of English« The assertion is correct when the volume of cultural Materials transmitted through the medium of English language is considered» In addition to the listed social functions of English^the entertainment industry feature over fifty percent of the programmes and activities in English« For example, during the last festival of dramatic arts held at Nigeria's Premier University, Ibadan, in 1980, all the productions were rendered in English« Where the plays had basically African or Nigerian themes and plots, the performances were . . . 1. Grieve, D«W„ English Language Examining, African University Press, 1964, p« 14, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 30 r3endered in English language. The cinema, which is form of recreation for all classes is innundated with films produced in English» Though arts is said :o possess a universal language, the language in which arts finds greater and better patronage in Nigeria seems to be English language rather than any of the Nigerian languages. Since all the major Publishing houses* print books mainly in English, the volume of reading ".aterials available to Nigerians is mainly in English» National newspapers* *, magazines, and periodicals are also printed in English since it is the language that is common to literate Nigerians, and it is the language whereby a greater percentage of the literate population can be reached. Macmillan (Nig.) Ltd«, Evans Publishers, Oxford University Press, University of Ibadan Press, etc o TThhee ODbasielryv eTri,m ese,t c.The Daily Sketch, The Herald, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 31 In a survey by Adeniran (1980) 1 in which he examined the relative strength of one of the three -ajor Nigerian language (Yoruba) and English, in the er.tertainment and information media (press, radio, relevision), all of which are English dominated, the iominance of English was clearly exhibited- One of ehe social factors responsible for the dominance of English, as identified by Adeniran's survey is the pride of place accorded English on all public occasions, and in private domains. He reported how the Minutes of meetings of private societies, all the members of which speak Yoruba, are recorded in English» The legacy of a long educational tradition which placed emphasis on English has also led to lack of competence in indigenous languages by educated Nigerians» 1 1» Adeniran, A. Disparity in Bilingual Choice and Use in Mass Communication in Nigeria - Its example in Yoruba-English Bilingualism. Journal of Language Arts and. Comtaunjcation (1) 1980, pp» 12-29o v UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 32 Though many literates use their indigenous languages in the spoken form, their reading is mainly in English and their reading almost exclusively in English. 1 English has also been referred to as the language of elite in Nigeria because the rural area which constitutes almost eighty percent of Nigeria's inhabited area is an undisputed territory of Nigerian languages. Correlation was also observed by Banjo (1970) 2 between the knowledge of English and distance from urban centres. Olagoke 3 has gone to the extent of suggesting that alienation from indigenous culture results from knowing too much English. These observations are true to some 1 1. Kerr, J.Y.K. "The Future of Yoruba Literary Culture" in Bamgbose, A. Languages in Contact - Yoruba and English in Nigeria: Paper for Joint WAMLA/71 PLV Congress, Ibadan, August 1981. 2. Banjo, A. The English Language and the pN.i ge35r.ian Environment - JNESA 4 (l) 1970, 3. Olagoke, D. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 33 extent because at the level of social interraction among the 'intellectuals and other elite in the society, fluency in English is still a symbol of status and civilization„ The domain of English language usage in Nigeria was outlined by Doherty (1972 )1 and the following figures were obtained:- TABLE 1. DOMAIN OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE USAGE IN NIGERIA DOMAIN OF USAGE FREQUENCIES ALL THE TIME/ OFTEN SOME NTEIVMEESR/ Home 32% 68% Social Context 63% 3 7% Trade andrCommefCe 61% 39% Wider Communication 92% 8% Official 96% 4% lo Doherty, J„A. The use of English in Nigeria,, University of Ibadan, 1972«, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 34 Politically, a common language could be a potent factor of unity in a multi-ethnic country like Nigeria,, English therefore remains a unifying factor in Nigeria» Onwubu remarked that to the extent that Nigeria remains entangled in the web of an alien cultural heritage 1, =i5o will be difficult to adopt an indigenous language a lingua-franca, English therefore remains a vital language of participation in Nigeria 2» After 1960, colitical independence for Nigeria could not be followed with the adoption of one of the Nigerian ianguages as a lingua franca» The current Nigerian Constitution states that The business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English and in Hausa, Igbo and Yhaovreu bab eewnh enm adaed.e3quate arrangements 1« Onwubu, C» West African Education and the C1h97a6l,l enpgp»e o4f1 -4a6 »Lingua Franca» - WAJML (l) Jc.nc 2» James, S» Op» cit» 3» Government Press» The Constitution of the FSeedcteiroant io5n9» of Nigeria, 1979, Part 2, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 35 the constitutional Statement on the country's .jrcuage policy, a trilingual solution has been ;~opted, with formal recognition of the three major languages - Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba - as languages which .111 be used in the Federal and State Assemblies as soon as feasible. The practical necessity and expediency of the :ontinued use of the English language in Nigeria conflicts with the necessity of promoting indigenous languages« This problem is further worsened by ’population politics' which has continued to plague che Nigerian society. The conflict is however being resolved in various ways. One of such resolutions is the use of eight of the Nigerian languages over che network of Radio Nigeria« The redio and celevision stations in each State also carry more programmes in the local languages« Politically also, Nigeria's participation in international affairs demands her citizen's ability to manipulate English with a high degree of 1 1. Onwubu, C. Op« cit« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 36 international intelligibility, in order to rresent their viewpoint succintly and effectively, and to maintain the country's respectabi1ity as 'Africa's rising giant', Economic exigency was, and still is, a factor of English language promotion in Nigeria today, One of the factors listed by Brosnahan (1963) reported by Bamgbose for a successful imposition of a foreign language on any group of people is the existence of opportunities and advantages conferred by the language, Proficiency in English undoubtedly confers some economic advantages through trade, and through the certification System, In discussing the functions of English Language in Nigeria, James (1979) - remarked that commercial expediency had forced the Europeans and the Natives to accommodate 1 1, Bamgbose, A, The English Language in Nigeria in Spencer, J» (Ed,) The English Language 2 in West Africa. London: Longmans, 1971,James, S. Op, cit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 37 £ Lingua franca (English) in the early days of reign commercial enterprises in Nigeria. This :;:e of affairs currently obtains because English is - -e ianguage of international trade and commerce. ;_-ce the main buyers of Nigeria's agricultural and -i'.eral products are English-speaking? English is --■ = xain Ianguage of commercial activity. The viewpoint which became institutionalized the establishment of a certificate oriented r:,cational System is that western education, and especially a knowledge of English Ianguage would eguip (students) with the skill and techniques essential for the improvement of personal Status in the economic and social structure.l *uti (1976)' said that the secondary school level education is a means to an end, and the end is employability'. Obtaining an educational 1 1. ColemOapn. , ciJt. . Nigerian Background in Mazrui, A„ Kuti, M.A.O. Vocational Information and Secondary School Pupils. West African Jp.o ur1n8a2.l of Education XX (2T~, June 197 6, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 38 certificate obviously requires a degree of proficiency in English„ The certification System during and after the colonial era therefore reinforced the importance of English language, and ensured its ascendancy over indigenous languages. Since English is a compulsory exar.mation subject in all public examinations, it is carefully studied* In addition, a pass in English language is a condition for the award of a worthwhile certificate in the West African School Certificate Examination, which is about the most important examination in the educational System» Omolewa noted tha t: the significance of certification was not only in its employment as a means of maintaining Standards or an incentive to effort or an administrative device, but in its Service as a tool for social engineering»I 1» Omolewa, M. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 39 Even in the Publishing industry in Nigeria, -anuscripts in English are more marketable» Only books that are specifically meant for classroom instructional purposes find ready acceptance if the -ediurn is of one of the Nigerian languages or iialects Economic factors are therefore responsibie for the promotion of English language in Nigeria» This is done primarily through the educational certification System, the Publishing industry, and the commercial houses. Technologically and scientifically, English is Nigeria's language in theory and practice» 1 In her bid to take a leap into the technological age, Nigeria has adopted a very realistic approach by promoting English language, the language of specialized education» If students lack the linguistic skills to undertake special training, technological advancement becomes impossible because any scientist (or technologist) who lacks a functional knowledge of English remains certainly 1» Adekunle, M„A» National Language Policy and Planning» WAJML (l) Jan» 1976, pp» 23-30» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 40 Z j t off from half or more of the world's literature in this field» 1 Viewed from several angles, English is vital to the effective functioning of the country, especially since the country is having sorae problems in adopting one of the major Nigerian lar.guages as the lincua-franca. Leading advocates and adherents of the adoption of one major Nigerian language as a lingua-franca seem to be aware of the fact that to seriously activate the campaign for one language or the other would rüffle the existing National Unity» Before any of the indigenous languages can be adopted as a lingua-franca, its suitability and adequacy as a language of education, Science, technology, international trade and diplomacy must be determined. So also will the availability of human and material resources for teaching the language« The Claim by the renowned statesman, Mahatma Ghandi, that: lo Paden, J.N. Language Problems of National Integration in Nigeria in Fishman, J„ et. al. (Eds,) Language Problems in Developing Countries, John W'iley & Sons Ine«, New York, 1968, p. 200, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 41 there never was a greater Superstition than that a particular language can be incapable of expansion or expressing obtruse or scientific ideas.^ becomes doubtful, especially in a country like Nigeria where the indigenous languages are said to be ineffective communication media, except in very limited situations. 2 Deciding which of the indigenous languages should be adopted instead of English has been a very sensitive political and social issue. The adoption of an indigenous language, spoken by the greatest number of people in or outside the locality could lead to the problem of what Onwubu (1976) refers to as ’population politics', which could disrupt the political stability of the country. If from the 1 1. Harrison, B. English as a Foreign or Second Language. London, Edward Arnold, 1973, pp. 13-18. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 42 linguistic view point an indigenous language that is less complex in terms of linguistic structure is chosen, it may turn out to be a language spoken by e minority group, and it could possibly have very wide dialectical variations. Infact, Adele 1 thinks the ethnic factor is responsible for the resilience of English in Nigeria«. In the foreseeable future however, English is likely to remain Nigeria's second language, considering the variety of functions and purposes which it serves. Almost all the characteristics of language in a second language Situation are observable in relation to English in the Nigerian Situation«. Mackwardt (1965) defines English in a second language Situation as a place where it is the language of instruction in the schools, or a lingua-franca between ̂ Speakers of....... diverse languages. 1 1. Adele, A. Op. cit. 2. MackwAalrl detn,, A.H. English as a Second Language inB. (Ed.) Teaching English as a Foreign Language. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1965. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 43 Lewis and Massad (1975) *1 also defined a second language as one that is usually learnt under the -ecessity of the immediate environment, and that artitude and motivation are vital in learning it» T~ey added that in communities where a language is _sed as a second language, the people tend to create :'.eir own form of the language, no matter how well srandardized that language is. Grieve however Claims that English is more than s second language in Nigeria because in addition to the earlier listed functions it does not co-exist with any nationally preferred official Nigerian language. It is 'an indispensable second language* and *a vehicle for African Culture. 2 English is not the language of the home. It is usually learnt after the mother-tongue, in the 'artificial' environment of the school. Even in homes where both parents are highly educated, English 1 1. Lewis, E.G. and Massad, C.G. (Eds.) The Teaching of English as a Foreign Language in ten countries. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975, p. 25. 2. Grieve, D.W. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 44 is not used all the time. It co-exists with other Nigerian languages. There is therefore lack of language continuity between home and school for most Nigerian pupils. This Situation has implications for the Nigerian pupils' achievement in English as a second language. In the Ford Foundation Report on English language in Nigeria, the necessity to pay particular attention to the language environment where the Nigerian Student encounters English was observed. The Report further added that: ’Regardless of how well English is taught in the schools, the learning of English will be impeded by home environment. There is need to increase the English Language elements of the students1 out of school environment, otherwise learning would become a stränge and unrealistic experience associated with only a small Segment of the. youngster's total communication needs. 1» Cawson, F. Incidental Learning, Environment Enrichment and Adult Education i_n Jacobs, R. (Ed.). p. 102. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 45 Ubahakwe (1976)^ has however suggested a function- oriented nomenclature in describing English in Nigeria because English is not the second or third language of some Nigerian pupils. He Claims that English is the language öf specialized education, the official language, and a unifying factor in a country of divergent ethnolinguiStic groups. A realization of the importance of English as Nigeria*s second language by the Federal Government is indicated by the establishment of such bodies as the N.E.R.C., N.T.I., and C.E.S.A.C.* These bodies are actively engaged in finding means of enhancing language learning in schools, improvement of the • instructional content of school subjects, syllabi, school textbooks, and particularly in improving efficiency of teachers engaged in teaching various subjects. The bodies also engage in investigative projects to enhance the teaching and learning of school subjects. They provide a forum of exchange of ideas between Professionals in education. 1 1. Ubahakwe, E. Op. cit. N.E.R.C. - Nigeria Educational Research Council. N.T.I. - National Teachers* Institute. C.E.S.A.C. - Comparative Education Studies and Adaptation Centre. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 46 1.4. Problems Inhibitinq the Teaohinq and Learninq of Enqlish Though English is very important in the economic, social, political and educational affairs cf Nigeria, the environment in which it functions is seither homogenous, favourable, nor enhancing to learners' achievement in it. All the Nigerian languages it comes in contact with exert some influence on either its phonology, Syntax, grammar, or all of these, to produce particular varieties of English. Vabazs (1976) commenting on the Nigerian pupil learner of English, said that while many may not have heard English spoken at home, and hardly ever listen to radio and T0V0 programmes in English, they also lacked reading books in English, or any books at all. 1 1. Vabaza, K.T. An Experimental Improvement of Defective word analysis and oral reading skills of some Nigerian Primary School Children» Ph.D„, Ibadan, 1976. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 47 She concluded therefore, that their knowledge :f English may be inadequate, their expressive ability even poorer, and their level of understanding ery much limited even after several years of schcol i'struction. Their ability for auditory discrimina- cion of sounds in English - an essential ability for soccess in reading, could becotne defective due to treir poor experiential background in English» Where English is not the language of the home, a cultural barrier could be created between a pupil .-ho is activoly learning English at school and his parents» With no Stimulus to communicate in English outside the school context, language discontinuity between home and schcol ensues, and lack of reinforcement in the language learning process occurs.^ 1. Gwarzo, S. and Jacobs, R„ The Primary Schools» Ford Foundation Report on English in Nigeria» Jacobs, R. (Ed») 1966, p. 71. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 48 - Though the relationship between second language learning and achievement is not a direct one, the adverse effects of laok cf material resources for language learning are not minimal, aince language learning is particularly responsive to cffacts cf social disadvantage» Incomes are generally low in Nigeria, and the cost of good books prohibitive, therefore mosf parents can hardly afford to buy all their children’s bock requx. rementSo In many schools, as Tomori (1967) i a>o ô served, students lack dass readers* The Nigerian society cannot be termed literary, so books are not very readily availablc in most hameso Reading is not often done for pleasure but for some specific utilitarian ends in view, such as studying for examinationso lo Tomori, Ho00 Some observations on the learning of English in some Nigerian Primary Schools0 M0A„ (Ed„) Thesis, University of London 1967, p„ 19* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 49 - Commenting on the rolo of the English language in .‘.'igerias Banjo (1974) pointed out the impossibility of tha schools taking on the responsibility of preparing every child for effective use of English language in all situations<> A great deal of the learning will have to tc.ke place outside the formal educational System* Though most leamers come across English language first in the sc’nool Situation, their achievement in it could be enhanced by their out of school experiences* Agunwa 2 observed that Nigerian learners of English however come across incorrect usages of English in market places, in the daily newspapers, on the teleVision, on the radio, sometimes in textbooks and the Speech, - of some highly educated people0 lo Banjo, A„ On the state of English Studies in Nigeria« Journal of Nigeria English Studies Association - Tl) 1974, pp« 5-13« 2« Agunwa, C«0o Problems of Language Education in NOpi«g erciiatn0 Primary Schools in Ubahakwe, E« (Ed«) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 50 - Olagoke (1979) 1 also remarked that aspects of parents' socio~economic status continue to red.nforce (or adversely affect) learners' achievement in English language« He said that parents who send their ch:'J dren to private schools where English is taught from the fd -~st yerr of schooling are also those who can afford facilitios for effective study at hörne«, The cultural environment in which English currently functions which began prior to independence in I960 became acutely intensified thereafter« With the creation of the nineteen states after the c.ivil war, cultural and national awareness became even more intens'“ The incessant call of nationalists who feel that political independence should be followed by the development of a lingua-franca led to the call for the adoption of one mein Nigerian lary’̂ ge as a ling: ia~franca* The practical necessity and expeddency of English language adoption as the lingua-franca, and the cultural desirability of promoting Nigerian languages became two values d.n conflict« 1«, Olagoke, Do0„ Op«, cit„ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 51 - The conflict has been temporarily resolved on the Nigerian scene by making English the official language and the language of instruction in higher institutions, while positive efforts are simultaneously being made to evolve a lingua-franca frora the three major Nigerian languages<> The national news broadcasts are now read over the federal radio network in nine Nigerian languages - Edo, Efik, Pulfude, Hausa, Xgbo, Izo, Kanuri, Tiv, Yoruba 1, instead of the three major languages in which the news was formerly read«, The Nigerian Constitution also makes Provision for a change to a Nigerian language as the language of parliamentary debates 'as soon as all necessary arrangements are made'o 2 Sccondly, in almost all indigenous Nigerian cultures and sub-cultures, children are to be seen and not to be heard when adults are around«, The silent child 1«, Oluikpe, B0 A neglected problem of English Language Er,".rati~n. Journal of the Nigerian English Studies Association 6 (2) 1974, p, 23o 2c Government Printer» The Constitution of the Federation of Nigeria, 1979« Government Press, Lagos«, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY or the child who engages in very little verbalization is considered more well-behaved than the verbally active and outgoing child« The comrrvunicative structures of the homcs and the society generally do not offer opportun!ties for effective learning of English0 The cultu.ral expectations could therefore be disadvantageous to a child's language development, language learning, and subsequcnt achievement in language, especially second language learning« In Ubahakwe’s analysis of the functions of English language in Nigeria, a culturally problematic factor of English language in the Nigerian environment was incidentally touched upon0 English, he said, is the language for mass communication but not the language for the masses, constituting one of the pre-conditions for entry xnto the favoured dass»1 lo Ubahakwe, E„ 0po cit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 53 1*5* English in the Nigerian School System The importance of English language in Nigeria*s rducational System is vividly illustrated in Grieve*s Statement that: English is the life-blood of the whole educational systera at the secondary level,....* If students lack linguistic skills and achieve poor results in English, then there will not be students capable of undertaking University courses ...... the whole future of primary, higher education, and consequently the whole political and economic future of a nation of over sixty million people (would be) in question,1 At all levels of instruction, except the very reginning in all Nigerian-government-approved secondary and post-secondary institutions, English is the medium of instruction. The National Curriculum Conference of 1969 even recommended the use of 1, Grieve, D.W. English in West African-Secondary• Schools. Teacher Education 2+ (1), May 1963» P. 3. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 54 Znglish in the senior forms of primary schools. 1 Ir. enacting a National Language Policy, the Federal Oovernment adopted a trilingual solution by stimpulating that: each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major (Nigerian) languages other than his own mother tongue.2 The implied supremacy of English language is 'owever contained in the further stipulation that: . ... . ..the medium of instruction ln the primary school should be the mother tongue or the language of immediate Community, and at a later stage, English.3 . 1 1. Naibi, S„ The purpose of Primary Education in Adaralegbe, A» (Ed.) Report of the National Curriculum Conference, NERC, 1969. 2. Federal Ministry of Information - Nigeria National Policy on Education, 1977, 3 _in Olagoke, D.O. The Mother Tongue and ESL in Nigerian ̂ Education. Op. cit. , p. 21. 3. Ibid., p. 22. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 55 The aim of E n g l i s h language l e a r n i n g is not native-like p r o f i c i e n c y in the oral and w r i t t e n skills, wit h i t s e n s u i n g i m p l i c a t i o n of =-culturation and s e c ondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n into the second l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i t y . 1 The prim a r y and most rital aim is to u n d e r s t a n d E n g l i s h s u f f i c i e n t l y to :e able to ’decode' te x t b o o k s an d o t h e r w r i t t e n texts in English; to be able to pass W A S C E E n g l i s h paper. It is also to m a s t e r the i n t e r a c t i o n a l and "rehavioural r e q u i r e m e n t s of specific domains within and when n e c e s s a r y outside h i s own culture, A l t h o u g h e d u c a t i o n is c u l t u r a l l y i n a d e q u a t e if it does not give the pupil a g o o d k n o w l e d g e of his native language, and at l east some a c q u a i n t a n c e with its l i t e r a t u r e 2 , the educat i o n a l System in N i g e r i a ) seems to favour E n g l i s h l a n guage more than 1. Alexander, R. E l e m e n t s of a T h e o r y of Second L a n g u a g e Learning,' V e r l a g P e t e r Lang, Frankfurt, 1978, p. 58, 2. Burney, E, Report on E d u c a t i o n in H o n g Kong, G o v e r n m e n t Press, H o n g Kong, 1935» P f 2-b, in. FU, Op, Cit, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 56 - _ndigenous languages. While only four* of the numerous igerian languages are offered as West African School Zertificate subjects at Ordinary Level, the total number of candidates for these languages is less than a ruarter of candidates offering English. Government’s declared national policy on the place of the m o t h e r tongue as a l a n g u a g e of i n s t r u c t i o n in some schools ha s been righ t l y r e f e r r e d to by Olagoke-1- as ’mere statement of Intention’ because no school has been given specific directives to implement it. In fact, the language of instruction right through primary school in some states of the Federation is English. In educational institutions where foreign language such as French is taught, English is often the m e d i u m of i n s t r u c t i o n used. Beck l e y (1976) 2 *. Efik, Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba.1. Olagoke, D. 0. Op. cit.2 Beckley, S, M, A study of some c r i t e r i a for D r o p - o u t in F r e n c h in Sierra-Leone. U n p u b l i s h e d M.Ed. Dissertation, Ibadan, 1976, p. 59. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 57 r'cserved that in schools where French is taught, English is used in teaching it. In the primary System, English is taught as a school subject in the first three years; thereafter, it is used as the language of Instruction from the fourth ~.o the sixth year. In private fee-paying primary schools and in schools located in areas where pupils' rother tongue differ from the local language, English is che medium fee-paying primary schools however use English as the language of instruction at all levels of primary education because admission to reputable and well-established secondary schools is dependent on pupils* performances in the Common Entrance Examination, the passing of which depends, to a great extent, on a fair knowledge of English» Primary school pupils therefore start learning English at a stage when they are not yet literate in their mother tongue, This has implications for their achievement in English because their lack of literacy in their mother-tongue could adversely influence their second language learning. The Observation was made by UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 58 - "atone (1978)-^ in his review of studies in bilingualisra sound and firm grounding in learner's mother tongue izhance second language learning. In the summary and recommendations of the National r^rriculum Conference in 1969^, two of the aims of primary eiucation were said to be to achieve permanent literacy and to ba able to communicate effectively, The vagueness zi these two aims is indicated by the fact that the language in which literacy or effective communication is oo be achieved, is not clearly stated. The vagueness of ohe stated aims probably suggests an explanation for the unwieldy and badly schemed nature of instructional content of primary school English. 1 1. Titone, R, Some Psychological Aspects of Multilingual Education. International Review of Education XXIV, 3, 19787 PP.' " 2. Adaralegbe, A. Op. Cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 59 The content of English language instruction in Nigerian primary schools can at best be described as an agglomeration of myriads of structural, syntactical and grammatical items. The content of English language instruction in Nigerian Secondary Schools was also observed to emphasize language areas or skills 'which do not get at the real needs of the Student, to improve his English'. 1 If, according to Grieve 2 , 'the best measure of a Student's progress in the second language is the extent of his success in mastering those areas of elements of the second language which are difficult for him because of the influence of his mother tongue or other extraneous factors. The English language Curriculum will have to focus attention more on the core of learner’s English language problems. 1 1. Gwarzo, S„ Op. cit., p. 76. 2. Grieve, D.'W. 0p„ cit., p. 18. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 60 This need is further highlighted by GwarzcA who remarked that intensive remedial English Programme is necessary during the first year of secondary school to salvage what can be salvaged of the language learning Problems engendered through defective primary school English language teaching, The human resources available for the teaching of English language at primary school level has been observed to be deficient. The officially stipulated qualifications for primary school teachers in the various Nigerian States differ. In Oyo State, for example, the required qualification for a primary school teacher is at least a Grade III Teachers' Certificate, With the inception of the Universal Primary Education Scheme and the attendant over- whelming school enrolment, it has not been possible to have quality in terms of staffing, Not only has it become impossible to recruit trained teachers to teach in primary schools, the expediency measure of 1, Gwarzo, S. Op. Cit,, p, 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 61 -rlcying untrained and barely literate 'teachers' -es been resorted to. Most of the primary school teachers are thereforc need of specialized training, particularly in the ceaching of English as a second language so that they rav provide acceptable model of the language in the s_assrooms„1 Since primary school teachers are responsible for c'e first years of English language teaching in igeria their usually inadequate Professional and scademic quälification renders them ignorant of affective techniques of language teaching, and leaves ehern as poor speech models to students» The Situation is so bad sometimes that there was an observed instance when the English language teacher in an urban senior primary school could not pronounco the word 1noun1 correctly»* Wrong habits of speech, 1. Gwarzo, S„ The Primary Schools - Jacobs, R. (Ed.)» Ford Foundation Report on English in Nigeria 1966, p. 67. * Observation during Teaching Practice Inspection of an Associateship Certificate Student - Ibadan, 1981» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 62 cr.adequacy in all the language skills are the ;_ccomes for learners in such a Situation where iven the teacher has no mastery of the instructional content» In the secondary schools, the staffing Situation is not much better than in the primary schools« Ioly a small percentage of English Language teachers =re professionally and academically qualified to ceach English at the secondary school level» In some 1unavoidable' circumstances, holders of che WASC have had to be deployed to teach English in che newly commissioned secondary schools» The phenomenal increase in Student population called for vast increase in the number of English language teachers» The increase in staff and pupil within three years in Oyo State where this study was carried out is phenomenal» Secondary school enrolment of 240016 in 1981 soared to 375006 in 1982 The increase necessitated high staff increase« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 63 Many of the teachers were observed to have had very little exposure to language per se 1, or m teaching English as a second language, or in teaching Oral English effectively. Consequently, their Student cannot benefit from the best methodology in second language teaching; and the teaching of one language skill or another is neglected. The wrong assumption that any University ' * ■ graduate in any discipline can teach English effectively at secondary school level is reflected in the allocation of English teachers to classes. In many secondary schools, it is not unuswal tö find graduates in disciplines that are completely unrelated to language teaching English in the junior forms„* Many of those academically qualified to teach English are not necessarily professionally qualified to do so. Io Gwarzo, S„ Op. eit. * In the schools investigated, two of the English language teachers in the dass were graduates in Statistics and Biology» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 64 The material resources for effective English _srguaqe teaching are lacking in most primary schools» 'ile there is an abundance and variety of textbooks t; choose frora, there is need to produce textual -aterials to meet the specific needs of learners from -ach of the major indigenous language groups. Other material resources that are lacking are audio-visual aids, and school libraries. The absence of audio-visual aids in most primary schools where teachers are not suitable language models is a serious setback to learners’ phonological improvement. Libraries, which are invaluable aids in second language learning are non-existent in most schools, thereby making the formation of good reading hfebits impossible. From the foregoing therefore, learning English at the primary school level becomes a difficult and ineffective task. It is not surprising then, as some scholars observed, that by the time a Nigerian child leaves primary school he is neither able to think clearly in English, conceptualize in Engl ish nor use it effectively as a medium of communication„ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 65 The material resources for English language teaching is also poor in many secondary schools. A school library which is an invaluable asset in second language teaching and learning is not available in -any of the secondary schools in the country. Even vhere libraries are available, the total nisconception about its proper use in sotne schools prevents students from deriving any benefit-from its use. For example, students who are troublesome during lessons are often sent to read in the library. The Ford Foundation English Language Survey i covering all levels of the Nigerian educational System made the Observation that most secondary schools have libraries that are not well stocked, and that teachers generally do not seem to encourage pupils to make (proper) use of the library. 