Mmnmxet. A Journal of The Society of Nigerian Artists Oyo State Chapter ISSN 1596-5325 PUBLISHED ANNUALLY BY THE SOCIETY OF NIGERIAN ARTISTS OYO STATE CHAPTER UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CONTENT Articles Pages Amubode Adetoun Adedotun, Surge o f Chinese Textiles in Nigerian Textile industry- — ...................................-.............. 1-12 Otunaiya, 0. T. The U seo fIC T as Visual Communication Tool In Textile Design: the Pros and Cons -— --------- 13-19 Asorogheye, D.O. Vocational Education- Trends and Issues Case Study o f Fine and Applied Discp/ine---------------------- 20-27 Olufowobi Fatai, The Causes and Effects o f Moribund Textile Industries on the N igerian Economy ------ 28-46 Samuel Kayode, M. Instrum ental Technology o f Dundun Drum o f the Yoruba 47-65 Diakparomre Abel Mak, Regulation Issues in Modern A rt Practice in N igeria -------- 66-73 Adebayo Timothy Adefemi Bruce Onobrakpeya's Harmattan Workshop a t Agbarha-Otor-............................................. 74-86 Ubani Kenneth, Reflection on Abayom i Barber's Realism -................ 87-93 Soyinka Grace K. Current Challenges in Ceram ic Education in N igeria 94-101 Ayanladun Ayandepo Evolutionary Ascent and S tylistic Developm ent O f Modern N igerian A rts---------------------------------- 102-107 Akinyemi Taiwo, B ook R ev iew 108-110 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 47 Instrumental Technology of Dundun Drum of the Yoruba SAMUEL Kayode M Abstract This paper is a documentation of the systematic process of constructing dundun - the most common drum in Yorubaland. Using interview and participant-' observer methods, a collection of data through the aid of audio tape recorder and digital/still camera was embarked upon during a fieldwork carried out in Ilora, Oyo state. After examining the numerous stages in the design and construction of the dundun, the paper went on to describe its playing position. It also stressed the cruciality of providing incontrovertible evidences to challenge the continuous reliance on Western European concepts in the teaching of courses on instrumental technology at the expense of authentic indigenous knowledge systems found in African continent. Finally, the paper posited that the time is ripe for African musicologists to engage in meaningful researches into various aspects of African traditional musical instruments including their tecnnology with a view to documenting, preserving and promoting the rich and invaluable indigenous knowledge systems of Africa. Introduction The dundun is a clear example of West African pattern of double membrane pressure drums. These are drums with bodies curved in the general shape of hourglass, equal membranes on either end side of the drum, secured to tensioning thongs which run longitudinally the whole length of the drum, circling the body. They can be found in a broad area of West Africa stretching from Senegal to as far as Cameroun Republic southwards. Examples of parallel specimens of drums which share resemblance with dundun are donno1, tamba2, hara3, and ajo4 amongst others. Dundun is the generic name for various hourglass shaped pressure drums of the Yoruba. Thieme (1969) unequivocally declared that any discussion of Yoruba traditional musical instruments should logically begin with the dundun drum family. Not only does dundun enjoy widespread popularity of all instruments, its ensemble are also readily accessible and utilized in music making at various religious, ceremonial and social events. The presence of dundun ensemble at any occasion requiring the use of drum is UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Art Re fleet ions 48 most certain in Yorubaland (Qlaniyan; 2007). Even though certain religious music may require the use of specific ensemble associated with a particular deity, but where tradition allows the usage of another instrument or mixed ensembles, the dundun is a ready choice. For example dundun could adequately serve as substitute in the absence of agere drum during 6 gurf‘ festival or isipa odd'. In the same vein, it is not uncommon to find dundun drums obtrusively and effectively combine with the data ensemble during Sango7 festival. Although earlier scholars such as Thieme (1969), Euba (1974 and 1990) as well Olaniyan (1984) have extensively discussed the nature, structural design and forms of change in the making of dundun drum, there is dearth of information on the process of its instrumental technology especially as practised by contemporary drum makers as well as dundun drummers themselves. This is the gap in knowledge that this paper attempts to fill. Information was obtained during interview sessions held with a drum maker/player in ilora and dundun players found in Oyo, Ede, Ogbomoso, and 0§ogbo8. The findings from the fieldwork supported the submissions of scholars and concluded that the technology of dundun drum by and large has relatively remained the same. However, a few modern tools are now being used by carvers and this is aimed at fast tracking construction process. In terms of the layout, the paper, after attempting a discourse of the origin of dundun drum, briefly examines the place of dundun in Yoruba culture. Thereafter, it explained the numerous stages in the design and construction of the drum. In addition, it examined the playing position of the various instruments in a typical dundun ensemble. In the end, the paper makes some suggestions aimed at promoting African indigenous knowledge system and its integration into Nigerian musical arts education, particularly in the area which involves the teaching of music / instrumental technology at the higher institution level. Origin of dundun drum There is no gainsaying that dundun is central to the Yoruba society. The task of asserting a date to the introduction of dundun into Yoruba culture is almost impossible. Evidence is lacking and there is no conclusion that can be drawn with any degree of certainty. Johnson (1921: 121), while listing Yoruba musical instruments included the dundun as one of the seven instruments referred to as "ancient drums". The question which arises then is how old is ancient? Various writers have extensively examined the numerous myths of origin of dundun in Yorubaland. The author will not belabour himself with the various lines of divide, but can only conclude that a silver thread that runs through all the various UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY \i (Reflections 49 traditions regarding the possible origin of the dundun is the conspicuous reference to the name "Ayan". Indeed, a few historians claimed the name referred to a specific person, who was later deified as having borne that name originally. Whatever is the case, the notable fact is that Ayan Agalu is historically believed to be the father of the art of drumming. Laoye (1959: 10) submitted that he was venerated and is today still worshipped as the god of drumming by traditional dundun drummers who are generally known and addressed as Ayan. Bankole et at (1975) agree with this view when they submitted that Ayan is the Yoruba drum deity whose name the members of his families usually use as prefix to their own names, such as Ayanniyi, Ayanwumf and Ayandokun amongst others. Classes of dundun There is a consensus of opinion among my informants that dundun is a broad term covering a number of drums. In other words, what constitute dundun can be further broken into categories. Structure-wise, there are four sub-families of dundun Arum. These are: a) the iyaalu sub family, which consists of iyaalu, isaaju, ikehin and kerikeri b) gangan sub-family, consisting of gangan, kanango and adamo c) koso sub-family d) gudugudu family Both the iyaalu and gangan sub-families look alike in many respects, but they are clearly differentiated from each other by virtue of the shape and size of their shells, and in most cases, thfe colour of their osan (tensioning thongs). Apart from the fact that the iyaalu is larger in size than gangan, it is also visibly differentiated from the other double-headed tension drums by the attachment of sawcro (jingles) to the lower half of each end of the drum. The shell of gangan is characterized by an elongated trunk, whereas the iyaalu is considerably shorter. In addition, the tensioning thongs of iyaalu have an off-white colour, while those of gangan sub-family (with the exception of kanango), all have brown colour tensioning thongs. These two sub-families are much different from the koso and gudugudu sub-families because they are double-headed hourglass tension drums. While koso is single-headed open-ended hourglass drum, the gudugudu on the other hand is neither a tension drum, nor a hourglass shaped drum. Using the Sachs/Hornbostel's taxonometric classification system, its physical features categorizes it as kettledrum. It is referred to as the progenitor of all drums that make up dundun and it is usually combined with the iyaalu sub family. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 50 It is important to note that Yoruba traditional musical instruments most especially membranophones are generally grouped into families. The Yoruba favour combining drums according to their families. It is rare for them to adopt drums singly. Hence, there is the dundun family, bata family, igbin family and so forth. A careful examination of drums associated with different deities would attest to this assertion. For example, the standard number of bata set of drums used during Sango festival, consists of four members namely iyaalu bata, omeie- abo, omeie-ako and kudr, so also is the igbin drum set used for the worship of Obatala consists of four members namely iya nia, iya agan, afere and keke. The notion of family as a vital unit within the entire societal set up is very paramount to the Yoruba. Each family of these ensembles has a principal instrument often referred to as iya (mother) played by the leader of the ensemble. This explains the position of the iyaalu (mother drum) as the principal drum in most Yoruba sets of drums such as dundun, bata, kete and bembe. With regards to the dundun ensemble, gudugudu is referred to as the father, while the children in the family are ome/e isaaju, (supportive forerunner) and omeie ateie or ikehin (supportive follower). In the same vein, the bata set has omeie akg (secondary male) and omeie abo (secondary female) drums. The conventional Western European household unit known as the nuclear family comprises the father, mother, and children. It is essential to note that this is however not the case in African culture. Specifically, the traditional Yoruba family system favours the extended family set up, wherein membership is not restricted to the aforementioned numbers, but extends to uncles, aunties, nephews, nieces and cousins as well as close relations who are all part and parcel of the family and are generally referred to as brothers and sisters. It is in the light of above that there are other supportive members of a drum ensemble or a mixture of two or more distinct instruments combined together. Fo.r example, it is very common to find dundun and sekere instruments combined to form what is known as dundun-sekere ensemble. In some instances, the ensemble could also include aro. At other times, one can find a mixture of distinct ensembles combined as accompaniment on special occasions especially at traditional festivals. This practice is not limited to drumming or instrumentation alone, it seems to permeate the entire Yoruba cultural fibre and governed by what is known as 'the spirit of togetherness' or collective responsibility. This is well embedded and articulated in the following Yoruba sayinos: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 51 SAYING TRANSLATION K i a rin, To walk together is always befitting k ia po, Yiye n i ny'eni, Ka f'gwo To use all hands in cleaning one we owo, another, the hands get completely I'owq fi Cleaned nmo, Ajeje owo A lonely hand will never be able kart kd to lift a calabash up to the head gbe igba d'dri, Agbajo We only use an assembly of owo la f i hands to beat the chest nso'ya, All these can be summarized as "United we stand, Divided we fall". The basis for mutual co-existence among members of any family therefore is governed by the concept of division of labour and leadership-followership operating within the spirit of team work. Component parts of the dundun set The dundun consists of an hourglass-shaped wooden shell known as igi, which acts as the resonator for the instrument. It is often firmly fixed by osan (tensioning thongs) to the drum heads consisting of awo (animal skin). They are firmly fastened in such a way that when pressure is exerted on the strings, both heads are stretched simultaneously to raise the pitch of the drum. On the other hand, a relaxation or release of the strings lowers its pitch. The outer circumference of each drum head is defined by a stiff black leather tube known as egi, acting as a protective binding for the edges of the drum. The osan are made to lie beneath the eg i and are both fastened to the awo by a thin leather UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 52 string known as ogan. Its threading is made visible over the egi as parallel continuous line. Apa - a shoulder strap is then attached to the eg i at both ends of the drum by means okun apa which are leather strings, ide/u is a twisted leather string secured to the trunk of the shell and is used to tie or bend the osan, more or less acting as tuning material, or used to fix the drum's pitch as desired by its player. The dundun drum is played with a curved stick known as opa or kongo. It has a flattened tip, whose end is sometimes enclosed in animal skin of the same thickness as the awo, while the end of the stick, held by the drummer is bound with either a small wrapped piece of cloth or leather depending on player's preference. This is used to cover the base of the stick in order to prevent any form of irritation on the drummer's hand as well as enhance its firm grip. Construction of dundun I C l: The shell is made from the wood of either apa (mahogany bean - Afzelia Africana), omo or ayunre (A/bizzia Mimosaceae). However, irbkd or timber trees can sometimes be used in the absence of the three aforementioned trees. Scholars are not fully agreed as to which of these trees is most preferred by Yoruba carvers. While Abraham (1958) suggested that ayunre is carvers' favourite because it is 'soft and easily carved into spoons, images etc', Laoye's (1959) submission is diametrically opposed to this view. For him, the omo tree (and in its absence, the apa or irbkd tree) is usually the carvers' preferred choice and considered the best because of its ability to resist harsh weather conditions such as high temperature due to excessive sunlight and heat and also low temperature due to rainfall. Akpabot (1986) in support of this view made reference to a Yoruba legend which states that omo tree is usually found by the wayside and it is able to "hear" the conversations of passers-by. As a result, it is able to reflect correctly the Yoruba tones as well as "talk" most eloquently than others. All my informants confirmed that omo tree is best for the construction of dundun. The carver, known as Gbenagbena usually obtains the unprocessed wood by felling an appropriate tree from the forest or bush as the case may be. This is often preceded by a ritual especially if the tree is discovered to be an ako (maie). It is, however, not compulsory to perform any ritual if the tree is an abo (female). Some of the ways to recognize that a tree is an ako are the existence of a hole within a tree or shedding of water by a tree on the ground as if it had rained, and in some cases, the tree is translucent at night. The traditional belief is that an ako tree is inhabited by a spirit and it is essential to propitiate the vengeance of the indwelling spirit with necessary sacrifice before the tree could UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 53 be felled. Failure to do so might have dire consequences on the carver. Euba (1990) gave an example of a ritual exercise that the carver must perform at the foot of the tree before felling an ako tree. The procedure for offering the sacrifice according to him includes bringing of an animal, usually a goat, to the foot of the tree. The blood of the animal is offered along with ekuri? and koianuts. The carver thereafter addresses the tree as follows: ADDRESS TRANSLATION A fe ge iwo ig i y i We wish to cut you, O tree B i pro ba nbe, ko I f there is a sp irit inside, le t kurd it depart Ko ma pa wa Kara May it not harm us Ko ma s i p ’omo wa Or our children Kara Here is your offering o f Etutu re la mu wa pacification, we bring y io It is essential for the carver to wait for another two or three days before returning to fell the tree. The prayer and offerings both serve as quit notice to the spirit, and the 2-3 days given is to allow total evacuation by the indwelling spirit who would have to seek a new place of abode. The next stage is for the carver to divide the felled tree into several portions. The trunk is reserved for making the big drums, while its branches are used for small drums, for example ka.nango. Each of these portions is thereafter carried to the carver's workshop for other necessary processes as soon as possible. This is because the best time to shell the drums is when they are still wet. With the aid of different tools, including axes of different sizes, blades and end points, the carver first constructs the shell of the drum (oru) according to desired shape and length. After this, the line of circumference of the bell known as agogo is marked out. Agogo serves as the connecting joint of each half of the drum shells. Each oru has two chambers consisting of kunrun and keke. These are the inner and outer chambers respectively. The keke is the widest of the three {keke, kunrun and agogo), which according to the carvers is the low tone of the drum. It is followed by kunrun, the middle tone, while agogo happens to be the shortest, and is the high tone. It is evident from the foregoing that the carvers are quite knowledgeable in the law governing its acoustic, which establishes a relationship UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 54 between the level of pitch and the length or size of the vibrating columns, without any mathematical calculation of the oru. At our key informant's workshop10, there were some drum shells under construction, while some others were freshly completed with the following measurements: iyaa/ir. diameter: 8" length: 20" oru. 7.6' Isaaju. diameter: V h length: 14" oru. 7" It is customary for a carver to inscribe his family's insignia at two points on the oru. These are often placed on the kunruris joints with agogo. The carver's symbol represents the house of Ayan and it is the point where libation is poured during the worship of Ayan. Procedure for assembling the parts of dundun drum Multifarious stages are involved in the process of constructing the dundun. It often turns out to be a division of labour because it involves different specialists at every stage. After the Gbenagbena (carver) has carved the wood to the right shape (See plate 1 - appendix - showing the picture o f Emmanuel Ayantanreti with h a lf completed shells in h is workshop at I/ora), Ayan who is the drummer buys the already carved shell of the drum and assembles them himself. Tradition demands that the drum shell which the drummer buys must be covered with a piece of cloth and must never be exposed to public view when it is being transported from the carvers' workshop to Ayan's home. This is because the wood is seen and treated as a newly born and a sacred entity, which must be especially cared for. It is to be 'sanctified' for the spirit of Ayan to possess. As a result, it must be 'pure'. Other materials used include the skin {osan, awo, ogan and icfelu), which are sometimes bought from a leather worker, although the drummer could make them himself. It is also the leather worker who has the responsibility of sewing the igbaju, eg! and apa together. Custom also demands that a ritual must be performed before a drum is constructed from an entirely new shell. According to Ayantanreti, the drummer buys about twelve (12") yards of a piece of white cloth and a pigeon in addition to ekuru and some drinks, which he provides for members of his (Ayan) household. A sacrifice is thus made to Ayan Agaiu. Assemblage of the parts then begins with the drummer using UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 55 water to soften the already dry and processed awo (skin) meant for both heads of the drum. The awo is placed across two openings of the shell and sewed with ogan to the eg/ and osan in such a way that it overlaps the edge of the shell. This is folded back and pasted down. The drummer would require between six to eight (6-8) lengths of leather for the osan before it could cover the entire face. However, about 40 lines of osan would be needed to sufficiently complete this process, ikekere (thin bamboo sticks) are then inserted between the osan (usually a stick per 6 lines of osan) in order to twist the osan and also to exert a little pressure on the drum heads. Each head is fixed in this way and exposed to the sun one after the other until they are both dry. The drummer then, carefully takes off the ikekere one after the other and tightly pulls the twisted lines of osan. This way, he binds the osan slightly in the middle with idk/u and again leaves it in the sun for about a day or two. The next day after the osan is unbound, the drummer rubs them with a hard stone to produce a whitish colour if it is the iyaalu. They are now tightly tied and again placed in the sun for another whole day, after which it is then ready for playing. Before playing the drum for the first time, an elder, usually from the Ayan family is called upon to pray over it. He invokes the spirit of Ayan Agalu to 'possess' the drum in order to bring good fortune and not bad luck to its owner/player. He further supplicates that the professional tool would be utilized for the well being of the player in order to elicit favourable response from listeners especially patrons who would in turn show deep appreciation to the player. Libation is thereafter poured and prayers said in respect of the just constructed drum. Tuning the dundun Even though the dundun drummer may not have a definite prescribed mode for determining the exact pitches to tune each of the drums, he, nevertheless, relies on his long standing experience to tune each instrument of a given ensemble in relative order of lowness or highness to one another. Tuning is done by ear. In practical terms, the secondary drums - isaaju, atele and kerikeri are all tightly bound in the middle with each of them tuned to a fixed pitch. The iyaalu, being the real 'talking drum’ is not tied as others to allow its player who is the leader to freely make use of all the pitches through the tightening and releasing of the tensioning thongs (osan). For the iyaalu, looseness of the osan is an advantage especially for talking. The drummer usually ties its strings and leaves it in the sun for about an hour or two, after which it is untied in order to achieve desired lowest pitch from which graduation to higher tones could then be made. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtRellcctions 56 Playing position and technique of performance The normal thing is to carry tension drum on the left shoulder by means of the shoulder strap in a suspended manner. The kongg, held on the right hand is used to strike the surface of the drum on the thinner side. The smaller tension drums such as kanango are usually made to rest under the player's armpit, while the bigger drums such as iyaatu and kerikeri are made to rest against the hip­ bone of the player. The head-to-head line of the tension drum is roughly parallel with the ground incline upwards at about angle 45 degree. As mentioned earlier, the drummer raises the pitch of the drum by pulling the thongs (tightening it), while its relaxation (releasing the thongs) causes the lowering of pitches to be produced (See plates 2 and 3 of the appendix for illustrations). a) Iyaa tu dun dun: Of all the Yoruba drums, the iyaatu dundun is the most "talkative". Indeed, numerous scholars have reported that the Yoruba hourglass shaped drum is most notably used as speech surrogate because of its wide range of pitches. First, it acts as the leader of the ensemble. Indeed, it is seen as the overall head of the dundun. The iyaatu player in traditional ensemble is thus the leader and coordinator of the performance. Secondly, it has more variety in its patterns than other instruments in the ensemble. Through appropriate manipulation of the tension thongs, the drum is made to imitate the pitch inflections and accents as well as slides and glissandi. It is clearly distinguished from other members of the ensemble in terms of size and most importantly because of saworo (decorative beils) attached to it. Generally speaking, the iyaatu dundun is traaitionally used to recite praise poetry of individuals, make proverbial and philosophical statements like the one illustrated in example 1 below: M usical Example 1: C ir £i M * b • Jt M j jr ' * * | 4 e ■ & ‘ f ' 4 v -----------4---------------- i r f ......- Y - ‘ * ......... f - ~~ n " -■ O ni ie ni o ni eba fun <) ni le ni o ni jilvj fun a oba ra o ko Vo un o ni le wo, <). in le UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReilections 57 b) Concept of ome/e It has earlier been pointed out that the Yoruba drum ensembles are classified based on family unit comprising father, mother and children with relatives as members. Omole comes from the word 'om o-iH which means 'children in the family'. There are usually two {isaaju and ate/e) and their role is subsidiary, with isaaju as the forerunner or front guard and ate/e as the follower or rearguard. They are both discussed below: i) Ome/e-isaaju Isaaju is a double membrane stick beaten drum. It is about 28cm in length and 11cm in circumference. Just like other subsidiary drums, it lacks the decorative bells (saworo). isaaju is often tied at the middle, thus its pitch is restricted to one. Consequently, it is saddled with rhythmic role. In terms of its playing position, it is held under the armpit and played with kongo. Just as its name - front guard or forerunner indicates, it is the first to begin to play out of the subsidiary (secondary) drums and its major role is to maintain the rhythm and tempo set by the iyaa/u. Example 2 below is a rhythmic pattern for isaaju. M usical Example 2: isaaju :r z n ii) Ate/e This is a smaller subsidiary drum compared with isaaju, it is also tied and plays interlocking rhythm with isaaju. M usical Example 3: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtRetlections 58 c) Kerikeri Kerikeri is the largest of the double membrane pressure drums in dundun. In some cases however, it could be about the same size with the iyaalu. Kerikeri, also known as Aguda is about 35cm long and about 15cm in diameter. Its leather thongs are tied at the middle and its role in the ensemble is often to punctuate the accents. Below is an example: M usical example 4\ }= 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - j - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - kerikeri / H i. . ._ . . . . . . L J t . l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i J l j _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I J • - 4 - . . - J L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1 d) Gudugudu Gudugudu, also known as opon is a single headed bowl-like framed membrane drum, hung around the neck in front of the player. Its component parts are as follows: (a) igi, (b) egi, (c) osan, (d) kusanrin, (e) ekan, (f) awo, (g) ida, (h) oja, (i) mojawere oja, (j) ogan, and (k) Hagba. The ig i is the wood from which the drum shell is made. Egi is the overlapping portion of the gudugudds head that is folded back over a string to stiffen its head. Instead of using goat's skin as in the case of iyaalu and others, the practice in the case of gudugudu is to use the skin of etu (Maxwell's Duicker - Philantomba Montico/or Maxwellii) because it is thicker, tougher and more durable. The osan with which gudugudu is made is obtained from esuro (Ceph/ophys Ruiilatus or Reaflanked Duicker), while ekan are the tuning pegs carved from the wood known as ijan. An iron ring manufactured by a blacksmith known as kusanrin is used to hold the tuning pegs to the base of the shell. One notable part of gudugudu is the ida. It is a black paste placed on the surface of the membrane for tone variation. Dundun players usually buy ida from bata players who normally have it in large quantities. All bata drums have ida on their surfaces. Ida is also one major feature which an instrument in dundun ensemble shares with the bata. In fact, Ayantanreti used the presence of ida to justify his proposed theory of dundurfs evolution as being traceable to bata, more so that gudugudu is regarded as the genesis and progenitor of all dundun drums. Oja (a strip of woven cloth) used to hang gudugudu around the neck in front of the player, mojawere oja and ogan are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 59 common to the iyaatu and others, the ilagba also known as bilala is the last part. It is cut into two and used to play the gudugudu. Construction and playing position of gudugudu After the carver had shaped the wood to desired dimension, the drummer softens the processed skin for the drum head in water and thereafter attaches it to the shell in such a way that it is slightly wider than the shell's circumference. In doing so, he carefully allows the overlapped portion to be folded back to form the eg i before sewing it on to the osan, which had been arranged in groups of 4 - 6 around the body of the drum. All these are looped together at the kusanrin which is at the base. Each strand of osan is tightly pulled as they are put in place after which the drum is put in the sun to dry. The following day, the osan are re­ tightened before the tuning pegs are installed to achieve desired tone. The drummer taps the surface of the membrane to check the sound, and if need be, makes necessary adjustments until he is satisfied. Next, the ida, which can last four years, is then fixed on the centre of the head. Finally, the oja and Hagba are attached and construction is completed. In the case of gudugudu, the player wears the oja (neck strap) around his neck in a manner that the drum rests on the player's stomach with the head facing outwards, gudugudu player alternatively uses a pair of bilala or osan held on both hands to play the instrument. To produce a low pitch, the surface of the ida is beaten, while the membrane surface is played to produce a high pitch. All drummers stated that the repeated text of gudugudu part is 'bo tan, ma tun r'okd, and also 'Baba ma jly a n tad as illustrated in example 4 below: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtRefleclions 60 Musical example 4: .'=100 gtlduguclil Je gu du je gu du. je gu du.jo gu du; gu du gu du ye ge. gud u gu d u .yege All the drummers interviewed agreed that during the annual worship of Ayan, gudugudu takes the centre stage and signifies the object of worship. Repairs and maintenance of dundun The durability of any instrument is,, by and large, subject to its maintenance. A well built and well maintained dundun could last up to four years or more before it would need major overhauling. With the exception of the heads of the tension drum, which are replaced from time to time, most other component parts of the dundun such as the osan (skin) and ig i (shell) do not wear out easily as they are known to be able to withstand serious pressure from incessant playing. Indeed, it is generally agreed among most dundun drummers that the durability of the instrument is subject to the frequency of its utility. In other words, it is made to be long-lasting, if it is played frequently. Recommendations and Conclusion In the face of increasingly global domination of Western technological advancement with its threatening effects of relegating indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) of Africa to the background, the time is now when all well meaning African musicologists would rise to defend their heritage by engaging in intensive research projects. These efforts should be aimed at providing sound theoretical foundation upon which the teaching of courses in music technology in Nigeria's higher institutions would be based. Proper and systematic UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Art Reflection: 61 documentation of instrumental technology of African traditional musical instruments would not only serve as useful advocacy tools for adoption of authentic IKS into Nigeria's music programme, but also provide incontrovertible evidences to critically argue against continued domination of western form of music education with its attendant inconsequential effect of disorienting the African young learner and its unjustifiable demeaning position. The potentials of indigenous instrument makers could be better harnessed by musicologists through collaboration and on partnership basis especially where grants and fundings are made available. The advantages of this in the efforts towards standardization of indigenous instruments in order to break through the current cultural barriers and make them internationally acceptable cannot be overemphasized. When success is finally achieved in this area, mass production of these instruments would enhance higher productivity and invariably boost Nigeria's national economy as the nation navigates through turbulent seas to become self sufficient in many areas. In the end, the countrv and its citizens stand to benefit from their hard earned labour. Endnotes 1 a Ghanaian pressure drum as noted by Nketia (1963: 14-19) 2 a pressure drum found in Guinea as pointed out by Schaeffner (1951: 62) 3 a Dahomean drum of Republic of Benin 4 found in the Tiv area of Nigeria according to Lane (1954: 13) 5 Yoriiba god of iron 6 a special burial rite performed by members of hunters' guild for a departed colleague 7 Yoruba god of thunder and lightening 8 Tnese are incontrovertibly prominent Yoriiba towns where dundun drumming tradition is widely preserved to date. 9 a type of food made from cowpea 10 iri Ilora UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 62 References Abraham, R.C. (1958) Dictionary o f modern Yoruba. London: University of London Press. Akpabot, S.E. (1986) Foundation o f Nigerian traditional music. Ibadan: Spectrum Books. Bankole A., J. Bush, S.H Samaan, K. Anyidoho, M. Alafuele and I.A. Ebong (1975) The Yoruba master drummer. African Arts, 8 (2) pp. 48-56, 77-78. Euba, A. (1974) Dundun music of the Yoruba. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Legon, Ghana ________ (1990) Yoruba drumming: The Dundun tradition. Bayreuth: African Studies Series. Johnson, S. (1921) The history o f the Yorubas: From the earliest tim es to the beginning o f the British protectorate. Lagos, Nigeria: C.S.S. Bookshop. Laoye I (1959) Yoruba drums. Odu, 7, 5 - 12. Olaniyan, C.O. (1984) The composition and performance technique of Dundun- sekere music of Southwestern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Belfast. ___________ (2007) Male/female dichotomy of African drums: Guide to the instrumental organization of Yoruba drumming. African musicology on-line Vol 1 (1) pp. 66 - 76. Thieme, D.L. (1969) A descriptive catalogue of Yoruba musical instruments. Ph.D Dissertation. Catholic University of America UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtReflections 64 Plate 2: lyaa/u dundun drummer applying pressure to produce a high pitch UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ArtRefiecfions UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY