Professor Isaac Olawale Albert Editors: Elias Suleiman Bogoro Matt Meyer Nathaniel D. Danjibo IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Readings in Peace and Conflict Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert Edited by Elias Suleiman Bogoro Matt Meyer Nathaniel D. Danjibo Society for Peace Studies and Practice IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Publislied by Society for Peace Studies and Practice (SPSP) No.9, Parry Road, Institute for Peace and Strategie Studies University of Ibadan, Ibadan. © Society for Peace Studies and Practice (SPSP) First published 2019 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval System, or transmitted, in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of thè authors, who are thè copyright owners. ISBN:978-978-975-945-3 IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Contents Acknowledgements xi Preface xii Foreword xiv 1 Introduction: African Peace Studies: A Continental History Of A Dynamic And Growing Field 3 — Matt Meyer 2 Interrogating The Nature And Politics Of Identity: Sustainable Development Goals AndT he Future Of Developing Plural Societies 17 — Adebola Babatunde Ekanola 3 Philosophy And Practice Of Peace In West Africa 23 — Benjamin Adeniran Aluko 4 Peace And Conflict Sensitivity Theory 36 — Demola Akinyoade, PhD 5 An Afro-centric Theory Of Ethno-Religious Crisis: Way To National Unity In Nigeria 52 — Akin-Otiko, Akinmayowa 6 The Nigerian State, Crisis Of Peace, Security, And Development 61 — Dr Ibeh, Chukwuemeka Emmanuel 7 The Politicai Economy Of Insecurity In Nigeria 78 — Jide Ojo 8 Traumatizing The Trauma: The Influence Of Dispositional Optimism On Psychological Well-Being Of Intemally Displaced Persons Among A 83 Nigerian Population — Ruth Ochanya Adio-Moses & Oyesoji Aremu 9 Theoretical Explanations Of Insurgency And Counterinsurgency In Contemporary Nigeria 90 — James Okolie-Osemene 10 Education And Nation-Building In Nigeria: Combating Contemporary Security Challenges 98 — Elijah Olu. Abiala 11 Skewed Composition Of The Labour Force As A Driver Of Insecurity In Nigeria 110 — Professor Tajudeen Akanji v IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 12 Entrenching And Strengthening Peace Education In The Nigerian School Curriculum For Peace Building And Sustainability In Nigeria 122 — Prof. Danladi Atu(Fica) 13 History, Evolution And Nature Of Peace And Conflict Studies 130 — Kingsley C. W. Udegbunam 14 Intelligence Gathering And The Third World: Nigeria In 2019 141 — Dr. Oluremi Modupe Albert 15 Good Govemance As Panacea For Conflict And Insecurity In Nigeria 149 — Angela Ajodo-Adebanjoko, PhD. 16 Nigeria’ Oil Resource And Its Exploration Experience: Resource Management For Sustainable Economy 163 — Ademola, Emmanuel Oluniyi 17 The Perceptions Of Stakeholders On The Context And Environmental Conflicts Of Genetically Modified Foods (GMOS) In Nigeria 175 — Gbarada Olugbenga and Egunjobi ‘Layi 18 Media And National Security In Nigeria: A Narrative Review 190 — Abdullahi Yalwa and NazifAbba Pali 19 A Theoretical Analysis Of Separatisi Agitation In Nigeria 196 — Samuel Osagie Odobo 20 Controlling Small Arms For Sustainable Peace In Nigeria: Issues And Challenges 208 — Chinyere N. Alimba (Ph.D) 21 Security Dilemma Of Cross-Border Governance In Nigeria 222 — Willie Eselebor, PhD 22 Policing And Challenges Of Post-Conflict Environment In Nigeria 232 — Idowu Johnson, Ph.D. 23 Involvement Of The Nigerian Military In Elections: A Dangerous Trend For Democracy In Nigeria 242 — Francesca Essien Ph.D. 24 The Emerging Roles Of Security Intelligence Service In Advanced Democracies Towards Strengthening Global Security 252 — Temitope Francis Abiodun (Ph.D) 25 School Safety And National Integration In A Distraught Society 264 — Amos Oyesoji Aremu 1 26 The Dilemma of Not Seeing Outside from Inside and thè Inside from thè Outside in thè Nigerian Religious Mirrar 272 — Prof. Jacob Kehinde Ayantayo and Mrs. Njideka Gloria Ayantayo vi IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 27 Societal Institutions And Impact In Promoting Peace Education In Nigeria 283 — Iroye Samuel Opeyemi, Phd 28 Problems Of Collaboration On Internai Security Issues 292 — Adi C. Isaac 29 Challenges Of Reintegration In The Building Of Post-Insurgency North East, Nigeria 300 — Saheed Babajide Owonikoko, Ph.D 30 Internally Displaced Persons And The Challenges Of Human Security 312 — Adesiyan Victor PhD, Aje Olajumoke and Obioma Faith 31 Emotional Intelligence In Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism: Beyond The Cacophony Of Legal-Mindedness 325 — Olanrewaju Abdulwasii Oladejo, Ph.D Conflict Management & Resolution 32 Track Five Diplomacy: The Role of Peace Education in Peacebuilding 345 — Cliibuzor Chile Nwobueze, Ph.D 33 Complex Dimensions Of Violence: Investigating The Main Issues In The Niger Delta Crisis 353 — Fidelis A. E. Paki 34 Insurgency And Human Security: Social Dislocation and Boko Haram Terrorism In North East 365 — Simeon Oludele-Ajiboye 35 Crisis Of Confidence As Bane Of Community Development: Conflict Between The Nigerian Liquefied Naturai Gas Company And Bonny Community In Rivers State, Nigeria 377 — Olusola, O. Isola, Ph.D and Yemi Oginni 36 Nomadism, Rural Violence And The Challenge Of Securing The Nigerian State: An Analysis Of The Fulani Herdsmen Attacks In Benue State 386 — John Tor Tsuwa Ph.D and Jude Odigbo 37 The Imperatives Of Peace Education In A Traumatised Democracy 396 — Prof. Olabisi Olasehinde-Williams 38 Environmental Threats And Human Security In Nigeria: Imperative Of A National Integrated Management Framework 405 — Freedom C. Onuoha, Phd, FDC 39 Consolidating ECOWAS Peace And Security Agenda In West Africa: Contributions Of Civil Society Organizations 420 — Chukwuemeka B. Eze & Osei Baffour Frimpong vii IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 40 Insurgency And Population Displacement In North-East Nigeria: An Assessment Of State Management Strategies 432 — Kelvin Ashindorbe Ph.D. and Seuil Bamidele 41 Rechanneling Conflict Management In The Face Of Media Commercìalization: The Dynamics Of Television-Driven Peacemaking 442 In Nigeria — Temitope Yetunde Bello (Ph.D) 42 Engaging Traditional Institutions In Social Mobilization And Peace-Building: What Role For Monarchs? 451 — Mathias Jarikre Ph.D mspsp 43 How Far Did It Go? Emergency Rule And The Management Of Boko Haram Grisis In Northern Nigeria 457 — Nathaniel D. Danjibo and Amos M. Andekin 44 Farmers’-Herders’ Crisis In Nigeria: A Basis For Sustaining Peace Approach? 470 — Gbemisola Abdul-Jelil Animasawun Ph.D 45 Justice And Reconciliation:Assessing Transnational Justice In Colombia 480 — Olomojobi, Yinka and Omoigerale, Omonye 46 Examining Threats to Global Peace in thè 21st Century 498 — Obi, Ndifon Neji, PhD 47 Reviewing thè Management of Inter-communal land conflicts in Nigeria: A Case for Interactive Conflict Resolution 508 — Olubunmi Damilola Akande and Olaoluwa Babatunde Adeyanju Oyinloye Ph.D. Peace Policy and Governance 48 Civil-Military Relations And Human Rights Violations In The Context Of Hybrid Warfare In The North East Of Nigeria 523 — Jude, A. Momodu, Ph.D. 49 Humanitarian And Peace Diplomacy: The United States And The Nigeria-Biafra War, 1967-1970 531 — Hakeem Ibikunle Tijani 50 Mainstreaming Peace-building In Development Planning: Implications For The Agenda 2030 In Nigeria 544 — Philip Terzungwe Vande, Ph.D. 51 Truth Commissions And The Challenge Of National Reconciliation In Transitional Democracies In Africa 556 — Adeo la Adams Ph.D. 52 Understanding The Normative Frameworks And Motivations Behind The United Nations - African Union Partnership In Peace Operations 567 — Festus Kofi Aubyn IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 53 Promoting Peace Through Preventive Diplomacy And Mediation: ECOWAS’ Efforts In Guinea Bissau 580 — Brown Odigie, Ph.D Gender and Peace-Building 54 Gender, Peace And Conflict 592 — Adimula, Ruth Abiola, Ph.D 55 Stuck In The Middle: A Legai Perspective Of Sexual Harassment Conflicts In The Workplace 608 — Alerò Akeredolu 56 Beyond Women: Engendering Violent Conflicts In West Africa 619 — Funmilayo I. Agbaje 57 African Women In Multi-Track, Preventive Diplomacy 627 Olaifa Temitope 58 Interrogating War Against Women In Africa As Threat To Peace And Security 641 — Preye Kuro Inokoba, PhD. 59 Women-Based NGOs And The Domestication Of The UNSCR 1325 On Women, Peace And Security In The Global South 655 — Eweka Osagioduwa and Sharon Adetutu Omotoso PhD Case Studies of Peace Interventions 60 Frustration And Violent Extremism In Nigeria: The Niger Delta Struggle And Boko Haram Experiences 670 — Brig. General Jones Arogbofa (Rtd), fspsp, cfr 61 Understanding Trends And Dynamics Of Illicit Small Arms And Light Weapons Proliferation In Southwest Nigeria 686 — Dr Fateti Stephen A. 62 Consequences Of ASUU Strikes On Academic Staff Members Of The University Of Ibadan. 694 — Aiyelari, Titilola Esther 63 Bwari Conflict And Its Management 706 — Martinlutlier Nwaneri (Ph.D.) and Ikechukwu Maxwell Ukandu 64 The Gains Of Peaceful Approaches To Conflict Settlement: Case Studies Of Nigeria-Cameroon; Egypt-Israel And Namibia-Bostwana 721 — David U. Enweremadu, Ph.D i 65 Warfare and Diplomacy In Pre-Colonial Igboland: The Case Of Nnewi Community 731 —- Chidume, Chukwudi Godwin Ph.D. IX IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 66 The Contradiction Of Riches: Petro-Business And The Impoverished Locai People In Nigeria’s Niger Delta 737 — Abosede Omowumi Babatunde, PhD. 67 Environmental Governance, Corruption And Human Security In Oyo State, Nigeria 749 — Yusuf Olanrewaju 68 The Role Of Civil Society In The Release Of The Abducted Chibok And Dapchi Schoolgirls In Nigeria 757 — Dr. Alalibo Sinikiem Johnson 69 Exit Strategies of thè United Nations and thè Economie Community of West African States Peacekeeping Operations in Liberia 769 — Fiifi Edu-Affai (Ph.D) 70 Reconstructing Militia Uprising In The Niger Delta: Implications For National Security 783 — Ojo Olusola Matthew, Ph.D. 71 Party Politics, Internai Democracy and Politicai Violence in Nigeria’s Fourth Democratic Experience 794 — Oyebode Musibau Olabamiji, Ph.D. 72 Conclusioni Peace and Conflict Research in Africa: Reasons, Prospects and Challenges 804 — Elias Suleiman Bogoro and Nathaniel D. Danjibo Curriculum Vitae 813 Index 850 • J i . |I X IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Acknowledgments Consulting Editors Professor Jacob Kehinde Ayantayo Dr Benjamin Adeniran Aluko Dr Adeola Adams I will like to acknowledge thè immense contributions of Professor Elias Suleiman Bogoro, thè Board Chairman of thè Society for Peace Studies and Practice (SPSP) in ensuring this book sees thè light of day. Great appreciation goes to Professor Is-haq Oloyode, thè Registrar of thè Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), for thè foreword of this book. The technical contributions of Professor J.K. Ayantayo remain commendable. I cannot, but recali vvith gratitude, thè Editorial and Secretarial Services of Mr. Gabriel Ojo and Bukola Omolawon Magbaralewon. The great sacrifice of time, expertise and commitment of Mr. Lekan Olagunju who abandoned his schedules in Abuja to come down to Ibadan to painstakingly supervise thè production of this book within an incredibly short time-frame is highly appreciated. Finally, I acknowledge thè efforts of thè contributing authors. Dr. Nathaniel D. Danjibo National President, SPSP, National Institute for Peace and Strategie Studies, University of Ibadan XI IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Preface Professor Isaac Olawale Albert successfully midwifed thè commencement of one of thè very first academic peace studies in Africa. The processes leading to it was sponsored by thè British Council W est Africa in 1996 and thè first batch of MA students was admitted in 2000. The Peace and Conflict Studies Programme in thè University of Ibadan instantaneously became thè pride of thè University. The programme has not only developed thè capacity of students, security personnel and even academics, it has consistently combined theoretical with practical methods to engender peace education using training workshops, talk-shops, seminars and colloquium. The sheer volume and diversity of academic papers in this Festschrift clearly demonstrate thè resounding impact of peace studies, and reveals a rapidly growing awareness of thè criticai role of human engineering in bringing thè gown to town. As a pioneer of Peace and Conflict Studies in Nigeria and as a prodigious author in related fields, Professor Albert has unwittingly created a school of peace-builders whose constructive roles in nation-building can neither be downplayed nor neglected. It is not surprising that he was recently awarded Full Membership of Chatham House in London (113597). Similar awards had earlier come to him from several universities in Nigeria and Ghana. This book consists of seventy two chapters. The introductory chapter provides thè foreground. Thirty articles focus on theoretical issues; sixteen on conflict management and resolution; six examine peace policy and govemance; six critically analyze gender and peace-building; twelve re-examine case studies on peace interventions. The concluding chapter is on peace and conflict research in Africa. It is interesting to note that over twelve accomplished academics, majority of who passed through thè tutelage of Professor Albert contributed chapters to thè book using objective, passionate, empirical approaches for examining sociological, religious, ethical, psychological, educational, security, medicai, and professional perspectives. Contributors to thè book not only cut across thè six geographical zones of Nigeria, there are others beyond thè shores of this country. This indicates a symbolic and indeed, significant “all encompassing” nature of thè book and clearly nuanced thè thè foot print of Prof Albert on Peace and Conflict Studies. In this regard, I have no doubt that this book will serve as invaluable resource material to scholars in Peace and Conflict Studies; remain a toolkit for Curriculum Development on Contemporary Peace and Security matters in Nigeria and, by extension, thè African continent. This is thè dream of Prof Albert, whose main academic interest has been fixated on developing peace IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY studies programmes and producing Afrocentric publications for supporting their growth in thè context of thè mantra of “African Solutions to African problems.” Therefore, this book is adequately situated to enhance policy formulation and implementation in thè Nigerian and African polity, now and in thè nearest future. Professor Jacob Kehinde Ayantayo Professor of Religious Ethics, Religion and Society, and Religious Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan xiii IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Foreword The 21st Century marked a significant watershed in thè history of violence and peace processes worldwide. After thè collapse of thè Berlin Wall (towards thè end of thè last Century), thè world swiftly moved to thè direction of peace- building activities to support world peace, security and development. New peace actors and credible platforms began to emerge to institute peace structures at various spadai and themadc levels across various regions. Happily, Africa has remained a major participant in these peace struggles. Having experienced violent overthrow of govemments, armed conflicts, inter-communal wars, electoral violence, inter-religious cum ethnic violence and lately, terrori sm and insurgency, thè continent has been devising its own internai mechanisms for responding proactively to these challenges. Part of these efforts manifested in thè establishment of peace and conflict studies programmes at thè tertiary education levels to promote research on peace and peace-building strategies and consequently skew thè minds of thè younger generation towards peace and peaceful co-existence. Two decades ago, thè first, and perhaps, thè largest Peace and Conflict Studies programme in Africa was introduced at thè University of Ibadan, Nigeria. This re-established Nigeria’s leading rote in thè campaign for instituting thè culture of peace and non-violence on thè continent. Today, Nigerian universities offer Peace Studies either as a General Studies (GS) programme or as a full-time degree programme. Graduands of Peace Studies now occupy positions of influence and leadership in many intemational and sub-regional bodies including thè United Nations (UN), African Union (AU) and thè Economie Community of West African States (ECOWAS), apart from thè academia. History and dimensions of Peace Studies in Africa would be incomplete without reference to Professor Isaac Olawale Albert, an academic titan and intellectual colossus who initiated thè first academic programme in thè discipline in thè entire black Africa; and in whose honour this book is published. His monumentai scholarship is unrivalled and has created a niche for him globally just as his publications in Peace, Security and Conflict Studies are available in various libraries and institutions across thè globe. He is one of thè finest and most reputable peace practitioners that ever carne out of Africa. XIV IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY During my tenure as thè Vice-Chancellor of thè University of Ilorin (2007-2012), Professor Albert helped establish thè Peace Studies programme in thè University of Ilorin. He also established thè Centre for Peace and Strategie Studies (CPSS) in 2009; graciously served as pioneer Director; and consequently laid a solid and formidable foundation for thè Centre. The publication of thè Dynamics o f Peace Processes (2010), which I co-edited with him, is an eloquent testimony to a major milestone achieved within a year of serving in Ilorin. No doubt, his experience at thè University of Ilorin provided impetus for thè establishment of thè Institute for Peace and Strategie Studies (IPSS), University of Ibadan, in 2015. Here, too, Professor Albert also served as pioneer Director. No befitting 60,h “birthday gift” could have been more suitable for such an impactful and impressive scholar than this Festschrift, a priceless text and cruciai study material for thè teeming scholars, practitioners and students of Peace and Strategic/Conflict/Security/Development Studies across Africa. I equally appreciate thè Society for Peace Studies and Practice (SPSP) for initiating .thè project. Let me congratulate thè contributors to Readings in Peace and Conflict: Essays in Honour o f Professor Isaac Olawale Albert @ 60 for producing deeply- engaging, well-researched and intellectually-stimulating essays. Finally, as Francis Bacon once wrote, “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few are to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention,” I believe that this book will be found to belong to thè last category by serious-minded students, scholars and researchers in Peace and related Studies. Happy reading. Prof. Is-haq O. Oloyede, OFR, FNAL, fspsp Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Ilorin Registrar, Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) October, 2019 XV IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa BENJAMIN ADENIRAN ALUKO Institute for Peace and Strategie Studies, University oflbadan, Nigeria 3 INTRODUCTION Since thè end of thè Cold War in thè late 1980s, until very recently when there was a resurgence of intemational conflicts as witnessed between North Korea and United States of America, there has been a paradigm shift in thè context and coment of violent conflicts in thè world. The ending of thè Cold War between thè Western powers led by thè United States and thè Eastern Communist block under thè overarching control of thè then Soviet Union, ended one era of conflict in Africa and ushered in a contrasting era (Furley 1995:7).International conflicts receded while there is increase in what Kador (2007) called new wars - national conflicts in most parts of Africa especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The situation in thè sub-Saharan Africa was exemplified in thè writings of Adebajo, (2011: 139) when he posits: “ ....West Africa has been among thè most volatile regions in thè world. Locai brushfires have raged from Liberia to Sierra-Leone to Guinea- Bussau to Senegai to Cote I’voire in an interconnected web of instability.” Indeed, conflicts constitute a major threat to African development in terms of loss of human life, destruction of property and of huge resources meant for improving infrastructure and promoting sustainable development into arms purchase and funding of expensive peacekeeping support operations (Albert, 2008). In Liberia, there was a 14-year civil war which started on 24 December, 1989, that consumed almost 300,000 lives, worsened thè nation’s abysmally poor infrastructure and thè debilitating material conditions of thè mass of thè Liberian people. The war in Liberia nurtured thè already volatile politicai situation in Sierra-Leone as a rebel group, thè Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by Foday Sankoh, launched a two-pronged attack from National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) controlled territory in Liberia against President Momoh’s All People’s Congress (APC) led govemment in Sierra-Leone in March 1991. Though thè conflicts in these countries have been substantially managed, thè spate of violent conflicts in thè sub-Saharan Africa is far from dwindling as many countries in thè sub-region are currently experiencing one form of violent conflict or thè other. Lately, thè Boko Haram insurgency which started in Nigeria in 2009 has become an intractable conflict ravaging and destabilizing thè North-East of thè country and other sovereign States in thè sub-region. Flowing from these experiences, West Africa’s leaders, regional and intemational organizations, intemational non-governmental organizations and locai civil society organizations have done a lot in terms of institutionalizing structures and mechanisms to create peace, mitigate conflicts and promote sustainable peace in thè sub-region. Despite these efforts, West Africa is yet to be at peace with itself. It is therefore appropriate that we continue to interrogate thè challenges of peace and efforts that have been deployed in West Africa to deal with these challenges (Chambas, 2015). This becomes imperative in light of thè need to articulate a more pragmatic and effective strategies for thè promotion of peace in thè West Africa sub-region. IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 24 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert Against this background, within thè purview of thè three strands that, broadly speaking, encapsulate thè practice of peace in thè sub-region, namely, thè state approach (track one), thè civil society organizations approach (track two), and what may be referred to as thè hybrid approach, which encompasses thè traditional methods of making peace, managing conflict and promoting peaceful co-existence among thè people, this chapter examines thè principles that underline thè practice of peace in thè sub-region. It also examines thè relevance of African philosophical approaches and practices to peace, conflict management and peacebuilding and articulates how best to address thè violent conflict unleashed on thè Nigerian state and her neighbours by thè Boko Haram insurgents. This exercise is undertaken with thè consciousness that thè quest for development and improved material conditions of thè people of thè sub-region and elsewhere can only be achieved in thè context of peace and tranquility which, to say thè least, has become elusive. The 2016 Global Peace Index (GPI) shows clearly that a number of thè countries in thè West Africa sub-region are occupying thè lowest rung of thè peace scale. Indeed, Nigeria, thè leading nation in thè region in terms of resources and influence, is in thè 149th position out of thè 163 countries captured in thè GPI report. Mali, another country in thè sub- region, is occupying 137th position. With thè exception of Ghana that has a relatively commendable showing being 44th, other countries in thè sub-region are occupying unenviable positions on thè peace scale (GPI, 2016). THE CONCEPT OF PEACE It is important in this paper that we interrogate thè meaning of thè concept of "peace” with a view to providing a conceptual framework that would guide our exposition of thè subject matter: philosophy and thè practice of peace in Africa. The clarification of thè meaning of thè concept of “peace” becomes imperative in light of thè multiplicity of perceptions on what thè word connotes. The plethora of definitions adduced for thè concept “peace” is largely because of its universal appeal as every society and individuai have conceived it from their cultural, religious, ideological and intellectual perspectives. The term features prominently in thè two leading religions in thè world, Christianity and Islam. For example, thè popular Christian salutation ‘Shalom’ and thè Muslim equivalent, ‘Asalaam aleikum’ - mean ‘Peace be unto you’ (Albert, 2008:33). In all other religions, including what is generally referred to as thè African Traditional Religion (ATR), diverse meanings of thè idea of peace is enunciated. Moreover, scholars from diverse intellectual backgrounds and orientations have given various definitions of thè idea of peace. This accounts for definitions that are reflective of disciplinary identities such as: sociological definition of peace and philosophical definition of peace. The point we are trying to establish is that thè word “peace” has been conceptualized and operationalized in many ways. Consequently, it is contended that “an important task in peace research has always been and will always be thè exploration of thè concept of peace” (Galtung, 1981:183). Indeed, thè precarious security profile of thè world today, defined largely by terrorism and all forms of violent extremism and thè quest for a peaceful world is deepening thè crisis of definition associated with thè concept “peace”. Siddiqi, in his Ph.D. proposai titled “The Role of Islam in Establishing Peace in thè Contemporary World” encapsulates thè global concern for peace when he points out that “Peace is considered thè greatest good in thè world today and is thè greatest need of thè contemporary world”. Etymologically speaking, thè word peace Comes from thè Latin femmine noun ‘pax’ from which thè English word “peace” is derived. The term peace has varied connotations such as: “thè reaching of agreement between two parties; respect for others; quality of life; peaceful time; civil safety and security” (The Oxford International Encyclopedia o f Peace, 2010: 350). Earlier, this conception of peace is captured in thè Webster Dictionary as “a state of tranquillity or quiet: freedom from civil disturbance: a state of security or order within a community provided for by law or custom; specifically, absence or cessation of war; a state of reconciliation after strife or enmity” (Webster Dictionary, 2001: 927). IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 25 Although peace is a value that is centrai to thè accomplishment of societal goal and individuai well-being, there is lack of consensus among scholars and even among thè adherents of thè leading religions on what constitutes peace. However, it is widely accepted that peace and war are opposites. Albert (2007:33) reiterates this when he writes: “The most simplistic but popular understanding of peace is that it is thè opposite of conflict or violence”. Thus, generally speaking, peace is defined as thè opposite of war or converse of war. This idea of peace has been seriously criticized as being too narrow a conception as it only recognizes physical form of violence to thè exclusion of other variants of violence, such as psychological and structural. Joan Galtung, a Norwegian peace scholar, in thè editorial to thè first edition of thè Journal o f Peace Research, introduced a new concept to peace studies when he labelled this conception of peace as ‘negative peace’. The Norwegian peace theorist, Galtung, expanded thè defmition of peace with his exposition of what he calls thè two dimensions of peace, namely, negative peace and positive peace. According to him, negative peace represents absence of direct violence and war and positive peace depicts thè absence of direct violence plus thè absence of unjust structures, which he calls structural violence. His idea of positive peace is one where socio-economie and politicai conditions for thè realization of thè potentiality of thè individuai and collective goals are present in a polity (Galtung, 1964b). In literature on thè defmition of peace, six definitions of thè concept of peace have been widely received and employed by many peace researchers and thè global-cttm-development community. These definitions encapsulate what could be referred to as classical and contemporary perceptions of thè idea of peace. They are: peace as thè absence of war (absence of direct violence), peace as justice, peace as world order, peace as human rights, peace as development and peace as security. The first three represent thè classical conceptions of thè idea of peace, while thè last three depict thè contemporary idea of peace. It is important to establish that, though peace is a value that every society desires, thè conception of peace held by each society is context or need driven. In other words, thè particular historical and politicai context of a country and community determines their perceptions of peace. Naturally, a society experiencing incessant warfare and unabating armed conflict will interpret peace as thè converse of war. In thè same vein, a society that is driven by structural violence will be more disposed to equating peace with justice while, in a society where thè mass of thè people inhabiting thè polity are in penury and poverty, thè tendency is to embrace a conception of peace that is grounded on development (Francis, 2008). In light of thè fact that conflict has become somewhat endemie and a defining element of thè West African’s underdevelopment- which, from every indication, is largely responsible for thè perennial national conflict in many of thè countries in thè sub-region- this paper adopts a process view of peace as its operational defmition of thè concept of peace. In other words, our conception of peace is grounded on a dynamic socio-economie process, rather than a condition. Ibeanu (2005) articulates thè position of thè advocates of thè process view of peace when he writes: “Peace is a process involving activities that are directly or indirectly linked to increasing development and reducing conflict, both within specific societies and in thè wider international community”. Simply put, peace represents a dynamic process that facilitates thè creation of a conducive environment that enables thè stakeholders in a polity to interact harmoniously for thè establishment of thè society’ s goal and thè realization of thè potential of thè individuai. This conception of peace thus encapsulates thè two dimensions of peace articulated by Joan Galtung, namely, negative peace and positive peace. In other words, thè defmition that is adopted here is one that underscores “a broad spectrum of what is needed for maintaining decent living — absence of human suffering in its physical, psychological and structural dimensions” (Albert, 2008:35). IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 26 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert INTERROGATING THE PHILOSOPHY OF PEACE IN WEST AFRICA In every society, thè meaning of peace that is subscribed to is a function of thè philosophical and cultural thoughts that govern thè worldview of thè people in that polity. This accounts for thè divergence in thè meaning of peace in thè Western world and thè meaning of peace embraced in Africa in generai and in thè West Africa sub-region in particular. Broadly speaking, thè meaning of peace espoused in thè Western world is rooted in her conception of person as individuai being. This philosophical worldview underlines thè liberal peace theory that is employed by thè West to drive post-conflict peace building processes across thè globe, especially in West African countries such as Liberia and Sierra-Leone following thè violent conflict that ravaged thè countries. The Western idea of a person (individuai being) thus, is fundamentally distinct from thè African conception of a person (communal being). The point here is that thè individualistic Western philosophy of "cogito, ergo sum” (I tliink, therefore I am)underline thè assumptions, presuppositions and thè fundamental principles upon which thè Western idea of peace is predicated while thè collectivist African ubuntu philosophy of “a person is a person through other people” encapsulates thè fundamental assumptions and thè presuppositions that undergird thè idea of peace subscribed to in Africa, nay, West Africa (Brock-Utne, 2004: 1). Having provided some insight into philosophies that underpin thè peace processes engaged in by thè stakeholders, which, for thè purposes of systematic presentation and analysis are grouped into three divisions, namely, we may safely proceed formai institutions, semi-formal institutions and informai institutions (traditional institutions), we may safely proceed For formai institutions, thè focus will be on thè most visible sub-regional intergovernmental institution- Economie Community o f West African States (ECOWAS) and thè States in thè West- African sub-region, pardcularly, Nigeria and Liberia. The semi-formal institutions will be civil society organizations- West African Network for Peace building (WANEP) and thè Search for Common Ground (SFCG). Informai institutions such as thè traditional/indigenous structures, principles and processes of conflict prevention, management and resolution will be interrogated. FORMAL INSTITUTIONS AND PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK FOR PEACE IN WEST AFRICA West Africa, like all other regions of thè African continent, has been confronted with a plethora of security challenges especially with thè outbreak of civil wars in Liberia and Sierra-Leone in thè early 1990s. Aside thè wars in these countries, there are other peace and security threatening issues, such as drug trafficking, arms smuggling and proliferation, transnational crime and terrorism, ethnic militia and insurgencies that have become sources of great concern to thè intergovernmental and govemmental institutions in thè sub-region. Consequent to thè precarious security situation in thè West African sub-region and thè centrality of a peaceful atmosphere to thè realization of thè development goals of thè nations in thè region, concerted efforts were and are being made by Economie Community o f tire West African States (ECOWAS) and thè States in thè sub-region to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts and build peace. It is instructive to point out that thè conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone in thè early 1990’s and in Guinea-Bissau opened new vistas of engagement in conflict prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping and peace building for a body that was primarily set up to promote economie collaboration and integration among thè 15 Member-States in thè organization. Following thè transformation of thè ECOWAS from its originai mandate, a series of new and revised treaties and protocols to create a more politicai and security-oriented role for thè body were put in place. The most remarkable action taken by thè body in view of its new status was thè signing of an agreement by thè member States of thè ‘Protocol Relating to thè Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security’ (1999). Essentially, thè Protocol “constitutes thè most comprehensive normative framework for confronting thè IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 27 --euts to peace and security in thè region on a more permanent basis by boosting thè conflict - : • ention capabilities of ECOWAS to pre-empt potential outbreak of violence, resolve conflicts ~;n they occur and to engagé more effectively in post-conflict reconstruction in places, where r_je has been restored” (ECOWAS,2008: 19). The 1999 Protocol was strengthened when in December 2001, ECOWAS Member States adopted thè ‘Protocol on Democracy and I- : ■ emance’ as a supplementary protocol to thè Mechanism. These two protocols provide thè rgal and normative frameworks ‘for ECOWAS’ intervention in Member States on issues relating governance, democratic culture and human rights, respect for constitutionalism and rule of law, d peace and security’. It must be observed that, while thè Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, ? r solution, Peacekeeping and Security focuses more on thè establishment of early warning 'erAorks for conflict prevention and thè processes for conflict management in thè West-African s.r-region, thè Protocol on Democracy and Governance addresses thè structural conditions that ire largely responsible for thè protracted conflicts in thè sub-region. Indeed, thè deplorable socio- bonomie conditions of thè mass of thè people, arising largely from decades of bad governance and corruption, is a major factor responsible for thè plethora of incessant conflicts in many -ations in thè West-Africa sub-region. As a correlate to thè body’s Protocol on Democracy and Governance, which obviously is meant to promote participatory democracy and good governance, thè lack of which has : antributed significantly to thè spate of violence and conflicts in thè sub region, thè Assembly of ine Heads of States, on thè 21st December, 2001, signed thè Economie Community o f West Afriean States Protocol on thè Fight against Corruption. The 27 Artide document seeks to “promote and srrengthen thè development in each of thè State Parties effective mechanisms to prevent, suppress and eradicate corruption”. It is instructive to note that thè scourge of corruption has been thè bane of efforts to eradicate poverty, underdevelopment, unemployment and ignorance not only in thè West Africa sub-region but in thè entire continent. Indeed, thè greatest threat to efforts at promoting peace and security in West Africa has always been thè rising levels of politicai corruption in thè sub-region. For example, in Nigeria, thè $2.1 billion appropriated for thè purchase of arms meant to fight Boko Haram insurgency ended up in thè private accounts of some of thè leaders of thè then ruling party, PDP. Following thè wars in Liberia and Sierra-Leone, there was massive flow of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs) to thè West Africa sub-region which, predictably, tremendously increased thè levels of violent conflicts, armed robbery and terror acts. As a response to this, thè Commission’s Declaration of a Moratorium on Importation, Exportation, and Manufacture of Light Weapons in West Africa of 1998 was replaced with thè signing, in June 2006, of thè ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons. This Convention is targeted at strengthening thè body’s legai and normative framework in her fight against thè proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in thè sub-region. Essentially, what we can refer to as ECOWAS comprehensive document for conflict prevention, management and peacebuilding (peace and security architecture) is encapsulated in thè ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF). Ekiyor (2008:3) reiterates this when she writes: “The Economie Community o f West African States (ECOWAS) has recently completed a lengthy process of developing a regional conflict prevention framework to guide thè conceptualization, implementation and evaluation of conflict prevention initiatives in thè Commission and Member States”. The centrai objective of thè ECPF is mainstreaming conflict prevention into ECOWAS’ policies and programmes and strengthening capacity within thè sub- region to achieve integrated conflict prevention and peacebuilding initiatives. It is instructive to point out that ECOWAS’ conflict prevention and peace and security architecture takes its hearing from diverse but related regional and international normative sources such as thè Africa Union, thè New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and thè United Nations (UN). For examples, thè 2000 Constitutive Act of thè African Union, thè Protocol IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 28 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert to thè Establishment of thè Peace and Security Council of thè Continental body of July 2002, Artide 52 of thè UN Charter and thè UN Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security of October, 2000 are some of thè documents/ Resolutions that informed thè constitutive elements of thè ECPF (Ekiyor, 2008:5). Let me at this juncture state that thè guiding principles and philosophy that underpin thè ECPF is that of participatory democracy and human security. Little wonder, thè adoption of thè ECPF coincides with thè new vision of ECOWAS - from an ECOWAS of States to an ECOWAS of Peoples. ECOWAS of thè Peoples emphasizes thè involvement of thè people, not only in terms of raising their awareness of thè pivotal place of peaceful co-existence in thè realization of thè goals of economie growth and development, but in terms of getting thè locai people and thè generality of thè people integrated into addressing issues of conflict and in participating, in all its ramifications, in peacebuilding processes. Indeed, thè implementation strategy conceived is grounded on formai institutions-state agencies and actors- working with community based organizations and actors with a view to ensuring ownership of thè peace and security architecture of ECOWAS by communities across thè region (Ekiyor 2008:11). At thè level of thè individuai Member States, conflict prevention, management, resolution and peacebuilding processes are underpinned largely by thè character of thè state and regime type. The state, including state institutions and officials, plays a strategie role in thè prevention, management and resolution of conflicts, as well as in peacebuilding. Indeed, thè state is thè most powerful institution with thè instruments and resources to address issues of peace and conflict within a polity. Under thè military rule, which virtually all thè States in thè Africa sub-region experienced at one stage or thè other, thè philosophy that undergirded conflict prevention, management, resolution and peacebuilding was thè idea of national security, largely interpreted to mean thè security of thè regime in power. In other words, thè guiding philosophy in thè military era was informed essentially by thè concern to protect those in power and their cronies. For instance, under thè General Abacha military rule in Nigeria, issues of peace and conflict, i.e. conflict prevention, management, resolution and peacebuilding were defined essentially by thè interest of thè maximum ruler, Gen. Abacha, and thè survival of his regime. Even conflicts between citizens brought before thè courts were largely interpreted to preserve and protect thè interest of thè ruling cabal. This was thè case in all thè States in thè sub-regional under thè military rule. With thè enthronement of democratic rule in all thè States in thè sub-region, thè principles enunciated by liberal democratic peace become thè underlining philosophy that drive conflict prevention, management, resolution and peacebuilding processes. In line with democratic values and ethos- respect for human rights, rule of law, economie liberalization and due process become thè fundamental assumptions that undergird peacebuilding and conflict resolution activities in thè various States in thè West Africa sub-region, at least at thè level of theory (normative). Curtis and Dzinesa, (2013:10) writing about thè philosophy that underline peace processes in thè African continent, which basically is mirrored at thè West African sub-regional level, succinctly express this when they posit that liberal peacebuilding is thus both a normative agenda, as well as a framework for understanding thè diverse activities and initiatives to promote peace on thè continent. The point that is being established here is that thè normative framework of peace processes in West Africa is a microcosm of what obtains at thè Continental level. The Strategie Conflict Assessment of Nigeria, a document prepared by thè Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution (IPCR) in 2002, to understand thè root causes of conflicts and how best to promote peace in thè country frown at thè use of force that characterized thè military era, and advocated for thè adoption of thè multi-track diplomacy, which essentially emphasizes thè participation of all stakeholders in thè task of promoting peace. IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 29 CIVIL SOCIETY AND PEACE PROCESS IN WEST AFRICA Following thè inability of thè tract one diplomacy, often referred to as thè officiai track (state) due to thè problems of bureaucracy and thè possibility of partisanship from politicai interests, particularly of office holders (Abdulrahman & Tar, 2008:188), thè tract two diplomacy, which refers to a broad range of unofficial contacts, i.e. civil society organizations are playing invaluable role in thè promotion of peace in thè West Africa sub-region. For instance, civil society organizations such as West Africa Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP) and Searchfor Common Ground (SFCG) have designed and implemented different strategie plans for peace in many States in thè West Africa sub-region using essentially thè principles enunciated by western democracies as thè underlining framework and philosophy. For instance, in Nigeria, civil society and particularly, thè professional experts working in thè non-state sector have designed and implemented different strategie plans for peace through thè participation of criticai stakeholders and opinion leaders such as religious leaders, traditional rulers, women leaders and youth leaders. The West Africa Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP), a leading non-state organization committed to conflict prevention and promotion of just and peaceful coexistence that is grounded on thè dignity of thè human persoti, was founded in 1998 as a response to thè civil wars that plagued West Africa in thè late 1980s.WANEP anchors its peacebuilding framework on facilitating cooperation among all thè stakeholders. The cooperative philosophy that underlines thè peacebuilding works of WANEP is clearly revealed in its mission statement which goes thus: to enable and facilitate thè development of mechanisms for cooperation among civil society-based peacebuilding practitioners and organisations in West Africa by promoting cooperative responses to violent conflicts; providing thè structure through which these practitioners and institutions will regularly exchange experience and information on issues of peacebuilding, conflict transformation, social, religious and politicai reconciliation; and promoting West Africa’s cultural values as resources for peacebuilding (WANEP, 2007:2) Another civil society organization that has played invaluable role in thè peace processes in thè West African sub-region is thè Search for Common Ground (SFCG). Though thè organization embrace thè principles enunciated by thè liberal peace theory, thè underlining principle governing SFCG’s engagement in peace work in thè sub-region has always been to shift thè way thè world deals with conflict from thè adversarial approaches towards cooperative Solutions (SFCG,2009: 12). Indeed, thè philosophy that underlines thè organisation’s operation is reflective of its name in that thè focus of SFCG in carrying out its mandate is to establish a common ground that would engender a positive perception of all thè elements centrai to achieving a collaborative-c«wi-joint problem solution by all thè stakeholders in a conflict. Put differently, SFCG’s engagement in peace processes is framed and anchored on inclusiveness and participatory process. PHILOSOPHY OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO PEACE PROCESSES In this segment of thè paper, thè philosophy that underlines thè indigenous mechanisms through which disputes are resolved and peaceful co-existence are promoted in Africa in generai and in West Africa in particular will be interrogated using Ubuntu as a generai framework of analysis beeause several indigenous ways of solving conflicts and promoting peace on thè African continent are connected to thè worldview of Ubuntu (Brock-Utne, 2006:6). One of these is thè Qmqluàbt philosophy of thè Yorùbà, South West, Nigeria and thè other one is thè Saasywood practices in Liberia. These two will be examined in light of thè Ubuntu philosophy to bring into fore thè philosophical assumption that undergird conflict prevention, management, resolution and peace promotion processes in thè West Africa sub-region. IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 30 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert The Omolùàbi Philosophy of thè Yorùbà Omolùàbi is a Yorùbà word meaning a person of good character, or good behaviour.The Yorùbà believe that every individuai is endowed with thè values that define what an Omoluàbi' should be and that thè inborn Omoluàbi' virtues can be leveraged on to resolve conflicts and promote peaceful co-existence in thè society (Albert, 1995:9). Ifà, thè received instructions from Órùnmìlà, thè Yorùbà god of wisdom, encapsulates thè Omoluàbi' philosophy in what is called ìwà (good character or moral rectitude). But before I espouse some of thè constitutive elements of what is called ìwà in Yorùbà worldview, it is important to make a little more clarification on what Ifà is in Yorùbà thought System. It must be observed that scholars of Ifà are divided on thè meaning of Ifà. However, our position on thè meaning of Ifà is in tandem with thè view expressed by a foremost and prominent scholar on thè subject, Wande Abimbola. According to him, “thè Yorùbà god of wisdom is mostly called by either of two names, Ifà and Orunmìlà, Orunmìlà refers to thè deity himself while thè name Ifà refers only to his divination System” (Abimbola, 1976: 3).Ifà and Órùnmìlà can be used interchangeably to refer to Orunmìlà, Yoruba god of wisdom, and thè process of divination or thè wisdom divinely revealed to thè god, Órùnmìlà. Ifà encompasses thè Yorùbà thought System and thus expresses thè philosophical viewpoint of thè Yorùbà on all issues of life. Let us at this juncture state that though thè Yoruba believe that being wealthy and having wives and children and access to thè good things of life is good and desirable, thè most desirable asset that one should strive to possess is “Iwa". And this is clearly emphasized in thè Ifa literary corpus. Ogbe Alara, one of thè corpuses in Ifa underscores thè primal place of Iwa when it posits: ......ìwà, ìwà làn wà o, ìwà. B ’énìyàn l ’ówó Bi kò nuwà, Owó ohun, owó-olówó ni, ìwà, ìwà làn wà o, ìwà. B ’énìyàn l'omo BI kò nuwà, Omoohun, omo-olomo ni ìwà, ìwà làn wà o, ìwà. B ’énìyàn l ’àya Bi kò nuwà, Aya ohun, aya-alàya ni, ìwà, ìwà làn wà o, Iwa... ...Good character is primal, Yes, good character. He who has money But lacks good character. Forfeits his money to someone else; Good character is primal, Yes, good character. He who has children But lacks good character. He who has wives And lacks good character, Forfeits his wives to someone else: IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 31 Good character is primal, Yes, good character....... Adegbindin (2014: 146-147). ! a à, which defines who an Omoluàbi is, represents an ethical concept that is indispensable in thè understanding of thè philosophy that underpins thè Yoruba idea of peace and conflict resolution. Adeed, thè Qmoluàbl Philosophy encapsulates thè virtues that are at thè core of thè peoples’ conception and practice of conflict management, conflict resolution and peace-building. Adegbindin(2014) identifies some of thè virtues that are embedded in Omoluàbf. According to nim, to be an Omoluàbi is to exhibit virtues such as patience, honesty or truth telling, being kind r.earted, justness, which also embodies thè principle of fair hearing popularly called audi alternai partem (hear thè other side), altruism, forgiveness, goodwill towards others, dutifulness, orderliness, hardworking and thè principle of fairhearing. The point that we are trying to establish here is that thè Omoluàbi philosophy has virtues that define it that can be deployed to manage, resolve conflict, promote harmonious relationship and build peace in thè society. In other words, thè virtues which characterize who an Omoluàbi is can be leveraged on to address peace and conflict issues for thè achievement of thè individuai and collective good of all in thè society. Albert, 1995: 8-9 reiterates thè centrality of thè Omoluàbi philosophy to thè attainment of peace and harmonious relationship in thè society when he posits: Yorùbà people believe that every person is an Omoluàbi by instinct and that in a dispute, settlement can only be achieved by appealing to thè Omoluàbi of both parties, which is believed to lie in thè conscience/mind of everybody. Thus, any appeal to Omoluàbi is an appeal to conscience (erlokàn)intricately interwoven with thè concept of thè family (ebl) to which every person belongs, and of a higher being Olódùmarè (Supreme Being) to whom every person is accountable. An exposition of two of thè virtues- justness and forgiveness- that are exemplified by an Omoluàbi would suffice to establish thè nexus between thè Omoluàbi philosophy of thè Yorùbà and thè peoples’ conception and practice of peace and conflict resolution. An individuai referred to as an Omoluàbi is deemed to be fair-minded and exhibits a sense of justice. These are virtues that characteristically promote peace in a society. Indeed, justice is precondition for peace in any society. Thus, a just man becomes a vehicle for thè enthronement of peaceful and harmonious relationship between individuals and groups in a society. A just man, according to thè Yorùbà, is one who is honest, speaks thè truth and gives others their rights and dues which engenders thè principle of “live and let live” (Adegbindin, 2014:150). Also of importance to thè Yorùbà in thè estimation of a just man and woman is thè capability to exhibit fair hearing in judgment in a dispute between individuals or groups. As a matter of fact, thè Yorùbà consider thè denial of fair hearing in judgement as one of thè most unjust actions. Hence, they say: “àgbà òDìkà lóri gbejo enìkan <7a'”,meaning, “it is only a wicked elderly person that bases his judgement on thè evidence of a single person” (Albert, 1995:9, Adegbindin, 2014:152). The point that is being established here is that parties in conflict are given thè opportunity to state their case after which thè elders deliberate on thè issue and this process is guided by thè concern for justice and thè collective interest of thè society. The ultimate goal of thè whole process is a settlement which will not leave any animosity between thè disputants as thè settlement terms and conditions are collectively agreed to and thus mutually acceptable to thè disputants. The implication of this model of peace process and conflict resolution is that thè win/lose outcome that defines thè litigation/court approach to conflict resolution is circumvented for a win/win outcome that characteristically enables thè disputants to work together again and ultimately engenders social cohesion, peaceful and thus harmonious relationship is fostered in thè society. IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 32 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert Another virtue that is embedded in thè Omoluàbi philosophy in resolving conflicts between individuals and groups and promoting peace is thè concept of “forgiveness”. The Yorùbà acknowledge thè inevitability of conflict in human social relationship and believe that when conflict arises, it should be amicably resolved. This is expressed in a popular Yorùbà epithet which says: Ahon àti eyin n jà Kà jà, kà pari re niyì omoluàbi. The tongue and teeth often come in conflict To quarrel and get reconciled is a mark of responsibility A corollary to this is: Kò si awà ’yé màjà Beo sì ni kòsi a jà maree. No sojoumer on earth is immune against dispute No disputants remain enemies forever (Albert, 1995:6) The point here is that thè Qmpluàbi philosophy recognizes reconciliation as one of thè key virtues that is embedded in a person referred to as Omoluàbi. It must be stated that this spirit of reconciliation is nurtured by thè idea of forgiveness which thè Yorùbà believe is centrai to thè attainment of both thè individuai peace and harmonious and productive relationship among thè groups in thè society. This is clearly expressed in a saying by thè Yorùbà which goes thus: Bi aòbà gbàgbé oro ànà, A kò ni ri enì bà Deré. Meaning, if we do not put past misunderstandings behind us, we risk losing future relationships. Put differently, it is believed that our joy and harmonious relationship with other members of thè society is a function of our ability to forgive and forget past misunderstandings. Sassywood Practice in Liberia The Sassywood practice which is highly respected by thè indigenous Liberians is grounded on thè belief in ancestral spirits (spirits of their forefathers) as unbiased agents for adjudication in disputes. Residents of Gbamga, a province in Liberia Yerkula Zaizay and Bono, have this to say about Sassywood: “It is a tradition that our forefathers left us. This is better than going to court. We cannot waste out time going to court. Sassywood is our courtroom. This is what our forefathers have been practising in thè past and it has been working” Chereji & King (2013: 9). It must however be pointed out that, thè Sassywood traditional justice System and conflict resolution methods are defined by some practices that could be said to be antithetical to civilized practices and procedures. Two of such practices - thè drinking of bitter herbs and thè practice of placing a machete or metal in a fire - to determine guilt or innocence of an individuai in cases like theft or murder would suffice. In thè case of thè drinking of bitter herbs as a judicial process for determining a culprit(s) in a murder case, for instance, thè accused is given a mixture of bitter plants to drink. If, after taking thè substance, he/she puked, it is seen as a demonstration that thè accused is not guilty of thè offence he or she was alleged to have committed. The accused is deemed guilty if he or she declined to drink from thè bitter plants. The other practice mentioned above involves bringing thè accused in contact with a red-hot machete or metal. If thè accused withdraws from thè heat, he or she is adjudged to be guilty. If thè red-hot machete or metal does not harm thè accused, he or she IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 33 is pronounced innocent of thè allegation levelled against him or she (Chereji & Wratto King, 2013: 7, 9). Though thè Sassywood traditional justice System and conflict resolution methods have since been outlawed by thè Liberian govemment, they are stili being practiced by thè people following their confidence in its potency as one of thè sure means of resolving disputes. Indeed, it is strongly believed by thè locai population in thè country that “no amount of laws or govemment order can stop Sassywood” (IRIN, 2007). Let us at this juncture state that both thè Omoluàbi philosophy of thè Yorùbà of Nigeria and thè Sassywood practices that are popular among thè locai people of Liberia hold as centrai thè idea of reconciliation of thè disputing parties. Indeed, a Yorùbà saying: bà a bàri jà, bi i kàku ko, meaning that “our misunderstanding should not degenerate to thè point of wishing each other death”, captures thè importance of forgiveness and reconciliation of disputing parties in thè peoples’ worldview. Similarly, thè Sassywood practices emphasise reconciliation between thè feuding parties and thè community at large. Chereji and Wratto, (2013: 7) reiterate this when they posit: “One unique characteristic of this form of traditional justice System (Sassywood practices) is that it provides an opportunity for thè guilty to unite with his victim and reintegrate into society”. It must however be noted that though thè Omoluàbi' philosophy of thè Yorùbà and thè Sassywood practices of thè locai people of Liberia have proved effective in conflict resolution and peacebuilding processes in traditional society, they cannot be said to be infallible. Indeed, numerous intra and inter-tribal wars were recorded in those traditional societies. The concem now has to do with whether these traditional mechanisms for conflict resolution and peacebuilding are stili relevant in thè context of a modem and complex society. TOWARDS A HYBRID APPROACH FOR DURABLE PEACE IN WEST AFRICA It must be emphasized that thè traditional approaches for managing conflict and promoting peace are stili very relevant in thè context of thè contemporary African society in light of thè people’s attachment and respect for traditional beliefs and practices. Indeed, "thè continent would become a better place if these locai approaches could be integrated with modern approaches for managing conflicts on thè continent” (Albert, 2008: 43).This position has been validated in many studies carried out on thè recurrent violent conflicts and civil wars in many parts of Africa in thè 1990s (Smock 1997, Murithi, 2008). There is thè need to ground thè modem conflict management strategies and peacebuilding processes on thè cultural values and belief systems that define thè cosmologies and theologies of thè people. In fact, it is expedient that thè Omoluàbi philosophy and indeed thè Ubuntu worldview be given more expression in thè conflict management and post-conflict peacebuilding efforts ongoing in thè West Africa sub-region in particular and Africa in generai in view of thè increasing polarization and division that have come to define politics and religious practices across thè continent. Explicating thè centrality of a people’s cultural worldview to thè idea of social relations, conflict management, peacebuilding and development, Ogot,( 1999:138) argues that: people do not live only by economics, public order or Science and technology. Before these they have their concepts and beliefs (religious, ideological or philosophic), they have their value systems which define thè priorities and quality of social relations; they have their attitudes, aspirations, hopes, fears, expressions and manifestations of ethical and traditional code of conduct... The above position was reiterated in thè writing of Vraalsen, (1997:22) who observes that “...any successful attempt to resolve conflicts and make peace in Africa must be a genuine recognition of, and respect for, thè identity of thè peoples of thè continent, their tradition and their IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 34 Readings in Peace and Conflict Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Isaac Olawale Albert proud cultural heritage....”. The truth of thè matter is that people interpret nature and thè world they live from thè prisms of their cultural beliefs and practices. The implication is that whatever concepts and practices that people would be receptive to must be couched and located within their cultural worldview. Aside from thè fact that a people’s cultural worldview is centrai to any efforts at managing conflicts and promoting peaceful coexistence, it must be clearly stated that thè argument for thè integration of thè traditional conflict management and peace-building processes with thè modem methods and practices of peace process is strengthened by thè reality of thè intrinsic value embedded in thè traditional conflict management practices exemplified in both Qmolùàbi and Ubuntu philosophies which, thè modern conflict management and peacebuilding practices can rarely boast of. Interrogating thè Omolùàbi philosophy of thè Yorùbà, which essentially is a microcosm of thè Ubuntu worldview, there are two values that clearly exemplify what thè Omolùàbi philosophy in particular and thè Ubuntu philosophy in generai is all about, which can be invaluable in terms of their usefulness in addressing thè They are: first, thè Omolùàbi philosophy and by extension thè Ubuntu worldview acknowledge and emphasise thè “interconnectedness of humanity at all times” (Murithi 2008:) This is clearly expressed in thè popular dictum among thè people that a person is a person through other people. The Yorùbà of thè Southwest in Nigeria establish this in their popular saying: uènìyàn ni aso ènìyàn”, meaning that “our nakedness is covered by thè other people and, without thè others, we are nothing”. The second fundamental value that is embedded in thè traditional conflict management and peacebuilding process is its inclusiveness. The traditional methods of conflict management and peace process gives primacy to thè principle of inclusivity and a sense of shared or common destiny between peoples irrespective of religious or politicai leaning. These values- interconnectedness of humanity and inclusivity- that underline thè traditional conflict management practices and peace process, are invaluable assets to thè promotion of peace especially in contemporary African society that has become so polarized by religion and politics. CONCLUSION The kernel of our discussion in this paper is that thè much-desired peace in thè West-Africa sub- region and indeed in thè African continent can only be achieved when thè mechanisms for conflict management and peace process are grounded on thè values of communalism and inclusiveness rather than thè individualistic ethos and practices that undergird thè liberal peace, which, unfortunately, has become thè framework for conflict management and peace process on thè continent. The point is that a peace architecture that is built on thè cherished values, ethos and practices of thè people would advance thè course of peace and harmonious relationship in that society much more than one defined by foreign values and idiosyncrasies. This, however, does not mean that we are saying that all about thè traditional conflict management and peace process is glorious and that thè western models are bad and should be completely abandoned. This is not even feasible in light of globalization and thè adoption of some core western ideas of governance such as democracy and separation of powers. Our argument is that thè enthronement of a peace architecture that is reflective of thè African peoples’ core values of interconnectedness of humanity, shared destiny and inclusivity rather than thè extant largely western models, would change thè current negative narratives that present thè West Africa sub- region and thè continent as thè dark world. Essentially, it is imperative that thè ECOWAS peace traditions, which largely are predicated on thè philosophy of regional integration and good governance be anchored on thè Ubuntu philosophy that underline thè peoples’ peace and conflict processes. Integrating thè two strands has become necessary in light of thè centrality of peaceful co-existence of thè various groups to thè realization of thè goals of sustainable development. This integration, it must be observed, is achievable by ECOWAS working more directly with membership based grassroots organisations that truly represent thè yeamings and aspirations of thè people. IBADAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Philosophy and Practice of Peace in West Africa 35 REFERENCES -.'imbola, W. (1976). Ifa Literary Corpus, Ibadan: Oxford University Press, p.3 Adebajo, A. (2011). UN Peacekeeping in Africa From thè Suez Crisis to thè Sudan Conflicts. USA: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Ine. p. 138. Adegbindin, O. 2014. Ifa in Yoruba Thought System. 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