COVENANT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT BY GABRIEL OYEDELE ABE B.A. (Ho~s.),MeAe, Dipe RoS. (Ibadan) Dip. Tho (Imman. Coll.) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF /,RTS IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN IBADj,N NIGERIA NOVEMBER, 1983 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY r , '. ,,". IBAOAN. uN~vr';r.;lTI LIBRARY Acr 8' ·rr\.:· 0 11 r: .r, NO ~' ,.c.~-- ·· ..· C_:',----.-._.'___ '.;1;....••• ... LOC. 7H MARK. BS 119 ~ -cs A 2.~ .•.. , _.C.. . '-_. :~., UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 A B S T R ACT This Thesis is divided into six Chapters, preceded by the Preface. The Preface explains the concept of Covenant. It examines the Israelite faith from its rudimentary stage and its gradual development; and the relationship between the Israelite Covenant and the other peoples. Chapter One begins with the Introduction to the Thesis. It discusses the Covenant upon which the religion of Yahweh was based, and as the institution which established a unique relationship between God and Israel. Covenant, it explains, was enshrined in the Salvation history of the Israelites as a saving grace of God. It is therefore a gift made by Yahweh to Israel. The Chapter also examines the definition and etymology of Covenant. The Covenant in the Ancient world, especially, the structure of the Hittite treaties; and the terminologies of the Covenant in the Old Testament are looked into. Chapter Two is devoted to the Covenant forms in Israel, namely, the Secular traditions, the God-bound, and Israel- bound Covenants, and the Covenant of Joshua. Chapter Three focuses attention on the physical aspects of the Covenant: Statutes, Instruments and Sacred objects. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3 Chapter Four examines the nature of the Covenant God as an Ethical and Personal Being; the relationship between Him and Baal; the Covenant as a doctrine of Redemption, namely, the religious and saving consciousness of Israel; the motive to the formation of the covenant; and the justif1cati6h of the Choice of Israel for the Cove- .-an'. The Chapter ends with a study of the Covenant people as a righteous people. Chapter Five is concentrated on the Deuteronomic reform; the idea of a new Covenant; Covenant breaking and judgment; the Covenant in Exilic period; and the Post-exilic impact on the Covenant. The Conclusion forms the first section of the last Chapte~. It gives a consise'account of the crucial views reached in this Thesis, especially in stressing the funda- menta4s and uniqueness of the Covenant theology. The Chapter concludes with the examination of the effect of covenant on the Israelites. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 D E D I CAT ION In memory of my beloved father, The Late High Chief Abe Qsala, (Alias Orogbangba) the O•banoun of Igas•i - Akoko in gratitudG and great affection I dedicate this researcho UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is a great joy for me to be able to write on this very important topic of the Old Testament. I would like to acknowledge my great debt of gratitude to the following persons whose assistance and advice have contributed i~mense1y to the success of this thesis. First, I pay due homage to my beloved father, the late High Chief Abe O,sa1a, for instilling in me the aspiratior: to embark upon this research. My warmest thanks go to my dear mother, and beloved wife, Madam Omoboni Abe and Mrs. Julianah Oiufunmilayo • Abe, respectively, who have always g-ivenme moral courage to work hard. I thank my dear childrer for their cooperation and understanding, on such occasions when I failed to perform my domest Lc paternal duties as I ought to have • . Second, my sincere gratitude goes to my indefatigable supervisor, the Rev. Dr. W.L. Avery, for the scholarly and excellent handling of this work. I deeply appreciate his eonstant interest, guidance and thorough supervision all along, without whose valuable advice and criticism I could not have completed this research. The head of the Department of Religious Studies, the Revo Canon (Professor) J. O•mo.0sade Awolalu, deserves my UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6 unreserved gratitude for the moral and financial aids granted me all along, especially for this researcho I am also gratefu to the Rev. Dr. S.O. Abogunrin, for his interest in giving me valuable advice and criticism oVGr'this thesis. I also thank all tho other members of staff of the Department and the Faculty of Arts at large, who have in one way or the other contributed to my success hitherto. I owe it a duty, also, to express my deep appreciation to Mr. Kelim Olenloa Ohuenta, who has diligently typed this thesis very satisfactorily. My utmost gratitude goes to God, Yahweh, for the succour and guidance bestowed upon me throughout this eXGrcise, especially during hazardous moments. Indeed, he has actually fulfilled his Covenant with me. Gabriel Oyedele Abeo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7 CERTIFICATION I certify that this Thesis was carried out by Rev. Gabriel Oyelede .ARE under my suoervision in the Denartment of PBligious Studies, tmiversity of Ibadan. 7/10/83 ---~-;-~---l-i-J-.- r.a.c:Su-n-e-r-v-i-s-or------------~~~ (Rev. Dr. W. L. Avery, Ph.D.) Senior Lecturer Denartment of Religious Studies, University of Ibadan Ibadan - Nigeria UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 8 CONTENTS PAGE Title Page •• 00 • • •• .·0. . .. • • o • 1Abstract 00 o 0 •• o 0 .. •0 o •• O • 2Dedication 00 .0 0 •• ... 4 Acknowledgemen •• •• •• ••t Certification • • • • •• ·.. ... • 0 • •• 5 Contents •••• •• • • .0 •• •• •• .0 •• o •• 00 7• • • • .0 8'Preface •• •• Iilet of es ••• •• •• 0" 00 00 ". 14 T~l .0 .0 O. • • 18 GA:lbobs~sea"rlyations •• • • • •• •• •·" 19of For~19n Words oth•er •• •• ••than Hebrew •• •• •• •• c • • • O. •• • • 21 CHAPTER I 10 INTRODUCTION •• • 0 • • ••0 o •• o •• 23• 0 2. ETYMOLOGY AND SEM/~NTICS OF COVEN!,NTo. • • 30 Etymology Semantics 1. BerIth 2. Agreement or /\.lliance 30 Command or Word 4. Witness 5. Contract 6. Peace ,. Conclusion or Establishment 3. COVENi\NT IN THE ANCIENT WORLD ·.. o •• .0 40 1.. The Preamble ~o The Historical Prologue 3. The Stipulations 40 Provision for Depcsit and Public Reading 5. Witness ~. Formulas for Curses and Blessings . 4. TERMINOLOGIES OF COVENANT IN THE OLD TESTt~ENT.. •• •• •• 00 00 •• o • 47 5. NOTES TO CHhPTER I 00 0.0000 o 0 o. 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 9 CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER II COVENANT FORMS IN ISRAEL .0 a 0 57 1. THE SECULAR TRADITIONS .. • 0 .. " o. 57 A. Suzerainty Treaty B. The Parity Treaty C. The Patron Treaty D. The Promissory Treaty 2. GOD - BOUND COVENANTs.. 0 e 0 ... 64 A, The Adamic covenant Bo The Noahic covenant Co The Abrahamic covenant Do The Davidic covenant ISRAEL - BOUND COVEN~NTS 0 e e 74 A. The Mosaic covenant o. It. •• 00 ••• 74 1.. The Preamble 2. The Historical Prologue 3. The Stipulations 4. The Deposit and Public Reading 5 •• The List of Witnesses 6. The Blessings and Curses 7. The Oaths Bo The Covenant of Joshua .0 o • ." • 0 91 4. NOTES TO CHAPTER II •.•. .. o 0 .. o 0 0 0 96 CHAPTER III PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF THE COVENANT 1. THE STATUTES OF THE COVEN;,NT e e 0 98 A•. The Secul ar Law •• 00 o. 0" 0 0 " • B. 105The Characteristics of the Mosaic Law. 108 i. ~Th~Sacredness of Human life il. ~~~oss Brutality iii. Justice iv. The Place of the wife in the covenunt Law Vo Administration of the Law. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 CONTENTS PAGE a. Moses and his lieutenants bo The Priests Co Elders VI. The Kings c. The Cultus 00 •• • 00 ..; • • o • • • o. 120 i. Places of Worship ii. Ritual of Sacrifice ili. Ceremonies of Feasts 1. The Feasts of the Cycle of Sabbaths 00 129 a. The Weekly Sabbath b. The Feast of Trumpets c. The Feast of the Sabbatical Year d. The Year of Jubilee 2. The Yearly Festivals o • • • 133a. The Feast of the Passo•ver• • • • b. Pentecost c. The Feast of Tabernacles do The Day of Atonement 2. THE INSTRUf"lENTSOF THE COVEN/\NT Ai. Moses and the Prophet's .0 00 o • •• 142 ii. Prophetic Function •• B. The Priests •• •• • e. 00 o • .0 154 1. The Duty of the Priest•s •• ci.i. The Post-Exilic function oThe Judges •• •• 00 .0f the Priestso • •• • •• o • 158 3. THE SACRED OBJECTS OF THE COVEN/\NT Ao The Tent of Meeting B. The Ark o• o. •• .••0 00 00 o 0 •• 162•0• 0 o 0 • 0 00 o. 165i. The Ark of the Covenant ii. The Ark of Yahweh iii. The Ark of the\.,Tent UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 11 CONTENTS PAGE C. The Religious Significance of the Ark ••• 174 Do The Empty Throne •• o. •• 00 O. o0 179 E. The Rod of God ••• •• •• ••• ••0 •• 182 F. The Sacred Lots •• •• •• • •• • • o•• 185 i The Sacred Lot of Urim and Thummim ii a•• The Ephod b. The Teraphim NOTES TO CHAPTER III •• ••• • •• • 0 .0 o • 193 CH/,PTER IV THE NATURE OF THE COVENJ,NT GOD AND COVENANT AS A DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION 1. THE NATURE OF TH E COVENhNT GOD. o 0 200 A. Yahweh as an Ethical Being e 0 o 0 o0 201 Bo Yahweh as a Personal Being 00 00 202 C •• The Relationship Between Yahweh an•d0 Baal •• 0 o. •• • • •• 0 o 0 o 0 •• 211 2. THE COVENANT AS A DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION A. The Religious and Saving Consciousness of Israel. • 0 o •• • 0 00 o. •• o • 215 B. The Motive of th••8 Fo••r•mation of the Covenant Co The Justificatil~n of the Choice of Israel for the Covenant Relationship e o 0 .0 225 3. THE COVENANT PEOPLE AS A RIGHTEOUS PEOPLE 00 235 4. NOTES TO CHAPTER IV • o • 00 o • O. 244 CHAPTER V FROM THE DEUTERONOMIC REFORM TO THE POST-EXILIC JUDAISM THE DEUTERONOMIC REFORM •• o 0 o 0 00 00 249 20 THE IDEA OF A NEW COVENANT A. Historical BaCkground 00 , 0 0 o. e 0 259 B. The Covenant of Jeremiah 00 •• •• 266• 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 CONTENTS PAGE 3. COVENANT-BREAKING AND JUDGMENT •• .. o 0 • 0 276 4c THE COVENANT IN EXILIC-PERIOD Ao The Covenant Awareness in Palestine • 280 B~ The Covenant Awareness of the Jews in " . Elephantine.. 00 •• .0 •• O. •• 283 C. "Religion", as Practiced by the Babylo- nians during the Exile •• •• .0 287 Do The Religious Consciousness of the Jews •• in Exile.. 00 O. .0 00 •• 00 00 293 i. The Covenant Awareness of the Jews iio The Religious Phenomena of the Jews iii. Theological concepts of the Cov~nant People iv. Summary of the Covenant Religion in Exile E. The Comparison b~tween the Babylonian Religion and the Religion of the Exilic Jews 00 •••• •• 00 •• 00 •••• 308 COVENANT IN POST-EXILIC JUDAISM .0 o. 318 Ao The Reform of Nehemiah 00 00 00 00 321 Bo The Covenant of Ezra 00 00 00 00 •• 324 C. The Religious Effects on the Jews Under Persia ao Preamble.. 00 00 0 00 00 o. 00 329 bo Zoroastrianism 00.. .0 00 00 o 0 332 i. Eschatology and Apocalyptic ii. Demonology iiio World-epochs ivo Resurrection Vo Acts of Praise vio Moral God 6. NOTES TO CHAPTER V .0 o 0 o 0 o 0 o 0 o 0 o 0 341 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 13 CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION: THE IMPACT OF COVENANT ON ISRAEL 00 360 A. The Political and Technological Impact o •• 365 Bo The Economic Impact •• •o 0 o •• •• 0 0 •• • o 0 • e 368C. Domestic Impact o0 o 0 00 o.0 o 0 00 00 O. 371D. Academic Impact o 0 o 0 0 •• .. o •• • • o •• • e 373 NOTE TO CHAPTER VI • • 00 o •• 0 e o 0 .. .. o• 375 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A •• Articles o •• .... •• e 0" .. .. .. .. o 0 .. " 00 376 B. General Works • 0 e o.. .. " .. .. .. .. 380" 0 Co Unpublished Works 0 .... •• 0 .... •• e .. .. ••0 388 D. Reference Books , 00 ... o •• .. " o " •••• 389 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14 PRE F ACE The concept of covenant is of far-reaching importance in the relations among individuals? groups and nations. It is a binding promise concerning social, legal, political religious and other aspects of human life. Covenant is therefore a social and religious institution. My interest in this research is primarily with respect to the term in its special religious sense and especiallY its role in Yahwism and later Judaism as presented in the Old Testament. As it were, covenant, .lJe."I f~t,!JIll •.•, became a paramount religious institution in Israel. It was the basis of the national cult. The historical and religious records of the formation of Israel as a chosen r-ace presume an historic covenant between Yahweh and Israel: yet. the origin of the idea of this covenant is obscure. Could it be in connection with the cult of the Shechemite dbity, Baal-berith whose sanctuary in Shechem became a Yahwist sanctuary (Judg.8: 33; 9:44,46)? This was the origin of the later Shechem covenant in Joshua 24~1-27, which again is not easy to explain if the Horeb-Sinai oovenant was in fact earlier. The dominant tradition, however, favours the Horeb-Sinai eovenant between Yahweh and !srael as the covenant p~r-excellence. It is to this covenant that the ethical proph9ts like Amos, Hosea and Ezekiel refer(Amos 3:1-2; Hoc. 2:15-23; Jer. 7:22-26; 31:32; Ezek. 16~3-8,60). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 15 The main concern of this research is to present the faith of Israel from its most crucial rudimentary form, to arrive at a new understanding of the religious world of the Old Testamento To do this effectively, however, it will be necessary to delve into the ancient world with whom the Israelites interacted, and to examine their covenant concepts. This approach is helpful in Biblical interpretation, as it will throw some light on the historical and situational environment of the various editorso It is when this basic background has been discovered, that the minds of such writers could be accurately interpreted. The needful impact on the modern society will then be appreciatedo To this end, I will examine especially, the structure of the Hittite treaties; these make available an historical precedent that enables scholars to understand the structure of early Israelite thought, as the historical and situational circumstances appealed to the original editors, and, consequently, its functional operation in historyo Yahweh, the God of Israel was understood as the God who initiated covenantso Covenant-making was seen as an activity of God expressed in such features as his love, mercy, righteousness, holiness and powero Covenant became the dominant language in which the election relationship of God to Israel was expressed. So, within the covenant with Israel, we find further covenants, and all the later treaties were re-affirmations UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 16 in new situations of the original covenant. The continuity of the national faith was based on the Yahweh-Israel covenant relationship. Yahweh was the God of Israel, and Israel the people of Yahweh 0 This concept was created through God's act of deliverance in bringing Israel out from Egypt. Despite changing fortunes and disasters, Israel strongly upheld this faitho However, they departed from it at times, but at such periods the prophets called Israel back to re-establish the covenent relationship between them and Yahweho Covenant permeates the daily affairs of all peoples, irrespective of race, colour, religion or political affliation. In my conclusion, I will deal with the impact of covenent on Israel. It remains to mention that this work offers the distillation of all my research into covenant at large as contained in the specified area of the Old Testament. The subject matter of this thesis is therefore restricted by its title to the prescribed texts of the Old Testament religious history and related data. Wherever references are made to the New Testament, they are only to serve as comparison and/or Clarificationo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 17 It is my humble opinion that the reader of this Thesis will find it a crucial subject of Old Testament theology. It is also an incentive for the present scholars of the christian faith to delve more than ever before into the origin of the faith that brought about the theologies which. we all teach and practice as Christians. With this attempt, it will be realized that a step has gone beyond mere formulation of creeds and confessions, and the salvation of our souls has been made much more meaningful to us. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 .. Hebrew Calendar. Table II : Chronology of Israelite Kingdom & UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19 A B B REV I A T ION S APE The American People's Encyclopaedia~ X, New York: Grolier Incorporated, 1962. BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation Hymn Book. London: Oxford University Press, 19740 BREC The Bible Reader's Encyclopaedia and Concordance. Edited by W.M. Clow: London: Colling's Clear Type Press, 19600 CMS Church Missionary Society. ERE Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics VI, Second edition, Edited by James Hastings: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958. Figure (Figso - Figures) GBT The Ghana Bulletin of Theology. Accra. Preshyterian Press, 19700 HC Hymnal Companion to the Book of Common Prayer. 3rd editiono London: Vine Books Ltd., 19770 HTR Harvard Theological Reviewo Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 19810 IOC The Inter reter's Bible Commentary. I,' 25th Printing, edite by G.A. Buttrick: New York: Abingdon Press, 19780 lOB The Interpreter's Dictionary of the 3ible. I - IV, 11th Printing, edited by G.Ao Buttrick: and the Supplementary Volume (SV), edited by K. Crim: New York: Abingdon Press 1980, 1976. JAF Journal of American Folklore. 19430 JBL Journal of Biblical Literatureo London: SBLE, 19400 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20 JTS Journal of Theological Stuaies. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. JRA Journal of Religion in Africa. The Netherlands: EoJ. Brill, 1973. LB The Livin~ ~ible. Self-help edition paraphrased, England: C(}verdale House Publ ishers Ltd., 1977. NEB The New Encyclopaedia Britanica. IV, VI. 15th edition, London: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 1981. NPN National Party of Nigeria. NYSC The National Youth Service Corps. OTHR Essays on Old Testament History and R~ligiono Translated by RoA. Wilson: Oxford: Bo Blackwell~ 19660 PCB Peake's Commentary on the Bible. Edited by Matthew Black, and H.H. Rowley:. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1964. SBLE Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. SPCK Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge usa Unger's Bible Dictionar~. Chicago: Moody Press, 1960. WBE The World Book Encyclopaed ia•. H - 1 y 1 and VI, London: Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, 1966. WSCF World's Student Christian Federation. ZAld z2itschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wis~enschafto UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 21 GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS OTHER THANK HEBREW l\G i\KKADIhN LJ\NGU/\GE ~ng - Legal law Kanu (noun) - from the verb root kIn - to bend down; •_: t•• " to do homage • Kibsu - Social law Kwn - to stand upright .N•ab.u - to announcenPars.U - Religious Law Sallman Sakanum - to make a concord; to set a peace. B. Ai"lORITELi\NGUAGE Harayum qat21um - to kill a young donkey Co ASSYRIAN L/\NGUGf\GE Beritu - bond, fetter. Biritu - (Assyro-Babylonian): fetter, command. D. ARf,BIC LANGUAGE Sidq - Truth; to be true. E. GRt:EK L/"NGUAGE dLs<'!31k? Testament, Covenant. lTUV£tff·-4t .•o• ~y~- - t, councilor an essemb ly of elders. The highest Jewish Tribunal in Palestine, during the Greek and Roman periods. c, 6f"7 tc;t~rs? I" : The New Testament, or The New Covenant. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 22 F LATIN LANGUAGE Convenire - To come together Facere - to make Sacer holy Sacrificium Sacrificeo G MARl LANGUAGE Salimum Peace UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 23 CHAPTER I 1. INTRODUCTION The idea of covenant is fundamental to almost all religions and societies. The early religion of Israel in the Old Testament and later Judaism were no exception, the religion of Israel was based on the covenant relation- ship between Yahweh and Israel. From the creation of man, and throughout his period of wanderings and his eventual settlement, he has been involved in one type of covenant or the othero Even today, irrespective of one's religion, vocation or commission, man is not altogether excused of covenant. To the Israelites, covenant was the result of their fundamental election as a chosen people by Yahweho The character of the covenant portrays a relationship between two contrasting parties with a restriction upon the elect. In the political and religious life-history of Israel, all ceremonies and worship were the expression Of the covenant relationship between God and Israelo This was made explicit from the earliest days of the mutual relation- shipo There was the strong conviction that Yahweh was a present help at all times. He was firm and gracious. The totality of Israel's existence, including their land, kingship, priesthood and society was all traced to divine UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 24 covenants made with patriarchso (Gen. 15:18; 17:7-9; II Sam. 7:8ff., Jer. 33:21). The relation of Yahweh to Israel was therefore a genuine one. But Yahweh and Israel were to be close to each other always. When her existence was threatened by such nations as Syria, Assyria or Babylon, Israel was exhorted by the prophets Elijah, Elisha, Amos, Hosea,Isaiah, and Jeremiah to be faithful to Yahweh. They should not put their trust on the gods of these nations. The covenant, or election, the prophets claimed, strongly depended upon the perfect fulfilment of the conditions attached to it; these were based on moral perfection. Yahwel who had called them into a covenant is a righteous, just, holy and merciful God. Israelites had to reflect these characteristics of Yahweh in their own lives in order to enjoy the grace of GOd. If on their part they were found wanting, according to Isaiah 1:3-6, 18, they were invited by Yahweh to repent and receive forgiveness, and remain one with himo The Covenant then became the central concept by which to illuminate the structural unity of Israel as \ a people and Yahweh as their God. The covenant is also the fundamental basis upon which the whole message or the Old Testament rests. This great conviction of Israel's special relationship with God is concentrated in the concept of the covenant not only in the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 25 Old Test'oms:-,tb,ut also throughout the New Testamel')t. As a special people of God, they believed that the nature and will of God would be revealed to mank Lnd through them. The word "covenant", therefore, was a symbol indicating in a much wider sense the national faith of the chosen race without which Israel could not have been "the people of God." It goes without exaggeration that different scholars have made various attempts to solve the perennial problems of Biblical expos~tion, especially, in the field of Old Testament Studies. Such attempts include: Critica+ exposition: John Bright, Archaeological finds: W.F. Albright, J.B. Pritchard; Sociological Comparative Analysis: M. Burrows; Form Criticism: -Martin Noth, Albrecht Alt; Histo- rical Approach: G.W. Anderson, John Bright, J. Mau~hline; Philosophical Approach: H.D. Lewis; The Theological exegesis or The Religio - Historical Study: J.A. Baker, W.O.E. Oesterly and T.H. Robinson, R. De Vaux. I wish to note here, the basic contribution made by Walther Eichrodt, in his work: Theology of the Old Testament, to the covenant concept in the Old Testament. He had dealt with some of the essential elements on covenant extensively, such as, the Covenant Statutes and instruments, and the Characteristics of the Covenant God. But I differ in my app~oach to this vital subject of the Old Testament theology. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 26 I have classified and compared the outstanding Covenants of the Old Testament. The Old Testament hns also been compared a great deal with the treaties in the ancient world, thereby elevating the uniqueness of the Old Testament Covenant. However, Eichrodt wrote long before parallels between Old Testament Covenant and Ancient Near East treaties were brought to light. The God of the Old Testament is a mysterious God. He moves in an inexplicable way, and his way no one can under- stand. Yet with the act of faith, one can comprehend these mysterieso This brings into prominence, the unique position of the theological approach to the Biblical exposition, with a critical study of the historical and situational environ- ment of the original editorso Since the above named methodical approaches have not been able to satisfy the curiosity of some scholars, I therefore wish to follow the theological approach in this thesis1, to investigate "Covenant", as it were, which became the basis of the social and religious institutions, and theologies of the Bible, not only in the Old Testament but also in the New Testament. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBR RY 27 Xsra~lh~d ~ concr~t~historic~l and religious foundation of .heY faith. All the historical or Religio- Historicfll evidences in the Old Testament, and similar finds outside the Bible, will be subject to ignominy if the acclaimed complexes are not resolved. It is only then that the divine revelation and the acts of Salvation can be meaningful. When this vital theological issue is settled, the interrelation of the Old Testament and the New Testament will be duly appreciatedo The very terms "Old" and "New" presupposed a continuous organ. The New has not come into existence out of obliviono It resides in the Old, which has a designed foundation. The meanin~lness of the former, provided ground for the culminated historical revelation and salvation witnessed in the latter. The purpose and the theological message of this research can only be comprehended when this significant basis is admitted. Any attempt to study t.he theology of the Old Testament without giving a considerable attention to "covenant", is a deficient exercise. In fact, it ought to be given its paramount position. In this research, it will be well realized that the religion of the Israelites did not surface prominently until they were brought into the covenant sphere UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 28 with Yahweh in concrete terms. In other words, the religion of Yahweh was based on the covenant relation- ship. By this unique concept, the whole salvation- history of the Old Testament would be perfectly appre- hendedo Yahweh is a God who acts. He was known to Israel through his activities in their salvation-history. This saving grace of God was not a mere faith since all the external facts confirmed the conviction of the concept of a personal God moving in the midst of a chosen people. The people responded to the historical events shown to them by the God made manifest in concrete history. The binding will of God on them influenced the terms of the covenant relationship and the expressions of a unique faith. Covenant was therefore not a mere dogmatic expressj but an explicit description of a living process of history, which had a historical foundation among a living people. The covenant was maintained by Israel throughout the existence of the Old Testament period. It was periodically re-affirmed in new situations and to new generations. Any subsequent covenant was are-affirmation of the original one which ratified Israel's election (Ex. 19:5-6; II Kings 11:17; 23:3; Neh. 10:28ffJ. All the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 29 the following characteristics: First, the covenant was a gift made by Yahweh to his elect. Though Yahweh initiated it, it was not as a reward of Israel's merit. Second, by the means of the covenant, God came into a relationship and communion with Israel. He became their God and they on the other hand, became his people. Third, the rites and terms of the covenant created obligations, which were established in the form of Law. According to Begrich2, the premises of legislation cannot be understood with the notion of n',7, l. • This 4 was his reaction to the third aspect of Yahweh's covenant as indicated above. He arrived at this conclusion probably by basing his views on the fact that Yahweh the God of the covenant is a merciful and loving God. But Begrich ought to have realised that this same God is righteous, just and holy, and as such he must base his covenant on fair and just terms. Covenant-making was all to ensure a healthy and continuous sense of belonging. In fact, any legislation or law without any prior relationsh~p, co-existence or mutual understanding will be meaningless and ineffective. The covenant law was therefore appropriate and meaningful to the parties concerned. Politically, for instance, no UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 30 government makes any law for people with whom it has no prior and present relationshipo No government, no matter how powerful, would interfere in the affairs of another independent country by legislating for her. If such an attempt is made at all, it will not be honoured and thereby prove to be null and void. The Law of Yahweh was basically reflecting upon the covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel, his peopleo The Law came at the final stage of the covenant experience and at the full understanding of its implicationo As a backdrop to this study, it is necessary at this juncture to examine the Israe~ites' understanding of the word "Covenant", and its etymologyo This will h'elp us to have a deeper appreciation of what was involved in this relationship and the Obligations therebyo 2 ETYMOLOGY AND SEMANTICS OF COVEN~NT (a) Etymology: Blrith is close in meaning to the Akkadian preposition biritu, implying the idea of "between" or "among" two parties 0 It is from thl root l?r.b. into verb ---11 1T.":T:1 , which means 'to eat or 'to drink', implying the festival mealo Ber~th is also the equivalent of the Assyrian beritu which means 'bond' or 'fetter'o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 31 (b) Semantics. (1) B,er'ith: The Prophet Ezekiel agreed with the meaning of ~e:r'ithas abov e, According to Ezekiel 20:37; in the Hebrew text, 'Covenant' is a bond. Covenan t may be made between ti,'I10 parties of an equal fobting, but this is not quite correct with regard to the Yahweh-Israel covenant relationship. It was Yahweh who initiated ito He dictated and concluded the terms of the ~~. .. Yahweh the stronger, proposed it and granted Isiae1, the weaker. It was God who called Abraham and made requirements from him. Also, this was the general nature of the covenant at Sinai. In Genesis 21:25~32, Abraham made a mutual agree- ment with il.bimelechat Beersheba; also in I Samuel 18:3, David and Jonathan made a covenant between themselves. Usually such an agreement was between non-equalso In _the above examples, Abraham was supposed to be superior to Abimelech, while Jonathan was also considered as occupying a safe position. Similarly, when the victorious King Ahab made a covenant with the defeated Ben-hadad of Syria (I Kings 20:34), the term implies the conditions of peace granted by the victor to the vanquished •• UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 32 In a few cases where the weaker may have initiated the covenant, the Stronger still has to grant it.. For instance, in Joshua 9, it was the Israelites who granted fl'J].. 'Z.f.- to the Gibeoni tes who placed themselves' under the protection of Israel. Also, in I Samuel 11:lff., it was Nahash, king of the Ammonites, who granted a covenant to the people of Jabesh-gilead. In II Samuel 3:12, Abner, the weaker, requested David to grant him his ~. . Therefore, when God made a covenant with Israel, it should be obviously clear that the terms were God's requirements from Israel, his chosen nation. That is, Yahweh should be seen as the superior and "victorious" king granting conditions of peace with the "vanquished" Israel. This again was the general concept of the Sinaic covenant. (2) Agreement or Alliance: "Covenant" is a solemn agreement or alliance.. It is an understanding or promise to do somethingo The word "covenant" in English comes from the Latin convenire. meaning, "to come together". As a theological term it corresponds generally to the Hebrew~, and the • Greek~. It applies to the relation~hip between God and man, representing God as in covenant-relationship with his own people. It was a leading idea of Yahwiem. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 33 (3) Command or Word: "Covenant" can also correspond with the Hebrew word u..J-,"~. Q "command". In Joshua 7:11,.• . Israel was expected to keep the covenant of Yahweh as a command: Israel has sinned; they have transgressed my covenant which I commanded them It is also parallel with the "word" ~ of Yahweh. T T Israel was enjoined at Sinai to keep the Commandments and Ordinances of Yahweh which were the pr~ncipal Centre of thl UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 34 Sinai covenant; and these the assembly of Israe] consented to keep according to Exodus 24:3,7: All the words ( J;.:J 1J:J3.n -6;> ) , T ,,- , which the LORD has spoken we will doo All that the LORD has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient. The above concept was the opinion shClred by Schmidt. 3 According to him, the Hebrew word n}J~:. could be connected with the j\ssyro - Babylonian biritu in its primary meaning of "fetter" to suggest an atmosphere of "command" 0 That is to say, the primary meaning of the term .!Ll')_~_':"'t, •.~ in Hebrew may have been ei ther "agreement" or "command". However, if the idea that Yahweh Gnd Israel made a covenant on equal terms is also expressed, this indicates that each party of the covenant had some Obligations to fulfil. It simply means that covenant creates rights and duties without necessarily placing those parties on an equal footing as sucho This is basically the Oeuteronomic concept or development over the covenant: You have declared this day ~onccrning the LORDo That he is your God, and that you will walk in his ways, and keep his statutes and commandments and his ordinances,4 and will obey UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 35 his voice) and the LORD has declared this day concerning you that you are a people for his own possession, as he has promised you , and th at you are to keep all his Commandments • •(Deut. 26:17-18) Here, bo th Yahvreh and Lsr-ae L cLea r-Ly had rru t.ua L rights and obligations ~ithin the covenant relation. From the above, »ne can rightly infer- a l so , that the primary meaning cl' t.he Hebrew .nna.may have been either • •• "agr-eement." or "ccmmand "; It rray 'iJ8 interesting to suggest that, or, t.h e part of t.h.e supe r-Lor-, the covenant. is ::J, II command1'9 vrhile on the part of the inferior 9 it is an "agreement:'. In a rur-the r- development of the concent of God's super-Lo r-I ty 9 Yahweh is considered as gr-an t.Lng special grace to 1srae19 that he Vlould dwell among them. Fe wouLd we l.come t.h e Lr- appr-oa ch to him in- the t ab er-nac Le , the tent of' the LOHD? or the temple which wer-e all considered 8.S God 1 s dweLl.Lng place. It "NaS i:1 the Holy of Holies that his mercy seat, representing nis physical preeence, was kept. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 36 (4) Witness: Every Covenant in the Old Testament had a religious significanceo Sacrifices usually aGcompanied most of them, and very often the presence of the divine was invoked, and God thereby becomes the witness of the covenanto In the Laban-Jacob covenant (according to Genesis 31:50) God was the witness and the third partner, and gave strength to the binding of the covenant. This was necessary among the Israelites because of their parent-god relationship with Yahweh. Every covenant was therefore concluded before Yahweh (I Sarno 23:18; II Sarno 5:3; II Kgso 23:3)0 However, when God was one of the two partners of the covenant, he initiated the covenant, and there was no need for the third partner to conclude or establish it. But the covenant would be valid only if Israel responded obediently and faithfully to the terms prescribed in the covenanto It is interesting to note that the Old Testament mentions the local god of Shechem EI-Berith or Baal-Berith (Judg. 9:4, 46) whose relationship with the sons of Hamor, ioeo, the Sheche- mites (Gen. 34:2), was bound by a covenant. There was no third party required. There were also examples of covenants concluded by deities outside Israel which were binding and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 37 effective without human or third party involvement. According to E. Jacob,5 "The king of Lagash, Urukagina (C.2,400 BoCa) imposes on his subjects the word that his king Ningirsu had pronounced", and ended the list of his laws with these words: "With Ningirsu Urukagina concluded this treaty •"• It would be a wrong notion to assert that a third party, mediator or witness was always required in any covenant-making. But it is certain that as the concept of covenant developed the importance of the mediator became more meaningful. It is believed that Moses was most probably the earliest mediator; the kings and priests later took over this role in Israel; and there was the futuristic hope that the Messiah would function as mediator. (5) Contract: ~ . . is also a contracto The granting of a ~, . . is not made without the observance of certain conditions, • especially on the part of the recipient. For ins~ance, David was quite willing to make a covenant with Abner, but only on the condition that Abner returned Michael, David's former wife, to him (II_.Sam. 3:13). Once this was done, the ~ . became a -contract binding on each party to fulfil the obligations required by the covenanto In the case of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 38 the covenant between Jonathan and David, even though it appears that it was Jonathan who imposed the covenant on David in order for the rites to be effective, the same covenant had ~to be concluded jointly by the two partners (I Sam. 23:16). This is well illustrated in the covenant between Laban and Jacob. Laban said, "come noh', let us make a covenant, you and I; and let it be a witness betweel you and me." (Gen. 31:44). (6) Peace: The covenant guaranteed a relationship which is commonly designated by the word: t1 j6~ : meaning "peac Peace does not mean an equivalent of covenant as such, but it designates a state of harmonious agreement9 and the balancing of all claims and needs between two parties. Th was the effect of the ~ . . between Yahweh and Israel. When this harmonious peace was marred, God said: "Come now let us reason together." (Isa. 1:18). Covenant establishe peace not only between God and man, but also between man a man. (Gen. 31:44; I Sarno 28:9f.) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 39 (7) Conclusion or Establishment: --~i?cr The conclusion of a covenant may take the form of oath-taking as in the case of the covenant between Joshua and the Gibeonites at Gilgal (Jos~ 9:15)0 It may also take the form of sharing a garment as in the case of David and Jonathan (I Sam. 18:3-4). According to Genesis 26:30; 31:46, 54; and II Samuel 3:20, a covenant was concluded by taking a mealo One of the most ancient rites, which was very common among the semitic people and the ancient Near East, as we ~hall examine very shortly, was to pass between the two halves of the beast that was slaughtered for the purpose of covenant establishment. This was a gesture taken by the participants to suffer the lot of the victim in the event of their breaking the terms of the covenanto This practice is called -- .-n.'"."",•")"'~"---'!\-"-7-:\..)(("~.',)-JT-: ioe., "to cut a covenant". Once an agreement was thus reached, the covenant terms became binding on both partieso In order to appreciate the covenant forms in the Old Testament, it is a matter of paramount importance to look into covenant making in the ancient world of which early Israel was a part. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 40 3 COVENANT IN THE ANCIENT 1}10RLD CovenaRt in the ancient world is best considered as treaty. It is a solemn agreement by which societies attempted to regularize the behaviour of both individuals, and social organizations. It was a promise that is sanctioned by an oath, accompanied by an appeal to a deity to "see" or "watch over" ioe., to witness the behi'l.viourof the swearer. Violation of the treaty was to bring about the curses stipulated or implied in the swearing of the oatho The Hittite language, and the Babylonian as well, never had a single word for "contract", 't~reaty" or "covenant". In both languages the treaty was designated by a phrase which can be translated literally as "oaths" and "bonds". The treaty was regularly spoken of as an act of the sovereign'~ favour to his vassal. It was the sovereign's treaty. He was the author or the initiator, and as such he dictated the terms of the treaty. The specific Obligations imposed upon the vassal by the superior or king were called the "words of the sovereign" - that is, the great king has spoken or commanded. He must be obeyed. The most important function of treaties for some thousand years before the sinaic covenant (of the thirteenth UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 41 century BoC.), was in connection with the creation of a new relationship.6 According to the Mari documents, such a treaty W-3.S called Salimum, a "peace". This indicates a peaceful co-existence between ~wo parties, usually those who had been on bad terms, especially between the oppressor and the vanquished. Most of the evidence for international treaties in the ancient world comes from Hittite sources. These were contemporary with the events that preceded and led up to the formation of the ancient Israelite federation of tribes in Palestineo According to Korosec,7 the Hittite treaty texts exhibited some elements in their treaty which were not extremely rigido The treaty forms could be varied, but the following six element structure was common. 1. The Preamble: This names the overlord who grants the treaty to hi$ vassals in his royal glory and as demonstr.t1oh of political power. The necessity for the treaty is mentionec here. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 42 2. The Historical P~o19~: . This clause describes the previous relationship between the two parties in some detail. URually, the commendable benevolence of the Great King is emphasized here. This wac to justify the claim of the superior that he ViasbeLng Eracious over the vassal to have granted him a treaty 'I'h er-ef'or-e , to continue to enjoy the benefits of being in r e'La't.Lor; wt tn the: superior, it was expected that thp- vassal would continue to 0'3 faithful snd obedient to the treaty. Their obed.l erice wcuL« trus dencnstrate 3. These took the form of the aric i errt LIesopotamian.Law Codes otherwise referred to as case L" aw , I'h ey def'Lrie the obligations b:Lnding on the vassals in certain ciI'cumstances. fU9lt1v •• ' and foreign policy. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. ProvisiOllll for D§l2.osit an(l ]'ublic Re~~ Pr-ov t s t on was mad e for the deposit of the treaty in the temple and for periodic public reading. Since the temple ·~v8.si.;hehou se of' t.r.e god , the written document should therei'oP2 be kept. under his' safe custody for his watchful. attention. The treaty obligations wer-e also bindir..g upon the vassals' citizenry. At stip'-lla~ed intervals? -~he text was read publicly to the assembly to serve both <:J.8a reminder and as 8. warning. Aj';:J.rt from the c e tta e s of both pa r-tLes LnvoLved in the trQ'a..ty there ',7a8 n list of -7i t.ne ae ee to the treaty. Among such were d.eLf'Led elements of the 'nat.ur-e L wor Ld, Man and t.he soci~ty depend upon tt.o,rje wat ne s s.es b ecau ae to ~pply the supernatural sanctions of ~h8 treaty The formulas furnish both negative and po s it Lve mot tva t i ons for strict obedience to the treaty obligations. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The curses included the natural and historical calamities beyond human controlt such as diseases famine, death without po st erd ty , and d.eat r-uct Lon of the society Lt seLf", The reverse of the above ster» i':,t18blessings , namely, pr-o aper-tcv , p ea ce , long life, arid continuity of the 8' kingship and r ocLet.y of the vassal. Hittite culture was rich with rituals. In the light of this, it :1 fJ believed that SOlT'eeLa'J?ra te ere'aty probably accompanied. t.h e r-atLf'Lc» +i.on of coveriarrt , There are great similarities between the Hittite treaty structure and the biblical tradi tion of the sinaic 9 was the first person to draw attention to this Hittite-Israel resemblance, espec ial1y with the Sinaic covenarrt in Exodus 19-24; and Joshu8. 24. The actual ceremony with which the pa r-t Les ~:.ntered Lnt.e treaty t ook numerous i'()['lT~;;. treaty wL:_c,h wab lidcl.:-; by eating together, another hy UG!? 0:(' water or nil~ aru:~her by drinking of a cuy. There was another called I!lJ~PPY and 'iettuceil s E: sort of meal. '~hel~f:1vra s a case in which the r-epr-esent at tv e of trre king of Mari (an important city on the Mid·-'East of -.I]uphr-ateE in t.he early UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 45 Millenium), ~1en he was called on to function at a treaty-making ceremony,_ refused to have the treaty established by "puppy and lettuce", and Lnsbe-ad preferred that the ceremony use the more common one of killing a young donkey. The most widely accepted form of ent~ring into a treaty involved cutting up an animal. The person entering into the treaty was identified with the animal. Archaeological finds in recent years have thrown more light on the similarities between treaty-making in the Ancient Semitic world and the covenant-making of the Bible. Both language and rites are similar. At Mari, for instance, the Amorite idiom meaning to make a treaty is "harayum gat~lumtt, that is, "to kill a young donkey". The A) God as divine; j .e., tr~e Holy One of Israel, mSdnins, the divin~ God of Israel, or the heavenly or transcendent God. 'Nhen this same term is used for 8. thing or man, t.hLs simply indicates tnat such who L'Ly d edLc-rt ed t c God. It ',iill be uriaco ept.abLe to suggest t:L8t'j!hen a thing or ma~ is referred to as holy, that it denotes a moral attribute. It can only mean that it belongs +o Go:], the holy One, because by nature nothing is holy until it is made holy if suitable for the purpose. Por instance, only UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 48 an unblemished animal could be set aside for Yahwehvs offering. In such cases, the thing is dedicated and it becomes holy to God. This is also true of a place set aside for Yah weh , For example, u""-i=,r~t:": • "a holy place" W(-'l.S the t at.er-na cLe dedicated to Yahweh , Once any dedicated object. wa s def'Ll.ed , it was no longer fit for any religious purpose. Numbers 5:3, says: If ••• ttLEtt thE::ymay not defile their camp , in the midst of wh t cr. I dwell. \I Any thing b eLong Lng to Yahweh must be excLu8ive1y holy. H'l s dwelling place (seat) in the tabernac Le is called 1I;S,--=~~H~....tIi&...""'''';;''' - "The holy of holies" or "the most holy plac3". one dared enter it save the high priestv and ther only once a year, on the day of Atonement, after t.he high priest must have offered sin-offering for self-sanctific2tion to be fit to appear in the holy of holies. In Numbers 16:3-5, Korah arid his company chq llenged the claim n:[:' the exclusive pr-I esthood 01'Aa rori , where they said: ,~ou htvs gone too 1'ar:For all the congregation are holy, everyone of them, and the LORD is among them; why then do you exalt yourselves above t!le assemb Ly 01' the LORD?" Moses then replied to him thus: "In the morning the LORD '[viIIshow 1."[110 is h t s, and.who is ho Ly , and will caus e him UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY to come near to him." From the above passage, it is clearly shown that wh en the t.er-m "holy" is used for man in Israel, or the nation as a whole, just as in the case of any object or place, this signifies that they are the exclusive possession of'Yahweh, the Holy One. Such things or persons are se~ apart or dedicated? and by virtue of this they became holy possessions of Yahweh. This is the theological meaning of Isr-ael being referred t o as a peculiar people. (b) ~l1-L~,.-¥:.?tolines:3. The wor-d "rioLfne as" suggests that b ef'ore a thing or person becomes holy such e'dng or person must have been taken out of something or persons which are not hoLy or peculiar. 'l'heyare sim'lly common. This does not suggest that such common thingE~ or per-sona are pr-cf'ane, They ar-enot the opj.orLt.e of holy as such. above the common. Once a thing becomes holy the idea o~ invio19bility is closely connected with it. According to II gar-mel 6:7, when Uzzah wanted to defend the ark f'r-omf'aLl.Lng , he was struck dead. Similarly, when the men of Beth-8helil8sh UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 50 looked into the ark or t~e LO~D? seventy o~ them were slain. The peop Le t.hen remarked: "Who is abLe to stand b ef'or-e the LORD, thifl holy God?" (I Sam. 6:19-20). ;rhis doctrine ot: inviolabili ty of the "ho Lv " thing or person was strongly champLoned by Isaiah or Jerusalem. He persuaded king Ahaz to put a} 1 '1is t.rust in Yahweh beC8.U8e God 'would deliver him f r-orn the Syro-"B.;1.1.phratm('0)i CoaIi tion .arid the Assyrian threats, and ,Terusalem would not be violatea·11 (Isa. 7; 10:24-26). IsrEel being dedicated to Yahweh was highly ch;:=trg~dto be holy as Yahweh is holy. Leviticus 11:44, says: H ••• consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holY9 ror I am holy." But what does this mean? It is most imprcbable to suggest that as Yahweh is holy, so ·Israel is holy. 'I'h i a expression eLmp i.y means that Israel is dedicated to Yahweh as a holy possession. This is the implication of the coveriar.f relation. Israel wa~ to remain therefore as Goals po~se8s10n always. This cha rz e may be put simply as this: "Be my people: for I am your :';od. II 'I'n Ls VJ8.S tr_-,,;rery centre of the covenant r eLatLon, .IoLy or Holiness t.hcr-e t'o r e , on the par-t of Israel meant devoted to God9 or dedicat ed to God~ Yal.weh, OIl the part of God~ it meant divinity. By nature God is holy, he UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 51 is divine. (c) ~ - Sanctify: When {ahwdll said he would sanct ify himself ~ it does not IDeI'mthat he WB:':; unho Ly, By this ~jj'pressiun} '(ahweh w;.-:.,.ro, (=:xpr't3(Jsinr:h; is wish to glorify n LmaeLf by ahowt.ng his divine greatness sr:;ong J s r-aeL and nations U~z.ek. 38:16; Lev. 10:3; Psa. 99:3). WhenMoses failed to sanctify Yahweh~ that is, to glor'ify h i.m, before denied him the or-por tunLt y to enter the promised land (NuI!'. 20: 10-12) • Hi s offence was that he did not allow the divine holiness, I , e. ~ the power and. greatness of Yahweh to be seen directl,>'9 r-at.her- it ve: hie, ewn personality that he impressed upon the people. In summary therefore 9 one may conc Iud e thus: 1. ThLl!?S 8.ndty'.::t'sons ded I ca'ted cor deVoted to Yahweh are h01y. They t}~erefore :=;xpress the;,.. r-eLa-r t onsh tc t·J God. Accor-tI ng LO Hosea 11: 9~ 129 He is the Holy One in the midst of Israel. This designat.ion shows clearly that God is separated from man and elevated above nLrn , ,jUi;: as the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5'2 / dedicated thing or person is separated from the common. Men or things, no matter how holy) are in secondary position to God. In Laa Lah and the prophets 9 :for Lns t ance , the word "HolyH becomes Yahweh's name. Isaiah 6:39 says: "HolY9 holy, holy is the LORDof hosts, the whole 8arth is full of his glory.1i This is God!s divine majesty or his Godhead. No person or thing, however' dedLc at ed , .devot ed or separated could attain such a divine status. 2. W!'"enmen are devoted to him, they must sh ar-e his character and be morally upright. This is what makes them peculiar and the general express ion of their holiness. As to thing 8, t.h ey must be fit to be Yahweh.'s. They must be the best and ceremonially pure. Only clean things by their nature could be dedicated to Yahweh, just as only men of a character like his own -;oulC1be dedicated "to him. For instance, t n ~xodus 32: 26, 299 the Levitesieclared them- aeLve= on Yahweh.'s side and they were separated for him and his service.· 3. Holiness is an attribut e of God. It expresses God's t.r-arie cendency , his majesty, power- and wisdom. Man in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY S3 his covenant relation to Yanwehmust acknowledge .tneae fundamental bases, without which no perfect understanding of' the covenant relation would be well appr-ec Lat.erl , UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 54 5 NOTES TO CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 My aim finds base in the premise of WoA. Brown, who claimed that TheologYt like Philosophy cannot create, it can only interpret. Therefore, the religion of the Israelities is to be explained meaningfully, in theological perspective 0 (See trJ .A. Brown, "The Old Theology and the New"; The Harvard Theological Review, ___L.._. IV., p",23). 2 Begrich, "Berith", ~; cited by E. Jacob, Theology of the Old Testament, po 211. See also G. Von Rad, 2l£ Testament Theology, I, po129; Joshua 9:6ffo, I Kgs. 22:34; I Sam. II: Iffo DEFINITION AND ETYMOLOGY OF COVENANT 3 E. Schmidt, Bi; cited by HoWo Robinson, The Religious ideas of Old Testament, po 1880 4(a) Commandments: n j !:S:O , from the singular: ~o The word ;'commandments" when used in -r • the Old Testament usually refers to the ten commandments given to Moses on Mount Sinai, otherwise referred to as the Decalogue. It may also be termed "the law of Moses". UNIVERSI Y OF IBADAN LIBRARY • 55 But when ~ is used, this means the Pentateuch. This at times embraces both the statutes and the ordinances. It may then be properly referred to as "The book of the Law" 0 (b) The Statutes: ~: from the singular ~ Statutes are the rules and instructions concerning the social life of- Israel, including the relationship between the same Israelites, and their relationship to non-Israelites. (c) The Ordinances: 0 'lP ~ 'Jby: from the singul ar lQ 5)uj bl (ordinance) • The ordinances are the decTree:s,• rules, or religious rites regarding the Old Testament cultus, regulating th~ religious worship and ceremonies, e.g., the Passover, the feast of the Tabernacle, first fruits, sacrifices and offeringso In the New Testament, they apply to Baptism, Eucharist and the Holy Orderso They also include the priesthood office in gcneralo Ordinances and Statutes always go together inter- relatedly, eog., Exodus 15:25; and Joshua 24:25~ In I Kings 2:3, the three terms? commandments, statutes and ordinances, are mentioned togethero In addition to these three words, n oJ J.}. : testimonies, is also mentioned. This simply refers to the two stones of the ten commandments kept in the "Ark of the LORD", otherwise called the "Ark of the Covenant", or the "Ark of Testimony"; which was placed on the Mercy Seat in the Holy of Holies of the tabernacle or temple. Incidentally, both the Akkadian and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 56 Aramaic words for testimony were alternatively used for covenant, originally meaning "Obligation sworn to". 5. E. Jacob, opocit., p. 211. COVENANT IN THE ANCIENT WORLD 6. G.E. Mendenhall, "Covenant",~, V., p, 226. 7. G.E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East, p. 32. Henceforth cited as Law and Covenant. (as quoted by Korosec). 8. G.E. Mendenhall, "Covenant", ~, V. p..227. 9. G.E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant, p. 35. 10. G. Fohrer, "History of Israelite, Religion" Theology, LXXVI., No. 641, p. 601. 11~ This was a reflection upon Isaiah's foreign policy. That be contrasted Micah who said that Jerusalem will fall, should not be taken as a contradiction. Israel as a holy, "Separated1l, or "Set apart" nation should refrain from foreign alliance. The nation must not entangle herself with foreign politics.. Yet when the foe was at hand the chosen people must fight in faith. The covenant God, on his part, "would intervene". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 57 CHAPTER II COVENANT FORMS IN ISRAEL If the contents and narratives of the Old Testament covenants are critically examined, these may be conveniently classified Under three major divisions. First, the secular traditions, with the following forms: Suzerainty, Parity, Patron and Promissory. Second, the God-bound covenants, namely: the Adamic, Noahic, Abrahamic, and Davidic covenants. Third, the Israel-bound covenantse These are: the Mosaic covenant, the covenant of Joshua, and the Deuteronomic reform, otherwise called, the reform of Josiah. The Covenant of Ezra is also an Israel-bound covenanto 1. THE SECULAR TRADITIONS The Hittite treaties well illustrate that all treaties were normally concluded by appealing to the deities of both the Suzerain and Vassal states as witnesseso However, this is not true in all cases as regards the Israelite secular covenantso In the Old Testament secular traditions, Yahweh may not be a party or witness to the covenantse First to be considered under this type of covenants is the suzerainty treaty. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 58 (A) Suzerainty Treaty. The Hittite suzerainty treaties were highly developed forms of treaties and they can be taken as representing the basis for covenants in the whole of the Ancient Near East. In these treaties, the vassal states were put under the protection of the Hittite sovereign. The Suzerain stipulated the obligations which bound the inferior. Similarly, there are certain treaties that are typical illustrations of this form in the Old Testament. In I Samuel 11:1, the Jabesh-gileadites offered to serve Nahash thE:Ammonite ina covenant relationship. They said: "Make a treaty with us, and we will serve youo" Even though it was the inferior who initiated this covenant, it was to be ratified by the superior, without whose approval the covenant may not be established. When the superior stipulated the condition by which the treaty could be ~ade, this was not acceptable to the inferior; hence, the consequent war between Nahash, the Ammonite, and Saul, the Israelite, on behalf of Jabesh-gilead ensued. Ezekiel 17: 13 refers to the treaty between Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and Zedekiah, king of Judah, as mentioned in II Chronicles 36:13. Zedekiah was the royal seed, that is, king Jehoiachints or Jeconiah's uncle. Jehoiachin himself had been taken as a prisoner of war to Babylon (II Kgso 24: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 59 101'1'.•) The ch i ef men 01' the land were also taken away to Babylon as hostages for the fulfilment of the treaty between Nebuchadnezzar and Zedekiah. But later, Zedekiah committed treason. He was also captured and taken to Babylon (II Kgs. 24:20-25:7). Though suzerainty treaties bound only the inferior party 9 the superior also gave up some degree of freedom of action, which he could have 'normally exercised without a treaty- The treaty relationship VIas not based on 1'orce alone. Once the treaty' had heen established he could no longer exercise his superior power arbitrarily; r-ath er-, he was to defend the vassal on all matters. This was the commitment underlying Joshua's defence of the Gibeonites at Gilgal against the Adonizedek alliance. (Here1 it is ob vi.ous that Yahweh "vas not a party or witness to the Joshua-Gibeo!J, treaty) (Jos. 9:14-15). In accordance wi th the na t.ur e of God, he declares in Genesis 12:31 that he would defend I srael throughout. He would be severe against the enemies of Abram (Abraham). God promised Joshua in the renewal of the "Mosaic cov snant." witr~ hLm , that he would be with him9 and not fail him or forsake him (,Jos. 1:5). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 60 (B) T.A~Parity Treaty 'I'he Parity covenant s may be sub-divided into two cat egor-Lee, namely, those in which specific obLtgat Lons were imposed and the others in which no obligationp were imposed except tbat of preserving the peace between the two parties. First, let us consider the latter. The treaty between Jacob and Laban in Genesis 31:44- 50,. presupposed that Jacob would take care o~ Laban's daughters and lteep the peace be t.we en them. So also, the covenant betwe en Abraham and Abi.mel.ech in Genesis 21: 25- 32, is another example of a parity covenant which is to preserve peace between t.rre t-"JO parties. In the above two examples both par-t Les were bound by oath. In Genesis 26:27-31~ Isaac made a parity treaty with Abimelech in whi ch there is no indication of further obligations imposed other than to retain the peace between them. Seconcl,the t r eatv between (Joshua and the (hbeonites was a parity peace +r-ea t.y, -t)U.t when the diplomacy of the Gibeonites was detected, Joshua changed the treaty from pari t;y to suzerainty 9 and the Gibeoni tes willingly consented to this. The covenant bet.weeri David and Jonath':ln was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 61 initiated by Jonathan who is believed to be superior in social status (although Jonathan was conscious of the divine choice of David to be cuperior to him in the political arena). However, in this covenant, there were no stipulations 9 and no oath was t alcen as such , It was only established on sincere love and friendship. What car-n be r-ega rded as "wWtltnesses If t 0 t'ne covenant were. the robe, armour, sword 9 bow and girdle of ,Jonathr:m given to David. There is no LndIc s t t on here, that only one party was bound by this covenant. It will therefore be most appropriate to suppose that this '.78.S a parity covenant. The present or future social status of either party therefore became irrelevant • .H..ccording to II Samuel 3:12~21~ David made a covenant w i t.h Abner. Both of them had obligations to fulfil In oreler to make the covenant viable. Vfuile Abner promised to bring a11 Israel to DavLd, David. al.so committed himself that as long as l!i:ichal hi.e t'ormec w i r e , was restored to him he too would be obliged to make a covenant with Abner, and ccnsoquent.Ly to ~eign over the whole of Israel. This covenant Vias 8. two-sided bargain and as such, it is a parity covenant. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 62 The treaty between Asa, king of Judah? and Ben-hadad, king of Syria, did not indicate a suzt;.f'aintytreaty. Though it was initiated by Asa '1,~10 wa s seeking alliance with the king of Syria for security, SInd sent gifts to him, yet Ben-hadad had to break the existing t r=at.v with Baasha, king of Israei~ in order to honour the prec:..9nmtutual agreement between him and Asa. In all probability this was a parity treaty. (c) The Patrw 1'reaty Patron treaty is a treaty Ln wh ich the superior binds htmself to some obligatione in tavour of the inferior. There is little or no evidence 0f' this type of covenant in the Old Testament9 other than those in which Ye.hweh bound himself. We shall discuss such covenants very shortly under th-" !lG0r1-bou"r:c,o"v:e;nants." (n) 1.h_~_J,:";'QD.~lZ.Y...1reaU The Pr-orm ssory type of treaty j. f3 ezt remely important both in the secular and religious traditions; hence it is otherwise caLl.ed "the Royal grand t.ype " of treaty. A promissory treaty is not primarily intended to establish UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 63 a new relationship between two parties, but to guarantee future loyalty to the stipulated obligations. It can be said that, there is only one party to this type of covenant. It is usually viewed as a "promissory oath" which is unconditional. This makes the element of promissory oath in other treaties different from the Royal grand treaty. In Jeremiah 34:8-11, Zedekiah made a covenant with his people and proclaimed the release of all Hebrew slaves unconditionally, simply because it was not the custom' of the Israelites to enslave their fellow citizens. Similarly, in II Kings 23:3, both king Josiah and his people made a covenant before Yahweh to keep the commandments, testimonies and statutes contained in the book of the covenant which had been found in the house of the LORD. During the post- exilic reform of Nehemiah and Ezra, the Judeans bound themselves by a curse and oath to obey the laws of the Pentateuch. They promised to put away foreign wives, and also to refrain from usury (Neh. 10:28-29; 5:11-13; Ezra 10: 3). All the above one-party covenants were not the making of new relationship, but rather the renewal of the old covenant relation; that is, the promise to re-establish the old or the already existing covenant. They were all meant for both the social, political and religious stability UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 64 of the new community in order to avoid future calamity (N eh , 9: 38) • 2. GOD-BOUND COVENANTS (A) The .Adamic Cgvenant WhenGeld created t.he heaveri and the earth, he saw that his creation was good, and he ceased to create. This was a total and perfect display of his nature~ and he reposed in satisfaction. According to A. B. Davidson, "this repose and satisfaction expr-e so his relat ion to the cr-ea t ion, and on this condi t t on he made the aabbat h the symbol of his covenant w'ith his creation. ill According to Ecclesiast icus (Sirach) 17: 12, "He, (God] established with them [men of his creation] an eternal covenant 9 and sho-ved them his judgments. It furthermore, the Adamic covenant was made ()f works with Adarn , as the representative of the whole human race. Truly, in the JE account, (if' the creation (Gen. 2:4b-25), it 'vms mandato:..Y.. for .idam to obey the stipulations of the covenant. Similar- ly, in the JE story of the Fall and. the Expulsion from Eden, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 65 , . in Geneuis 39 it was mandat or-y for Adam to work for sust enanc e • In all the above passages, Adamdid not swear to any oath or obligation 9 r-ath er ~ it was God who bound himself in the Pr-Le st.Ly writer's account of the Creation (Gen. 1:1-?~4a)!) to bless Adamand the whoLe mankind. The condi tion of obedience was not at t.a chod in this Priestly account. When the two different accounts of the creation are put together as in Genesis 1-2, it is commonly presumed that while God bound himself by promising life eternal to mankind, the CO'l8Y'.",:wntas upor: the condition of obedience, with deac[l as yenalty of trangression. While this view is correct, yet it is clearly obvious that it is a one- party covenant in the sense that it was only God who bound himself to some obligation. God the creator and governor of his cre8.ti.on made another covenant wi-th the new race that s-urvived the flood. It was directed to the human race as a fa~ily. Genesis 9: 4f., gives the conditions of the covenant: the new race UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 66 should abstain :from eating blood; they should cherish the sacredness of' human life by refraining from shedding their own blood (~micide) 9 and the blood of' their neighbours (murder). 'rhe sign was the light in the hes.vens appearing on the face of the cloud. In Genesis 9: 12-13, Yahweh established the sign of the covenant by setting a bow in the clouds for Noah and for, all future generations. It was a symbol of' the new light of' GOd's face and of lif'e shining on the dark background nf the wat er-y f'irmament. In Genesis 9:11, God bound himself to obligations never Rgain to cut off all flesh and destroy the earth by the Yfatu'''s 01' a f'Lood, It is also appropriate to add, that 9 it is implied according to Genesis 8:22, that another sign cA' the covenant was t.hat, the recurrence of' /' the seasons and of' day and night should not cease. This is attested. by Jeremiah 33:20. (c) Th~ .Ab~:r~J1am,Qicovenam Probably the most original of the God-bound covenants was the Abrahamic covenant 9 which is preserved for us in two f'ormss the Yahwist form J in Genesis 15; and the Priestly tradition P in Genesis 17:1-14. In these :forms, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 67 Yahweh is re-establishing his covenant with Abr-aham in response to Abraham!s r-equent r'o r- certainty of the promise whi ch Yahweh had earlier on made (Gen. 12:2-3). For the f'o Ll.owi.ng r-ea sons , this covenant tradition is of immense hi sto;:,t caL importance p if taken as the model for the later covenant traditions, such as the Mosaic and DaV'idic: First, the covenant was established by means of cutting the sacrificial animals provided (Gen. 15:9-10), into two parts. This was a VPr'Y archaic fOr'll1of pre- Mosaic t r-ad i ti on , Second~ from tr-l8 Hittite treaty tradition (a pre-Mosaic period), it VlElS a USI1.'-11 practice for the head of the fRlilil~'-to make a covenant with a part LcuLar- deity. 'l'hLs was, therefore, one of the important elements in the pre-Mosaic heritage of ancient Israel. In these J and P :Corms9 .<~brahamdid not ewear- to any obLf.gat Ion ; rather it WRS Yahwehwho in all C~-'8esswore the oath to create out of Abraham a great nation, defend him at all costs, and give to his generations the promised land. Genesis 12:2-3, says: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 68 And I will make of you a great nationg arid I will bLe as you, and make your name gr-ea t , so that you will be a bless Lng , I will bless tho se who bLe ss you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves. Also, in Genesis 15:5, the ~ORD says: Look toward heaven, and number the stars, if you are able to number them. Then he said to him, "so shall your descendants be If • Again, the Abrahamic covenant should be seen F.l.S an uncondi t t ona L bestowal of salvation by Yahweh to Abraham and his generation (Gen. 17:2,7,19,21). This is otherwise referred to as an election covenant. In Genesis 17, the rite of circumcision is given as a "sign" or "aea l.'' to appropriate the diville offer of salvation in confessional form. Both Ao r-aham and his ceecendarrt s were to perform this rite. This vividly expresses the original intention of the covenant to make the patriarchs a specific part of the Abraham~e e~venant. Genesis 17:11-14, says, among other things: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 69 You shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskins, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and you. He that is eight days old among you shall be circumcised; every male throughout your generations. From all available records in the Old Testament, it is a plain fact that the patriarchs, that is, the twelve sons of Jacob, were the descendants of Abraham. Therefore, it is appropriate to infer that the patriarchs were still within the provisions of the covenant with their still ancestor, Abraham. In this account, Abraham did not swear to any obligation. The covenant with Abraham and David, otherwise known as the Royal Grand i~ of promissory type modelled on Ancient Near Eastern types. But they included an element of obligation. So also an element of promise is implied in the Mosaic Covenant, though of obligatory type. The passages above show very clearly that the Abrahamic covenant contained three promises, namely, that Abraham would become a people or a great nation; that he attained a new and special relationship to God; and that he was to possess a land (Canaan), a sign of a completed re~ption and salvation. Thus, the covenant made with Abraham was of grace. _It was a development over the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 70 Noahic covenant. It passed from the wide area of creation and natural life. The conditions of the covenant were the above promises, while circumcision, the sign of the covenant, was the symbol of putting off the natural life and the putting on of a new spiritual lifeo (D) The Davidic Covenant The Davidic covenant is a subsequent and most impo~tant covenant in which Yahweh bound himselfo In II Samuel 3:9, Abner attested that it was Yahweh himself who swore to Davido David himself also attested, in II Samuel 23:5, that Yahweh had made an everlasting covenant with him. ~().,"-;1. is used to express the divine proml .se to : establish a dynasty for David according to prophet Nathan's oracle in II Samuel 7:5-160 Israel was the chosen nation of Yahweh and David's dynasty would last forevero While we maintain the continuous demonstration of God's love and grace towards his people, it was David's devotion to Yahweh that earned him the promise of eternal graceo This simply means that God saw in David, a person suitable to effect the fulfilment of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 71 his covenarrt , The LORDapprec j ac ed all the moves of' /' David to provide him an abode (II Sam. 7:2). ~s a token of' gratitude, God promised to build ila housel1, that iSi a dynasty ior David (Ii Sam. 7:4-16). In Psalms 132: 2-5, we f'Lnd David making an oath to the LORDnot to rest until he found a dwelling place for the Migh tJ Orie of Jacob. Again, the LORDhere SWOI'eto establish the throne of David f'o r-ever-, 'I'hu s 3-od bound himself' in ~3. covenant. with l~~s: p,E'""vantiJiThopr-oved his loyalty 2n~ devotion to his master and Lord. In Psalms 89:3, 28-J9; 110:Lh it is also stated, that it was Yahweh vrho swore to establish David and his descendants forever. In the a'bove covenant, Yahweh aLorie was bound to a promise. The ki.ngahLp :10W shared in the ao'l ida r-t ty of the Mnsr.: ic covenant. 'I'h e cov enarrt 7Tith David i 8 s tml Lar- to thp. Abr-ahamtc covenant. While (tod made a pledge to establish David f s Dynasty t'or-ev er-9 he made an oath with Abraham to give his ch i Ldr-en +he land of Canaan everlastingly. These two covenants were quite different 'from the Mosaic covenar:t9 in whLch Israel pledged loyalty to God, and is an obligatory type 9 whI Le the former t'NO a r-e a promissory UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 72 type. 'I'he unconditionality of the Davidic covsnarrt is as pronounced as the Abrahamic covenant (II Sam. 7:13-15). By t.his t.okeri, the treaty with the patriarchs is considered as valid forever. YVhen,on the part of Ler-ael , the covenant was breached, she would be punished severely. But God would intervene to restore Israel to himself, because he would not break his covenant. The dynasty of David succeeded conv'incingly in Judah (as aga:l1.st the chaotic dynasties in Israe19 the Northern Kingdom), tnr-ough which Yahweh was going to f'u Lf'dL his promise to':..braham. The intention of this covena~t may be to eat abLt eh a stable state and dynasty void of constant revolution and struggle for succession at the death of each king. Thus God made a covenant with David and bound himself to sustain it at all costs, thereby fulfilling the Abrahamic covenant in progress. According to G. E. Mendenhall, "In DavLd, the promise to the Patriarchs is fulfilled, and r-enewed, ,,2 In the yI'ophetic books, the covenant 'NaG bound up with the prophetic-messianic expectation of the Davidic shoot (Isa. 11:1, 10; Jer. 23:5; Ezek. 34:23-24). ;rhe Messianic concept of the above passages should not sur-pr-tse us, because, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 73 as Mendenhall States, "The belief in the king - saviour who will appear in the future and bring bliss to the nation was prevalent in the Ancient Near East".3 The application of the term" Davidic shoot", to the Davidic covenant was to establish the continuity of his dynasty forever. The unconditionality of this covenant was most probably similar to such unconditional covenant found in their environmento This covenant was certainly a reshaping of the Older Covenant, ioeo, the Abrahamic treaty. The editor looked at the accomplishment of David as the fulfilment of the promise given to Abraham. That is to say, when God was directly dealing with Abraham, he did not specify the exact boundaries of Canaan to be inherited by Abraham and his descendants, but simply, he would be given the land (Gen. 12: 1,7; 15:7ff09 17:8), as a possession for evero Thus it may be concluded that the Adamic covenant was given the symbol of the Sabbath and the grace of eternal lifeo The Noahic covenant expresses the sacredness of life, and of the consciousness of man as belonging to God. The Abrahamic covenant was of grace, and of spiritual life. The Davidic covenant was subsequent to the previous ones which were now being re-established by promising an ever- lasting dynasty to the devoted king. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 In all the above co,!enanbs, it was God who bound himself to his creation and mankind, and especially, Israel, his elect. The next section deals with the Israel-bound 'COV-e&lants. First, it is necessarytto discuss the fvlosaic or Sinaic cov.enant which was the climax of the Yahweh-Israel covenant relationship, io which Yahweh was recognised as the moral and spiritual God and father of a ii1o.':a:n"d'alt'edeemed people? Israelo 3.. ISRAEL-BOUND COVENi\NTS . In contrast to the G~d-bound covenants discussed above, there are other covenants which are directly opposite and could be termed, "Israel-bound covenants.1f There are four such covenants, na~ely: the MosaiC Covenant, the Covenant of Joshua, the Deuteronomic refor~, and the Covenant of Ezra. They are all identified with the Decalogue. We shall consider the first two in this section, while the other two will be discussed in chapter five. (A) The Mosaic C.venant The faith th~t the choice of Israel by Yahweh was a genuine one? made the Israelites to consider Yahweh as their tribal God, and his religion as a tribal religion. This concept also yielded particularism in that the Israelites restricted both Yahweh and his religion to themselves. Israel was a religious community by the means of their covenant relation with Yahweh, conclusively formed at Sinai under the leadership of Moses. The Mosaic covenant came as the culmination in which the relationship between Yahweh and Israel was formalized. It is to be said, therefore, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 75 that the Sinai covenant was a formal ratification and ceremonial establishment of any early covenants made between the Patriarchs end God. Henceforth, God's covenant with Israel was as steadfast as the laws of nature (Jer. 33:20-21). When the ethical prophets, such as Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah examined the conditions of the covenant, they realized that the covenant was basically theological, coveying religious truth to the entire world through the chosen nation, though it also includes the social, econom and political organization of the people. Here, the political and religious history of Israel is inseparable. Every life experience of the Israelites was given a religious interpretation within the covenant provision. Covenant thereby became the foundation or symbolic base of the community. Every action, religious or otherwise, must be in conformity with the stipulations and law of the covenanto When the ethical prophets condemned the people, it was to reshape their life-behaviours which were contrary to the terms of the covenant. 4 The prophets believed that the Sinaic covenant was the era of Israel's birth as a religious nation. It was then that UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 76 Yahweh created her, according to Isaiah Lt.oJ and became her father. God, by nature, is moral and spiritual. He created the rational and moral cr-eat.ur-e w i.Lh wnorn he entered into a covenant to be a spiritual creature, able to enter into close relations w.it n him. Lsr-aeL must ther-efore be entirely submissive to God. To establish the Mosaic covenant, accord.Lng to Exodus 24:7-9, the "blood of the covsnan t". that is, the blood of the victim, was sprinkled partly on the altar and partly on the people. The conditions of ths covenant were clearly stated aLao by the book of the covenant. 9 by Which Israel was bound to remain a faithful party to the covenant, thereby becoming Godv sown reop l,e J2':~:(':,-:.~1l~!1ce. If' the covenant~radi tions associated Fith ~~oses are compared with the international t r-eaty for-ms , especially those of' the Hittites, the similarities between them ar-e very striking. This however, d~)es not mean that the Mosaic covenant forms were ba sLcaI Ly an imi tation of such eecuLar t r-eat.y aor-ms, ThE f'oLl.owi ng similari ties were found in many of' the covenant forms of early Israel. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY "17 1. The Preamble: In t.he DecaLogue , Yahweh Ls identified as the covenant "~,;I giver. This is contained in '~xodus ~O:1--2a. Here9 the preamble is simply red.uc ed to HI am t.he LORDyour Go'}." This Lrrt noduc ee Yahweh as the Suzerain who w i shed to go into a covenant relation with his people. It was he who initiated th e covenant arid estab.1ished it. Like the Hittite treaty. Yahweh is the overlord politically and religiously. 2. The H;L~rical P~~ue: The second. feature of the Mosaic covenant $ that is, the historical prologue 9 is as brief .as the p r-earib.Le , Yahweh is here presented as the God who del Lve r-ed the people from the bond-age in Egypt. 'I'ht s is con taf.ned in the words "who brought you out of the Land of Egypt ~ out (,')1" the house of bondage." 8-rammaticallY9 it is obvious h er e , that in the Mosaic ;~raclit I on , both the pr eambLe and the historical prologue are inseparable, corrt r-arv to the '1:ittite form. The importance of this is tLat the revela- tic)!:'. cf' /ahweh :L s a component part of the hl s t or LcaL events which were the r'ounda t i.on of the coveriar:", Lt s eLf , and the Obligations attached tc it. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 78 3. The Stipulations The deliverance of Israel was a free and voluntary act of the saving God. Obligations were thereby stipulated for the people if they wanted to retain a lasting relation- ship to that God. This common and unique relationship made the community a special people and property of a single sovereign God. The Sinai covenant can be described as the new "Genesis"; that is, it marked the beginnings of nearly all the various theological themes which were later developed in the religious life-history of Israelo Among such are: the Providence, or Grace of GOd; the Kingdom of God; the sin of man and the wrath and judgment of God; the holy people as God's.community; the rewards of obedience and punishment of disobedience; and ethical norms to make God's people purer than the universal idolatrous lifeo Some of these theological issues will be examined in chapter four of this thesis. Like the Mesopotamian stipulations, the stipulations of the Sinaic covenant took the forms of case and "apodictic" law. They formed the basis for the above "Genesis", and can be summed up thus: First, Israel should have no other gods, but only UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 79 Yahweh. The elect people should r-ef'r-aLn from any r-eLf.gLoua or social f'unc t Lone that were associated ~".!"1.t.h these vrrr-Loue deities. The supe r-Lor-Lty of" Yahweh and t!:e cbser-vanc e of his command» should a l.way s be uphe.Ld , Second, God's naffie should not be taken in vain. This emphasizes the sanc t t ty of oe. i.h s which shou Ld be maintained. strictly ob s er-ved as a holy day. Thi:.< W2.S s rm.iLar- to the Roman custom in the first century B.C.;5 farmer'sy work- animals and sLlve~ were per-mdt t ed to rest every ei gh t.h d.ay, ·r:~'.".S is precisely the interpretation given to Deu t er-or.omy 5:14: But the .-",evenT,hday is a sabbath 1:.<;;> the L(YHD your God; in it 'IOU shall not 6.0 any wo r-k, you, or your son~ or your daughter? or your manserva:lt, or your maid- servant, or your ox, or yOl.ir ass 9 or any of your cattle, or the S0 jourrler who is wi thin your gat os , that your manse:rvant and your maidservant may rest as well as yo']. Fourth? pa r errt s were to be honoured and r r-ea ted w i t.h UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY due re spec t , It was pa r-t Lcu La r-Ly necessary to give suer' a command in a time of upheaval. Fifth, k.I Ll Lrrg of persons by persons9 even by accident if it inv01ved negllgenc8, was con s.ider-ed ElU f:t usurpation of the divine 307m:'eignt!{ over lif'e. This was of' course different from ex ecu t Lon of persons conu emned for crime 9 or kj lling of th{-:;ens,:,y in warfare. In GilLJ s.ltu atr on it was b eLlev ed that human beings Were acting as ager:t 8 of Yahweh or some deity. !.''':;'Y'thermore, under- such divine command, persons ~nd pr-oper-t Les ot.he rwf ae referred to as "spoiltl or "boot y " ~ Were considered as burnt offering to God, \,711.0 was 'actually prosecuting the war. And the ci ty and all that is 'Nithin it shall be devoted to the LORD for destruction. (Josh. 6:17) And when you have taken the city, you sh~ll set the c:ty on firSt doing as :jie LORD nas bidden. (Josh. 8: 8) The above practice was f:mtircly &. relJ-r;:LOuS prinr;ip:"c. It hQ,J_rmthing to aO'TLth imrno:r-ulity or wicl::r~dness. Simtlarly~ when o f'f'Lc La Ls or agents of the St-~:1-tf; gov srnrnent UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY carried out SU0h a duty, they could l)/')t- bf:":hell gu.i1ty of mu.r-de r-, sine e they were r-epr-e aerrt Lng the c cn st L tut ionally ,<=>s+;!-tbttshedauthority. ddultery and false wi t ne.ss 9 for the secnrity of' r.r-oper-t.y integrt t-/, and justice in the society. 8e'/enth.1 in GoY]clusion7 coveting was prohibited. The t'l.1l'la21rental human possessiohs in qll respects should not be tamperaQ ~ith, in order to have a healthy and holy soc t ecy , Mo:';t 0:1.' t.h eee CC;til.!?~ndme8n?t if not a LL, are ethically based. 'I'hey ShOW t!'l2,t Leithe-r socially organized force, nor- the .ro1H,i<;,;,1 power structure like the ancient Lao l.at.r-ous st&tes, could ~8ke Israel or any society ideal. The divine orders must be kept as et.h i ca L obligations fay- the well- being of the commur:.ity in general. Like the Hl~tite treaty forms~ there Was a provision msde for the d890sit of the Mosaic 90venant ~o~ument in the -aa-nc t.ua r-y, This VIaS pLac ed in the "Ar};;: of the Covenant." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY which resided in the Holy of' Holies. Li.!!' E:; the anc t en+ world, it was placed in the sanc.tuary of' the vassa19 and a r-equ Lr-emen t was made to read it J;l1:1A.iclyat stipulated 'He are told ~J'1 Deuteronomy 3:: 26; tha+ t~J.eDecalogue was to be deposited in the sacred Ark. I~ "~heArk r.ad contained the two tablets or the law, why then should it '"je ke:pt in the darkness or the sanctuary as a hidden :"lYster:-v? I'J:e law was supposed to be the compand on of' the IsraelLtE:2. Moreover, it was the high pr'4.6at. who ,:.;~lter:::6 into the Holy of U01ies, where the Ark was kept~ 0Ut only once a year on the day of' Atonement. If it is trL~e that the Ark contained the tablets of' the law, whicll was most probably so, their presence therein muat r.ave served a different purpose. In Ti.l}{od:.:c 20 and 34p we have tWO account s of' tL8 Decalogue which are quite dLf'f'er-errt , It is obvious f'r-om ihis situation that it was not cer-t a tn I!\~ich of' tr;E; two laws was actually written on the stones ot' f ar. Lea, taking for granted that the Ark contained the bt~ne8. But according to Deuteronomy 31: 2(, the book of the law i::--. the Ark was to <~erve as witness ~·,gainst uhe peopl e , It mas UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '3 therefore be supposed further that nothing was wrj tten on the tables, but they were simply to serve as witness. In Deuteronomy 31:10f.J MQs~q enjoined the peopl~ to read the 0l)ok of law before r.he fe; ssembly 0:-' all I sr8.'3''i.at thf3 -nd of every seven years, ot the set time of the year of release, at the i''?ast of boo tn s , fHnce this account had undergone Deu te ronomf.c revision and had been subjected to interpolation, this assumption may t.her-ef'o r-e not be reliable. But one -nling is certain, that Ln v;~atevc'H'form the book of the law WElS pt-e aer-ved a!;:l r-ead , t..t; e peril/Jic reading of the bock covenant car:.not be deni~d. This is well I Ll.uaur at ed by the book of the law given to Joshua; and the discovered book of the law by king ,Tosi,::,j'-"whicr', we seall discuss very shor t Ly , WhenGod Landed over tj'1(,;, "Boo~ig a r1ocumS;'ltaryautho!' i t~' to guide the new leader, -Jo shua , in his new duti o s , it was also to fa,11!.liari7.e the entire i160ple of Israel ovith tr.e obliga- tion3 at t ached to the covenant=-r-e.La t Lon \'~itl1Yahweh, their UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 84 "Buzer-a Ln'"; This will enable the .-..f;W gener-at Lcn to retain the age-long fellowship and covenant. r-eLat LonshLp , Alsop since the sacred document was -r Lwaye kept in the holy sanctuary, it follows that this practice was to indicate the loyalty of t~~ ~~ity to the obligations of the covenarrt ; t.ha t j.~, he wouLd not aid in breach of the covenant , The "va esaL state" 9 Lsr-ae L, shouLd in like manrie r oonatarrt Ly r-espec t and keep the provisions of the coven ent , 5. Jhe List of Witnesses In tr''''l usual legal cont r-act a, witnesses are called to participate -:n the ~;Rt!1;Jlishmentof such agreements. Similarly? in the Hittite treaties, a number of witnesses were called to effect the ccncLuai on of such treaties. Amongsuch witnesses were both thE'; Buzer-aLn' 9 gods and those of the vassal states. This means that the godb of the two parties participated in establishing and enforcing the treaties. However, unlike the Hittite or Ancient Near East treatie~, this ty~e of provision cannot be referred to in the Yahweb-I.~l eovenant-making. This was so be~ausp, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 85 Yahweh was the only God of the people. The Israelites, as the "vassal", had no other gods and as such they could not be called upon to present their gods or "pantheon", to bear witness to any covenant. A close look on Exodus 20 will sub st.antd.at;tehis claim.. But in Joshua 24, the people thQlt\selveswere referred to as witnesses against themselves. So also, in Joshua 24:27, the great stone which was set up under. the oak in the sanctuary of the LORD was declared as "a witness against us"; th"'ltis, a testimony against themselves. In Deuteronomy 32:1, Moses here called upon the natural phenomena as his witnesses, "Give ear, 0 heavens, and I will speak; and let earth hear the words of my mouth." In this Quotation, however, the situation was unequivocally quite different. It was more or less the act of giving a charge by the leader to his subjects. It was not a covenant-making between him and Israel, or between him and Yahweh. Rather, the witnesses were called upon to see that Moses performed bis divine duty effectively. This same idea is found in Isaiah 1:2; the heavens were to bear witness to prophet .Isaiah's effective ministry in assessing the state of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 86 spiritual bankruptcy of Judan, and hl s call t'or- repentance and religious meaningfulness. In no 'ivay should one infer that both Moses ~i.2:ld Lss Lah 1,VeI'e8ll.&P'",.fH~-atnintgrnf sn , 'I'h e features of the natural world su~ as mount~ins} rivers, sprin3S~ the g~~ sea, heaven snd earth J E.\nd w inds and clouds, l.plied in tne "leove paaaag es , 5h.:lL"i: ,., ••• T"·"1 am the Lord your [singular] ·Goa""(:Ex. 20:2f. Als~, v!rse 12 of the same chapter says: ~ "Li~~~[)~: "Honour your [singular-] father °and yout--'[sin@.1.1ar] mother. \I Thus the individual was singled out in the covenant .•law. Similarly_. .- in Exodus 21:15, the law says: ._£Lm_:r~~.-lljJ.2_-1_J..W,....L.I.='---+_&.L"-"""~~ T • "Whoever st r-Lke a hir3 father or his mother put to death. !I Though the covenant. vms given to Israel as a people, they had to be individually responsible aewell, to the keeping or t he covenant 1a '1-; • That is to say , t.hat with tn the community, the place of the individual was significantly recognized and bound to Yahweh , FOI' I srael to obey the commandment.sof Yahweh also means eve'C'yindi vLduaL must be obedient to him. Here, again, the uniquenesE of the covenant Law is shown, YVhilethe gods of the idolatrous societies wer-e not freely accessible to their common subjects, the covenant God of Israel 'i'las not a respecter of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 105 persons. All were equal before him. This was more pronounced in the phrase Itno sinner will go unpunished." Exodus 20-23; 34, as Yahweh'. s le.gislation for Israel, was the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of a nation chosen by God. Exodus 22-23:19, was considered as the Sinaic "Book of the Covenant", given to a people who were settled and thoroughly accustomed to agriculture and initial develop- mentS. This section was an elaboration on the decalogue given to Israel. They should be faithful to Yahweh, and justice must prevail in their community. Human dignity was here emphasised as well. It was closed with the injunction to celebrate three national feasts, namely: the Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Ingathering, and the First fruits.4 A. The Secular Law. The Mosaic law was given by God himself with Moses. as the sole agent of transmission. The law was entirely reflecting on the character of God and the obligations UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 106 of the people in r-e La t Lon to both God and the other people? as (tod's creation. Hence both the cultic and s ecuLa r- Law s were ent irely divine. This fact was however true of the secular and idolatrous laws cited above. They were enacted with ttJ' authori ty of their national gods. For instance, th'3preamble and conclusion of the code of Hammurab i 9 were referred to as th·~will of Bh ama ah J the god of Babylon. It is significant that this referenc0 was restricted to the introductory and closing formulas of such laws. 'I'h er-eat't er-the king aa vche representative of the god took over as t.h e Law giver. This shows a remarkable feature of difference between the law of Moaes and those of the Ancient Near East secular laws. While the deity was silent in those laws, Yahweh 9 the God of Israel was active as the giver and sustainer of t ne Old Testament law. Mor-eover-, the idolatrous kings were presented as the authority inqiving the state laws. The deity the reby appeared for a cer-emonial w itne~ to the laws. In the Old l'est amerrt , Yahweh wa s not only the giver of the 18.1i1" 9 every breach of such law \T/a s an offence against him. Moses as the qgent of the law, also served as the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 107 mediator between God and man when the law was broken. For instance? in Exodus 32:30-34, Moses played tbe role of a Pastor atoning for the sin of the people and in praying for God9 s forgiveness. A similllr r·cle. was played in Numbers 14: 13-19. It was due to Moses' .,,~;di8t:Lonthat God r-ep errt ed of' his wr-at.hf'uL det.ermLna t Lon t.o dt's~roy the unbeLdevf ng 1sraeli tes in the wtl.dernes5 c'J' Pa r-ao ~ at Kadesh. 1'lhen reference is made to the i1i[osiar:: lcpj" 8 s the "Law of Moses", it shouLd not be assumed 88 makLng the law a hand.iwork of Moses as in the case of the idolatrous kings. All "that this phrase is expressing, is that Moses was the ag sr.t, who conveyed the Law from Yahweh to Israel. The de~alogue has been traditionally divid.ed. into t.wo , "'.':n.'" first four of the ten commandmerrt s form the c errt r-a divine reference, and deal with our duties to God; and th::: other six deal with our duties" to our neighbours. By this9 the life of the people was re-ordered solely on rellgious law, and entirely depending upon the will of God. Th7;; clearly distinguished it f'r-orn the Ancient Eastern laws. The law again depicts a pre-knowledge of religious C:t\i\fS.l'eneossf the people, and this rnad e. thF.:' Law .in Lque , Its uniqueness did not lie in the fact th;3t it ,:..ada moral tone in 'weighty prohibitions of crimes Lnc l udi.ng capital UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 108 offences. These were similar to the secular elementary bases of communal life among the idoltrous people: especially, the Orient. Moses might have been influenced in his stylistic form in sub-dividing the Law into those two categories. By connecting these moral precepts with the basic religious commands, the Decalogue surpassed other contemporary codes. This was perhaps the basis underlying the submission of MCkenzie5, that the knowledge of Yahweh was religious, while the knowledge of 'Jloh1m i.eo, the plurality of God's majesty was moral. In any case, Yahweh should be known as the covenant God. To know him was to love him and obey his law in all its ramifications, in order to avoid his judgement. "Knowledge" here is, paralleled by Torah or the Law. To be acceptable before Yahweh, Israel must combine both together. His worship must be accompanied by moral obedience to his will. B. The Characteristics of the Mosaic Law 1. The Sacredness of Human Life The Book of the covenant portrayed the establishment of a deep religiously biased moral sensibility. For instance, a higher value was placed on human life than on any materialistic values. The death penalty was abolished for offences against property. But in the code of Hammurabi, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 109 the Babylonian law allowed death penalty for such offences. Similarly, according to Exodus 2~:20, 26f., the slave was protected from inhuman abuse. He was to be recognised as a human being, not the property of his 0: ner to be treated merely as a thing, which was the common practice allover the ancient idolatrous world. Lack of Gross .B•..rutality. One other interesting characteristic of the Code of Ha-nrnur ab L \lJ; 1 ich was abol ished in the Israel ite 1aw , was gross brutality. Among such were bodily mutilations, such a~ severing off of the hands or legs, and the cutting off of the breasts, nose or ears. I Samuel 11:2, gives us a vivid example of such bodily mutilations that prevailed in the an~iert world, and among the Canaaniteso In the above passagej Nahash the Aw,onite king, demanded th;:;tthe right eyes of the Israelites be gouged out in order to grant them a treaty. Here, Nahash h~d already indicate~ the type of inhuman abuse meted out to their Slaves, even before Israel was conquered in any eventual confrontation. The great reverence given to human 11f£ in the covenant low may be er.aced to the very fact that man w as created in God's own imaqe. It was God who breathed the breath of life Int. the created man, and he became a living soul. To UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 110 - I take the life of man so created, was t~ deny God the ownership of "his life"; the consequence of which would be self-condemnation to death. Israel believed that it was ~nly God who had the moral, and legal right to take the life of a human being. This concept should not be confused with the liquidation of life in warfare, .r as a result of offence or sin connected with the violation of God's order concerning the prosecution of a war; such as the killing of Achan (Josho 7:16-26). The blood belonged to God. Israel was forbidden to eat the blood (Lev. 3:17; 7:26; Deuto 12:16)0 In the sacrifice which involved the shedding of animal's blood, the blood of that victim could only be sprinkled on the Israelites as a sign of purification or participation in sacrificial or covenant ceremonieso The rest of such blood was smeared on the altar of God as his own right (Ex. 24:6, 8)0 iiio Justice Israel's sense of justice is another outstanding characteristic of the covenant law. There was no class distinction in the administration of justice within the Israelite community. God, they believed, was no respecter of persons. His law was to be binding on all citizens. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 111 There was no special law for the Levites or priesthoQj in general; neither was there any special one for the aristocrats. According to G.R. Driver6, the code of Hammurabi, like the early ancient codes of law, contained numerous class legislation. In the Book of the covenant, unparalleled equity was established. For instance, while the code of Hammurabi had the law relating to slaves at the end, it was given priority in the Israelite law (Exo 21:1ff.). One striking note on legislation concerning morality, is contained in Exodus 22:16-17. It appears that justice had not been properly done to the seduced virgin. But it UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 112 might be that some part of the original text was lost. Perhaps, Leviticus 20 will fit in here as the continuation of the Exodus passage. The whole chapter, especially verses 10ff.? deal with the penalties for unche st Lt.y , punishable by death. This was more severe than the punishment meted out bn unchastity in Babylonia. If one considers the pre-Mosaic marriage custom, one may tend to feel that nothing -should be frowned against here. Accordin~ to Genesis 169 the secuction of a handmaid to the status of a wife was allowed during the Abrahamic period? Also, in Genesis 21, the custom of that time aLl.owed Jacob to marry two sisters simultaneously. In both cases? there wa s no objection raised :'tr::Etisnuscth marriages. V\lhethersuch a custom was convent ional or legal, there is no evidence to counter the practice. It is obvious that it was basically the Ancient East custom of the Canaanites. The narrative in Exodus 22, should therefore be seen as a fair deveLoprnerrt over such a custom noVJ legalised. It did not implicitl-; encourage the pre-Mosaic marriage tradition. The above passage should be Lrrt er-pret.ed in cor.junc't fon with Exodus 21:7ff. In both cases: the ri&~ts of ~he virgin UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 113 were preserved. This was contrary to the Babylonian law or the Ancient 8emitic law of marriage, which gave the husband the exclusive right over the woman or virgin. iv , The I:l~of the '-tlfein the £Q.Y.fillgnlt~1v: To do justice to the contrast between the covenant law and the Anc i errt Near East le,gis:i.ation,1 must say here that the Israelite law also lacked certain rights which the wife enJoyed in Babylonia. The Book of the Covenant did not inake any p:'ovtsion for the divorced wife or the widow. This ruerrt aLi.ty was sustained up till the New Testament period. iNhile Christ himself was silent ov--r- this, the Apostles put up a non-chalant attitude to this vital necessity (Acts 6:1ff.) In the Babylonian law~the wife had the legal right to take the initLat ive in breaking up 1", ma r-r-Lag e cont ract. She was not bound to share the debt incurred by the husband before ma r-r Lage, 'I'ehre wa s a legal provision for the divorced or the ,'lidowin the Code of Hammu r-ab i , As time w~nt on, however, there were indications that the Israelites had a better regard for their wives. In II Kings 4:133 the Shunammite woman told prophet Elisha that UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 114 she dwelt Rmong her own people, nnd 8S 8uch, she did not require any asalst.ance r'r-om either Geh",:zj or -Sheprophet himself'. The ethical prophets later placed a higher value on marriage. They recalled the r.1arriageconcept of Lhe ante- diluvian period. In creation, the wife was presented as a partner, or a help-meet to the man. The Yahweh-Israel treaty relationship was then likened to the marriage love and partnership oetween husband and wife. At all costs, Hose& was to redee~ his whoresome wife, Gomer (Has. 1:2ff.; 3:1ff.). This does not mean that a legal protection was given pr-oot i t.utt on as in the case of the Code of Hammur-abL, Cult ic impurity and. prosti t.u t t on were condemned in Israel (Deut. 23: 17f.; i'1.mo2s: 8) • So far, it has been clearly shown that the Book of the Covenant WAS;) religious leg81isation. The Israelite law in general was religiously based, though it was equally secular. This accounts for its uniqueness 2nd superiority over the ~ncient ~ast idolatrous and mainly secular laws. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 115 v , AdJninistratiq,.nof the lr:.w a Moses and lus lieutenan.i§ The administration of the cnvenant law lay solely upon Moses and his lieutenants',the Lev i t es, and the heads of the clans. Joshua took over from him as the sole leader. On assumption of office~ according to Joshu& 1:8, the Book of the Law wa s handed over to h t m as his comnanion in all his undertakings: This book of the law shall not depart out of'your moucn 1 but you shall meditate on it day and night, that you ma:y be careful to do according to c.1l -chat is written in it; for then you shall make YOUl' way prosperous, and then :you shall have good success. b The Prie sts Even thougr., there was not much specific mention of the judicial activities of the priests~ ~heir involvement in the adninistrRtion of the law could not be ruled out, since both the cult and th,:; soci et.y were interwoven. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 116 Shortly before the monarchical period, Samuel was seen not only as the priest who succeeded Eli, but also the prophet (seer) and the chief judge of the whole nation (I Sam. 6:20; 7:15; 13;8-12). It was also the juristic function of the priesthood to be consulted for the divine decision on certain matters. The priests gave the divine guidance to both individuals and the nation as a whole (Gen. 25:22-23; I Sam. 9:69, 8:4ff.). Whatever the information given on such occasions, the priests were always in agreement with the divine rule of the people. Deuteronomy 33:8-10, indicates that the priests were also involved in the collection, interpretation and teaching of the laws. If the predominance of the Levites at the great sanctuaries is indisputedly admitted, it follows then that their role would concurrently strengthen the influence of the covenant law upon the people. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 117 c , Judges However9 the book of Judges gives us the notion that the Judges took 07sr from Joshua as both the Chief Commandera of'the military force in Israel, E1.ndthe Chief J~dg8S of the nation (Judg. 3:9-19). They were undoubtedly r-uided by the 8hechemite covenant invoLving all the Jsr8elites (Josh. 24). This indicates that in practice, the administration of the covenant la~ lay largely in the hands of' the laity. Joshua himself 'HF-S a lay-man9 and so were each of'the Judges. The clan elders were very prominent in this course. Accord.ing t.oExodus 3:169 the elders of Israel were a senate of' the people in Moses' time. This conventional practice continued through- out all the vicissitudes of'Hebrew history. 'I'h e sons of Samuel who were mentioned in I Samuel 8:1-2, were most certainly lay-men who assisted their father-priest in the administration of justice in Israel. In the post-exilic period, the elders were prominent leaders of' the p80ple in their administrative set up. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 118 Similarly, in the NewTestament period, according to Matth8IJI 16: ::'1; 21: 239 the elders were of'ten merrt Loried f-L~ acting co=or-dd nat eLy with the chi" (' priests and scribes. The Council u~~ the Jews mentioned in iVic;tthew26:59, was 9 otherwi se known as the Sanhedrin. It wa,3 the highest governing body Ln J8rg81 C:·J.ringthe time of Jesus. It was made up of' both priests and laity. vi. The Kings The Monarchical period introduced the kings as the chief' executor a of' the covenant lay", (II Sam. 5:1-3) with its adapt.a t.i on to suit the, changing social s t t.uet Lon, The king was the f'in8.1 court of' appoeL in LegaL dleputes. The elders still cont i.nuet to assist in the admLni.st r-a+Lon of' justice. 'Vhatever Law the king pr-cmuLgat ed (1 Sam. 8: 9; 10: 25), it :found its basis in the ~ •. ~ vVi1atevernew law or decree the kintS Has to make, it must enjoy the support of' the elders, and the people. .lit times, the priest s and the pz-cph et s wouLd ha v e to endorce it. The people would see to it that such moves by the king was basically in accordance with the lr:.t. l.. between them :..;n~ Yahweh, and in conformity with netur-a I justice (I Kgs , 20: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 119 7ff.; II KgCi. 23: Iff.; II Kgs. 11).· Otherwise, severe internal crisis may erup t , When So~.omonbecame the king, he we.,:; cl1'=tN.Jed. to rule by the provisions of the covenant law (~ Kge. 2:ltt.), Any attempt to deviate from the existing covenant law was to disrupt the Yahweh-Israel relationship. Solomon introduced "a law of the kingdomll, and foreign customs not based on the .a..::t,::;..l. and this earned him the disruption of his kingdom, which began during the reign of Rehobo4~ his son. This disintegration continued until the Northe~~ Kingdom fell in 722/1 B.C., to the Assyrian empire, and the South, in 587/6 B.C., to the Babylonian empire. It is certain there~ore, that the whole life of the IBraeli~ee was deepLy rooted in the .fl~~aw, which a new aonar-chf c: institution with its despotic characteristic could not abrogate. 18:;....a. eL g:::'ewup wi th th~ under-atandtng of a saving will of' c'oap :Yl.oeJon the di vi ne love, which must be r-eaLased by all means, T.lle law of this God was then seen 8.S embracing the secular' and religious life of the people. '~oever occ~p~ed any recognised position among the people, be it the kingg the jucg"39 '::;he p-r-iest, or the prophet, bot] UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 120 the secular and religious life of the elect nation must be organised in accordance with the covenant law based on the divine.wjll. The leaders and the people must respond favourably in love to the divine act of election. In Leviticus 199 we find a dtvine fundamental social and ethical law enjoining all the people9 not only to love God , but to love their parents and neighbour-a as well. 'Tile now turn to the worship or outward expression of the covenant law. C -., The CuI tus ItCultusll here means the practical expression of religious experience by the Israelites. It was a means o~'spiritual intercourse with God •. Cultus is a means by which Yahweh communed with Israel, his worshippers. The divine blessing was also communicated to thorn during the outward actions of the cult. The religion af the Israelites was a living cultus9 p8netrating every aspect ot their human life. The physical ph enom anon of' their cultus vividly expressed the spiritual reality of the object of wor-sh Lp , Yahweh; that ~S9 like the ar.c i ent vo r-Ld , the out- ward expression was a symbolic sigriftcance of the spiritual UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 121 certainty. The physical phenomena of the Israelite- cultus included: the kneeling and prostration in prayer, sacred dances; antiphonal singing; the offering of various sacrifices and the observance of festivals; the setting up of sacred places; the separation of certain objects; and the setting apart of certain people for the worship of Yahweh. i. Plac~s of Worship The comparative study of the religious feelings and expressions of worship of the Israelites corresponded considerably with those of the ancient worldo The reverence accorded Yahweh necessitated the awareness bo dedicate places for his worship. Various shrines, groves, altars, tabernacles, and temples were built for himo Moreover, this Deity also revealed himself to different people at parti- cular places at different times. Instances of such revelations are found in the Old Testament, such as the oak of Moreh (Gen. 12:6); Mount Horeb (Ex. 3:1ff.), Mount Sinai (Ex. 19:17ff.) the waters of Meribah (Num. 20:8ff.), Mount Hor (Num. 20:22ff.) Mount Nebo (Deut. 34:1ff.), and Shechem (Josh. 24:1ff.). Such other places were the tabernacle: (Ex. 26fo); the tent of meeting at Shiloh (Josh. 18:1f.); the altar (Gen. 8:20f); and the temple "House of God" (I Kgs. 6ff). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 122 The presence of Yahweh was felt at those various spots and at similar places. They served as his dwelling places at different points in time. It-did not follow that God was all that localized. Israel thought of Yahweh as their local God, yet he was not restricted to a place. They believed he moved along with them during their sojourning in the wilderness (Exo 13:21; 19:38; 33:7-11; Josh. 10:14). The various shrines only served as the places where he periodically manifested himself to his people. However, during the Monarchical period, Proto-Isaiah was of the opinion that Jerusalem was inviolable, so also was the tempI But the exilic experience gave the Israelites a broader mind about the universalism of Yahweh and his religion. He could not be restricted to the temple in Jerusalem, since he was also the God of the Babylonians and the whole universeo When Israel communed with God, it was all in spiritual experienceo The invisibility of his divine nature was unique and conclusive. The Ark, and the mercy seat which was never occupied in the Holy of Holies,_ only signified his divine presence in the sanctuaryo The Israelites believed convincingly that even though Yahweh appeared to them at various places, his dwelling place, like the Canaani Baal, was in Heaven (Genesis 21:17; 22:11; Exo 20:22; pSG 2:4; Ecclo 5:2)0 That was why he could not be limited to a soot. and it enabled him to fellowshio with UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 123 his elect people at will anywhere. Yahweh was both transcendent and immanent. His mercy seat which remained permanently in the sanctuary, and, according to I Samuel 3:)9 the Lamp of God which continuously burned in tLe t.ei:111\~at Shiloh, confirmed his immanent presence among his people. There was no conditional period when Yahweh COU..Ld only be consulted. He was approached at will. WhenRebeka•• was in d.oubt about the state of her pregnancy, she tr:J.media·;~elyinquired of the LORD. After the annur.L ",:orship and sacrjfice r.t Shiloh, while all others h-;(l left, Harinah remained in the temple to request a child frOM the Lord (r Sam. 1). It was at night in R dr-eam , t.hat ~H~ appeared to king Solomon (r Kgs. 3: 3ff. ) • 'I'he rr-'aJ i ty nJ' the abiding presence find revelct- tion of Yahweh is f'ur t.ter- s t r-eaaed in Amos 9°1. Of all t.Le:; sacred places for meet Lng Yahweh, I s r-ae L was of the view that bees.use of the locatinn of the temple, Jerusalem became the mOAtsignlficant place. Both in the Old Testament and in the New 'restament 7 Jerusalem 'He.S to serve as the cent r-e ·)f the wor-Ld whe.".e. 3.11 the earth would come to the full knuwledge of Yahweh. The next topic to discuss is the sa-c-r.ificial worship-,, or the ritual of sacrifice. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 124 ii. _R~~_ itual of•••.• .:Itf'LS--=:! acr__i~fice _ By ritual of sacrifice, we mean, the offering of gifts by the Israelites to Yahweh. It VIE,S divinely instituted by God as an aspect of worship. The wo rd "sacrifice" comes from the Latin .§.?cFllt:h~at is, holy, and fa£§.r.eswhich means "to make". These two words form .§g.,cri~icium~ meaning sacrifice. It is therefore the making of a religious holy act~ by which offering is made to a deity in order to maintain or restore a right relationship of man to the sacred order. It is not my intention to discUBS this t.op rc here, under a systema.tic enumeration of the various types of sacrificial ritual in the Old Testament. Rather, it will sufflce to mention the fundamental meaning 8nd significance of the sacrificial cultus of the elect people. In any aac.ri t'Lc o, whether a gift or 8. meal, +her-e were three parties of great and positive importance, namely: the deity to whom sacrifice was offered9 that is, the object of worship; the worshipper who offered the sacrifice either all alone, or with the assistance of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 125 priest as the intermediary; and Last Ly , the victim which was used for the sacrifice. The victim was AO important because it was. a means to an end. It wac 8D instrument by which the covanarrt relationship be-~,lilstehne deity and the worshipper was established and upheld. ~ll the above parties featured prominently in the Israelites' sacrificial system. Sacrifices were necessary on many occasions such as the dedication or consecra:tion of individuals or the community> or when tie« event s were to b e unue r-t akeri by such pe r-son s, For Lns t anc e, the choice of 8 king was confirmed in the sanctuary by sacrifice (I Sam. 11:15). Children wer-e consecrated to God and confirmed with sacrifice (I Sam. 1:24f.). Wars were embarked upon only after necessary sa cr-Lf'Lc ea had been made (.Judg. 20:26; ( I Sam. l3:8ff.). According to Psalms 20:3ff., victory over an enemy was assured by the sacrifice, because with the acceptance of the sacrifice, the presence and power of Yahweh would lead the bnttle At the comp18tinn of the wall of JerusalGm, Nehemiar9 the priests, and all the Jews offered great sacrifices of burnt arid meal offerings (Neh. 12:L~3). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 126 Among the non-Jews, sacrifice-victims included human beingso When Hiel of Bethel rebuilt Jericho in the days of Arab, he laid its foundation with Abiram, his first born, and set up its gate with Segub, his youngest son (I Kgs. 16:34) There is also trace of human sacrifice in Hebrew tradition (Gen. 22:1-19; Jug. 11:29-40). Whichever sacrifice was offered to God, the best of the prescribed victim must be offered. For instance, in order to continue to enjoy a future abundant yield of the agricul- tural produce Yahweh, the divine owner of the land, must be offered the first and best of the fruitso This does not mean that without a token gift to Yahweh, he could not, or he would not act efficiently or favourably to his people. Unlike the lesser deities of Canaan, Yahweh could act without necessarily waiting to be placated with sacri- ficial influenceso The Israelites were quite conscious of their short- comings and sinso To appease God and avert his anger, and restore the separated fellowship, appropriate sacrifice must be offered to him. Sacrifice was also a means of establishing mystical union with God through the communion meal by the worshipper. When the sacrificial victim was ceremonially eaten, the covenant relationship was strengthened. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 127 When they were in fellovIJ1ip with Yahweh , they shared in his life as he took to himself at the sacrifice, the sweet savour as his own share. For the purpose of atonement for sin, the sinner was represented by the sLaugh t er-ed animal at sc'l.crif'iceH.e thereby altered his previous guilt and death, or any possible consequence. When the blood of the victim was poured on the altar of t~e deity the life of the sacrificer was brougnt into c0nt8ct with that deity, thereby achieving a reunion and cant inued fellowship vrith Yahweh , It is very essential at this juncture to emphasize that whatever the motiue and significance of any sacrifice, it must be- acceptable to Yahweh before it could achieve any effect. In Isaiah 1:11-13, tbe prophet indicated clearly that any act of external worship in the form of sacrifice which did not reflect upon a true inner conviction was void, null, unacceptab\e, and of no significance. This was the prophetic assessment of the vain sacrificial rites perforned by the polluted priests and the apostate Israel. It was a vain exercise to und er-take an;} act of exterior worship, including sacrifice, wi\hout having any interior disposition. The covenant law must be pertectly observed. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 128 According to the ethical prophets outward act without inner penitence made sacrifice insignificant and useless (Isao 1:11; Jer. 7:22f.; Hos. 6:6; Amos 5:21ff.; All that the Old Testament sacrifices stood for within the covenant context, has been perfectly fulfilled by Christ, who himself was the paschal lamb for the universal and unique atonement for the sins of mankindo As it was demanded of all the Israelites who were a party to the covenant relationship, the Church of Christ has to exercise the act of faith and accept the unique sacrifice of Christ for all, and live a perfect life worthy of her calling. This of course is implied by the admonition of Christ himself when he said: God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth. (In. 4:24). Before we proceed to discuss the instruments of the covenant, we shall look into some festivals of the covenant law. iii. Ceremonies of Feasts The covenant law prescribed special feasts to be observed from time to time by the Israelites. One Hebrew name for festival is~. It is from the verb signifying ••• UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 129 "to dance". When this is applied to religious worsJ1ip, it indicates that festivals are occasions of joy and dancing. They are moments of merry-making. The Yahweh cultus was enriched by many festivals and feas~3~ This was so because the Israelites led an agrarian life. For the Canaanites, the production of crops depended mainly on the favour enjoyed from the various gods and goddesses of the land. Yahweh was seen by the Israelites I as the divine owner of their land. He gave the increase of the soil. According to Exodus 12: 3ff., 'thecel~bration of the cultus feasts was to be made on a house or clan basis, even though the feasts were congregational affairs. In I Samuel 20:6, Jonathan indicated thdtthe yearly sacrifice in Israel was on family basis. The festivals enjoined by the Mosaic,Law may be classified under the following two groups, namely, the Feasts of the Cycle of Sabbaths and the yearly festivals e '. All feasts were holy unto Yahweh. Let us now consider these two groups of festivals. 1. The Feasts of the Cycle of Sabbaths. The Feasts of the Cycle of the Sabbaths included the following: a. The Weekly Sabbath Exodus 20:8-11, made it mandatory upon the covenant people that the sabbath must b~ kept by all, both Israel and the strangers within them. All their beasts must also keep UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 130 the sabbath. It was a day of solemn rest, and of a holy convocation (Le~. 23:3). The sabbath was to be the sign of the covenant and of the sanctification of the people unto . the Lord. (Ex. 31:12)0 The observance of this continued perpetually in I~raelo During post-exilic Judaism, Nehemiah took steps to see that the sabbath was kept properlyo We find in Trito- Isaiah (!sao 58), a strong plea for strict observance of the sabbath, a theme echoed by Nehemiah during his reform. This observance was also to remind them that Yahweh was the Lord of time. His fellowship must be sought in spite of the pressing business of the time. b. The Feast of Trumpets This feast is otherwise called the feast of the seventh new moon. Details of this feast are contained in Numbers 28:11-15; 29:1-6. It was to be of a holy convocation and of rest. Burnt offerings and cereal offerings were to be offered to the LORD. Trumpets were to be blol,m at the occasion to mark the beginning of the civil year, called Eth'anim or Tishri. The observance of this feast (Num. 29:1) involved the chanting of Psalms 81 and 29, in the morning and evening respectively by the priests and Levites, in the later times. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 131. It is interesting to note that the month Tis'ri was distinguished above all other months of the year for the multitude of ordinances connected with it apart from the feast of ~Ir·ump~ts. Others were the day of Atonement 9 arid the feast of Tabernaoles. .:\.1so, the f'Lr st (lay of the month was consecrated to aa cred rest and spir5_tuaL devot ion. c. The Feast of the Sabba~ic,al Year This feast was to be obs~rved every seventh year. Exodus 23:10-11 made it mandatory upon the Israelites to till their lands for six conse~utive years, but in the seventh year the land must be allowed to rest and lie fallow. This feast was also significant 9 in t.hat it was to provide an opportunity for tne poor and the beasts to eat out of the remnants of the harvested crops. :'..ccording to Leviticus 19: 9; 23: 22, the Israaelites were not allowed to reap their fields to their borders in any year. Apart from the above, the observance of the feast was significant for the people of God in that, it emphasised the concept that the goal of life for the elect people did not lie in that incessant labouring of the earth (Ref'. Gen. 3:17-19). If they strove to keep the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 132 covenant obligationsJ their goal was to attain the perfect rest. Whatever might be their spiritual understanding of the feast9 the spirit of the sabbatic year was to be that of the weekly sabbath. The fourth and last feast under the feasts of the cycle of the sabbaths was that of Jubil~e. d. The Year of Jubilee The feast of Jubilee was a remarkable year of release. It was observed every fiftieth year. The trumpet was to be blown on the day of atonement during the year of' the feast 9 and liberty was to be proclaimed throughout the land. It was the year each property was to be returned to the owner with amicable settlement; hence it wa s also called the Year of liberty (Lev. 25:28; E~ek. 46:17). Details of the observance of the feast are given in Leviticus 25:8-16, 23-55; 27~16-25. The feast was obligatory upon the redeemed nation, as it proclaimed to the covenant people, the gracious love, care and presence of God with them all throughout their life-history. During this festival, the soil must rest also from cultivation of certain crops (Lev. 25:11). This was to allow the soil to enjoy a holy rest. ..:U Jubilee, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '133 certain properties in fields and h0uses obliged to be sold by the owners tn r-oucr poverty, and "'Thich had not b'een redeemed, ver e to revert to their o r-Lgtna I o.mer-s without payment. According to Leviticus 25:29-359 all the I S'Paeli t es , who through po verty ha d soLd :~hE:rns eLv ee to t.l:l.eill country-men, or to foreigners who settled. in the ir land? should go out ~ree w i th t.he I r- ch i Ldr-e.n, ?his was ~vided they had be er, ..riab Le .to redeem t.heru seLvos or had not been redeemed by KiPlsmen be f'or e the year of ~Tubilee. The year of Jubilee was therefore a year of grace and freedom. for a I.', suf'f'e.e ing , In this Jear? eve:.'.,! k Lnd Ot: opp~s.i.on was to cea se , and ev esr: member- of the eo-renarrt, people NEd? to enjoy perfect remission and redemption f'rom 211 debts and bond.age , 2. The Yearly FeRtival§ The se~on<\ group of' the covena rrt :i: estivals W2.G the yearly fea8t~ which included thJt f''Jllowing: a. The Peast of the Pas~oYer At best 9 Unle-avened bread was used. The feast vias .commemor~ted y ea r-Ly , The injunct-ton and details of its UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 134 observance are given in Exodus 12:1-28. It was commemorated in rememberance of the great deliverance of the Hebrews from the Egyptian bondage. It was observed on the fourteenth day of the first month (Nisan). It was a festival which proclaimed the redeeming grace of the covenant Gode The festival stressed the fundamental act of Yahweh in delivering a peop1e elected in the past for his purpose. the Passover festival was the greatest of the three annual festivals in Israel. In Hebrew, ~Passover" means np- 5..>. It is from the verb pasah, that is, to "leap over-'", Figuratively "Passover" means a f es t i.val during which the Israelites were passed over, by virtue of the paschal sacrifice in Egypt. (Ex. 12:21, 27; 12:1-13). Thus, Israel was delivered from bondage, and in a concrete act adopted as the nation of Yahweh. Acccrding to Exodus 6:6-7, this festival laid the foundation 01 Israel's birth n ••• and I will take you for my people, and I will be your God". It was a new birth of life of grace and fellowship with God (Ex. 3:13-17; 6:2-4). The annual observance of the feast was necessary in order to bear witness to the great deliverance of God, and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '135 his adoption of the people. "And when your children say to you, 'what do you mean by this service?' you shall say~ 'It is the sacrifice of the LORD's Passover'''. (Ex. 12:26- 27). The paschal lamb was a sacrifice. It signified a sin offering offered for the people to reconcile them 'pith God, and aff'oro them a new fellowship ;.~rithhim. The lamb suffereCI.instead of the sacrificers. This was entirely a means of' grace. This unique sac~ifiee wa s f'oLLowed by the meal offering. The Unleavened bread symholized the spiritual purity, after which Israel was to strive as a covenant nation. The bitter herbs were to remind them of their painful humiliation and bondage in Egypt, out of which they were delivered. b. Pentecost The second of the three important annu..I :festivals was Pentecost. It is otherwise r-et'er-r ed to as, "The feast of weeks", because it was c~lebrated seven weeks or the 50th day after the Passover (Lev. 23:15-16). ~ccording to verse 16, a cereal offering of ~w gl.'ainwas to be offered. to the LORDon this o~8iOl'l, during a holy UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '136 convocation. Numbers 28:26, indicates that this festival could also be referred to a8, "The feast of the first frui t s" 9 because, the first loaves made from the new gr-a Ln were then -of f ered on the altar (Lev. 23:15-17). The sacrificial details of the feast are contained in Leviticus 23:15-20, and Fumbers 28:26-30. This festival was to be a season of great rejoicing, involving the whole nation, including all the aliens in Israel. Deuteronomy 16:9-12, indicates that this great festival was to recall their bondage in Egypt~ and admofiished them to keep to the divine law of the covenant between them and Yahweh. It ~s implied here, therefore, that this feast was also to commemorate the giving of the covenant law on Mount Sinal.to The Lmpo r-t anc e of this feast is attested by l:..ct2s:5-11. It is inferred here that throughout the life history of the Israelites up to the ~reat Pentecost event of the Apostolic age9 the embracing or this festival by all the Jews, was not limit~d to .J erusalem or Palest Lne , Both ,1evs of the d i aspo r-a and non-Jews from distant countrie2 made a pilgrimage to the holy land to celebrate the annual festival.in accordance UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY --137 with the injurction or'God as testified to in Deuteronomy 16. c. ~t~f Tabernacle~ This is the third of the great annual festivals. It is otherwise called "The festival of Tents" or "boo ths", 'l'hi a was because the Israelites were commanded to live in booths during the celebration of'the feast (Lev. 23:40-43). The feast was certainly to commemorate the elCperience of the Israelites of wandering in the wilderness. During this period, they lived in pitched booths until they eventually settled in C~naan, the promised land. It was to be commemorated for seven days in the seventh month, Tis'ri (II Chron. 8:139 Ezr, 3:4, Zech. 14:16-19).. The Feast of Ingathering was also observed in connection with the festival of tents (~x. 23:16; Lev. 23:39-43; Ex. 34:22). Other principal passages that refer' to this ~east are Deuteronomy 16:13-15; 31:10-139 and Nehemiah 8:lff. The booth VIas not only to remind them of the fatherly care of Yahvreh , and his protection during their journeying from Egypt through the wilderness to Canaan; it was also to celebrate thelr settlem$t in the promised land. According to Psalm 27:5; .)1:20; and Isaiah 4:6, Israel had UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 138 been preserved Clnd protected from heat, storm and tempest in the wilderness. They lClter had a permanent shelter in the promised land. As such9 the festival must be an occaaLon of'great jubilation. However, du r-Lng the feast, they had to live in pitched booths located in courts, streets and public squares. This was not to recall their wilderness suffering, or to subject themselves to any temporary inconvenience. Rather, the feast was commemorated with the spirit of jubilation and e.:1thusiasm, indicating an occasion of a f'east of covenant renewal of Yahweh's promise to settle the Israelites in the promised land. It pref'igured the ingathering of all nations under the cover and shelter of'God. d. The Da~ of'Atonement Another important and the last of the yearly feasts in Israel was the Day of Aton~rnent. It was the day appcinted for a yearly, gene r-a L, and pe r-f'ec t expiation for all sins and uncleanness which mi'ght r-ema t n una toned fer, d.espite the numerous regular sacrifices. 'I'h er-ef'or e, t t V.r::1S the climax of the yearly festivals, and of the s8c~ificial system in the Old Te~tament. It \"8S an annual congregational UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 139 feast of burnt and sin offerings for all the dLl~: committed within the year. The ohject of the feast is c16arly 8ta~ed in Leviticus 16:33, whLch indicates th~~t the High pr-Les't, ilsl1all make atonement fcl'" the aanc tu ary , and he phall lake at.oriemerrt f'or the te<-:t of meeting ar d f0r' the aLtar-, and he shall make atonement for the priests and for all the people of' the assembly. II The importance of this great feast empha eI ses the concept of H'3brev'TS10: 1, that despite the Law and the elaborate sRcrifices offered year by year, Israel did not attain pe r-t'ect Lon as intended by the covenant obligations. Even with the mos t sc r-upu.Loua observance of the pr-e acr ibed o rdLnance s , many sLns and defilements would still remainJ.nackno',vledged;; and there- fore without expiation. 'I'h e day of' atonement wr<.s clesigned to make a perfect expiation for all the sins Vlhlci; had r-emaLned unc Lean sed and una toned :S:'()r~ in the cour-se o:f the year. The Day of at.oriemerrt , was an occasion -;r;herl Israel was reconciled unto YRhweh. According to R. 8. Paul, "The Atonement was the state or act of bringing into accord9 restoration of friendly or cor-d LaL r-e'lat.Loris and reconc ilia t i.on , It brought about the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '140 condition of being at one with ot~er3, unity of feeling, harmony and agreement. '1'1 From the dDove, the basic:meaning of Atonement would be, simply, the state of being or becoming "at cne" reconciled with someone else. The covenant relationship between Yahweh and·Israel was not only to unite Yahweh with Israel; it must also unite all the Israelites together as one family in the covenant. According to the covenant law, Israel was expected to be in fair relatio~ship even with non-Jews as well. Ritually important as the feast of the Atonement was, according to Hebrews '10:'1, '14, the imperfection of these covenant sacrifices is depicted in their continuous annuaI repeti- tiona They continue to keep alive a sense of sin and guilt. In Christ, all that the Old Testament sacrifices stood for, including the Atonement, was met. "For by ~ single offering he has perfected for all time thos~ who are sanctified." The efficacy of this universal atonement lies with the response of individuals to it in the act of faith. Hebrews '10:16-17 reflect, on Jeremiah's concept of the New Covenant: "This is the covenant that I •I.ill make with them ••• I will put my laws on their hearts, and write them on UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1-11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 142- 2. THE INS~IRUMENTS OF THE COVEN~WT A 1 T\10fi§..S apel thELJ)rophet s God as the initiator of his covenant, was also the originator of his own religion practiied by his chose~ .people. Howeve r-, he contracted his covenant'ii'ith indi viduale and later wi th9. people. When he wanted to release the Hebrews from bondage in Egypt he used Hoses, principally? to lead the people. At Mount Sinai, the covenant law was given by God through Hoses. The unique roles that Hoses played throughout the f'o r-mat Iv e period of the covenant people were enormous. It is thus difficult to classify categorically the office which Moses occupied (Ex. 18: 139 15). Though Moses was the agent of the covenant people, he could not be categorised solely as a priest or an inspired seer, a prophet, or a judge. It will be unfair either to consider him as a king or 2 commander of th~ arMY of Israel; yet all these qualities were found in him. Rio charismatic leadership was of no equal. While Moses did not perform any sao r-t f Lc i.a I oft"ering, as a prie at , (thi s task wa s reserved for Aaron and the Levi tes) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 143 yet he performed a pastoral job which was considered as the prerogative of the priest (Ex. 32:30ff; Num. 14:13ff.). Suffice to say here that Moses should at best be seen predominantly as the charismatic leader of Israel. He was the mediator between his people and Yahweh (Ex. 19:3ff~, 20:18ff., Deut. 5:24ff.). Th~s, it is proper to consider Moses in a unique class of his own. He was an outstanding instrument in the contractJng and consolidating of the covenant relationship. We can now examine briefly the roles of some other agents of the covenant such as the prophets, priests and judges. THE PROPHETS The Proph~tic gift existed long before the prophetic office was instituted. Abraham was called a prophet (Gen. 20:7). In Psalms 105:15, the patriarchs were called prophets. The office was first instituted under P-oses& The gift of prophecy may not always be connected with the office; cog., Daniel had the gift but was not called a prophet. Deborah was a prophetess, but .he was principallY recognized as a judge (Jug. 4: 4) • A pr-o ohe t may also be a pastor or Shepherd (1 Sam. 3:20; 7:10, 15ffo). The Hebrew word for prophet is ___ ~.'}_.!.,).~•., from . T UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 144 the verb ~', which means: to gush out, or boil up as a fountain, that is, to be inspiredo It is identical with the Akkadian verb nabu, to announcc, or declare. The primary idea of a prophet, therefore, was an announcer or a declarer of the will of God - pouring forth the declaration of Godo He acted as spokesman for another (Ex ..4:16; 7:1). He spoke authoritatively for God, as interpreter of His will. He was therefore, God's ambassador represcnting God's will before men •. "Seer" was the more ancient term (1 Sam ..9:9) "Seer" in Hebrew word is ro~h or hozeh, ioe., one who sees. It • may also be sopeh, i.e., a watchman .. Seers in Israel were • no mere predictors. They spoke by a divine communication, so revealed to them. They were seen "'csmen of vision .. They - pictured the certainty of the over-ruling of the Universe on the part of God, through various means, such as being divinely inspired to communicate God's will to people sometimes through oracles .. ii. Prophetic Function The prophetic institution was not an accident in the Old Testamento It was provided in the covenant Law (Deuto 18:9, 15-22), that Israel might not consult with false prophets or Seers, diviners or the Canaanite astronomers.. The idea of covenant in prophecy gained importance mostly? in exilic and post-exilLc times. Pre-exilic prophets, especially, the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 145 eighth century ethical prophets such as Amos and Micah did not speak of covenant. They knew the concept of e1ection~ Hosea and Isaiah of Jerusalem used the term a few times. The Prophets had a practical office to discharge. According to the prophetic books, it was their covenant or election commission to show the people of God their transgressions and sins (Isa. 58:1; Ezeko 22:2; 43:10; Mice 3:18). It was their duty to admonish and reprove the people to be faithful to Yahweh. They were to denounce the abominations of the people and threaten them with the terrors of divine judgement upon the sinners. As watchmen, they were to blow the trumpet about any imminent danger. Their message was of emotional confron:ation with reality, thereby declaring fundamental trends in existenceo They were therefore, revolutionaries. Each of these prophets put emphasis on certain aspects about. the character of God in regard to the covenant obligationo That is, no single proph~t gave a complete view of the covenant God, but all of them functioned towards and for the same goalo They were not to be silent, at rest, in reminding the people of their election obligations to Yahweh. They were the pastors and ministe~s, of-trre elect nation, declaring to the people the message of consolation and ~Qn. -<-I--&a~-r-':2;Ezek. 3:17; 33:7-9; Jer. 6:17; Isao 62:6f)o Unlike the priests (whom we shall treat next) the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 146 classical prophets did not seem to have had any official function from the government or political rUlers,12 rather, they were exclusively speciai messengers from God. The ethical prophets emphasized the need to practice the election justice. They defended the truth and righteousness of God. Any cultus ritual without moral was to no avail. The core of their message was related to the gracious purpose of the Israelite election relationship (Mico 7:20; Isa. 60:3). Israel WJS to be unique of all nations, through whom Yahweh would be acknowledged as the God of the whole universe. The moral or ethical prophets were inclined to recall the unfaithful Israelites to faithfulness to their election by the faithful Yahweh (Amos 3: Hos. 2: Jer. 2). The love of Yahweh shows him as a forgiving God. (Jeri.31: 34),.who wit':..t:l'escore tiheelQction relationship (Zech. 8:8) According to Ezekiel, as for Hosea, the covenant was a marriage (Ezeko 16:60). In Hosea 2:16, Israel was the wife. (See also Jeremiah 3:4, 8; Isaiah 54:5). Amos and Jeremiah claimed that in the day of Israel's virginity there was no sacrifice (Amos 5:25; Jeremiah 2:1-3; 7:22). "Sacrifice to other gods is adultery", they claimed. (Hos, 1-3; Exo 34:14-16; Deut. 31:16; Jer. 3; Ezeko 16:25-29). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 147 Let us now examine succinctly, the specific roles played by some of the outstanding prophets, to enhance the faithfulness of Israel to the election obligations. a. Samuel: Samuel was the spokesman to Israel on the behalf of Yahweh as none other since Moses had been. He probably originated, and certainly developed, the "Schools of the prophets". These were training-schools for young men who felt called to the prophetic officea The schools performed the important work of preserving the traditions and initiating the historical literature of Israelo The editors or compilers of the prophetic or historical books were not writing history as a modern historian would. They were writing with a religious mind for a religious purpose. Their goal was to teach religious lessons rather than the facts of history. In the reign of David there began that close association between the kings and the prophets which persisted until the Exile. The most important prophets before the rise of the writing and ethical prophets in the eighth century B.Ca were Elijah and Elisha. They were both revolutionarieso They fought rigorously against Baalism to promote Yahwlsm (I Kgso 17-19; 21; II Kgs. 2; 8; 9; 13). Monotheism was sternly championed. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 148 The eight century B.C. saw the risE of a great prophetic movement. Here we reach the h~ights of Hebrew prophecy and see the prophet exercisinq his characteristic , - function as the preacher of the Divine will, declaring the character and purpose of Yahweh and calling the elect natiol to repentance and l.o ly living. This great movernen t; began with Amos and Hosea, both of whom prophesh.c' to the Northern kingdom. b. Amos: Amos ""as the prophet of justice. Israel failec to fulfil God's demand for righteousness. The book of Amos is composed of visions, oracles and narratives, all of these place the predictiun of immin~nt ~uin of Israel as the centre of the prophe t." s message, namely this, "Yahweh was about to destroy his cho sen people for their sins" 0 Similarly, the neighbouring idolatrous nations would be destroyed. The wrath of Yahweh, the creator of the universe I,oJC3,S therefor'e a rightous orio , This is how Amos should be seen when referred to as the messenger of the wrath of God or of doom~3 Amos stre3sed the Mishpat and Sedhakah of Yahweh, that is, the justice and righteousness of God (Amos 5:7, 24, 27). By all means, Yahweh was pr~-eminently the God of justice and righteousness. His election love remained firm. But the immorality, wickeJness, oppression Gf the poor, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 149 and hard-heartedness of the people alienated them from Yahw8h. It was for their transgressions and sins that they were to be devastated. Yahweh the Lord of history would certainly fulfil his judgement on Israel for their failure to repents Co Hosea: Hosea's message was centred on his domestic experience. He emphqsized that Israel as a faithless wife could only be redeemed by the divine love of Yahweh, her faithful and loving husband. Israel broke the bond between her and Yahweho Israel was bound to God by h•es•edh, i.eo, the covenant love14 (Hos , 2; 3: lff)o According to Snaith ,the Covenant love is parallel to "Zeal". The obligation binding the two parties must be honoured with steadfast zeal. Lofthouse 15 went a bit further to suggest that such steadfast zeal must abide with patienceo God himself was loving, merciful, steadfast and long suffering. Yahweh had always been patient with Israel, as Hosea was patient with Gomer. The patience must be reciprocal. The people's sins, therefore, lay in their failure to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 150 honour the bond obriga~ions, i.e., to love Yahweh with steadfast leve er Zeal patiently. The contemporaries of Amos and Hosea in the southern kingdom were Isaiah and Micah. do Isaiah: Proto-Is~iah taught explicit reliance on Yahweh for defence, protection and preservation~ He would never disappoint his chosen -pe op le , IIsaiah" means 1IJehovah saves" .. Jerusalem would be saved by God, the Holy One. The Israelites we~e holy people to Yahweh, therefore, they should not ally with unholy people. Israel f aLled to turn t('lGod, and she was sent into exile.. But the Deutera-Isaiah held out to the exiles the hope of return t. Judea, with a mission to the wo r.l d, All men would come to recognize Yahweh as the CrEator, Lord and Saviour of the whole universe. This message was well emphasized in the servant songs, as indicating the profound significance of the Israelite religion. The Oracles of Isaiah may be classified under the following four themes: First, the reign of the ideal king, i.e., the Messianic UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 151 Oracles. He spoke of the Anointed One, the Prince of peace (Isao 2:2-4; 4:2-6; 7:10-16; 9:2-7). The shoot from the stump of Jesse was in accordance with the covenant promise made to establish David's Kingdom. In his vision of Yahweh, the holy king (Isa. 6:lff), probably during some festal occasion, the eternal choice of Zion and David was celebrated~ Second, the doctrine of Remnant. This was symbolic of the name of the prophet's son, Shear-jashub, meaning, "the remnant shall return" (Isa. 7:3). Yahweh in his justice would not deal with Israel like Sodom and Gomoraho The repentant remnmtwould return to the Holy One of Israel (Isa. 10:20ff). This remnant was therefore, the element of permanent value in -Judah (Isao 28:5). Third, the necessity of faith. To be established as God's elect, Israel must believe strongly in Yahweh (Isa. 7:1-9)0 God must be relied and depended upon wholly, and not £gyptor~the charibts·of Assyria •. There must be total trust in him (Isao 30:15;31:1). He must be obeyed, for he was their refuge. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 152 Fourth, the doctrine of the inviolability of Jerusalem. Yahweh would ever defend and preserve Jerusalem. The security at that time, that is, during the reign of Hezekiah, was ensuredo Jerusalem would not be molested for trusting on Yahweh (Isa. 31:4-9)0 God would fight for her on Mount Zion. The temple in Jerusalem was a site of holy community that the state of Judah would not be completely overthrown. e. Micah: Micah's message was parallel with Amos' message. They both championed the welfare of the poor and needy. Micah cried out against the oppression of the rural communitieso He emphasized the law of universal morality, and brought about a major repentance among the people of Judah. Like Hosea, the prophet stressed Yahweh's election love. Therefore, Yahweh must be worshipped seriously with a living personal faith, just as the prophet's faith urged him to admonish his people for repentance. Hope, faith, and love, were qualities required of any worshipper of Yahweho It was the covenant love of God that sustained Judah (Mic. 1:7; 2:12f). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 153 Finally, though Israel was constantly unfaithful, Yahweh remained faithful to the marriage covenant and restored Israel to the original relationship (Hos. 2:14-23; Jero 3:1, 14; Ezek. 16:60-63; Isao 54:1-8; 61). It is important to note that the prophets saw the danger of legalism implicit in the covenant conceptiono The covenant was to be established-forever. God on his part was fulfilling the covenant compact. Despite the fact that the covenant law had been written and handed over to the Israelites, they on their part continued to neglect the covenAnt obligations. The statutes, ordinances and the commandments were summarily violated (See Gen. 17:1-21; Ex. 31:18; Deut. 4:13f). In the light of this, the prophets looked for a new covenunt of which the law would no longer be written on tables of stone, but in the hearts of the people (Hos. 2:19-20; Jer. 31:31-34; Ezeko 16:60-63; Isa. 61:8). It was to perfect the covenant relationship that the new covenant foretold by Jeremiah was culminated in the blood of Jesus Christ as the "new covenant" par excellence (see I Cor. 11:25; Mko 14:24; Lk. 22:20). The next instruments to discuss are the priests. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY B. 1JlE'LYri~st§ The Hebrew word Kohel1- .~_._-, .; .1.O...Zl ~ means "priest". It is also used. for the priest of' foreign gods. Et.yrno Log Lca Ll.v , ,kohEmis related to the Akkadi.an verb kan1!? from the r-oo t f..! n , which means "to bend. down, to do nonage", It is also r-eLa t ed to ~ which means "to stand upright 16 From the aforesaid, the priest wouLd theref'ore necessarily be someone who official~y stands before a deity or a superior 1n the capacity of' his priesthood. He is then a religious official who gives guides to worshippers of a deity. He approaches the deity on behalf of religious adherents by means of sacrifice. He may be directly connected with the state affairs, especially, during th8 monarchical period. All the above facts wer-e true of the Jewish priests of the Old Testament. 'I'h ey were appointed primarily to administer sacrifice, a religious act of VJor3hip9 in the sanctuaries in accordance with the covenant l-xw. They were not antagonistic with the prophetic class. fte prophets only condemried the priestly offices WhC;Epriest- hood became a mere f'or-ma Li t y and routine f'or- personal gains. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 155 As Godls representatives among his Elect nation9 the priests put on the sanctuary costumep the epl10d (I Sam. 21: 9), in the exercise of their duties. The costume of the high priest who was at the head of the priestly order, was of a greater symbolic significance. 'I'h e gold and precious stones on it.represented God I s glory. He represented the whole nation by the breast plate with the names of the twelve tribes of Israel, the covenant people. It was the duty of' the priests also, especially the Levites, to take charge of the Ark of the covenant, the Urim and Thummim.1~ They were to instruct the worshippers. This shows that like the prophets they were not lacking in the knowledge and interpretation of the Torah. When the priests delivered oracJ.es$ this was a function where they passed on an answer from the deity to the wor-sh Lpper-s , When the priests gave instruction to them9 they were teaching them and. interpreting the law of such deity to the adherents. This was another j)rincipal function of the Old Testament priests. They were the interme~iaries or mediators between the holy Yahweh and the sinful Israelites. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 156 ii. With the rise of Judaism in post-exilic period, the priests became prominent and significantly independent. Thd rea SOl':for this development is not far-fetched. MOl1.Hr·chy and prophetic inspiration had consLder-a bLy ceased , The priests nOTIbecame the custodians of the Lag? in teaching and Lrrt er-pr-et ing it. The pr-Le st Ly office became a specIalization of the faithful. For exampl.e , Ezra, the Scribe, the doctor of the Law, was seen as the father of Judaism in his capacity as the priest. In all hiG functions whet.her- priestly or ca't echet Lc aL, his uLt Lmat.e aLm Has to present the Jews a "hoLy nat Lori" be ror-e the holy God. This W8E} the primary aim of Jeremiah! s concept of the NewCovenant. According to Malachi 2:7, the function of the priest "vas to guard know'Led ge , and give instruction to men on the basis of the "Perrt at euch If, the Covenant Lavr , He wae a l.rso called "t.h e messenger of the LOl1D of' hosts". 'I'hla1: is to say that the post-exilic priestly office w~s given a greater divine dignity by equating them with "th e angeLs '", The priests could now prophesy. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 157 According to JosephUs,18 the High Priest Hyrcanus, while offering incense in the temple heard a heavenly voice telling him that his sons had just won the victory over Antiochuso This prophetic gift of the priest was prominent until the New Testament period. In the fourth gospel, the High Priest Caiaphas is supposed to have the gift of prophecy (In. 11:51). Priestly functions were not limited to the priestly tribe only. Israel as a nation was equally entrusted with the priestly responsibilitieso This was tho central message of Deutero-Isaiah's servant's song in Isaiah 49:1-6. Similarly, Exodus 19:6, says: And you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation. This was a covenant responsibility bestowed upon the elect nationo Trito-Isaiah confirmed this in Isaiah 61:6, in the end all the redeemed would be called the priests of the LORD, and the ministers of Godo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 158 c. 1'1:'-..e Judge~ Another category of agent s which we have to cliscuss under the Instruments of the covenant is the eadiness to bless 81ways and save them~ According to Jeremiah 33:20-21, the Israelites believed in the 3teadfastness and inviolability of GOd's covenant with them. Even when they erred on tr1.::::irown part, they still believed God would be as firm as the laws of nature lias day and night wi]l come at their appoLnt ed t tme", The word "Tent!! tn IIebrew is .~~ •,• I~ is the dwelling place of a deity. It can also mean a tabernacle. But t he Hebrew word for' the Israelite "sacred tabernacle", is ,-_~'1..:;)W_L2.._: The temple of the Lord at Jerusalem is call"~~e~rew, .-.!t.,~'i1'. ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 163 It may a Lso be used to designate a large splendid building, or a palace. The ":"Oh~191J.Ias1:-1 movable h ob i tat ion, made of curtains extended U ["Jr- poles. As nomad Lc people 9 I srael had to provide a place: for the Lord during the w l Lder-ne s s sojourning. The tabernacle - -mi-sh-ka-n, was a larger structure of two parts. It was the "residence" and the "tent". The: Oh8'1 waa 8 covering upon the tabernacle (Ex. 26:6). 'Vhile the tent denotes the cloth roof, the tabernacle denotes the wooden walls of tne sacred structure. Thi s was qu1t~ dl:f~e:.t'en·t from the hut or booth as the tent of dwelling for the Israelite~. ThiSiS~ " "10•• (Lev. 23: 34) • The temple was a b~ilding set apa~ ~clusively for the worship of Yahweh. It was a reproduction o~ a development of the t aber-nac Ia , The h~, when connec t ed viith Yahweh, connotes his dwelling place, that is, ~e pa Lac e of' Yahweh". To designate its sacredness, it ~'1;i3 aome't I.me s qualified by "Sanctuary". The sacred tent, or the tent of meeting, the tabernacle or the temple, s er-ved as "a place" where 'lahweh coU.ld meet with the cor.g r-egat ton of Israel ("Ex. 27: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 164 21, 33:7ffe? Lev. 1:1,3; Num , 11:16ffo? :fJ8Ut.31:14; II 82m. 7: Li--6, 12-13; I Kgs. 8:1-6, 17). Although Yahweh could. be v.rorshipped.anywh er-e , especially wherever his glory was felts yet he was not present indiscriminately in all places. Be appeared. at certain places for some purposes. At the tent of meeting, Yahweh held his court and p~ssed judgment among the people. A very significant theological issue which the tent raises, is the transcendency and unapproachab1eness of' God. Unlike the Ark, which showed the nearness and abiding presence of'God in the midst of his elect people, the tent spoke of a transcendent God, who periodically condescended to commune with his people. However~ this does not show any irreconcilable contrast. Each object served di:ff'erentpurposes. While th8 Ark, among other thingss gUlded the physical movement of the people in their wanderings, the tent guided the Lrrt or-naL affairs of their cuLtus , in seeking justice and in giving o r-ac Lee ; The presence of the ark (which later disappeared), the USB or +'he. tetlt;; with the functions of the ser:;rs,prophets and kings, combined together to n.emonstrate the immanence of the transcement God. He tabernacled with his covenant UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 165 people, and enabled them to share divine ~ellowship and Ld f'e with [1 tm, B. THEARr. 'I'n e 'l'ent was the desert sanctuary which was in use in I srael bef'or-e the building o.C the Temple. According to Exodus 26: 34; 40: 219 the tent was designed to Douse tne Ark of' t he lestimony. This "testimony" means the two tablets of' stone on which the ten commandmentswere 1n"ac r-aLbed , as gi"ven to ~I'.r'/.')ses \fJ7"X,_. 31:18; Deu~. 10:1-8). These, Moses put i.nside the ark (Ex. 25:16; 40:20). This gives explanation f'or calling the sanctuary, "the Tent or the Testimony". The "second law" of Deuteronomy, was also eventually placed beside "the Ark or the Covenant of' YahwehIf (Deut. 31: 9, 26). The sacred object o~ the Ark provided e~pirical convl ct.Lon of having Yahweh in the midst of his people. He vras seen at war as the God of Battle who earned Israel a global military genius. Every war was considered "hoLy" to the Israelites. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 166 Over the ark was a plate of gold, of the size of the ark. It i8 called J:CapDo~ which moans "propi tiatory" or "mercy-seatH, a significant concept of its connection with the Day of At.on emerrt (Lev. 16). 'l'he LORD l'ip:'eEl.i:nred cloud upon it, and before i1;, the hig;'lpriest qf'''t;retdhe sin offering9 to make atonement for the nation. When the Israelites left Sinai, the Ark of the Covenant went before them9 and signalled when they should stop. \Vnen it moved, the people c r-Le d , "Ar-Lse , Yahweh, and let thy enemies be scatteredll, and let them that hate thee flee before thee" (Num, 10: 35). When it reated , the people cried, "Return, 0 LORD $ to the ten thousand thousands of Israel". When the Israelit es disobeyed Moses' orders, the ark of the covenant did not leave the camp, and Israel would be defeated (Num. 14:44-45). However? when Israel sinned and did not repent, even with the a.rk of the covenant with the people at the battle front, ~hey were still defeated (Josh. 7:1-12; I Ram. 4:10-11). 11. Tt1E;i\.I'i-;: of:' Yahweh The d r-k of Yahweh can also bs referred to ns the Ark of the Covenant. The quali~ication given to the ark here UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 167 differentiates it from the other +wo arks merrt Io ned in the Bf.bl.e , namely, the Ark of Noah (Gen. 6~14L and the Ark of BuLz-ushea (Ex. 2:3). It Vias a Lso rEfferent from the sacred ehaat s or arks which were. tn use Etrtk)ng the other ancient p eopLes Ilkt, the' HJt.t. i1,es snd the Bat>~110tarns , T:rH~Y SdTved as b,'l!!tbclG f'ar their LdoLa, and sacred rellcs. In the account, of the Ph tLts't Lne 'war, in I Samuel 4: Lh the Ark is called "the Ark of' Yahwehif. From the stay of the Ar-k in ShiIoh~ i..-his title became t.he, new epithet. In I Chronicles 28: 2. t.he A~k i. s referred to 8,S the "root-stool" of' God. This sacred furniture of' the old "Tent of Meetingtf, and later on, of the Tabernc1.cle and the Temple, respectively, was r-ef'e r-r-ed to in Tri to-lsaiah as "God15 foot-stooJ 1/ (Isa. 66:1). It was the throne of' God on earth (Ex. 25;21, I-Sam~ 3:3; 4:11,17). In this SeAse, both the ark and 'the Mercy Seat would be most probably regarded as God's throne. It is to be observed, therefore, that the throne could not have been «epar-at ed from the ark. In fact, the throne ~s nAver mentioned as a distinct object from the chest. 7hi8 concept 1a clearly Emphasised in J er-emf ah 3:16-17. Whenthe ark disappeared from the midst o~ the people, Jeremiah offered come consoLr.t ron to them that, in the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 168 future, all Jerusalem will be called the throne of Yahweh .• This suggests that the ark could be called either the throne of Yahweh or the foot-stool of Yahweh. More precisely, therefore, the ark, with the Cherubim, could be said to represent both the throne and the foot-stool of Yahweho Thus the ark and the Mercy Seat were an insepara- ble unit. Apart from the law of the covenant which the ark contained, the rod of Aaron was also kept in it (Num. 17: 10). It was to serve as a sign for the rebels, "that you may make an end of their murmurings against me, lest they die". In this wise, the ark as the throne of God was no longer the throne of jUdgment, but of grace over the erring Israeliteso This was well pronounced by the blood of the Atonement which was sprinkled upon it (Lev. 16:15). The Ark was placed in the Holy of Holies, symbolising the holiness of God and his sanctuaryo It summoned the Israelites into a unique holy fellowship with Yahweh. The bearing of the Ark by the priests in advance of the host, (Num. 10:33; Josh. 3:8, 14) symbolised the continuous divine presence among the peopleo It also emphasized the holy nature of God. T e companionship of thE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 169 Ark with the Israelites was 80 remarkable that the Philistines t ook it for God: IIA god has come into the camp It (I Sam. 4: 7) • The occasional 10S8 of the ark signified the loss of Yahweh's presence in the midst of the e10ct nation. The wife of Phtnehas said, liTheglory of Yahweh n2S depar-ted frorr Israel!" (I Sam. LI.:21), because the Ark of God had been capt.ur ed ; ~nen the Israelites eventually settled in the promised land, Solomon built and dedicated the temple of God. T~e ark of 0he covenant was then put back in the Holy of Holies by the priest (1 Kgs. 8:6). When Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed by the Babylonians between 598-586 B •C•., the "~rk also ceased to exist. In the post- exilic period9 it was the strict obedience to the covenant law that was predominant. It VIas the ba sic factor "by which the Jews ~ould enjoy a unique fellowship with GOd. The Israelite concept of the ark of Go~, or any other sacred objects9 in connection with the sanctuary, or the worsh ip of'Yahweh , dit} not suppose An iraag0 of the divinity. ~.j()dus~O:~-I+~ say: "You shall have no other gods befo:r'eme. You shall D)t make for yours8lf a graven Lmag e"; W]-:ene1.'-tehrere ·.~rFS any attempt to v f oLat e this UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 170 commandment, it was greatly resisted in their ~idst (Ex. 32:211'1'.). iii" IPe Ark of the Tent From all available records, it is viewed thRt both the Ark and the Tent were in existence in the wilderness cult. But ac corriLng to Exodus 33: 7-109 and Deuteronomy 10: 1-5; 31: l4'-15~ :::5-26,these; two sacred ob ject awer-e not connected. But again, according to the details of the making of' the "tent", that is, the sanc tuar-v , or the tabernacle and its furniture in Exodus 25-26, and 36-40, the Ark and the Tent 'were connected with the desert cuL'; , It was the Tent that housed t.he Ark, which contained the testimony. Moreover, the T'~nt was the place of abode of Ysrwen , the God of the Covenant. He WBa living right there 1~ th~ midst of his chosen people. It is necessary to find a solution to the varying views of the ancient tradjtion of the Israelite cultus. First, it may be suggested that perhaps the two objects belonged to different traditions, or groups of ancestors of J er-a eI , Clecondy when the two groups probably came together in history, the priestly editor combined the two UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRA Y 171. otjects together as reflected in the tradition of the temple of Solomon. Third~ it is more probable that the two ob j ec ts wer-e originally connected with each other in the desert cult. The fact that the oldest tradition did LO"G connect the two does not deny the possible connoc t Lon, In any case, like the altar, the ark was a distinct cultic object, se~ing its own unique purpose. Perhaps we should ask the sensitive question whether the ark needed a shelter or not. Was this not the primary concern of David in providing a house for Yahweh, into wh Lch the Ark was eventually brought • ••• the ark of the LORD came into the city of David •••• ••• And they brought in the Ark of the LORD, and set it in its place, inside the tent which David had pitched for it. (II Sam. 6:16, 17) In II Samuel 7: 2~ David approached Nathan, the prophet and intimated him of his desire to build a permanent house for God. "See now, I dwell in a house of cedar, but the ark of God dwe lLs in a tent". Though he was not per-mf t t ed by UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 172 God to build it~ his Son, Solomon? ach;0vAj his sincere desire according to I Kings 8:1~ 6. Then Solomon aesembled the elders of Israel and all the heads of the tribes, the leaders of the fathers' hou~8H ,r the people of Israel, bef'or e king Solomon Ln Jerusalem? to bring up the ar-k of the covenant of the LORD out of the cIt y of David, which is Zion. Then tfieprie6ts brought the ark of the covenant of the LORD to its place, in the inner sanctuary of the house, ir the ~n9t holy place, underneath the w l.ng a of the Cherubim. Similarly, the ark needed a shelter ir: the desert, and tr..e ideal shelter for the ark in the desert circumstance, was the tent. The inseparability of the ark from the tent is further emphasised in II Samuel 7:(" where Yahweh said: "I have not dwelt in a house since the day I brought up the people of Israel from Eg;y-ptto this day , but I have been moving about in a tent :for my dwelling". In Joshua 3~~-6,the ark was to be carried ~y the Levitical priests before the company of Israel. The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 173 sacredness of the ark 'JiTEU3 further emphasised when Joshua instructed that, 8. distance of about two thousand cubits should be maintain8d between the ark and the people of Israel. It foll~ws therefore that such awesome sacred (ir)jectcould no t have normally stayed among the people except in such a un Lque place 8.8 the tent. Even though the connection is not iniicated here, it is implied. From the above? .it wou Ld be absurd to separate the ark and the tent. If we re-examine the argument of the pri6stly d.escription 0:::' the desert sanctuary whereby the ark and the tent were mo st significantly connected, as reflected in Solomon's temple, it must be concluded therefore, that th~ priestly tredition had prese~ved an authent.Lc record indeed. The ark and the tent were certainly differ-ent sacred objects of worship in the wilderness cultus, yet they were inseparable in the a~t of the desert religious act. We shall next discuss the theological concept of the ark. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 174 C. THE RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF THE /iRK In the religious life of the Jews, the ark was as significant as the tento But the ark was more unique in the sense that it could stand alone in the camp without the tento This was evident at the following places: In Gilgal-Joshua 7:6; at Shechem-Joshua 8:33; at Bethel- Judges 20:27. It is supposed that, when the ark eventually found· its seat in the Holy of Holies, it shared the glory of the templeo When the temple was finally destroyed by King Nebuch&dnezzar of Babylon, in 587 BoCo, the ark also shared its fate. According to II Maccabees 2:4-5, before the destruction of the temple, Prophet Jeremiah hid the ark, and saved it from destruction. It was also in the writing that the prophet, having received an oracle, ordered that the tent and the ark should follow with him, and that he went out to the mountain where Moses had gone up and had seen the inheritance of God. And Jeremiah came and found a cave, and he brought there the tent and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 175 the ark and the altar Dr incense, and he sealed up the entrance. From the above passage, it is evident that the ark was hidden on f.~ountNebo 9 Just as the death and bur-La L of Moses were mysterious on this sa cr-ed mo-int.a tn , so also, the sealing up of the Ark of the covenRnt there was mysterious. This was quite obscure, more so that the tent was also Realed up there. Was the tent kept in the Jerusalem temple? Or was the Jerusfl.lem temple spiritually moved to Mount Ilebo? To my mind, Prophet Jeremiah was merely emphasising that~ the glory of t"h.e temple moved out of the sanctuary along with the 8.rk of the testimony, before the physical feature of the temple was destroyed. The .•;'rk was considered !~ 3 the throne of Yahweh. To suggest that the throne; of God w&S destroyed would amount to corrunitting sacrilege. The Mercy Seat, whi ch represented the divLne transcenclental appearance of Yahweh among his poopLe, VJ!l 1.3 placed on the ark of the covenant. It was be I t eved to be the .eonerete visible sign of YahwehI s p~&ence. 1,J). ~ ~a.muel 4: 7 9 when the ark of the roM) arrived in the Israelite camp, the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 176 Philistines remarked in total disarray: "A god ha s come into the Camp." When the ark was eventually captured from the Lar-a eLdt es , it Vias taken as tile Los: of'God's presence. The wife of Ph Lneh as, du r-Lr.g a psinful labour, and on the verge of death, confessed: "The glory of God has depart ed from Israel! 11 'I'h Ls was chiefly because t.he ark of God had been capt-ur-ed in I sra~:;l(I Sam. 4:21-22) • Similarly 9 wh en the ark was br-ouch t into the dedicated temple of Solomon, "the glory of the LORD filled the house of the LORD" (I Kgs. 8:11). This was the wilderness experience of the wandertng Israelites. At the completion of the tabernacle in the wilderness, "the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle" (Ex. 40:34-35). In this case, "the cloudfl represented the glory of God among his people. In the wilderness journey, both the cloud and the fire, like the ar-k , wer-e considered as "the glory of GOd". They were ways of representing the presence and the transcendence of God on earth, among his chosen people. 19 According to R. de Vaux,- extra Biblical documents support the ark as the throne of God. "The }}}gyptianBook of the Dead", mentions that a document was found under the feet of the majesty of the god Thot, and it was written by UNIVERSITY OF BADAN LIBRARY 177 Thot himself. This legendary detail is sj milar to the custom attested to in the historical docu.lJlents of' the Hittite t r eat t ea , in which it was stipulated t.hat the t6xt of the treaty shall be placed in a temple at tne foot of an image of a god as a witness. An example of this was a letter from Ramses II, about .his treaty with Hat tusll which said: "The writing of the oath (pact) which I have made to the Great king, the king of Hattu lies beneath the feet of the god Teahup: the great gods are witnesses of it. The writing of the oath which the Great king, the king of Hattu, ha~ made to me, lies beneath the feet of the god Ra: the g~eat gods are 2{) witnesses of itll. In the yreservation of the tablet s of the Mosaic Law, written by the finger of God (Ex. 31:18; Deut , 9:10), they were placed in the Ar-k, and put 8.t his foot-stool in the Holy of Holies. The Decalogue was the official instru.ment of the treaty between Yahwehand Israel, for its preservation and uniqueness, it was put under the feet of Yahweh, that is, at his throne. The s.r-k was also considered 4S the symbol of the omnipotence of God. Divine and unequalled power was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 178 associated with it. The Philistines felt the powerful presence of Yahweh in the ark. llfuen they attempted to make a mockery of it, both their god, Dagon, 8nd qll the inhabitants of: Ashdod and its territory were greatly afflicted. Tb.e Phtlir:.tines thus remarked: "The ark of "the God of I srael must not remain wity, us; for his hand is heavy upon us and upon Dagon our god." (I Sam. 5: 7). When the Israelites disregarded the possible effect of the divine power- of the a r-k , and Looked into it, some seventy men of them were slain at Beth-Shemesh. (I Sam. 6.: 18-19). The Hebr-ew Version even put the figure at fifty thousand arid seventy men. In II Samuel 6: 7, Uzzah , the son of ~blnadab, was struck dead for touching it~ Accor-d Lng t.c. t.he priestly Code, the Levites who were Lega LLy and r-eLf.g Lou sLv competent to bear the ark approached it only when it had been veiled by the priests. It was carried by poles which vieee always left on it. il.ny ind.if'ferent act to vLo La t e the sacredness of the ark of' Yahweh was violently resisted. If the ark was the divine abode of Yahweh, as his throne, did he physically occupy the sacred object? This question is to be discussed in the next section. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 179 D. THE EMPTY THRONE It is most certain that apart from the Ancient Near East, there was sacred furniture in the temples, sanctuaries, and shrines of the ancient people allover the world, especially the Greeks, Romans and Africans. Among the furniture were empty thrones, or thrones on which only the symbols of the particular gods or goddesses were placed. Since the religion of Israel forbade all images as idolatrous, the throne of Yahweh was empty. The ark was therefore a religious symbol, representing the seat or presence of Yahweh in the temple among his people. However, this does not suggest a physical occupation of the throne by Yahweh. When the Prophet Isaiah claimed that he saw the Lord sitting upon a throne high and lifted up, ~nd his train filled the temple, (Isa. 6:1) he was only reflecting in a vision, upon his experience of the holiness of God, and the magnificence of the holy temple in Jerusalem. There, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 180 the divine monarch was being attended to by Seraphim as his min~sters. The assertion that he saw God here did not ae sume P. pLy::. LcaL occupa t.Lon of the throne; a claim whi ch an average .Jew would abhor. .1ccording to Hebrews 11: 32ff, !6aiah was among those aawn a aurid er , This vias (Juring the reign of the not.orf.ou s idolatrous king Ma:c.asseh in Israel, 21 (,687-642 B.C ••) It 1s only with this idea that one could admit the claim t.hat both the ark and the Cherubim reprp.8Anted the divine presence (~x.25:18; 37:7; I Kgs. 6:23-28; Ps. 80:1; Ezek. 4l:l8-20). In actual fact, these objects are Lnadequa t e to r:':)pre~3ent the unique divinity of Yahweh, in Israel. During the course of the desert cu l.t , Yahweh met Moses and spoke to him from above the Mercy Seat 'which stood on top of the Ctrk (Ex. 25:22). In Exodus 2;:17-22; 37:6-9, the Mercy Seat 16 described in detail 80 as to suggest t.na t it was more important than the ark. Also, on the day of Atonement, the high priest wouLd sprinkle blood on the MercY-SE;at, that is, the throne of Yahweh, which covered the a r-k , There is no distinct l~eference made to the role of both the ark and tbe cherlJbim here UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 181 (see Leviticus 16). One may deduce r'r-om this concept that tLe thronE: waG substituted for the ark. For instance, in Post-Exilic -Tuda t sm, no newark was built in Judea • .i~ccording to I Chronicles 28: 11, the "room of the Mercy Beat" was to represent the Holy of Holies. 'I'hLs would thereby fulfil the original role of the Ark in the most Holy Place. 22 Again, according to ,:rosephus~" there was no furni ture Fl. s such L1 the Holy of Holies of IZing Herod's temple. 'I'hLs was the situation in Israel until the time of Chr-Ls t , when the veil of the Holy of Holies ~as torn outrightly, thereby making it possible for evet'Y worshipper to have 8. direct approach to God. 'fhis coric epf was further elaborated. in the Pauline epistles t.o the Corinthians. In his theology of the Christi3n dignity, Paul considered Christians as God's temple. (I Cor. 3:16; II Cor~ 6:16). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '182 E. ~H~ ~OD OW DOD Anot.her- significR:lt object of worship in the Yahweh cuLtus , wac the r-od of l}o(l. Exodus 4:2, t:'tlks of the rod of Moses which God used to perform miracles at the wildernesF ill. Horeb • Hoses was to use the same rod to perform mi.r-acLes in Egy-pt (E.x. 4: 17). It first became a serpent and was 80(']:) later restored to its normal nature. In verDe 209 of the same chapter, this rod is referred to as "the rod of God.". Verse 17 of this chapter presupposes that the rod was 8. gift from God to Moses. ..1lthough Moses had possessed the rod init.ially, tile fact is that God now gave it a new significance End power; it Vias the r-od of God given to Moses. It is, however, strange to find t.hat when Moses got to Egypt, it "i8.8 the r-od (yl.' Aar'(")l1t!i8t W[, f3 used to carry out the assignment give~ to Moses with his rod in Horeb (Ex. 4:2-4, 17, 20-21; 7;8-12). Thc!1TIost likely explana- tion to thi 8 couLd be 9 th8 t ~ sLnce it WRGYahweh aLso who called ARron to 3s8ist Moses, the rod of GG~which Moses br-ought could be gi r en -1;0 .;"i.aroYtol perform the miracle. l'Tormally~ since the iIebrews were pastoral !::l~rarians, Aaron UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 183 was also entitled to a r0d, and God could have granted his rod such a mag f.c aL power-, However, itV'fas emphatically mentioned that the same rod which was used in Horeb was to be used in Egypt. "And ' you sha Ll. take in your hand this rod, with which you shall do the signs" (Ex. 4:17). God also said: If When you go back to E:;ypt, see that you do ,:')e:t'orPeharaoh all the miracles which I have put in your power" (Ex. 4: 21). Aaron, most Lf.ke'Ly , may have acted on behalf of Moses in accordance with Exedus 4: 14- 16, 28ff. The rod 'Of God, held by Meses and Aaron was very significant te the Israelites during their wilderness wanderings. At Massah and Meribah, in Rephidim, the same rod was used t.oprevide water' fer the murmuring people •. This same rod must have been raised up in victory during the Israelite battle ~ith the Amalekites in Rephidirn. It was an emblem of victory connected with the 81tar which Meses built to the Lord after the battle (~x. l7:l5-l~). The victory was thought of as the power of Yahweh, which was effectively present in his rod held u.p by Moses whe was auppor-t ed by Aar-on and Hur on beth sides. .l.tthe waters of Meribah, the rod of Go d was used at, a symbol UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '184 of Goe.' S DU tho r-Ity and power- to provide water for- 'Glle grumbling cong r-ogat.Lon (Hum. 20:6ff.j. The rod of' Go-l was all along connected with the deliverance and providence of God for his covenant people. Wb.enI ar-a eL sinned against God in the wilderness, bet w eel"),Mount Hor and Edom , many of them were bitten to death by fiery serpents (Num , 2.1:6-9). Moses was called upon by the Israelites to pray for them for forgiveness. The Lord1 therefore, ordered Moses to set up a fiery serpent of bronze on cl.. pole 9 to be gaz ed at by anyone who was bitten by the serpent, for sur-v LvaL, was made in a form of anake-e a'taf'f", or rod. The serpent-staff was not very significent in the later period. Though it was not or-Lgl naL'Iy meant. to introduce idolatry? the Israelites preserved it. Later on9 they burned incense to it in Jerusalem and called it 1':ehushta:a.23 The last topic to discuss under the sacred objects of the covenant is "the sacred lots II 9 namely y t.r;e sacred lot of Urim and Thummirn, and the Ephod ,and Teraphim. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '165 F. THE S.ACRELDOTS t , The Sacred Lot of' .Q.rim and Thummilll The: sacred lot of llrim and Thummimwas the technical means of inquiring t118 wi 11 of God. The two objects were most probably stones, plac~i in the breastplate of the high priest: by which he Rscertained the will of God in any important matter affecting the nation (EA. 28:30; Lev. 8:8). The sacred lot served as a symbo'l of the nigh priest's ~uthority to seek the counsel of Yahw$h; to reveal the will of God to h im through inn~X'-illu#1ination. It. was also~ an oracle by lot. It was cast l~ke dice similar to che mani.puLa t ion of the 1fa OraCle2ti. by the traditional priest in Africa. 'I'h e procedure ~f the use of the sacred 10l is found in I Samuel l4:40f~1. The parties in disput e would stand apart s and the lot be cast. 1lVhileUrim, which technically meant "light "9 10\lld be asked to ap~ear on the side of one of the par~ies9 I'humn Lm, which mearrt "per-t'ec t i cn" (truth)9 waS-to appear on the ot.n er- side. It. may be caet more than onee before th.e final clue \Nf1S got. The :~'lnner of the fe.ll uf Urim and 'I'hunmim somehow rev eaLed the Lord '3 w i Ll , Deut erxnorny 33: 8, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 186 de ncr-Lb ea the aacred lot as the special pr-er-oga't Lve of the Levitical priest to interpret the caat Lng of the objects. For more information on th.e sacred 10t9 see Exodus 28:30; Lev t t Lcus 8:8; I 8eIDuel 10:19-22; lil-i37- 42; Nehemiah 7:65. ii (a) The Ephod Like the Urim and Thummim, the Ephod was another sacred lot which had various interpretations. It could be the priestly garment with a pocket for holding the lots. Most probably, the Ephod was used along with Urim and Thummim. The Ephod could also be said to be 8. means of dLvs.na t t on by the priest.' But the sources of these means of divination are not certain. However~ the Canaanite idolatrous way of inquiring from their gods might have had some impact upor; Elf::: Israelites. The use of these oracles wae certainly cO:JlJloanmong the people of the Ancient Near East. Certainly s the Israelit es must have beer, influenced by this cult. 'I'h Is does not mean that the use of Urim and 'l'hummf.m, and the Ephod and Teraph Lm was idolatry; r-ath er-, it was Rimply a technical device for inquiring the will of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 187 God. The practice of t nquf r-Lng through oracles or sacred lots did not manifest any lack of faith whatever (see Genesis 25:22; I Samuel 2:18; 2:28; Acts l~26). The covenant law prohibited the practice of divination in Israel (8'3eLeviticus 19:26; Deuteronomy 18:10; II Kings 17: 17-18; J er-emi ah 27: 9: 29:8-9; cf' , Numbers 22: 7; Ezekiel 21: 21). The use of these sacred lots in Israel was merely tc est.abLd sh the truth of the circumstance. It also aided the consoli1ation of the Israelite faith. The lots were used in the sanctuary along with the Ark and its contents to serve as svmbo Ls of the idea of the divine presence and Lordship of Yahweh. The Israelites must then accept the lead.ership of the priests and all their dlvine functions including the casting of sacred lots. 'I'h e Ephod could also appear as an apron worn upon the priestly garment to hold the oracle. It was also regarded as the garment for the deity, and a distinctive garment of the priestR who represented the deity before the people. Therefore, it may be said tr.a'tthe Ephod was also regarded as a garment worn by those who served Yahweh in the temple. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY · 188 Whatever the sources, or influence of the use of the 8~cred lots, the answers given by them were attributed to divine revelation by Yahweh, the God of Israel. It is pertinent to conclude that the use or :.heEphod by the Israelites in the Yahweh cultus was justifiable in the cirCUlnstances. Just as the: ark was lJ.E:cessartyo accompany the host of Israel to assure victory at battles; and sacrifice Was a cultic necessityuSlally before or after military engagements, so also the use of'Ephod, and the sacred lots at large, confirmed the Israelite faith in the nature of the covenant r~d, as the God of justice, truth, peace and right guidance, and a reliable counsellor. r .. (b) The Terapuim: The Teraphim were tutelary personal household gods, giving response to consulters. They were figurines or images in human form. They were not necessarily cultic. Traditionally ~ Rachel's theft of Laban's teraphim (Gen. 31: 34), is much better understood in the light of apparently possessing the leadership of the family. In the C2se of a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 189 married daughter, her husband was assured of the right to the property of her father, as legitimate members of the f am i.Ly , Since Laban evidently had' sons of his own, when Jacob left Haran (with Leah and Rachel) for Canaan, only those sons of Laban left behind, had the right to their father's godso The theft of Rachel was a serious offence (Gen. 31:19, 30, 35), aimed at preserving for her husband the first title to her father's estate. But in Judges 17:5-13, Micah, the Ephraimite installed an ephod and teraphim in his shrine as cultic objects; though they were not idols. They were put there for securing an oracleo The fact that it was put under the function of a Levitical priest shows that it was not a divination which was considered idolatry in Israel (of. I Samuel 15:23)0 Unlike the Israelites, according to Ezekiel 21:21, the Babylonian king oracularly used teraphim quite differently from divinationo When the ark eventually settled in the sanctuary, these sacred objects became very insignificant, Urim and Thummim, for instance, became mere items of the priestly regalia. They were reserved for the High Priest only. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 190 This final stage of the sacred. objects shows that Israel had no original aim to include these sacred objects to p()lLute the covenant cuLt.u s , During the reform of king Hezekiah, and the Deuteronomic reform of King Josiah~ the sacred stones, pillars, and images connected with Yahweh!s cult were c-vI'Lcic;:mnaend destroyed respectively. The erection of such ob ject s was mo-at pr-obabLy en(~0\Aragedby Manasseh, like the bull image introduced 'by ,Toraho~1mI, at the r·c\y2.~ sanctuaries in Bethel and Dan (I Ags. 12). King Josiah also aoo l i.nh ed th3 t.er-aph Lm (II Kgs , 23: 34), along with the medLums , the w t zar'd s , and the idols, as abominations in Judah (see I Samue] 28:3-7; Hosea 3:4; Zech:'l"iah 10:2). To r epr-esenc Y;=,hweh with "sacred objects" was not in conf'o r-rmt y with the covenant obligations. Yahweh's cultus must thE.r-efo~e. be votd Of fAny imagery. Undoubtedly ~ the h:..c lUoi_on of these images in the covenant cultus was as a result of the Cana4nice influence~ as earlier on suggested. Yet ~ because -iJ. did not conform with both primitive Yahwism and J"-Lldaisn, (and the later christianity), it Vias thus strongly resisted. Though like the bull image introduced by ~eroboam I~ most of these UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 191 sacred objects were no~ instances of' true images of Yahweh, but only the symbolic indications of the divine pre:sence. Yahweh could not be represented by any empiric object. There is nowhere in the Old Testament where Yahweh is represented by any image or pictorial ob je(;1:;. ~~rhenAaron attempted it with the +oLderi C.:"lf, it was vehemently resisted. Aaron said: "I'n ese are YO',lrgods, 0 Israel, who " brl)u£ht you up out of the land of' Egypt!" 'I'h eae gods, t nc tud tng the Golden Calf 9 were burnt to ashes, and the idolatrous Israelites were made to drink their gods. The unrepentant Israelites were all slain (Ex. 32). Both Hezekiah and Josiah destroyed all the pictoral representations of Yahweh. (II ~gs. 18:11"1".,23). This was because the objects wero considered as essentially idols, which could not t 11re the place of Yahweh, They were refused tr. be Lncorpo r-a t ed into Yahweh cuLtua, and thereby summarily resisted. E8rlier on, ·Jehu had made a bold at t emrrt to wipe out idolat ry in I srael. All the idol worshippers were d.eat r-oyed , He burnt t.hs nouse of BaaL and destroyed its pillar (II Kgs. 10:18-28). Yahweh was both transcendent and immanent. He was near 211 the time to commune~ith his elect. He needed no image representa- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1~\ 2 tion. Chapter four which follows is very crucial in the Old Testament theology of the covenant. It is expedient at this juncture to examine the nature of God who contracted a treaty with Israel. How did Israel understand the divine nature~ the covenant God? The ultimate purpose of the election was to redeem maQkiAd through Israel as a worthy representative of God C11 8frtp. The extent to which Israel justified this pr1vileg7 as a holy nation is also to be di~ed in the following chapter. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 193 NOTES TO CHAPTER III THE ST1,TUTES OF THE COVENANT 1. CoC. Forman, Editor "The Book of the Cov onan t;" R.Ho Pfeiffer, Theology, LV, No. 473, pp. 410ff. 2. J. Morgenstern, "Literary history of the Book of the Covenant", Journal of Biblical Literature, LXII, pp. 274ff. Henceforth cited as ~o 3. Albrecht Alt, "The Origin of Israelite Law", ESiays on Old Testament History and Religion, pp. 75ff. Henceforth cited as -OTHR. 4. In order to facilitate smooth reckoning and under- standing of the Hebrew periods mentioned in this research, the following Hebrew calendar is given. According to MoF. Unger, Unger's Bible Dictionary, pp. 163ffo, Israel first used a solar calendar, and later a combination of both solar ond lunar, which was the usual practice ih the Ancient Near East, especially among the Babylonians. While the solar has 365 days in a year, the lunar calendar has 354 days. Undoubtedly, the Hebrews based their calendar predominantly on the Babylonian style, which was restricted to civil and historical records. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE I 194 HEBREW CALENDAR W", NO HEBRE"~ REFERENCE ENGLISH EQUIVALENCE DAYS- .-.->.---._ ..-.- SIGNn'ICANCE -1.. A'bib or N-i-s,a.n Nehemiah 2:1 March-April----,-.,-.~~ 30 7th of civil year--.- (sacred) spring.. -.- 2. Zif or I'=ju-r-/-l.y_y'a_r. - April-May 29 8th " " " summer",",,~,",-.:c'.""~""" ___ ..-. - --- . 3. Sivan Esther 8:9 May-June 30 9th" " 11- - ..*..;-"'~ ...-•----' - -- ~ - 4. Tam' muz - June-July 29 10th " " _ 11.. (Hot ,-,eason)- I--..,..,."- .~. ~.".-~- .. - " ''-- 5. I Ab,-~ ~- - - July-August 30 11th I' " " Frui tful month....,., .. .. .... . 6. E' lu1 Nehemiah 6:15 August-September 29 12th " " " Intense heat and muchlightning. s--..:-..--= __ -. ..••..•-., 'W -- -.- 7. Eth'an-i'--rn~or-T-is.lri - Sept.-Oct.ober 30 1st " " I, S-:=edtime. .-.--.. ..•... ..•. 8. Bul or Marchesh-V-an - Octo-November 29 2nd II L . -""-~~. -- f----- - "...•.. 9. Chis'leu I ?echar:i.dh7:1_ ;'jel-l(:i1mi:1ah Nov.-December 30 3rd " 11 II ~\linterbegins ... o. - ..- - 1 Te-'b-e-th Esther 2:16 4th :1 'I .:. .. ...•.-.,---~- .._._._-- Deco-january 29 " .- Mid-winter- 11~ S.h-e,'_bat 'or' S'g' ba t; Zechariah 1:7 Jan.-February 30 5th II " 11 Winter ! - ..... - ------ Esther 3: 7~ 13j 8:12; Cold and rainy season 120 A'dar 9:1 Febo-r1arch 29 6th n 'II II or Ezr. 6-: 15 spring I I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 195 5. J.L. McKenzie, "knowledge of God in Hosea", -JBL, LXXIV, Part 1, pp , 22ff.; c ,w, Buckhanan, "The Old Testament, meaning of the knowledge of Good and Evil", ~ LXXV, pp. 114ff. 6. GoR. Driver, "Code of Hammurabi", The Encyclopaedia Americana, VI, International Edition, pp. 666f. 7. According to Dickson, this was perhaps to make a provision for manumission in the ancient Jewish Law (Ex. 21:2; Deut. 15:12f). Similarly, in accordance with the ancient custom, hbraham adopted Eliezer, son of a slave girl, before the birth of Ishmael and Isaac (Gen. 15:1-3). K.A. Dickson, "The Old Testament and African Theology" Ghana Bulletin of Theology, IV, No.4, PP. 31ff. Henceforth cited as GBT. 8. GoR. Driver, 0p.Cit., PPo 666f. 9. S~nhedrin: It is from the Greek which means: a councilor an assembly session. It was the highest Jewish tribunal during the Greek and Roman periods. It developed from the aristocratic UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1.96 council of elders which was presided over by the hereditary high priest. The Sanhedrin was composed of seventy memberso It included tribal or family heads, chief priests, scr i b-vs as the legal advisers, Pharisees and Sadducees. It w~s traced back to the college of seventy elders appointed by Moses in the wilderness (See Numo 11:16-17, 25; Mko 14255; Lk. 22:66 i I.cts 4:5f., 9:2; 22:5; 26:12 )• 10. See also W. Eichrodt, The Theology of the Old Testament, (TOT) I, p, 128. 11. R. So Paul, The Atonement and the Sacrament, pp. 18f. THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE COVEN~NT 12... According to I samue l 10:5-13, there w as some band of prophets directly connected with the state politicso Their stay very close to the garrison of the Philistines, was definitely to stir up the Isr3elites in holy war against their foes. These ec~t~tic pronh~tss or the cultic prophets, i.e. those stationed at the local sanctuaries with cultic priests (J\mos 7:10-13), are quite different from the writing or classical prophet, such as UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 197 Isaiah, Jeremi~h, kmos etc. For further details, see B. W. Anderson, "The Living Word of the Old Testame 3rd edition, London: Longman. pp. 228-232. - 13. R. C. Dentcn, Editor. The fdea of His tory in ~. ;> Ancient Near East. J. Obermann & Co., The Journal of Theological Studies, V, Part 2, po 261. Henceforth sited as JTS. "1:1. N. H. Snaith, The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament, ppo 122fo 15. \; f38.ved ~;tc'_te:; t. 0 be a religJous model :for the nations of' -t:hs ';;ror-ld to si;pive after~ '~-='hi8 w a s to enable all the religions n-(."•,i.l. the. world to c ome top.;ether into a un Lcu.e form under- the only re.eogr!ized. God ()f' tho universe. The history of" I:':lrael W!1S Lrrt er-peet.ed hy their' prophets. T~mpha8i8 WEtS placed on the unl cu ene as of' the nation among nat t cr.s , becaue e of her 8p,::e:1.'"'.1 hand with UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 217 Yahweh. He was g r-ea t er- than all other national dei~1 and as such his rf"J.igion was supr-eme , He must be conceived as the orrLy one GDd to be worshipped. A:::"l other- lesser gods were but nothing before him. They must be totally ignored by I e r-a eL as non-existent. This ms.d e the religion of Yahweh monotheistic, But the ~uestion must be asked, whether I srael knew t.]:u~ pr.r-t ieula r f'u ture r-er'er-enc e of their faith to be univE;Y'::.elJstic OJ' ot.he rw i se , Was it to be as par-t.Lcu l a r- as other nations I indi virtual religions? At the early 8t[~."e of' Israel's religious consciousness, she was ex cLusLveLy particularistic. Yahweh W8S considerd as their own private God, while they wer-e his own people. The concept of the Mosaic treaty was basically based on this religious awa r ene s s , which most pr-obab Lv developed out of Israel's experience rjuring her wand er-Lng a among the Semitic peoples. Yahwism was therefore particulari- stic at this stage on the basis of God's revelation of himself to laresl. \Vhat:~v(~r the nature of national fc..itll was pr-Lmar-LLy , one thing is certain, that Israel was aware of her posl\ion as a people of the grace of God to enjoy his aaLvaet on , Thi 8 t'und ame.nt.aI redempt i ve idea was constantly UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 218 expressed by the prophets of Yahweh. 'I'h i s was the centre of' the "INhale compact wi th Yahweh , Otha~(' redemptive ideas t.ner-e ror-e arose f r-o:u the analysis of th.e covenant frame- wor-k, just as t.he t ru e life experience of' thp people made the covenant relationship meani ngt'uL. Yahweh, 8S the initiator of the covenant sust8.ined it at 211 costs. The cov enarrt , it may be 8a~8., was just the bringing into jh~ consciousness of Ia~apl, ~he significance of Yahweh j 8 act of choo s i.ng t.hern, an.~ redeeming them out o:" "oonc1(-1':;2\ in Egypt. Yahweh 9 beillg a righteous God, was :f2..ithful to th~; covenant obLt ga t t ona throughout. The justj.ce and righteousness of' Yahweh were ernphasised by the ethical prophets to fL~rther interpret the cov ens.n t as .:: saving theology. sa Lvat ton was due to I srael as ~].Ch(H~G:::l people of Yahweh, the covenant God? who was righ t.eou s to fulfil hi s obligat Lon e to the last. Israel must be r-ed eemed by &11 means. Upon this unique character of Gods Israel built her hopes of salvation. Israel was seen as a people? a nation, aild a chosen race. In brief ~ She was dealt viTi th as El unit. The covenant' was made 'Fit.h her as 8. group and not as individuals. This concept can !'1i:!,htly be said to have been established UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 219 during the Exodus ep i sode , Israel was d ea i.v er-ed a s a body. Henceforth, the people regarded thsm2elv0s as a body~ united together for a singular purpose by the u.nparalleled God. From now on both Yahweh and Israel had mutual right w Lt h each other. He ·Has to protect 9 guide and instruct his people in all things always. The prophet Amo s , in 2:9-10, claimed t.h at it wa s Yahweh who gave victory to Israel ovep her enemiess and led the people throughout their wanderings. Amos 2:11; and Judges 7:18, went j:"'urther to cLaLrn that God, Ln divine intervention gave Israel victory all along. To t8H::: r;:c the SpGCi9.1 relet. 1011811i::; be twe en Yahweh and I sr-aeL does not n.ean that he was not the Cnd of all other peoples of the wo r-Ld , 'ou t r-a th e r-, his relationship w It.h Isr8of~l wa s unique and pur-po s ef'u l , Amos 3:2, says: ItYou only ha ve :r. known of' all t.h e :['':''''"Di11ecsf the earth 11. The Living B'i.bLc ~:endc::,:'s the v er se t.hua: ;'Of 8011the people Ei 0;:' ":h6 earth? I ha1'0 cho sen you aLorie Ii. Israel wa s to 0'':: ouc et.and f.ng among the na t Lon s, ;i':8-C as Yahweh was outstanding among ~he gods of tile nations of the earth. Thus the vers~ concludes: HThat is why I must punish you the more :.:'::>r all your sins H. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.20 On the secur-Lt y of the nat i cn , Israel was taught to exercise strong f'a Lth Ln the cov enarrt promises of Yahweh to defend her and lead her to succe ss , She was not to rely on the horse9 and fenced c tt t es }.ike the other nations but rather on Yahweh. Shp. shouLd not rely O~'1 the chariots of H~'gyp-~'- e1•t h.er ("n-T08~. 1:7, 8:14; II Kgs. 18:21~ Isa. 30:1- 7; 31:1; 36:5-61 9-10). This concept also contributed to the par-t t.cu Ie r-ts t ic outLook of the I ar-a eLf.t e faith. The ~ moral and religious significance of tne covenant relation- ship WEtS that Yahweh belonged to them, and ''",rey should be responsible to hiM in ~l].aspects or their bxistence? be it political, silitary, social, economic or religious. This I'aLth lingered 0:1 am•).ng the I ar-a e.l.t.t as up to the you praYi say: "Our Father" or "Father" (r-.fci~r,tt • -f·.:9;.':·-J.T k 11·.'\ 1;.: 1-2). 'The Lndi vi.duaLs sew Yahweh as "their God". The reason for t11:L s may be simply becuuae I srael was chosen as a people 9 not a 8 indi vIduaLs, ::.11 the pat r Lar-che, for Lnstanc e , represented their gAr.p,r8tions and no+ individual per-son= lit '1.'88. TEdividuals "{ere recognized 0::ily wlthin the coLl.ectr vo pe r-sone Lt tv , t'l]11en an LndLvdduaL broke the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN IBRARY 221 covenant Law, cr s Lnried , a s earll~~r on d i s cu s sed , Lr: some cases it ,I'HS both the incU vidual a~l<.':. tlJ.e 'Nh:)le nation that suffered. Where t.n e whole na t ion d i.d ~-lot sut'r er-, the r epe r-cuae Lon of the sin commLtted may be suf''':'eren ty the f'u tu r-e gone ra t rons of e it hcr- the s tnne r a Lorie or the whole na t i on , Exodus 20: 5 9 S1:~Y8: "And when I punish people for their s Ln s , the puni nnment. continues upon the children, g r-andch i Ldr-en , and ,:.,re[~.t-grar:.'~.cj~ildren of those who hat e me. II (LB) HO'P8ver9 the doctrine 0:[' Lnd Lvi c.uaLt am came up very late in the dev eLopmen't s nd matured under-at.and'l.ng of' tLe bond r-el.a t t onah l p , This hr.s 1:)een '.'!~ll illur:trated in the New cov enarrt concept of Jeremiah.. ..'1.8' in ~zekie19 the individual '.'Vas to bea r the :·~onsc:r?.uellcesof 'che sLns committed. I still believe~ o~ course, that if not directly, the society wou Jd somehow 'be affected by the su f'f er-Lng of such LndLvtdua La , at least, indirectly. According to Saint Paul in I 60rinthiaris 12:269 if one member of the body suff'urs 9 &11 other members vouLd sufre r as well. 1\ crucial reas·n why~ the doctrine of individualism was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 222 not championed in the Old Testdmen~ 'might be due to the little prominence qiven to the idea of personal survival or Lmmor t s.LLt.v , Thr:; pr-cj-h ec s anoke of the immortali ty of the r.at i on and not Of' indivic1up Is 0 Ji'or Ln s tanc e , the pr-oph et Isaiah empha oiz ed the inviolability of Jerusalem 88 r-epr-e serrt Lng the k l.ngo.om ,.)f Israel (Isa. 260019,. Dan 10G.0t..:°..-. 3° $ 1"\,..·.)-ci.. 110.;9. 2__h)t'\!:..,._) ~<'": ,°._4.c..0. °3) Thip...., should not baffle us because Yahweh did not mako any agreement '.~ith Lndtv tdua Ls , but F cor-po r-a t e body? the nation. The covenant r-e Lat.Loris.h Lp -va s basically nat.t ona I as th e Exodu e was na t i.ona L, 7 and cone equerrt Ly , the LndLv.i.duaLs did not have pe r-sona I con sc i ou sne s s of the relationship. Wr..en the concept of LndLvf.dua Lt sm was later emphas i zed , this was not done in isolation but :',;ithin the context of the national body. It has been not ed t ha t the r-el a t.Lonsh Lp be tween Yahweh and Israel W~& l~aAic8.11y on the ground of mor-a Ll ty and religion, end not on politics. T~e act of the rite of circumcision VIas the seal of tho covenant 'n:'1ich described the putting off of the natural life of the people, and the taking up of' the nevi nature. The r-ed.emptt or. of the nation with blood, shed at circumcision9 and illustrated in the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 223 attempted sac r-I t'Lc e of.' Isaac, WEtS pe}~~.:>ectly (J.emonstrated in the shed blood of the Passover-Pa6ch~1 sacrifice. J·ohr. the "Cvarlgelir,t, t.r-ea t eo. the c r-ucLt'Lx Lon as occuring - pr-epar-ed for aticrii'icL'l.l offs::.'i::ig, so also, Christ, the Lamb of' C}cd o tt'e r-ed hirn.3'31:t'G\ r-ancom , t.he Pa scha l, lamb for manv, ;iohn away the S~n of th-e. lRor Ul.'f tTn. ·.•"-?ol::.i ·SI.. 0\:...0... u~. .'..J... \.Q_ o Gene~•....l• 's 22-.' 7t, .~",T5r.1·~··.Jr•.1L.u""a 12:3; Gen. 2?:Al. 'l'tl.e r-ed enpc ion of the nation was un:l ve:('sal. I f3N~.el "belonged to Yahwen vco r-po r-a t e'Ly to the extent that no single I ar-ae l t te could po aaeus anot.ner- Israelite. Slavery of an Israelite by a co-Israelite was seriously fo:-'b Ldd eri in Tarael. All those who ::;"!I'act l f.E;Q it vvere severe.1:t· cono.emneo .•8 'j~ere \;';"8 s eve n 8. P}:,~·,vsi ion to set the bond -- s er-va rrt 1'1.'88at tile f6ventb. vp,~,r (""~·!~.21:2). must embr-ace all th\3 Isr8.elites ~~thout '-l~.~. y S:.:;(ception. We shall now /?p on toe discuss the motive be~"li::J.d the ~ond between Yahweh and ISl"'e:.81. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 224 Bo The Motive Behind the Formation of the Covenant must therefore be necessarily moral. The motive behind the covenant between him and the Israelites was fundamen- tally love. This covenant he freely and willingly established In Semitic idolatry, the god was the natural father of the people. This is true of totemism in Africa. The adherents of totemism are believed to be the natural children of the totem god. Yahweh's relation to Israel was similarly a natural one, hence he was their father (I Chr. 29:10; Isa. 9:6; 63:16; 64:8; Matt. 6:9). He is the creator of the universe (Gen. 1:1; Malo 2:10)0 As in Hosea, Israel was as spouse of Yahweh (Hos. 1; 2:16-20). This concept was quite different from the Semitic practice in which the female was the spouse of the godo She surrendered herself to prostitution in honour of the god through tho priests that represented him. This was to ensure the fertility of the land. The prophetic symbol and phraseology here was all spiritual ~nd moralo "Israel" the beloved children must be redeemed by all means. The next topic is closely connected with this. If UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 225 God. is by nature mor-a L >=mdLov Lng , why did. he display segregation in the act of showing his love to the people created in his own ~m~ge? God chose Israel with unparalle:i.ed love. Heoestowed his npe cLa L favour upon her 8[\ his f'irst-·bc-: "paths 0:1: righteousness". This si~ply means; tI~ven" or "straight paths" r l"'hich '.pJerecomfortable paths for' s'-'eep. In Arabic, the r-oo t ;?iug, means truth 02 "to 08 true iI • V.1hena man speak- '".116 truth he is supposed not 'lnl,T to speak of' what, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 239 conforms to the r-ea Lit y 9 but he must s::)e:::<~\. in £\ c ;;()rd;iUC e 'vlith hie inner conv Lct Lon (':8 the truth. That i8 to say , "Practise what you preach". '1'0 do this, is to believe what one. oaYf1as t. ru th , and be horie st or I'ic:hteou2 in doin~ the same. This is the .~thical ur 8~iritual usage of 1'h0 verb -tD "l_~ means "to justify", or to -T be found in the right, or to have right on one's side. This basically is q juridical or legal use BTId as such9 it is sec.ul8.r or phSS.I~C;<'1.1 and not spirt t.ua L, It is not an ethical righte.ousnes.r but 8 simple juridir.p,l right. This is bel. ieved to be fhe Ldea of' Isaiah 43: 26, "Let us ar!':,ue t(,ge-:~hE'~I'; set f'or-t h vour- cases that you may be proved right". This ~as ryhen Israel felt that they had a pleq ~hich they could pring forward of be in> true tc the covenant obliga- t.Lou s . .lr order to be C!eclared righteou8. This same idea is contained L:. Isah!.:' 43;9. JUlY one who had a true case \,7a8 to provide [, '?ii t.ne s., tCt proove hilt right. It says: Let aLl the. nations gather 1:'ogetter~ and lCet~"the peoples C\ssemble. vl'hc 8Jl1on8themdeclare tnis9 and show us the ~rmer th~ngs? Let them bring t.hei r- witneRs to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2·10 justify them, and let them hear and say, It is true. So, when such :Cl,CC'Li.pSeerdson had been' found in the right bef'o r-e t"'e cong r-egat ion of I srr,e19 he 'Has to 'OE: declared righteous. This aga tn , did not mean that he was sp.Lritually l pur-e; but simply that he was :';:'oundgui Lt Les s Ln the charge preferred against him, or in the suit which the two opposing parties wer-e contesting. This may be on such matters cf commonmorals; one' s r-eLat i on to God; or speech i.e., speaking the +r-ut.h or not. 'I'he s tanda r-d of' determi- ing one 8 ri;:.;ht00u~l1ess may be set on the social norms or customs, his own cons cLenc e , or the pr Lnc Lp.Les of' the covenant. Righteous in an e t h.l caL or religious eer.se later on gained pre-eminence over ~~e general 18.w of cc.ndu ct , Hence "righteous" &8 a stn.ndarr1 became the great gener-a L principle of morals and r-el Lgf on, Nhen used of things, (e.g. "a r~.ght.eouS eprhat1II)' 1.t S a.mpII y means corir~Q l~lDQb 1e to tn'-e' Ldea of an ephah. SimiJarly, in Psalms 4:59 the IB~aelites We.I'e to offer "right sacrifices". T'his means such sacrifices as were agreeable to the idea of sacrjfice. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 241 When I'righteousnesslf was used of men, the word meant any co~duct or action which was in conformity with the popular custom, morals or the religion of Yahweh. When it was used of God, it suggested a moral standard which was more than merely God's willo In Genesis 18:25, Abraham said, "Far be it from thee to do such a thing, to slay the righteous with the wicked, so that the righteous fare as the wicked, Far be that from thee! Shall not the Judge of all the e_arth do right"? Most strikingly is the use of the word in Job 27:5-60 Here, Job condemned both man and God of injustice, and declared that he would adhere to righteousnesso However, it is not easy to distinguish God's will from his righteousness, because his will is the norm of righteousness. It was the will of God that Israel must be holy and righteous unto him. Usually, when God's actions were judged, they were naturally placed on the same standard or norm with man's. But in some cases, God's righteousness was based on a higher standard, which was not of the general law of morals as such, namely, the redemptive sphere which was the basis for the covenant relations It was a standard in his mind in connection with the salvation and redemption UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 242 of his people. This stand~rd was ther::;for~9 simply put, "the covenant r-eLat i.orr'", wh i ch wa s in conf'o rmI ty- vii th his very Being. IV-nenhe acted, therefore, he acted as th e God of salvation. In other words?' it was characteristic of him to act as a saviag God. Hence, his righteousness surpasses that of man. When God said, "r uphold thee with the right hand of my r-Lght.eouenes a", (Isa. 41:10 A.V.~~ it means that he acted to Lsr-a ei on t he ~·:H:.i8 of the covenant relation between t.her-, It was his PUI'POSB '~0 sa.ve them anc aake them the cnanne I ot salvation to all nat-ions. Hence, it has been suggestec. that according to. Isaiah 56:1, righteousness (and Justice) is parallel ~':J aaLvatLont tfkeepjustice~ ana. do riP", t eouenees , for soon my salvation yjlll come". Anothe g,uestion wr":i ch /My B.riSe fror: the above concept is, IIDoes it mean that Yr,!11Ileh' s rigilt-e:)usness did not exist before his r-eLatLon to lSl'2el?!I \v'hen Israel was called, it was in the right(:;o'l;.rne.sa of Yahweh that she was called and chosen among the nat Lcr.e. whLch he had created. The entering into the. covenant itself 'vas in righteousness (Ina. 42:6). In other wcrd s , j.t was due to Yahwehis love, grace and, OI' course, righteousness, that he UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 243 called the Israelites, and redeemed them unto his glory. Above all, God was not righteous to Israel elone. but to all his creationo In the above passage, .and in Isaiah 45: 18, it is obvious that the righteousness of God indicated a covenant that would involv€ the salvation not only of Israel, but also {)f the whole world as his creationo We shall examine in the next Chapter, the Oe.ute!'OnomicCovenant otherHise referred to as the Reform of Josieho It was an Israel-Bound Covenanto ~'A New Covenant", which it paved the way for vJill be dis~ussed alsoo Thereafter the Covenant Breaking and judgment will be examined. This will en~ble us to appreciate the unique preparation of the minds of the Israelites for the formation of Judaism in the exile ann thereafter. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 244 4 NOTES TO CHAPTER IV THE NATUREOF THE COV~NANTGOD 1.. This EgYr:-tia', custom of child-adoption was also common among the ancient Messopotami~ns .• Mosheh, in Hebrew means Moses, from a Hebrew verb Mashah, which means "to draw out" 0 /vc cor-d i nq tc B. W.• ii.nderson, The Living VJorld of the Old Testament, (3rd Edition), ppe 49-50, "Mosheh is the Hebrew form of an Egyptian, verb fc10se meaning "is born". The Hebrew name, MQshe~ (Moses) will t~ercfore suggest s orncone IIbarn and drawn out"" 2" t~, t~lt? liThe God of the Fa,thers", OTHR, pp , Sf f , 3. JV10 Eo i~;;r:lre\t{, "Ts r-ee I Lt e and C<'1na.anite Religion Christianity a:i,j other R(;-;li~Ji0nsll, Orita, 11/1, pp" 20ff .. 4. R:lS ShFl:nr':1 is the present day f"'linet el-Beida, an import3nt ~rchaeological site ~Kcavated , North2rn Syrian Coast, oppoiite the penins~la of Cyprus. See IVJ"Fo Unger, .~BD, P e 912 e UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 245 50 MoE. Andrew, 0po Cit., pp. 19ff. THE COVENANT AS A OOC;:TiGNEOF R~DEMPTION 6 00 Eissfeldt, The Old Testament Study, ppo 38fo 17. Various nations, towns, and villages have different anthropologies. There is no nation or community that had migrated ~nmass~. For instance, India has a complex racial anthropology of about five groups. These are: First, the Negriots or Negroes of Africa; they were the oldest erigrants to India; second, the Proto-Australoids; they were a dark offsiioot of the Mediterranean r3cei passing through the Near East to Australia and to India; third, the Carly Mediterraneans; they were light in colour; the civilized or Advanced Mediter~aneans made up the fonrth group; they became the Dravidians of India who introduced the Standard Indian Language; lastly, the Vedic Aryans or Nordics. They were the origin of the Vedic, Aryan or Sanskrit speech in India. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 246 See: 1. HoR. Zimmer, "Hinduism", l!!:f, X, pp. 490-4920 2. Peter Larsen, "Hinduism,", W8E, VI, pp. 146-150" 30 Richard Harrington, "India/People and Religion", ~, pp. 362..3.6•4. Nigeria also is a multi-tribal nation. In fact, before the colonial era, Nigeria did not exist as one nation~ rather there were various ethnic nations or kingdomso Among such were the Fulanis; the Hausas~ the Gombe empire; the riverine people of the delta area; the Itshekiris; the Igbos; the Yorubas; the Nupe kingdom and the Cameroonianso In all the above instances, the various groups did not migrate to their final settlement at one time, They arrived at different intervals ,and fused togetheJ This made the great difference with the formation of Israel as a nation. Her migration to and from Egypt was en masseo Her election or covenant relationship with Yahweh was contracted corporately. Her wander- ings in the wilderness were a national affair. The conquest and apportionment of the land of Canaan were jointly prosecuted. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 8. Sa~uel warned Israel on the possibility of violating this Israelite custom in Israel, in connection with the people's d~mand for a monarch He was proved correct when Solomon organised Israel into forced labour, which was inimical to fundamenta human freedomo It was a clever way of slavery (I Sam. 8:10-18; I Kgs. 9). 9. a.M. Burrows, Reviewer. The Christian Significance of the Old Testament. A.J 0 Bo Higgins, ...:L~lQ~Y LII1, No 362 pp. 312ff.; A. D. Galloway, "The Universality of Christ", Orita, 1/1, p.24; Ja Kenny, "Original Sin and Original Grace", _~enten Lectures, pp. 50ff.; A. Woollard, ilCreation Redemption, Mission", Theology, LXXII, No 593, pp. 505ff. 10. nn a, Dav Ld son , op.cit., p , 249. 11. Hcnotheism: This is the worship of but one god without denying the existence of ·other gods. Monolatry: It is the worship restricted to but one god, even though one may believe in the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .248 existence of many gonso The two religions above of the Sell1itic people were quite different from Polytheism~ that is, the belief in many godso They were .~...' . quite contrary to atheism, which is: Disbelief in the existence of God". The religion of the Jews was supreme over and above all the Semitic beliefs and those of other idolatrous worlds. It was unique in that it was both Monotheistic and theistic. It was the belief in only one God. According / to the ethical prophets, all other gods were to be denied as being existent. Furthermore, if they were non-existent, worship should, therefore, not be offered to them. Yahweh is the only Deity, holy and supre~eo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 249 CHAPTER V FROM THE DEUTERONOMIC REFORM TO THE POST - EXILIC JUDAISM 1. THE DEUTERONOMIC REFORM Bef4re I delve into the unique Deuteronomic treaty I want to give a somewhat extensive background or introduction to the reform. This is necessary, as a succinct summary of the berith traditions from Sinai through the Judges to the Monarchical period. When the 0euteronomic reform eventually took place, it introduced a radical political structure which was quite different from the M6saic Covenant tradition. The authentic Yahwist traditions originating from Moses at Sinai could not furnish a religious ideology to Leq i t Lrr.Lz.tehe monarchy when' it was finally established first under Saul who reigned from about 1,020 to 1,00' B.C., and sUbsequently under David who ruled from about 1,0'0 to 961 B.C. The Comm~~ity of Israel was then organized into a centralized unit due to military considerations. e~t the existence and function of the Community as a corporate body, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 250 can only be properly understood on the basis of the Covenant tradition, which in itself, was an instrument of unity, binding the people together and with Yahweh. A very vital question which ought to be asked is whether the Deuteronomic reform had been going on before the discovery of the Book of the Lawo The fact that the Temple w~s being repaired at the time suggests that the Reform had already begun. (II Kgso 22:3-7; II Chro 34:3-8). The reform was an attempt to bring up to date the Law for the seventh century, during a time that the seventh century prophets were carrying out their revival movement, with especially, the preaChing of Jeremiah. The finding of the Law was a new discovery of the Mosaic tradition, which was most probably written during the reign of the hloody ~nd idolatrous king Manasseh <687-642 B.C.) since the king was opposed to Yahwism, and Assyria, the idolatrous sovereign was strong at the time, it was dangerous to publish the revised up to date Law by the editor or a prophetic schoolo It was therefore hidden until Hilkiah the high priest discovered it UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 251 'during the course of the repair of the. t.ernLpe on the order of King Josiah (640 - 608 B.C.) However, Josiah's reform c~me as a reflection on the pre - Mosaic, Abraharr.ic, Israelite traditions. ~he age long wor ld concept of the king as the chosen one of the deities, an idea which was very predominant in the Ancient Near Sast, wa~ re-in~roduced by King Josiah.1 This, of course, was radically different, and opposite to the concept of the Mosaic covenant relation in which Yahweh was considered as the only God and .,liKing", the Suzerain, of Israel. The monarchical political structure of Josiah's reign was to reflect theocracy that existed right from the Mosaic covenant election of Israel, andLt lingered on throughout the period of the Judges. For instance, in Judges 8:22-23, the Israelites requested that Gideon should rule over them (as King), after he had successfully executed the civil war against Midian. He turned down the request and further declared that Yahweh should continue to rule over them; that is, to be their King. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 252 This is the true meaning of theocracyo Isr2el was the "Kingdom of God". (See Sxodus 15:18; Numbers 23:21 I Chronicles 17:14). God is the all- Sovereign Lord of the world and of human life in all its aspects. He was to be their king for ever and ever~ (Pso 10:16)~ But unfortunately, Abimelech, a questionable character and son of Jerubbaal, another name for Gideon, connived with his relations atShechem, and was made king beside the oak of the pillar at Shechem (Judg.9:1-16). As would be expected, when mnnarchy was eventually established in Israel in e3rnpst, it introduced a radically different and thoroughly idolatrous element into the Mosaic tra.d'1t·lone2 The epic traditions of Abraham, including the covenant tradition in the ninet:c-enthto eighteenth century B.C., were appealed to, to furnish the "common ancestor" sym~ol of unity. The deity identified with Yahweh now bound himself by oath to fulfil certain promises made to AbrahamQ The covenant during the monarchical period was a description of the historical situation, especially in David's empire. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 253 The Sinaic tradition was systematically re- interpreted. It was claimed that the Sinaic Obligations were entirely ritual in nature and not ethical-functionalo Since the first tables of the stone of the ten commandments, after all, had been "broken", it f oLl.ows that the covenant 'vv'dS "broken". This was the phrase used in the ancient world to indicate the invalidation of binding documents~ There was .r onstan t battle between the Mosaic and the re-introduced non-Israelite traditions into both the political and religious set up of Israel's existence. The ;prophets proclaimed and supported the political disintegration of Solomon~~ empire, .i r. abou t 922 B.C 0, into north-Israel, .and south- Judah kingdoms, as the divine chastisement of Yahwe h for Israel's gross disobedience to the Mosaic covenant, and fer the increasingly disturbing idolatry among the people. The Northern Kingdom dynasties were in quick succession wiped out~ The Prophet Elijah in the ninth century BoCo, ridiculed Israel for pretending to be loyal to Yahweh when they were in actual tact UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY -254 - loyal to Baal cults. Occasional r-efo-rms were carried out, especially those of Jehu in the north, and Joash (Jehoash) in the south, assisted by Jehoiada the priest (II Kgs. 9:1ff.); and the attempted reform of Hezekiah in the south according to II Kings 18:1ff. But according to II Kings 22-23, not until Josiah's ref orm, in the seven th cen tury BeC. \faS serious reform9undertaken; it was partially successf~l because it was largely external. The discovery of an old copy of thCi1. IVJosaiclegal-ethical tradi tion, tha t is, the Deuteronomic code shook the idolatrous monarchical s~ate. In fact, the ethical prophets had earlier predicted the disast~rous end of Israel before it all fi~ally collapsed:4 Israel, the Northern Kingdom to the Assyrians in about 721 B.C., and Judah, the Southern Kingdom, to Babylon in 587/6 B.C~ Their resp~ctive downfalls were because of their gross violation of the covenant obligations. The whole state colLe psed , and the religious symbol-7 the templewL\s destroyed. According to the narrative of II Kings 22-23, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 255 the law book of the covenant was di~covered in the Jerusaleni temple, during the reign of Josiah of Judah (640-609/8SoCo)o King Josiah thereby made a covenant along ~ith his people, binding themselves before the LORD, to walk ofter him, and to keep his comm?ndm0nts and his testimonies and his statutes, and to perform the words of the covenant that were ~ritten in the booko The significance of this covenant is tha tit served as "the f_ounclati-oon-f· the Jud·aism which arose after the exilell~ (This will be looked into in more details very shortly under "the covenant in Post-exilic Judaism"). That is to say, the uctioh of Josiah the king was essentially a covenant bas~d 00 legislation which was identified with the earlier covenant obligations to Yahweho The royal prestige and supremacy of the king were vividly demonstrated in this covenant. It is true that this reform did not succeed as such, and it is usually referred to as external; yet it was an established attempt which identified covenant obligations with a law code, to be enforced by p61itical me~n~. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 256 It paved the way for the religion of the exile which culminated in post-exilic Judaism; and Judaism consequently provided a good foundation for Christianityo After the solemn act of Josiah in introducing the law~ there was the notion of covenant-making between Israel and Yahweh as occupying the central portion in the people's religious thoughto This concept prevailed in the prophets, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah; and Czekiel. The Babylonian exile no doubt helped tb familiarize the Jewish mind with the idea that truly, the covenant was conditIonal; its success depended upon the reaction of each partyy concerned to the terms of the agreement. However, this covenant should not be seen as a treaty between two parties as such, namely Yahweh and Israel; but rather as a promissory oath whe rebv both k.ing Josiah and his people bound themselves to walk in the already ~stablished (but broken) covenant relationship betwee~ Yahweh and his people, Israel. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 257 The covenant of Josi~h was therefore a one-party covenant, whereby the old covenant was renewed in a reactionary and revolutionary way; during the crucial state of the political existence'of the people. Israel, the Northern kingdom had been scattered all over the Assyrian empire. In order to survive, Judah, the Southern kingdom must re-discover herself, if only she could be faithful to the covenant, as the elect.of Yahweh, - since Yahweh was the master of nature and the supreme controller of all nations; the faithfulness of Israel to the Deuteronomic reform was th~refore very crucial. The terms of the discovered law had to be kept strictly. Their conformity to the provisions of the law b-ok would enable them to remain as God's elect, even though they should pass through great trials. The prophets after Deuteronomy considered ~ .~ •.. as. the foundation and the goal of the life of Israel. Tae c~venant was the Jewish religion. All was .11'1.3,~.;, ., to them. Indeed, i~ was the only religious concept of the people. .3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 258 They were to separate from all impurity in every aspect of life. 1) ').::l wa s also to Shape the ~~: political, economic and social lif~ of the people. Since Yahweh was consistently true and righteous with respect to the covenant, Israel was also expected to r2main faithful always within the responsibility of the covenant relationship, between Yahweh and his people over the ageso (See Genesis 17:7-8, 19). The desire to carry out the above r~sponsibility brought about the concept of the "N.e.w Covenant" which we shall discuss in the next section. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 259 2. THE IDEA OF A NEW COVENl\NT A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The Old Testament concept of a new Covenant came into prominent use in Jeremiaho The Ministry of Jeremiah extended over a period of forty years from the reign of Josiah to the exile (623-586 BoC.). Though Jeremiah suffered much persecution throughout his Ministry, save his period under Josiah, he continued to utter his voice of warning against Judah (Jer. 13:8f.). He also spoke against the false prophets both in Judah and those in exile (Jer. 28: 12-29). Such prophets were Hananiah, Ahab, Zedekiah and Shemaiah. Jeremiah, like Hosea had a personal pain of loneliness, agony of spirit, and fellowship with God. This experience gave him his importance in the religious history of Israel. Previously in Israel, even in the case of Hosea, religion was a corporate unit, in accordance with the Covenant which was a community affair. The tribes or the nation as a whole were seen as an entity. It was not a personal relationship as such, but the individual could only find his religion within the group. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 260 The Message of Jeremiah Despite the fact that Jeremiah assisted Josiah in his reform, he still found it necessary to carry out his reformationo This was not merel~ due to the fact that all the succeeding Kings after Josiah turned idola- trous and so led Israel astray, but more strikingly because the reformation of Josiah was rather external. It failed and did not achieve its purposeo It was more or less a renovation exerciseo Jeremiah therefore embarked upon an internal and spiritual reform. The religious situation in Judah during this period is vividly describ~d by the message of Jeremiah's five visions against Israel namely: First, the vision of the Almond tree6 (Jer. 1:11-12). Second, the vision of the Cauldron, a boiling pot (Jer. 1: Third, the vision .of the broken cistern (Jer. 2:1-15). Fourth, the vision of the potter at the wheel (J~r. 18:1-12). Finally, in Jeremiah 7:1-15, Jeremiah delivered his great temple sermon. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 261 IF ~ll depended upon time and sitoation. This accounted for the change on policyo While Israel was most probably faithful during the e~rlier message, and to stress the fundamental obligat~n of Yahweh in the covenant Law, Isaiah was very optimistic. But now, _ Israel had backslid.' She became stubborn ~nd unchanging. She totally forsook Yahweh and ignored her own obligation of the covenant relationship. Hence captivity was inevitable. The character of the Deuteronomic covenant is succinctly stated by Jeremiah, in Jeremiah 7:23 and 31:33: "I will be your God, and you shall be my people"o The new covenant was to be based on the Mosaic pattern of the ancient ideal. While the written law was not to be abolished, it was to be re-written in a new fashion, upon the hearts of the people in order to effect an interior regeneratio~ of spiritual life. This brings us to consider first, why Jeremiah should be the champion of the new covenant, while it is believed that his prophecy was connected with the re- form of Josiah which itself was revolutionary and a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 262 quest for true religion. The account of the reform of Josiah does not indicate any active involvement of Jeremiah in the revolutiono According to J )hn Paterson, Ilthat may be due to his youth or it may be that he was not yet recognised as a propheto7 As such, it may not be said that he was indifferent to such a·great moveo Truly, Jeremiah started his mi~istry when he was considerably very young, but this is not the whole trutho What one may suggest is that because Jeremiah was a lonely man who had no friends, save Baruch his scribe, and Ebedmelech, the Ethiopian eunuch of Zedekiah's palace, (Jero 32:12, 38: 7-13) and because he engaged in a preaching ~ission in order to further the reform, he was greatly hatedo The intention of the reform was noble but Jeremiah saw the execution of it as faulty and the results inadequate. It will be recalled that the reform of Josiah was basically external: He brought out of the temple (Of the LORD all the vessels made for Baal, for Asherah, and all the host of heaven and burned them. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 263 He deposed the idolatrous priests who were burning incense in the high places in Judah. He brought out the Asherah from the house of the LORD and burned it at the brook of Kidron •. He also broke down the houses of the male cult prostitutes. Furthermore, Josiah brought all the priests out of the cities of Judah and defiled all the high places where they had been functioning. Such high places were broken down. The king also defiled Topheth, which was in the valley of the sons of Hinnon, where the Israel- ites used to sacrifice their sons to Molech. He removed the horses that the kings of Judah had dedica- ted to the sun, and burned chariots of the sun, All the various idolotrous altars set up by his ungodly predecessors he burned with fire. Moreover, Josiah defiled the high places dedicated to Ashtoreth, the Abomination of the Sidonians; Chemosh, the abomination of Moab; and Milcom the abomination of the Ammonites. The altar and the Asherah which Jeroboam II set up at Bethel were pulled down and burnt to ashes. All the tombs there were UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 264 defiled. He exhumed all the bones there and burned them upon the altaro ....•• For Jeremiah, all the abOV2 reforms were shallDw and ex t.erna L, The people had not been thor cuqhLy purged within. The altars in their 'hearts must be broken and circumcis~do This does not mean that Jeremiah condemned Josiah's reform as sucho All I am stressing here is that, he did not see the adequacy and sufficiency of the Deuteronomic reform which was not internal and spiritual; rather it was a mere outward show. Jeremiah was significantly emphasising here that the meeting-place of God and man in the covenant fellowship was the solitudes of the human soul, and that true religion consists in inward or spiritual fellowship with Yahweh, because only the pure in heart could see God. In the light of this, Jeremiah vehemently championed the course of the new covenant, that survived the Old Testament and surfaced in the New Testament. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 265 Jeremiah 24: 7, says: 1 will give them a heart to know that ·1 am the LORD; and they shall be my peop Le and I VJ ill be their God ;: for they shall return to me with their whole heart. When the Psalmist asked the question: "Who shall ascend the hill of the LORD? And who shall stand in his holy pLac e? (Sanctuary), he responded thus: "He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who d08s not lift up his soul to wh~t is false, and does not swear deceitfully." (PS2. 24:3-4). According to M2tthew, in the Bea titudes, "Bles sed are the pure in hear t, for they shall see God" (Matt. 5:8)~ Let us now take up the covenant of Jeremiah. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 266 THE COVZNANT OF JEREMIAH Like Josiah; Jeremiah Championed the Centralization of worship at the temple in Jerusalemo This further stressed the unity of Yahwehis worship. Jeremiah's reform was indeed very spiritual. He called for inner repentance of individual's sins, and any return to Yahweh must take place at a deeper and spiritual levelG Thus, the contributions ~f the prophet to the religion of Israel were centred on the doctrine of individualism and the new covenanto Lik~t.~ prophet Ezekiel in the exile (Ezek. 11:19;18:3'l~3G:26- 28), this wou ld no longer be wr itten on the stor·e., tablet but on the heart of individuals~ With Jeremiah we come to a new religi?us dimension of personal direct relationship with God. He ~ondemned the meaningless and in-effective religious worship of his people and discovered his God for himself. In the light of this, Jeremiah has been described by ,Scholars as "the father of re 1igious ind ividua 1ism, and the founder of personal faitW~8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 267 Like Deutero-Isaiah, Jeremiah was hopeful in the restoration of Israel back to Judah by the God of mercy and grace (Jero29:11)e Like Amos, he believed in the Universalism of the Godhead as the controller of human historyo God, he presented like Zephaniah and Amos, as the judge of not Judah alone but of many other nations. With Jeremiah, the bonds of nationalism were to be ".broken. However, since Jeremiah considered the religion of Israel hitherto as dependent merely on a book- covenant and sacrifice, he did not pay attention to a third party of life-blood needed in such a personal covenant relationship between individuals and Yahweh. This was a vital aspect of Israel's religion which made ancient covenant relationship valid. According t" Jeremiah, "Covenant" should designate the moral and spir~tual relationship between Yahweh and Israelo This was so because the prophet lived in a critical age in the history of Israel. Yahweh's covenant with the fathers had been broken, The life of the people was in no way compatible with the provisions of the law of Yahweh based on the covenant relationship. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 268 He therefore rose up to demand a new covenant with Yahweh, contrary to the outward or external reform of Josiah, emphasising external religion. The worship and life of the people must be in true obedience to God in accordance with the provisions of the covenant law, or else, judgment would always be the repercussion of such vague and valueless religion. Hence Jeremiah declared thus: Behold the days are coming says the LORD, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Isr2Rl and the house of Judah, not like the covenant which I made with their fathers when I took them by the hand to bring them out of .the land of Egypt, my covenant which they broke, though I was their husband, says the LORD. But this is the covenant which I will make with the house of Israel after those days, says the LCRD: I will pu tzrny law within them, and I will write it upon their hearts; and I wil~ be their God, and they shall be.my people. (Jer. 31:31-33). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 269 This concept of a new covenant is indicated in Hosea 2:18-250 It was not the same as the covenants with the fathers, but one written on hearts, and therefore, spiritualo Obedience to such a covenunt would enjoy the forgiveness of God and avoid his disas- trous jUdgment. This is the basis of the concept of the new covenant in the New Testament (see Matthew 26:28). However, for Ezekiel later, the new covenant was to be the renewal of the one made at the Exodus (Ezeko 20:34-38). Truly, Jeremiah did not deny the existence of previous covenants; but his concern was that all such covenants including Josiah's were no longer effective, and as such there was the grave need for an entirely new one, which would be internal and spiritualo It should be an intimate relationship based on mutual confidence. According to W.L. Holladay, "The idea of a 'new covenant' must be seen against the general Israelite background of 'covenant'" 9 Israel was to conform to the ethical norms set forth in the Decalogue and other covenant lawso This new covenant was to make Israel as the real elect ~ ~xcellenc~, to be separated UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 270 apart from all other nat i.ons for Yahweh. It is necessnry to examine the meanings of the expressions used in Jeremiah 31:31-339 in order to under- stand :t\111ys -T eremiah I s concept of the new covenant. The expressions: "1 ',ilill put my law 1l'i·thin t.hen" and III will write it upon their hearts" are parallel. The Mosaic law was written on external material objects, the tablets of stone, but now, by contrast, the new law was to be written on the Lrrt ez-naL obje ct s , the "nearvt s s " of the people. In the Old Testament, the heart was considered as the seat of intelligence and will, including the :lesire to obey the law ot' I~}od. It was an internal condition. Furt:'lf·rnlCreg according to Isaiah 10:7, the heart is the centre of pLar..vi.ng and the carrying out of plans. The wor-d s i "within t.h em" and "upon their hearts" were meant to express one and the same idea. That is, the new covenant will be written inwardly on the tablets of the heart.s of Israel, and it will become a part of the t.o-t aI "dll of the people, to the ~xtent that it w ouLd not be br-oken i:' those written on the outward and material stones whi cr. were easily dest r-oy ed , The will of Gocl would t.her-eby ne-(':!JeatEt'.r.e desire of the people and the totality ot th0i~ existence. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 271 \lIJhatwould "-.:e t.he l'(;r.mlt or oUL;com~~()tfhIS solemn religious revolution? Yahweh dec Lar-ed t:ha-t h(: wou Ld be their God, and they vzou Ld be his people. T:L1.sformula was th·~ same wi t.h the 8i~aic covenantal r-eLat LonshIp , :.:u..:.1 or' cour-ae , the traditional way of' expressing the Yahw6::-1srael relationship (3ee Exodus 6:7; 19:5f; Leviticus 16::1..:). But this reIn :.iOllShip had been broken and needed .J be restored at all costs. J'ud wouLd no longer forsake +'. em becaus e in the effect of the ne w covenant 9 tne people wouLd no longer for sake Yahweh• It t'oLi.c.ws that 9 according to Jeremiah 31!jL;.. there would be no nec es s i.ty to t each or persuade tLs-.()8opl.::: any more to lG.'10W Yahweh or be loyal to the covenant 01:: lip'S tlons, because they wouLd naturally know him and de ni s wtll; i'or their' 1180: rts were inscribed wi th the knowledge and will of God. In other wor-ds9 God!s w l Ll. had been grafted into the will 0" the people \rithout any exception. the s in of th.", l)f:ople i.' '!'';(1 r-emember-it no more. 8inf":e the previous relationship was broken by the iniquity of the people 9 ,,'lOW that such iniquity had been forg:i..veri 9 Israel would enjoy a healthy and permanent f'e Ll.owar.s.p with Yahweh. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 272 The idea of a new covenant in J er-emlah is an ext t-ac r-dLnai-y cne , It shows a r-adLcaL so.rut. ~,-)n to a grave problen between Yahweh and his peopLe, Israel. It is significant to note that the nct t ori 'Of '!;lE'n3W covenant was so ext r-aor-dLnar'Y tll Jeremiah that i t was not' 8C:"10ed elsewhere in the Old Testament 8S pr-omulgated in J'eremiah? al t.hougb thc':re are references to the concept :~,yThe et hLcaL prophets, c!.::d Ezekiel (Ezek. 16:60; 34:2:5·-U; 37:26f.). Lrrter-estLngLv snough , the term "new covonan t." sur-vLved in the IntertestB'E;:,nta1 literature, in the vn"jtJn.gs cf the "Damascu.c Perhaps this was so? be cau se , the community in the Dead sea conaLd.er-ed themselves as members 01' a "new covenant It in the land of Damascus. 'I'h e J ewieh sects in this area separated themselves ~~0m the main body of ,Jewf::, by pr-ayer-, fastings, study and r t+ua I cLeans tngs , They und er-st oort themselves to be out s t-f e the range of Israel's sin and therefore to be fulfilling the words of Jeremiah. Jeremint,'s concept of the new covenant is also reflected Ln I Baruch 2:35" and -Jud i t.h 1:ri~1i:)9 23-25, though t.ne specific wor-ds, "new covenan t " were flot used. This concept survived until the New 'l'estament period. The Greek phrase: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 273 covenant". It appears in the t r-adLtLon 01 v esua , by Christ. It t eL'ls about the new r-eLotLonshi.p found in Christ as uniting us wi ch God. Through the blood shed b~ Chr-Let , e. 'r r-ovl sLon was made whereby man coui.d receive the forgi veness or pardon of his sins whI ch enst ranged him f'r-om" God , theroeby br-eaki r.g tbe everlasting covenant. rlel8tionship. By -:>r:'3' s .f;:::.i 'th 111 the Cross of Christ, a unique demonstra- tion of GOd's love towards his people, an everlasting f'eLl.owshLp ~\;i11 be en.jo~ed w ttL Goci_. This was the i'inal r-eeuI t proposed by the new .,venan t of J er-ernt ah , It was to be a once-and-for 8.11 everlasting solution to the constant violations of the covenarrt=-r-e Ia t.Lon, whLoh separated ~~e elect people frou Yahweh. In conc LusLon, ',;r18 fr.llowi::lg m.~-·b.ye aaLd of Jererr~ia..l'-sJ. concept of' the ilnew covenant", that cGremon1cs wi-chout righteousness availed nothing. National refor-:ne would be of' j ittle use unless they were accompanied by moral or ethical and spiritual regeneration. Religion should be a personal Qnd lndividual relationship arid f'eI LowehLp with God. All tneae were to be effectively achLeved in a new age in whi.cr; God WCl.S Lnwar-d.Lyknown and H18"':TE;d\1 by individuals, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 274 who will naturally or willingly live within the obligations of the "new covenant"o His concept of the new covenant was not to end with the people of his age, but indeed it was to be an everlasting covenant which did not only survive the Old Testament, and the Intestestamental period, but culminated in the "New Covenant" of Jesus Christo The hope of Israel is recorded in the oracle of Jeremiah, in chapter 29, of his book, which he sent from Jerusalem to the exiles in Babylon. He admonished them to settle in the land and be submissive to Babylon; for after "Seventy years" 11,Yahweh would deliver them and return them to their father's lando Throughout the pre-exilic age, both prophets and bible writers did not show that Israel's religion taught explicit monotheismo Though Yahweh was worshipped, Israel's doctrines were still under development. For instance, there was no doctrine of a future life as christians would believe todayo The Old Testament concept of ~eol, was simply a plnce of abode for the dead, a nether worldo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 275 The soul may remain in that deep or grave suffering, or it may be there in a perpetual joyous deepo Moreover, the final stay of man's soul was cut off from both the living man and God. But, the prophets had taught Israel enough to comprehend God's plan to make her his kingdom on earth, a chosen nation for a purpose of saving net only Israel but the whole nat1,0n and make the ent1"rhe' un1verse 1S dom1"nlon. 12 But unfortunately for Israel, she w~s stubborn and hardeningo She refused to cooperate with her prophets and simultaneously rejected God's way and followed her own lust which led the nation to destructiono In the next section, we want to examine the covenant - breaking of the Israelites, and the judgment of Yahweh upon themo We do not wish to attempt to go into the eschatological or prophetic picture of God's judgment hereo Rather, attention will be drawn to the ultimate reaction of ancient Israel to the covenant stipulations, and how God dealt with the long deteriorating cultic and social bankruptcy of the nationo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 276 3 _. COVJ"~ANT-BREA..l\IAN2m",}JUDGM~l'JT There is f! common ad> qe wh Lc h says: "Wh er-e there is no Law , +rier-e is no sin II. Once there L:, no sin 0 r o f'f'erice -omm Lt t 3d, t.he r-e could. be no condemnat ~.on or su f'f'e r-Lng, T1:e fahweh-Israel bond? .9.S we have examined, was 8addlecl wi. th obligations whLch mu r+ be fnlfi LLed by Israel. Faih,re 'Co do thes e , mean; a breach of' contract ~ which may lead to the wr-at.h of Yahweh s 'cb? Suzerain. When a covenant b e tweeri m=n and man wa s 1:;1"01<::2:;::' by a party? such offender must suffer the penalty. It was a terrible exper-Lenc e for a contract to be croken among peoples of t~6 Ancient Near East. 'I'he culprit w ouLd au f'f er- great disaster, and have all pr i vt Leve s '.lbro~~ated. Sim:UC:1.I'ly?for' Lsr-a eL to' breach the st tpuLat t ons at.t acned 'GO the Yahweh--Is!'8el covenant, !'!ieant that ah r- su f'f'er-ed grievously. In ahor t , it was a cu~se to be ~ound ~uilt~. That apnrt, Qccorjing to Exodu:-" 32:109 and Numbe.rs Ill:l:?? :I,f ISl"'~el complacently broke the COVelJ.8nt J.E'lIJl~ YahWEh ft\1a3 annuI the.. whole. contract. At the Sirutt Coven.8.nt? it wq s obvious that Israel had a st-rong faith and tI'Uf'lt f n Yahweh. Neither did they doubt the pUY"po Sf) of God to make them his own people, no .". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 277 did they entertain ctIlg fear as +o their ability to fulfil the contract obligat:i.ons. Confidently and in unison) they d ac Lar-ed e "All that the LORD ha s spoken ~ wi 11 do, and we will be obedient II (Ex. 24: 7). They fet-t secured and satisfied wi thin the covenant. On the par-t of Yahweh, he constantly sus t a tned the Israel.ites; even When they erred and threatened the s~bil it;> of' the; covenant, he provided the mee ns of a t.onemeat for tte who Le nation. Wheneyer he d t acov er-ed dI aLoya Lt y , he punished the guilty appropriately. Israel was established as a light to The vrorlt~1 cnnt-:roJ. of natur-e and h i s+or-v , The forces 0t he aven and. na tur-a], phenomena were utilized by C}od to give the Israelites v i.ct or'v at ba t t Le s , UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 278 Whenever Yahweh Y'esic·ped thF; Israelites t.o ho s t Ll.e oppression due to their sin9 as is evident during the period of the th Judah and Israel Fere not to be left out. They ~ere to be dispatched to a for8ign l~nd for their fRithlsssness. The Day of the IDR.D ,,v0111cl o er-t.a in Iy come upon them acco-rding t 0 .nllon-1oJ.Q... 2'"..'L44"0'1".. • ~mos followed. LiP in chap:'.er- 3; verse 2 9 by reminding the err-Lng I:'3raelitef; of their eter-114l election by God: "You only have I known .o f o.l4. the farnilie S of t.he ea r-t.hI!. They wer'e cingled CUf. above all other nations. Dfl'J·;":!J'Ivc-"".\1.'"\".". S -,J" •• , t.. of their shameless violatioll. 0:' the covenant; laftJ; they \;H~I'eto pr-epar-e 1'01' -the fuy of the LORD whLch ';VEtS to mean doom for the d'3fian.t nation. They UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 279 would su f'fer: a special s ev er t ty of divine jud gmerrt , No sinner would escape th e na t ional catastrophe (Amos 9: 21'1' ., 5:18-20; 8:9ff.). However, there was still some hope for the Is~aelite89 if only they could turn'back to God in penf.t eno e , justice and righteousness (Amos 5: 24). From the f'orego i.ng , we may say tnat the doom of the oppressing foreign nat i orin meant salvati on to I sr-a el., Yet, in God's just.ice, the I ~:\:i."'aelites too were to f'ace the music r'o r- the ir gr-Levou c violation of tri o covenant obligations. All along, the hope of salvation Vias there, 'Hilich was indicated by the demonstration of Yahweh.' s divine 80v2r'2ignty o ver- nations and events. Israel was not an object of' God~G wrath as such, At La st , after the Ler-ael i t e e "Ti7ht have 'been r-epr-ov ed , they vrouLd be restored back into thei'!:" Lund , Acc:")rding to Hosea 3:1; 11:9-11, G00.' s cov enarrt fello1;,i?hip w Lth I sr8,0l WE! s "verla st.ing. But truly 9 for thl'.:' \An~C'e:p.:nt8.:r..t eLect people 9 the Day of Yahweh came upon the ;;hole nat ion s ev er-eLv, Both I s~-:,1[;;1 and ,)Uo.aJ-i ha d f'a i 1e6. to he ed the persistent warning of' their g r ea t pr-ophct s , They r'a i Led to kE;J;!ptheir part of the covenant ()-cliga.tions. They served. strange gods and cormnitted all sorts of' sin and socia-religious UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 280 iniquities - inviting the Day of the LORD upon themselves. According to J. Mauchline,13 in 721 BoC., the Day of the Lord came upon the Northern Kingdom, Israel was defeated and the citizens were deported by the Assyrian King, Sargon II, to her empire. So also, according to G.Wo A.nderson, 14 in 598 SoCo, 587 B.C~ and 582 a.C., Jerusalem fell to Babylono The Jews were deported to Babylon, most of them elites (II Kgs. ~4:8-17, II Chron. 36:9-10, II Kgs. 25:1-26; Jer. 40~7-13; II Kgs. 25:8-12; Jer~ 52:32).. Judah was So sacked and ransacked during these calamitous operations that only "the poorest people" of the land were left behind in adverse poverty and dejection. And for the exiles, the reign of Nebuchadnezzar was a terrible period for the Israelites, though, generally, they enjoyed a considerable amount of religious freedom. 4 THE COVENANT IN EXILIC PERIOD Ao The Covenant awareness in Palestine The Jews in Palestine, as well as those in exilic dispersion had different interpretations of their plight during this epoch of religious refinemento Only a few of them realized that it was their gross violation of the covenant law, such as idolatry and injustice, that earned them their plight. This group of penitent people were found not only in Babylon but also in Palestine and Elephantine near Egypt. 15 But the religious situation in Palestine could be said UNIVERSI Y OF IBADAN LIBRARY 281 in general to have considerably deteriorated. Baal was still being worshipped (Jer. 7:17-19). There was no longer centralization of worship in Jerusalem. Local sanctuaries increased. The foreign gods worshipped in Palestine during this period most probably included the gods of their conquerors - Babylonian. The queen of heaven, the sum, and the Babylonian god of vegetatinn were worshipped. So also, Tammuz was worshipped.16 These foreign cults were prevnlont in Palestine because, according to Ezekiel 8:12, some of them thought that Yahweh, the covennnt God had failed on his part, and as such they we~e free to choose another deity of their choiceo It is note worthy to mention here that different peoples from the surroundings such as Samaria, Canaan, Hittite, Ammon, Edom, and Moab would seize the opportunity of Palestine's fall to move into the ruined l~nd to settle with their gods (Ezro 9:1, Neho 13:23-30, Ps. 137:7-9)0 And if this were true, the reli0ious pollution of the land would be heightened. There was also the continuation of inter-marriages in a big way, a quick nnd convenient way to religious plurality. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 282 ... J (Ezr.9:2,12; Neho13:25-26). 17 In short, the r-e Li qi.ous condition in Jerusalem during this p~riod was deplorable, It was a "Widow without solace,,1~ But there were some few who appeared to be faithful to Yahweho This class of people still offered sacrifices to Yahweh at the altar of the ruined temple (Jer.41:S)19 Both the prophets Jeremiah of Jerusalem and Ezekiel of Babylcn were very pro~inent at this initial stage of the exilic epoch in bringing the Jews back to Yahwism. For example, in Jeremiah 24, the prophet compared the Jews in the exile with those in Palestine. In his vision of the two baskets of figs, the Jews in exile were likened to the good figs whom Yahweh would preserve and restore back to Palestine. But the Jews left behind in Palestine were likened to the bad figs. They, and those who escaped to Egypt were to suffer Yahweh's wrath for their sinfulness. In the parable of the two great eagles, and the cropping of the cedar of Lebanon (Ezek.1 7:3-10), Ezek ieI c.oridernne o "the house of Israel", for their rebellion against Yahweh. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY They failed to repent of their sins, and trampled on the covenant law. B. The Covenant Awareness of the Jews in Elephantine If those resident in Palestine were still guilty of idolatry and syncretism, one would imagine the religious pollution that must have been done to Yahw~h in the strange land of Egypt. For instance, Jeremiah rebuked the people at Pathros (Some other Jews settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes and Noph) for worshirping the queen of heaven, and other gods (Jer.44:8,15-19)o This led to the prophecy of their fall in Egypt (V.27). As regards the covenant awareness in Elephantine, the story is the sarno with that of Egypt. ~lephantine is ot herw i se called Yeb , It WAg an 1!1~ndon the Mile in Upper Egypt, opposite ASwan In 1907 and 1908, excavations '"j~re undertaken on the oldest part of the island under two German researchers, namely, Rub0nsohn and Zuchcr. During this exercise, a large number of Aramaic papyri~O which belonged to a Jewish military Colony in the island were discCiveredo When this community was founded is not exactly knowna UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY \. 284 But it is certain that this was a second generation of the captives from the northern tribesr Israel, who were exiled in 721 B. C. by the Assyrians. When Cambyses came to Egypt in about 525 B. Co he discovered that though the Egyptian temples were destroyed (most probably by Babylon), the Jewish temple was spared. A st¥dy of the Aramaic Papyri has shown that the community there had a national religion. They worshipped God lfYahu" or "Yaho". The documents have revealed that there were many other local gods in the area, namely, Herem bethel, Eshem bethel, Anathbethel, and Anathyaru.21 This shows that not all the Jews worShipped Yahweh, the covenan~ God. The colonists developed a sacrificial system and a priest tradition different from that of PalEstinian Yahwism. It appears as if they were entirely ignorant of the central sanctuary and the Deuteronomic r2formation of Josiah which took place in Palestine during their absence from the holy land. Though they kept feasts such as the Feast of Unleavened Bread and the Passover ,22 theLL forms UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 285 were not strictly tied to the Old Testamont Yahwism. For instance, in their temple worship, women were allowed to minister. This might have been an influence from the cults of their place of abodeo The Worships connected with Anath might have necessitated the adoption of women priesthood which was not practiced in ancient Jewish traditiono Anath was a feminine goddess, and this accounts for the prominence given to women in connection with her worship. (This is true of traditional worship in Africa) 0 This religious innovation therefore should not surprise us after all. Again, this cult suggests at once the goddess whose name appears in ~nathoth, the home of the prophet Jeremiah. Though, the "Orthodox Hebrews sternly disregarded any sexual element in Hahveh's (Yahweh) nature, ••• the Baals had their regular female counterparts; and the colonists, without being too precise as to their mythology, may well have felt that with a god there ought to be a goddess".23 And in such a situation like this, it was ine~itable to make adequate provision for the worship of the goddesso It is obvious UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 286 therefore that the Elephantine com~unity was religious and were inclined to Yahwism, though their national religion was syncretistic and was-far from orthodox Hebrew or Israelite Yahwism and Judaism. From the above discussions, it hus been noted that the religion practised by both the Palestinean Jews and those of Egypt, and especially Elephantine, was far from the religion of the covenanto It was all syncretistic. It was more or less th~ other side of the coin in comparison with the religion of the Israelites prior to the exileo But one thing must be borne in mind, and that is, both the Jews in Palestine and those in Elephantine w~re no longer enjoying the services of the great politicul ethical prophets. Jeremiah who was claimed to h2vc been taken along with the remnant of Judah by Johanan the son of Kareah 24 ,died shortly after his arrival there, and after the message of Jeremiah 44. When we consider the covenant awareness of the 2xiles in Babylon, it will be seen that the services of the great political and religious prophets enjoyed there made a great difference to their religious yearningo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 287 Among such prophets were Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah who stayed with the Jews in exileo Jeremiah also ministered to the exiles all the way from Jerusalemo The valuable works of these great prophets gave the religion of the exile a uniqueness far above those of Palestine and Elephantineo It is interesting to note that while the Palestinian Judaism retained sacrifice in its worship, and the Elephantine Judaism refused any sacrificial rites, the Babylonian religion was prominent for its sacrificial rites, the exiles thought sacrifice to Yahweh could be best offered only at the altar in the Jerusalem holy templeo c. "Religion", as practised by the Babylonians during the Exileo There are two broad ways of lookin0 into the factors that contributed to the influences of the exile over the religious development of the exilic Jewso The first is the immediate environm2nt and its impact upon the Jewso And the second is the religion of the Babylonians as practised at that timeo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 288 Like the Jews, religion played a vital role in the civilization of the Babylonianso They too were greatly influenced by the Sumerian25 culture like the Assyrians. The Babylonian gods, rituals, myths (the myths of creation), "mode of writing, temple architecture",26 and in fact all the elements of the religious pattern of Babylonia ~nd Assyria, were borrowed from the-Sumerianso27 Such cult objects that featured prominently in the Babyloni2n religion included statutes of the gods, altars, censcrs9 and libation vesselso Babylonia worshipped so many godso28 Magnificient temples were built for these gods and full of ritualso At the head of the pantheon was the triad of great gods, namely: Anul, Enlil and Ea or Enkio Each of these ruled over the three divisions of the universe, namely: heaven, earth and the wGterso There W2S also the ancient mother goddess represented by Ishtar, who had temples in most of the great cities of Babylonia and Assyria custodizing the eariiest cultic tablets in her temple at Erecho In addition to these gods were hosts of evil spirits, such as Lamashtu, a female demono There were numerous priestesses, attached to the worship of the goddess of evil spirits. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 289 When Babylon, the capital city of Babylonia29 became the principal city of Mesopotamia, M~rduk became the supreme power in the world of gods, and he became the chief or national god of Babylonia. But Ishtar was worshipped as the war-goddoss. Ea, i.eo Enki W·3S invoked as "the Lord of Wisdom". Shamar was the sun-god and he was regarded as the gua~dian of justice and morality. Sin, 30 was the moon. god. The Babylonian religion demanded elaborate well trained classes of priests, and temple buildings. The priests functioned as the sole religious officials. No enterprise whatever could be embarked upon in Babylonia without first consulting this class of priests for necessary rituals. The Sumerian priests were respon- sible for developing the cultic literature. This job was similarly taken up by the Babylonian priestso Such Iiterature comprised of many hymns and prayers to the gods, and a number of interesting mythso The Babyloni2n religion contained muny an~ outstanding seasonal rituals throughout the year. Most prominent among these festivals was the Akitu, the New Year Festival. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 290 During the feast, all the gods from the four corners of the empire were brought to Babylon an0 carried in procession led by the king of Babylono IThe earliest Mesopotamian religion arre~rs to have been nature religion. In Babylonia, the deity was supposed to be fully in Charge of human affairso This deity was believed to send waters to provide them vegetation on eartho This concept of deity is reflected in Gudea's prayer to Ningirsu thus: "0 my master Ningirsu, Lord who sends awesome waters. Potent Lord, engenrtered by the great mountain •••. Your heart, which lifts like the swell in mid-ocean, comes crashing down like groat ebony trees, ••• warriors, your heart remote like the Heavens, how can I know it1,,31. Agriculture is the basis of the Mes0potamian life. They depended on irrigatinn from the Suphrates ~nd Tigris rivers and their tributaries for agriculturec Therefore, the Babylonian religious activitiesconsist~d of the "~w Year Festival which was intended mainly to secure fertility and prosperity for the corning year. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 291 Though, priesthood and ritual were not strange to the Jews, yet we shall soon see the significant role of the priest in the formation and development of covenant cultus during the exilic and post - exilic periodso We shall also take a brief note of Ezekiel's concept of the temple building and worship (Ezeko 40-46). For the purpose of this section, we shall now proceed to discuss the law of Babylonia during the exilic period. Though, more of this has been examined under "the statutes of the covenant"o The Babylonian Law Another interesting aspect of the Babylonian religion was their religious laws and ordin0nces. There was no separation between their socio-political and religious laws. The Babylonian Law was the most importnnt of the Ancient Near Easto It covered all legal institutions as affecting every aspect of human life, such" as social relationship, political set up and the economic stability of the empire, especially tradingo Socially, the law dealt with execution of marriage contract, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 292 morals, ethics, and fundamental human rightso Politically, the law dealt with administration of governmento This made the priests to share their functions with the state officials, the head of which was the king, there was no separation of power as sucho There was no concept of the national god Marduk as ruler, hence the policy of abs0lute monarchy, because the great King of the empire was representing the supreme god, especially during sacred ritesa Religiously, the temple of the city was the centre of its legal life. It has been noted that the Babylonian pantheon were conspicuously involved in all aspects of life of their worshipperso They were responsible for the in~ividual and national defence against external enemies Qnd ·for prosperity and ordero Through signs and omens, they actively guided the policies of their countryo Moreover, r~ligion and politics became more inextricably linked th?n ever before. Prominent of the ancient law was the code of Hammurabi of the 18th century B.C., which was discovererl in 1902 AoDo at Sasa, Capital of Ancient Elamo This law - document existed before the Mosaic decalogue, as it is supposed that this might have influenced Moses somehow in his legal drafts- manship. The exilic editors might have been influenced also by the uniqueness of the Babylonian law which had undergone UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 293 centuries of legal developmento By this we only mean that many basic principles of law were common to all or most of the Ancient Near East patternso On the whole, the role the law play ed in the post- exilic Judaism and also as the state law? vividly indicates a considerable influence of the system of the Babylonian law over the place accorded the law in Judaism. Its compilation was given careful attenti~n during the exile to involve the socio-political and reliqious existence of the Jews in Palestine after the exileo And during the post- exilic period, the application of the law w~s thor0ughly implemented as purported, to the end that the covenant obligations may be fulfilled ~ excellenceo How did the Jews fare in Babylon, with particular regard to their religious consciousness? This is the vital question to be answered in the next section. D. The Religious Consciousness of the Jews in Exile. io The Covenant ~w~reness of the Jews. Jerusalem fell at last, and most of the inhabitants were deported to Babylon. The temple had been destroyed. But the Jews in Babylon did not find things t00 badlyo For instance, they were given social freedom ~nd economic opportunityo Religiously however, they were UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 294 now far away from the holy land and the temple in Jerusalem. They were living in a stran0e environment. They inhabited an area where the culture was superior to theirs. The Jews believed that Yahweh had manifested his glory and his Lordship in Palestineo The next question therefore will be why did Judah not disappear in exile like Israel? After all, they both flagrantly violated the covenant lawo The answer to this was that, it was her renewed faith that kept her alive, though the Israelite traditional faith was greatly shaken. Hitherto, the Jews believed that they were ~ chosen race. Furthermore, their theology was that Jerusalem could never fall because Yahweh their God would defend them at all costs. The exile now proved this theology false and this constituted a great blow to the faith of the Jews. Were the gods of Babylonia stronger than Yahweh after al17 Or, where was the Divine Justice? These and similar questions undoubtedly must have been asked by the exiles. They had now come into a new environment, an1 they reco0nize the fact that the world was a different qnd larQer place more than they ever assumed. Their reli~ion therefore could no longer be regarded as a national Cult. It was universal. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 295 The faith of the Jews survived the catastropheo But the credit for this would go to the saviours of the situationo And of course, since man tends to learn more responsively under tensi?n and difficulty, it goes without exaggeration therefore that the religious awareness of the Jews during their years in captivity was very acute and genuineo These two factors helped the tenacity of the faith of the exiles to be greRtly fortified by the great prophets, and kept alive the hope of restorationo However, there were some others among the exiles who did not only discredit the Josiah - reform or that of Hezekiah, but they Rlso doubted the existence and omnipotence of Yahweho Otherwise why shoulj the gods of Babylonia be stronger than Yahweh, the covenant God? But those of the exiles who were penitent of their sins lRmented the situationo This is explicit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 296 in some of the literature of the period, such as the book of Lamentations, Psalms 60, 74 and 123. These are communal lamentso Psalms 77:1-16; and 102 are individual laments. An area of problem for these loyal Jews was whether Yahweh could be worshipped in a strange land, some 700 miles away from Jerusalem, 32 where other gods were prominent and prevalento Hence they lamented and showed their frustration on this issue which is reflected in Psalms 137:1-6. rhese loyal and penitent Jews, for their reli- gious anxiety, at first, wanted to substitute the presence of Yahweh with wood and stone which prophet Ezekiel condemned in Ezekiel 20:32, and spoke against it before they could carry out the plano Probably this was the introduction of the object in the Holy of Holies, which was the ~rk th~t contained the Mercy seat, the L2w-tablets, and Aaron's Rodo The other Jews vlho dDubted the Omnipotence of Yahweh, accorded Marduk, the Babylonian god all UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 297 attention of worship (Ezek. 14:1-11). However, this attitude was not peculiar to this class of people in Babylon aloneo Their counterparts in Palestine as well as in Egypt/Elephantine were also sceptical. Yahwism was either neglected or completely polluted. This group of people in Babylon hoped for immediate return to Palestine, and as such they did not fully co- operate with their overlordso According tG Jeremiah 29:5-7; the prophet Jeremiah had written about this time to the exiles, to advise them to settle there happily. He explained to them that the exile was Yahweh's divine act, using Babylon to chastize the idolatrous Jews. They had to turn to Yahweh and worship him alone even in the strange land, because he is the God of all nations who could be worshipped not only in Jerusalem, but also everywhere. And according to Ezekiel Yahweh would be to them in Babylon, at least, "a sanctuary in Cl small degree", 33 This was indeed a new concept to Yahwismo Yahweh was supposed to be the God of the holy land of Palestine where the holy temple was situated in Zion. He was also the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 298 exclusive God of "Israel", the elect nationo The effect of the circumstances surrounding the covenant religion of the exile can be determined from biblical records. It might be interestinq to ask why some of them were really contemplating to return to Jerusalem before Jeremiah intervened. As it has been noted earlier, some of the exiles did not accept the defeat over their God and land. These people still believed strongly, the Isaiah's doctrine of the inviolability of Jerusalem and the indestructibility of the temple (II Kgs.19:32-34; Isa. 31:4-9)0 To them, Yahweh was still mighty and strong to save and deliver them. Certain historical events provided ground for the exiles' hope for immediate return; such as the si~ge of t.yre wh i.ch began in about 568 B.C. Also, Nebu~hadnezzar was confronting Amasiso According to Jeremiah 28:1ffo, there was the indication that some of the exiles held a strong hope in the fall of Babylon just as Assyria fell in powe~. They were UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 299 therefore eagerly awai tin,~ some 'Irnmed La te miracle of deliverance. Hence in Jeremiah 29:1ff., Jeremiah refuted the false prophe~y of the exilic false prophets., When the Jews finally settled in the land, "and became rich.' farmers, artisans, and traders, the former religious hopes were shattered by love of wealth and comfort. We need to be reminded that the Jewish captives were not treated as slaves, but they were granted many privileges. They were treated as citizens. Apart form this socio-economic freedom granted them, they also had religious freeqomo The strange attitude of those who neglected Yahweh can further be attributed to the fact that the weak-minded ones lost every hope in Yahweh. They were carried away by the religious attractions of their masters~3'~ This group lost entirely their religious identity. But for those who accepted their fate as a challenge and punishment for their sins as a nation, they had optimistic hope of a brighter future when they would return a better people to their home land UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • 300 (Isa. 52:1-3,7-9). Their faith was never shaken, nor did the environmental attractions affect their loyalty to religion. Though they were deprived of their worship in the temple, they had acquired a richer knowledge of th~ nature of Yahweh that he is a ~od of the universe whO was not restricted to Jerusalem alone (Ezek.37:26- 27;. They recognized that he COUld be worshipped even in the strange land of their abode. These people met in small groups for worship of Yahweh, for f01lowship, prayer,~ compilation of the scriptures, and the study of the Law~ Thus, according to Jeremiah 29:12-14, these people could have access to Yah~eh through prayer even Where there v·lasno temple. ' Similarly, in Deuteronomy 4: 27,29, which is believed to have been written either in exile or shortly before, it is argued that the Jews would be scattered abro~d, and they would seek a~d find Yahweh there, if they would search him with all their heart and soul. On this basis the exiles turned to Yahweh with great confidence as-' their sanctuary in the strange land "for a while" (Ezek.11:16). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 301 This was to teach the exiles that Yahweh's shrine was their humble and repentant heart. The material temple was now to be replaced by the spiritual temple in their hearto Ezekiel 11:16, further stresses the importance that Yahweh could be worshipped everywhere and especially among the gentiles in Baby1ono Probably, this was nlso to prepare the exiles for the universalistic concept of Judaism, which unfortunately the exiles were not inclined to effect, neither was the idea given any attention during the post - exilic Judaismo It was a problem which lingered up till the christian erao This group of repentant exiles thus turned to Yahweh devotedlyo Most probably, a lot of prayers in the Psalms, such as Psalms 130, were composed during the exile by some of the exiles. It is most probable that this group of people founded the synagogue35 worshipo Though this would only be at its rudimentary stage. There were no organised worship assemblies nS such, hut according to Ezekiel 8:1; 14:19 20:1, the prophet and some elders of the exiles used to meet for religious discussions. The nncient custom of the elders leading community in their life activities which had ce2sed since the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 302 collapse of the monarchy, reappeared in the exilee It may be suggested here that Israel once .aqei n in their colonies settled in families and clansa The list of the returnees in Ezra 2:3ff., 8:1-20, further buttresses this ideae They were mentioned under heads of families and their districts. Indeed, the Jews enjoyed a favourable atmosphere of religious freedom an~ peaceful co- existence with the Babylonians. It was a very conducive situation to genuine religious activities. The loyal devotees of Yahweh realized that their sacred traditions were relevant to them and.so they studied, searched:and interpreted their oral and written traditions, the Torah. The result was that they preserved the sacred heritage in writing to form Pentateuch for future generations. The pri~sts known as Levites played prominent roles in this reg~cd. Among such was the great prophet Ezekiel. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 303 It is significant to note that before the exile, though not so obvious, not all the priests were celebrants at the altaro According to II Chrcnicles 15:3; 17: 8-9; 35:3, some of them we re also "teaching priests" of the Law To understand more precisely the features of the religion of the exilic Jews, it will be appropriate to discuss briefly the external religious inclinations and the theological concepts of the exileo Special contributions made to sustain the covenant religion by the exilic gr0at prophets, such as Ezekiel, and Deutero - Isaiah, to preserve the faith of the Jews during that trying period will be examined also. ii, The Religious Phenomena Of the Jews Yahweh is a living God. He is the God of nature and of all situations. He was God of Israel in Palestine, and he was still their God in the foreign land. This faith was what the loyal exiles, and especially their religious leaders such as Ezekiel, Deutero-Isaiah, and Ezra preserved. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 304 They therefore found some substitutes for their Palestinian religious practices in Babylono In the first place, their elders were meeting in Ezekiel's house for religious co~nsellingo Later on, the synagogue worship of Yahweh begano This was most likely to have been the true rudimentary beginning of Judaismo However, this type of worship was not as elaborate as the temple worship at Jerusalem, ioe., in small measure (Ezek. ~~:~6). Despite the sacrifices, for example, at Sheba (Jer. 6:20), their worship was more of external shows. It is most probable that this group of people 'observed some memorials which kept them aware of the deliverances of Yahweh from the past (Isao 51:1-7). Such observances included the cove- nant with Abraham and his blessings over the patriarchs, the incident of Exodus, the covenant relationship, the conquest and entry into the promised lando Others were fasting (Zecho 7:3-5; 8:19), in the fourth, fifth and seventh months; and tho weekly sabbath. observance. This weekly sabbath, according to Ezekiel 20:12ffo, was a regular day of congregational worshipo This made the religion of the exile a living faith in the exile. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 305 Though some of these memorials and other rites had been practiced in pre - exilic period, yet all the exilic observances of the ceremonies gave them religious significance which made Judaism unique of all religions. This is well reflected in the Priestly COde,36 which emphasized the laws governing the rites. Also, these religious observances undoub- tedly gave them some hope that Yahweh would soon deliver them and restore.them to their home - land. The chief aim of these observances was not just a commemoration of past incidents, but first and fore- most as a distinctive measure to identify themselves with the c~venant Godo The priests and the prophets of the exile were mainly pre-occupied with the task of making the exiles realize that as the elect of God, Isr~el must at all times and at all CC3ts, and at any place show herself as a special people, chosen for a purpose by Yahweh. It is most probable that this worship would include the reading of the Law, the prophetic books, the book of Deuteronomy, singing of songs-the Psalms, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 306 and prayer. Prephets and pricstsundeubtedly weuld feature preminen~ly in leading these religieus activities in the synagegue. The fact that they became mere preminent during the pest - exilic peried attests to' this. AlsO', the frGedem accerded the Jews in the exile afferded them the privilege ef retaining their national iden tity, even though they had no .priiltical "nation" as such. For instance, the circumcision of old was renewed in a more significant form as it gave the J2WS a distinctive Jewish nationality in the stranger land where such a custom was not ~ractised. This however, qave them a sense of be lc-nq i.nq to Yahwe h religiously, and as such, a cenVl•C,--1-'lOr.of superiority over other n~tions ef lower religions. The exiles also kept the ancient laws of purification, ~uch as special abstinence, for example, from food. Socially, the exiles were more civilized during and on their return from exile. They became more national and united. Also they developed their literature in composing scriptural books. The last of such :iterary work was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 307 some forty years ago discovered during the reign of Josiah, which constituted a great material for the Old Testament. Prominent among the literature of the exilic period was the production of the Pentateuch. However, there have been various varying views as to the actual origin of these books as regards the writer(s), dates, and place. Since it is not within our scope of coverage here, it will suffice, not to examine the characteristics of the Pentateuch, but rather, to mention th~t with the priestly document of the Pentateuch, the Torah was completely composed during the exile. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 308 E The Comparison Between the Babylohian Religion and the Religion of the Exilic Jews .. There are different and multifarious definitions of the term "Religion".. In general, it refers to any system of faith and worship. According to To A. Bryant, "Religion is man's recognition of his relation to God and the expression of the relation in faith, worship, and practice or conduct" 37 M. F.•Unger says: "Religion according to Cicero, means "attention to divine things '" 38•• It is the feeling of ab&olute dependence upon the divine, and the observance of moral law as a divine institition. In the light of the ~bove mentioned ?ifinitions of religion, it is obvious therefore that while certain religions may share common views in.some religlous features, certainly they would differ in some other emphases. The careful examination of the religion of the Babylonians and that of the Jews reveals these similarities and dis- similarities, Tc the Babylonians, religion played a vital role in'"their life.. They had a strong faith in many gods ever which Marduk was the Supreme d~itye They believed that Marduk was the sole owner and controller of his empire. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 309 He cared for their wellbeing through his subordinate gods ~r intermediaries. But unlike Israel, Babylon could not be described as believ,ing in only one, Supreme God, though Marduk seemed to be their national god. It is very glaring that they believed in an. worshipped both Marduk and many other gods. The Babylonian temples were full of altars and images •. Though the Jews were used to erecting altars in their temples, Yahweh was never represented by any figure as such~ Even where we had the Mercy Seat and the ark, these were mainly to indicate the presence of Yahweh and not to represent himo But as we consider Ezekel 20:32, it seems the exiles were influen~ed by these elaborate temple features. Here, Ezekiel condemned the worship of wood and stone. Definitely, these were god-statues set up to be worshipped. The Babylonians revered ttrei-r gods grea tly. IVlagnifi- cent temples were built for them. This was also true of Israel's holy sanctuaries. Although, before the exile, Israel had been known for ~uilding a great ma~r~ temple for Yahweh (I_kgs. 5:2-5;6). But as we consider UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 310 the plan of Ezekiel's temple, its ordinances and structuret one would believe that even though Ezekiel might be reflecting back to the ancient Solomon's temple, yet there is every probability that at the time of his visions in Ezekiel 40-46, the Babylonian magnificient temples and cultic practices had some influence over him~ However, this is arguable especially as one considers the reaction of the returnees to the foundation of the new temple laid in Jerusalem after the exile. We are told here tn Ezra 3:10-12, that while some rejoiced for the qreat work begun, others, especially the priests and Levites and heads of fathers' houses, old men, "wept with a loud v6icQ~. The reason for this touching reaction was that they compared the new foundation with the first house", that is, the previous temole built by Solomon which was destroyed in 587/6 B.C. But if Ezekiel's plan for the new teMrle in Palestine h2d any effect on such a foundation laid after the exile, one might be correct therefore to suggest that the Babylonian magnificient temple buil0ir,gs had some influence over Ezekiel's concept of the temple in Jerusalemo As regards the Babylonian literature comprising of lyrics and religious hymns, myths and rituals, one may .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 311 say that in a way, the exilic editors were influenced by the Babylonian art of literatureo This superior culture does not mean that their religion was better. The point of argument here is that the Babylonians were superior in literacy work. As we h~ve noted under the religion of the Babylonians, the Babylonian priests developed a great deal of their cultic literatureo The Pentateuch is believed to have been compiled during the exilic period, and other literature such as some books of the Psalms and Lamentation were composed in the exile. We have noted that Anul, -EnLi.I and Ea were the triad great gods at the head of the Babyloniqn gods. This concept was quite different from the later developed "Trinity" of Christianityo To the credit of the exiles, within such a religious plurality, the exiles championed the course of monotheism more than ever before. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 312 Yahweh was the only one true, great and holy God of all nations. He had no associates whatevero And this also made Judaism, the genuine're-discovery .f the covenant god. We have noted earlier how religion permeated into every aspect of the Babylonian lives; worship and all religious rituals were well organizedu Priests were the sole religious officialse They were responsible for temple chants, music, sacrifice, and fortune-telling. This practice might have encouraged the exiles considerably to reawaken the significant role of the priests in ancient Israela The priests were the sole religious leaders of the exiles. In the post-exilic Palestine, the priests became so prominent that they took the overall control of the new communitYa Though, we learnt of such governors as Shesh-bazzar, the prince; Zerubbabel, and Nehemiah (Ezr. 1:8; 2:2. Neho 8:9), but if we ex~mine the life- 1 pattern of the returnees in Judaea, it will be realized that their whole life was organized according to the provisions of the Law which, Ezra the high priest was the custodian of. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 313 Similarly too, the role of the ancient prophets was not reinstated after the exile. For instance, in Zechariah 13:1ff.; the prophets were·scorned as representatives of the "Spirit of uncleanness"o The returnees were not influenced by the Babylonian role of the "baru" priests who were precisely, the prophetic priests, who also interpreted dreams. The reason for this was probably that the Law was the sale regulator and organizer of the life of the people. Hence, Ezra emerged as~~ Chief priest of the post-exilic period. He restored the Law and organized the temple worship. He, as the priest, with the assistance of Nehemiah, organized ~he social and moral life of the people as well. However, the idea of Chief priest here does not necessarily follow the pattern of Dabylono From time in the past, the priests had been very prominent in the religion of the Israeliteso Dut what we are saying here in effect is that during the exilic and post-exilic' ~eriods, the priests emerged as the sole head and benefactor of the people, both in political and religious lifeo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ,,:", 314 In the light of this therefore, one may sugqest that the.. exiles were influenced to some ~~tent by the siginficant role attached to priesthood in Ba?ylonian religion. During the post-exilic Judaism, the observance of feasts was also very prominent, such " the weekly .sabbath, atonement, the Passover and the Tabernacles. Like the Babylonian feasts, the Jewish pri~s~s were the sole officials of these commemorations d~ring the post-exilic period. The King was very promi~ent during the pre-exilic period pnrticipating in some- religious ceremonies. Although, during the p)st-exilic period, there was no more institution of kingship as such. But even then, the Prince and the'Governor were not given this cultic role to play. The place accorded the Law in Babylonic was very significant. There was no separate religiouS law, because the only national law that was in existence covered both political and cultic affairs~ ln other words, the Babylonian law embraced all aspects of human life. This was so because there was no separation of powers between the state and religious officials. And since religion was the centre of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 315 life of the empire, the priests prominently dictated the affairs of the state to the kingo In case of the post-exilic Judaism, the Law became the y?rdstick of community organization. Ezra was charged with the responsibility c'f administering Judea solely on the provision of the Torah (Ezr. 7:14-26)0 Though the pattern and system of the Law were similar in the two religions, yet it is important to note that their provisions differed greatly. The dream of the prophet Ezekiel for a reunion of both the south and tho north did not materializeo The remnants of the north were later known as Samaritans, and the descendants of Judah eventually sep~rated to the extent that in later period, John 4:9, testifies to it that the Jews had no dealings with the Samaritanso The reason why Ezekiel's dream f,iled to be fulfilled may be traceable to the separatist policy of the post-exilic Judaism. The Samaritans were regarded as non-Jews like the other countries (Ezro 4: 1-3; Neho 4:1-2; Ezr. 9:1). This attitude was followed by great hostility between the two partieso In Ezra 4: 1ffo, we discover that the Samaritans who wished to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 316 cooperate initinlly now turned to be a co-persecutor of the returneeso They taught, that as Jews, they had equal right to participate in the temple buildingo ~ut the returnees thought thut the Samaritans hod ~een polluted by inter-mixing with the people from the province beyond the River, such as Ammon and Arabia and those that had been deported to Samaria during the Assyrian capture of the northern Kingdom in 721 J.C. Such deportees included people from Persia, and Gabylon (Ezra 4:9-10). The new emphasis to mark the chnracteristic of a Jew was the keeping of the covenant Lawo The Law was divine, and hence the strict observance of it was advocated. Moreover, the leaders of the community was like the priests of 3abylon that Israel's salvation lny in a strict observance of this Law. Again, the Divine L~w was the state Law as earlier indicatedo The elaborate ~bscrvances of such religious acts nS the sabhath worshir, circumcision, the keeping of feasts and fasts and ritual r-u r i ty , Like the ~abylonians, these and similar acts g~ve the post- exilic Jews a distinct identity and unit yo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 317 The faith of the Jews was wholly reguloted by the covenant provisions of the Torah. This faith 0r the religion of the remnant Jews is commonly referred to as Judaism. This faith or religion was so named conven- tionally only in later Hellenistic circles of the Dispersion (see Galatians 1:13-14). "Judaism" which was applied to the faith of the Jews who returned to Judea from the exile is not found in the Old Testamento Gut it is simply to mark the faith of the Jews during the exilic and post-exilic periods, among whom the covenant faith was renewed under new expression, reflecting the conditions following the collapse of JUdaho According to B.W. Anderson,39 the exile marked a beginning of a completely new chapter in the history of Israel's faith. And the reli0ion of the people was wholly established on the provisions of the Law. Hence Judaism may be referred to as "the Roli.q i on of the Book" 0 In conclusion therefore, Judaism was unique because of the new interpretation given to the coven~nt LaVl, the Toraho Also, the Torah was unique because it was given by Yahweh himself, unlike the Dabylonian Law which was given by the great king of the empire, for example, the Code of Hammurabi. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 318 Again, the Torah was unique not because it embraced all aspects of man's life - political, social, and religious, like the )abylonian Law, but because in actual fact, while the priests and prophets in 3abylonia could use their discretion to control the affairs of their people, the post-exilic priests depended solely on the provisions of the Law to regulate and organize the political, social and religious life of the covenant peopleo ~efore we examine the covenant in Post-Exilic Judaism, it is very necessary to find out the religious influences which the exile had on the Jews under Persia. 50 COVENANT IN POST-EXILIC JUDAISM When the Israelites had done full penance for their guilt, God pardoned them (Isao 10:2). Within the context of his covenant with them, they were restored back to Jerusalem during the reign of Cyrus the Great, the Persian King, in 538 3.Co The eternal and irrever- sible covenant - relationship was once again revivedo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I 319 Th~ Israelites enJoyed the unmerited mercy of God and they were re-settled in the promised land, arid the temple which Proto-Isaiah thought was inviolable was once again restor~d. In the pr0vious sections, it has been discussed how Jeremiah predict2d late in the seventh century BtC., that "a new Covenant" would be made wi th Lsree I which would be written upon the hearts of the p~ople. So also we have dlscussed at large the vast impactlhich the exile had on the covenant people. But alas, the noble idea of "a new Covenant" was not fully realized until the post- exilic period, during the leadership of Nehemiah and Ezra, tespectively, in the fifth c0ntury B.C. Th~ traditions Of these twogreat leaders,gi\- us yet another biblical narra tiv e of covcnant- mo'.ing in the Old Testament. About a ~entury or more after the r~turn of some exiles ~rom the Babylonian/Persian Captivity, initiative from the community still in exil~ result~d in 3ction dedicated to bring the life of the JudE:J.nCommuni ty rnor.e UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 320 into conformity with the demands of the religious legal tradition based on the Mosaic covenant. Thl~3 led eventually to the leadership, respectively of' Nehemiah and Ezra. However~ the Biblical account. of the imm'3di!J.te settlement of the Jews af'ter the exile has been a subject of cont.roversy. 80 also is the dat tng of "8zr~;,BEd Nehemiah. According to Ander-son, 40 Ezra was supposed to have arrived f'irst in about 458 B.C., and Neheml sn t r. 445 B.C. This may be due to the religious bias of' the 3.U thor and sLmf.Lra- writers, that Ezra was more of a religious reformer, while Nehemiah was more of a polit ical r-svo lu- tionary. Since we ar-e not dealing specifically w l.t.h the history of the period, we shall 'not discuss, this controversial issue here; yet for a bettor coher-enc e, we shaL'L f'oLl.owthe dating of scholars who >016. the opinion that Nehemiah arrived earlier r.han 'B}z('r-t. from Babylon in the sev·~'nti~y, ear of Ar-t.axer-xe,a 9 and, Nehemiah 2:1, says t.hat Nehemiah arrived iT' tne twentieth year of Arataxerxes. If the same king wa~ ~eferred to here, that would make Ezra's visit at 457 B.C.~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 321 and Nehemiah's at 444 B.C. But due to other internal considerations in both books it would.te more appropriate to take Nehemiah's visit at 444 B.C.? the t.wentt et.h year of Artaxerses I? and Ezr-a in the seventh year of Artaxerxes 119 in 397 B.c.41 Al.ter-na t tveLv, if the elating of John Bright is taken that, Nehemiah was in Jerusalem between 42 445-433 B.C., and Ezra arrived in 428 B.e, Nehemiah's arrival in Jerusalem sti:Cl preceded Ezra's. A. The Reform of Ne-hemiah Nehemiah occupLed an important position in trJ ':'3 Persiah Court of A~taxerxes I (465-424 B.C.)? at the time the Jews were arriving back in Judea. He obtained permission f'r'om the l:-:ingto vi 81t Jerusalem because of the precarious posi tion of' his countr-v-men at home. He f·~yst. visited Jerusalem in about. 44Ll~B.C.fr.om Sus€.t in Pe r sta , This visit j s commoniy tai:;ged poli tLcaL, bec auee he was saddled with the rS5pCY1ls.lbiltiy of rebuilding the ruined waIls of Jerusalem te ensure thA saf et.y of the inhabitant s. This task he 9uccessf'ully achieved. despite grave oppositions from some disgruntle~ elements in the lend. Our concern here is chie.fly on his second visit. which took pLace after UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 322 twelve years from hi 8 return to Persia, when hQ. had realized his first ohjective. The visit is dated at .43 432 B.C. It was during his second period as Govern9r that he was seen to the best advantage as a rp,i'c;Y'I!l(;l'. First 0::- aLl , he cleansed the temple precints where Tobiah, Go foreigner 9 had been in residence, 80 as nct to pollute the temple. 'I'obLah , a Samaritan 'da~~ forbidden to occupy a !'oom in the temple and take part in temple worship. This was a "separatist" sentiment, which apy;eared to be against the universalistic feature of' the Exilic-Judaism according to Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 40-55). Nehemiah next tur-ned his attention to the proper raendering of tithes wh ich had been neglected. It was the past ancient custom of the religion of Yahweh in accordance with the Hoeaic law. ':L'hiswould enable him to find provis1on for the priests who 'were no longer committed to thei!' ancaerrt official duties; t.h er-eby he strengthened the sacroo mf.nds t.r-a t ton LJ thE; temple. AnotheY'area of his ref'orm wa'" the propcr- kec;Ding of the Sab\>ath. As in Trito-Isaiah (cf. Lsa , 58), there was a strong pl ea for the spirit 01' 8a"IJbathobservance whLch was the sign of the lio sa t c-Bf.na t covenant. Business was strictly UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 323 restricted on the sabbath. The social ills were also dealt ;Filth by Neh emLah , Among such 'were money--lending (usury), rich capLt.aL'lsm and oppression of the poor in the city. In the matter of mixed marriages, he ordered that in future, these should not be soLemnLaed, Thus ,Nohe~nial1dt st.Lnguf shed. himself not only as a political, social, and economic revolutionary, but also as a rel1.gious reformer, who championed religious purity and gave the Jews a very realistic? practical and spiritual religion, Judaism. In his attempt to emphasise a unique religion, he iaade Judaism a particularistic religion, theteby vioiating the exilic universalistic outlook of Juda;ism, so greatly taught' by the exilic prophets, e spec IaLl.y Deutero-Isaiah. HO\7eVer, according to the vision of E~ekielJ :in Ezekiel iJ.O-'-I8~ it would be viewed that Nehemfah VIas' Dot all that conscious of particularism, rather he wantee. primarily to establish a pure religion fnl1 of ri ght.eousne ee and 11011.ne3s. In the sp1!'1t of .J.er6mla:Q,'s "new covenant.", Israel was to be distinguished or 8ft{; epaz-t from all ot har peoples as the elect of Yahweh in the covenant r eLat ion. In other words, Isra.el was to be morally or ethically pure and religiously UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 324 righteous unto Yahweh more than any other people. So far, it has been established that Nehemiah had concerned himself solely with physical security of the city, political and honest administration, and some religio~s reform; but in the next section, W8 shall consider Ezra principally as a religious reformer, within the covenant fulfilment. B. The Covenant of Ezra The Ex~lic prophets, (such as Ezekiel and Deutero- Isaiah) and Ezra, had prepared 9round for the effective take off after the e~ile. They did the spade work to sustain the faith of Israel. Ezra came bac.k. t.a Judea with a·copy of the Law of the LORD, which became the basis for"the new community (Ezra ':6:-10; Neb.8:4ff.). All thE:: people responded favourably to discharge the coven~nt obigations faithiully. Consequently, the elect nation came into a sensitive and healthy rc-union with Yahweh. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 325 It is evident that Ezra, the scribE, was commiss- ionG:d from Babylon with the "Book of the Law of Moses", to p~omulgate and administer it among the Jews in Judea (Ezro7:14,25f.). What Ezra actually brought from Babylon or read to th~ congregation (Neh.8:2ff.) is not quite cErtaino oould it be the Law Book, that is, the Pentateuch or the Law of Moses? Ezra most probably brought to JeJ."'\.lsalaemcollection of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the old wilderness religious traditions as contained in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers of the Pentateuch, which had been developed before Deuteronomy and EZ8kiel. These collections Ezra, or the Rabbinj;.cSchools of Babylonian JudG.ism compiled and redacted with 2ditorial additionsa This "Pentateuch" he p~t in force in Judea as the L~w of the land, based on the covenant Obligations. There was now the obse~J'\ce of the cove nan t Law without a \lst<1te Law". Israel's salvation now demanded a strict observance of the dhrine Law .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 326 It is most probable that the reading of the Law could only have taken place after Nehemiah had come and restored the fortifications of Jerusalem, enabling the population to settle. This, of course, is attested by the dating of his visit at 397 D.C. Ezra undertook certain religious reforms which were of paramount importance to the re-establishment of the Mosaic covenant, in the spirit of Jeremiah's "New Covenant". According to Nehemiah 8:1ff., a solemn assembly of the Judeans was held, there was the public confession of their sins, and the l3w of the covenant was formally enacted as binding upon all the community. This was sealed by a covenAnt participated in by their leaders (Neh. 9:38; 10:lff.)0 This was similar to the Deute- ronomic ratification of the Dook of the Law of Josiah (II Kings 23:1-3)0 It follows that what Ezra read in Hebrew and orally explained to them in Aramaic was very a~ropriate and meaningful to the people; hence their solemn response. 44 It is observed that the poverty, distress and political subjection to the Persian rule of the post-exilic community in Judea are attributed UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 327 to the failure of the Jews to obey the covenarrt law; hence nhe princ es 9 Levi t es and priests had to m[,ke Q fi rrn covenarrt and set a seal to it. But t.h at a]Y'l.rt) UIis measure was also in c-vnf'or-m l ty wi th the pre-exili c pract ice of bearing .,.i i t.ne ss to the «oneLu sion of a covenant. Hencei'o!'th, the covenant law became the yqrd ct Lc k by which the commulnty was organised; that is, it becaue an oath to obey in all it s ramification. The expanded S:l.:::l&ic covenant was now enforced by the poLf.+Lc aL au thos-t.ey 0.( the ;;ewish new state. The covenant law became the f'Lna I . 5:lff'.; 6:l3~15). Even though, ch ey were comfortable in their homes by God's providence, yet, they refused to rise up and build a house for Yahweh! This situation made God withhold the dew in the heaven, and the earth also w l thh eLd its produce. Hf; called for drought upon the Land , the hills, the gra:I.T1.9the new wine, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 370 the oil, men and cattle, and all their labours. In I Kings 17:1; 18:1; God brought drought upon Israel for Rbout three and a half years, and the Israelites suffered untold famine and hardship. This was because they violated the covenant Law which forbade idolatry. Israel had gone after Baal and all sorts of abominations. God says categorically, in Malachi 9:69 that he ioes not change. He never violated the God-Israel covenarrt relationship. It was Israel that constantly robbed him by not carrying out her own part of the covenant teqns. Hence God says: You are cursed with a curse, for you are robbing me; the whole nation of you. Bring the full tithes into the storehouse, that there may be food in my house; and thereby put me to test, says the LORD of hosts, if I will not open the wmdows of heaven for you and pour down for you an overflowing blessing. I will rebuke the devourer for you, so that it will not destroy the fruits of your soil; and your vine in the field shall not fail to bear, says the LORD of hosts. Then all nations will call you blessed, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 371 for you will be a land of delight, says the LORD of hostso (Hago 3:9-12) Co Domestic Impact The covenant law made adequate provision for healthy family life within the Israelite societyo Concerning marriage, it was an abomination for a Jew to marry a non- Jewo In Genesis 24? Abraham solemnly warned his servant not to take a Canaanite as wife for Isaac, his son. He therefore went to Nahor, in Mesopotamia where Rebekah Was brought to Isaac in marriageo Similarly, according to Genesis 27:41-28; 9, both Jacob and Esau were not to marry from among the Canaaniteso In an attempt to promote political international alliances, King Solomon stubbornly violated the covenant law which forbade Israelites to enter into marriage with any foreign national. He married the daughter of Pharaoh Pseueness II (I Kgso 3:1, 19:16)0 Moreover, he married from Moab, Ammon, Edom, Sidon and the Hittite empire (I Kgso 11:1-8, 33). God's charge to him in I Kings 2:1- 4; 3:5-15; 9:1-9, was ignored. These foreign women turned UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 372 his heart away from the God of Israel. He was guilty of apostasy. Yahweh therefore rejected him. His kingdom was torn into pieces. Ten tribes, the larger part of his domain, were given to his rival neighbour, Jeroboam. The other two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, were retained for his son, Rehoboam, in order to maintain David's dynasty in fulfilment of God's promise with David (II Sam. 7; I Kgso 8:17-19). In Deuteronomy 24:1-4, Divorce was permitted in the Old Testament on account of "hardness of heart"; but Jesus categorically insists, in Matthew 19:7-9, that this was not in the original plan of God , l\ccording to Mark 10:4-9, Christ contends that God's original purpose was for the couple to live together till death separ at.ed them: "\rJhat God has joined together, let not man put assunder" (Mko 10:9). However, since in Israel, anyone guilty of unchastity was to be stoned to death (Ex. 20:11; Lev. 20: 10-16; Deut. 5:18), the only cause for which divorce could UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 373 be allowed, according to Christ, was on the ground of unchastity (Matt. 5:320 See also Leviticus 18:6-19, 24-30). Do Academic Impact ~cadcmic institutions are of paramount importance in nation-building. They are training grounds, to provide necessary inevitable manpower needed for all spheres of the development of the nation. The patriarchs did not under90 any form~l educational training, but th~ir wandering in the wilderness gave them much experience and knowledge of the dev210ped ancient world with whom they interacted. These are reflected in their social and religious institutions. But most important was their knowledge of the Law, the Statutes, Ordinances and Testimonies of Yahweh, which put them in the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 374 f'r-orrt line among nations. The covenant obligations guarded and guid.ed them all through. Joshua was strictly warned to abide by his knowledge of the law of Yahweh in order to succeed in his new career (Josh. 1:8). David solemnly warned Solomon (in I Kings 2:1-4) to act diligently within the knowledge of God's law. The Prophet Ahijah quickly cautioned .Jerob08.m about this vital factor to his success on the throne of Israel (in I Kings 11:38). Post-exilic Judaism provided formal educational training in the synagogue on the Law of God$ as championed by priests and rabbis. Pr-over-bs 1:7, 9, 10, says: "The fear of the LORDis the begi:nning of knowledge ~ ••• wisdom, and the knowLed.g e of the HoLy One is insight II., Vlhen Jeremiah took up thc' question of the new cT'7enant9 his optimism was that no teacher would be needed -::;0 instruct people about the knowledge of God9 since t.h is would have been written upon their hearts (Jer. 31:33-34). All the Jewish kf.ng s , j~.i.dge8s pr-ophet e , priests, Rabbis~ Scribes, Pharisees, Sadducees, Sanhedrin, Apostles and other Jewish sec ts and parties wer-e acad smi c tans in their own rights. They all contributed enormously in educ~ting the nati~n, in their own respective periods, to stand by the covonunt bond between them and Yahweh. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 375 NOTE TO CHAPTEH VI CONCLUSION: THE IMP/,CT OF COVEN"NT ON ISRAEL 10 This practice of dowry payment was strange to Israelo In Egypt, the Ancient Near East, and Asia, this was a common practiceo It W3S the bride's parents that paid dowry to their daughter, or to the bridegroomo The reason for this was that the parents were giving the share of family- inheritance to their daughter who was leaving her parental home, to build her own new hom2o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 376 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A. ARTICLES Albright, We Fo, liTheAncient Near East and the ReI igion of Israel ", .TSL, LIX, London: SBLE, 19400 Andrew, Mo Eo "Israelite and Canaanite Religion - Christianity and other Religions", Orita, II/I, Ibadan: University Press, 1968. Awolalu, Jo 0.1 "Yoruba Sacrifical Practice", ~, V, LVI, No. 226, 1973. 3ascom, We R., "The Relationship of Yorubaoooo " , Jl,F, LVI, No. 226, 1943. Brockington, La He Reviewero God and History in the Old Testament, Ho H. Guthrieo SPCK., 1961, JTS, XII, Part 2r Oxford: Clarendcn Press, 1962. Brown, 'No ;\0, liTheOld Theology and the New", J:iTR. IV, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 19810 Buckhanan, Go Wo, 'The Old Testament meaning of the knowl