1 1. Gwarzo, S. Op. eit-, p. 78. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 66 - Other facilities such as language [Laboratories, television, tape-recording equipment, which could make second language teaching and learning easier are not owned by many schools. Most of the various situations of English language teaching and learning present in the secondary grammar schools, exist in teacher training Colleges. The few points of differences are that language and literature teaching methodologies are more pronounced than the real language content on the Teacher Training College curriculum. Oral English is now a compulsory subject in Teacher Training Colleges. The teacher-factor as a problematic area in English language teaching in Nigeria was also pointed out by Afolayan^- and Tomori-^ who observed that many teachers appear professionally and attitudinally deficient in English language teaching. 1* Afolayan, A. Op. Cit. 2. Torno^i, S.H.O. Op. Cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 67 Teachers' inadequate training and lack of exposure to modern techniques of language teaching notwithstanding, the secondary school teacher of English ha s much to cope with, He usually has the greatest number of periods to teach» In the schools investigated in the current study, for example, each of the language teachers had an average of twenty_four teaching periods, This leaves the teacher little time to prepare for his lessons, and to mark students* dass work, The language teacher is also supposed to mark an average of one hundred and fifty exercise books per week because he is expected to give students at least two written and graded assignments per week. In a country where majority of the secondary school language teachers are wives and mothers, the volume of work becomes difficult to cope with effectively. Saddled with too many teaching and marking assignments, inadequate preparation and slipshod grading of students' work result» When students obtain consistently low marks, it lowers their morale UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 68 The problem of textbooks in learning English in Nigerian schools was highlighted by Oluikpe who saw the Problem as a neglected but vital one which requires serious consideration» He thinks the textbooks in use are not well programmed, not written with an understanding of users' cultural background, and are therefore 'inadequate to meet the challenges of English teaching and learning in an era when language has lost its prestigious place in our curricula'» 1 Since the textbook is often used as a crutch because many teachers are neither innovative nor have the knowledge, time, or the freedom for innovative adaptation in teaching their subject, it is essential to have wel1-programmed texts» Because of the various and numerous Nigerian languages that English in contact with, there is need to have textbooks designed specifically for each of the major language groups. They must also be designed as to emphasize the contrastive features of learners' first language» 1«, Oluikpe, B„0» A neglected Problem of English Language Education in Nigerian Primary and Secondary Schools» JNESA 6 (2) Dec», 1974» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 69 At the secondary school level, the primary aim cf English language teaching is to teach students the language so that they are able to learn through English. The four language skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing - are taught, but :reat♦er emphasis is on teaching writing skill while che least emphasis is on teaching listening and speaking. In the Handbook for Secondary School Teachers of English, prepared by the Western State in 1974, there are specifically stated aims of teaching each of the language skills as stated below.* * Compiled from 'A Handbook for Secondary School Teachers of English - prepared by the Ministry of Education, Western State, Nigeria, 1974, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 70 English Language Skill Aim(s) of Teaching .j.ural Comprehension To develop pupils' ability to listen attentively to spoken English and to understand it clearly. Speech To give students systematic training in the speech skills that will enable them to communicate and be communicated with intelligibly in English by other users of English. Reading To help pupils understand what they read, at a speed appropriate to the nature and purpose of the reading. Writing To build up pupils' ability in the use of accurate English in all written composition skills. Ubahakwe (1973) said the goals in language education are determined by the functions which the language is expected to perform either in the school curriculum, or outside the classroom or both. From the stated aims and objectives of English language 1 Ubahakwe, - E. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 71 reaching in Nigeria, all the four language skills are s.pposed to be taught with perhaps, equal emphasis on reading, Speechwork and Writing. It is also expected -hat secondary school English should be taught to a Level of international intelligibility and acceptability, so that learners can profit from instructional context, and be able to use English effectively in and out of school context«. The content and context of English language ceaching however appear deficient to meet the stated aims adequately. In the secondary school English language curriculum, a greater tendency towards literature, concentration on composition, and a neglect of the reading and speaking skills 1 viere observed« The need to improve learner's functional command of English is thereby neglected, hence learners are not equipped with 'the linguistic took for coherent reasoningh 12 1. Gwarzo, S. and Jacobs, R. Secondary Education in Jacobs, R. (Ed.). Op. cit., p. 76. 2. Afola.yan, A„ Teaching and Examining Yoruba. West African Journal of Education XIV (2), June, 1970, p. 142. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 72 Banjo however thinks that intelligibility as an mdex of communicative competence is nebulous, he s^ggests that intra-national and international intelligibility should be aimed at in Nigerians' use of Englisho The context of English language instruction in • igerian secondary schools demonstrates the importance ictached to it„ The number of periods allocated to che English language on the school time-table is _sually raore than the number allocated to any other subject on the school curriculum. In the junior forms 'Forms 1 - 2 ) there are, on the average , ten periods of English per week while the average is eight periods in all other classes. Each lesson is usually of forty minutes duration, in which the following are usually taughts comprehension, grammar, speech drill, and vocabulary» The over-crowding of the alloted period with too much to teach often leaves the teacher no time to teach any effectively. 1 1. Banjo(,E d„A.) . B0epy„o ndc itI„n,t epl„l ig1i0boility in_ Ubahakwe, E. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 73 Other deficiency in the instructional context of Er.glish language in Nigeria is the total absence of language stimulating objects in or around the classrooms. nat are usually available are negative reinforcement _n form of ungrammatical, scrawlings on the walls and clackboards» Though the material and human resources for English language teaching are grossly inadequate in Nigerian secondary schools, the current secondary school population explosion since the inception of the free secondary education scheme is causing further hardship on an already overstretched resources, and it has implications for English language learning. With the free scheme, millions of pupils who had never come in contact with English outside the classroom, from absolutely illiterate and impoverished home background now have to be taught English» The over-crowding in many classrooms makes individual attention for students' motivation to learn English in such an environment is that it must be passed to obtain a worthwhile school leaving certificate» What sustains teacher's effort to teach in such context UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 is probably ignorance of the appalling Situation, apathy, or complete resignation to a Situation they cannot change* Though there were confirmation from most teachers and pupils of the existence of English promoting activities like Literary and Debating Society, Drama Club, Writers' Club, their activities are few and far between. At the University level, English can be studied either as the main subject of study, or as a subsidiary subject, or as a combined honours subject* as a main subject, it is studied for three years; as a combined honours subject it is studied on equal basis with another subject for three years; as a subsidiary it is studied for only one of the three academic sessions intensively. In many Nigerian Universities, English courses are mainly literature contentwise. The need for an English course thet is language oriented led to the creation of the Language Arts Department in Ibadan University. The department offers many well- programmed courses in the four basic language skills - reading - writing - speaking - listening - to students from within the department, and from other UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 75 departments in the University. The overwhelming number of undergraduates who register for these courses is an evidence of the need for remedial work in English with secondary school products. TABLE 2 Number of Students Reqistered for Lanquaqe ̂ Arts Courses (1978-82) in Ibadan University Year Number of Students 1978 38 1979 3# 1980 39 1981 • 1982 • stiKj nt» 0i3joriH9 in i .» n ,r ^ g * UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 76 1.6. Public Examining in English Language An investigation of English language achievement in Nigeria without reference to WASCE* would give an incomplete picture, since public examination syllabi determine effective details of teaching syllabil. The WAEC** was established in 1952 for the purpose of conducting secondary school leaving certificate examinations and other Professional bodies' examinations for the purposes of selection and promotion. It is now an autonomous body responsible for conducting public examinations, some of which are listed below*** The WASCE is very important in Nigeria’s * WASCE. West African School Certificate Examination. 1. Afolayan, A. Op. cit., p. 14. ** WAEC. West African Examinations Council. *** 1. The Nigeria National Common Entrance Examination, 2. The West African School Certificate Examination. 3. The H.S.C./G.C.E. Advanced Level Examination. 4. Nigerian Teachers' Grade II Examination. 5. Competitive Examination for Entry into the Public Service, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 77 educational System because it affects students' options and possibi1ities in their choice of career er higher education. It is a major criterion for admission into institutions of higher learning, and ehe highest educational level that most of the educated Nigerians do attain. In the WASCE, English language is a compulsory subject, and passing it is also vital« A candidate's overall performance in other subjects could be marred if he obtains less than the credit grade in English language« In specifying candidates' admission requirements for higher institutions or job placement in reputable establishments, there is always that haunting, almost intolerable clause "with at least credit in English language". English is therefore studied with greater zeal than other Nigerian languages« This Situation has continued to perpetuate the importance of English language to the detriment of Nigerian languages. The English language syllabus for the examination is prepared by WAEC and circulated to all secondary schools« This results in a tendency for the teachers to ignore language skills that are not UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY emphasized in the syllabus. /For the Student, it results in very strong incentive to pass English language at all costs, a tendency to study strictly within the syllabus content, and an unhealthy concern and anxiety about passing WASCE English» The implication of this for English language teachers is that they are compelled to teach within the narrow limits of WAEC syllabus only. All attention is focused on getting students to obtain good grades in WASCE English, regardless of whether or not the teste are valid measures of students' proficiency in English» WAEC English Language syllabus for the examination becomes the pre-occupation of every language teacher to the exclusion of more stimulating and interesting language content» The WASCE English examination can hardly stand the test of reliability because students who obtain good grades in WASCE English sometimes find difficulty coping with academic work in higher institutions because of language difficulty, whereas some students whose level of proficiency in written and spoken English are high do fail WASCE English. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ■ v - 79 - Until recently WAEC tests Oral English but does not consider it important in the award of a certificate, therefore some schools do not bother to rdoe acnho c Oral English while the schools that teach it q o so effectively. The importance of oracy in second language learning seem to be ignored by ,AEC until lately. The reasons for giving less =ttention to Oral English in Nigerian secondary schools should be blamed primarily on WaEC, but chere are other factors which are related to the aim of English language instruction in Nigerian secondary schools. In a severe critique of WAEC's Ordinary Level English, Unoh (1981) A remarked on the lack of validity of the Listening Comprehension Test, the irrationality of making Spoken/Oral English test of no effect in certificate award, and the lack of predictive validity of WAEC English Examination, in view of candidates' later performance academically„ 1 1. Unoh, So0t. Language Testing Method of WAEC A Critique» (Paper presented at WAMLA/ FIPLV Conference, Ibadan, August, 1981)» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 80 A review of WAEC English language syllabus rrc-pted by Grieve*s report has however resulted in •;5c~e realistic innovations, such as setting = a~ination questions that take into account the sr-ecial learning problems of learners 1, and paying zreater attention to the Oral Skills, Since teaching = -.d examining are, according to Afolayan 2 , two sides rf a coin, WAEC examination in English should be more =lid and reliable. 1 1. Grieve, D.W. Op. cit., p. 32. 2. Afolayan, A. Op. cit., p. 4. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 81 1.7. English and Niqeria's Socio-Political and Economic Advancement For as long as English remains Nigeria's lingu. franca, the language of general and specialized education, the language of active political and soci participation, the individual and the nation's advancement will, to a great % extent, be dependent on it. In Nigeria, ethnicity is often drawn along linguistic lines, hence there are hundreds of ethnic groups in the country. There is therefore no agreement on which of the indigenous language should be adopted as a lingua-franca. Selection of any Nigerian language by governmental legislation is a potential starting point for civil unrest, tribal politics, and distrust among Nigerians. There has therefore been a 'benign neglect' of the issue, while English is allowed to continue as the lingua- franca. An appreciation of British traditions, values and sensitivity still continues in our institutions such as the Judiciary, to the neglect of cultural values. This English-oriented legacy has led to the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 82 reglect and non-development of indigenous culture, including languages. For example, the English dominated System of knowledge acquisition in Nigerian education has created a 'bilingual elite', who are able to speak English on an internationally accepted Standard« This, in a way, enhances national develop­ ment« The adverse effect however is that these bilinguals are often less proficient in the use of their mother tongue than in English« Meanwhile, the difficulty of tailoring Curriculum content to meet Nigeria's current demand for utilizing her natural resources persists« The answer to the question of whether Nigeria*s political advancement is dependent on English is equivocal. In the arena of international politics, the answer is 'Yes', but in internal or 'grassroots* politics, the answer is 'No'« In international politics, Nigeria is by virtue of her pre-eminent Position among African States, expected to play very active roles in African and world-wide Organisation of nations« Her effective participation would there- fore demand ability to use English at a level of international acceptability• To the extent that UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 83 ■igeria continues to remain in the forefront of international politics, her continued dependence on English language remains. Most of Nigeria's political institutions, until a couple of years ago, remained patterned along British institutions. Even the Presidential System and the Constitution which is a modification of the American pattern relies on English for its drafting and interpretation. For example, there is a stipulation in the former Constitution that where the local interpretation of any part of the Constitution becomes ambiguous, the English Version shall prevail. In addition, all federal government policy Statements are made in English. From all indications, therefore, the conclusior. of the Ford Foundation survey on the role of English in Nigeria is that: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 84 without adequate knowledge of English, Nigeria could neither possess the unity of resources and talents needed for development, nor the faster cshoacniagle s butshiant escso nsatnid tustcei endteivfeilco pment ^o This conclüsiohvremains validated. Since the country's political, technological, scientific and educational advancement and development will for a long time continue to be dependent on English Language, the means of enhancing learners' achievement, especially at the secondary school level must be identified. 1 1. Van Cott, H.P. and Jacobs, R„ The role of English in Nigeria - Report of Ford Foundation Project on the position of English in Nigeria» Jacobs, R. (Ed.) Ford Foundation, 1966. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 85 1,5 The Problem The importance of English language in Nigeria*s social, educational, political and economic Systems -otwithstanding, learners' achievement is believed zo be generally poor. Achievement in English language skills arrtong Mgerian students continue to lag behind the expected level of mastery^ consequently., they can somprehend only a small percentage of instructional materials in school, and other reading materials out of school . A lasting Solution to the problem must therefore be sought from other approaches. A review of students' performance in public and school examinations, the voiced concern of parents, educators, and employers, point to the fach that students' achievement in English is poor. WAEC examiners in English language for a particular year complained that: 1 1. Jacobs, R. (Ed.)» Op. eit., p . 9. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 86 Even when some English papers were not well within the Standard to be expected of candidates, performance was still found to^e ry low '»-l Several years after the Examiners^Report -ertioned above, a front page editorial of Nigeria’s -cst widely circulated newspaper commented: 'The number of clear thinkers, writers and Speakers has fallen in West African Schools...... of those who sat for the English Language paper in Nigeria, more than half failed'.2 Results of candidates' performance in WASCE 3 English Language for the period 1975 to 1979 in Table 2 4 is also an evidence of the declining level of students' achievement in English. The reasons often adduced for students' poor performance in English language examinations include: 1 1. WAEC Examiners Report 1975, p. 53. 2. Editorial. The Daily Times of Nigeria, October 10, 1978, p. 1. 3. WaSCE. West African School Certificate Examinaticn. 4 See Table 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 87 (i) lack of comprehension ability» ii) lack of adequate vocabulary. (iii) restricted use of language. (iv) lack of continuity of thought in writing. (v) ignorance of the experiences about which candidates are (vi) poor teaching. *1 supposed to write. The seriousness of the problem is summed up by 3rieve who remarked that in Nigeria: 'English is the life-blood of the whole educational System at the ssetucdoenndtasr y laScckh oolli nglueivsetli.c. .s.k ilIlfs and achieve poor results in English, then there will not be students capable of undertaking University courses..., the whole future of primary, higher education, and consequently the whole political and economic future of a nation of over sixty million people (would be) in question'.2 lo WAEC Examiners' Report, 1976, p. 53. 2„ Grieve, D.W. English in West African Secondary Schools. Teacher Education 4 (l), May 1963, p. 3. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 88 It becomes obvious therefore that students' sc er achievement is not only an educational problem :ut one that could hinder national development. It is therefore an educational, developmental problem, and :onsequently, an economic threat to the country. Unding urgent and effective solution of enhancing students' achievement is imperative. Variations in students' achievement is dependent on a number of sociological, psychological and other factors. Specific factors that influence achievement in Inglish as a second language need to be identified and analysed. If the determined search for the best method of Snglish language teaching and investment of government funds in improving language teaching facilities have not yielded any effective solution to this problem, serious considerations must be given to investigating factors beyond the classroom. It will be more rewarding to investigate the problem from a primarily sociological perspective since language itself is a social Institution per excellence. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 89 1. -. The Main Focus of the Present Study Learners1 poor achievement in English now : Institutes an educational and developmental problem t; Nigeria, nevertheless, there is as yet limited :=ta on the subject. Attempts to solve the problem mclude the improvement of English language teachers* :;npetence through training, textbook adaptation suitable for Nigerian learners, Organization of Torkshops and seminars for language teachers and nextbook writers. The help of international agencies like UNESCO, Ford Foundation has also been enlisted in combating the problem. The designing of English language courses for prospective language teachers at the Universities is also a step towards effecting a solution. These efforts are yet to yield substantial results in view of the continuing falling Standard of achievement in English, especially at the secondary school level. The present study is therefore aimed at identifying and measuring some of the intervening variables between the learner and achievement in four English language skills of aural Discrimination UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 90 Reading Comprehension, Lexis and Structure, Guided Composition. The present study will be carried out primarily from a sociological perspective since language is a social Institution. Since one discipline cannot deal effectively and exhaustively with the phenomenon of achievement in English as a second language, a couple of environmental and psychological variables will be introduced and investigated. This approach also arises from the understanding that environmental factors influence language learning generally, and second language learning in particular. It has also been observed thrt variables of the environment are also influential on the development of specific cognitive abilities as well as the more static or status attributes of parents or teachers. Factors of achievement in each of the language skills to be tested will also be identified, This approach would indicate appropriate measures to be taken to enhance learners’ achievement in the specific language skill in which they are defective. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 91 - Specifically, the present study will attempt to seek answers to the following questions: (1) What is the relationship between specific sociological, psychological and pedagogical variables and achievement in English as a second language in the first year of secondary education? (2) What is the relative influence of each of the three groups of variables on achievement in English as a second language? (3) What is the relative influence of each of the variables investigated on achievement in each of English Language Skills of: Aural Discrimination, Reading Comprehension, Lexis and ßtructure, and Guided Composition. (if) What, in view of findings, can be done to enhance learners* achievement in English as a second language? UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 92 1.10. Significance of the Study In a Situation where a second language is -sed as the medium of instruction in schools, linguistic deficiency in the second language could lead to learning disability or be interpreted as cognitive dysfunctioning. Lack of proficiency in English language could therefore mask the Level of Intelligence of many secondary school pupils, and could lead to poor achievement in other school subjects. Since the main practical goal of the study is the improvement of achievement in English as a second language at secondary school level, the implications will be educationally far-reaching. Instructional, management and social welfare decisions for enhancing English language achievement in secondary schools could be made on the basis of the findings, This in turn could lead to enhancing students’ achievement in other secondary school subjects since English is the key to almost all subjects in Nigerian secondary schools. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO 2. REVIEW OF LITERATÜRE 2.1, Introduction Research findings through several decades have indicated that the potentialities of a human being can be enhanced or limited by psychological, physiological and sociological factors, While a body of research strongly affirms that nature sets the limits of particular human traits and abilities; another body Claims that nurture rather than nature determines how close to the limits of those Potentials an individual would come.^ In the area of academic achievement, the operative influences have been observed to include: the student factor, the teacher factor, the subject factor, and the environmental factor. Of the student factor, 1 1. Deutsch, C, Environment and Perception: Social Class, Race and Psychological Development. (Eds.) M, Deutsch, et, al. (New York). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 9k attitude and motivation^, intelligence^, socio-economic-status-^ are some of the influencing variables. The teacher factor of academic achievement vere observed to include teacher's training, qualification, and experience\ his attitude^ to his pupils, his instructional method, The subject factor include the level of difficulty of the subject and its importance in the school curriculum, while the environmental 1 1. Lukmani, Y. Motivation to learn and language proficiency. Language Learning 22 (2), Dec. 1972. 2. Curry, R. L. The Effect of Socio-Economic status on the scholastic achievement of sixth grade children. British Journal of Psvchology 32 (1), 1962T" ---- 3. Chopra, S.L. Cultural Deprivation and Aradamic Achievement. Journal of Educational Research Vol. 62, No. 1Ö; pp. '433-1+39j JüTy-*lügusT“ 1969. Zf. Lewis, E.G. and Massad, C.E. (Eds,). The teaching of English .as a Foreign Language in ten countries. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. 5 . Seligman, C.R, The Effect of Speech Style and other attributes of teacher»s attitude towards pupils. Language in Society, Vol. 1, 1972. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 95 factors include the home environment 1 ’ 2 and the sch. ool, envi. ronment. 3,’ 4 . 2.2. Socioloqical Variables and Academic Achievement Several studies in various countries, and at different times, have established a correlation between academic achievement and learners' socio- economic-status. In a study of selected grammar school population in the Greater London area, 1 1. Campbell, W.J. The influence of home environment in the educational progress of secondary school children. British Journal of Educational Psycholoqy XXII, 1952, pp. 89-100. 2. Douglas, J.B.W. The Home and the School. McGibbon and Kee, London, 1964. 3. Becker, H. The career of the Chicago Public School Teachers. American Socioloqical Review Vol. XVII, No. 7, July 1952. 4. Jencks, C.S. Effects of high schools on their students. Harvard Educational Review 45 (3), 1975. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 96 -i-melweit * , observed that over and under achievement «ere signlficantly related to socio-economic-status. - - analysis of scores in the tests administered to subjects revealed that 55% of over-achievers were from the middle dass, while only 12% were from the lower dass. He also observed that family size, level of parental interest, and the help offered by parents, were factors of success for the learner at secondary school level. Himmelweit therefore concluded that success within the grammar school is, to some extent, determined by the learner's social dass membership« While many of Himmelweit's findings hold true, the validity of his measure of subjects' socio- economic-class by parental occupation remains doubtful in the Nigerian context where the indices of socio-economic-status based on parental occupation alone is not often valid. Socio-economic 1.. Himmelweit, H.T. Social Status and Secondary Education since the 1944 Act: Some Date for London in 'Social Mobility in Britain'. Edited by D.V. dass. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, p. 146. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 97 sratus in Nigeria now is not based on occupation only tut on acquired wealth, on patterns of expenditure and consumption, A study of selected variables in the academic achievement of junior College students from various socio-economic-background by Hall (1969) •i yielded similar result that socio-economic-class is a determinant of academic success. Hall's subjects consisted of 207 middle dass and 150 lower dass students. He observed that middle dass students experienced greater academic success than lower dass students in their first Semester. 80% of middle dass students were also found to have enrolled in more demanding College subjects while ofoly 40% of the lower students were. The term 'more demanding' is however relative since a student's interest or lack of interest in a subject would determine whether he finds the subject 'more demanding' or ' less demanding' than others. 1 1. Hall, L. A study of selective variables in the academic achievement of junior College students from various socio-economic- background. Journal of Educational Research 63 (2), Oct. 1969, p. 951. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 98 1! 3 ' .! • L’r r- ).l j •. t ’ In some African studies, positive correlation between socio-economic-status and academic achievement has also been observed. Comparison of results from Uganda and more industrialized societies on influences on academic achievement, undertaken by Heyneman 1, confirmed that socio- economic background and other indices of the students' out-of-school environment account for the variance in students' academic achievement. In a Nigerian study by Tomori (1963) 2 in which he investigated the Standard of written English of some Nigerian school children, one of his observations was that pupils who wgrre from materially affluent homes were able to benefit more 1 1. Heyneman, S.P. Influences on Academic Achieve­ ment - A Comparison of Results from Uganda and more industrialized societies. Socioloqy of Education 49 (3), July 1976. 2* Tomori, H.O. An Investigation into the Standards of written English of final year pupils in some Western Nigeria primary schools. M.A. Thesis, University of . London, 1963. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 99 from school instructions than those from poor homes. The basis of determination of subjects' socio- economic-status appears faulty. He claimed that the results of subjects who lived in a full boarding school were better than the rest. Sending a primary school child to a boarding house in the sixties cannot reasonably be termed a mark of affluence. In another Nigerian study, Adelusi (1978) observed positive significant correlation between students' socio-economic-status and achievement in the West African School Certificate Examination} and that more students from the upper socio-economic group obtained higher grades in Epglish language than those from lower socio-economic group. The methodological defect in the study, however, was that subjects had to answer many questions in retrospect, and this could have affected the reliability of 1 1. Adelusi, 1.0. Socio-Economic-Class and Achieve­ ment in the West African School Certificate Examination. M.Ed. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1978. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 100 responses. The study also left some questions .nanswered. Stating the influence of each intervening variable between socio-economic-status and students' achievement, and relating the study samples scores in each of the subjects to their socio-economic-status could have made the study more interesting. One methodological defect in the study is that subjects had to answer few of the questions asked in retrospect. How socio-economic-status influences academic achievement was the focus of some studies. Studies reviewed showed that socio-economic-status influences learners' achievements through the pattern of socialization in the family 1, the value System of 1 1. Bernstein, B. Social Class and Linguistic Development. Theory of Social Learning. Goslin, D„ (Ed.). Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research. Rand Macnally Coy., Chicago, 1972. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 101 t'-.e home 1 , family size'2, parental level of education 3, rarental interest in child's work 4, linguistic e-vironment of the home\ and the press for achievement. 6 . 1 1. Cloward, R.A. Socio-Economic Position and Academic under-achievement - 'The Sociology of Education - An Anthology of Issues and Problems'. Edited by Cave, W. and Chesle, M„ Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1956. 2. Epps, EoG„ Family Achievement - A study of relation of family background to achievement. United States Department of Health, Education and We1fare. Washington, 1969. 3. Adelusi, 1.0. Op. cit. 4. Campbell, W.J. The influence of home environment in the educational progress of secondary school children. British Journal of Educational Psycholoqy XXII, 1952. 5. James, D.D. Socio-Economic-Status as related to Aptitude, Atrition and Achievement of College Students. Spciological Abstracts, Dec. 1974, p. 1126. 6 Wolf, R. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 102 While the middle-class is observed to be characterized by active interest in their child's education, lower-class parents are generally observed not to be so actively interested. Focussing on the direct correlation between socio-economic and achievement, Cloward (1956) «i claimed that under-achievement is socially structured, and that Support for under-achievement is found among the working dass. Lower dass values, attitudes, and level of income Support under-achievement by producing inadequacies in socialization, which adversely affects academic work. For instance, he lists characteristics of lower dass homes which hinder cognitive and intellectual development as:- lots of noise which make concentration impossible, and reduces attention span; over-crowding, and lack of language stimulating objects. Since this was a theoretical rather than 1 1. Cloward, R. Socio-Economic Position and academic under-achievement - 'The Sociology of Education - An Anthology of Issues and Problems'. Edited by Cave, W. and Chesle, M„ Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1956. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 103 5- empirical investigation of the variables listed, -re measurement of variables was absent, That socio-economic-status influences academic ;chievement through the pattern of child rearing and early socialization is also documented in other studies. Children from lower dass homes are said zo be exposed from an early age to distinct patterns cf learning characterized by poor verbal and consequently poor cognitive development, and very little sustained verbal communication. Thus the lower dass child is: Ill-prepared for the classroom setting in which he is continually called upon to speak or be spoken to, 1 In a series of studies by Bernstein 2 and his research team, spanning over a decade, some of their observations were that there are sociological factors 1 1. Institute of Development Studies - Descriptive Statement, New York Medical College, p„ 2, New York 1960, 2. Bernstein, B. Social Class, Language and Socialization _in_ Class, Codes, and Control, Vol. 2, pp, 170-189, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 104 .iT'in the family which influence a child's cognitive .riiity through the process of socialization. These : = ctors are mutually dependent and developmentally reinforce each other. Bernstein stated further that -ile the middle dass child is socialized within an -rticulated social structure oriented towards the expectation of long term rewards, the working dass child is not. A conflict between the school and the reacher on one side and the working dass child ensues. This undoubtedly has adverse influence on his school achievement. The child's social environment therefore continues to reinforce the patterning of his perception and consequently his school performance. Bernstein's theories have however been seriously criticized by Williams (1971) 4 who argued that the theories were based on incorrect or wrong assumptions arising from Bernstein's pre- conceived notions about the expectations from the middle and lower classes in terms of accepted societal norms and values. 1 1. Williams, F. (Ed.). Language and Poverty: Perspectives on a Theme. (Chicago: Markham Publishing Coy., 1971). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 105 Environmental Variables and Academic Achievement Some studies however Claim that environmental i-.fluences on learning and achievement are greater ran psychological ones. The individual's cognitive sevelopment was observed to be dependent upon specific experiences in the physical and inter­ personal world. Environmental factors are said to include more than the specific contexts of experience cecause environment should be viewed not as a unidimensional continuum, but as being made up of a number of sub-environments, each of which operates to influence the development of specific human charactens tics.1 Home Environment and School Environment were however observed to be more influential on achieve­ ment than other environmental factors. 1 1. , Bloom, B.S. Environments for Learning. Majoribanks, K„ (Ed.). N.F.E.R. Publishing Company, London, 197 , pp. 9-11. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 106 In an investigation aimed at determining the i-.fluence of environment as a threshold variable in Geography among primary school students, Ikunrotifa (1972)^ remarked that: the child is part of an environment very much larger than that of the school, and..........his progress is vitally affected by the whole of the environment, by the attitude which it encourages, by the motivation which it provides, and by the stability which he can derive from it. Since environmental conditions that influence achievement are complex and often interrelated, the exact roles of each contributory factor began to be worked out, and valid measures of environmental factors developed. Impetus for the investigation of effects of environment on achievement was supplied 1 1. Okunrotifa, P.O. Environment as a Threshold Variable in Okunrotifa, P.O. - Investigation into Nigerian Pupils' attitude to and Achievement in Geography Taught by Programmed Instruction. Ph.O. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 7 in the early sixties by Dave (1963) A, and Wolf ,1964) 2. Their researches went a step further m the investigation of environmental influences on achievement in that it represents a transition from the use of global environmental indicators to careful measuring of pertinent sub-environments from the total set of environmental forces. Home Environment is another vital factor which is claimed to influence students' achievement. As early as 1947, Burt 3 was reported to have remarked that: 123 1. Dave, R.H. The Identification and measurement of Environmental Process variables that are related to educational achievement. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1963. 2. Wolf, R.M. The Identification and Measurement of Environmental Process variables that are related to Intelligence. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1964. 3. Burt, Mo Symposium on the Selection of Pupils . for different types of Secondary Schools. Sharrock, A. - Relations between Home and School. Educational Research 10 (3), 1968, pp. 185-196. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 108 'what is far more important is the cultural outlook of the parents, the daily influence that they and their acquaintances will exercise on the child's developing incentives..„.o=. as far as the child's school attainment is concerned. Several later studies also attest to the effectiveness of home environment on academic achievement. These include Campbell (1952) , Fraser (1959)2, Astin (1961)J, Douglas (1964)1 *34, Brenbeck (1971)5» 1. Campbell, W.J„ The Influence of Home Environment in the Educational Progress of Secondary School Children. British Journal of Educational Psycholoqy XXII, 1952, pp. 89-100» 2» Fraser, E. Home Environment and the School«, University of London Press, 197"?.. 3. Astin, A. W. A re-examination of College Productivity. Journal of Educational Psycholoqy 52, 1961, pp» 173-178. 4. Douglas, J.B»W» The Home and The School. McGibbon & Kee, London, 1964. 5. Brenbeck, C.S. Environmental Influences in Teaching and Learning» Social Foundations of E19d7u1c.ation» John Wiley & Sons Ine», New York, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 109 Fraser (1959) 1 and Douglas (1964) 2 even Claim t'.at home influences are stronger than school influences on academic achievement because the child's capability is largely determined before he reaches school^and he continues to be influenced by forces outside the school» Some of the observed aspects of the home which influence academic achievement include: the cultural level and values of the home, the pattern of authority in the home, the attitude of the home towards education, and the socio-economic level of the home. Wolf (1964)^ as reported by Bloom (1964)^ investigated the relationship between home environment 1234 1. Fraser, E. Op. cit. 2. Douglas, W.B. Op. cit. 3. Wolf, R.M. The Identification and Measurement of Environmental Process variables related to Intelligence. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1964, in_ Bloom - 6tability and Change in Human Characteristics. 4. Bloom, B. Stability and Change in Human Characteristics. Wiley Publishers, New York, 1964. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 110 =nd subjects' intelligence test scores. Ratings of thirteen process variables descriptive of parent- child interraction, and hypothetically related to intellectual growth were secured by Wolf. These include: parental press for achievement and language development, and Provision for general learning. A multiple correlation of .76 was obtained between these measures and intelligence measures of Wolf's 5th grade subjects. A positive correlation of .80 was also reported by Bloom to have been obtained by Dave between similar familial measures in Dave's study and achievement-test performance of 4th graders. Findings of the two studies reinforce the fact that environmental conditions are important in the formation of certain cognitive abilities which ultimately influence achievement. The significance of the studies lies in the measurement of home- environment in terms of various sub-environments of the home rather than the usual socio-economic-status index of the home. The conclusion was that sub- environments of the home are powerful predictors of cognitive and affective behaviours. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 111 After decades of research on academic achievement, it is the consensus of opinion that several complex and often interrelated factors within and without the iearner influence his achievement. There is now emerging a unifying theory to explain observed differences in learners' performance and achievement. The theory however consistently points to the inter- play of sociological, psychological, physiological and environmental factors as influencing learner's achievement. Douglas (1952) , after investigating the effect of the home on students' academic achievement concluded that: After the overlapping effects of the size of the family, the Standard of the home, the academic record of the school on test performance have been removed, the advantage of children with interested parents, although reduced, was still considerable. 1 1. Douglas, J.B.W«, The influence of Home Environment in the education of selective secondary school cPhsiylcdhroelno.q y, BXrXiItIi,s h 19J5o2u,r naplp. of8 9-E1d0u0c.ational UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 112 He also remarked that well educated parents were likely to provide what Support are required materially and otherwise to ensure their children's school progress. The cultural and material levels of the home as determinants of academic achievement are supported by Campbell (1952) 1 , Cloward (1956) 2 . Using four groups of secondary schools in his attempt to study how certain aspects of the home affect students' academic achievement,, Campbell stated the need for home improvement in enhancing students' academic achievement. The study's methodological merits notwithstanding,.assumption that subjects were of similar intelligence level was faulty. 1 1. Campbell, W.J. The influence of Home Environment in the education of selective secondary school children. British Journal of Edu-cational Psycholoqy, XXII, 1952, pp„ 89-100. 2. Clowards, R.A. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 113 After an investigation of the effects of dass =nd race on language and intellectual abilities by deutsch and his associates, it was concluded that the relationship between social deprivation and achievement is causal. Deutsch and associates defined socially depriving environment as one that is associated with impaired performance, especially iowered academic achievement, and is found within certain social groupings such as those defined by socio-economic-status or race. 2 A deprivation index consisting of six variables about the home, its economic circumstances, educational history of parents and other aspects of learners' background was compiled. This was analysed, with socio-economic-status and race, to determine whether deprivation acts independently of socio- economic-status and race to influence achievement. 1 1. Deutsch, M. The Disadvantaged Child. Basic Books Inc. Publishers, New York, 1967. 2. Deutsch, M. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 114 Results obtained showed that the deprivation Index was independent of socio-economic-status and race in influencing achievement. Importance of specific environmental factors in influencing achievement was therefore established» Whiteman and Deutsch (1967) , also observed that the usual progressive alienation between the teacher and the lower dass child leads to 'cumulative deficit' in the child's school work over a period of time. Deutsch's investigations are significant, not only in the general methodology, but in terms of conclusions arrived at» The Compilation of the Keprivation Index and the Observation that it acts independently of socio-economic-status and race in influencing achievement is significant» These findings indicate that some specific environmental variables which operate across dass, culture and race, influence achievement» 1» Whiteman, M„ and Deutsch, M» Social Disadvantages es related to Intellective and Language Development» Deutsch, M» (Ed.). The Disadvantaged Child. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 115 On the influence of School Environment on academic achievement, McGill (1967) 1 , Seligman (1972) 2 , -^shak (1973)3, and Jencks (1975)4, Baker, et«, al. .1962) C have all indicated that various aspects of the school influence students1 academic achievement, Of che various aspects, the teacher aspect and the ohysical facilities available in the school were cbserved to be more influential on achievement«, 1234 1. McGill, et« al. Institutional Effects on the academic behaviour of High School Students. Sociology of Education 40 (3) 1967, pp. 181-199. 2. Seligman, C.R. The Effect of Speech style and other attributes of teacher's attitude towards pupils. Lanquaqe in Society, Vol. 1, 1972. 3. Hushakj L.J. The role of the school in reducing the variance of cognitive skill. Journal of Educational Research 70 (3), 1977. 4. Jencks, C.S. Effects of High Schools on their students. Harvard Educational Review 45 (3), 1975, pp. 273-324. 5. Baker, et. al. Big Schools, Small Schools. United States Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1962. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 116 In a study aimed at assessing the relative irfluences of the different pedagogical and social iimensions of school on the achievement of students while Controlling relevant personal variables, McDill, et. al. (1967) *1 confirmed that various dimensions of school environment influence ■ achievement rather than the social dass context of the school alone. They concluded that: ’the individual Student's academic behaviour is influenced not only by the motivating force of his home environment, scholastic ability and academic values, but also by the social pressures applied by other participants in the school setting'.2 The sample selection and the instruments for the study and the methodology are sound and rational. While the schools were adequatelv diverse in terms of socio-economic composition and location, there 1 1. McDill, et. al. Institutional Effects on Academic Behaviour: Socioloqy of Education 40 (3) 1967, pp. 181-199. 2 Ibid., p. 199. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 117 was a balanced representation of boys and girls. Social and pedagogical dimensions of the schools were also used in determining school environment. That the environment of educational institutions is important in determining students* ultimate achievement in various subjects is indicated in the study by Baker (1962)1. He remarked that children do not live only in the classes they attend. Their activities extend to other areas of the school, such as the Halls, the Principal*s Office, School Assembly, and these constitute some learning stimuli also, Though he concluded that smaller schools* units were more effective, he did not find a relationship between students* achievement and smaller school unius. 1 1, Baker, Op, cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 118 Report of an American National Survey (1965) of --e availability of educational opportunities for rious racial groups however contradicts Baker's er "dusions „ Part of the Report States that ariations in available facilities and school c_rriculu.m accounts for little Variation in students' echievement, as measured by standardized tests. -rother finding of the Report that students' achievement is strongly related to the aspirations and influences exerted by other students in the school confirms one of McDill's findings. Of the teacher factors, teacher's expectation for bis pupils, his expertise, qualification and experience, attitude to his students, and the subject he teaches have been observed to have effect on students' performance and achievement„ Seligman 2 observed that a teacher's expectation may affect 1p Coleman, J.S. et. al. Equality of Educational Opportunities, Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, p. 22. 2 o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 119 -heir performance, and this may become a self­ fulfilling prophecy for the child in school subjects. Kester and Leitchworth (1972) *1 however disagreed with Seligman's finding. Their findings did not support their primary hypothesis that there would be differential effect of teacher expectation upon Student achievement and attitudes„ Teachers' expectancies however did influence their interaction with the students about whom they obtained the data for being clever. Their interaction with the clever students became more positive as time went by. The inability of the teachers' expectancies to influence students* achievement could have been due to the short duration of the study. In Rosenthal and Jacobson's 2 study reported by Kester, it was demonstrated that the self-fulfilling 1 1. Kester, S.W. and Leitchworth, G.A. Commtfnica- tion of Teacher Expectations and their Effects on Achievement and Attitudes of Secondary School Students. Journal of pEpd.u ca5t1i-o55n.al Research 66 (2) Oct. 1972, 2 Rosenthal, R. and Jacobson, L. in Kester and Leitchworth. Op. cit., p. 55. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 120 orophecy in the dass work better with younger children who are more susceptible to teachers' praise or rebuke, attention or neglect. The possibility of the students' unintentional responses shaping the experimenter's behaviour can also not be ruled out. Cloos (1971) •1 also claimed that students' examination marks are a function of the interaction of personal and social characteristics of the Student and his teacher over an extended period of time. This finding confirms Seligman's earlier finding. He therefore agrees with Roeming 2 that students be grouped in Foreign Language classes, primarily, not according to ability, but by the greatest number of primary motivational factors, to ensure higher achievement, because common interest among individuals lead to greater fluency. 12 1. Cloos, R.I. A four-year study of foreign language aptitude at high school level. Foreign Language Annuals 4 (4), 1971, pp. 411-419. 2. Roeming, R.F. in Closs, R.I. Ibid. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 121 Brenbeck (1971) also claimed that only very little Variation in pupils' achievement is accounted for by a school's facilities or curricula. Astin (1961) A even claimed that any environmental effect of the College on students' performance would disappear if students1 background characteristics were controlled. Though school factors influence learners' achievement, there is therefore no Consensus of opinion on the relative weight of the various school environmental variables on students' achievement. 2.4. Psycholoqical Variables and Academic Achievement Psychological variables are also known to influence academic achievement. Using a mixed population of black and white students, in an investigation of the relationships between Personality and cogninitive factors in academic 1. Astin, A.W. A Re-Examination of College Productivity. Journal of Educational Psychology 52, 1961, pp. 173-178. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 122 achievement, Green and Farquhar (1965) observed correlation between learner's disposition and achievement. They observed however, that while introversion could be an asset in learning certain tasks, it could be a disadvantage in learning others, It is however, difficult to measure the level of extroversion and introversion that are very relevant to academic achievement. Two defects of the study were two of the instruments used in measuring students academic motivation and Grade Point Average. While the motivation measure was 'theoretically based' 2 , academic subjects' 3 that is, those requinng hörne- work were used as a measure of students' Grade Point Average. The content of the school curriculum goes beyond the academic subjects, and an above average Student is one whose scores are above average in all 12 1. Green, R.L. and Farquhar. Negro Academic Motiv tion and Scholastic Achievement. Journal o Educational Psycholoqy 56 (5) 1965, pp. 241-245. 2. Ibid. 3 Ibid UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY i-h p j subjects in the school Curriculum. A Standard Achievement Test which could isolate pertinent factors which determine achievement should have been used. Using learners' grade point average in College subjects as measure of achievement, and the Motivational Check Scale as the measure of learners' motivational level, Packwood (1973) observed low correlation between low achievers and low motiva­ tional score, and higher grade point average for learners' with high scores on the motivational scale. One of the merits of the study is that it is a \ longitudinal study, and the population sample quite large. The Motivation Check Scale appears quite comprehensive but the monotony of the fixed alternative type of all the questions could have been varied for more 'thoughtful' responses. The multiple regression predicting Grade Point Average from the Motivational Check Scale responses, High School Ranking, and American College Test was „48. 1. Packwood, W.T. Motivation and Junior College Achievement. Journal of Educational Research 66 (7), 1973, pp. 299-301. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 124 2.4. Achievement in Lanquaqe Learninq Factors of academic achievement cannot however be generalized to achievement in second language learning because language learning has aspects that are unique to it. For instance, while intelligence is concensually agreed upon as a prime factor in cognitive processes, success and achievement in language learning is hot necessarily restricted to any ability group. Language is also a social Institution, learnt in social context, and very sensitive to environmental factors. The social environment is therefore viewed as a hampering of an enhancing medium in which language learning occurs. 1 A social Institution of such importance as language will therefore be dependent more on the social setting than on individual personality factor. 122 1. Majoribanks, K. Environment as a Threshold Variable. Journal of Educatlonal Research 67 (5), 1974. 2. Stern, H.H. (Ed.). Language and the Young School Child. Oxford University Press, London, 1969. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 125 In reviewing the literature on factors of achievement in second language learning, two vital links in the chain must be established. These are: the fact that some factors of achievement in language learning generally also influence achievement in second language learning in particular, and that some factors of achievement in foreign language learning also account for achievement in second language learning. The learning of a first, second or Nth language have common elements because both refers to human means of communication (Language) and the aim of language learning is primarily linguistic competence', that is 'ability to produce sentences that can conform to the rules of the language to express one1s own meaning in these seötences, and by the same rules to understand other people*s utterances in that language'.1 1. Torrey, J.N. Second Language Learning in TP.h e 22L4e.arning of Language (Ed.) Reed, C.E„, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 126 Another similarity in second and foreign language learning is that the learner must have had an earlier contact with another language, usually his mother tongue or native language. The second or foreign language is therefore 'foreign' to his native culture and environment. There is therefore considerable sementic overlap between the two terms 'second language1 and 'foreign language'. 2.5. Factors of Achievement in Second Language Taylor (1974) in an investigation of some learning strategies employed by adult second language learners outlined the similarities and disimilarities between first and second language acquisition. He said that first and second language learning are cognitively similar processes, and that 1. Taylor, B.P. Overgeneralization and transfer as learning strategies in second language acquisition. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, 1974, p. 9. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 127 first or second language acquisition involves the internalisation of the rules of a linguistic System which generates all of the acceptable sentences of that language and none of the unacceptable ones. 1 The differences between the two are the learner's previous linguistic experience and affective orientation. Taylor however added that unlike first language acquisition, the process of second language acquisition is not often as successful because second language learners usually fail to achieve native-like fluency in the second language, and errors that they make often indicate transfer effects from their first language. 2 The implications of these are that second language learning is not as easy as first language acquisition, and that the acquisition of the first language influences second language learning. 12 1. Taylor, B.P. Towards a Theory of Language Acquisition. LANGUAGE LEARNING 24 (l), June 1974, pp. 23-36. 2. Ibid. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 128 Some very important and fundamental disimilarities '.owever exist between first language and second language learning. While the first language is usually acquired, the second language is usually learnt. 1 Moreover, first language is usually acquired within the family context, as a means of interacting and communicating primarily with the family, and later with others outside the immediate family circle. Another fundamental difference between first and second language learning is that the learning of the mother tongue is inevitable while the learning of a. second language is not. Corder, 1967, remarked that: the learning of a mother tongue is inevitable, whereas, alas, we know that there is no such inevitability about the learning of a second language (and this) constitutes strong prima facie evidence against the position that theories designed to account for first languages are also valid for second.2 1 1. Praetor, C.H. Adding a second language in Croft, K. (Ed.) Readinqs on Enqlish as a Second Language. Winthrop Publishers, Mass. 1972, pp. 23-28. 2. Ritchie, W.C. (Ed.). Second Language Acquisition Research - Issues and Implications. Academic Press, New York, 1978, p. 5. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 129 While agreeing to some extent with Corder’s Statement, the learning of a second language (English) is inevitable for the Nigerian secondary school pupil since it is the language of instruction in schools. Nigerian secondary school students' motivation to learn English as a second language is therefore strong. The strong motivational element in learning a second language depends on the functions which that language performs for the individual or the community in the linguistic environment in which it operates. The important role of English in Nigeria is therefore a factor of learners' strong motivation to learn it. Research through several decades have identified several factors that influence second language. Most of these factors are complex and interrelated. The vj include biological, pedagogical, sociological, psychological, and environmental factors. Theee factors which come under four broad categories are, directly or indirectly, sociological in origin. They are: Student factor, Teacher factor, Subject factor, and Environmental factor. The Student and the environmental factors are however the focus of this study. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 130 Some of the students and environmental factors of achievement in second language learning include: Intelligence-1-, Attitüde and Motivation2, Assiduity^ Socio-Economic-Status^, Auditory ability5, Degree of 1. Pimsleur, P., et, al, Underachievement in Forei1g1n3 L1anguage Learning, International Review of 3A9pplied Linguistics 2 (2)' 1'%4TPP. - . 2. Gardener, R,C, and Lambert, W,E, Attitüde and Motivation in Second Language Learning, Newbury House Publishers, Massachussetts, 1972. 3. Politzer, R,L. Assiduity and Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Language Journal XLV (5) 1961, pp, lV-IFT“ k» Adelusi, I, 0, Home Environment, School Environment and Achievement in English as a USneicvoenrds iLtanyg uoafg eI.b adäMn,,P hiIl9,B 0TThesis. 5. Pimsleur et. al. - Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 131 - bilingualism 1, A2ge , Home Environment; 3, and School E„ nvi• ronment^ 4 . 2.6. Psycholoqical Variables and Second Lanquaqe Learninq The most well documented finding in the literature of foreign or second language learnir.g and achievement is that intelligence is a factor. Also in a review of experimental literature pertaining to Student factors in foreign language learning, Pimsleur, et. al. (1962)^ identified some pertinent variables which they classified under the 1. Peal, E. and Lambert, W. The relation of Bilingua­ lism to Intelligence. Psycholoqical Monographs 76 (27), 1962. 2. Asher, J.J. and Garcia, R. The Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language. Modern Language Journal XLV (5) 1961, pp. 334-341. 3. Adelusi, 1.0. Home and School Environment and Achievement LfrvEnglish as a Second Language. M. Ph,il. i Thesis), University of Ibadan, 1980. 4. Adelusi, 1.0. Ibid. 5. Pimsleur, P., et. al. Op. cit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 132 headings: Intelligence, verbal ability, pitch discrimination, order of language study, study habits, motivat;ion and attitudes, personality factors. They concluded that intelligence and verbal ability, both of which are known to be highly related, correlate positively with foreign language achievement» Verbal intelligence appears to be the single largest contributing factor to foreign language achievement - with a positive correlation of «.45. In a research undertaken to assess the role of intelligence in second language learning, Geneese 1 observed that intelligence has greater influence on some language skills than others. Statistical analysis of hi.s obtained data indicated that at all grade levels, the above average students on the I.Q. measure scored ̂ higher than the average students. The average stuflents also scored higher than the below average students on the three tests of academic language skills administered. He however found 'no 1. Geneese, F. The role of intelligence in Second Language Learning. LANGUAGE LEARNING 26 (2) 197 , pp. 267-279. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 133 similar consistent association between I.Q. level and performance on the measures of interpersonal communication skills i.e. listening, pronunciatior and communlcativeness. He concluded therefore that where the goals of the second language Programme relate to acquisition of interpersonal communication skills, students of low academic or intellectual abilities are likely to benefit as much as students with high intellectual or academic abilities. Where the goals of the second language Programme is proficiency in academic language skills, not all students will be equally successful in the Programme. Intelligence as a factor of achievement in second and foreign language learning has been documented in other studies. In a review focused on factors within a Student which might facilitate foreign language learning, Pimsleur, et. al. (1962) examined hundreds of items, but found intelligence to be one 1 1. Pimsleur, et. al. Student Factors in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Language Journal XLVI (4) April 1962, pp. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 134 of the pertinent variables of achievement. Intelligence was observed to be the largest contributing factor, with a correlation of about „45 with foreign language achievement. Rossi (1961) also claimed that while intelligence is not the most vital factor of achievement in second language, it enables the Speaker to exploit more successfully the possibilities symbolized by the socially conditioned linguistic form, Though intelligence is consensually agreed upon as a prime factor in cognitive processes, success and achievement in language learning is not necessarily restricted to any ability group. The fact that ability in language learning is not absolutely dependent on intelligence makes it rather difficult to predict achievement in language learning. 2 1,, Rossi, P.H„ Social factors in aeademic achieve­ ment in Education, Economy and Society» (Eds.) Hasloy, A„ et. al„ The Free Press of Glencoe Inc., New York, 1961» 2.o Majoribanks, K„ Environment as a Threshold Variable. Journal of Educational Research 67 (5) 1974» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 135 The Classification of subjects into intelligence level category on the basis of 'recent scores' in an intelligence test was faulty. The researcher did not indicate how 'recent' the test was administered» One of the subtests for the study, the test of inter­ personal communication was conducted by two testers, Assessment or evaluation of subjects could not have been uniform using such a procedure of subjective evaluation = In a comprehensive review of some foreign language research findings, he identified aptitude, intelligence, and perseverance as determining up to eighty-six per cent of achievement in foreign language learmng. Other researchers however do not agree on the magnitude of the influence of intelligence in 1 1. Jacobovits, L.A. Research Findings and Foreign Language Requirements in College and Universities„ Foreign Language Annuals 2 (4) 1969, p» 443„ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 136 language learning. Von Wittich (1962) ■1 claimed that mtelligence is a poor single predictor of achieve- cent in language learning- His Claim was based on a study aimed at finding an easily accessible predictor of success in foreign language study- Some of the basic assumptions of the study however render the findings invalid, particularly the assumptions that teachers' marks were satisfactory measures of achievement in each subject investigated, and that the grading Standards in the four language courses were equivalent, though each course was graded by different tutors. In a wide and comprehensive study aimed at determining causes of underachievement in foreign language learning involving 11,500 high school students, Pimsleur, et. al. (1964) observed that people of equal intelligence sometimes differ in their rates of language learning, and that inability to learn a foreign language cannot be equated with 1 1. Pimsleur, P., et. al. Underachievement in Foreign Language Learning. International Review of Applied Linquistics 2 (2) 1964, pp. 113-139. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 137 low intelligence. The correlation between Intelligence and success in foreign language learning was observed to be a modest .40 as earlier observed by Pimsleur andassociates (1962) . They therefore concluded on the basis of their findings, that a special language learning talent must exist«, This they found to be principally resident in the domain of auditory ability. This they defined as ability to process information through the ear. The observation therefore that intelligence which is consensually agreed upon as a factor of academic achievement, is not the most vital factor of achievement in second language learning led to the postulation of a 'special talent' theory in second or foreign language learning. This theory is verified by the findings of Pimsleur, et. al. (1964). The significance of this study lies in its excellent research design which included record 1 1. Pimsleur, et. al. Predicting Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. International Review of Applied Linquistics 2 (2) 1964, pp. 113-139. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 138 search, literature review, Observation of language classes, discussion with teachers, and students, clinical study, experimental control, and aptitude testing Programme. The population sample was quite large too. The study's flaw was in the use of a different set of students for each experimental Programme. The assumption that all socio-economic levels have balanced representation in the study sample was faulty since the researchers themselves agreed that students from lower socio-economic Status do not tend to study foreign language as those from upper or middle dass. Jacobovits also criticised the instrumentation and the results of the study. He said the tests employed were not all equally related to foreign language aptitude. The result was ambiguous because the results of a rnatched group experiment in which underachievers were compared to 'normal students' showed no difference 1 \ 1. Jacobovits, L. Research Findings and Foreign Language Requirements in Colleges and Universities. Foreign Language Annals 2 (4), pp. 436-455. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 139 between the groups, especially in three of the tests, namely: Interest Test, Linguistic Analysis Test, and Vocabulary Test. Intelligence as the most crucial factor of achievement in second language learning was however not supported by the findings of the study reviewed above. It follows therefore that while intelligence is concensually agreed upon as a factor of achievement in second language learning, it is not universally agreed upon to be the most vital and exclusive factor. There is therefore need for further documentation of the influence and importance of intelligence in second language learning - particularly at the secondary or high school level where under- achievement in second language learning is observed to be most pervasive. Auditory Ability and Modality preference were also observed by Pimsleur, et. al. to be factors of achievement in foreign language learning, since UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 140 learners who learn equally well through their ears and eyes performed better than learners who learnt well only through one sense modality. This finding is somehow related to Carroll's Claim that 'phonetic coding', that is ability to code auditory phonetic materials so that it can be remembered and identified for a long time influences achievement» 1 Foreicjn language aptitude was however measured by the Modern Language Aptitude Test. Phonetic Coding is distinguished from auditory discrimination by Carroll. Phonetic coding does not depend on having a good ear alone, but on the brain's capacity to code and störe for later recall auditory Information of a phonetic type. Jacobovits 2 however claimed that the validity coefficients of the instrument is subject to Variation depending on the population sample used. 1» Carroll, iE« U3p.CdH 2. Jacobovits, L. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 141 Motivation is another wel1-documented factor of achievement in second language learning. Defined for the purpose of this study as - 'a present desire, anxiousness or drive to achieve', it determines the degree of the learner's effort and energy input into the second language learnt. i It could be a cause or the result of achievement in second language learning. A careful analysis of the difference between being 'motivated' and being 'interested' is explained by Jacobovits. 2* He explained that interest refers to the condition where the source of the drive to study lies in the realization by the learner, of the intrinsic value of the goal to be achieved. To motivate a Student implies a condition where it is feit that there is absence of interest on the part of the learner, therefore the drive to study is extrinsic to the goal to be achieved. 1 1. Torrey, J.N. Second language learning. The Learning of Language. Reed, C. (Ed.). 2. Jacobovits, L. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 142 He also added that intrinslc interest is a more favourable condition for learning than supplied motivation. The theoretical basis for studies conducted to investigate the relationship between motivation and second language achievement is that students who have positive motivation woulc achieve more than students who are negatively motivated in second language learning. Brown in an article on affective variables in second language acquisition remarked that while optimal cognitive factors may be operating to influence a learning task, failure may result owing to an affective block in the learner. In a study by Ausubel (1968) 2 reported by Brown, the main contributory factor to motivation for any task is a basic ego enhancement, drive, 12 1. Brown, H.D. Affective Variables in Second Language Acquisition. Language Learning 23 (2), pp. 231-243. 2. Ausubels in Brown, H.D. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that is, the individual's tendency to do what enhances or builds up his self-esteem. In a study reported by Pimsleur 1, Larsen, et. al. (1942), analysed data obtained from personal interviews and questionnaire responses of 27 low achieving and 27 high achieving students in second Semester German dass, It was observed that the high achieving students were characterised by a very strong desire to master German while the low low achievers were not. In the series of case studies of adult missionary learners of second languages, Nida (1957)'’" ’ ’ 1 focused on some psychological variables 1234 1. Pimsleur, P.f et. al. Student Factors in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Lanquaqe Journal XLVI (4) 1962, pp. 160-170. 2. Nida, E. Some Psychological Problems in Second Language Learning. Lanquaqe Learning VIII (1 & 2) 1958, pp. 7-15. 3. Nida, E. Learning a Foreign Language. Friendship Press, U.S.A., 1957. 4. Nida, E. Some Psychological Problems in Second Language Learning. Lanquaqe Learning VIII (1 & 2), pp. 7-15. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 144 because she feit that too much attention had been given by researchers to ’outside' variables in second language learning. She also believed that there were other significant factors apart from the learner's intel1igence, motivation which needed to be carefully investigated in foreign language learning«, These she refers to as more subtle, loss obvious and not easily measurable conditions in the learner. After series of case studies between 1956-58 of missionaries learning foreign languages to enable them carry out evangelization work, she observed other operative influences in foreign language learning. Some of the cases included that of missionaries who, inspite of their communicative extroverted personality, availability of good teachers, and a high motivation to learn second languages, did not succeed in learning it. The failure Nida attributed to several psychological factors including: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 145 (i) emotional resistance to the learning of any foreign language. (ii) reaction against a foreign language background of the family. (iii) dialect consciousness. (iv) unconscious fears of mistakes and hence rejection. Her Claim that desire for Identification with members of the second language group was a factor of achieve- ment in second language was also confirmed in another study« She said that acquisition of a second language involves more than acquiring a new set of verbal habits. It involves adopting behaviours which characterize the other language group. Vvhile Nida's studies are helpful because they highlight other important psychological factors in foreign language learning, and advocate a learner centred approach in investigating second language learning, the population samples were adults under- taking intensive programmes in second language learning. Findings and observations cannot there- fore be generalized to secondary or high school UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 146 population whose aims of second language learning are different from Nida's population sample« Her observations also had no empirical verification. Gardner and Lambert (1959) *1 also hypothesized that achievement in second language learning v/as dependent on the learner's motivation and attitude. Series of studies carried out by Gardner and Lambert individually, and in conjunction with other researchers such as, Lambert, et. al. (1962) 2, Anisfeld and Lambert (1961) 3 , Feenestra and Gardner (1968)4, all culminated in the postulation of a social-psychological theory of second language learning and to motivation as a factor of achievement 1. Gardner, R.C. and L'ambert, W.E. Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Newbury House Publishers, Rowley, Massachu- ssetts, 1972. 2. Lambert, W.E. et. al. Ibid. 3. Anisfeld and Lambert. Ibid. 4. Feenestra and Gardner. Ibid. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in second language learning. The theory further Postulates that the learner 's attitude towards the narget language group would be one of the determinant factors of his motivation to learn the second languag „ In studying Jewish High School students studying Hebrew at a parochial school in Montreal, Anisfeld and Lambert (1961) observed that desire to get acculturated into the Jewish tradition and culture was a factor of achievement. Integrative rather than instrumental motivation was claimed to be a factor of achievement in second language learning. A study carried out in another district however showed no positive correlation between desire for Jewish acculturation and achievement in Hebrew. Anisfeld and Lambert added that the degree of intensity of learner's motivation rather than the type of motivation he has, would determine what he achieves. An instrumentally oriented learner could be more intensely motivated to learn a second language than the integratively oriented learner. Because of lc Anisfeld and Lambert. Op. eit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 148 the nature of his goal too, an integratively oriented learner might be better motivated. That a feeling of social disorganization is sometimes experienced by a motivated learner who achieves success in second language learning was observed by Lambert, et. al. (1962o ) 1 , while Feenestra and Gardner (1968) 2 observed correlation between parents' attitude and children's integrative motivation in second language learning. In most of the studies by Gardner and associates, successful learners of the second languages investigated were observed to have been motivated either by their desire to get acculturated into the tradition and culture of the target language, or by their parents' attitude to the target language and the second language community. 12 1. Gardner, et. al. Op. eit. 2. Feenestra and Gardner. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1A9 Politzer (I960)"1', investigated 396 students studying French at a University and observed positive correlation between their French scores and the iength of time spent in the French language laboratory on their own. While the two studies above had undergraduates as their aamples, Politzer1s use of time voluntarily spent in the language laboratory as an indication of students positive motivation appears faulty, unless it could be established that the students spent the extra time actually studying French. Krashen and Seliger (1975)2, after a study carried out with an adult second language learning group, suggested that the well motivated second language learner is even able to provide himself with the essential ingredients of formal instruction without going to dass. This is an indication that adult 12 1. Politzer, R.L. Assiduity and Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Language Journal XLV (5) 1961, pp, 14-16. 2. Krashen, S.D. and Seliger, K. The Essential Contributions of formal instruction in Adult Second Language Learning. TESOL Quarterly 9» 1975, PP. 173-183. ’ ~ ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 150 learners of a second language usually have higher motivation than young learners» A cross national study of the Teaching of English as a foreign language, undertaken in ten countries by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement , the motivational factor was observed to be a great predictor of achievement in English as a second language» The validity of the motivational factor is reinforced by this study since it is a cross­ national, cross-cultural and longitudinal study. Type of motivation required for successful learning of a second2 language was identified byGardner and Lambert , Anisfeld and Lambert (1961) 3 , 123 1. Lewis, E.G» and Massad, C»E» (Eds»)„ The Teaching of English as a Foreign Language in T1e9n75 .Countries» John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2. Gardner and Lambert. Op. cit. 3. Anisfeld, M. and Lambert, W.E. Social Psycholo- gical Variables in Learning Hebrew. J(o3)u rn1a9l6 1,o f ppA.b no5r2m4a-l5 29S.ocial Psychology 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 151 Lukmani (1972) » In all these studies, neither integrative nor instrumental motivation was consensually agreed upon as being more vital in second language learning. Instrumental motivation was defined by Anisfeld and Lambert (1972) 2 as the desire to gain social recognition and economic advantages through the knowledge of a second language, while integrative motivation is defined as willingness to identify with members of the second language group. Integrative and Instrumental motivation are distinct from the widely recognized Classification of positive and negative motivation» While it is easier to identify elements of positive and negative motivation in a Student, instrumental and integrative motivation are not so easily identifiable. Moreover, the purpose and aims of the second language learner would determine whether his motivation is integrative 1 1. Lukmani, Y„ Motivation to learn and Language P19r7o2f»iciency. Language Learning 22 (2) Dec», 2» Anisfeld and Lambert» Op» cit» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 152 or instrumental, It is therefore easier and more accurate to determine and measure negative and positive motivation than it is to measure and determine instrumental or integrative motivation, Lukmani (1972) also concluded that instru­ mental motivation was more vital in second language learning, while other researchers claimed integrative motivation was a more potent factor of achievement, His sample consisted of sixty girls, The flaws in the study however is the very limited, unisex sample, and the use of two experimenters who spoke only in Marathi. Lukmani’s findings have however been corroborated by other related researchers, A study of some students undergoing intensive summer courses in French, carried out by Lambert, et, al, (1962)^ also confirmed that high motivation coupled with excessively intense feeling, could lower achievement in second language, and cause feeling of social disorganization in the learner. 1 1, Lambert, et, al, Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 153 Though the influence of motivation as a factor of success in second language learning is well established cross-nationa1ly and cross-culturally, the motivational measure needs to be improved upon. Christie and Geis (1970)^ contended that to ensure the accuracy and validity of the measures of motivation used in second language learning researches, a means of measuring the individual's degree of manipulative personality disposition must be found because a person who is good at manipulating persons would give favourable answers to questions intended to measure his motives for second language learning» In that case, his responses would not be correct, There is need therefore to develop a more valid measure of learner's motivation» Learner's attitude is another factor of achievement in second language learning» This ranges from the learner's attitude to the subject, to the subject teacher, to the second language group, infact to anything associated with the second language» 1. Christie and Geis» Op» cit» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 154 Defined by Milton Rokeach 1 as "an endunng Organization of belief around an object or a Situation, predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner", attitude is related to motivation because a learner's attitude to what is being learnt could determine the intensity of his motivation» In an attempt to develop a social psychological theory of second language learning, some researchers maintain that "the successful learner of a second language must be psychologice1ly prepared to adopt various aspects of behaviour which characterize members of another linguistic, or cultural group» The learner's ethnocentric tendencies and his attitude towards members of the other group are believed to determine how successful he will be, 1» Smith, A.N. The Importance of Attitude in Foreign Language Learning«, Modern Language Journal LV (2) 1971» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 155 relatively in learning the new language". Series of studies conducted at McGill, reviewed by Gardner and Lambert, also led to the beginning of the construction of a social» psychological theory of second or foreign language learning which maintains that positive attitude towards the culture embraced by the second language would enhance learner's achievement in the second language„ Lambert (1967) A after series of researches spanning over two decades theorized that; an individual successfully acquiring a second language gradually adopts various aspects of behaviour which characterize members of another linguistic-cultural group, The learner's ethnocentric tendencies, his attitudes towards the other group, and his orientation towards language learning are believed to learn, and ultimately his success or failure in mastering the new language„ 1 1. Lambert, W„E„ A Social Psychology of Bilinguo- Alpirsmi,l 1T96h7e, Jop.u rn10a2l« ,.of Social Issues 23, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 156 In a. study of motivational variables in second language acquisition by Gardner and Lambert (1959) , they observed that a sympathetic orientation towards the other linguistic group was one of the factors of achievement in French as a second language» Their subjects consisted of English-speaking High School Students in Montreal, a French-speaking environment. This was likely to have influenced their results. Using the * F ' Scale measure of authoritarian and prejudice attitude as a measure of learners' attitude, Lambert, et. al» (1960) 2 observed that the learners' attitude was a factor in second language learning. The bilingual group in the study obtained lower scores on the ’F' Scale than the monolingual group. A favourable attitudinal orientation of the learner towards the second language group could therefore be a means of enhancing learner's achievement in the second language. 1 1. Gardner and Lambert. Op. cit. 2. Lambert, et. al. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 157 In a 1960 study by Gardner , he confirmed Lambert's findings, but added that while aptitude was important for the vocabulary and grammar skills, attitude and motivation seem to affect audio-1ingual skills» In an investigation of social and psychological variables in learning Hebrew as a second language, Anisfeld and Lambert (1962) p observed that attitude was a related factor of success,, They also remarked that attitude measure was less stable than intelligence in predicting achievement. The attitudinal factors were also observed to vary with social dass, and geographical location of the school. Subjects of the study were a group of Jewish children studying Hebrew as a second language» The subject composition strongly suggests that they would also be highly motivated to learn Hebrew» The strong motivational element indicated could be an influencing factor on the result obtained» 1» Gardner, R.C. Op» eit» 2. Anisfeld, M» and Lambert, W.E. Op» cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 158 The learner's attitude towards the subject teacher is also said to be an influential factor in language learning. While this could be said to be a commonsensical assumption, some investigations have revealed that attitude has cognitive, affective and evaluative components. Its evaluative component is the translation of feelings about the concept, object, or Situation into behavioural component. This is termed good or bad attitude. It is also to be noted that the development of attitude has primarily social basis. Social factor such as the home, the society and the family shape attitude. Attitude is learned and it.develops within a frame of reference. It is situational and can be generalized. 1 1. Smith, A. N. The importance of attitude in Foreign LLVa ng(u2)a ge1 97L1e.arning. Modern Language Journal UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 159 Feenestra and Gardner (1968) •1 also observed the importance of attitude in second language learning. The subjects of the study were 9th graders studying French as a second language. Parental attitude was linked to children's achievement in French. The fault in the methodology was in the use of direct interview method only to obtain information from parents. A more subtle method could have been employed. While several studies Claim the importance of attitude in second language achievement, there are studies however which do not lend total support to attitude as a vital factor in second language achievement. In a study aimed at finding the effect of ethnic attitude on second language achievement, Teitalbaum (1975) 2 used a sample of third semester undergraduates studying Spanish. He observed that 1 1. Feenestra and Gardner. Op. cit. 2. Teitelbaum, H. Ethnic attitude and the acquisition of Spanish as a second language. Language Learning 25 (2) 1975, pp. 255-266. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 160 positive attitude towards the second language group was not a pre-requisite for achievement. He remarked that the relationship between achievement and attitude vary from culture to culture. The fact that many of the subjects had Spanish surnames or Spanish ancestry would definitely have influenced their questionnaire responses. Besides, studying a language at University level indicate strong orientation towards language learning, and is evidence of a sufficiently strong motivation and favourable attitude in the learner towards the language being studied. In an Investigation of underachievement in foreign language learning among High School Students, Pimsleur, et. al. (1964) did not find attitude a vital factor in language achievement at the level of the subjects investigated. They explained that hostile negative attitude have not yet become crystallized in their subjects at high school level. 1. Pimsleur, et. al. Underachievement in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linquistics 2 HH July 1964, pp. 113-139. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 161 They concluded that attitude was a factor in second language achievement but not a vital one. Torrey even explains that feelings of uncertainty, alienation from one's cultural group, or regret may arise as learner makes considerable progress in the second language. She sayss ’since language is a means of communication and self-expression, a person speaking a language must associate with members of that Community........ and even try to <* act like them in order to express himself in their way........... . buto......... Many of these details seem ridiculous to the learner, while others arouse his outright hostility5, Jacobovits (1970) as reported by Fu2*, observed that the second language learner resolves any threatening conflict between his attitude and those to which he is exposed in learning a second language by slowing down, his progress in the language. This he terms 'a defence reaction' by the learner. 1 1. Torrey, J.W. Second Language Learning. The Learning of Lanquaqes. Reed, E.C. (Ed.). 2. Fu, G.B.S. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 162 If such considerations are valid, it becomes obvious that while favourable attitude can influence and determine learner's achievement in second language, it could lead to a feeling of cultural alienation in the successful learner. From the review of literature on attitude and second language learning it can be concluded that though attitude is a factor of achievement in second language learning, it is not the most vital factor, especially in children learners of second language. About the most controversial variable in the literature of second language learning and achieve­ ment is age. There are studies on the variable to Support diverse shades of opinions. Though many psychologists and linguists seem to agree that early childhood is the best and only period to learn a second language successfully, educators are not of the same view. Theories from which optimal age for second language learning was inferred are: (i) the brain plasticity theory. (ii) the biological disposition theory. (iii) the imprinting theory. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 163 These theories share the common element that something in the child's early development maximizes the probability of his acquiring native- like fluency if he is exposed to second language early, that is between the ages of two and ten. In a study based on the biological disposition hypothesis, Asher (1972) A observed that the younger the child is, the greater the probability of his pronunciation fidelity in the second language. The study was aimed at comparing the achievement in English pronunciation of seventy-one Cuban children betweeii the ages of 7 and 19 in some American schools. Based on his scientific research findings, Penfield also stated that the best time to begin second language "in accordance with the demand of brain physiology is between the ages of four and ten:t. 1 1. Asher, J. Children's first language as a model for second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 1972. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 164 because it is at this stage that the brain can best cope with second language learning, when complete lateralization of the brain has not taken place, Even Biolinguists who Claim maturational processes as a factor in language learning acknowledge that differences between individuals exist as far as language ability is concerned. This difference Lennerberg attributed to complex interaction between b2iological and social factors,Leonora Larew (1961) is also of this opinion. In the study of the Optimum age for beginning a foreign language, she observed that the chronological age at which a child is best able to learn a foreign language when articulation is a major factor, is about age 7, 1. Lennerberg, _ , Lennenberg, E„ H0 Biological &F ouSonndsa,t io1n9s67 ,o f Lang‘ uage, New York: Wilev * 2. Larew, L, The Optimum age for beginning a second language. Modern Language Journal XLV (5), 1961, pp, 202-206, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 165 In a UNESCO publication, data presented by Parker indicate that in most countries, educators consider the period from age 11 to age 13 as a most appropriate period to Start learning a second language rather than an earlier age, with the median at age 12. Reasons adduced are that at secondary school level, the learners are usually a select group with about four to eight years of continuous years of continuous language study ahead of them at this stage, Alt'nough the second language learner may not attain phonological perfection, he is ripe at this stage of his development for second language learning by virtue of his exploring mind and the onset of the peak of his ability to master new skills. Powers of memory continue to increase until age 14 or 15, with the most rapid gain in the early teens. 2 Io Parker, „ Modern Language Journal XL, III, (3) 1959, pp. 137-141. 2. Penfield, . Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 166 Those who say affective variable matter more in second language acquisition say adults achieve as much as children do. Seliger (1978) says that the biological fact of adulthood is enough to establish an insurmountable obstacle in most cases for complete language acquisition. He added, however, that varying degrees of competence are possible when attitude, motivation, and method of instruction are controlled. Seliger in effect says children are better than adults in second language acquisition, but in achievement, performance varies if some factors are controlled. Taylor (1974) 2 however feels any one should be able to learn a second language, regardless of his age since, he argued, second language learning and first language learning are cognitively similar processes which involve the internalization of the rules of a linguistic System, generating all of the 1 1. Seliger, H.W. Implications of a Multiple Critical Hypothesis for Second Language Learning - Ritchie, W.C. (Ed.). Second Language Acquisition and Research. Acadernic Press, New York, 1978. 2. Taylor, B.P. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 167 acceptable sentences of that language and none of the unacceptable ones. An adult should be able to learn a second language because of his more mature cognitive processes. The child learner, because his motivation is usually higher, and he is often less conscious than adults at practising the second language, is also able to learn a second language. From the literature reviewed on age as a factor of achievement in second language learning, it appears that that which can be learnt, and for which cerebral capacities exist will be learnt, no matter what the age of the learner is, in a natural learning environment. One can conclude that while age is a factor in second language acguisition and the development of certain language skills, it is not a vital factor of achievement. 1 1. Taylor, B.P. Overgeneralization and Transfer as learning strategies in Second Language Acguisition. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, 1974. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 168 2 . 1 c Socioloqical Variable and Second Lanquaqe Learninq Socio-Economic background as a powerful predictor of academic success has been documented in countless studies, and seems to hold even when the powerful variables of past achievement and ability are controlled. Though the relationship between achievement and socio-economic-status is not a simple, direct one, the facts of economics cannot be over- looked* The limited income, low education level, cultural and verbal deprivation that are integral parts of low socio-economic Status affect school participation and achievement directly, as well as through other related variables» i In language learning and language development, socio-economic-status is also an influential factor» In an investigation of the relation between family 1 1, Boocock, S. Towards a Sociology of Learning0 Socioloqy of Education 39 (l) 1966, p» 32 „ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 169 background and achievement, Epps (1962) 4 observed positive correlation between verbal ability and socio-economic-status. One of the ways in which socio-economic-status influences language achievement is said to be through the pattern of socialization. The lower dass home is characterized by lots of noise, lack of language stimulating objects and activities, over-crowding and support for underachievement 2 which depress or hinder cognitive and intellectual development» Since language measures are particularly responsive to effects of social dis- advnntage, language development and subsequent achievement can be enhanced or depressed in the young child depending on his social dass membership. 1« Epps, E.G» Family Achievement - A Study of relation of family background to Achievement» United States Department of Health Education and Welfare, Washington, 1969T 2» Cloward, R. Socio-Economic Positions and Academic Achievement» Cave, W. and Chesler, M„ (Eds.). The Socioloqy of Education» Macmillan Publishing Coy., New York, 1956, p» 156. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 170 In an article on Learnlng English among a West -frican tribe, the Akans, Brown (1949) 2, observed z hat the material factors are as important as other factors. Since poverty, malnutrition, ill-health, ........ lack of good books, theatres and films, of alternative forms of work or recreation may have an adverse effect on English language learning. A child's level of conceptualization is determined by the mode of socialization, which is dependent on the child's social dass membershipc Conceptual development was observed by Bernstein, et. al. 2 to be correlative with social dass member- ship and socialization pattern. The greater the differentiation'of the child’s experience, the greater his ability to conceptualize. 1 1. Brown, P.P. Learning a European Language in the Year Book of Education. (Eds.) Jeweys, G„B. et. al. 1947, Evans Bro» Ltd., London, p. 341. (Please see Ref.l overleaf). 2. Bernstein, B. Some Sociological Determinants of Perception. British Journal of Socioloqy IX, 1958, pp. 159-174. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 171 In second language learning, ability to conceptualize is advantageous. A second language learner whose level of conceptualization is higher may find it easier to learn new labels for concepts that are already developed. Labels and concepts are however not often similar in any two languages. 1 If conceptual development is correlative with social dass membership then it should correlate to some extent with language learning. In learning a second language, acquiring adeqüate vocabulary is essential. Vocabulary by Sapir's definition is "a complex inventory of all the ideas, interests and occupations that take up the attention of the community" 2 and what has not been experienced, even vicariously, will not be labelled at all because there has been no need to do so. 1 1. Savi1le-Troike, M. Foundations for Teaching English as a Second Language. Prentic Hall Inc. , New Jersey, 1972. 2. EdwarHdesi,n neAm.Da.n EdLuacnagtuiaognea li n BCouoklst urLei miatnedd ,Class» London, 1976, p. 111. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 172 While receptive or passive vocabulary reflects d e whole ränge of useri5 experience, expressive -.nd active vocabulary reflects the ränge of familiär experience. The ränge of a learner's experience, by virtue of his social da s s membership could ietermine the ränge and quality of his acquired vocabulary. From a four-year study entitled »Verbal Survey», (196^)^ Deutsch and associates assessed over 100 identifiable variables of home background, language functioning, conceptual behaviour, intelligence, test performance, reading, general Orientation, self-systems and other related variables. Obtained results in terms of social dass, race, and developmental levels indicate that lower-class children and minority group status are associated with poorer language functioning. 1. Deutsch., M, The Role of Social Class in Language Development and Cognition, TAm%ejri-c~awn rJ7ournal of Orthopsychiatry Vol. 35 s UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 173 In an investigation of first and fifth graders, Whiteman and Deutsch (1972) A observed that deficit in vocabulary and verbal test was associated with SES. In series of studies undertaken by Bernstein over many years, he observed, among other things, that: There is in the middle dass ch'ild a desire to use and manipulate words in a personal qualifying or modifying way and, in particular, a developing sense of tense (time) which together combine to reduce the problem of the teaching of English - reading, spelling and writing.c He also observed that the lower the social dass Status of the pupil, the more difficult he finds ordering a sentence, connecting sentences, acquiring wider vocabulary, because his 1 1. Deutsch, M. The Disadvantaqe Child. Basic Books Ine. Publishers, New York, 1967, pp. 357-369. 2. Bernstein, B. Social Class and Linguistic Development i_n Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research. (Ed.) Goslin, D.A. Rand MacNally & Co., Chicago, p. 299-300. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 174 socialization context inhibits these. He also concluded that that which the child has not efficiently learnt and applied correctly will prejudice his success at the secondary school level» This has implication for achievement in second language learning which students usually Start after the initial years of primary schooling. The very vital and important dyadic factor in language learning and subsequent achievement is absent between the lower dass child and the mottier, This is illustrated in the findings of Martha Ward (1971) 2o In her investigation of children's language learning on a farming plantation Community, she observed that there was minimal interaction between mothers who were plantation workers and their children; that the socialization pattern in the Community hinders communication between children and 1 1. Bernstein, B„ Social Class and Linguistic Development irr Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research (Ed-) Goslin, D,A,, Rand MacNally & Co-, Chicago, p. 299-300. 2- Ward, M„ Them Children - A study in Language Learning, Language in Society 2 (2), 1973, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 175 adults; that the taciturn child was assumed to be ' good' and was rewarded for being quiet. She concluded that a background in which there is little or no communication between mother would hinder language development. In one of the series of studies conducted by Deutsch • i to investigate social disadvantages as related to intellective and language development, he delineated constituents of social deprivation, and how early environmental factors could affect future learning, Two of his findings were that deficit in vocabulary and verbal test was more associated with SES than with tests of non-verbal I.Q., and that social deprivation was an important factor on the reading scores. Two of the few available Nigerian investigations on English Language in Nigerian schools observed that socio-economic Status is a factor of success in English language learning. Io Deutsch, M. Social Disadvantage as related to Intellective and Language Development in The Disädvantaqed Child. EL sic Books/No Publishers, New York, 1967. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 176 - Tomori (1963)1 investigated certain aspects mfluential on the Nigerian School Child’s E.L.A, Seme of his observations were that the Nigerian -upil lacks, not only the neurophysical co-ordination recessary for learning to read, but also the material iacilities essential for learning other English language Skills. While Tomori’s sample is adequately representative of various geographical locations, the basis of samples’ socio-economic-status determination is not clear, His assumption that all children in the boarding school are from affluent homes is faulty. Adelusi (1978)^ observed that in WASCE* English, students from high socio-economic-status (SES) performed better than those from lower socio-economic, status, and that more students from higher SES group had higher grades in English language than those from lower SES group, While tbe study leaves some questions1 2 1. Tomori, H.O., An Investigation into the Standard of written English of final year pupils in some Western Nigeria Primary Schools. M.Ed. Thesis, Univ- ersity of London, London. 2. Adelusi, 1,0., Socio-Economic-Status and Students’ Achievement in the West African School Certifi­ cate. M,Ed. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1978, * WASCE, West African School Certificate Examination, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 177 unanswered, the fact that subjects had to answer in retrospect several questions on the questionnaire is defective» The interdependency of the four language activities (heading, Writing, Speaking and Listening) as outlined by Folarin (1976) must be noted to realize the extent to which the lower SES child's deficit in any of the four language activities could adversely influence achievement in all combined. From a review of literature on SES, it becomes obvious that SES is a factor of achievement in second language learning, working through pattern of socialization, conditions of living, living Standard and exposure to differential experiences. This finding also holds cross-culturally and cross-nationally„ *8 1. Folarin, B„ On the Interdependency of the four language activities» Journal of the Nigeria Enqlish Studies Association 8 (1) 1976, pp. 153-163» **“ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 178 2.g* Environmental Variables and Second Lanquaqe Learninq Environmental factors have also been observed to influence language learning. Since there are neither universal definitions nor concensually define operational indices of environment, it will be define for the purpose of this study as some specific stimul at home or school, impinging upon the second language learner to influence his achievement in second language learning. While both nativists and environmentalists agree that language is acquired in a social context, and that differences in linguistic performance exist among groups and individuals, the environmentalists maintain that environmental factors exert greater influence on language development (and achievement)« The rationale for this is that a child cannot learn language in a vaeuum« i In addition, the currently 1« Goslin, D„ (Ed.). Definition of the Social Environment in Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, p„ 61. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 179 treposed model for research on school learning is to ypothesize that learning is a function of aptitude, Environment and instruction. In second language learning, formal and informal Environments were observed by Krashen (1976)-*- to contribute to different aspects of second language competence. While informal environment affect acquired competence, formal environment affect learned competence. Krashen contrasted two types of linguistic environments he designated artificial or formal with natural or informal environment. His delineation of formal environment include the language classroom. He however indicated how the classroom could be utilized as a formal or informal environment for second language learning. Informal environment include the home and the wider societal context. He concluded that an intensive informal environment can 1 1. Krashen, D. Formal and Informal linguistic Environments in Language Acquisition and Language Learning, TESOL Quarterly 10 (2) June 1976, pp. 157-175. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 180 rrovide both the adult and child learner with the necessary input for the Operation of the language acquisition device» Focusing upon social conditions that affect language acquisition, John and Goldstein argued that the learning of new verbal responses, particularly by young childrer. can be facilitated by a relative invariance in the environmento They also said that the learning environment determines the quality and quantity of word labels that the child can acquire. For example, working dass children have little opportunity of active verbal interaction with their parents and the child's acquisition of words with shifting and complex referents will be impeded if the required adult-child verbal interaction is insufficient or lacking. The paper also posits that the child gains practice in correctly identifying objects having the 1 » John, V0P„ and Goldstein, L„S. The Socian Context of Language Acquisition» Merril-Palmer Quarterly, pp„ 265-275» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 181 same name, while at the same time he develops skills of use of verbal mediation. A crucial role is also assigned to the availability of adult models to participate in ongoing dialogue with the child in his development of verbal mediation, This has implications for second language learning. In second language learning, the availability of adults to reinforce correct response;: , to serve as models can enhance learner's achievementc Infact, Brooks (1969) emphasizes the central importance in language learning of adults to engage the child in conversation, and to correct his speech, because receiving immediate corrective feedback of the language used enables the child to improve his speech and expand his vocabulary. Of all the aspects of development subject to environmental influence, language is highly sensitive ........ . .. . ...----------------------------------—- 1o Brooks, N. The Meaning of Bilingualism Today, Foreign Language Annals 2 (3) 1969, pp. 305-309. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 182 to environmental influence. 1 The social environmenr can therefore be either a hampering or enhancing medium in which language learning occurs. This is not surprising because language, being a social Institution is more dependent on the social setting, perhaps even more than on individual personality factors. 2 In a study by Deutsch (1965)J he observed that children who are reared in culturally deprived homes where the verbal environment is impoverished Show evidence of verbal and cognitive retardation. Milner (1951)1 *34 also observed that subjects with high scores 1. Majoribank, K. Environment as a threshold variable.» Journal of Educational Research 67 (5), 1974. 20 Stern, H.H. (Ed.). Language and the Young School Child. Oxford University Press, London, 1969, p. 47. 3. Deutsch, M. Op. eit. 4. Milner, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 183 on a reading readiness test came from home with richer verbal environment. Of all the environmeütal factors investigated therefore, home environment was observed to be very influential on language learning. While the direction of the learning process is primarily a function of the school, the degree of the child's proficiency in language learning is to some extent a function of home environment. Verbal and cultural level of the home influence the development of verbal qualities in the child which in turn affects performance in language learning. In subjects like language and social studies, Campbell (1951) declared that no school factor could match the strength of students* home environment. 1 1. Campbell, W.J. The influence of home environment in the educational progress of secondary school children. British Journal of Educational Psycholoqy XXII, 1952, pp. 89-100. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 184 In an investigation of the second language proficiency of American College seniors by Carroll (1971), reported by Krashen -1 , correlation was found between attainment and measures of time spent in the second language linguistic environment. Subjects test scores correlated significantly with the extent to which the target language was used in their homes. Subjects from homes where the target language is hardly ever used had the poorest scores., In another study by Haie and Budar (1970) they remarked that with a rieh intake environment provided for the second language learner, extra classes are not necessary„ The implication of this is that a language stimulating environment could enhance second language learning. 1 Krashen, J. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 185 In the Nigerian study by Adelusi (1980) ' l , significant correlation was found between subjects* '.ome environment and English Language achievement. The scores of subjects from good environmental homes ii.e. homes with culturally stimulating objects, and richer verbal environment) were higher in the English achieA/ement test than subjects from poor homes» Of the specific aspects of Home Environment which influence language learning generally, and second language learning in particularly, Nisbet (1953)* 2, Brooks (1969)3, Kifer (1977)4 and 1» Adelusi, I„0» Home Environment, School Environ­ ment and Achievement in English as a Second Language» M» Phil. Thesis» University of Ibadan, 1980» 2. Nisbet, J» Family environment and intelligence in Education, Economy and Society» (Eds») Halself, et» al» 3« Brooks, N» The Meaning of Bilingualism Today» Foreign Language Annals 2 (3), 1969, pp» 305-309. 4. Kifer, E» The relationship between Home and School in influencing learning» Research in the Learning of English 2 (1) 1977, pp» 5-14» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 186 Adelusi (1980)-'- made some observations» Kifer (1977)1 2 3in his study identified three educational variables of the home as: the verbal environment, activities in the home, and the general culture level. Each of these could \ influence the language achievement of a child, and could also be a determinant of second language learning achievement. Nisbet (1953)5 hypothesized that the environment of a large family which depresses the environmental component of a child5s test scores would operate through the limited amount of contact between parent and child. It could also leads to the consequential restriction of the child5s normal language growth. 1. Adelusi, 1,0, Home Environment, School Environment, School Environment and Achievement in English as a Second Language. M.Phil. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1980. 2. Kifer, E. The relationship between Home and School in influencing learning. Research in the Learning of English 2 (1), 1977, pp. 5-H. 3. Nisbet, J. Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 187 The finding of this study corroborates findings of other investigations that the degree of contact a child has with parents, especially the mother, the quality of language model they provide for him, their reinforcement of his speech activities are important determinants of his language and cognitive development. Brooks (1969) A also remarked that the most common circumstance in which ideal bilingualism is attained is the home because 'the teacher-pupil ratio is 1-1 and the period of exposure longer and more intense'. The importance of the dyadic element in first or second language learning is also touched by Brooks. while most studies view home environment as an important factor in second language learning and achievement, Kawkes (1975) found no positive correlation between achievement in English as a 12 1. Brooks, N0 The Meaning of Bilingualism Today. Foreign Language Annals 2 (3) 1969, pp. 305-309. 2. Hawkes, N. Some Correlates of Success in Second Language Learning in some Ghahaian Primary Schools. African Journal of Educational Research 2 (1), 1975. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 188 second language and linguistic continuity between home and schooL Most studies reviewed therefore confirm that home environment is an important factor of achievement in second language learning. The specific aspects of the home and the degree to which they influence second language achievement however need to be carefully worked out. 2. t). Pedaqoqical Variables and Second Language Learning Pedagogical variables have also been claimed to have influence on second language learning generally, and on each language skills in particular. In assessing school variables, the following level of conceptualization is suggested by Moos (1979) : the physical setting, the organizational factors, the human aggregate, and the social climate. All the four aspects influence achievement in second language learning. 1 1. Moos, R.I. Evaluatinq Educational Environments. Josey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 19777 p. 6. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In assessing the influence of different pedagogical and social dimensions of school environment on students* achievement while Controlling relevant personal variables McDill, et. al. (1967)^ confirmed that various dimensions of the school have significant effects on students* achievement in various subjects. In a cross-national study by the IEA12 to investigate predictive factors of achievement in English as a foreign language, the following school factors were identified: amount of time allocated to the study of the language, perceived teacher competence, teacher's expertise* These are however other school factors not investigated, Though there is no study claiming direct causal relationship between classroom atmosphere and second language achievement, related studies point to the fact. 1. McDill, et. al, Institutional Effects on the Academic Behaviour of High School Students. Sociology of Education /+0 (3) 1967. 2. Lewis, E.G. and Massad, C.E. (Eds.) The teaching of English as a Foreign Language in Ten Countries - International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 182 to environmental influence. 1 The social environmenr can therefore be either a hampering or enhancing medium in which language learning occurs. This is not surprising because language, being a social Institution is more dependent on the social setting, perhaps even more than on individual personality factors. 2 In a study by Deutsch (1965)J he observed that children who are reared in culturally deprived homes where the verbal environment is impoverished Show evidence of verbal and cognitive retardation. Milner (1951)1 *34 also observed that subjects with high scores 1. Majoribank, K. Environment as a threshold variable.» Journal of Educational Research 67 (5), 1974. 20 Stern, H.H. (Ed.). Language and the Young School Child. Oxford University Press, London, 1969, p. 47. 3. Deutsch, M. Op. eit. 4. Milner, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 224 3.3.4. School Environment Questionnaires These instruments were subjected to the scrutiny of several people who were engaQed in the provision, administration and consumption of secondary education» They include parents of secondary school students, students, teacher trainers, educational evaluation researchers, Student teachers, classroom teachers, educational administrators. Items that were consensually agreed upon as valid and reliable measures of school environment were therefore included in the final form of the questionnaires, These measures, incidentally, tally with Moos 1 suggested measures, and the global ? measures of school environment» These include measures of quality and quantity of the human and material resources available, the organizational factor» One measure which all concerned in the 1» Moos, R.H. Op. cit. 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 279 than a single isolated pedagogical variable is most influential in Reading Comprehension is understandable. It is only in a good school with adequate and effective human and material resources that a learner can acquire the adequate and relevant experiential background which were observed to be vital in reading (and comprehension) achievement, Provision of books specifically for learner's reading is the most influential home environmental variable on this skill. Provision of non-textbooks specifically for learner’s reading presupposes parents that are conscious of the importance of books and reading in English Language learning. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 328 13. At home your parents buy - N© daily newspaper One daily newspaper More than one daily newspaper 14. At home you speak Yoruba or any other Nigerian Language - All the time Sometimes Rarely/Never 15. Do your parents encourage you to speak to them - Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never 16. When you speak English at home, do your parents/guardian insist that you speak correctly - Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 338 16. Major tvpes of English home-work given are usually (i) Readxncj a s s x cj nme n t o •« o.oo»o©<»ooooooooco©oooo (ii) '/v jr* i u t0 n s s s i q n me nto*©ooooo®©o©©©o©ooo©0©0#©0© (iii) Speech and aural exercises«oooooo©«©©©©©©«©©© (iv) A Kombination of (i) and (ii)..... . ......... (v) A combination of (i), (ii) and (iii)......... 17„ Students' progress in English Language is assessed (i) h v e n y d a y 9 0 0 » 9 9 9 » 9 ® 0 9 0 0 0 9 9 0 « 0 0 9 9 0 0 O O O O O O 0 0 ( » 0 0 O (ii) T h X C 0 a W CelCoooooooooooooooooooaooooooooOooo (iii) (iv) Once a week ................. (v) At examination period only................... UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 191 W i l k i n s (1974)''' remar k e d that the res o u r c e s railable for l e a r n i n g the l a n g u a g e are an integral ;art of the l e a r n i n g context b e c a u s e l a c k of resources c o u l d i m p o s e r e s t r i c t i o n s on ho w and what z~e teacher teaches. It ma y also m e a n that the ibjectives set for pu p i l s by the teacher cannot be attained e s p e c i a l l y through m e t h o d s that would :therwise be m o s t suitable. C i o farri ( 1 9 6 2 ) in an arti c l e aimed at analysing the i m p o r t a n c e of the p r i n t e d w o r d in foreign l a n g u a g e learning, s t r e s s e d the n e o d to provide se c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s with adequate library and r e a d i n g facilities. He ar g u e d that the w r i t t e n w o r d has u l t i m a t e and i m m e d i a t e values in l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g because c o n stant ref e r e n c e to p r e v i o u s l y learnt lingu i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s is essential, and can only be fu r n i s h e d by the w r i t t e n 1 1. Wilkins, D. Op. cit, 2. Ciofarri, V. The Importance of the P r i n t e d w o r d in the L e a r n i n g of a F o r e i g n Language, M o d e r n L a n g u a g e Jour n a l XLVI (?) 1962, pp. 312-314." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 192 ord. A Student, he continued, can really begin to -aster a language when he has learnt to increase his skill by himself through reading« Deutsch (1968) A, in a publication on the relationship between cultural and material deprivation and language proficiency, suggested that since children learn to read by reading schools must provide them with books they can and will read; and that every (school) activity must be geared to developing the pupil's second language competence0 The material resources available for second language learning could therefore influence how effectively and efficiently the language is taught in the school context o In a Nigerian survey on English Language 2 covering all ranges of educational institutions it was observed that lack of material resources for effective English Language training constituted one of the problems. Io Deutsch, M„ 0p„ cito 2o Ford Foundation. Op. eit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 193 In foreign language l e a r n i n g r e s e a r c h e s by Picsleur, et. al. (1964)^ they c o n c l u d e d that a special factor w h i c h a c c o u n t s for h o w well s t u dents succeed in a l a n guage course is a u d itory ability. C o m p o n e n t s of this are sound d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and sound symbol association, This s tudy c o r r o b o r a t e d an earl i e r study in w h i c h P i m s l e u r (1962) o b t a i n e d the result that pitch d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was one student factor in second langu a g e learning, O b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e in s u bsequent studies i n d i c a t e that l a c k of a u d i t o r y a b i l i t y c ould arise out of learning in a n o i s y and d i s t r a c t i n g classroom, since a u d i t o r y Stimuli are particularly prone to what Deutsch (1964r-z called ’a tunning out process’ which could lead to inattention during learning. 123 1. Pimsleur, P . , et. al. U n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t in F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e v i e w of AjjjJlied L i n g u i s t i c s 2' '('2) T l i S y ^ , PP* 2. Pimsleur, P. Student factors in L a n g u a g e Learning. M o d e r n L a n g u a g e Journal XLVI (4) 1962, pp. l S Ü I T T D T “ 3. Deutsch, C, A u d i t o r y D i s c r i m i n a t i o n and L e a r n i n g - So c i a l Factors. Merril-Palraer Q u a r t e r l y 10» 1964, PP. 227-296. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19k Of the human aggregate of school environment, the teacher factor was obser v e d to be i n f l u e n t i a l in second language learning. T e a c h e r ’s level of l inguistic and communicative competence, e x p e c t a t i o n for her pupils, attitude to pupils - all i n f l u e n c e the l e a r n e r ’s a c h i e v e m e n t in second l a n g u a g e learning, K e s t e r and L e t c h w o r t h (1 9 7 2 ) 1 in a study of the effects of teachers' e x p e c t a t i o n s on t heir pupils' a c h i e vement o b t a i n e d the re s u l t that teachers' e x p e c t a t i o n of students' i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y in E n g l i s h and M a t h e m a t i c s does not affect students' achievement, It must be n oted howe v e r that this study is v e r y d e f ective in its m e t h o dology. The d u r a t i o n of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n was o nly 9 weeks, and subjfflcts were said to be of aver a g e a b i l i t y - the c r i t e r i a for a r r i v i n g at subjects a b i l i t y level is not indicated. *2 1, Kester, S,W, and Letchworth, G,A. C o m m u n i c a t i o n of Teachers' e x p e c t a t i o n s and t heir effe c t s on a c h i e v e m e n t and attitude of S e c o n d a r y School Students, Journal of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h 66 (2) 1972, OcT. ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 195 Seligman, et. al. (19.72)^ h o w e v e r o b s e r v e d that how a child p r e s e n t s hims e l f thro u g h speech m a y i n f l u e n c e the t e a c h e r ’s e v a l u a t i o n of him. It was also o b s e r v e d that t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r e d v oice and p h y s i c a l appea r a n c e when r a t i n g stude n t s capability. These o b v i o u s l y do influence l e a r n e r ’s a c h i e v e m e n t in the subject b e i n g learnt. The exp e r t i s e and e xperience of the teacher also i n fluence s t u d e n t s ’ a c h i e v e m e n t in sec o n d l a n guage l e a r n i n g because the q u a l i t i e s of the l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r defi n e s the pot e n t i a l l i m i t e s of his pupils' achievement. x T e a c h e r ’s l a c k of d e v otion , i n c o m p e t e n c e ca u s e d 12 1. Seligman, C.R. The E f f e c t s of S p e e c h Style and o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s of t e a c h e r s a t t itude towards pupils. L a n g u a g e in S o c i e t y , Vol. 1 (1) April, 1972. 2, Wilkins, D.A, E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s in L e a r n i n g S e c o n d L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g and Learning. B 1 H I n g & S ons Ltd., "Great Britain, 197k* 3* Uzodinma, A« in Ubahakwe, E* (Ed.). Goals in L a n g u a g e E d u c a t i o n i n Nigeria, üriiv'ersity of t'badan Press', 1973. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 196 by inadequacy of training were also identified as causes of Nigerian Student learners' poor performance in English Language. The teacher factor is therefore important in second language achievement. The learner 's previous school language learning experience is another school aspect which influences achievement in second language learning» The context, content, and mode of previous language learning influence present language learning achievement. In listing out propositions which have direct bearing on all language learning, Torrey stated that the learning of one thing influences another, and that previous learning could hinder or facilitate present learning. The implication of this is that if early or primary school second language learning is perfect, subsequent language learning is easier, since well learnt materials are better discriminated. 1 1. Torrey, J.W. Second Language Learning in The Learning of Language (Ed.) Reed, C.E. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 197 In a study by Saegert, et. al. (1974)'S correlation was found betw e e n E n g l i s h l a n guage proficiency and y e a r s of l a n g u a g e study a mong Igyptian and L e b a n e s e p o p u l a t i o n at U n i v e r s i t y level, This i n d i c a t e s that students wh o have h a d p r e v i o u s foreign l a n guage l e a r n i n g for rnore y e a r s at hig h school l evel p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r than those who have had fewer y e a r s of foreign l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g experience, p Some N i g e r i a n b a s e d studies by O b a n y a (1973) » Adelusi (1980)^ also o b s e r v e d l e a r n e r ' s p r e vious language l e a r n i n g exper i e n c e as a factor of success in second l a n g u a g e learning. U s i n g a sample of s t u dents s t u d y i n g F r e n c h in some N i g e r i a n S e c o n d a r y Schools, Obanya** found that s u b j e c t s 1 p r e v i o u s langu a g e l e a r n i n g expe r i e n c e 1. Saegert, J. et, al. L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g 24 (1) June 1974. 2, Obanya, P.A.I. B i l i n g u a l i s m and r e l a t e d factors of success in foreign l a n g u a g e learning, Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of Ibadan, 1973. 3. Adelusi, I.A. Hom e Environment, School E n v i r o n m e n t and A c h i e v e m e n t in E n g l i s h ' a s a S e c o n d Language,- 1U n9p8u0b. l i s h e d M--.-P-h-i-l-.- --T-h-e-s--i-s, U n i v e r s i t y of Ibadan, 4, Obanya, P.A.I. Ibid, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 198 - influence learner's achievement in foreign language learning. He concluded that previous language learning experience is an influential factor in foreign language learning« The Ford Foundation i survey in Nigeria even claimed that the heart of the English language teaching problem exists at the primary level of Instruction because the quality and quantity of English language learnt in primary school, the level of competence in English language skills which the students are helped to develop in primary school, would determine how well they learn English in the secondary school. The Nigerian studies corroborate findings in developed countries, that learner's previous language experience influence achievement in second language learning. 1. Gwarzo, S„ Op. cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 199 Though the level of conceptualization of aspects z f school environment and their measures differ in the various studies reviewed, there is an agreement on the significance of the teacher factor, previous language learning experience and the general aspect of school environment on second language learning achievement. 201 0. Relationship between Studies Reviewed and the Current Study While many of the studies reviewed Show evidences of thoroughness of execution, validity and reliability of findings, certain flaws in the methodology, underlying assumptions, and inferences exist in some. For example, the population sample in the studies of Levine 1 and Chopra 2 were so limited that valid inferences could hardly be based on such a limited study in the type of study conducted. Lukmani's sample consisted of girls only, though a mixed sample could have made the findings more generalizable» 1 1. Levine, . Op» cit0 20 Chopra, . 0p„ eit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 200 Various measures of school environment used by McDill et al (1967)^ were inadequate and not comprehensive. McDill used the socio-economic composition of the school as a measure of school environment, another researcher used the degree of intellectual climate prevailing in the school as the measure of school environment. Neither of these is a sufficiently composite measure of school environment, A valid measure should include the physical structures, the organizational set up, the human and material resources, It should, according to Wilkins, include an Observation of the physical facilities, resource materials and those human actions which transform the raw materials of input into opportunities for learning, A valid measure of home environment should include the process and the status variables of the home, The abnormal background of the home should also be assessed since this could also affect students' achievement, Abnormalities in the home include the 1 1. McDill, et. al. Institutional Effect on the Academic Behaviour of High School Students. Sociology of Education ^0 (3) 1967. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 201 existence of physical or emotional disability affecting any raember of the family. The underlying assumption in Hawkes’ study that his subjects were of equal intelligence is faulty, • Generalization to the Nigerian context of findings arrived at in other countries is inappropriate, There is need for specific area studies to enable broader generalizations on the issue to be made. Though the studies reviewed deal with language learning, foreign and second language learning, only a handful are specifically on achievement in second language learning. None of the studies reviewed investigated each of the various language skills in relation to achievement factors in second language learning, Many of the studies in second language learning were carried out from psychological and linguistic perspectives while only a couple were from sociological perspective though language is a social Institution •par excellence*. Besides, some of the studies reviewed were not exhaustive, empirical investigations of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 202 achievement factor in foreign or second language learning, The present study will differ from studies reviewed by identifying variables and subvariables of some psychological, sociological, environmental factors which could enhance learnerte achievement in each of the four basic language skills, so that empirical evidence can form the basis of second language teaching programmes, Improvement on the Instrumentation of some of the earlier studies will therefore be made in the comprehensiveness of the home and school environment measures, and the test of English Language achievement specifically designed for a Nigerian population. The primarily sociological perspective of the study, its focus on achievement in second various language skills in the second language, will be innovations since the second language learner will be the focus of the investigation. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 203 The location of the study (Nigeria) is also interesting since almost all the studies reviewed were carried out in Europe and Ameri C ci thereby making generalization of findings to developing countries less valid because the a ims, content and context of second language teachi ng differ in these areas. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1.1. The Sample Subjects consisted of 213 Form One students (115 boys, 98 girls) from selected secondary schools in Ibadan. Their ages ranged from S10t a ntdo a r1d8 yearso The mean age was 12.02 with a deviation of 0.98. In terms of language background, the sample was almost homogen^ous. Only 13 did not speak Yoruba as their mother tongue. Form One was decided upon because home influences on English language learning is more manifestly potent at this stage of secondary school education than at any other. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 205 1.1.2. Teachers Fifteen teachers were involved in the Investigation. These were the English Language teachers of the classes investigated, who had to help in completing Section C of the School Environment Questionnaire. The Vice-Principal of each school also had to help in completing Section A of the School Environment Questionnaire. This was to ensure accuracy of responses, and for cross validation of students' responses to some sections of the School Environment Questionnaire. 3.1.3. Schools All the schools in Ibadan were classified on a prestige rating basis. The following mean prestige scores were used in classifying the schools:- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 206 2.50 - 3.00 : high prestige 1.50 - 2.44 : medium prestige 0 low prestige Table 3.1 below Shows the number and type of school in each prestige dass. Table 3.1: Number and Type of Schools in Each Prestige Clas Class Boys' Girls' Mixed Total School School School High Prestige 3 5 - 8 Medium Prestige 3 4 11 18 Low Prestige 4 - 8 12 Total 10 9 19 38 A selection of one in every four from each prestige rating was made. This resulted in a total of two boys' schools, two girls' schools, and four mixed schools for investigation. An arm of Form One which, in the opinion of all language teachers in each school, was considered to contain children of average ability was chosen. The total number of UNIVERS iIT 0Y OF IBADAN LIBRARY 207 students in these classes was 213 (115 boys, 96 girls). The rationale for the selection procedure was to ensure a balanced representation of all secondary schools in Ibadan. A high prestige school was defined as one with the highest assigned scores on the basis of available facilities for subjects taught, the quality, quantity and stability of Staffing, the moral tone and reputation of the school, the general physical appearance and location of the school, and students’ performance in external examinations, especially WASCE„ Tt̂ e rating was done by Education Officers, Inspectors of Education, Student Teachers, Classroom Teachers, Parents, and some secondary school students« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 208 3,2. Instruments of Data Collection The Instruments for collecting data on the variables investigated in the study were:- 3.2,1 A Home Environment Questionnaire Appendix 2 In collecting Information on subject’s home environment, an eighteen-item questionnaire designed by the investigator was used. It was designed to elicit Information about the process variables of the home that promote English language learning - that is, things that the home does to promote English language learning. These include the provision of English books for learner to read, the encouragement of learner to read often, and other conscious efforts of parents to encourage English language usage in the home. Information about the status variables of home-environment that promote English learning was also requested ön the questionnaire, These include parental level of education, availability of language promoting objects such as non-textbooks, newspapers and magazines, television and radio in the home. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 209 Questions were also asked on the verbal environment of the home - that is the language stimulating activities in the home, and the extent and type of English language use in the home, the quality and degree of verbal interaction in the home. Questions about the general Standard of living in the home such as the type of accommodation, the labour saving devices in the home, and luxury items in the family were asked. On the cultural level of the home, the family*s mode of relaxation or leisure time activities, their attendance at cultural activities were inquired about, The questions have fixed alternatives to ensure relevant responses, and accurate scoring of subjects* responses, 3.2.2. Socio-Economic Status Measure In measuring subjects’ socio-economic status, the global measure of SES* as well as two other indices which were observed in earlier studies to be * SES - Socio-Economic-Status. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 210 reliable predictors of SES in the Nigerian context were used. These are: mother’s level of education, father’s educational level and income^. Questions on the three indices are incorporated in the Home Environment Questionnaire (Questions 19 - 21) 3«2,3» School Environment Measure Appendix 1+ The school environment questionnaire designed by the investigator was designed to obtain Information about various aspects of the school. School environ­ ment is not conceived of as a single entity but rather as consisting of a number of sub-environments. The questionnaire is therefore in five parts, The characteristics of staff and pupils, the average ability level of the school, the socio-economic- composition of the school, etc. all of which are 1 1. Adelusi, 1.0, Socio-Economic Status and Students’ achievement in the West African School Certificate Examination, M.Ed. Project Report, University of Iba'd'an, "1978. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 211 -own to affect students* achievement level 1’2 ’ 3 ’ are taken cognizance of in the various parts of -he questionnaire„ lection A - contains questions about the general aspects of school environment including - the location, physical structures, available facilities for subjects taught, quality, quantity and stability of teaching staff, and age of the school- This section is designated general aspect of School Environment section» Information required in this section was supplied by the Vice- Principal of each school» 1 1. Moos, R»H» Op« cit. 2. Astin, A»W. A Re-examination of College Productivity. Journal of Educational Psycholoqy 52, 1961, pp» 173-178. 3. McDill, et» al. Institutional Effects on the academic behaviour of High School students« Socioloqy of Education 40 (3) 1967, pp. 181-200. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 212 lection B - deals with the English-promoting aspect of school environment such as the school's participation in inter-school literary and debating activites, availability of well equipped library, etc. ■ection C - was designed to obtain comprehensive Information about the current English language teachers of the classes investigated. Information on their qualification, teaching experience, teaching workload, attitude to their English language classes, their assessment of their students English language performance based on their personal opinions were asked. The language teacher of the classes investigated completed this section. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 213 -ection D - sought Information on subjects' previous English language learning experience. This section was designed to find out the duration, content, and context of subjects' primary school English language learning experience. It will be assessed as a measure of subjects' previous English language learning experience. Section E - was to obtain information about subjects' current English language learning experience. This includes their perception of their current English language dass, dass size, skills taught. Items from Dada's SPOSLAC 1 are incorporated in this section. 1 . Dada, a » SPOSLAC - Students' perception of seconc language acquisition Context Questionnaire - in Ph.D. Thesis, 1976. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY To ensure accuracy of Information, Section A of the School Environment Questionnaire was completed by the Vice-Principal of each school, while Section C was completed by the English Language teachers of the classes investigated. 3*2.4 An Intelligence Test (See Appendix 5 ) Though all students in the sample could be assumed to be of comparatively equal intelligence on the basis of their having passed the entrance examination, written and oral interview, prior to their admission ' into secondary schools, a more valid measure of intelligence which had been standardized and found to be reliable was used on this level of students. Twenty items of the ACER Form M, non-verbal test of intelligence developed by Taylor-Bradshaw was used. The non-verbal test was used so that subjects with language stimulating home environment, high prestige schools*,would not be at an advantage over subjects from non-stimulating language background and low prestige schools. The use of the non-vörbal form also ensures that the verbal factor of subjects* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 215 intelligence is not tested, only the 'g' factor, It eliminates the effect which English language inadequacy might have on subjects who cannot speak or understand English easily, 3o2„5. An Attitüde and Motivation Scale (See Appendix 6) In measuring subjects' attitude to, and motivation for learning English, a modified Version of Mary Dufort's Foreign Language Students' Attitude Scale (FAS) by Beckley was used. The instrument is a ten-item questionnaire to obtain information about subjects' attitude to English Language and their motivation in doing so, Subjects' response on e five-point scale ranged from 'very true' to 'untrue'. Subjects' score on the five point scale ranged from 50 for very favourable attitude and motivation for 10 for very unfavourable attitude and poor motivation. < UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 216 3<,2„6„ English, Lanquaqe Achievement Tests (See Appendix 7) Subjects achievement was measured using an achievement test designed by the researcher. Since it was not possible to obtain English language achievement tests standardized specifically on a Nigerian sample of the level being investigated in this study, one had to be constructed by the researcher, The tests, designated "Adelusi English Language Achievement Tests" (ADELAT) consists of the following four sub-tests:- (i) Test of Aural Discrimination (ADELAT 1), (ii) Test of Reading Comprehension (ADELAT 2), (iii) Test of Vocabulary and Structure (ADELAT 3), (iv) Test of Guided Composition (ADELAT 4). They were designed to assess what had been learnt of the English Language syllabus within the classroom in the school System, The guidelines for the test were as follows:- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 217 (i) The aims and objectives of English language learning, as specified in the schools' syllabi, and the national aims and objectives of English language teaching to form one of secondary sehool, (ii) The common elements of the instructional content* of English language in the schools investigated, (iii) Schools» records of work, indicating the content covered with students up tili the time of testing. Since knowing a language means being able to speak it, read it, write it, and understand it when it is spoken and written the following skills were tested - Aural Discrimination, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary and Structure, Composition (Guided). Other rationale for testing these skills will be discussed in describing each subtest. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 218 3*2,6.1. Test of Aural Discrimination (ADELAT 1) The rationale for testing subjects’ aural discrimination ability was that in Nigeria, errors arising from inaccurate listening or slipshod pronunciation constitute problems for learners of English, Such errors can hinder or impair intelligibility-1- and understanding of English language. Secondly, interference between the learner's mother tongue and the second language is generally believed to be a source of error in second language, learning. It is also a test of subjects’ ability to distinguish between sounds of words in English languagf an area which is considered to be phonologically problem areas for Nigerian learners of English. The auditory discrimination test used in this study consists of twenty-items, designed to find out subjects' ability to hear accurately, to remember sounds and to associate sounds with their written forms accurately and rapidly. 1. Folarin, B, Problems in Students* English. Journal of the Nigeria English Studieg Association 7 ( 1 & 2), Dec. 1975, p. 5l. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 219 Subjects viere expected to listen to three words in a list, and to identify on their answer sheets which of these they heard the tester pronounce. 3.2„6„2„ Readinq Comprehension Test (ADELAT 2); A test of Reading Comprehension is included in the subtests because it tests other skills such as the ability to read and understand what is read, ability to follow written instructions, to single out the required Information from a list, and to make inference from what is read. Positive and sifnificant correlations have often been found between scores in Reading Comprehension, and total scores in English Language achievement tests. The current test consists of two passages (A and B) of about 150 words each. The vocabulary content is suitable for the level being investigated since they contain words which subjects must have come across many times in their classroom and home learning. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 220 - There are five questions on each section and answers to almost all the questions are contained in the passages. 3,2.6.3. Test of Vocabulary and Structure (ADELAT 3) This was designed to test subjects’ ability to use correctly the lexical items and grammatical forms of English language which they have been taught. It consists of 69 items. Items tested include: verbs, gerunds, pronouns, adverbs, definite and indefinite articles, participial phrases, prepositional usages etc. 3 * 2 . 6 . Test of Guided Composition (ADELAT k ) : This was designed to t>est subjects’ ability to think in an orderly sequence, and to find and use appropriate construction and words in given contexts. It follows the Cloze procedure which is said to be a global test of English language proficiency.1 1. Lloyd, 0. and Armstrong, R. An investigation of the relationship between children's performance in written language and their reading ability. iResea-rc-h- -in- -t-he- T eaching- o-f- -En gl—ish 8 (3),w r. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 221 Subjects were required to fill in blank spaces in a guided composition frame, using appropriate and suitable words, Each blank space required just one specific and particular word to complete. The topic was one that was familiär and of interest to subjects at the level being investigated. 3o 3. Validation of Instruments 3.3.1. The intel 1 icience test*j Attitüde and Motivation Measure were all standardized instruments which earlier researchers had used in their investigation of language learning factors, The ACER Form M, non-verbal test of Intelligence was developed by Taylor-Bradshaw, and (i) it was specifically designed for a Nigerian Population of the level b*1eing investigated«(ii) the Taylor-Bradshaw Test was found suitable 1. Taylor, A. and Bradshaw, C.D. The Development of an Intelligence Test for use in Nigeria. West African Journal of Education IX (l) Feb. 1965. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 222 by earlier researchers^- in the area of language learning, and was found to be reliable. 3.3.2, Attitüde and M o t i v a t i o n M e a s u r e The Attitüde and Motivation Measure had also been used by earlier researchers, and the Instrument is reported to have a reliability index of ,84 using the Cronbach-Alpha formula. English language was substituted for the French language in the modified Version of the questionnaire. 3.3*3* Socio~Economic-Status Measure The Socio-Economic-Status measure was pre-tested on a sample population consisting of sixty randomly selected students in secondary and post-secondary 1 1, Beckley, S. A study of some significant criteria for Drop-Out'in French in Sierra-Leone. M.Ed. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1976. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 223 institutions, and some adults. Items that were observed to be superfluous or ambiguous were either removed or modified. One of such questions was about the annual income of parents. Most children had no precise knowledge of how much their parents' annual incomes were. Ranges of income were therefore listed for respondents to answer to. The three items which was consensually agreed upon as valid indices of socio-economic-status in Nigeria were: parental level of education, especially the mother's educational level were incorporated in the Home Environment Questionnaire. To ensure uninhibited and accurate responses from respondents in the study population, the questionnaire was answered under the guise of anonymity, though the investigator had carefully numbered the questionnaires to identify respondents, and to enable easy matching with the ADELAT test papers and other questionnaires administered. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 224 3.3.4. School Environment Questionnaires These instruments were subjected to the scrutiny of several people who were engaQed in the provision, administration and consumption of secondary education» They include parents of secondary school students, students, teacher trainers, educational evaluation researchers, Student teachers, classroom teachers, educational administrators. Items that were consensually agreed upon as valid and reliable measures of school environment were therefore included in the final form of the questionnaires, These measures, incidentally, tally with Moos 1 suggested measures, and the global ? measures of school environment» These include measures of quality and quantity of the human and material resources available, the organizational factor» One measure which all concerned in the 1» Moos, R.H. Op. cit. 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 225 evaluation of the questionnaire insisted should be included was the school*s usual performance in WASCE. The measures had to be subdivided into five sections for cross Validation of some responses such as the questions on staff turnover in the school. 3,3,5• The English Achievement Tests (ADELAT 1 - 4 ) The content validity of the test was ensured by taking the following steps: (i) Test items were based on the common elements in the Form I Language textbooks used in all the schools; the schools* record of work registers and school syllabi, (ii) English Language Test and examination papers for the previous terms in each school were also reviewed to note items which students had been taught and tested on. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 226 (iii) To ensure that students have learnt enough of the syllabus content to make the test meaningful to thera, the tests were administered during the tenth week of the third term just before the end-of-year examinations. (iv) The first draft of the tests were subjected to the scrutiny of some senior colleagues and academic staff in the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, who are either experts in Language Education and Evaluation, and had used similar tests in their investigations. English Language teachers in the schools investigated were also consulted to ensure content validity and reliability of the tests. All the teachers consulted are professionally and academically qualified, and have had ovdr ten years of teaching English. (v)Ambiguous, superfluous and irrelevant itaias were then removed from each subtest before the final versions were administered. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 227 (vi) After the adrainistration of the tests in their final form, subjects’ scores in their English Language examinations for the year were correlated with their total scores in the ADELAT tests, and a significant positive correlation of .62 was obtained. (vii) The correlation coefficient for students* scores in each subtest and the total score in ADELAT were also obtained. This is tabulated in the table below, and indicate positive correlation between each subtest. Table 3 Correlation Between Total Scores in allEnglish Language Achievement Test and Each Language Skill tested ADELAT ADELAT — (rA DE■LAT ! ADELAT 'ADELATOT !i 1 _______L 1 2 1 3 1 4 f1— - ADELAT 1 ; 1.00 0.16 ! 0.21 0.16 O.lfl ADELAT' 2 0.16 1.00 j 0.58 O.Zf2 0.68 ADELAT 3 0.20 i 0.38 I 1.00 1 0.50 0.89 ADELAT b 0.16 j 0.if2 j 0 .5 0 1.00 0.66 ADELATOT O.ifl j 0.68 i1 0.90 0.66 ^ 1. r0- -0 — J __________ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 228 The degree of correlation between total scores in the four subtests and each subtest is high, and suggests a measure of validity of each subtest in relation to the overall test scores. The correlation between the variables is quite high and significant at the P = 0,05 level. The validity of the subtests is indicated by the high correlation between the various subtests and total scores in the whole test, 3.k. Data Collection The instruments for the investigation were adminIistered by the researcher in all the schools used for the study. All instruments were administered on an assigned day in each school, and the mode of administration was the same in all schools. Having explained the purpose of the study to the staff and pupil$, the importance of completing all tests and questionnaire v/as repeated to the pupils. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 229 In limiting, to the barest minimum, social desirability effect from subjects' responses to the SES, and Home Environment Questionnaire, subjects were asked to answer the questions anonymously. Code numbers, which corresponded with subjects' names on the dass register, had earlier been put on each test paper and questionnaires discretelyo This enabled easy matching of each subject's test paper and questionnaire responses. In the School Environment Questionnaire, Sections A and C were completed by the Vice- Principal of each school to ensure accurate information. The test was administered by the researcher about the same time on an assigned day in each of the schools. Instructions on other tests were carefully read to subjects before the tests commenced. The average testing time in all schools was about two hours. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 230 Getting Sections A, B and C of the School Environment Questionnaire filled was not easy, because most of the schools had no readily available Information on the required data. Repeated visits to the schools was therefore necessitated before completed questionnaires could be obtained from some Vice-Principals. 3.5. Methods of Scoring Since the average age for secondary school admission is between eleven and tv/elve years, and the average age in the population sample was 12.02, subjects who were twelve years or below had a score of 2, while subjects who were above 12 years had a score of 1. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 231 In the intelligence test, the maximum score obtainable was 20. The mean score was 8.94. A score of 1 - 7 was rated low, 8 - 1 0 rated average, and 11 - 20 rated high. Maximum score obtainable on the Home Environment questionnaite was 53. Scores on every item, except one, 'ranged from 1 to 3. A maximum score of 26 was obtainable on the Status variables while a score of 27 was obtainable on the process variables. The mean score on the home environment questionnaire was 38.99. A score above 40 was rated high, 36 - 39 was rated fair, while 1 - 3 5 was rated poor „ For the SES questionnaire, each item had a score ranging from 1 - 3 . The mean score for all items was 6.18. A score of 7 - 9 was rated upper SES, 5 - 6 was rated middle, and scores below 5 was rated low. Since the schools had earlier been objectively rated on several aspects, the emerging scores for each school hardly differ from earlier rating. 0 r . „ , ■- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 232 In Section A - General School Environment - acores were awarded for each of the following: (i) Educational and Professional qualifications of all teachers in the school, teaching experience of all staff, staff and head teachers' mobility pattern and frequency in the school, physical structures, special subjects taught in the school, and other facilities available for subjects taught. Each school score was dependent on the quality and quantity of the items listed above. In Section B, scores were assigned for the quality and quantity of English Language teachers in the school. Their quälifications, experiences, and length of stay in the school had various marks awarded. In Section C, scores were assigned for the English language teachers of the classes investigated - their experience, qualification, work load, attitude to their students, and to the subject they teach. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 233 - Section D has scores assigned for the quality, euantity and ränge of subjects' previous English language learning school experience. Section E had marks awarded for subjects' perception :i current English language classroom environment. The scoring for each of the five aspects of school environment are tabulated below. Table 4 Scoring of Selected Aspects of School Environment Measured Aspect of School Me an r1 — G.o.o d- Fair Poor Environment Score A (SCENVIRA) 322.98 422-710 179-386 18 0 -2 0 B (SCENVIRB) 58.07 63-79 55-62 44-54 C (SCENVIRC) 2 0 .3 0 2 4 -2 8 20-23 16-19 D (SCENVIRD) 14.89 1 5 -2 0 13-14 1 - 1 2 E (SCENVIRE) 46.93 48-59 46-47 1-45 TOTAL 461.914 500-877 401-499 320-400 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 234 For the ADELAT, each of the subtests was separately scored with a score of 1 for each item correctly answered. The scores on each of the test was summed up and the mean score was computed. The mean score on all the subtests was 67.3. The total marks obtainable on the ADELAT subtests was 120. Since the mean score was above 67, any score below 68 was considered poor. The tafele below shows detailed scoring of ADELAT subtests. Table 5 Scoring of ADELAT* Sub-Tests ADELAT Maximum Mean Scores Scores Scores Subtests Obtainable Score rated rated rated High Average Poor ADELaT 1 20 10.7 12-20 9-11 1-8 ADELST 2 10 4.5 7-10 4-6 1-3 ADELaT 3 70 44.9 50-70 40-49 1-39 ADELAT 4 20 7.1 10-20 7-9 1-6 TOTAL ON ALL SUBTESTS 120 67. 3 90-120 67-89 1-66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 235 3.6. Methods of Data Analysis The following Statistical analyses were used in analysing obtained data: Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Multiple Regression Analysis. The mean score and Standard deviation for scores on each of the dependent and independent variables were also computed. Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to find out the degree of correlation between the independent variables - achievement in English as a second language, achievement in each of the language skills tested, and the independent variables investigated. Multiple Regression: was employed to examine the relative influence of each independent variables on the dependent variables. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS Results of the study in relation to the questions which the study set out to answer are outlined in this chapter. While some of the findings substantiate earlier findings by other researchers, some differ. 4.1. Psychological Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language The psychological variables investigated are: Age, Intelligence, Attitüde and Motivation. As can be seen from Table 6, these psychological variables, except Age, influence achievement in English significantly. It is observable from the table that Age has negative correlation on achievement in English. Of the psychological variables investigated, Attitüde and Motivation have greater influence on achievement than Intelligence, I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 237 Table 6 Correlation Between Some Psychological Variable and Achievement in English Language Variable Correlation Coefficient Attitüde and Motivation 0.47 Intelligence 0.35 Age -0.21 In the multiple regression analysis also, Intelligence as a factor of achievement in English language regressed farther from achievement than Attitüde and Motivation. Age also had the highest regression figure from English Language Achievement than the other two psychological variables, as indicated in the following table. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 238 Table 7 ■ ■ ■■" ■■■ i ■ - > Relationship Between Psycholoqical Variables and Enqlish Language Achievement Psychological Variable Regression Coefficient Attitüde and Motivation 0.39 Intelligence Age The relative influence of psychological variables on achievement in each of the four language skills tested was also the aim of this study. The following regression and correlation coefficients in Table 8 were obtained in relation to each language skill. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN L 0o o"'0 0 IB 00 VO RARY ll Table 8 Intercorrelation Between Psychological Variables and English Language Ächievement Sub-tests Psychological ADELAT* ADELAT* ADELAT* ADELAT* Variables 1 2 3 k Attitüde and Motivation 0.18 0.30 O.J+3 0.29 Intelligence 0.20 0 . 3 2 0.29 0.13 Age -0.02 -0.08 -0.20 -0.21). The above table indicates that Attitüde and Motivation exert the greatest influence on Lexis and Structure (ADELAT while Intelligence exerts the greatest influence on Reading Comprehension (ADELAT 2). In the regression analysis, a similar pattern is also observable as illustrated by Table 9. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 9 Relationship Between Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement Subtests Psychological Regression Coefficient Variable ADELAT ADELAT ! ADELAT ADELAT 1 2 3 k Attitüde and Motivation 0.3k 0.5 3 0*63 0.53 Intelligence 0.33 0.58 0.58 0.36 Age 0.36 0.61 0.69 0.57 Pedagogical Variables and English Language Achievement: In relation to the pedagogical variables investigated, the relative influence of each on English Language achievement is tabulated overleaf. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 241 4.2. Pedaqoqical Variables and Achievement in Enqlish as a Second Lanquaqe Table 10 Correlation Between Enqlish Lanquaqe Achievement and the Pedaqoqical Variables Investiqated Pedagogical Correlation Coefficient with English Variable Achievement Test ___ _ ADE1LAT ADE2LAT ADELAT ADELAT ADELATOT3 4 SCENVIRA 00.. 1321* 0.26 00 ..0111* 0 . i-üB 0.29* 0.15 0.18 C 00.. 0115 00.. 1107 0.08 0.09.D - E -0 . 1 1 -0 . 1 0 -0.03 0.04 -0.00.05 0.05 0 . 0 24 SCENTOT 0.30 0.27* 0.26 * UNIVERSIT o1Y •o (V)OF IBADAN LIBRARY CoO o© O o01 OV1 o9 Results in Table 10 indicate that specific pedagogical variable influence specific language skill more than any other. While the general aspect of the school influence achievement in Reading Comprehension and Guided Composition most, the English prdraoting aspect of the school (SCENVIRB) influences achievement in Aural Discrimination most. On the Lexis and Structure sub-test, the most influertial school variable is the total aspect, that is, the sum total of all aspects of the school (SCENTOT). This variable also has the greatest influence on the total scores in all the English Achievement sub-tests (ADELATOT), Contributions of Sociological Variables zo English Language Achievement: Regression figures obtained for the school variables and English Language achievement are tabulated in Table 11 page 2̂ -3. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 243 Table 11 Variable Regression with English LanguageAchievement ADE1LAT ADE2LAT •ADELAT ADELAT ADELATOR3 4 SCENVIRA 0.56 0.45* 0.64 0.43 0.75 SCENVIRB 0.36* 0.58 0.67 0.53 0.78 SCENVIRC 0.57 0.55 0 . 6 6 0.44 0.77 SCENVIRD 0.59 0.61 0.69* 0.57 0.79 SCENVIRE 0.55 0.61 0 . 6 8 0.58 0.79 SCENTOT 0.38 0.59 0.62* 0.45 0 .5 5 In Table 1 1, the school variables which correlate most with achievement in each of the language skills are also observed to have the least regression figures from each language skill. The school variables which have the least regression figures from achievement in each language skill are:- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 244 ADELAT 1 Aural Discrimination - SCENVIRB* ADELAT 0£_ Reading Comprehension ~ SCENVIRA ADELAT J> Lexis and Structure - SCENTOT* ADELAT 4 Guided Composition - SCENVIRC ADELATOT - Overall Achievement *1 in all Skills - SCENTOT* Socioloqical Variable and Enqlish Lanquaqe Achievement Socio-Economic-Status was observed to have positiv influence on English Language Achievement at significar level„ A correlation coefficient of 0.3? was obtainec when the variable was correlated with English Language Achievement. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 245 On the total scores for all the four language subtests, the variable has the greatest influence on achievement than any other„ Table 12 indicates the correlation coefficient obtained for the variable and English Language Achievement» 4 „ 3. Socioloqical Variable and Achievement in English as a Second Language Table 12 Relationship Between Socio-Economic-Status and English Language Achievement Variable Correlation Coefficient with EnglishLanguage Subtests ADE1LAT ADE2LAT ADELAT ADELAT ADELATOT3 4 S. E„ S„ 0.16 0.29 0.52 0.39 0.54 Table 12 above indicates that Socio-Economic-Status positively influences achievement in the test of Lexis and Structure more than it influences other subtests. Its influence on the total score on all the subtests is even greater than on each subtest» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Home Environmental Variables and Achievement in English as a Second Language Several variables of Home Environment were investigated in relation to achievement in English Language. The relationship between achievement and these variables are listed in Table 13 overleaf, From Table 13, it becomes quite evident that environmental variable of the home which most influence overall achievement in English are not necessarily the most influential on each language skill. The following variables were observed to influence each of the language skills most:- Aural Discrimination (ADELAT 1) - HOMBAGRS* Reading Comprehension (ADELAT 2) - HOMBAGRM* Lexis and Structure (ADELAT 3) - HOMBAGRL* Guided Composition (ADELAT Af) ~ HOMBAGRP* * HOMBAGRS - Parental insistence on child*s use of correct speech. * HOMBAGRM ~ Provision of books specifically for child’s reading« * HOMBAGRL - Type of Primary School attended, * HOMBAGRP - Number of Daily Newspapers at home. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 247 Teble 13 Correlation Between Home Environmental Variable and English Lanquaqe Achievement Variable Variable Description Correlation Coefficient Identification ADELAT ADE2LAT ADELAT ADELAT ADELATOT1 V 3 4 HOMBAGRD Size of respondent's family 0 . 0 1 -0.0 7 -0.06 IIOMBAGRE Position of respondent amonq children in the family -0.05 0.15 0.13 0 . 1 2 Nombagrf Type of accommodation -0 . 0 1 0.09 0.05 0 . 1 2 0.05 IlüMBAGRG HOMBAGRH Degree of privacy for respondent at home -0.18 -0.17 -0.13 -0. Number of dependent relations in respondent’s home 00.. 0023 0 . 1 2 00 .. 10 21 0 . 1 028 -00.. 1129 llOMBAGRI Communication in English at home -0.04 0.04 0 . 0 1 MÜMBAGRJ Arveasiploandbeinlti'tsy ohfo meRadio or T.V. in IIOMBAGBK -0.04 00.0186 0 . 1 1 0 . 1 0 0.07.1BAGRL Ownership of car(s) by the family -0.03 0.19 00.19 0.17 0 . 2 2Type of Primary School attended (f.O'l o .24 0.18 0 . 2 2IIOMBAGRM Provision of books by parents specifica- lly for child's reading 0.08 0 .2 2* 0 . 2 1 0.19 0 . 2 1HOMBaGRN IIM'IÖAGRO Number of non-textbooks in the home —0.06 0 . 1 1 0.16 0 . 1 0 0.14 |l< WM/.GRP Mode of recreation by the family -0 . 0 2 0.03 0.05 0 . 0 1 0.05 Nm 'IB GRQ Number of Daily Newspapers at home 0.08 0.15 0.23 0 .2 0* 0.26*a HtiMBAGRE Use of English Language at home 0.03 0 . 1 1 0 . 1 2 0 . 0 1 0.13Parental encouragement of child's communication 0.16 0.07 0.17 IIUMBAGRS 0.09 0 . 1 1Parental insistence on child's use of correct Speech 0 .1 2* 0.17 0 . 2 0 0 . 1 1 0 . 2 1 HOMBAGRT HOMBAGRU Parental encouragement to read often 0.03 0.18 0 . 1 8 0.04 0.17Parental help with child's homework 0 . 0 2 0 . 1 1 0-05 0.09 0.08 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UO3 o0 1 r -* V * V-1 O0 O0 1 248 On the overall scores in English Language Achieve- ment, the total process variables is observed as exerting greater influence than the Status variables» This is illustrated in Table 15 overleaf. Table 14 Cprrelation Between English Language Achievement, the Process and the Status Variables of the Home VARIABLE CORRELATION COEFFICIE NT ADE1LAT ADE2LAT ADELAT ADELAT ADELATOT3 4 STATUSV 0.05 0.15 0.14 00.. 2117 0.13PROCESSV 0.08 0.31* 0.35* 0.35* In finding the relationship between English Language Achievement and the psychologica1, sociological, pedagogical, and environmental variables investigated? the follo1w6ing correlation and regression coefficients in Table were obtained. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 15 Relationship Between Variables Investigated and English Language Achievement Variable Correlation Regression Coefficient Coefficient Intelligence 0.35 0.39 Attitüde and Motivation 0.2+7 0 ,k5 Age -0.20 0.78 Socio-Economic-Status 0 . 5 k 0.2+9 School Environment 0.26 0.56 Home Environment 0.30 0.52 As can be seen from Table 15 above, Socio-Economic- Status has the greatest influence on English Language Achievement while Age has the least influence on achievement UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 250 The relative influence of the psychological, sociological, pedagogical and environmental variables on achievement in each of the four language skills tested was also investigated. Table 16 below shows the results obtained. Table 16 Relative Influence of Variables Investigated on the Language Skills Tested Variable Correlation Coefficient with ADELAT ADELAT ADELAT ADELAT 1 2 3 k Intelligence 0 .20* 0 .3 2* 0.29 0.13 Attitüde and Motivation 0.18 0.30 0 .k3 0.29 Age -0 .0 2 -0.08 —0 .2 0 -0.2k Socio-Economic-Status 0 .1 6 0.29 0.52* 0.39* Home Environment 0 .0 1 0 .2? 0.29 0 .2 2 School Environment 0 .0 1 0 .3 0 0 .2 7 0 .1 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 251 Table 16 shows that Intelligence has the greatest influence on Aural Discrimination (ADELAT l) and Reading Comprehension (ADELAT 2) while Socio-Economic-Status has the greatest influence on Lexis and Structure (aDELAT 3) and Guided Composition (ADELAT 4). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 252 4„5o Summary of Results 1. Psychological, Sociological, Environmental and Pegagogical factors influence achievement in English Language generally, and some specific language skills. 2. Of the psychological variables, the Attitüde and Motivation measure is more closely related to English Language Achievement than Intelligence and Age. 3. Age had a low negative correlation with English Language Achievement. 4. In each of the four language skills tested, Intelligence exerts a grester influence on Aural Discrimination than do Attitüde and Motivation. 5. Age had a very low (-0.02) negative correlation with Aural Discrimination. 6. In Reading Comprehension, Intelligence had a greater influence on English language achieve­ ment than the other two psychological variables UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 253 7. Achievement in Lexis and Structure was influenced most by Socio-Economic-Status. 8. Socio-Economic-Status also has greater influence on achievement in Guided Composition than other variables investigated. 9. Age has low negative correlation on achievement in all the four language skills tested. 10. Of the pedagogical variables, the total aspect of the school (SCENTOT) influence total achievement in all the subtests combined. 11. The General Aspect of School Environment seems to exert greater influence on total achievement in English Language thon each of the other school aspects. 12. In relation to each language skill the English Promoting Aspect of the School (SCENVIRB) seems to influence Aural Discrimination more than other skills tested. 13. Achievement in Reading Comprehension and Guided Composition were also found to be dependent on the general aspect of the school (SCENVIRA) than on any other variable. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 254 1km Socio-Economic-Status (SES) was observed to influence achievement in Lexis and Structure positively with a high correlation figure of (0 . 52). 15. The influence of SES on Lexis and Structure is however less than its influence on total achievement scores (ADELATOT) in English Language. It has a correlation of (0.54) with ADELATOT. 16. The most influential environmental variable on English Language Achievement (ADELATOT) is a sum-total of all the Process variables (PROCESSV). 17. In the language skills, Parental insistence on correct speech had the greatest relationship with Aural Discrimination. 18. In Reading Comprehension, Provision of Looks specifically to encourage child1s reading influence achievement more. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 255 19* The Home Environment variable with the kighest relationship to achievement in Lexis and Structure is (HOMBAGRL) - Type of Primary School at-eniei. 20, The number of available newspapers in the hcre was observed to be the most influencing Home Environ­ mental variable on Guided Composition, 21, The relative influence of all the variables investigated on English Language Achievement yielded the following rank Order of relationship: (1) Socio-Economic-Status (2) Attitüde and Motivation (5) Intelligence (Zf) Home Environment (5) School Environment, 22, Age had a negative correlation and yielded the highest regression coefficient with achievement in English, 23, In the specific language skills, Intelligence had the greatest influence on Aural Discrimination and Reading Comprehension, while Socio-Economic- Status has the greatest influence on Lexis and Structure and Guided Composition, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter discusses the results of the study, and makes suggestions for further research, The conclusion arrived at from results obtained is that while overall achievement in English Language is influenced by psychological, sociological, pedagogical and environmental factors, the most influential factor is sociological. In the specific language skills the influential factors on each skill differ. Overall Findings in Relation to English Language Achievement 5.1.1. Sociological Variable and English Language Achievement Of all the variables investigated, socio- economic-status seems to have the greatest influence on overall achievement in English Language. This is followed by Attitüde and Motivation and Intelligence. Some pedagogical and Environmental variables also have significant positive correlation with achievement. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 25? Socio-economic-status as a vital factor of achievement in English is consistent with the findings of earlier researchers, Achievement in English language learning is obviously class-based at the level investigated. One of the explanations for this is that the pattern of upbringing among the lower socio-economic dass parents limits active verbal communication between children and adults, and this is a limiting factor in language learning. The cultural expectation in most homes is that children should not engage in active verbal communication with adults. Children are meant to listen and not to be heard often, The middle-class or highly educated parents however sometimes encourage or rather allow more verbal communication with their children, The grim economic realities of the poor home often result in the poor learner having only his textbooks to read at home while the middle dass learner is exposed to more books and more English reading at home, This makes for continuity in the English language learning of the middle dass learner UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 258 while the lower dass learner may even unlearn what he has learnt at school because of conflict or rather difference between the language of the home and that of the school. One related advantage of socio-economic-status in terms of second language learning is that the middle dass child has a greater opportunity of attending a good primary school. Attendance at a good primary school also ensures his admission into a high prestige secondary school which has better human and material resources for English language learning. It is not surprising then that the deficiencies in language learning occasioned by conditions in his home Situation are hardly rectified by the school he has to attend. One researcher in fact noted the feoling of alienation and rejection usually faced by those students from lower socio-economic homes who come into contact with English for the first time at school. These are usually students from low socio- economic-status homes, or from rural backgrounds. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 259 - Such students usually approach school1 with a consciousness of low regard frora teachers, and a feeling of hopelessness about the school which forbids them to use their local dialects at all times. Their background therefore puts them at an initial disadvantage and continues to reinforce this disadvantageous position in English language learning. Socio-economic-status as a vital achievement factor in English Language learning is therefore valid because it determines the learner’s experiential background, quality of English language learning context and content, degree of language learning Stimulation and reinforcement that are available to the learner. 1. Torrey, J.W. "Second Language Learning" in Reed, C. (Ed.). The Learning of Language. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 260 5.1.2. Psychological Variables and English Language Achievement Intelligence as an influential factor of achievement in English language learning is also confirmed by this study. Intelligence is also known to be partly hereditary and partly acquired because nature sets the limits of an individual*s intellectual potential but nurture determines how near to that potential the individual would get. While innate intelligence cannot be improved upon, the *g* and the *v* factors can be considerably improved upon by providing the learner with stimulating and culturally enriched environment. Intelligence is multi-dimensional, therefore, the verbal factor of intelligence, which is related to language learning if well developed, can help the second language learner to exploit more successfully what he has learned of the language. For instance, a learner with just an average innate intelligence level, reared in an educationally and linguistically stimulating environment would achieve more in English language learning than a learner with high innate intelligence, nurtured in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 261 a linguistically and culturally deprived environment, Attitüde and Motivation as factors of achievement in second language learning are upheld by this study. Favourable attitude towards English Language is found to correlate with achievement test scores at a statistically significant level. This finding does not differ from some earlier researchers* findings. Attitüde, defined as an enduring Organization of belief around an object or a Situation, predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner, could be situational or generalized. It is learned, and develops within a frame of reference, The language teacher, his method, attitude to students, his use of the textbook within and outside the classroom are all within the frame of reference of second language learning. A student who likes or dislikes any or some of these could generalize his attitude to most or all of these and therefore achieve highly or poorly in English language, The cognitive aspect of his attitude therefore leads to the affective component and consequently to the evaluative component - that is the acting out his UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 262 attitude, which could enhance or depress his achievement in second language. Experienced classroom teachers know the truth of this statement. Students in some classes eagerly look forward to the lessons of some teachers, do return assignments to such teachers on time and participate actively in dass. Teachers have observed that this helps the process of Instruction, and improve students' performance, In the teacher specific aspect of the questionnaires on School Environment, most of the teachers Claim that students5 poor attitude (lack of interest) in English language was one of the reasons why their students do not perform well. Age does not seem to be a very significant achievement factor in English language 1^^^^ing at the secondary school level, in a second language Situation. In the current study, it has a low negative correlation (-0,20) with English language achievement. This finding lends support to the fact that varrying degrees of competence among learners of same age are possible when other factors like motivation, attitude and instructional methods are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 263 controlled. Even Seliger1 who Claims that children are better than adults in second language acquisition, agrees that in achievement, performance varies if some factors are controlled. In second language learning therefore, no matter the learner*s age, his cerebral capacities will determine what he can learn of the structural and lexical items of the language, Achievement in the phonological system in the second language may, however, be lesser for the adult learner than the child learner, Specifically, in the Nigerian context, the negative correlation between age and achievement in English can be explained by the fact that since the 1970s, those who begin their secondary school education later than the age of twelve are mostly the less intelligent or the unlucky learners or learners fron materially disadvantaged and backward homes. 1, Seliger, H.W, Implications of a Multiple Critical Hypothesis for second Language Learning - Ritchie, W.C, (Ed.) Second Language Acquisi­ tion and Research, Academic Press, New YorF7 I97B7“ ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 264 5.1.3. Pedaqoqical Variables and Enqlish Lanquaqe Achievement Of the pedagogical variables the total scores on all aspects of the school (SCENTOT) influence achieve­ ment in English more than any other aspect considered. This is a confirmation of the fact that in a school where all the pedagogical aspects are favourable, achievement in English is likely to be higher than in schools where only one or two specific aspects are favourable in terms of English Language learning. The "general aspect of the school environment" was the next influential variable on English language achievement, with a positive correlation of 0.25. This finding is not surprising since high prestige (good) schools, as defined within the context of this study is sure to attract teachers who are academically and Professionally qualified, as well as students from high socio-economic-background. Moreover, staff turnover in such schools is likely to be low. In a school where stability, quality of staffing, and the availability of material resources to enrich the school's language programme are ensured, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 265 - enhanced English Language achievement is almost a certainty. The teacher aspect of the school which had positive correlation with English Language Achievement is a vital point for consideration. The Ford Foundation Report cited earlier even remarked that the heart of English Language teaching programme in Nigeria lies in the teacher factor, since the primary school teachers are responsible for the first critical years of English Language learning in Nigeria. * * Two of the schools used for the study (St. Anne 's and Government College) are reputed, by every member of the Nigerian society, to be of high quality. For several decades, failure in English Language at the West African School Certificate was a rarity. Attendance at the school was believed to be an automatic guarantee of passing English Language in a good grade. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 266 This finding has earlier been supported in a cross-national study of English as a foreign language in twenty-one countries, is confirmed by this study« Teacher's qualifications, perceived competence, his temperament, his dedication to his subject and pupils could go a long way to enhance their achievement in second language learning. A teacher with sound experience and expertise is likely to tailor instructional content and context to suit learner's ability and need. Since order presentation of instructional content aids students* memory a good teacher would be methodically sound« A dedicated and non-temperamental teacher not only increases students' interest in his subject, he enables them to look forward to every second language- lesson as a worthwhile experience« The English promoting aspect of school environ- ment is possibly dependent on the language teacher's conceptualization of his teaching task« A language teacher who is experienced and industrious enough would know that continuously promoting practice in second language use outside the classroom is a vital UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 267 and necessary complement to classroom instruction. Just as bilingualism cannot be achieved in the class­ room, so also is it impossible to achieve language proficiency through classroom teaching alone. There must be plenty of inter and iötra schools language promoting activities to stimulate learners, to give them more practice in what they learn in the classroom« 5.1.4. Environmental Variables and English Language Achievement The environmental factor which was once considered less significant in second language learning is observed to be a vital achievement factor. Of immense significance to achievement in second language learning is the home. Its importance in English Language achievement is confirmed by this study, and * c corroborates the researcher's earlier findings in previous studies earlier reviewed. Of the variables of the home which were investigated, the following were observed to be influential on English Language achievement. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 268 (i) number of daily newspapers available in the home; (ii) parental encouragement of child to communicate; (iii) provision of books for child's reading; (iv) parental insistence on correct Speech; (v) parental encouragement to read often. These findings lend Support to the fact that the home can do much to enhance learner's achievement in English Language learning. The number of daily newspapers available in the home as an English promoting factor is not surprising because all the National Daily Newspapers*, and the major States Newspapers** are published in English. The Daily Times. * * The Daily Sketch, The Observer, The New Nigeria, The Daily Herald. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 269 The highly positive correlation of this variable with English Language achievement test scores is not surprising. An earlier finding by the researcher 1 found positive correlation between English language achievement in the West African School Certificate Examination, and the number of good daily newspapers available in subjects' homes. The potentiality of newspapers in influencing language learning is realized by educators and students alike. Students are aware that reading newspapers ’increased the amount of time they spend in outside reading' 2, and helps them to develop certain language habits and skills such as increased attention and concentration span while reading, reading to obtain information, improved vocabulary, and interest in reading. It also exposes students to various styles of writing. 1 1. Adelusi, 1.0. Op. cit. 2 . Haefner, J. The Daily Newspaper in the school curriculum, University of Iowa, 1967, p. 35. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 270 There is a note of caution however, that unless there is less journalese and balaneed reporting in newspapers, they may do greater damage, not only to childrerr's mental, moral, and intellectual develop­ ment, but to English Language learning and subsequent achievement o 5.1.4.1o Parental Encouraqement to Communicate The highly positive correlation of this variable with English achievement test scores highlights the importance and necessity for active verbal communication between children and their parents or other adults, because it enhances language develop­ ment and competence. Vocabulary expansion, practice in the use of various language structures, and confidence in language use are also outcomes of actively engaging children in verbal communication. A link between language development and concept formation has been observed by earlier researchers. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 271 A child who has had much practice in the use of language would have better conceptual development than one who has not, Second language learning becomes easier for the learner whose conceptual development is higher. He is able to associate words in the second language with concepts already acquired. His performance and achievement are likely to be better than that of a second language learner who has learnt or developed fewer concepts, Where parents encourage active verbalization in the child, he is able to verbalize his experiences, 5,1,4.2, Provision of non-text Books for Learner8s Reading One of the indications of the cultural level of a home is the availability of books, the quality and the quantity. A culturally and educationally stimulating environment is a condition for language development and achievement, This is a particularly relevant point especially in a context where all of the books published are in the second language. Surrounding children with books encourages them to read. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 272 The greater the number of books and the wider the diversity of subjects treated in each volume the better because children have varying interestSo Having various books at hotne to read encourages the child to read to obtain information, to process Information, to Supplement or complement school learning, and to enrich his mind. Competence in reading is also made possible if children have books to read easily, and reading competence improve Stands performance in many subject areas, especially 1 language. Through extensive reading, students can acquire the speed and skill they need for practical purposes, especially for passing the West African School Certificate examinations. Extensive reading also raises the level at which the mind can function, and give form and meaning to the data of experience. 12 1. Berger, A. An I.E.A. Reading Study - A Review. Research in Teachinq of Enqlish, 8 (l), 1974, pp. 27-39. 2. Bright, J.A. and McGregor. Teachinq Enqlish as a Second Language. Longman, Lowe & Brydone Publishers Ltd., England. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 273 5,1.4.3. Parental Encouraqement to Read Often Industriousness as a factor in second language learning or any learning is obvious. This finding confirms Politzer's "1 finding that assiduity is a factor in second language achievement. The need for second learners continuous application of their time to reading in the second language is also implied. Afterall, reading is the key to all other school ,l earni. ng. 2 Other interesting findings of the study worth commenting about is the correlation at no statistically significant level between communication in English at home and ELAT scores. In most Nigerian homes, English is not the language of normal interaction. Even in homes whWfere both parents are proficient in English, it is not used all the time. Furthermore, the spoken form of English used in homes would hardly be expected to conform to textbook form, correctness, and precision. 1. Politzer, . Op. cit 2. Torrey, J. Op. cit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 2 74 - Where English is taught as a skill in which oral and aural habits arer * the only skills to be acquired, the use of English at home might help * students considerably in classroom work in that language. In Nigeria however English is taught in secondary schools with the primary aim of enabling students to 'decode' and understand their textbooks. 5.1.5. The Findinqs in Relation to Specific Language Skills Aural Discrimination (ADELAT 1) Of all the psychological variables, intell-igence seems to have the greatest influence on aural discrimination while age has the least influence. The correlation of this variable in relation to the skill can be explained by the fact that auditory discrimination depends on the abllity to receive and process information through the ear, and that achievers in foreign language learning were observed to be ear-minded while underachievers were observed to be rather eye-minded. 1 While an 1 1. Pimsleur, P„ et. al. 0p„ cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 275 intelligent learner learns equally well by being both ear and eye minded, less intelligent learner would only learn well through one modality preference - ear or eye. Another possible explanation is that language, according to Torrey has various manifestations in performance, and these include understanding spoken and written materials, and transfer of skills«, An intelligent learner who is skilful in reading and writing is therefore able to listen carefully. The pedagogical variable that appears most influential on aural discrimination is the English Promoting Aspect. An explanation for the correlation of the variable (SCENVIRB) with this language skill is that participation in intra-school and inter- school debates, Symposium, and speech-making enables the learner to train and improve upon his auditory ability, particularly aural discrimination«. 1«, Torrey, J. Op. eit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 276 It is necessary to note that some aspects of the school have negative correlation with aural discrimination. This is indicative of the fact that no matter how favourable the current classroom learning Situation is, there is need for adequacy of ear-training for learners through the use of Language Laboratories, promotion of listening activities - debates, talks between schools and within schools. Of the home environmental variables, parental insistence on child's use of correct speech seem to have the greatest influence on aural discrimination. The positive correlation of this variable with aural discrimination at significant level is not surprising because parents who are particular about the correctness of their child's speech are obviously parents who take active interest in his activities and speech development. The insistence is also positive reinforcement and encouragement for speech precision and development. Training in correct speech obviously involves training of and improvement of the child's auditory ability. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 277 5.1.5.1„ The Findinqs in terms of Reading Comprehension (ADELAT 2) The most influential psychological variable on Reading Comprehension, from the result of this study, is intelligence. The explanation for the finding is primarily that competence in this skill requires a combination of abilities. Reading, according to Harris is ’a large number of interrelated skills' 1 which involves all the higher mental processes of recall, reasoning, evaluation, imagining, applying and problem solving 2. Reading Comprehension therefore requires a combination of the abilities to read and understand, to respond to to written instructions, to single out the required lo Harris, „ How to Increase Reading Ability in Unoh, S.O.: The Reading Difficulties of Students in a Nigerian University. University of Ibadan, Ph. D. Thesis, 1972. 2. Unoh, S.O. Ibid, p. 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 278 informationo An adequate knowledge of vocabulary and the ability to make inferences from what is read are also requiredo It is not surprising, therefore, that high intelligence is an advantage in Reading Comprehension which requires academic rather than interpersonal communication skills in language. 1 Of the pedagogical variables, the general aspect of School Environment was observed to be most influential on Reading Comprehension. This is an interesting finding since the general aspect of the school includes the physical facilities, the organizational factor, and the human aggregate. A favourable general aspect of a school presupposes the availability of adequate and high quality physical and human resources for subjects taught. This aspect therefore includes well stocked and spacious library, regulär, qualified stable Staffing, and a good social climate. That all these rather 1 1. Geneese, F. The Role of Intelligence in Language Learning. Language Learninq 26 (2) 1974, pp. 267-279. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 279 than a single isolated pedagogical variable is most influential in Reading Comprehension is understandable. It is only in a good school with adequate and effective human and material resources that a learner can acquire the adequate and relevant experiential background which were observed to be vital in reading (and comprehension) achievement, Provision of books specifically for learner's reading is the most influential home environmental variable on this skill. Provision of non-textbooks specifically for learner’s reading presupposes parents that are conscious of the importance of books and reading in English Language learning. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY It must be realized that if learners have the opportunity to read much simple materials, they soon develop considerable speed in understanding what is read...... they recognize relatively large units at each fixation of the eyes. 1 The ultimate and immediate value of the written word in second language learning is that a learner can really begin to master a language when he has learnt to increase his skill by himself through reading, 2 Though socio-economic-status does not have the highest correlative coefficient with Reading Comprehension, it still had a higher correlation coefficient than many of the environmental and 1 1. Gray, W. The Teaching of Reading and Writing in H.O. Tomori - An Investigation into the Standards of Written English of Final Year Pupils in some Western Nigeria Primary Schools. University of London, M.A. Thesis, 1963, p. 99. 2. Ciofarri, V. The Importance of the Printed Word in the Learning of a Foreign Language. Modern Language Journal XLVI (7) 1962, pp. 312-314. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 281 pedagogical variables investigated. A possible explanation for this finding is that socio-economic- status could be a vital determinant of the quality and quantity of material, emotional, intellectual and attitudinal patronage for effective second language learning that a learner receives to enhance achievement in skills relevant for Reading Comprehension. 5.1.5.2. The Findinqs in Relation to Lexis and Structure - (ADELAT 3) Of all the variables investigated, learners' Primary School English Learning Experience had the highest correlation coefficient with achievement in lexis and structure. This is followed by socio- economic-status, attitude and motivation, and the type of primary school attended. These variables are closely interrelated. The achievement of the Nigerian learner of English in the later years of learning i.e. at secondary school level depends on how well he has learnt English in the primary school. If the content and context of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 282 English Language instruction, and the organizational factor in primary school were favourable, then learner would be well grounded in English in terms of necessary adequate lexical and structural items to cope with further language learning at secondary school level. Socio-economic-status is invariably a vital determinant of the type of primary school a child attends, and this determines the type and quality of English language learning to which he is exposed at that level. Since the quality of primary school attended determines the quality of staffing and equipment, and the differentiation of English learning experiences to which a learner is exposed, it is reasonable to say that socio-economic-status, continues to reinforce achievement in English. It must be noted too that vocabulary acquisition and expansion can be enhanced or impoverished by learner*s socio-economic-status because vocabulary is UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 283 a complex inventory of all the ideas, interests and occupation that take up the attention of the community.^ What has not been experienced, even vicariously, will not be labelled at all because there has been no need to do so. While receptive or passive vocabulary reflects the whole ränge of users' experience, expressive and active vocabulary reflects the ränge of familiär experience. The ränge of a learner's experience, by virtue of his social dass membership therefore determine the ränge and quality of his acquired vocabulary. The variety of structural items to which a learner has been exposed in the primary school and the home would also determine his achievement in the test of structural items. 1 1. Edwards, A.D. Aanquaqe in culture and d a s s . Heinemann Educational Books Limited, London, 1976, p. 111. . .... UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 284 5.1.5.3. Findinqs in Relation to Guided Composition - (ADELAT 4~ Of all the independent variables investigated in this study, socio-economic—Status had the greatest influence on achievement in Guided Composition. The next most influential variable on Guided Composition was Attitüde and Motivation. The pedagogical variable which seem to hsve the greatest influence on Guided Composition achievement is the general aspect of School Environment (SCENVIRA). While the total aspects of the home influence Guided Composition achievement, the number of daily newspapers made available in the home appears more influential on achievement than all other variables of the home. One of the explanations for the findings is that writing is a social act . It is also a total 1 1. Mina Shaughessy. Errors and Expectations (New York Teachers' College Press, 1978), p. 44 in Okunubi, J.O. Interrelationship of Listening Comprehension and Errors Among Secondary School Students in Ibadan. Project Work for B.A. Ibadan, 1982. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 285 act of expression, a balancing of impressions with expressions.1 The hierarchical chain of writing as explained and illustrated by Carlson 2 is illustrated in the following simplified diagram: 1 Input A s s i m i l a t i o n __ X{L)Jl fcr o o Jl O .■— -input____ of or Of irnpre- re-organiza- personal addi- ssions tion of adaptation tional through impressions«, of assimi- expre- pictures, Learner assi- lated ssion natural milates impressions of obj ects, impressions through ideas books, according to wri tten conversa- his needs, expression tions, interest, sensory purpose, experiences previous experiences 1. Carlson, R.K«, Writing Aids Through the Grades«, (Columbia: Teachers' College Press, 1970), p«, viiie 2. Carlson, R„K„ Op«, cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 286 While children learn comprehensive vocabulary and expression from diverse experiences with their environment, multi-sensory activities such as listening to records, watching films, listening to and reading ’concept' books are experiencies that are beyond the lower dass chilcl. The general aspect of the school as an achievement factor can. be explained by the fact that in a school where there are adequate facilities for the promotion of mul ti-sensory activities,. learners* imaginative abilities can be greatly enhanced, so that learners can "compose or create compositions freely". The classroom arrangement and situations (in Nigerian secondary schools) often result in the learners being listeners most of the time. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 287 Availability of Newspapers as an aid to learner's Composition is understandable in that reading the papers exposes the learner to a variety of experiences and a broad spectrum of events (social, political, economic) that are happening within and outside his immediate environment. 5.2. Implications of Findinqs The primary purpose of ascertaining factors of achievement in English as a second language is to find means of enhancing achievement in English, and, perhaps, achievement in other school subjects, since English is the medium of instruction in Nigerian secondary schools. The findings of this study has far-reaching implications for all concerned with the financing, administration and consumption of education. These are the parents, educational administrators, teachers7, and learners. ' j UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 88 5.2.1. Implications for Parents For parents, the findings of this study indicate that they have the greatest potential of improving their children's achievement in English Language because sociological and home environmental factors are observed to influence achievement significantly. Since some process variables of the home have been found to be very important in enhancing English language achievement, parents should ensure adequate encouragement for their children's language learning efforts. This can be done in several ways, namely: (i) encouraging children to verbalize their feelings; (ii) encouraging verbal communication between the children and themselves; (iii) providing children with good books to read at home, and ensuring that they read often (iv) providing children with culturally stimulating and educationally supportive environment for English learning; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 289 (v) developing. in children positive attitude and motivation towards English, and by giving them sufficiently encouraging incentive to work hard at it. Parents must re-evaluate certain cultural values, in the light of current research on second language achievement. The societal norm that precludes children from active verbal communication with parents and adults must, to a great extent, be modified» Finding time to talk with children is no waste of time« Infact, parents must find room in their job of parenting well, because the school’s Provision of effective instruction alone cannot enhance students' achievement o Attitude formation is one of the core processes of socialization, and parents contribute to the furtherance of positive or negative ethnocentric attitudes« Parents should endeavour to promote positive attitude towards English language in their children„ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 290 Though various Nigerian cultures, or subcultures have certain expectations and make certain demands in terms of communication, it must be understood that achievement in second language learning requires active child-adult communication or communication with peers, The idea in certain cultures that children must be seen, not heard must be re-evaluated. Children must be seen and be heard if they are to make progress in language learning. Since Motivation is also linked to the needs of the learner, whether recognized or unrecognized, and such needs are a function of various environmental variables such as educational objectives, the pressure to earn a living, or the certification procedure, or passing WAEC, students must be made more conscious of these needs and the vital role of English language learning in achieving these objectives. On the influence of socio-economic-status on English Language achievement, it must be realized that a materially affluent home does not automaticaliy provide the child with all the requisites for language UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 291 learning because material deprivation does not necessarily imply emotional or cultural deprivation. Parents should also encourage in children a positive attitude and interest in English Language learning, especially in the junior forms of secondary school. An average Nigerian parent would rather favour and encourage his child obtaining very high scores in Science subjects than in arts subjects, including language. He only begins to worry about his passing English very well after the School Certificate Examination if his child's English language grade has prevented him from obtaining a worthwhile grade in the overall examination. Remedial work with such Student yields little or no positive results because he had failed to learn, at the junior secondary level, essential language structures and vocabulary upon which further learning could be built. Some parents unconsciously create some cultural conflict in their children by calling a secondary school Student who tries to practise the use of the English Language at home derogatory nicknames. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 292 According to Lambert's social psychological theory of language learning, an individual's successful acquisi- tion of a second language demands the gradual adoption of various aspects of behaviour which characterizes the second language group, since this regulates his motivation to learn and ultimate achievement in learning that language. i What is considered British or European is usually thought to be foreign and undesirable by some Nigerian parents«, This attitude needs to be modified. Students must be free to practice the use of the second language being learnt without any fear of social reprisal at home. 1. Lambert, W.E. A Social Psychology of Bilingualisrru Journal of Social Issues 23, April 196 7, p. 102«, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 293 5.2.2. Implications for Educational Administrators Though the various governments at federal and state levels spend a considerable percentage of its annual expenditure on education, there is need to Sponsor learning environment researches that would focus on quantitative and qualitative school input, and specific variables that are related to achievement in English language, since the pace of national development also depends on students ability to profit from higher education through proficiency in English» To achieve the desired National objectives in education, initial focus on the quality and achievement of individual schools in English language is a must» Since the general aspect of School Environment, the English promoting aspect, and the teacher specific aspect influence achievement in English as a second language it behoves the government to assume a new and better definition of * a school* in starting any. A mere four walls, desk filled rooms, does not constitute a school» Provision of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY T v - 294 - recreational, individual's talent promoting facilitios and teaching equipments are necessary and vital complements of any school* A visit to most Nigeria Secondary Schools premises and classrooms is enough to give any educator a good picture of an intellectually and culturally unstimulating English learning context. Government should aim at providing classrooms that would enhance English learning not just bleak spaces for them to sit in„ The human resources provided for most schools needs much improvement if English Language Achievement must be enhanced. The right ' tools* must be employed to teach English Pinr oSfeecsosni odanrayl l yS chools must be academically and qualified to do so, The teacher resources for English language teaching in Nigerian secondary schools need to be greatly improved if students* ELA is to be enhanced, Since a teacher cannot teach beyond his level of competenco and experience, the practice whereby teachers who are themselves proficient in English are compelled to teach English at primary and secondary school levels must be eradicated. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY > - 295 - The practice whereby any teacher who is academically qualified in any discipline is assumed to be capable of English Language teaching must be scrapped. Language teaching entails more than being able to read and k understand the textbook by the teacher. It is becoming more of a science than an art nowadays. Professional qualification is a necessary complement for the graduate teachers' academic qualification. Language teachers must be specifically trained for the purpose, Since the content of Primary School English instruction determines, to some extent, learner's subsequent achievement, the Ministries of Education must co-operate with teachers in designing very suitable and relevant English Syllabus. This would prevent teachers from using textbooks as crutches ör a life-line. A very relevant implication for admim' ̂ rators is that working in isolation to solve educational problems is futile. Educational administrators must be thoroughly conversant with up-to-date research findings on English language learning and teaching. Such knowledge and acquaintance would definitely form a basis for sound and informed decision making on English Language Education at all levels of instruction. The N.E.R.C., the CESAC and the N.T.I. instituted by the Federal Government of Nigeria are however actively engaged in finding Solutions to these problems. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 296 5.2 „ 3. Implications for Teachers of Enqlish It would not be out of place to say that teachers need to be keenly aware of the great responsibility they bear in national development because of the role of English language in Nigeria's education System, and national life. The teacher's attitude to his students, his subject; his expertise, selection and Organization of teaching materials, provision of stimulating teaching context, his degree of dedication and innovativeness, even his temperament, could determine his students' achievement in second language learning. Teachers should pay particular attention to, and give the child from poor home background much encouragement in second language learning so that they do not develop a mental block to second language learning, arising from low seif esteeem, and negative attitude to the subject and the school. The child's socialization balance, that is, what he brings to school in terms of language should be utilized to enhance his language achievement. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The teacher should also promote communicative skill in the second language dass since this is essential in acquiring competence in English Language They need to organize co-curricula activities which are English promoting such as inter-school debates, writers club, listeners' Club. A good teacher of English must first be a good teacher 1, conscious of the fact that: in the control of the learning of another person, reward is to be favoured over punishment (with consistently low grades and innumerable red ink markings on a paper). Reward strengthens the rewarded behaviour, whereas punishment may not lead to bunelheaavrinoiunrg. .o.f. ..t.h.e. .p2u 1nished 1. Perren, G.E. Teachers of English as a Second Language. English Language Books Society & Cambridge University Press, p. 2. 2 . Hilgard, E.R. Introduction to Psychology* Londo Harcourt Brace Publishers, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I - 298 - A good strategy which English teachers cbuld also employ is suggested by Beckley , and that is conducting periodic attitude test for learners so that negative attitudes can be detected early and corrected before it leads to attrition in later years of English Language learning. Teachers should also endeavour to know the latest research findings about English language skills so that they can apply relevant remedies to learners' deficiencies in specific language skills. 5.2.4. Implications for Second Language Learners The findings of the study also has implications for the second language learner. Since psychological factors, especially attitude and motivation, are observed to be influential on achievement in second language learning, the learner must develop a positive 1 1. Beckley, S.M. Patterns of Language Teaching i Behaviour. Ph.D. Ibadan, 1978. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 299 attitude to learning English as a second language. Attitüde is learned, and therefore can be unlearned. It is situational and can also be generalized, therefore the learner should make deliberate effort to develop a positive attitude to English as a subject, in the school and in wider societal contextr: and to the English language teacher in particular» It must be realized that the degree and extent to which a learner is motivated to learn a second language does determine how assiduous he is and his energy input into learning the language. The learner should not rigidly confine himself to prescribed school texts, but should avail himself of every opportunity for language learning through extensive reading of non-textbooks, newspapers, school and College magazines. Observing and recording of learner's Observation and worthwhile experiences gives the learner essential practice in writing and thought processing. The secondary school learner of English must therefore be ever conscious of the fact that his employment opportunities and vocational horizons will UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 300 be considerably limited without good achievement in English Language. 5.2„ 5. Implications for Second Lanquaqe Learninq Theory Though the study does not and cannot provide a panacea for under-achievement in second language learning, it could help towards the formulation of a scientific theory of second language learning«, Results of the study have clearly indicated that social and environmental factors are equally weighty in their influences on second language learning achievement. Investigation of second language achievement from various perspectives will undoubtedly make worthwhile contributions to the formulation of valid theories of second language learning UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 301 5.3. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The researcher is aware of sonne of the limitations of this study in terms of methodology, Instrumentation and application of obtained findings, Methodology A longitudinal and cross-national study spanning at least five years, and covering a sample representative of all the heterogeneous linguistic groups in the country could have yielded more generalizable results. The Observation of a limited sample of individuals' behaviours observed during a very limited period of time cannot be a highly dependable representation of what the behaviour are supposed to represent. 11 1. Thorndike, R.L. "The concepts of over and under- achievement", Columbia University Press, New York, 1963. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 302 Instrumentation The measurement of Home Environment could have been more valid if it were feasible and possible for the researcher to make a first hand Observation of subjects' homes,to see if there were unusual or abnormal circumstances in the home such as serious illness, divorce or Separation, extremes of poverty or affluence - all of which could influence language achievement of subjects. Application of Findinqs Application of the findings of the study is limited in some aspects because English functions in a heterogeneous language environment in Nigeria, with each first language exerting some influence which bears on pupils achievement in specific English language skills. A nationwide study, incorporating subjects who speak each of the main Nigerian languages as their mother tongue could have made for wider applicability of findings. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 303 5.4„ SUGGESTION5 FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Further research on the issue might increase our knowledge if the investigation was on a longitudinal and nationwide basis. This will ensure more valid predictions, and wider applicability of findings. Future research may also benefit from investigating further the influence of each variable and sub-variables on specific language skills so that students who are weak in specific skills can receive appropriate help„ Since cognitive factors and personality or affective factors in language learning have received considerable attention in the past, and differences in achievement still persist, there is need to focus current research on the environmental aspect of home and school because children develop and learn within concrete micro environments, which are themselves situated within larger societal.contexts. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 304 Finally, since there are no conclusive evidences on sortie of the variables investigated in second language learning, a duplication of this study, using a wider sample is very necessary. Such studies may not provide the panacea for enhancing achievement in English as a second language, but it will surely be a guide to parents, educational administrators, classroom teachers of English, students of English and language learning theorists„ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adekunle, M. The Standard of Nigerian English. Journal of the Nigerian English Studies Association, 6 (1) 1974, P . 2T. ~ ~ Adekunle, M.A. National Language Policy and Planning. WAJML 1, Jan. 1976. Adelusi, 1.0. Socio-Economic Class and Students* Achieve- ment in the West AfricarT School 'Certificate Examlnation . M.Ed. Dissertation, University of~Ibadan, 1978, p. 15. Adelusi, 1.0. Home and School Environments and Achievement in English as a Second Language. 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Psychologica1 Monographs 76 (27). 1962. Perren, G. E. Teachers of English as a Second Language. Cambridge, English Language Books Society & Cambridge University Press. Pimsleur, P. et. al. Underachievement in Foreign Language Learning. International Review of Applied Linquistics 2 TP) July 1964, pp. 113-139. Pimsleur, P. et. al. Student Factors in Foreign LXLaVnIg ua(g4e) L1e96a2r,n inpgp.. 1M6o0d-1e7r0n. Language Journal Pimsleur, P. et. al. Predicting Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. International Review of Applied Linquistics 2 (2) 1964. Praetor, C.H. Adding a Second Language 4.Q Reading on English as a Second Language. Croft7 K. (Ed.) Winthrop Publishers, Mass. 1972, pp. 23-28. Politzer, R.L. Assiduity and Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Language Journal XLV (5) 1961, pp. 14-16. Richards, J.C. Social Factors, Interlanguage and Language Learning. LANGUAGE LEARNING - Vol. 22, No. 2, Dec., 1972. Ritchie, W.C. 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The Modern Language Journal XLVI (5) May 1962, ünoh, S,0, Language Testing Method of WAEC - A Critique. (Paper presented at WAMLA/FIPLV Conference, Ibadan. August 1981), Unoh, S,0, - The Reading Difficulties of Students in a Nigcrian University, Unpublished Ph,D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972, Vabaza, K,T, An Experimental Improvement of Defective word Analysis and Oral Reading Skills of some Nigerian Primary School Children. University of Ibadan, Ph.D. Thesis, 1976, Van Cott, H, The Role of English in Nigeria in R, Jacobs (Ed,) The Position of English m Nigeria: Ford Foundation Project in Nigeria, 1968. Ward, M. Them Children, Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, New York,' 1971. Ward, M, "The Children - A study in Language Learning" - Reviewed by Macaulay, et, al. in LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY Vol, 2, No.2, 1973. Walberg, Herbert J, (1976), The Psychology of Learning Environments: Structural Behavioural or Perceptual in Lee Shulman (Ed.) 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Majoribanks, K. (Ed.) Environments for Learning, pp. 99-149. Whiteman, M. and Deutsch, M. Social Disadvantages as Related to Intellective and Language Development. Deutsch, M. (Ed.) The disadvantaged Child. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 324 APPENDIX 1 List of Schools Investiqated 1. Government College, Ibadan. (All Boys) 2» St» Anne's School, Ibadan. (All Girls) 3. African Church Grammar School, Ibadan. (Mixed) 4. Our Lady of Apostles Secondary School, Oluyoro, Ibadan. (All Girls) 5 . Bishop Phillip's Academy, Ibadan. (Mixed) 6 „ Islamic High School, Ibadan. (Mixed) 7. MIobuandta nO.livet Grammar School, (Mixed) 8. Oke 'Badan High School, Ibadan (All Boys) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 325 HOME ENVIRONMENT QUESTIONNAIKE Please put a tick in the box beside the correct answer. 1. Your parents have - not more than four children not more than five children more than six children 2. You are your father’s - first or second child third or fourth child ............... child 3. My family lives in - a two-room apartment a flat of three bedrooms a whole house UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 326 4. At Vu>ma you - own a room to yourself r.iare a room with one or two others share a room with more than two others 5. Apart irom your parents and their childran, how many others lives in yaur house? one or two other persons three or four other persons more than four other persons 6. At home, you speak English - all the time sometimes rarely/never 7«, In your home there is - A television and a radio set A television or a radio set None of these two UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY $ - 327 - 8. Your parents own - No car A car More than one car 9. You attended - A fee-paying private primary school A free U.P.E. primary school 10. Your parents buy you books to read - Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never 11. Apart from school textbooks there are - more than ten books in my home more than thirty books in my home more than fifty books in my home 12. My family goes to play theatres/cinema - Of ten Sometimes Never UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 328 13. At home your parents buy - N© daily newspaper One daily newspaper More than one daily newspaper 14. At home you speak Yoruba or any other Nigerian Language - All the time Sometimes Rarely/Never 15. Do your parents encourage you to speak to them - Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never 16. When you speak English at home, do your parents/guardian insist that you speak correctly - Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 329 17. In your free time, do your parents - encourage you to read as much as possible sometimes ask you to read never mind if you never read 18. Does your father/mother help with your home work? Of ten Sometimes Rarely/Never UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Please put a tick in each of the box if you think the statemont beside jt is true, Do not tick a box if the statement beside it is not truc. 19, Your father or guardian attended - no school at all Primary or secondary school only Technical College/Advanced Teacher's College/University 20, Your mother attended - no school at all primary or secondary school Technical College/Advanced Teacher’s College/University 21, Your father’s annual income is - between Ml,200-M3»000.00 between M3,000-M8,000.00 above &8,000.00 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 331 APPENDIX (ZfA-ZfE) SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT QUESTIONNAIRE General Aspect of School Environment (SCENVIRA) (APPENDIX 4A) Please answer the following questions about your school with utmost accuracy, 1. In which year was your school founded? 2. What is the total number of classes (streams) in your school? J» Your school enrolment consists of _______ boys, and _ _ _ _ _ girls. Zf, The number of teachers in your school is _____ males, and _______ females. 3. Indicate the number of teachers in your school with the following qualifications (i) Number of Graduates with teaching qualification ...... .................... (ii) Graduates without teaching qualification (iii) N.C.E,/Technical College Certificates holders ........... . (iv) Associateship Certificate in Education UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 332 (v; ojraciG I/Grade II0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o » o « * o c < » o o u » o (vi) I i o 2) o C o o « * » « > » o o o o o o a o o o » o o < 5 o o o o o a o o o « ® o o o o o o (vii) (viix' 6. Inöicace the number of teachers with the following teaching experiences. (i) More than ten years (ii) Six to ten years (ii -) Two to five years (iv) One year (v) Less than one year 7. How many of the teachers on your staff have £>een with the school (i) For over ten years (ii) For six to ten years (iii) For two tc five years (iv) For one year only (v) For less than one year 8. Indicate whether your school has any or all of the following:— (Answer Yes or No), (i) An Assembly Hall. (ii) A school Library. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 333 ~ (Ui' A paid school Librarian. (iv A garnes-field/playing ground. ’ v, Science Laboratories (vi) Languuge Laboratory/Language Room. (vii) Oining Room (vi_i' x ..chnical/Vocational Subj ects Room. 9. Indicate whether or not your school teaches any or all of the following subjects: (Answer 'Yes 1 or 'No'). (i) Home Economics (ii) Agriculture (iii) Technical/Vocational subjects (iv / Music (v) Drama (vi) Foreiqn Lanquaqe(s) e.q. (French) 10. Please state the WA\SC results of the school for the past five years\. - No. of No. in No. in No. in State- Fi i- Candi- Div. I Div.II Div.III ment of lures dates Results 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1__________ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 334 > 11. How many Principals has the school had within the last five years? (Put a tick besides the correct number). ' i- \/ One only (ii) IVo (iii) Three (iv / ?our (7 / Five 120 How many Vice-Principals has the school had Mithin the last five years? Ci) One only (ii) Two (iii) Three (iv) Four (v) Five UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 335 APPENDIX Questionnaire on the English Promotinq Aspect of the School (SCENVIRB)' 1. What are the qualifications of the teachers of English in your school? (Indicate how many have each of the following qualifications)0 (i) Higher degree in English..... .......... (:'.i) Degree in English and teaching qualification (i;i) Degree in English..... . (iv) Degree in other subjects................. . (v) N.C.E. (with S n g l i s h *o«•••• (vi) N C.E0 (without English)...........,,..,.,,» (vii) Grade I or II (with Distinction or Credit in Ljr i g l l S h ) . a . . , . » » # « 0 a o 0 g . o a » . o , » , a a , , » o e » c . p s (viii) H, S. C „ /VI o A. S. C. (with Credit in English)«,,.« 2. What is the qualification of the current teacher of English Language in Form I? o a o o a o a a o a o o a v v a o o o c o a c a a a o a s a o o o e a o o o o v o o o a a o o o o 3. How many of the teachers of English have English Language teaching experience of: (i) More than 10 years......... ............ ,,,. ( l l ) 0 1 0 y e a r S « « « « « « « o « a o . o o . o . o o a « o a o a o o « « e o o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 336 ( X 3- 1 2 ' 5 y e 9 I T S a a a o a a a o o o o a o o o o a a o o o o o o a o a o a o o o o ' . ' o ( 1 V J 1 y O a i - o o a « a o ® o » o o ® o o a a « i a « o o o o < * a o a c » a o a a e o o © 0 0 £ > : - ' V V ) L e C~? S L-facir"! 1 y@9iT'«»a' w : 1 o *•K. <. ‘ O X ■ • *'ä%; - . r*'i : ’ ’ ' * • • • X X s 00 3 OX.. O X v O X •• . V: ..,. ;•- ■ X a • % rv- * 1»0 # s 0 X 0 ■ 6 Ö < < ; •• V •; Exonjpiü ... . X >:rax «’A *• v ' •»r.* *».- .*A*. . A’, ' *v*( ,j-y • *»“• '. V■ •' \ . 1 X 2 XXX 3 a • X 6:Ay;bvr î''.'- x XX » * * ■ • • x X x Ci .•' . £xqmpS a Ifc - M ' #7£. :• x. «•l y* >•,. - i; " • •< w . j• ‘i.*»'» 5-»- . t. VA \" Ai.■ .: i■« k*r *'w * : t r 3 “ m * r \ o ä; 4 !■• ' " - V /J* 7 * ■ \ »* .-nf < %*„ i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY XXX >< • I. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1--- — ■ - 347:%’ -4 ; r j s\ - * * •* '-$* l P • 3 1 [ T t dt _ ,7 - •■ ^ —■ ■ ̂w— ( )< t ~ l 5 i ' 6 ; ■ ( k i r l © U/ t; i \. .\ .. L.>U . v V ö $ 7 \y. ? . w . ♦ y a □ L U □ □ . m r * E UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARYi V C T y = 7.\3fi/y li V t 0 0 A A A rt V V ,x X • y V TIv . A A r *. •'. • ' * v > * oo 1 .o0o0o0 000 « °oQV oo 5 0 ♦ ) ? ; . oo ooo oooo C O oo . OOt o o 1 o 1 ooo oo. * - oo oCoOo s v z ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY V UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX G MOTIVATION AND ATTITÜDE TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE QUESTIONNAIRE Read each of the following Statements. Put X in the coiumn which agrees with your opinion about each Statement:- VERY TRUE NOT NOT fu'lf-.' TRUE SURE QUITE-TRU TRUE ‘ ‘ ' 1. English is too difficult to learn. 2. To get on well in other school subjects every Student need to learn English. 3. In adult life one would need En_~lish Language. 4. Knowledge of English will enable one to get a good job. 5. I do not think I like English but my English Teacher makes me. 6. I do not think I like English but my parents make me. 7. A knowledge of English would enable one to communicate with a large number of people. 8. I a i rn r> 1 V van> to knOW English Language very well. 9. My friends will laugh at me if I speak English all the time. 10. My friends will admire :a, me if I speak English fluently. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 351 APPENDIX 7A TEST OF AUPAL DISCRIMINATION (ADELAT 1) Look carefully at each group of three words. The teacher will read out one of the words in each group. Listen carefully and write down the letter A B or C to which the word you hear corresponds, e.g, A B C Cat Cap Cab The teacher reads out 'Cap' so you write B in the answer column. A B C Ansv/er Column 1. look hook cook 2. f eel fill fail 3. wear were where 4. plane plain plan 5. hid hide fried 6. bun burn born 7. pool pull fool 8. air hear hair 9. week weak wick 10. his hiss is 11. knot nut not UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBR RY 352 A j B | C I Answer Column 12. gl ide slide guide 13. beat bit bai t 14. to two too 15. sip sheep cheap 16. eight ate hate 17. lake snake take bed bird bread 19. torn turn tune 20. hurt hut hot Items are taken from Speech Drill Sections of the textbooks in use in the Schools under investigation. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CO0 APPE3N5D3IX 7B TEST QF READING COMPREHENSION (ADELAT 2) READ THE FOLLOWING PASSAGES AND PUT A RING ROUND THE CORRECT ANSWERS (A - E) ON EACH OF THE SECTIONS. Passage A A small amoung of skill is needed in removing honey from a bee hive. The person who wants to do this must apply a little smoke cleverly to the hive and he must move gently and carefully. Then the worker-bees will allow hlEJ to rob them of their honey without using their sting, It is not true, as some people have said, that the bees know their owners; neither do they fear man. When the smoke reaches them, quietly and without any haste or disturbance, they think that the attack is not from an enemy against whom they can defend themselves. They think that it is a natural evil to which they will do well to submit. Instead of struggling in vain, their only thought is to manage to escape. They rush out to the honey they have hidden in case of trouble, with which they start a new home elsewhere. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 354 1„ According to the passage, ’The person who wants to do this' raeans:- A the person who wants to be clever. B the person who wants to remove honey from a hi\ C the person who wants to use smoke. D the person who wants to be an enemy of the beo?. E the person who wants to kill bees. 2 „ The bees leave their hive because:- A they fear man. B they know their owner. C they want to go and protect their störe of honey elsewhere. 0 they think that they are being attacked by nature against whom they cannot fight. E they think that it is better to run away than to try to fight against man. 3. According to the passage, what do bees use to defend themselves? A honey B C hivesmoke D skill E sting 4. When they are attacked with smoke the bees only think of: A protecting themselves. B fighting back their enemy. C defending themselves. D removing their honey to another place. E hiding in their hive until the enemy goes away. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 355 5, According to the passage the bees rush out to their hidden honey:- A to hide in it, B to find something to eat. C to Start building a new home with it. D to get rriore worker-bees. E to fight the enemy. PASSAGE B Some years ago in Iseyin, there lived a small boy named Remio One day Remi came home in the middle of the day and told his widowed mother that he was leaving school, His mother said nothing, but picked up a knife and slashed the beautiful piece of cloth she was weaving, cutting it right in the middle, The boy cried, 'Oh, mother what have you done? That was such a beautiful patternj 'I have done just what you intend to do', she answered» "If you leave your books, you will be cutting across the pattern of your life, just as I have ruined this cloth", Young Remi was so impressed that he went back to school. Later he became a famous scholar and teacher, and his mother was pleased about his achievement. 6» Wshtaotr y?can you say about Remi's father from the A He was a quiet man, B He was away from home, C He had died. D He did not know- the value of education, E Nothing can be said. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 356 7. When Remi told his mother that he was leaving school, A she was glad, because she needed him at hörne« B she was very unhappy. C she started to abuse him« D she ran mad and started tearing her clothes. E she stopped giving him clothes« 8« Vvhy did the mother cut the cloth? A She lost her temper. B She was tired of weaving« C She made a mistake« D To show the foolishness of the boy1s decision« E She had no need for the cloth again. 90 Why did Remi return to school? A He was afraid that his mother would punish him, B He feit sorry for his mother, C His mother threatened him« D His mother begged him to go back, E His mother convinced him that it would be a mistake to leave. 10. Which of these is the best title for the story? * A B a Wise Mother. C Stubbo.rn Boy. D Cloth Weaving in Iseyin E Mother and Son.The La:zy Vvoman. * Adapted from a passage by an unknown author UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 357 APPENDIX H C TEST OF VOCaBULARY AND STRUCTURE (ADELaT 3) Fill in the missing word in each of the followino sentences fro;n the alternatives given beside each sentence:- Examp^e - Sade and I good friends. are, is, am Answer; Sade and I are good friends. 1. Water.«.,... at 100% centrigrade. boil, boils, boiling. 2. Dodo is prepared by ......... frying, friend, plantains in hot oil. f ry. 3. The westher..,,.,. good yesterday. was, is, will be. 4. I....... in Ibadan all my life. lived, have, lived, lives. 5. I.oooao.»ooo late today. is, are, am. 6. Bola........... a letter to her sister two days ago. wrote, have written, write. 7. Kunle....... to football matches regularly«, go, goes, going. 8. If we had come earlier, we o....o..... the tickets. will get, would get, would have got. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 358 9. Sade is ....... a beautiful pattern drew 5 drawing on the canvass. draws. Daboonu'tt ltheea ver ooymo.ur books ............ lying? lay, Iaido n. We stopped ....... the traffic lights in, at, on« I drove the sick man ........... the into, in, to. hospital. 13. The stream runs ........ the bridge. through, under, in. 14 „ There was a milk bowl on the table, into, unto, so the cat tried to climb ....... it oni , 15 o Biola's pen was neatly kept ........ the pages of her textboo« in, between, on. 16. Please leave the key ........ the lock. at, in, on. 17. The angry passenger shouted .......... the careless driver. to, at, on. t.h.e. ..t.e.a.m... of these boys played for who, which. 19. My sister ........ is a nurse came to stay with us. which, who. 20. Here's the receipt ........ he gave to me. whom, that, which. 21. The books on the table are ......... their, them, theirs. 22. My marks are rather poor, what 3 3a O t 000000.000.. o. your, yours, your * s. ChO*0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY O0 or~* CvM1 359 23» 1 gave S o l a .........advice which he did not follow. If a, an, the. 24» Please give me........ drink of water „ | the, an, 25„ Here is„.......key of the Principal's Of f ice. a, the, an. 26. I think I need....... small tin of paint. the, a. 27» Where is my book?.......is on the your* yours* table. ; your’s. 28. Lend me your ruler. I left........ \ my, mxne. at home. 29. Are these books ours or............ their, them, theirs. 30. Our neighbour's house is big...... ours, our, is tiny. theirs. SECTION B Match the words which are in Column A with those that are opposite in meaning in Column B. Using figures. Write the correct figures in Column C. Sxample: The opposite of 'high' is 'low' so you write 5 in the first square in Column C. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 360 A 11H soft white slow narc wet fast black dry low clever Colu:nn_A Column C Column B 31. evening 1™ throw 32 „ everywhere take 33. noon 3 morning 34. question 4 seldom 35. possess 65 anywhere36 o give answer 37. catch 7 easy 38. always 8 present 39. frequent _9 midnight 40. difficult 10 own 11 hard 11 nowhere 13 never 14 sentence UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY