SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES IN PART-TIME NCE PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA Oluyemisi Bamidele SANNI SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES IN PART-TIME NCE PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA BY Oluyemisi Bamidele SANNI MATRIC NO. 102626 B.Ed. Language Arts (O.A.U., Ife), M.Ed. Adult Education (Ibadan). A Thesis in the Department of Adult Education Submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan Ibadan April 2013 CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Mrs. Oluyemisi Bamidele SANNI in the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. ___________________________ Supervisor Dr. Agbomehre M. MOMOH B.Ed., M.Ed. Ph.D. (Ibadan) Senior Lecturer, Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria iii DEDICATION This study is dedicated to the glory of Almighty God, the support of my husband Dr. Lekan Sanni as well as my children, Ifedayo and Oluwafikayo. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I appreciate God for giving me the opportunity, the zeal, the encouragement and the wherewithal to complete this programme successfully. I thank Him for being with me while the programme lasted. I also wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Agbomehre M. Momoh who has been more than a supervisor to me. Her thorough scrutiny of my write-ups, criticisms and direction, no doubt, contributed immensely to the quality of this thesis. My gratitude also goes to Professor M.O. Akintayo for his support and encouragement. I thank Dr. Omobolanle Adelore, the Head of Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, for providing enabling atmosphere for the successful completion of this programme. I also acknowledge and appreciate Dr. Kehinde Kester for all his contributions while this programme lasted. The invaluable contributions and assistance of Dr. Femi Adegbesan, the Postgraduate Sub-Dean, Faculty of Education, cannot be over-emphasised. Contributions of other lecturers in the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, such as Dr. Kester Ojokheta, Dr. Olumide Olajide, Dr. Peter Abu, Dr. Keye Abiona; and Dr. Rashid Okunola of the Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan are duly acknowledged. Their wealth of experience assisted me in the final production of this thesis. Special mention must be made of my parents Chief Joseph Oladapo and Mrs. Esther Idowu Aletan, Mrs Comfort Kokumo Sanni, my siblings : The Ajiboyes, Elusades, Adelekes, Femi and Joke and the Ogunrewos; my in-laws, the Sannis: Rotimi and Lara and my sweetheart, Dr. Abiola Sanni and his wife Sola, their words of encouragement saw me through. I am also grateful to my friends: Dr Adebomi Oyewumi, Dr. Ayo Monsurat Alaga, Dr Olori Aromolaran, for their encouragement and support. I sincerely appreciate the contributions and encouragements of Mr & Mrs Adegoroye Babatunde, Mr & Mrs Boye Adereti, Alh. & Alhaja Sinaayo Olaobaju, Oloye & Iyaafin Gbola Raji, Dr. & Dr. (Mrs) Sola Aletan, Miss Semiloore Ipingbemi, Mr & Mrs. Bingley Toyin Akinbobola.. My debt of gratitude goes to all academic and non-academic members of staff of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Ibadan. Finally I express my deepest gratitude to my husband Dr. Lekan Sanni, for his love, understanding, encouragement, moral and financial support throughout the period of this programme, as well as to my children Ifedayo and Oluwafikayo Sanni. v ABSTRACT The scraping of the Teachers Grade II certificate programme places great responsibilities on Nigerian Colleges of Education (COEs) in providing manpower with the minimum entry qualification to enter into the teaching profession in the country. The increasing demands for the Nigeria Certificate of Education (NCE) have forced COEs to establish part-time programmes with flexible admission criteria. Despite this, there exists low participation of women in these programmes; a situation partly attributed to the dominance of socio-cultural and economic factors. Although, studies exist on students’ participation in part-time NCE programmes, none has specifically focused on how socio-cultural and economic factors determine female participation in the programme. This study, therefore, investigated socio-cultural and economic factors as determinants of participation of female students in part-time NCE programmes in South-Western Nigeria. The descriptive survey research design was adopted. The multi-stage random sampling procedure was used in selecting 1024 female NCE students in Cohorts 1 – 4 in the School of Education across four centres each from three selected COEs. Data were collected using Female Participation Questionnaire with five sub-scales: Social Factors Scale (r = 0.81), Cultural Factors Scale (r = 0.93), Economic Factors Scale (r = 0.74), Participation Scale (r = 0.69) and Females Academic Performance Scale (r = 0.86). This was complemented with 12 sessions of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with selected female part-time NCE learners. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression and content analysis. Socio-cultural and economic factors significantly correlated with participation of female 2 students in part-time NCE programmes (F (3, 1021) = 146.25, R = 0.50; p < 0.05); with relative contributions as ranked: economic factors (β = 0.52), social factors (β = 0.20) and cultural factors (β = 0.30). Social factors contributions in order of magnitude were parents encouragement (β = 0.89), parental level of education (β = 0.84), peers’ influence (β = 0.81), family background (β = 0.73), availability of female role models (β = 0.70), spouse level of education (β = 0.27), spouse’s encouragement (β = 0.11). Similarly, cultural factors’ contributions were: submissiveness to parental instructions (β = 0. 86), gender identity/labelling (β = 0.69), house responsibilities/chores (β = 0.20), spouse instructions (β = 0.14), practice of female seclusion (β = 0.10), early marriage (β = 0.09). Also, relative contributions of economic factors were: financial support (β = 0.51), parental occupation (β = 0.42), spouse occupation (β = 0.35) and cost of programme (β = 0.23). FGD revealed that marriage is the bane of their schooling. However, the motivating impetus for female participation in the programmes are the encouragement from parents, peers, role models and availability of financial supports. Parental background, encouragement, level of education, peers’ influence, availability of female role models, and availability of financial support were potent factors in enhancing participation of females in part-time Nigerian Certificate of Education programme. Therefore, there is the need for less culture-consciousness and spousal sensitization as well as reduction in cost of schooling to encourage participation of females in part-time Nigerian Certificate of Education programmes. Key words: Females’ participation, Part-time NCE programme, Socio-cultural and economic factors, Nigerian Colleges of Education Word count: 498 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page i Title Page ii Certification iii Dedication iv Acknowledgement v Abstract vi Table of Contents vii List of Tables x List of Figures xiii List of Appendices xiv CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background to the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 4 1.3 Objectives of the study 5 1.4 Research Questions 6 1.5 Significance of the Study 6 1.6 Scope of the study 7 1.7. Operational Definition of Terms 8 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 10 2.0. Preamble 10 2.1. Literature Review 10 2.1.1. Continuing Education: Concepts and Issues 10 2.1.2. Social Factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes 14 2.1.3. Cultural Factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes 16 2.1.4. Economic factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes 23 2.1.5. Indicators of Participation in Education Programmes 26 2.1.5.1. Female Enrolment in Part-time NCE programmes 27 2.1.5.2. Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Class Attendance 28 vii 2.1.5.3 Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Classroom Interaction 30 2.1.5.4 Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Classroom Participation 33 2.1.5.5 Socio-cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Participation in Social Activities 35 2.1.6 Female Participation in Part-time NCE programmes and Academic Achievements 41 2.1.7 Motivations for Adult Learners 43 2.1.8 Barriers to Women Participation in Education 46 2.1.9 Empirical Studies 48 2.2.0 Theoretical Framework 51 2.2.1. Cross’ Chain of Response (COR) and Characteristics of Adult Learner (CAL) Models 51 2.2.2 Interdisciplinary Sequential Specificity Time-Allocation Life-Span (ISSTAL) Model 55 2.2.3 A Model for the Study 59 2.3. Appraisal of Literature Review 62 2.4. Research Hypotheses 62 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 64 3.1. Research Design 64 3.1.2. Population 64 3.1.3. Sample and Sampling Techniques 64 3.1.4. Instrument 65 3.1.4.1 Females’ Participation Questionnaire 65 3.1.4.2 Females Academic Performance Scale 67 3.1.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 67 3.1.5. Administration of the Instruments 68 3.1.6. Method of Data Analysis 68 viii CHAPTER FOUR : ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 70 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 155 5.1. Summary of Findings 155 5.2 Major Findings from the Study 156 5.3 Conclusion 158 5.4. Recommendations 158 5.5. Contributions to Knowledge 159 5.6. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies 160 5.7. Areas for Further Research 160 REFERENCES 161 APPENDIX I (For Female Participants) 169 APPENDIX II (For Instructors) 174 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1.: Breakdown of copies of the Questionnaire Administered and Retrieved 66 Table 4.1.: Regression Model for Joint Effects of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors on Females Enrollment for Part-time NCE Programmes 79 Table 4.2.: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors on Females Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes 79 Table 4.3: Rating of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors as they Influence Participation of Females in Part-time NCE programmes in South-western Nigeria 81 Table 4.4.: Relationship between Social Factors and Females Participation Factors in Part-time NCE Programme 84 Table 4.5: Analysis of Variance for Relationships between Social Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 84 Table 4.6: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Social Factors on Females Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes 84 Table 4.7: Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Social Factors influences their participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes. 86 Table 4.8: Scoring Participating Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Social Factors influences their Participation in Part-time NCE Programme 96 Table 4.9: Ranking Participating Respondents’ Scoring of Indicators of Social Factors Influencing Their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes 97 Table 4.10: Relationship between Cultural and Female Participation Factors in Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 99 Table 4.11: Analysis of Variance for Relationships between Cultural Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 99 x Table 4.12: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Cultural Factors on Females Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes 99 Table 4.13: Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Cultural Factors influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes 101 Table 4.14: Scoring Participating Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Cultural factors Influence their Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 112 Table 4.15: Ranking Participating Respondents’ Scoring of Indicators of Cultural Factors Influencing their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes 113 Table 4.16: Relationship between Female Participation Factor and Economic Factor to Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 116 Table 4.17: Analysis of Variance for Relationships between Economic Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes 116 Table 4.18: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Economic Factors on Females Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes 116 Table 4.19: Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Economic Factors Influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes 118 Table 4.20: Scoring Participating Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Economic factors Influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes 128 Table 4.21: Ranking Participating Respondents’ Scoring of Indicators of Economic Factors Influencing their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes 129 Table 4.22: Comparative Trends in Females’ Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes in Federal CE Osiele, Alayande CE Oyo and Osun State CE Ilesa 132 Table 4.23: Linear regression of females enrolment over the years 134 Table 4.24: Participants’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Indices of Participation Enhances their Academic Achievement in Part-Time NCE Programmes 137 xi Table 4.25: Scoring Participating Respondents’ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Female Participation Factors Enhances their Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE Programme 141 Table 4.26: Colleges of Educations Scores on Students’ Perception of Participation Factors Enhancing Academic Achievement 142 Table 4. 27: Instructors Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Indices of Participation Enhances Students Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE. Programmes 143 Table 4.28: Scoring Instructors Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Female Participation Factors Enhances Participants Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE Programmes 147 Table 4.29: Colleges of Educations Scores on Instructors’ Perception of Participation Factors Enhancing Participants Academic Achievement 148 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Model For Female Participation In Part-time NCE Programme 61 Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Age (in years) 70 Figure 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status 71 Figure 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Religious Affiliations 72 Figure 4.4: Distribution of Respondents by Occupation 73 Figure 4.5: Distribution of Respondents by Average Monthly Income ( ₦’000) 74 Figure 4.6: Distribution of Respondents by Father’s Level of Education 75 Figure 4.7: Distribution of Respondents by Mother’s Level of Education 76 Figure 4.8: Distribution of Respondents by Father’s Religious Affiliation 77 Figure 4.9: Distribution of Respondents by Mother’s Religious Affiliation 78 xiii LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX I : Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors as Determinants of Females’ Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes in Southwestern Nigeria (For Female Participants). 163 APPENDIX II: Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors as Determinants of Females’ Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes in Southwestern Nigeria (For Instructors). 168 xiv CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background to the Study The advantages of education to human and national development have been well documented in the literature (Adeniran, 2009; Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). For instance, education has generally been identified as a major factor in development (Mansaray, 1991; UNDP, 2002; UNESCO, 2003; Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). Also there are established correlation between access to education and increasing level of development, irrespective of the pattern of measurement adopted to measure development (Cochrane, Mehra & Osheba, 1985; Anderson, 1988; Babalola, 1995; King, 1995; Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003). The observed importance of education in engineering both human and material development encourages nations to periodically carry out educational reforms, ‗designed to bring about positive changes and new development in one or more aspects of educational system of a nation‘ (Adeniran, 2009). Nigeria is no exception to this general norm, and has carried out diverse educational reforms, right from the pre-independence era to date (Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). The various educational reforms witnessed in Nigeria, among others include: the 1955 Universal Primary Education (UPE) in the Western Region; the reform that brought about the National Curriculum Conference in 1969, the basis for the formulation of the National Policy on Education by the Nigerian government in 1977 (Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). However, the Nigerian National Policy on Education has been revised four different times; in 1981, 1998, 2004 and 2007, while other reforms introduced by the Federal Government of Nigeria include: the Universal Primary Education in 1976, the 6- 3-3-4 System of Education in 1981, the Computer Education in 1988, the Nigerian Information Technology Policy and the Universal Basic Education in1999 (Lawal, 2007). Oladosu (2007) highlighted eight factors which prompted the current education reforms in Nigeria. These are: clear evidence that 43 per cent of the Nigerian population can neither read nor write (i.e. sixty million, two hundred thousand Nigerians are illiterates); only 51 per cent of practicing teachers are professionally qualified to be in the classroom, and the low level of infrastructural facilities and instructional materials across 1 all levels of the educational system (UNESCO, 2003; Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). Apart from these, not every Nigerian has equal access to education; partly as a result of gender prejudice and socio-cultural misconceptions, and other related factors (Oladosu, 2007). Also, there are significant differences in learners‘ academic achievement and the quality of education received by Nigerians living in different parts of the country (UNESCO, 2003; Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). Besides, Nigerian schools tend to emphasise the learning of theories to the detriment of technical knowledge, vocational know-how and entrepreneurial skills. Above all, the curriculum content calls for drastic and urgent review in favour of relevance and practical orientation of learners (Oladosu, 2007). The justifications for education reforms are within the context of these highlighted challenges. In effecting the reforms, the former varying six to eight years of primary, five years of secondary and four years of tertiary (6/8-5-4), was first harmonised (in 1981 National Policy on Education) into the 6-3-3-4, signifying six years of primary, three years of junior secondary, three years of senior secondary, and four years of tertiary. The 6-3-3-4-education structure was later realigned into nine years of basic schooling and seven years of post-basic schooling. The nine basic schooling years consist of three years of lower basic (primary 1-3), three years of middle basic (primary 4 - 6), and three years of upper basic (Junior Secondary School). The seven post-basic years comprise three years of post-basic (Senior Secondary School) and four years of tertiary education (9-3-4). This structure emphasises Universal Basic Education (UBE), one of the reform programmes of the FGN (Oladosu, 2007). According to section three of the National Policy on Education (2004), the nine years basic education comprising six years of primary and three years of junior secondary shall be as follows: a) Free and compulsory education; b) Adult and non-formal education programmes at primary and junior secondary levels; and c) Education for adults and out of school youths. A major input of the education reforms in Nigeria, especially, the National Policy on Education 1977 (and its various amendments of 1981, 1998, 2004 & 2007), is the professionalisation of teaching and setting the target of having the Nigerian Certificate in 2 Education (NCE) as the minimum basic educational certificate acceptable for teachers in Nigeria by 1995 (FGN, 1977). A long-term period of 18 years (1977 to 1995) was provided for the transition of the least acceptable teaching certificate in Nigeria from Teachers‘ Grade Two Certificate (TGII) to the NCE (Oladosu, 2007; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). Strategies to enhance the smooth transition include phasing out teachers‘ training colleges that used to produce (TGII) teachers, establishing more colleges of education to mass produce NCE teachers, and establishing continuing education (distance learning/ part-time) programmes for on-the-job training of teachers employed with the TGII certificates and other adults not privileged to partake in full-time academic programmes in colleges of education. Although existing literature points to the fact that males are greatly favoured than females in terms of access to formal education (UNESCO, 1993; 2002 & 2004a), the general perception of teaching profession as ‗a woman-oriented job‘ (UNESCO, 1994), stimulated the believe that more women would readily participate in these part-time NCE programmes (FGN, 1977; 1981; 1998; 2004 & 2007). Vigorous enlightenment campaigns were embarked upon throughout Nigeria to encourage the target population, most especially, women, to participate in the new drive to mass-produce qualified teachers in the country. Incentives in form of enhanced promotion for teachers that successfully transit from TGII to NCE, and subsidies for school fees and other schooling materials were also introduced. As envisaged by the government, the part-time NCE programmes blossomed in Nigeria, and students‘ enrolment grew steadily (Oladosu, 2007; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). Cursory observations reveal that, in conformity with the general expectations of the government, females participation in part-time NCE programmes improved significantly as many adult females that dropped out of formal education readily participate in the programmes (Oladosu, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). General consensus among the stakeholders in the education sector in the country is that the observed improved participation of women in the part-time education programme might not be unconnected with the prevailing socio-cultural and economic factors. These are: peer group influence, perceived gender roles, perceived mental capabilities, family size, early marriage (Sutton, 1998; Jabre, 1988; Chlebowska, 1990), female role models 3 (Jabre, 1988; Chlebowska, 1990; Stromquist, 1995), bereavement (Oladosu, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008), parents attitudes (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003), ‗broken home‘(Stromquist, 1989; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008), religion, female‘s personal feelings towards education (Akinroye, 1995; Evans, 1995), attitudes of male facilitators/teachers(Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Aderinto, 1991), attitudes of male co- students (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Aderinto, 1991). Also, Obanya (2003), UNESCO (2003), and Ankerbo & Hoyda (2003) identified parents level of education, husband‘s level of education, parents attitude to education, husband‘s attitude to education, absence of female facilitators/teachers, general poverty, direct costs of education, opportunity costs of education and lack of sponsorship as crucial factors influencing women‘s participation in education programmes. While scholars like Indawaba (2006), Aderinoye, (2007), Adetunde & Akensina, (2008), Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, (2008) and Rahman & Uddin, (2009) identified other factors such as timing contact for studies, quest for quick wealth, parents occupation, husband‘s education, and financial and moral support from husband as contributory factors to females participation in education programmes. A cursory look at all these earlier studies on impacts of social, cultural and economic factors on females participation in educational programmes will reveal that most of the studies were conducted using the univariate approach. Hence, there is dearth of literature on the joint impact of these socio-cultural and economic factors particularly on females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. Based on this, this study is out to fill the gap in the literature and to investigate the degree of importance of the combination of most of these social, cultural and economic factors as they influence females‘ participation in continuing education in general, and part-time NCE programmes in particular. 1.2 Statement of the Problem As a result of vigorous efforts by the Nigerian government to encourage females participation in part-time NCE programmes to enhance their contributions to educational development of the nation (FGN, 1977; 1981; 1998; 2004 & 2007), females participation in the programmes have improved significantly as many females that dropped out of 4 formal education readily participate in the programmes (Oladosu, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). Although historical antecedence of south-western Nigeria in western education, the old western region being the region where Universal Primary Education (UPE) was introduced in 1955 and ‗Free Education at all Levels‘ was introduced in 1979, might play some roles in explaining the rate of participation of females in educational programmes in the region (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008), the unprecedented increasing level of participation of females in part-time NCE programmes deserves empirical investigations. Salient question arising from the observed trends in females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria is: To what extent do the socio- cultural and economic factors influence female participation in (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part- time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria, especially now that education is generally, seen as a sine qua non to individual career development? This study, therefore, attempted to determine the extent to which the combinations of socio-cultural and economic factors influence female participation in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education. 1.3 Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to determine the extent to which socio-cultural and economic factors influence female participation in NCE part-time programmes in the study area. The specific objectives among others are to: (i) determine the extent to which socio-cultural and economic factors influence female participation in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education; (ii) establish the relationship between each of the social factors and indices of females‘ participation in (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education; (iii) determine the existing relationship between cultural factors and females‘ enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education; 5 (iv) ascertain the relationship between each of the economic factors and indices of females‘ participation in (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education; (v) establish the existing differences (if any) in enrolment in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education on the basis of college ownership; (vi) determine the influence of female participation in class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities on their academic achievements in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education on the basis of college ownership; and, (vii) proffer solutions to identified problems of females participation in NCE part- time programme. 1.4 Research Questions: The following research questions were raised to serve as anchor for the study: RQ1: Is there any significant difference in female enrolment for part-time NCE programmes in the colleges of education on the basis of college ownership? RQ2: Is there significant difference in the effects of females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes (class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) on female participants‘ academic achievements in the colleges of education on the basis of college ownership? 1.5 Significance of the Study This research is significant in several ways. First, the study‘s result would form part of the baseline data required to understand the relationship(s) between socio-cultural and economic factors and females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in Oyo, Ogun and Osun States. Second, the study would provide information that could form the basis for government educational planning and intervention programmes towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Apart from government institutions and agencies, the findings of the research would also be of immense value to 6 non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organisations (CBOs) and other bodies interested in researching and formulating policies on education, more especially, for continuing education in general and enhancing female participation in part-time NCE programmes in particular. Third, the attitudes of the society to female education may also be changed premised on the research outcome such that parents, spouses and the society at large will support it. The research would also generate relevant data for future studies on female education. 1.6 Scope of the study The study determined the extent to which the combinations of socio-cultural and economic factors influence indices of participation such as enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities with respect to female participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. The study was delimited to female participation in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education in Ogun, Oyo and Osun states. The choice of these colleges was based on their high enrolment of part-time NCE programmes in the south-western Nigeria. Besides, the chosen colleges have been in existence for more than twenty years. From each of the three states, one college was purposively chosen. Since the study‘s main focus was to investigate socio-cultural factors as determinants of females participation in part-time NCE programmes, the respondents were restricted to female NCE part-time students from the schools of education in the three selected colleges. The schools of education were chosen because of the high concentration of female students in most of the courses. The study was also restricted to five major indices of females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education: enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. These indices were considered because according to Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), Cross (1981), Stromquist (1989) and Waldron and Moore (1991), these are the major determinants of the extent to which a woman can be fully involved in a school programme. 7 1.7 Operational Definitions of Terms To remove ambiguities in comprehending technical terms used in this study, especially as they are likely to be subjected to several interpretations, their operational definitions are hereby provided as follows: Participation: This refers to taking part in part-time NCE programmes and as a result, benefitting from the programmes. Social Factors: Social factors are the diverse society‘s group behaviours and interactions that influence female‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes. Social factors adopted for the study include, Peers influence; availability of female role model; parents encouragement; spouse encouragement. Cultural Factors: Cultural factors are the shared beliefs and values of the community that influence female participation in part-time NCE programmes. Cultural factors adopted for this study include, religious practices, such as female seclusion; the general belief that a woman‘s place is in the kitchen; and, schools‘ programmes and calendars not being responsive to local norms and practices. Economic factors: Economic factors are financial or economic considerations that influence women‘s participation in part-tine NCE programme. Economic factors adopted for this study include, among others, lack of sponsorship; the opportunity costs of education, like the need to lock up shop to attend classes; and, perceived limited employment opportunities for women school leavers. Enrolment: This is the rate per number of female part-time NCE students registered in the three colleges of education. Classroom Interaction: Communicating and / or collaborating with the teachers and colleagues during class activities. 8 Participation in Social Activities: Being actively involved in communicating and collaborating with colleagues outside the classroom activities. Parental influence: This refers to the positive or negative motivation received by the female participant from the parents. Peer influence: This refers to the positive or negative motivation received by the female participant from her peers. 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Preamble This chapter examines the existing relevant literature and some basic theories which are very important and relevant to this study. This is with a view to situating the research within a clear framework which would assist in explaining the extent to which social, cultural and economic factors can serve as determinants of females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. 2.1 Literature Review Six major issues germane to the present study, whose contributions to female‘s participation in continuing education programmes are explored in the literature are: Conceptualization of continuing education; Influence of social, cultural and economic factors on females participation in continuing education programme; Indicators of participation in education programmes; Female participation in part-time NCE programmes and academic achievements; Motivations for adult participation in education; and, Barriers to adult participation. 2.1.1. Continuing Education: Concepts and Issues In providing explanations on ‗continuing education‘, Akinpelu (2002) contended that it is better to talk of ‗the field (rather then the concept) of continuing education because ‗the amorphousness that characterizes continuing education in almost all its ramifications makes it safer to use the word ‗field‟ which is more accommodating than „concept‟ or „discipline‟‘ (p.89). After citing Republic of Botswana‘s Revised National Policy on Education (1994) where continuing education is defined as an education „that is not the initial or the beginning education for anybody undergoing such an education, and is conducted outside of the formal/institutionalized school system, and hence is being called „Out of School Education‟, he went further to emphasize the key distinguishing features of continuing education from other forms of education as follows: Firstly, continuing education is essentially a part-time rather than a full-time learning activity. The vast majority of programmes of continuing education are organised for clients/learners who have some pre-occupation or job other than studying. Such participants either attend evening, night, week-end, or summer vacation classes, or even 10 study on their own in their various homesteads (as in distance education); but they normally have other occupational or professional duties which constitute their major pre- occupation (p. 89). Secondly, continuing education programmes are designed to meet identified or expressed ‗adult‘ learning needs. (The use of the word ‗adult‘ here is technical, and not necessarily chronologically-determined as in ordinary usage of the term). The adult learner‘s needs determine what forms the educational programme will take, its contents and the duration or length; and his/her life situation determines the avenue, time and even mode of delivery…It is for this programme flexibility, designed to meet specific needs and requirements that continuing education programmes are said to be ‗situationally relevant‟ and „problem solving‟ …because they are usually initiated, organised or participated in, to solve specific problems or meet identified/expressed needs of individuals and groups (p.90). Despite the above assertions that continuing education programmes are ‗part- time‘ in nature, Akinpelu (2002) clarifies that there can be instances of formal schools with flexible or open learning curricula, just as there can be continuing education centres with stereo typic and inflexible curricula. He contends that the idea of associating continuing education with vocational, occupational or professional skills development may not be totally true. In his opinion, while it is true that continuing education is dictated by need, which is indicative of an existing deficit in knowledge or skills, the nature and scope of the knowledge and skills can vary widely, just as widely as personal needs (p.91). Various reasons why people participate in continuing education programmes, their diverse experiences and the benefits, as documented in the literature are discussed in the appropriate section of the thesis. Our focus in this section is limited to reviewing Open and Distance Learning Programme, an integral component of which is the part-time NCE programmes, the primary focus of the study. In Nigeria, Open and Distance Learning (ODL) developed in response to the challenges of inaccessibility, high drop-out rates and lack of opportunities barriers to education in the country. ODL, a form of continuing education, is the type of education that takes place outside the traditional school system. It is imparted without necessarily 11 having personal interaction with learners, and there is liberal admission procedure requirements (Akomolafe, 2008). The practice of ODL takes seven major forms in Nigeria, which are: open university, Nigeria Teachers Institute (NTI), part-time programmes, weekend programmes, continuing education, correspondence education, and adult education programmes. The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was established as an important strategy to address the ever-increasing gap between demand and supply of tertiary education in the country. NOUN provides access to tertiary education through Open and Distance Learning. In NOUN, the courses are organized for easy access, grasp, retention and retrieval. The programmes are made available to students at their chosen places (e.g. home, school or workplace) at affordable costs and are to be completed at the students' own time and pace (Alaezi, 2006). The Nigeria‘s Teachers‘ Institute‘s (NTI) pivotal Teacher training programme was designed to produce teachers through Open and Distance Learning for the primary schools and junior secondary schools in Nigeria. NTI uses self-instructional materials and weekend vacation contact sessions for tutorials, practical lessons and counseling. It has about 600 study centres country wide (Akomolafe, 2008). Between 1990 and 1992, the NTI graduated 21,000 Nigeria certificate in Education (NCE holders). This figure compare with the combined total of 58,000 teachers graduated by the nation‘s 58 conventional colleges of Education (Aderinoye, 2001). The NTI's pivotal Teachers' programme produced 19,025. 20,800; and 15,567 qualified teachers for year 2000, 2001, and 2002 respectively (Aderinoye, 2001). Sandwich Programmes were established and run by many tertiary institutions in Nigeria, most especially the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. Sandwich programmes in Nigeria dates back to the mid 1980s (Akomolafe, 2008). They are programmes that are run during the school vacations to create opportunities for working class. These programmes are made available to all categories of entry qualifications ranging from standard six certificate, school certificate attempted, school certificate holders, grade two teachers, Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) holders, degree holders. Many universities, polytechnics and colleges of education have been running the programme right away from its inception in the mid eighties, although some 12 later joined. A major factor responsible for the blossoming sandwich programmes in tertiary institutions in Nigeria today is the high competition for admission to regular and traditional school systems which have made young boys and girls opt for sandwich programmes. Weekend programmes are run by some Universities, Nigeria Teachers' Institute (NTI), and polytechnics. These programmes were established and run to create opportunities for working class and young school leavers as a means of accessibility and opportunity to be educated and to improve on their level of education. In Nigeria today many senior secondary school certificate holders are now seeking admission into these weekend programmes. Indeed these programmes are grace-saving devises for Nigerian government since the traditional school system cannot cope with the teeming population of potential students for tertiary institutions. Weekend studies have produce holders of Degree in various disciplines, National Diploma (ND), Higher National Diploma (HND), Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE), and Teacher Grade Two Certificate in Nigeria (Akomolafe, 2008). University of Lagos has established correspondence studies as far back as 1974. It was formerly referred to as the correspondence and open studies unit (COSU), but today it is redefined to produce university graduates in disciplines necessary to meet national labour need (e.g. teachers, nurses etc). Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) also established correspondence, and Teachers' in-service programmes (TISEP) in 1976 which offers special training programme to prepare middle level teachers for Nigeria's primary Schools (Aderinoye and Ojokheta 2004). Distance Learning Centres (DLC) was established by the university of Ibadan's senate in 1988, it was initially referred to as The External study programme (ESP), that later became the Center for External Studies (CES), and today is called Distance learning center (DLC). It was established to provide opportunities for teachers on the job to improve their skills and knowledge through on-the-job training. This in-service training enabled them to subsequently raise their status from holders of Nigerian certificate in Education (NCE) to full fledged Universities degrees holders (Akomolafe, 2008). 13 2.1.2.Social Factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes The diverse ways by which social factors influence females‘ participation in education programmes have received robust documentation in the literature. Graham- Brown (1991) identifies ‗education filters‘, i.e. factors and / or circumstances that serve as barriers to some individuals participating in educational programmes. He states, inter alia, that ‗the chances of a child completing school depend on his or her socio-economic circumstances, including the economic situation of the family, the educational background of parents and the perceived relevance of education‘. Massive enlightenment campaigns by the government and other stakeholders in Nigeria have resulted in remarkable improvement in females participation in education programmes throughout the country. Diverse reasons that warranted the intervention have been well documented in the literature (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998 &1999; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003). Prominent among the various reasons given, as summarised by Indawaba (2006) are: i. Traditional practices inhibiting females from active participation; for example, early marriage and hawking are practices prevalent in most northern states of Nigeria. ii. Poor provision of basic education facilities for females. iii. Poor attitudes of parents and husbands towards female education. iv. Poverty of persons whose responsibility is to pay for female education. v. High cost of educational programmes. vi. Inadequate government support and patronage for female education. vii. Absence of the right administrative structures to deal with an efficient management of female education. viii. Irrelevance of formal education curriculum to people‘s real life expectations. ix. The synergy between school and work (or employment). x. Class and gender discrimination against poor females, prevalent in all sectors of society. xi. Lack of sustainable female education programs and activities, as well as inadequate involvement of civil society in the promotion of female education. xii. Females personal problems (e.g. health issues), which affect their ability to participate in education. 14 Ankerbo & Hoyda (2003) identify household work, which is a great time consumer, leaving little room for studying and less energy to the motivation needed for performing well in school, as a major obstacle to females [both girls and women] participating in educational programmes in Third World countries. Stromquist (1995) identifies ‗a host of factors outside the school system‘ as affecting the enrolment and participation of females in education, such as lack of time due to domestic work (cooking, obtaining water and firewood, caring for younger siblings, and so on), child labour, early marriage, low aspirations, distance to schools, parents preference for sons‘ education, and lack of female teachers. The traditional domestic roles assigned to girls have been identified as a major factor affecting girls‘ participation in education programmes. In most cases, in homes where girls do all the housework due to mother‘s fatigue or illness or because of largeness of the family, girls have no time for home work or study. A study conducted by Walker, McGregor, Hilmes, Williams and Duff (1998) find that more responsibility for household chores had a negative impact on girls‘ school attendance. Parents, most especially mothers, being illiterate and rural may not appreciate the importance of education for girls. Boys‘ education is seen as an investment while girls‘ education is considered as consumption. Boys are desirable assets from which parents desire joy, security and economic and non-economic benefits (Fapounda and Ojo, 1995). In some societies, the position of girls in the family is rendered unimportant. Education given to girls is perceived to be useless since it is not likely to bring any profit to them. There are societies which treat girls and their mothers as articles in the home. Other studies (Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009; Ofoegbu, 2009) have identified ‗home/job responsibilities‘ as a prominent ‗situational barrier‘ to adults [most especially females] participating in continuing education programmes. In their opinion, most adult participants in education programmes are young to middle-aged and already employed. Many are married with children. As such, one of the major barriers to participating in educational programmes is time/energy commitments to childcare, home or a job. Work responsibilities can eat into time needed for either traditional (classroom) or distance education. Taking care of a sick child can easily cut into time needed for study. In addition to the home/job responsibilities, is ‗time 15 management‘. Whether the education is traditional or online, good time management is essential for adult students. Time for classes and studying must be carved out of an already busy schedule for most adults. Scheduling for classes, webinars, faculty phone calls and reading/writing requires juggling work and family commitments. Lack of time for education is one of the barriers to active participation in education programmes cited by many adults when surveyed about participation in continuing education programs. 2.1.3 Cultural Factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes Stromquist (1989) reviews several factors that affect women‘s participation and achievement in the formal educational system and that contribute to significant gender inequalities in education. She averred that cultural norms and the division of labor within the home function to the detriment of girls, who are defined primarily as future mothers. Women in higher socioeconomic classes experience less restriction in gaining access to university, but cultural norms still lead them to select from a limited number of fields of study. The school experience of most women provides them with messages and practices that reinforce rather than challenge the sexual division of labour. Although the literature treats the various determinants of participation and achievement in a segmented, de-contextualised manner, the evidence suggests that the family and school-related factors are not independent but operate in a symbiotic relationship. The review uses feminist theories to provide an interpretation of the empirical findings and discusses the explanatory power of these theories. The review concludes with a number of recommendations to improve and expand research on gender issues in education. Evans (1995) categorises barriers to women participation in (Technological) education into five: cultural, attitudinal, qualificatory, situational, and institutional barriers. Further elaborations on each of the barriers were provided thus: (a) Cultural: common patterns in role and status of women emerge across countries, despite widely different circumstances. They reflect the cultural and cross-cultural social norms and traditions by which the subservient status of women is maintained. In some societies these create "almost insuperable obstacles to women's participation in education" (Evans & King 1991). Analyses of participation rates in different social and cultural contexts 16 show that they reflect closely the relative status of women and the power of tradition (Kember, 1981). (b) Attitudinal: perceived differences in male and female roles and capabilities, inculcated through socialisation in the home and family, reinforced through schooling, through vocational/career guidance services, through experiences in the workplace, peer pressure and through absence of female role models. Enormous motivation and self-confidence is needed to break through these barriers. Lack of confidence and self esteem is itself a major barrier, and one which every successful initiative in this field has found essential to address directly and specifically. (c) Qualificatory: lack of Maths/Science prerequisites for entry to programmes is often perceived as a barrier, particularly by those involved in admissions to programmes (although evidence suggests that this is also perceived rather than real in some cases. Despite this "the belief continues to persist that females are by nature technologically ignorant and unable to absorb scientific and technological information or to acquire technical skills" (Ellis, 1990); in many countries as many women as men achieve general proficiency in Maths and Science, but remain grossly underrepresented in Science and Technology subjects at higher levels, once "choices" are made. Many women with university entrance qualifications in these subjects opt for human and social science courses at university level. In other countries, social cultural and economic conditions conspire to encourage early termination of the education of girls. In Indian, Africa and Pacific cultures, it is argued that the effects of cultural sanctions on women's education are most marked, for example Commonwealth Secretariat, 1988. Low levels of general education are major barriers, which have to be tackled before the specifics of science/technology participation can be addressed. In the Middle East and North Africa, by contrast, higher proportions of women are found in science and engineering courses at University level than in many western countries. El-Sanabary (1993) attributes this to the good access to mathematics and science courses at secondary level. (d) Situational: the barriers faced generally by women in attending courses apply: family commitments, lack of partner support, financial, living in rural/isolated areas. Fees requirements are major barriers where women do not have independent control of 17 resources, where they are dependent on male partners who are unsupportive. Male partners are more likely to be unsupportive of entry to non-traditional, male oriented spheres. (Ellis (1990) cites examples of suspicion/jealousy of male partners as well as ridicule). Women who do have their own source of income are also, on average, lower paid than their male counterparts. Brock and Cammish (1997) classified factors affecting females participation in education into nine: geographical factors, socio-cultural factors, health factors, economic factors, religious factors, legal, political / administrative, educational, and initiatives. Socio-cultural barriers include : cultural bias in favour of males; the widespread operation of patriarchal system of social organization; customary early marriage; incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage); heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas); a generally lower regard for the value of female life; and, problems of seclusion and security in some areas. The Nigerian Woman (1997) opines that ‗there is a world of disparity between a boy child and a girl-child, which has been to the detriment of the girl-child‘. In the same vein, Aderinto (1991) and Ogidi (2000) conclude that the girl-child faces lots of discrimination in many spheres of the society such as education, health, nutrition and household chore. One of the main obstacles to school girls and women in Third World countries is the fact that household work is a great time consumer, which leaves little room for studying and less energy to the motivation needed for performing well in school (Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). The first constraint begins even before enrolment, a major prerequisite for participation in education programmes. Parents with low income have to make priorities whether it is profitable enough to enrol females in education programmes. First of all, males are prioritized because they are the future providers of economic security for their parents, while females‘ future roles is to be married away. Secondly, enrollingfemales in education programmes deprive the family of instant household work since females have two-thirds more of the household work compared to males. Even when females are enrolled in education programmes, there still is a higher risk for females having poorer participation (in terms of class attendance, classroom interaction, classroom participation, and participation in social activities) and being withdrawn from the programmes. They 18 have more household work which results in less time for studying which again has a high impact on further motivation. Lower expectations of females‘ achievements from teachers and parents also do affect motivation for studying. Even if education is completed, future returns/benefits of waged labour is limited for females, as the wage females will receive will often be lower than males. With this prospect in mind, most families do not become motivated to encourage females participation in education programmes. Implications of females‘ participation in educational systems concern both economic, household, socio-cultural and school-system factors (Sutton, 1998:393). Jabre (1988) and Chlebowska (1990) observe that the weak participation of girls in education is due to many factors which vary from one country, continent and culture to another. Participation in educational programmes is affected by cultural beliefs, the economic conditions of the family, the nation, and the educational supply (Stromquist, 1995). According to Stromquist (1995), a host of factors outside the school system have been identified as affecting the enrolment and participation of girls in education, such as lack of time due to domestic work (cooking, obtaining water and firewood, caring for younger siblings, and so on), child labour, early marriage, low aspirations, distance to schools, parents preference for sons‘ education, and lack of female teachers. Culture in the developing world dictates how much a society encourages females (both girls and women) participation in educational programmes. Culture of the people, their belief and religion and the nature of the society are some of the obstacles in the way of girl - child education (Fapounda & Ojo, 1995). Traditional African societies pay attention to the home education of the girl. She is trained to be modest, neat and respectful. She is taught cooking, home craft and child-rearing as well as vocations such as spinning, weaving, tying and dyeing, pottery, and mat-making (Akinroye, 1995). Culturally, the girl/woman is perceived as a tool, an object or a possession to be owned or used to meet one‘s desires. It is thus that in most African societies, the woman‘s role is taken to be that of child bearing and rearing and to some extent, an economic tool; her worth being based on the number of children she can bear (Akinroye, 1995). Culturally, girls are perceived as the weaker sex, thus robbing them of their self- ego, while men are assumed to be naturally superior. Hart (1991) contends that nature 19 has condemned the female sex to an inferior status, and Reed (1954) argues that it is not nature but society which relegates women to the background to boost the ego of male. In traditional Nigerian society, the girl is not expected to be heard and as such is regarded as inferior and any money spent on her education is regarded a waste. Many parents, therefore, prefer to invest on their boys rather than on girls. Shuaibu (1995) states that the above fact is connected with the following reasons: (1) Culturally, women are expected to be in the kitchen, to be seen but not to be heard; (2) Females are assumed to be intellectually inferior and, therefore, unlikely to benefit from education. The size of the family has been found as another factor that influences females participation in education programmes. It was found that the number of younger siblings negatively affects girls‘ chances of ever attending school (Lloyd & Gage-Brandon, 1992; Okogie, 1995). These studies equally find that in rural areas, early born girls from large families are less likely to be enrolled in school. They are kept at home to assist with domestic chores and care for younger siblings. According to Stromquist (1995), female labour makes girls less available for schooling, and when they are available, they are left with reduced energy for learning. In most societies, there are pervasive cultural stereotypes and imageries about girl-children (Ogidi, 2000). A number of studies refer to them as social and economic ―burdens‖ (Ghosh, 1995; Sharma, 1995). This was further described by an Indian proverb that says ―raising a daughter is like watering a shady tree in someone-else‘s courtyard (Mosser, 1993). It can be said therefore, that the socio- cultural environment in which the girl-child operates does not motivate her to attain her full potentials (Aderinto, 1991). In Kenya, girl–child education is elusive. Mwangi, (2004) writes that a combination of poverty, disease and backward cultural practices continued to deny the girl-child her right to education. Even with the introduction of free primary education, participation in education is still remaining a wide dream to many Kenyan children. Despite the introduction of free primary education in the country which accounted for an increase in enrolment, a sizeable number of children, especially girls, still find themselves out of school owing to a number of reasons. These reasons are: demands for 20 their labour in the homes such as assisting in looking after their young siblings; child marriage, doing house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the family. Some of the girls are given to marriage against their wish and when they refuse, they are threatened with death. Glewwe and Jacoby (1994) conducted a study on factors that affect girl-child‘s participation in education in Turkey. Their results suggest that [in Turkey] occupation of the household head, size and the composition of the family, and education of the parents have a significant impact on the schooling decision for girls. Diverse studies on women education and empowerment in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) provided some insights into cultural factors that reinforce gender gaps in education participation and attainment in the MENA countries. Moghadam (1998) discovered that the interaction between the region's economic structure and its conservative culture, in which traditional gender roles are strongly enforced, is largely responsible. The region's oil-based economy, which produced tremendous wealth in some MENA countries, is also found to reinforce the region's gender roles. For instance, in a number of MENA countries, the use of capital-intensive technologies that require few workers, along with relatively high wages for men, have precluded women's greater involvement in the labor force (Karshenas & Moghadam, 2001; Moghadam, 2003). Gender discrimination in the MENA region is sometimes codified in law, frequently in family laws or civil codes. In many countries in the region, women must obtain permission from a male relative, usually a husband or father, before seeking employment, requesting a loan, starting a business, or traveling. Such laws often grant women a smaller share of inherited family wealth. As a result, families tend to make greater investments in education for boys than for girls (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2003). The results of Egypt's 2000 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) provide insights into families' preferences for investing in their children's education. Women with children ages 6 to 15 were asked, "If parents have one son and one daughter and can send only one child to the university, which child should they send?" While 53 percent of the women said that the decision should depend on the children's capabilities, 39 percent said that the son should go to the university, compared with only 8 percent who said that the daughter should go. The survey also found that mothers of children who had never 21 attended school were more likely to cite the cost of education as a reason for not educating their daughters than for not educating their sons (El-Zanaty & Way, 2001). Leste (2004) conducted a study in East Timor, to investigate why Timorese women were not participating in education programmes. Using the cultural approach, the study illustrates that a woman‘s decision to participate or not participate is not solely based on individual wants or disinterest, but a decision strongly informed by the norms, roles, values and perceptions embedded in the home and community. The research findings uncover the traditions, myths, and symbolisms that are pervasive and occurring in the everyday life of the family and community. Their power lies in the seeming naturalness of the values and roles ascribed to women. The interviews with traditional leaders and women provided a glimpse of how the self-worth and location of women have been historically constructed as self-sacrificing, submissive, and inferior to the husband‘s position in the family and the community. The traditional roles and relations of the women that have given total control to the men have also impacted on the woman‘s formation. The woman‘s domain is the home, and consequently, she has very limited mobility and access to information as well as limited capacity for analysis and decision-making. While women are influential in nutrition, rearing of children and agriculture, there are minimal spaces for women‘s voices at the community and government. The marginalisation of women from key positions often times was traced to the women‘s lack of capability or education. While this may be true, this is not the only reason. The traditional notion that women are less capable than men also hinders the appreciation of women‘s efforts precisely because of her traditional roles in the family and community. The study provides discussion and several insights on how East Timorese perspective, values and beliefs relating to gender inequality and processes reproduce gender inequalities among its young. Current perceptions and attitudes on education for girls are linked to poverty and the tradition of betrothing women and girls for marriage. The girls were second priority for getting education since they were to leave the family to stay with the husband. The parents viewed that there was no use spending on the girl‘s education since this was just to benefit the family of her husband. 22 2.1.4. Economic factors and Female Participation in Continuing Education Programmes Economic factors include both direct and hidden costs to a family of sending daughters to school; and, perception that investment in a girl's schooling is wasteful since it benefits the family into which a girl marries rather than her own (Brock & Cammish, 1997). Somefun (1995) identifies other constraints resulting in lower female participation at all levels of education and consequently, in lower educational achievement by females. Prominent among these are: early marriage and the practice of purdah; economic factors, such as cost of procuring education; the location of the school far away from home; much time spent on domestic chores which reduces time available for study; opportunity costs of formal education to parents in terms of forgone earnings by children; and unsettled life styles of some groups such as nomads and isolation of some settlements such as in the riverine areas. Distance from home to school and inability to provide funds for journeys and snacks are hindrances to education. Studies (by King & Lillard, 1987; Anderson, 1988; Jones, 1990) have repeatedly demonstrated that distance from school is a critical factor in determining whether or not children, especially girls, attend school. Evidence from many developing countries suggests that parents are reluctant to send their daughter to distant schools because of the fear that they will be placed in moral or physical danger. Economic factors, especially in terms of grinding poverty and hunger have been identified as probably the most influential in adversely affecting female participation in education. According to Dall (1989), the reason why a lot of children, especially girls, did not go to school in Mali is economic. The cost of education is very high for an average family. Many parents who had limited resources only invested in boys‘ education and not in girls‘. Consequently, in towns, girls stay at home to mind other children or to sell things from road side stalls. A similar study carried out by Houesto (1982) in the Republic of Benin‘s primary and secondary schools reports that in rural areas, parents are much more willing to pay school fees for boys than for girls. Invariably, children‘s perceived earning potentials, anticipated opportunity costs and parents‘ poverty status play a very significant role in girls‘ participation in education programmes. Also, Okojie‘s (1995) study on gender gap in participation in educational 23 programmes in Nigeria indicates that where there is financial stress, boys are usually given preference over girls in matters of schooling. This assertion was equally corroborated by Graham-Brown (1991) and Mansaray (1991) who state that where the family has to pool resources to send someone to school, it is more likely that a boy rather than a girl will be chosen. Also, according to Alele-Williams (1992), when economic constraint is an intervening variable, educating children of even the same parents particularly from the same poorer households are, in most cases, in favour of boys. Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku (2008) identified child labour, poverty and lack of sponsorship, quest for wealth, bereavement, truancy, broken home, engagement of children as house helps, as factors or the clog in the wheel of children‘s participation in education in the UNICEF A-Field made up of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Benue, Cross River, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo and River states of Nigeria. Adetunde and Akensina (2008) investigated current factors affecting the standard of female education in the Kassena-Nankana district in Upper East Region of Ghana. Poverty, long-held negative attitudes about women‘s intellectual capabilities, teenage pregnancy, early marriage, examination failure in mathematics and science and the traditional division of household labour were found to be among the many factors that continue to keep vast numbers of girls out of the classroom in the district and country as well. A number of studies (Birdsall, 1985; Parish & Willis, 1993) have found a positive connection between household income and schooling of children. In societies with a son bias, Parish and Willis (1993, p. 866) note that ―... one of the best things that can happen to a male, besides being born to rich, well-educated parents, is to have an older sister‖. Rahman and Uddin (2009) investigated different socioeconomic factors affecting participation in education of N-W.F.P. (Pakistan). The results of the analysis show that the factors Father Education combined with Parents‘ Attitude towards Education, Father Income combined with Mother Education, Father Income combined with Parents‘ Attitude towards Education are some of the factors which affect participation in education in N-W.F.P. (Pakistan). Thus they concluded that there are a number of socioeconomic factors which affect participation in education in Pakistan. Huisman and Smits (2009) investigated the effects of household and district-level factors on primary school enrolment in 30 developing countries. Household- and district- 24 level determinants of primary school enrolment were studied for 220,000 children in 340 districts of 30 developing countries using multilevel analysis. Parental decisions regarding children‘s education were found to be influenced by socio-economic and demographic household characteristics and characteristics of the available educational facilities, like number of teachers, percentage of female teachers, and distance to school. Other relevant context characteristics were urbanization and the position of women relative to that of men. Interaction analysis showed that many effects of household-level factors depend on the context in which the household is living. Adetunde and Akensina (2008) are of the opinion that the thinking of the rural man that the female‘s main office is the kitchen has contributed greatly to the low participation of females in education programmes in Nigeria. In addition to this identified mindset, other prevalent factors identified by them include outmoded cultural practices, ignorance, legal restrictions, family cost, including opportunity cost, socio- cultural barriers, early marriages, gender biases in classroom practice, inaccessibility of schools, cultural perceptions of boys‘ superior abilities, poor performance of girls on examination, teenage pregnancies, and lack of parental support. They then went further to opine that girls enrolment, persistence and success in school depend on many factors beyond the classroom and the school itself. Studies in a number of African countries demonstrate the daughters‘ workloads, distance from home to school, discrimination against women in the job market, demand and supply issues as determined by established policies, the parents‘ level of education and their socio-economic status as well as political commitment (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008:339). They went further to document that the fact that girls tend to be marginalized in classroom is not restricted to developing nations alone but is equally found prevalent in developed nations as well. In their word ‗Classroom studies in the United States and France have shown that even when girls make up the majority of students, teachers pay less attention to them than to boys. It is fair to add here that boys sometimes get attention because they are being disciplined for bad behavior while girls tend to be disciplined less because they are more reserved and timid. Studies also show that most teachers hold lower expectations on girls‘ (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008:339). 25 Almost all the teachers sampled in urban and rural areas of Pakistan agree that the main reasons for children dropping out from school at primary level are: limited opportunities of employment for educated youth and poverty i.e. boys from poor families have to help their fathers in farming and girls from poor families have to help their mothers in household activities. It is concluded that economic factors have a significant impact on children and they often drop out from schools due to poverty. It is also inferred that children often leave schools in early grades to become skilled worker. Most of the fathers of dropout children are laborers, shopkeepers, helpers or attendants. Also a majority of them are either illiterate or have studied up to middle level only. In Pakistan, poverty is a major cause of dropout and thus students with a large number of sibling tend to dropout from school as the resources are few (Breines, 2005; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). 2.1.5. Indicators of Participation in Education Programmes For this study, participation in education programmes is measured in terms of female enrolment in part-time NCE programmes, Class Attendance, Class Interaction, Continuous Assessment, and, Social Activities. Relevant literature are explored and reviewed to shed more lights on the diverse ways these ‗indicators of participation‘ influence students‘ lives in the school. 26 2.1.5.1. Female Enrolment in Part-time NCE programmes Female‘s enrolment in continuing education programme in Nigeria has generated a lot of empirical investigations well documented in the literature. The ones selected for review in this section (Moja, 2000; Aderinoye, 2007; Ofoegbu, 2009) are selected for their collective ability to provide adequate information on a period more than a decade, st spanning the late 1990s and the first decade in the 21 Century. In his Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008 prepared for the UNESCO, Aderinoye (2007) documented that: “despite the heightened awareness occasioned by the massive mobilization efforts of NMEC and its State Agencies, the SAPA document (1993) reports a lack of access to adult education programmes for many adults with as many as 46% of the sampled communities not having access, participation is restricted on grounds of non- functional programme offerings and other factors including age, unsuitable programme schedule, irrelevant programmes, lack of interest, ill health and husband‟s refusal (among the women) NMEC (2001). The report concludes that less than 3% of adults have access to adult and non-formal education programmes” (p.3). Ofoegbu (2009) investigated the impact of Open Distance Learning (ODL) on the female access to basic education. The population of the study consists of all lecturers/teachers of ODL centres in Benin City, Edo State. Five ODL/Community Resource Study centres were identified and used for the study. The lecturers responded to the ―Female Education and Distance Learning Questionnaire‖ (FEDLQ). The validated and reliable (76) instrument was used to collect data. The analysis of data revealed that ODL has significant influence on female enrolment and attendance. It showed that ODL will give girls a chance to catch up academically with their male counterparts who, unlike them, have every opportunity to attend school. The result of the study strongly recommends ODL as a strategy for ensuring that girls enrol and attend school and consequently, fundamental to female economic opportunity. With ODL, female children can have access to education at their convenience. 27 2.1.5.2. Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Class Attendance Many educational institutions, including universities, are readily acknowledging the importance of class attendance in enhancing students‘ school life and academic achievement, and are thus evolving policies that discourage students not attending classes. In Sewanee The University of South, Morehouse College, and Minnesota State University, all in the United States of America, different policies have evolved, all aimed at promoting class attendance among the students. Diverse empirical studies have been conducted to provide empirical evidence of importance of class attendance to students academic life. The review here is based on effects of class attendance on students academic achievement (Schmidt, 1983; Park and Kerr, 1990), and why students choose to miss classes (Wyatt, 1992). In his study entitled "Who Maximizes What‖? Schmidt (1983) measures the impact of time commitments by students to various course activities on the students' performance in the given class. The results were revealing. By far, the most valuable and important time commitment in a course was the time actually spent in the classroom. That time was the most important determinant of student success and each unit of time in the class itself provided, among all the class related activities, the greatest improvement in student performance. The next most important time spent on a class was any time spent in discussion sections that accompanied the lectures. Third in importance was any time spent studying outside of class preparing for the class session itself. Perhaps most surprising was the result that the least significant time commitment in improving student performance in a particular class was the time spent studying for the final exam. Thus the study concludes that the most productive time in any course is the time actually spent in the classroom. That time has the greatest positive impact on overall student performance. The hour or two spent in class each day (for a particular course) does the most to improve the student's grade. In another version of the same statistical test, Schmidt (1983) also finds that the time spent over the entire term on the ongoing activities of the class (class lectures and classroom discussions, any discussion sections, and study outside of class to prepare for class) was most significant in explaining student performance in a given course. Time 28 spent studying for any and all exams was not a statistically significant determinant in affecting student performance in that class. The results of this test reinforce the idea that the most important learning in a course takes place in the classroom and that students who do a conscientious job on a daily basis preparing for and participating in class outperform those students who skip class and try to cram for exams. Park and Kerr (1990) in their study on determinants of academic achievement, (conducted with classes where attendance did not enter directly into student grade determination), the role of class attendance was statistically significant in explaining student grades in those classes. Specifically, the research demonstrated that the lack of attendance was statistically significant in explaining why a student received a D rather than an A, a B, or a C grade in a specific class. The statistical tests employed in the article found that regular class attendance was a significant determinant in minimizing a student's chance of receiving a D or an F. The study strongly suggests that regular class attendance can aid significantly by acting as an insurance policy in avoiding a D or an F grade in a given class. The same data were also used to determine the relative impact of each absence in the student's final letter grade for a particular course. The empirical results showed that absence from class was statistically significant in lowering the letter grade of the typical student. Specifically, each absence from class lowered a student's grade by 0.06 in a 4.00 grading system. Thus, a student with 10 absences in a given term would lower his/her grade by 0.6, which would be the difference between a C plus and a B for example. Wyatt (1992) investigated why students choose to miss classes in spite of the clear benefits of attendance. By using correlations and regression analysis, he was able to clarify some of the issues. When he looked at the reasons students gave for missing classes that they liked, the three strongest correlations were parents' income (the greater that income, the more they missed class), time studying (the more time they studied, the less they missed class), and their GPA (the higher the GPA, the less they missed class). For missing classes that they disliked, the following were the significant correlations: time spent on studying (the more time they studied for the class, the less they missed), their GPA (the greater their GPA, the less they missed the classes they didn't like), their parents' income (the greater the parents' income, the more they missed class) and the 29 frequency of alcohol consumption (the more frequently students consumed alcohol, the more they missed their classes). From his research, Wyatt (1992) made the following observations and recommendations: 1. Since students who study miss fewer classes (both classes they like and dislike), an increased emphasis by the faculty member and the institution on scholarship and study will help overall attendance. Classroom discussion about homework expectations and proper study habits for a particular course would also help. 2. Since females missed classes more frequently than males, the author suggests that professors should examine their classroom environment to see if it is somehow less hospitable to females. 3. If academic life can be made more appealing and exciting, Wyatt believes that students with lower grades will attend more frequently. 2.1.5.3 Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Classroom Interaction In education management, classroom assessment is not expected to be limited to objective tests, performance rubrics, or essays. Assessment is expected to be ongoing through personal communications, primarily in the form of questioning, observations, and discussions. These types of classroom interactions can provide valuable, immediate feedback about student achievement, communication skills, and social skills. Personal communication with students are unique in that they are spontaneous, flexible, and provide nonverbal cues. Class interaction is about students having an active discussion during class. Interactions occur both between students with no lecturer present, and with the lecturer who probes student thinking among the whole group (Cruickshank, 1995). There are many ways of how to communicate with students, especially in the classroom. Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research (2012) identified two major reasons why teachers should use activities which promote classroom interaction. First and foremost, the teacher makes full use of his / her most valuable resource - the learners themselves. Not only are adults ready and willing to work together but they tend to learn better in a sociable environment and are more likely to stick to their studies when they 30 feel part of a strong group.( site: http://www.cilt.org.uk/). Diverse empirical investigations have been conducted on effects of diverse interaction strategies on students‘ learning (Muhammad, 2005; Kalu, 1997.; Kalantari, 1999). Muhammad (2005) adopted Flander Interaction Analysis (FIA) to investigate patterns of classroom interaction at different education levels. FIA system was designed to categorize the types and quantity of verbal interaction in the classroom and to plot the information on a matrix so that it could be analysed and interpreted. The results gave a picture as to who was talking in the classroom, how much and kind of talking that took place. This system consists of ten categories, namely, accepting feelings, praising for encouraging, using ideas of students, asking questions, lecturing, giving directions, criticizing or justifying student talk-response, student talk initiation and silence or confusion. The main objective of the study was to explore patterns of classroom interaction of secondary and tertiary levels in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan using FIA. Five hypotheses were proposed and tested in the study. Twenty five classrooms at secondary and twenty five at tertiary level were randomly selected as a sample of the study. Fifty observations were carried out, each in one classroom, using Flanders Interaction Analysis system to secure the data. To do this, time sampling was used and each classroom was observed for eight-hundred and ten seconds (13.50 minutes) in a forty-five-minutes class. After obtaining and encoding the data, it was tabulated, analysed and interpreted by using percentage, means, standard deviations and t-test. All the five hypotheses were supported and it was concluded that, both at secondary and tertiary levels, more than two-third of classroom time was devoted to talking, thus talk method dominated in classes. More than two third of the classroom talking time was devoted to teachers talking at secondary and tertiary levels, the teachers playing the dominant role. More than two-third of the teachers‘ talking time was devoted for direct talk, which showed the directive role of the teacher at secondary and tertiary levels. Students talk time at secondary and tertiary level differed in favour of secondary level classes where students talk time was greater than at tertiary level. The talk time of teacher at tertiary level was greater than that of the teachers at secondary level. Silence time at secondary level was significantly greater than at tertiary level. 31 Kalu (1997) investigated classroom interaction pattern and students‘ learning outcome in physics. The purpose of the study is to observe and code the interaction patterns during physics lessons and to relate the identified patterns to students‘ post- instructional attitude towards physics and achievement in low and high academic tasks. The sample consisted of five-hundred and sixteen SSI students and fifteen physics teachers drawn from fifteen selected secondary schools in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. Each teacher/ classroom was observed for four lesson periods spaced over a period of eight weeks and the interaction patterns coded using the Science Interaction Categories. Two other instruments were used to collect data on students‘ attitude and achievement in physics. The results of data analysis indicated, inter alia, that a significantly positive relationship exists between interaction pattern and students‘ post- instructional attitude and low academic task achievement. Kalantari (2009) appraised the existing teaching techniques that address the problems that English for Foreign Learners (EFL) teachers face to provide an interactive classroom condition. These techniques are the strategies of classroom interaction, such as questioning techniques and modification through cooperative method of learning. The sample comprised forty-eight intermediate EFL learners who had registered at a private language institution. A pre-test, post–test, and control and experimental groups were designed. The results of post-test indicated statistically significant difference between the control and experimental groups on their conversation performance. The most obvious implication for the use of interaction-based instruction would be for language teachers, language learners and language syllabus designers. As a case in point, teachers can use the strategies of classroom interaction to improve the learners‘ conversation performance and develop their interest in English language learning. Shomoosi, Amouzadeh and Ketabi (2008) investigated classroom interaction with reference to gender and technology. The study data were gathered through partial ethnography by a non-participant observer; two sessions of the course Language Laboratory 1 were carefully observed, and notes were taken with a focus on the nature of interactions. Results of the study show that the interaction patterns are gender-related only to some extent. Also, the interaction pattern in the laboratory classes is similar to, but not the same as, the whole-class discussion patterns proposed in earlier literature. 32 However, the main difference between the two is that the teacher‘s role in controlling and confirming the volunteer‘s contribution to the discussion is markedly visible. Howe (1997) investigated gender and classroom interaction. The relevant studies were conducted in Australia, the United States and Great Britain. From his studies, he concluded that: Gender differences undoubtedly exist in classroom interaction, and they have the effect of making boys more vocal within the teaching process; Although girls do not suffer academically because of these differences, they do feel more negatively about the school experience; and that, for this reason, quite apart from longer term implications for gender divisions in society, something may need to be done to address the matter. He cautioned that if intervention is attempted, it should be carefully evaluated. He suggested the need for further research to document gender differences, and more importantly to understand their consequences for pupils‘ perceptions of their place in society. 2.1.5.4 Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Classroom Participation Class participation is an important part of a classroom's day-to-day routines and student assessment. Students' enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to participate affect the quality of class discussion as an opportunity for learning. The teacher‘s major challenge is to engage all students, keep them talking to each other about the same topic, and help them develop insights into the material (Davis, 1993). Petress (2006), in providing rationale for including class participation in the teachers‘ grading schemes argued that research shows that learning is an active process, not a passive one; that students learn best when they take an active part in learning process, and are more likely to appreciate how learning in one arena is useful in other settings if they personally relate their activities in these plural experiences rather than by trying to see commonality through passive learning; that students are better able to generalize from active class activity than from what they listen to, watch, or read; and that students have been shown to retain what they do better than retain what they vicariously learn. He identified four ‗most common detracting classroom behaviours‘ teachers should guide against as: Long winded contributors; Repetitive responses; Participation monopolizers, and Responses that discourage others from contributing. 33 Roby (1988) warns against falling into quasi discussions – encounters in which students talk but do not develop or criticise their own positions and fail to reflect on the process and outcomes of the session. Two common forms of quasi discussion are quiz shows (where the teacher has the right answers) and bull sessions (characterized by cliches, stereotypes, empty generalizations, lack of standards for judging opinions, and aimless talking). Davis (1993) suggested the following hints to help the teacher create a classroom in which students feel comfortable, secure, willing to take risks, and ready to test and share ideas. i. Encourage students to learn each other's names and interests. ii. Get to know as many of your students as class size permits. iii. Arrange seating to promote discussion. iv. Allow the class time to warm up before you launch into the discussion. v. Limit your own comments. vi. Make certain each student has an opportunity to talk in class during the first two or three weeks. vii. Plan an icebreaker activity early in the semester. viii. Ask students to identify characteristics of an effective discussion. ix. Periodically divide students into small groups. x. Assign roles to students. xi. Use poker chips or "comment cards" to encourage discussion. xii. Use electronic mail to start a discussion. xiii. Build rapport with students. xiv. Bring students' outside comments into class. xv. Use nonverbal cues to encourage participation. xvi. Draw all students into the discussion. xvii. Give quiet students special encouragement. xviii. Discourage students who monopolize the discussion. xix. Tactfully correct wrong answers. xx. Reward but do not grade student participation. In addition, teachers may wish to calculate and record student improvement in exhibiting positive participation behaviors and decreasing negative involvement 34 behaviours. This process also lends itself to most popular grading methods. Petress (2012) cautions that although students participation can help a class progress much more smoothly if it is entered into willingly, enthusiastically, and purposefully, a class can suffer irreparably if student participation occurs reluctantly or without clear purpose. Quality student class participation is enhanced by teacher modeling. Teachers are thus advised to get their points across most effectively by examples and positive reinforcement. Students' positive behaviours should also be noted and rewarded. He cautioned that private teacher reminders to students about their participation performances should act as kindly motivators, not as cutting rebukes when student participation performances are not as they should be. He believes that learning occurs best when it is a cooperative effort between student and teacher, and thus sees class participation as one major vehicle towards achieving quality learning. 2.1.5.5 Socio-cultural and Economic Factors and Female Students’ Participation in Social Activities Participation in social activities is an important element of people's well-being and their ability to socialize with others. Being socially connected with other people and with social institutions, such as clubs and organizations, fosters social interaction, helps increase people's sense of belonging, and provides balance in people's lives. Belonging to social networks, in the opinions of Statistics Canada (2004), can also provide a number of tangible benefits, including information, access to goods and services, and business contacts, as well as emotional support. Social activities, often termed ‗extracurricular activities‘ are those sponsored by and usually held at school but that are not part of the academic curriculum. They often involve some time commitment outside of the regular school day (Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health, 2012). Such activities are generally voluntary as opposed to mandatory, non-paying, social, philanthropic as opposed to scholastic, and often involve people of the same age. Students often organise and direct these activities under faculty sponsorship, although student-led initiatives, such as independent newspapers, are common. A student could belong to more than one of these organisations at the same time. A primary function of these groups/associations is to provide regular technical and social meetings for students with common interests. Diverse empirical investigations have been conducted and documented in the literature 35 on students participation in social activities, ranging from their reasons for participating in one form of social activity or the other, to the advantages of participating in social activities. Allender, Cowburn and Foster (2006) systematically examined published and unpublished qualitative research studies of UK children's and adults' reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity. The review covered peer reviewed and gray literature from 1990 to 2004. Papers were entered into review if they: aimed to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity, collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom and presented data collected using qualitative methods. From more than one thousand and two hundred papers identified in the initial search, twenty-four papers met all inclusion criteria. The majority of these reported research with young people were based in community settings. Weight management, social interaction and enjoyment were common reasons for participation in sport and physical activity. Concerns about maintaining a slim body shape motivated participation among young girls. Older people identified the importance of sport and physical activity in staving off the effects of aging and providing a social support network. Challenges to identity such as having to show others an unfit body, lacking confidence and competence in core skills or appearing overly masculine were barriers to participation. Holland and Andre (1987) seek to shed more lights on what was known and not known on secondary schools‘ students participation in extracurricular activities. The paper reviewed literature relating to extracurricular participation and adolescent development. Five areas were described: personal-social characteristics, academic achievement, educational aspirations and attainments, participants‘ roles in activities, and environmental social context. A methodological critique and directions for future research was provided. Participation correlated with higher levels of self-esteem, improved race relations, involvement in political/social activity in young adulthood, academic ability and grades in males, educational aspirations and attainments, feelings of control over one‘s life, and lower delinquency rates. However, causal relationships between participation and desirable characteristics had not been demonstrated. Students 36 in smaller schools participate in a greater number and variety of extracurricular activities than students in larger schools. Low-ability and lower SES students are more involved in school life in smaller schools. The existing findings justify additional research into the processes by which participation may influence students‘ lives. Charest, Pageau, Girard, et al (2005) conducted a study on whether participation in extracurricular activities in secondary schools has any relationship with educational success in Canada. Their investigations provided interesting information about the sports, cultural and social activities of these students. It showed that 88% of students had participated in at least one extracurricular activity during the 2002-2003 school year, and that 85% had taken part in activities outside the school. Although this rate of participation did not include information about frequency or duration, it showed the diversity of secondary school students‘ areas of interest and the variety of activities offered by schools. The data obtained in the study revealed an important aspect of extracurricular activities. It was established that there is in fact a very strong relation between the perception of the level of participation in extracurricular activities at school and the school atmosphere. Furthermore, the atmosphere at school seems to be connected to students‘ academic results, and the results are linked to academic ambition. Academic ambition is an important aspect of motivation and perseverance at school. The data collected did not allow the researchers to verify if extracurricular activities influence perseverance at school. They concluded that as one of the contributing factors to creating a stimulating school environment, extracurricular activities certainly contribute to educational success for secondary school students and help them ―reach for their dreams.‖ Mahoney, Harris and Eccles (2006) evaluated two perspectives on contributions of extracurricular activities to youth development: that how young people spend their time outside of school has consequences for their development; and that participating in organised activities has become excessive for youth. To evaluate these two somewhat different perspectives, the researchers reviewed two types of evidence: evidence from published studies focused on regional, historical, or limited samples and evidence from a very recent nationally representative sample of America‘s 5- to 18-yearolds that includes 37 both time use data and information on a wide range of indicators of development. The main findings across studies are as follows: (1) The primary motivations for participation in organised activities are intrinsic (e.g., excitement and enjoyment, to build competencies, and to affiliate with peers and activity leaders). Pressures from adults or educational/career goals are seldom given as reasons for participation; (2) American youth average about 5 hours/week participating in organised activities. At any given time, roughly 40% of young people in the US do not participate in organised activities and those who do typically spend less than 10 hours/week participating. Many alternative leisure activities (e.g., educational activities, playing games, watching television) consume as much or considerably more time. However, a very small subgroup of youth (between 3 and 6 percent) spends 20 or more hours/week participating; (3) There is quite consistent and strong evidence of a positive association between participating in organised activities and a variety of indicators of positive development: those youth who participate demonstrate healthier functioning on such indicators ranging from academic achievement, school completion, post secondary educational attainment, psychological adjustment, and lowered rates of smoking and drug use, to the quantity and quality of interactions with their parents. As the amount of participation in organised activities increases, the evidence suggests that the associated benefits of participation are observed either to accrue across the full range of activities or weekly hours of participation considered or to level off at relatively high amounts of participation; and (4) Concerning the wellbeing of youth with very high levels of involvement in organised activity participation (e.g., 20 or more hours/week), indicators of adjustment tended either to be more positive than, or similar to, youth who did not participate. Only a very few indicators of wellbeing have been shown to decline to a level significantly lower than youth who did not participate in organised activities. In sum, given the very limited empirical support for the over-scheduling hypothesis and the quite consistent support for the positive youth development 38 perspective, the researchers recommended that the recent efforts to expand opportunities for organised activity participation should stay the course. For the vast majority of young people, participation is associated with positive developmental outcomes. Of greater concern than the over-scheduling of youth in organised activities is the fact that many youth do not participate at all. The well-being of youth who do not participate in organised activities is reliably less positive compared to youth who do participate. Hoffmann (2006) investigated the effects of extracurricular activities on alcohol use among male (n = 4,495) and female (n = 5,398) adolescents who participated in the 1990–92 National Education Longitudinal Study. Previous studies have assessed the association between extracurricular activities and alcohol use, but none have explored whether the association depends on the school context. Using a multilevel model, Hoffmann examined whether school-level factors affect the relationship between involvement in athletic or nonathletic activities and changes in adolescent alcohol use from 1990 to 1992. The results indicate that the negative association between nonathletic activities and alcohol use is stronger among males in low-minority-population schools. Moreover, the positive association between athletic involvement and alcohol use is stronger among females in lower-socioeconomic-status schools and males in higher- socioeconomic-status schools. He proposed that these results reflect variation in high school cultures and in the resources available to schools. Lutz, Cornish, Gonnerman and Ralston (2009) investigated early adult life experiences that are associated with participation in high school extra-curricular activities. Focusing on Iowa graduates, a telephone survey was conducted on adult Iowans who had graduated from high schools in Iowa between 1988 and 1998. The survey focused on personal adjustment in adulthood including such things as physical health status and behaviors, psychosocial well-being, engagement in normative and anti- normative behaviors, health-related behaviors, and life, career, and family satisfaction. A total of 807 interviews were completed and used for analysis: 56% were females; 43% were aged between 31 and 35 years; 71% had earned a post-secondary degree; 77% were employed full-time; 92% attended a public high school in Iowa; 50% had a graduating class of 100 students or fewer; 75% were ‗A‘ or ‗B‘ students in high school. Results of the study mirror those often found in the literature. Comprehensive 39 reviews of the literature on the impacts of high school sports participation show that engaging in extracurricular activities, especially sports, is associated with a number of positive life experiences for participants both during high school and later in life. In addition, participation in sports is associated with certain negative life experiences as well, particularly in the realm of substance use. The research (Lutz, Cornish, Gonnerman and Ralston, 2009) affirms these conclusions, but with a unique perspective. The research is conducted with Iowans; previous research has been conducted with national samples or with samples in other states. Results of this study add to what is known about how sports participation may impact life experiences of Iowans specifically. However, results of the report should be interpreted with caution. Association found between aspects of participation during high school and life experiences later in life are, in all cases, weak. In many cases, more than 95% of the variance in any given life experience measure is unexplained, meaning that participation, if significant predictor in the first place, is probably a very small, weak predictor of that life experience. Overall, participation in sports is associated with the following positive life experiences of Iowans: i. Engaging in vigorous physical activity during the week. ii. Reporting very good or excellent emotional health. iii. Having high self-esteem. iv. Not experiencing short- or long-term depression. v. Feeling satisfied with progress toward goals in domains of family, career, and general life. vi. Making active use of discretionary time outside the home. vii. Volunteering in the community viii. Voting in state and national elections. ix. Knowing the names of U.S. senators from Iowa. x. Accessing news outlets every day. xi. Completing a four year degree. xii. Having an annual household income greater than $50,000. xiii. Not having trouble paying bills. 40 xiv. Overall, participation in sports is associated with increased alcohol use. In general, participation in non-sport activities during high school was not associated with as many later-life experiences as participation in sports during high school, especially among males. In the domain of physical and mental health, association between aspects of participation in non-sport activities and life experiences were more common among females than among males. Furthermore, in these domains, associations between aspects of participation in sports activities and life experiences were more common among males than among females. Life experiences in the active use of discretionary time, volunteering, and political/news engagement among both males and females were influenced by aspects of non-sport participation during high school. 2.1.5.6. Female Participation in Part-time NCE programmes and Academic Achievements Two of the main themes that have been investigated in the literature pertaining to the academic quality of Part-time NCE programmes centre on the academic competence of the lecturers employed by the outreach centres anchoring the programmes (Oguntimehin, 2008) and whether the participants could compare favourably with full- time students (Adeyemi and Osunde, 2005; Akinwumi and Adeyanju; 2011) Oguntimehin (2008) conducted a study to assess the National Teachers' Institute (NTI) Kaduna Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) distance learning programme, in Ogun State of Nigeria. Specifically, the study examined the teaching personnel effectiveness in the training of NTI (NCE) students. He adopted a descriptive survey research, using ex-post facto design. The subjects used for the study were NTI(NCE) students selected using proportional sample fraction of 10%. Three research instruments namely: Current Students Assessment Questionnaire, Coordinators Assessment Questionnaire and Observation Checklist, were used for data collection. Research data were analysed using simple percentage, mean, standard deviation and student t-test. The findings showed, among others, that teaching personnel were qualitatively inadequate but quantitatively adequate. Based on the findings, it was recommended that tutors with higher qualifications than Bachelors degree should be employed for effective teaching. Adeyemi and Osunde (2005) analysed the academic achievement of students enrolled in part-times studies at on-campus and outreach centres at three dual-mode 41 Nigerian universities, during the 1996/97 to 1998/ 99 academic years. Research subjects in this study were examination and record officers employed by on-campus and outreach institutions. A checklist was prepared to collect students‘ grades; these checklists were then transcribed into grade points (GPAs) for data collection purposes. Simple percentage mean (x) and t-test statistic were used for data analysis. Interviews were also conducted with key stakeholders to add qualitative context to the quantitative data collected. The study showed that there was significant difference in the academic achievement of students enrolled in the on-campus versus outreach-based, part-time programmes in selected disciplines. Also the average mean (x) performance of students enrolled in the on-campus programme was higher than those students enrolled in the outreach centres. Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that the government provide adequate funding to increase access individuals seeking higher education in Nigeria. The establishment of functional Open University system was also recommended to provide students with distant learning opportunities and likewise increase access. Several quality improvements were likewise recommended: the use of modern information technology for instructional delivery, recruitment of skilled teachers, improved teaching/ learning facilities, and strict adherence to standardized student admission requirements as specified by the National Universities Commission (NUC). They provided practical suggestions, such as providing orientation sessions for outreach students to learn practical skills such as how to access library materials. Akinwumi and Adeyanju (2011) compared the post-training job-performance of sandwich and full-time NCE graduates in Ogun state, Nigeria with a view to determining the level of efficiency of the products of the programme. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Result shows that there were no significant differences in sandwich and full-time NCE graduates job-performance variables: lesson preparation and teaching methods and knowledge of professional practice and ethics . Furthermore, lesson preparation, teaching methods and knowledge of professional practice and ethics correlate positively with the productivity of sandwich and full-time graduates and full- time graduates. The result further shows that for sandwich graduates, the dependent variables made the following contributions to the prediction of job performance: lesson preparation (B = 0.258; p<0.05), teaching methods (B = 127; p<0.05) and knowledge of 42 professional practice and ethics (B = 0.016; p<0.05). In order to enhance the quality of sandwich education, there is need for upward adjustment of sandwich programmes ‘ contact period, introduction of entrance examination as well as creation of enabling environment for teaching and learning. 2.1.7. Motivations for Adult Learners Providing explanations for adults participation in continuing education has generated a lot of investigations in the literature. Pear (1938) cited maturity as the root of adult education. He portrays adults as interested in many different things, focused on social interests, and exhibiting the ability to plan realistically for the future. Adam (1940) found little evidence for a belief that adults looked for specific opportunities to discipline their minds. Rather, they were more interested in learning for its entertainment value, the promise of material advancement, or for increased personal power. Cross (1981) found that there is no satisfactory theory explaining motivation for adult learning, thus reaffirming the findings of Adam (1940). Houle (1961) states that, with regard to the reasons for participation in adult education, taking part is due to an affinity to the orientation of a specific group type of learners. Houle‘s adults fall into one of three groups: goal-oriented, activity-oriented, or learning-oriented. While these statements may be true for some, if not most, learners, it is the authors‘ belief that a group of learners exist who do not fit into these designated categories. Houle‘s assumption is that participation in continuing education is, essentially, internally motivated. A cluster analysis conducted by Boshier and Collins (1985) reveals a cognitive interest cluster, an activity orientation cluster, and a professional advancement cluster. These findings roughly coincide with the three types of adult learners described by Houle. With the possible exception of the professional advancement cluster (which can be internally or externally motivated), these findings ascribe exclusively internal motivation to adult learners. Johnstone and Rivera‘s (1965) landmark study finds that respondents reported participating in adult education to become better informed. Job-related reasons such as preparing for a new job or occupation and learning more about their present job were another motivator. They concluded that ―vocational goals most frequently direct adults 43 into continuing education…it appears that slightly more adults take courses for job preparation than for job advancement‖ (p 144). Even people who studied academic subjects did so for general information, job advancement, or job preparation purposes. This profile paints a middle-class picture of the average adult learner, similar to that put forth by Robinson and Canfield (1975). Some studies have used derived factor solutions or structures to explain motivations of adult learners. Boshier (1971), for example, developed the Education Participation Scale (EPS). In doing so, he identified fourteen different categories of motivations. They were social welfare, social contact, inner-directed professional advancement, intellectual recreation, other-directed professional advancement, social conformity, education preparedness, cognitive interest, education compensation, social sharing, television abhorrence, social improvement/escape, interpersonal facilitation, and education supplementation. Eventually the EPS was revised and, today, commonly contains five or six factors. External expectations describe adults who participate to acquiesce to the wishes of others or participate because it is mandated. Community service motivations are associated with helping humankind or the community. Some adults are motivated by social contact. They are desirous of making friends or fulfilling personal needs. Adults wanting to be accepted or escape their routines are motivated to participate by social stimulation. And, as previous studies suggested, adults participate for job improvement related reasons such as professional advancement. Finally, adults motivated to participate in adult education for cognitive interest pursue knowledge for its own sake. Since his introduction of the EPS in 1971, Boshier (1991) has developed an alternative form of the EPS that consists of seven factors–communication improvement, social contact, educational preparation, professional advancement, family togetherness, social stimulation, and cognitive interests. Morstain and Smart (1974) also found that adults were motivated by six factors– social relationships, external expectations, social welfare, professional advancement, escape/stimulation and cognitive. Adults who participated for social relationships did so in order to make new friends and gain insight into their personal problems. External expectations described those adults who complied with the wishes or directives of someone else with authority. For example, if a person teaches a particular course at his or 44 her church, he or she may be required to attend special classes designed for instructors. Adults who were motivated in preparation to serve others or their community participated for social welfare reasons. Professional advancement delineated adults seeking greater competence and higher status in their chosen profession. Escape/stimulation described adults who sought a way to alleviate boredom of daily routines and overcome the frustrations of everyday life. Adults who pursued knowledge for its own sake had cognitive reasons for participating. Aslanian and Brickell (1980) identified past, present, or future changes in their lives as reasons for adult participation in continuing education . In fact, career transitions have been found to be the main reason for deciding to learn. Other reasons however, included personal development and obtaining a college degree or diploma. Undoubtedly, work related motives appear to be the most dominant reason for adult education participation (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). Brock and Cammish (1997) classified factors affecting females participation in education into nine: geographical factors, socio-cultural factors, health factors, economic factors, religious factors, legal, political / administrative, educational, and initiatives. Geographical barriers are seen more as the presence of difficulties of physical access which adversely affect girls more than boys. Examples of this include rural/urban dichotomy; extreme physical difficulties, for instance, flooding and other hazards. Socio- cultural barriers include : cultural bias in favour of males; the widespread operation of patriarchal system of social organization; customary early marriage; incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage); heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas); a generally lower regard for the value of female life; and, problems of seclusion and security in some areas. Health factors include the effect of poverty and malnutrition on the health of school age children, which falls harder on girls than boys; that boys may get preferential feeding, while girls (who have a heavier domestic work load) are more likely to be undernourished; health problems associated with pregnancy, especially for adolescent girls; and, problems associated with family size and family planning. Economic factors include both direct and hidden costs to a family of sending daughters to school; and, perception that investment in a girl's schooling is wasteful since it benefits the family 45 into which a girl marries rather than her own. Religious factors include the practice of women seclusion in purdah; patriarchy; and practice of early marriage. Legal factors, though they act indirectly, include need for law reforms on equal access of gender to education; legislations against early marriage; legislations on divorce, inheritance, child abuse etc. Political/Administrative factors include the extent to which the political and administrative leaders have political will to enhance female participation in education programmes. Educational factors include difficulties of accessibility, lack of resources and low teacher quality and morale; and, the organisation of schooling in terms of the daily and seasonal imperatives of local economies usually renders it dysfunctional, and the curriculum is often unattractive in instrumental terms. Initiatives factors are the extent to which the government is ready to initiate strategies to eradicate observed challenges to females enrolment and participation in education. 2.1.8. Barriers to Women Participation in Education Within the literature on adult education, a good deal of attention has been given to explain 'non-participation', i.e. identifying and providing ample evidences on factors responsible for some individuals, especially women, not participating in educational programmes. Diverse methods have been adopted in conducting and reporting findings from the various researches on ‗non-participation‘, often tagged ‗barriers‘ to participation. Some researchers have simply identified the factors without venturing to classify them into categories like social, cultural, economic, political, administrative, and so on, while others have ventured to focus on some specific categories of factors. In this section, while we appreciate the fact that often-times, these categorization might provide some overlap, like in some factors being better classified as ‗socio-cultural‘ or ‗socio- economic‘ etc., for clarity of the contributions of each of the categories of factors, efforts are made to review studies that focus primarily on ‗social‘, ‗cultural‘ and / or ‗economic‘ factors as they serve as barriers to women participation in education programme. Despite our stance already stated above, we would like to review three studies that had an all-embracing view of barriers to women participation in education programmes, to provide examples of broader perception of the barriers to participation in education. These are Cross (1981), Graham-Brown (1991) and Brock and Cammish (1997). 46 Cross (1981) classified barriers to participation in education into three: situational barriers, institutional barriers and dispositional barriers. Situational barriers, according to him, are those arising from one‘s situation at a given time. Prominent among these are: ‗lack of money‘ i.e. the cost of studying, the cost of child care and so on; ‗lack of time‘, for example, because of job and home responsibilities; and ‗lack of transport to the study venue‘. Institutional barriers are those practices and procedures that exclude or discourage adults from participating in activities. Prominent among these are ‗inconvenient schedules or locations for programmes‘, ‗lack of relevant or appropriate programmes‘ and ‗the emphasis on full-time study in many institutions‘. Dispositional barriers are those related to attitudes and self-perceptions about oneself as a learner. Prominent among these are ―feeling 'too old' to learn‖, ―lack of confidence because of 'poor' previous educational achievements‖ and ―tired of school, tired of classrooms. In her discussion of education in the 'developing world', Graham-Brown (1991: 50) lists a series of filters, both within the educational system itself, and in the wider economy and society, which tend to reproduce existing social hierarchies. As she comments, these filters are of different types and intensities depending on the goals and character of particular governments and societies. She then classified the ‗filters‘ into six: i. those overtly defined by government policy: for example, exclusions based on race or language. those created by gaps in the education system (especially in rural areas). ii. those caused by the inability of certain disadvantaged groups to enrol or to remain at school because of language, gender or the poverty or isolation of the community. iii. the way the formal education system selects through examinations - although it may be formally accessible to all, relatively few are expected to complete all its stages. iv. the chances of a child completing school depend on his or her socio-economic circumstances, including the economic situation of the family, the educational background of parents and the perceived relevance of education. 47 v. different types of education in a particular society are given differing social and economic values: for example, private/public, academic/vocational, formal/non- formal. vi. the value placed on different types of work and skills: for example, manual as opposed to white-collar work. (Graham-Brown 1991). Brock and Cammish (1997) conducted a study on factors affecting female participation in education in seven developing nations - Bangladesh, Cameroon, India, Jamaica, Sierra Leone and Vanuatu, making two each from Africa, Asia and the Tropical Island Zones. In each location, in addition to interviewing key personnel and consulting local documentation, the researchers carried out two empirical surveys: a major exercise with primary school pupils to ascertain some of their perceptions on gender and education, and a minor exercise with students, mainly those training to be primary teachers for the same purpose. Results of the investigations were based on the findings from these sources. In the case of socio-cultural factors influencing females‘ participating in education, a major deterrent to female take up and follow through of educational opportunities (even when these are available) is a near universal fundamental cultural bias in favour of males. The widespread operation of patriarchal systems of social organisation; of customary early marriage; of the incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage); of heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas); a generally lower regard for the value of female life, all combine though differentially in each case, to adversely affect the participation of girls and women in formal education. To this list may be added problems of seclusion and security in some areas. Such long standing constraints result in a dearth of female role models that could challenge the traditional one that is clearly acquired by both sexes at a very early age. The influence of this factor can only be overcome, inter alia by a profound change of attitude on the part of influential males, and in some countries of traditionally minded powerful females in key family positions. 2.1.9. Empirical Studies Apart from the theoretical and conceptual references, there have been a number of empirical studies that examined the influence of social, cultural and economic factors on females participation in education programmes. For instance, Glewwe and Jacoby (1994) 48 conducted a study on factors that affect girl-child‘s participation in education in Turkey. Their results suggest that [in Turkey] occupation of the household head, size and the composition of the family, and education of the parents have a significant impact on the schooling decision for girls. Okojie‘s (1995) study on gender gap in participation in education in Nigeria indicates that where there is financial stress, boys are usually given preference over girls in matters of schooling. A research conducted by Brock and Cammish (1997) on factors affecting female participation in education in seven developing nations - Bangladesh, Cameroon, India, Jamaica, Sierra Leone and Vanuatu – identify ‗near universal fundamental cultural bias in favour of males‘ as the most prominent factor inhibiting females‘ participation in education. This bias, they noted, manifested in forms customary early marriage; incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage); heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas); generally lower regard for the value of female life, which all combine though differentially in each case, to adversely affect the participation of girls and women in formal education. Ankerbo and Hoyda (2003), in their studies on females participation in the Third World, identify household work, which is a great time consumer, leaving little room for studying and less energy to the motivation needed for performing well in school, as a major obstacle to females [both girls and women] participating in educational programmes in Third World countries. Mwangi, (2004), in his studies on primary school enrolment in Kenya, observed that despite the introduction of free primary education in the country which accounted for an increase in enrolment, a sizeable number of children, especially girls, still find themselves out of school owing to a number of reasons. These reasons, according to him, are: demands for their labour in the homes such as assisting in looking after their young siblings; child marriage, doing house chores, death of mother, and looking after the sick member of the family. Some of the girls are given to marriage against their wish and when they refuse, they are threatened with death. Leste (2004) conducted a study in East Timor, to investigate ‗why Timorese women were not participating in education programmes‘. Using the cultural approach, the study illustrates that a woman‘s decision to participate or not participate is not solely 49 based on individual wants or disinterest, but a decision strongly informed by the norms, roles, values and perceptions embedded in the home and community. Okeke, Nzewi and Njoku (2008) identify child labour, poverty and lack of sponsorship, quest for wealth, bereavement, truancy, broken home, engagement of children as house helps, as factors or the clog in the wheel of children‘s participation in education in the UNICEF A-Field made up of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Benue, Cross River, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo and River states of Nigeria. Adetunde & Akensina (2008) investigated current factors affecting the standard of female education in the Kassena-Nankana district in Upper East Region of Ghana. Poverty, long-held negative attitudes about women‘s intellectual capabilities, teenage pregnancy, early marriage, examination failure in mathematics and science and the traditional division of household labour were found to be among the many factors that continue to keep vast numbers of girls out of the classroom in the district and country as well. Oguntimehin (2008) conducted a study to assess the National Teachers' Institute (NTI) Kaduna Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) distance learning programme, in Ogun State of Nigeria. Specifically, the study examined the teaching personnel effectiveness in the training of NTI (NCE) students. The findings showed, among others. that teaching personnel were qualitatively inadequate but quantitatively adequate. Magugula and Ngwenya (2004) conducted a study to determine the academic achievement of distance and full -time learners in the following subjects in the following subjects: Academic Communication Skills (ACS), History, Theology, African Languages, Geography, and English. Academic achievement was operationalized as the overall average mark or grade obtained by a learner in each of the six subjects in year one of the final examination at the University of Swaziland. The results indicate that, with the exception of Theology, off-campus learners consistently performed better than on- campus learners in five subjects: Academic Communication Skills (ACS), History, African Languages and Literature, Geography, and English Language and Literature. Adeyemi and Osunde (2005) analysed the academic achievement of students enrolled in part-times studies at on-campus and outreach centres at three dual-mode Nigerian universities, during the 1996/97 to 1998/ 99 academic years. The study shows that there was significant difference in the academic achievement of students enrolled in 50 the on-campus versus outreach-based, part-time programmes in selected disciplines. Also the average mean (x) performance of students enrolled in the on-campus programme was higher than those students enrolled in the outreach centres. Akinwumi and Adeyanju (2011) compared the post-training job-performance of sandwich and full-time NCE graduates in Ogun state, Nigeria with a view to determining the level of efficiency of the products of the programme. Result shows that there were no significant differences in sandwich and full-time NCE graduates job-performance variables. 2.2.0 Theoretical Framework Although diverse theories and models exist in the literature on adult education, the ones that are adjudged germane to the present study are participation models and theories that strive to provide explanations on why people do (or do not) participate in education programmes. Reviews in this section are limited to those that are specifically focused on formal learning activities and that are very much relevant to the focus of the study. In this category are Chain of Response Model (Cross, 1981), and Interdisciplinary, Sequential-Specificity, Time-Allocation, Life-span (ISSTAL) model (Cookson, 1986). 2.2.1. Cross’ Chain of Response (COR) and Characteristics of Adult Learner (CAL) Models Cross (1981) proposes two major models to explain adult participation in learning. The first of these, she dubbed the COR (Chain-of-Response) model, and the second she called Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL) model. Reynolds (1986) describes how Cross delineated some common elements of earlier participation models for the COR model: (a) motivation to participate is the result of an individual's perception of both positive and negative forces; (b) certain personality types are difficult to attract to education because of low self-esteem; (c) there is congruence between participation and anticipated learning outcomes; (d) higher order needs for achievement and self-actualization cannot be fulfilled until lower-order needs for security and safety are met; and (e) expectations of reward are important to motivation. Arrows show one or two-way relationships among seven elements of the model, including (A) self-evaluation, which was interrelated with (B) attitudes about education, 51 (C) importance of making and meeting goals, which was affected by (D) life transactions, with "C" also interrelated with (E) opportunities and barriers, which was affected by (F) information about the environment, with "E" also impacting on (G) participation, and "G" impacting back on "C". Cross believed the model should not be viewed as linear, although her two-dimensional depiction is linear visually. As Merriam and Caffarella (1991, p. 237) note, it is "also a reciprocal model in that participation in adult education [point] (G) can affect how one feels about education (B) and oneself as a learner (A)." Her second model, tagged ‗Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL), offers ―a tentative framework to accommodate current knowledge about what we know about adults as learners, in the hope that it may suggest ideas for further research and for implementation" (1981, p. 234). Her purpose was to describe some differences between adults and children so alternative teaching strategies could be developed. The model's visual depiction shows two classes of variables. The first is titled personal characteristics, including variables labelled Physiological/Aging, Socio- cultural/Life Phases, and Psychological/Developmental Stages. The second is labelled situational characteristics, including variables titled Part-Time Learning Versus Full- Time Learning and Voluntary Learning Versus Compulsory Learning. The personal characteristics are depicted as continuous in nature with before and after arrows used to enhance this visual image. The situational variables are intended to show primarily dichotomous relationships. Cross (1981) includes a second figure with three continua depicting each characteristic's continuous nature. She also detailed information about the personal and situational characteristics, and wove in some available research information. Included were examples of how people might exhibit certain characteristics. She concludes by discussing some implications in terms of current or needed research. Referring to these two models and other research described in the publication, she noted, "I hope and believe that many of the questions educators have about adult learning will be illuminated by the research reported in this book, but I hope even more strongly that readers will be helped to formulate new questions and to think in new ways about the future of the learning society" (1981, p. 249). Cross‘ (1981) models have made diverse contributions to knowledge in adult 52 education studies. One of the things Cross attempted to accomplish was to synthesize the work of several adult education scholars. For example, she believed that some "of the assumptions of andragogy can be incorporated into [the] CAL construct" (1981, p. 238). These included such notions as readiness and self-concept. The CAL framework also provided a means for thinking about the ever-changing adult in terms of developmental stages. A major contribution of Cross‘ COR model is its bringing together a number of elements in a useful way. Crucially, it emphasizes the interaction between various elements and in so doing moves away from simplistic explanations. Many researchers have adopted and / or adapted Cross‘ models for their research works. For instance, Beaudin (1982) reviewed literature on student retention and described the COR model as a means for understanding participation. Reynolds (1986) seeks to refine the COR model and explain who participates in learning activities by examining measures of self-actualization and self-directed readiness among adult community college students. However, Cross believed that the psychological aspects of her COR model were the most important: "If adult educators wish to understand why some adults fail to participate in learning opportunities, they need to begin at the beginning of the COR model -- with an understanding of attitudes toward self and education" (1981, p. 130). Other researchers that have applied the COR model include Yorke (1999) and Carroll, Ng and Birch (2009). Yorke‘s (1999) research into student attrition adopted Cross‘ COR model in considering the issue of retention and the factors and reasons that may be relevant to examine attrition in the student context. Although conducted in 1999, Yorke‘s research is still very much relevant today and the factors he identified as contributing to attrition are still applicable, particularly when the factors are considered in the context of the Chain of Response Model. In applying the COR in their research, Carroll, Ng and Birch (2009) categorises barriers to students participation in tertiary education as being ‗situational, institutional or dispositional in nature‘ . They explained situational factors as those ‗factors which arise from the student‘s particular life circumstances, such as the need to spend time with family, care for dependents and undertake work responsibilities‘ (2009, p. 198). 53 Situational factors are an important aspect of student attrition and retention. As Carroll, Ng and Birch (2009:198) highlight: Prior research … has suggested that the majority of students who withdraw from tertiary education and subsequently re-enrol indicate that they originally withdrew from study due to situational reasons. This implies that once a student‟s situational issues were resolved they were free to re-enrol having no other predisposition that led them to be unsuccessful in their studies. This has important implications for retention management because, in spite of some situational factors being unavoidable, other barriers such as financial issues and lack of time may be able to be addressed by institutional interventions. Institutional factors are then those factors ‗that result from procedures, policies and structures of the educational institution that exclude or discourage working adults from participating in educational activities‘ (2009, p.199). From an institutional perspective an understanding of these factors is important. Not only do they indicate where the institution itself may improve but at a programme and course level may indicate where curriculum (re)design and course enhancement may improve retention (Richardson & Hinton, 2010). The third category in the framework is dispositional factors. Carroll, Ng and Birch (2009, p. 199) explain dispositional factors in the following way; ‗dispositional (or attitudinal) factors are individually and collectively held beliefs, values, attitudes or perceptions that may inhibit a person‘s participation in organized activities.‘ Situational factors, institutional factors and dispositional factors then become the categories under which specific factors can be collected. Within each of these factors Carroll, Ng and Birch (2009, p. 200) identify 14 factors that they suggest arise from the literature. Cross‘ COR model has been faulted on three major issues: First, although Cross (1981: 129) makes clear that she has over-emphasized the linearity of the model to illustrate the cumulative nature of the forces, there are problems about the systemic way in which she sets out the process. Theorising about the process of reflection generally also falls into this trap. As Dewey (1933: 199-209) has argued things often happen all at once, elements are jumped, matters need not move in a 'logical' order. I suspect what we need is something much more fuzzy and less linear than this - a model which allows for zig-zagging movements, and for interaction and accumulation (Smith 1994: ch. 7). 54 Second, the theories that Cross (1981) draws on are culturally-bound. We need to look, in particular, at the notion of the 'self' involved - and ask to what extent does it reflect dominant western views of the individual. The way we understand ourselves is bound up with the culture of which we are a part. The ideas around the self that many Western educators hold as 'obvious' are rather peculiar in the context of the world's cultures (Geertz, 1983: 59). To members of socio-centric organic cultures the concept of the autonomous individual, free to choose and mind his own business, must feel alien, a bizarre idea cutting the self off from the interdependent whole, dooming it to a life of isolation and loneliness. Linked to each other in an interdependent system, members of organic cultures take an active interest in one another's affairs, and feel at ease regulating and being regulated. Indeed, others are the means to one's functioning and vice versa. (Schweder & Bourne 1984: 194). 2.2.2 Interdisciplinary Sequential Specificity Time-Allocation Life-Span (ISSTAL) Model In his endeavours to put forth a ―framework for theory and inquiry directed at understanding aspects of the human condition which influence an individual‘s involvement in purposive learning activities‖ (Cookson, 1986:130), Cookson (1986) proposes the ISSTAL Model. The framework is based on an interdisciplinary model developed to explain and predict social participation. The model presumes that human behavior is somewhat predictable and can be determined by some identifiable and measurable characteristics of the person and the environment (Nason, 1998). The social participation model which was the basis of Cookson‘s work is the Interdisciplinary Sequential Specificity Time-Allocation Life-Span (ISSTAL) Model. Cookson (1986) makes the point that the ISSTAL model did not constitute a fully- developed theory, but was being used as a basis for further study and the development of an empirically-grounded theory of adult education participation. The model comprises one dependent variable – adult education participation -- which is a result of the combined and interactive influence of six classes of independent antecedent variables: external context, social background and social roles, personality and intellectual capacity, 55 attitudinal dispositions, retained information, and situational factors. There are three characteristics of the ISSTAL model, denoted by its name: (1) it has an interdisciplinary conceptual framework, (2) there is a sequential specificity of relations among the independent variables and between those variables and the dependent variable—adult education participation, and (3) there is a time allocation life span perspective (Cookson, 1986). The interdisciplinary conceptual framework the author employs includes concepts and relationships from a number of areas, particularly physiology, anthropology, political science, sociology, psychology, and the discipline of adult education. The sequential specificity of relations is manifested in the causal interconnection of the independent variables. Except for the situational variables, the independent variables exert most of their influence on participation in adult education through interaction with one or more of the other intervening variables. Thus, the farther left on the ―breadth of relevance‖ continuum the variable lies, the more diluted its impact and the greater probability that effect will be influenced by subsequent variables (Nason, 1998). The time allocation-life span perspective of the model was based on the finding that social participation tends to fit into life-long patterns. Thus, those who participate in social activities, including adult education, early in their lives will tend to continue that level of participation in their later years. The opposite was also postulated--a low participation level early in life will tend to remain low in future years (Nason, 1998). Cookson (1986) leaves the characterization of the dependent variable, adult education participation, to the reader. He states that previous definitions have included both formal and informal education activities and independent studies. Additionally, he states that participation has been loosely defined in several ways: participants/non- participants or participants/nonparticipants/would-be participants. The author implies that a clear definition of adult education participation can be left to the reader because regardless of that definition, the dependent variable will still be a consequent of the six classes of independent variables. The first class of independent variables are those pertaining to external contextual factors. These factors refer to those over which the individual probably has had little 56 control but which have contributed to the development of the individual‘s personality and social background. Examples of external contextual factors might be climate, topography, and population density. Cookson (1986, p. 133) states that these types of variables, particularly the effects of culture and social structure ―have been largely ignored in the adult education literature‖. The second class of variables used in the ISSTAL model, social background and social role factors, comprises five types of social characteristics: physical and physiological features; ascribed social positions and roles; voluntary or achieved social positions and roles; experience and activity history; and resources, possessions, and access to resources. Cookson (1986) discusses each of these in detail: (i) Physical and physiological features: The most commonly cited factor is age. The author attacks the notion that age is inversely related to participation, claiming that such findings may be an artifact of faulty sampling and analysis. He contends that longitudinal studies may be the only way to justify an age-related finding. (ii) Ascribed social positions and roles: The most powerful predictor of participation in this category has been observed to be formal educational attainment. The author claims that most studies have unjustly reduced other social role variables to insignificance. (iii) Voluntary or achieved social positions and roles: The author states that there have been no empirical tests of how these variables effect participation. He does cite findings that certain imperatives of the job structure may mediate the influence of other variables such as educational attainment. Job conditions have also been shown to effect psychological functioning, participation in organised voluntary action, and leisure time activities. (iv) Experience and activity history: The author states that the impact of unique personal experience had yet to be thoroughly examined. However, he then goes on to cite two studies that found life transitions such as job changes, marriage, arrival of a child, and retirement preceded decisions to participate in adult education. (v) Resources, possessions, and access to resources: Income has generally been used as the measure for this category. The author suggests that other measures may be 57 available to broaden this category but does not state what those measures might be. The third class of variables used in the model, personality and intellectual capacity factors, concern themselves with the individual‘s psyche that probably endure over time and circumstances. These are somewhat permanent ―dispositions of individuals to think, feel, want, and act in certain ways and not in others, depending on the circumstances‖ (Cookson, 1986, p. 135). The only reference made to intellectual capacity, as measured by intelligence test scores, is that such capacities appear to be related to completion rates of adult basic education participants (Cookson, 1986). Class IV variables, attitudinal dispositions, are less enduring and do not cross situational lines as do the those in Class III. This class of variables consists of values, attitudes, expectations, and intentions. Values are defined as the motivational dispositions that apply across different situations. These were further broken into terminal values-- where one would like to wind up, and intermediate values--how one gets there. Attitudes refer to how a person will respond to specific situations. Cookson (1986) states that attitudes are dependent upon what people believe about the outcomes of participating and how much value they place on those outcomes. The intention to participate appears to be an interaction among attitude, perception of significant others, and motivation to comply with one‘s own beliefs about whether or not to participate. Expectations are more closely related to the immediate situation, but do include what a person believes about the likelihood of how participation will affect future events. A positive expectancy about completing an adult education activity and the associated results will enhance participation. Intentions refer to the will to act and appear most closely related to educational interests (Nason, 1998). The fifth class of variables in the ISSTAL model , retained information, consists of the growing array of information stored in the mind in the form of images, beliefs, knowledge, and plans. Knowledge refers to the beliefs that an individual thinks are true and correspond to reality. According to Cookson (1986), the only variable in this class that has been studied in relation to participation in adult education was knowledge as it denoted awareness of education programs. The variables in Class VI, situational variables, exert the most immediate effects on participation in adult education. A 58 definition of the situation is ―the end result of the cognitive process whereby an individual takes in sensations and perceptions or remembers stored information, puts it all together, and makes holistic sense of what is currently happening‖ (Cookson, 1986, p. 138). Another characteristic of this class is the relative amount of personal, physical, mental, and emotional energy individuals perceive to be available for participation. The article touts the ISSTAL model as a ―comprehensive interdisciplinary explanatory and predictive scheme and a behavioral analogue of the multiple forms of social participation‖ (Cookson, 1986, p. 139). This quotation implies that a significant portion of the ISSTAL model is based on studies of participation in social activities other than adult education. Throughout the article is the suggestion that what worked for social participation in general ought to work for participation in adult education, another form of social behavior. Cookson (1986) claims the ISSTAL model is significant to the field for three reasons. First, ―it provides a conceptual scheme for the integration of currently separate, disparate, and discipline-bound theoretical explanations and research findings‖ (Cookson, 1986, p. 139). In this regard, the ISSTAL model provides for the transfer of findings gained in other social participation studies to research in adult education participation (Nason, 1998). Second, ―the model highlights the importance of examining adult education participation in relation to other forms of individual discretionary behavior, the differential patterns of adult education participation across the life cycle, and various psychological, sociological, and macro-societal factors‖ (Cookson, 1986, p. 139). Third, ―with respect to its practical significance for adult education practitioners (counselors, instructors, and program planners), the ISSTAL model suggests some points for intervention in order to increase the probability of program participation‖ (Cookson, 1986, p.139). Perhaps participation could be enhanced by changing occupational conditions, beliefs and knowledge about the available programs and the benefits of participating in those programs, and the characteristics of the programs that cause negative feelings. 2.2.3 A Model for the Study An adaptation of Cookson‘s (Op. cit) Interdisciplinary, Sequential-Specificity, Time-Allocation, Life-span (ISSTAL) Model is adopted for this research. The details of the adaptation are presented in figure 2.1. The model is anchored on the ISSTAL model. 59 The model sees female‘s participation in part-time NCE programme as an outcome of various intervention strategies from the environment. If the environment is conducive for the female - in terms of having conducive peers influence, not being encumbered with too much household chores, not being bogged down by early marriage, not believing that females have lower mental capabilities than men, has female role model(s), not hindered by religious practices, not fearing possible sexual harassment from teachers or co- students, not being hindered by costs of education, enjoying financial and/or moral supports from parents and spouse - she will be able to participate actively in the education programme - in terms of enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment and social activities – have sound education, become skillful, resourceful, employed in better position, and become a role model for others. If, on the other hand, the environment is not conducive for female participation in the part-time N,C,E, programme, she will not be enthusiastic about participating in the programme, and even, if she participates, might not perform excellently in the programme. 60 Participation Intervention Personal Degree of Output Expectations Participation Conducive Social, Cultural and Economic Factors Active Participation in Positive Results Female - Conducive peer influence; - Enrolment of Participating - Little /No household chores; High - Class attendance - Educated female - No pressure on early marriage; - Classroom interaction - Skillful - Beliefs in her mental capabilities; - Continuous assessment - Resourceful - Has female role model(s); - Social activities - Employable (in - Not hindered by religious practices; better positions) - Does not fear possible sexual harassment; - Role model for - Not hindered by costs of education; - Enjoys spouse‘s moral and/or financial support; - Enjoys parents‘ moral and/or financial support Environment Non-conducive Social, Cultural and Economic Poor or Non-active Negative Results of Factors participation in poor participation - Non-conducive peer influence; - Enrolment - Uneducated female - Too much household chores; Low - Classroom attendance - Unskillful - Pressure on early marriage; - Classroom interaction -Unresourceful - Has no belief in her mental capabilities; - Continuous assessment - Overworked with labour - Has no female role model; - Social activities - Unrespected/ - Hindered by religious practices; unrecognized - Fears possible sexual harassment; - Non role model - Hindered by costs of education; - Does not enjoy spouse‘s moral and/or financial support; -Does not enjoy parents‘ moral and/or financial support. Feedback FIG. 2.1: MODEL FOR FEMALE PARTICIPATION IN PART-TIME NCE PROGRAMME Source: Adapted from Crookson, P. (1986) 61 The crux of the model is that if the intervention strategy like peers participating, not being encumbered by household chores, not believing in women being mentally inferior to men, enjoying parents and husband‘s encouragement to mention a few, are put in place, definitely the adult female will have adequate participation in the educational programme and a skillful, empowered, and a resourceful educated woman will be produced who will become an educated mother. The model identified the importance of personal expectations of the participants in deciding the outcome of their participation in the part-time NCE programmes. For instance, strong personal expectations on the part of some of the women could enable them overcome the prevailing non-conducive social, cultural and economic factors in their environment, participate actively in the programmes and ultimately achieve the goal of becoming educated with its attendant benefits. 2.3. Appraisal of Literature Review Relevant literature relating to the problem of study was reviewed. The literature reviewed was divided into sections. The first aspect reviewed motivations for adult participation in adult education programmes. The second aspect examined the diverse barriers to adult participation in education programmes. Prominent among the barriers identified in the reviewed literature include social, cultural, economic, physical and psychological factors. The third was on indicators of participation in education programmes. This was examined in terms of enrolment; class attendance and academic performance; class interaction; participation in continuous assessment; and, participation in social activities. The fourth examined female participation in part-time NCE programmes and academic achievements. From the review of the available literature, it is clear that social, cultural and economic factors have been identified as some of the factors influencing females‘ participation in education programmes. The theoretical framework and the review of the literature support the need for the testing of hypotheses and research questions raised for the study. 2.4. Research Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were raised and tested at the 0.05 level of significance: H01: Social, cultural and economic factors do not have significant joint effect on females enrolment for part-time NCE programmes. 62 H02: There is no significant relationship between social factors and female participation factors in part-time NCE programme (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities). H03: There is no significant relationship between cultural factors and female participation factors in part-time NCE programme (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities). H04: There is no significant relationship between economic factors and female participation factors in part-time NCE programme (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities). 63 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1.1 Research Design The descriptive survey design was adopted for this study. The design afforded the researcher the opportunity to describe the characteristics of the sampled respondents accurately as factually as possible. Survey also allowed the researcher to take some of the population out for more description. This is because the independent variables-socio-cultural and economic factors - have existed and no attempt was made to manipulate them. 3.1.2 Population The population for the study comprises all female that are currently participating in part-time NCE programmes in south western Nigeria, irrespective of their courses and / or level in the programme. 3.1.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques A multistage sampling procedure was adopted in the selection of respondents for the study. The first stage involved random selection of three states among the six states in south-western geopolitical zone. Ogun, Osun and Oyo states were selected. The second stage involved purposively selecting a college of education that meets the following criteria in each of the selected states: it must have been in existence for more than 20 years; it must have a part-time NCE programme in the school of education that has been run for more than ten years; its part-time NCE programme must enjoy highest females enrolment than any other college of education in the state; and convenience of the researcher to obtain relevant data from the college. The three colleges of education that were finally selected were: Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta, Ogun State; Osun State College of Education, Ilesa, Osun State; and, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Oyo State. Selecting the college of education to study was quite easy in Ogun state where only the Federal College of Education, Osiele, was the only College of Education that met the required condition of being selected. In the case of Osun and Oyo states where more than one college of education met the required criteria, balloting was adopted. Osun State College of Education, Ilesa, was selected in Osun State, while Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, was selected in Oyo State. 64 In each of the selected college of education, school of education was purposively selected because the college has the highest number of students in each school, and also has the highest population of students participating in part-time NCE programmes. With the assistance of research assistants recruited and trained by the researcher, the study centres used for part-time programmes by the selected colleges of education were identified, the total current enrolment for the programmes were obtained, and copies of a set of pre-tested questionnaires were administered to 50 per cent of females participating in part-time NCE programmes in all the study centres of selected institutions. In all, a total of 1,072 copies of the questionnaire were administered out of which 1,024 copies were correctly filled, retrieved and used for analysis. The breakdown of the administered and returned copies of the questionnaire is presented in Table 3.1. Table 3.1.: Breakdown of copies of the Questionnaire Administered and Retrieved Colleges of Education Female Copies of Questionnaires Population Administered Retrieved Federal College, Osiele 445 223 199 Emmanuel Alayande College, Oyo 627 314 310 Osun State College, Ilesa 1071 535 515 Total 2143 1,072 1,024 Source: Author‘s field surveys, 2011. With the assistance of the programme coordinators, 40 instructors were randomly selected and sampled with the aid of another set of questionnaires. In all, 120 instructors were sampled. 3.1.4 Instruments Two sets of questionnaires were the major instruments used for collecting data. These were Females‘ Participation Questionnaire with five sub- scales(administered to females participating in the education programme) and Females Academic Performance Scale (administered to instructors teaching in the various study centres). These were complemented with Focus Group Discussion (FGD) sessions. 3.1.4.1 Females’ Participation Questionnaire The first set of questionnaire contained five major factor scales meant to capture the whole gamut of the study. These are: Social Factors Scale, Cultural 65 Factors Scale, Economic Factors Scale, Female Participation Scale and Part-time NCE programmes Inventory. These were complemented with the Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The first set of questionnaire was divided into five sections: Section A: Demographic Data; Section B: Social Factors; Section C: Cultural Factors; Section D: Economic Factors; and Section E: Perceptions on academic performance. Sections B, C D and E used modified 4-point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) to measure female participants‘ participating in part-time NCE programmes. The Likert method facilitates measurement of respondents opinions by adding or averaging their responses across all items (Longe, Longe and Ukpebo 2009; Uebersax, 2006). Validity is the degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it is designed to measure. The two sets of questionnaire used for the study, were subjected to critical item by item review in relations to the variables expected in the objectives of the study as contained in the hypotheses postulated. This was done through assistance from experts in psychometrics, psychology, guidance and counseling and adult education in Faculty of Education and Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, to validate the content. The instruments were also subjected to both content validity and construct validity. The corrections and modifications made on the sets of questionnaires submitted were effected and thereafter approved by the project supervisor for reliability test. Reliability has to do with the extent or level of consistency, dependency, accuracy and stability of the instrument in measuring what it has been designed to measure. To ensure that the instruments were reliable, a test re-test was conducted on 100 similar respondents from some of the existing study centres similar to the ones under study, but not included in the selected sample. This was done to observe how the selected sample elements will react to the questionnaire items. This was based on clarity and understanding of the questionnaires, so as to determine whether there is the need for further modification. The sampled population for the pilot survey was not, in any way, part of the final population to be sampled. Data from the test re-test were then analysed using the Cronbach alpha coefficient reliability test. For the first set of questionnaires, the following reliability (r) values were obtained: Social factor scale ( r = 0.81); Cultural factor scale (r = 0.93); Economic factor scale (r = 0.74); Female participation scale (r = 0.69); and, Continuing education programme inventory 66 (r = 0.88). These reliability scores were considered reliable because Cronbach (2005, cited in Peña Flores and Alonso Castillo, 2006) establishes that any test instrument that scored 0.60 and above is consistent, repeatable, stable and dependable for data collection in any empirical research. Thus, the set of questionnaire was reliable for data collection. 3.1.4.2 Females Academic Performance Scale With the assistance of programme coordinators in the selected colleges of education, the second set of questionnaires were administered to the instructors. The questionnaire was designed to obtain information on the instructors‘ perception on the effects of ‗participation‘ on participants‘ academic achievement. Modified 4-point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) was used to measure instructors‘ perception on the influence of indices of participation - class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities – on participants‘ academic achievement. The set of questionnaire was subjected to critical item by item review in relations to the variables expected in the objectives of the study as contained in the hypotheses postulated. The corrections and modifications made on the sets of questionnaires submitted were effected and thereafter approved by the project supervisor for reliability test. Reliability tests were conducted on the second set of questionnaire in a pilot survey. As was done for the first set of questionnaires, the sampled population for the pilot survey was not, in any way, part of the final population sampled for the study. Data from the test re-test were then analysed using Cronbach alpha coefficient reliability test. The following reliability (r) values were obtained: class attendance (r = 0.68), class interaction (r = 0.74), participation in continuous assessment (0.72), and. Participation in social activities (0.69). These reliability scores were considered reliable because Cronbach (2005, cited in Peña Flores and Alonso Castillo, 2006) test that establishes that any test instrument that scored 0.60 and above is consistent, repeatable, stable and dependable for data collection in any empirical research. Thus, the two set of questionnaires were considered reliable for data collection. 3.1.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) To complement the data obtained from the set of questionnaires, the researcher conducted Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) among the students in six study centres randomly selected at the rate of two per college of education. Each FGD comprises 67 between eight and 12 members carefully selected to represent the diverse levels and courses available in each centre. Each FGD was conducted within the time-frame of eight weeks in which two sessions were held with each group in each of the six study centres selected for the study. In all, a total of twelve FGD groups were constituted for the study. Each FGD groups comprises of between eight to 12 individuals selected from identified stakeholders in the community. During the various sessions, certain questions formed the guide for discussions within the timeframe of 30 minutes each with the various groups. The responses were recorded, transcribed and summarised as part of the qualitative results. The focus group discussion was based on the following guides: (i) Female participation and part-time NCE programmes; (ii) Social factors and females‘ participation in enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities in part- time NCE programmes of colleges of education; (iii) Cultural factors and females‘ enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education. (iv) Economic factors and indices of females‘ participation (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education. (v) Females‘ participation in enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. (vi) Female participation and their academic achievements in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education. 3.1.5 Administration of the Instruments The research instruments were personally administered by the researcher and six research assistants employed and trained in the administration of questionnaire by the researcher. Two research assistants were recruited from each state to facilitate better understanding and foster accurate responses to the items as contained in the questionnaires on the part of the respondents. 3.1.6 Method of Data Analysis The data collected through the questionnaire were collated and analysed, using the descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics like frequency 68 counts and simple percentages were used to describe the demographic status of the respondents. The Likert scale was measured by adding their responses across all items and converting the total score to percentages. Inferential statistics of Pearson‘s product moment correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. 69 CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS This chapter deals with the analysis of the data collected and discussion of the findings based on the hypotheses formulated and research questions raised for the study. 4.1. Analysis of Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Population‘s demographic characteristics investigated in the study are: age, marital status, religious affiliation, occupation, average monthly income, father‘s level of education, mother‘s level of education, father‘s religious affiliation, and, mother‘s religious affiliation. % 50-59 0% 40-49 <20 14% 9% 30-39 21% 20-29 56% Fig.4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Age (in years) Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Figure 4.1 reveals that more than a half (56%) of the sampled population are aged between 20 and 29 years, followed by respondents aged between 30 and 39 years, who constitute 21% of the samples. Less than 1% of the respondents are aged between 50 and 59 years of age. The observed pattern of having more participation among young people, with population of those participating decreasing with each successive age, corroborates earlier findings by Sargant‘s (1997) reports on a survey funded by the United Kingdom‘s Department for Education and Employment, and carried out for National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education (NIACE), the 70 national organisation for adult learning, by the Gallup Organisation, where the ages of participants in continuing education programmes decreased from 86% for 17 – 19 years old to 15% for the 75 plus population. % 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 Single Married Divorced Separated Widow Fig. 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. Figure 4.2 reveals that married respondents constitute as high as 61% of the sampled population, followed by 13% that are single. The least prominent are widows, constituting only 2%, while ‗divorced‘ and ‗separated‘ respondents account for 5% and 8% respectively. The high incidence of ‗married‘ respondents might not be unconnected with the cultural values attached to being married in south-western Nigeria. The common traditional practice of polygyny in the study area might also be a significant reason. Possible influence of the fact that up to 16.9% of the participating respondents are either divorced or separated from their husbands, despite the general stigmatisation such marital status attract among the Yorubas was further investigated and reported at the appropriate section of this report. 71 % 60 50 40 30 % 20 10 0 Christianity Islam Af. Tr. Rel Fig. 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Religious Affiliations Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 From Figure 4.3, it is observed that 49% of the respondents belong to Islamic religion, 40% are Christians and 6% belong to Traditional African Religions. The observed distribution of participating female respondents by religion might be a reflection of the general pattern of population distribution in south western Nigeria. 72 Private Others% Sec 1% FarmingPublic Ser 3% 5% 4% Teaching 2% Artisan Business 37% 48% Fig. 4.4: Distribution of Respondents by Occupation Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. Figure 4.4. reveals that the respondents belong to seven different occupations, which are: farming, business, artisan, teaching, public service, private sector, and ‗others‘. The most prominent occupation is ‗business‘, involving mostly trading at various scales, in which 48% of the respondents are engaged. Next in order of prominence among the respondents, are the artisans, comprising 37%, teaching and public service comprise 2% and 5% respectively, private sector comprises 4%, farmers constitute 3%, and ‗others‘, comprising mostly unemployed youths, constitute less than 1% of the respondents. Observed high incidence of people in ‗business‘ and ‗artisans‘ among the participating respondents, constituting, jointly, about 85.0%, might owe much to historical antecedents of south-western Nigeria, where ‗Free Primary Education‘ was started in 1955, and ‗Free Education at All Levels‘ was started in 1979. Though education in public primary and secondary schools have thus been tuition-free in the study area since 1979 (for the past 32 years), other socio-cultural and economic forces, other than ‗need to pay tuition fees‘ compel some individuals to withdraw, at one point or the other, from the formal educational system. That some of the people in this category might strive to complete their educational pursuits through non-formal education, might be significant in providing reasonable explanations for their observed predominance among participating respondents. There is thus the need for further investigations into the predominance of business people and artisans in part-time NCE programmes in south western Nigeria. 73 % 50 40 30 % 20 10 0 <10 10.0-19.9 20.0-39.9 40.0-59.9 ≥60.0 Fig. 4.5: Distribution of Respondents by Average Monthly Income ( ₦‘000) Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Figure 4.5 reveals that as high as 81% of the respondents earn less than twenty thousand naira per month, with 33% earning less than ten thousand naira. That more than 80% of the respondents were poorly paid might play a very significant role in their participating as possible salary increment and change in employment status at the end of the programme might be significant factors that encouraged their participation. Possibilities of enhancing income and social status have been identified in the literature, as some of the reasons why women participate in education programmes (Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003; Nwangi, 2004; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). 74 % Secondary 6% None 35% Primary 59% Fig. 4.6: Distribution of Respondents by Father‘s Level of Education Source: Researcher‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Figure 4.6 reveals that only 35% of the respondents had fathers that did not have any formal education, and the rest had fathers that attained at least primary education, with as high as 59% of the fathers attaining primary education. The observed tendency for more than 60% of the fathers of participating females to have attained at least primary education might be significant in encouraging their daughters‘ participating in part-time NCE programme in the states. 75 % 60 50 40 30 % 20 10 0 None Primary Secondary Fig. 4.7: Distribution of Respondents by Mother‘s Level of Education Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Figure 4.7 reveals that generally, mothers of respondents recorded lower level of educational attainment than the fathers. For instance, as high as 53% of the mothers have no formal education at all, 33% attained primary education. But in the case of secondary education, 5% of the mothers (as against fathers‘ 6%) attained secondary education. The findings indicate that mothers‘ educational attainment might have influence on females‘ participating in part-time NCE programmes in the states, thus buttressing earlier findings by Fapounda and Ojo (1995), Walker and McGregor (1998), Rahman & Uddin (2009). 76 % Af. Tr. Rel 14% Christianity 34% Islam 52% Fig. 4.8: Distribution of Respondents by Father‘s Religious Affiliation Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Figure 4.8 reveals that more than a half (52%) of the respondents have fathers that belong to Islamic religion, a little more than a third (34%) have fathers belonging to Christian religion, and only 14% of the respondents have fathers belonging to African Traditional Religions That we have more of the fathers belonging to Islamic faith and the least belonging to Traditional African Religious practices might be a reflection of the general population distribution in south western Nigeria. 77 % 60 50 40 30 % 20 10 0 Christianity Islam Af.Tr. Rel. Fig. 4.9: Distribution of Respondents by Mother‘s Religious Affiliation Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 As in the case of respondents‘ fathers‘ religious affiliation, more of the respondents (54%) have mothers belonging to Islamic religion; 26% of the respondents have mothers belonging to the Christian religion and only 9% have mothers belonging to African Traditional religions (Table 4.9). That we have more of the mothers belonging to Islamic faith and the least belonging to Traditional African Religious practices might be a reflection of the general population distribution in south western Nigeria. 78 4.2 Socio-cultural and Economic Factors In investigating possible relationships between social, cultural and economic factors and female participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, as stated in objective 1 and hypothesis 1, Participation here is measured in terms of enrolment, class attendance, classroom participation, engaging actively in class interaction, and social activities. Efforts were made to investigate and establish whether social, cultural and economic factors have significant joint and / or relative effects on females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. Data in Tables 4.7. 4.13., 4.19. and 4.22. were used in constructing a multiple regression model for the joint effects of social, cultural and economic factors on females participation in part-time NCE programme. The results of the model are presented below: Table 4.1:Regression Model for Joint Effects of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors on Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Sum of Square DF Mean Square F Sig Regression 43363.656 3 14454.552 146.253 .000 Residual 129764.79 1304 99.513 Total 173128.45 1307 R = .500 2 R = .250 2 Adj R = .249 Table 4.2. :Regression Model for Relative Effects of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors on Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig Coefficient Coefficient β Std. Error (Constant) 82.547 1.457 56.639 .000 Social Factors -.209 .052 -.158 -4.003 .000 Cultural Factors .300 .063 .201 4.748 .000 Economic Factors .529 .045 .446 11.684 .000 Interpretation and Discussion of Findings Table 4.1 reveals that the joint effect of independent variables (Social, Cultural and Economic Factors) on females participation in part-time NCE 2 programme was significant {F(3,1304) = 146.253; R = 0.500; R = 0.250; 2 Adj. R = 0.249; P < 0.05}. About 25% variation was accounted for by the independent variables. The null hypothesis is rejected, and we conclude that social, 79 cultural and economic factors do have significant joint effect on females enrolment for part-time NCE programmes. Data contained in Tables 4.6., 44.7., 4.13., 4.19. and 4.22. were used in constructing a multiple regression model for the relative effects of social, cultural and economic Factors on females participation in part-time NCE programmes. The results of the model are presented in Table 4.2, which shows the relative contributions of each of the independent variables on the dependent. Social factors (β = -0.209, P < 0.05). cultural factors (β = 0.300, P < 0.05) and economic factors (β = 0.529, P < 0.05). This shows that all the three independent variables are significant. The null hypothesis is rejected and we conclude that social, cultural and economic factors do have significant relative effect on females participation in part- time NCE programmes. As stated earlier, the primary goal of this research is not only affirming that the various social, cultural and economic factors adopted for the study influence females‘ in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria, but to establish the relative importance of each of the factors in influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. To achieve this, randomly sampled female participants and their instructors were asked to rate the extent to which they agree with the notion that each of the social, cultural and economic factors influence females participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. The results of the investigations are presented in Table 4.3. 80 Table 4.3: Rating of Social, Cultural and Economic Factors as they Influence Participation of Females in Part-time NCE programmes in South-western Nigeria. S/N Social, Cultural and Economic Factors Total % Rank Score Score 1 Parents encouragement (social) 3227 .. 78.8 1 2 Submissiveness to parental instructions (cultural) 3090 75.4 2 3 Parental level of education (social) 3060 .. 74.7 3 4 Peers influence (social) 3051 …. 74.5 4 5 Family background (social) 3021 73.8 5 6 Availability of female role model (social) 2988 72.9 6 7 Gender identity/labelling (cultural) 2901 70.8 7 8 Financial support from husband (economic) 2901 70.8 8 9 Time spent on household chores (cultural) 2875 70.2 9 10 Spouse instructions (cultural) 2868 70.0 10 11 Religious practice, such as female seclusion (cultural) 2852 69.6 11 12 The practice of early marriage (cultural) 2830 69.1 12 13 The general belief that a woman‘s place is in the 2813 68.7 13 kitchen (cultural) 14 Spouse‘s level of education (social) 2804 68.5 14 15 Spouse‘s encouragement (social) 2799 68.3 15 16 The belief that Western education teaches the females 2776 67.8 16 unacceptable behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could lead to pregnancy (social) 17 Responsibilities to the extended family (Cultural) 2760 67.4 17 18 Husband‘s attitude to education (cultural) 2752 67.2 18 19 Perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students 2750 67.1 19 (cultural) 20 Absence of female instructors (cultural) 2744 67.0 20 21 ‗Personal low expectations‘ (social) 2741 66.9 21 22 Bereavement (social) 2731 66.8 22 23 Need to take care of my children (social) 2724 66.5 23 24 Financial support from parents (economic) 2705 66.0 24 25 Mother‘s occupation (economic) 2700 65.9 25 26 The need to provide for the children‘s education first 2699 65.9 26 (economic) 27 Lack of sponsorship‘ (economic) 2692 65.7 27 28 Schools‘ programmes and calendars not being 2668 65.1 28 responsive to local norms and practices.(cultural) 29 Father‘s occupation.(economic) 2657 64.9 29 30 ‗Broken home‘ (social) 2636 64.4 30 31 Practice of engaging girls and young adult females as 2626 64.1 31 81 house-helps (social) 32 Husband‘s occupation (economic) 2627 64.1 32 33 Direct cost of the programme, like school fees, text 2597 63.4 33 books etc. (economic) 34 Indirect cost of the programme, like transportation etc. 2578 62.9 34 (economic) 35 The opportunity costs of education, like the need to 2577 62.9 35 lock up my shop to attend classes, (economic) 36 That the money they are making in their present 2544 62.1 36 ‗business‘ is very much needed at home.(economic) 37 Fear of possible sexual harassment by male instructors 2541 62.0 37 and co-students (cultural) 38 Timing of the studies contact (economic) 2503 61.1 38 39 Perceived limited employment opportunities for 1971 48.1 39 school leavers.(economic) Source: Extracted from Tables 4.9., 4.15. and 4.21. Table 4.3 reveals great variations in the participants‘ ratings of the various social, cultural and economic factors influencing females‘ participation in education adopted for the study. The ratings ranged from 48.1% for ―perceived limited opportunities for school leavers‖ (an economic factor) which was rated least, to 78.8% for ―Parents encouragement‖ (a social factor) that was rated highest. The table also reveals that of the ten most highly rated factors influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, five were social factors, four were cultural and only one was an economic factor. Social factors that were st most highly rated by the participants were: Parents‘ encouragement (1 , 78.8%); rd th Parental level of education (3 , 74.7%); Peers influence (4 , 74.5%); Family th background (position in the family) (5 , 73.8%); and Availability of female role th model (6 , 72.9%). Cultural factors that were among the ten most rated factors were: nd th Submissiveness to parental instructions (2 , 75.4%); Gender Identity/Labelling (7 , th th 70.8%); Time spent on household chores (9 , 70.2%); and, Spouse instructions (10 , 70.0%). The only economic factor that made the list of the ‗top ten‘, and was in the eighth position with 70.8% was Financial support from husband. The Table also reveals that of the last ten factors in the list rated by the participants on their perception on the extent to which the factors influenced their participation in NCE programmes, one, ‗Fear of possible sexual harassment by male th instructors and co-students‘(37 , 62.0%) was the only cultural factor. ‗Practice of st engaging girls and young adult females as house-helps‘ (31 , 64.1%) and ‗Broken 82 th home‘ (30 , 64.4%) were social factors, and the remaining seven factors were nd economic factors. These are: ‗Husband‘s occupation‘ (32 , 64.1%), ‗Direct cost of rd the programme, like school fees, text books etc.‘ (33 , 63.4%), ‗Indirect cost of the th programme, like transportation etc.‘ (34 , 62.9%), ‗The opportunity costs of th education, like the need to lock up my shop to attend classes‘ (35 , 62.9%), ‗That the th money they are making in their present ‗business‘ is very much needed at home‘ (36 , th 62.1%), ‗Timing of the studies contact‘ (38 , 61.1%) and ‗Perceived limited th employment opportunities for school leavers‘ (39 , 48.1%). The Table further reveals that factors like ‗direct and indirect costs of education‘, ‗religious practice of female seclusion‘, and ‗practice of engaging girls and young adult females as house-helps‘ that have been identified in the literature as important factors inhibiting females participation in education might not be among the most severe hindrance to females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. 83 4.2.1 Social Factors and Indices of Female Participation Research hypothesis (H02) was stated and tested to investigate possible relationships between social factors and some females participation factors in part- time NCE programmes in the study area, as stated in objective (ii). The results of the investigations are presented in what follows. Data in Tables 4.8., 4.9. and 4.22. were used in constructing regression models for the relationship between female participation factor and social factor to participation in part-time NCE programmes. The results of the model are presented in Tables 4.4., 4.5 and 4.6. Table 4.4: Relationship between Social Factors and Females Participation Factors in Part-time NCE Programmes Variable Mean Std. Dev. N R P Remark Females participation in 107.6927 11.5092 part-time NCE 1024 0.313** 0.000 Sig programmes Social Factors 37.1735 8.7190 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.5: Analysis of Variance Model for Relationships between Social Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig Between Group 502.006 2 125.501 107.938 0.000 Within Group 168.594 1021 1162.719 Total 670.600 1023 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.6. :Regression Model for Relative Effects of Social Factors on Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig Coefficient Coefficient β Std. Error (Constant) 23.14 2.458 61.527 .000 Parents encouragement 0.89 0.046 -.164 -4.102 .000 Parents level of education 0.84 0.042 .312 4.748 .000 Peers influence 0.81 0.035 .423 11.684 .000 Family background 0.73 0.029 .245 14.246 .000 Availability of female role model 0.70 0.027 .237 10.612 .000 Spouse‘s level of education 0.27 0.011 .213 -3.521 .000 Spouse‘s encouragement 0.11 0.006 .143 -4.263 .000 Sig. at 0.01 level 84 Interpretation and Discussion Table 4.4 shows a significant relationship between female participation factor and social factor with respect to part-time NCE programmes (r = 0.313**, N = 1024, P < 0.01). The null hypothesis is rejected and we conclude that significant relationship exists between female participation factor and social factors in part-time NCE programmes. Table 4.5 reveals that the computed F-value of the ANOVA (107.738) is greater than the tabulated value (3.00). Hence, the F-value of the ANOVA is statistically significant at beyond 0.01. Table 4.6 reveals that social factors significantly correlated with participation of female students in part-time NCE programmes: Parents encouragement (β = 0.89); Parents level of education (β = 0.84); Peers influence (β = 0.81); Family background (β = 0.73); Availability of female role model (β = 0.70); Spouse‘s level of education (β = 0.27); Spouse‘s encouragement (β = 0.11). In shedding lights on the existing relationships between social factors and females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in the selected states, a Likert Scale was provided, containing thirteen social factors derived from the literature and reconnaissance surveys of the researcher. Each of the interviewees was required to rate the extent to which she agree with the notion that each of the social factors influences her participating in part-time NCE programmes. The breakdown of the results of the investigations is presented in Table 4.7. 85 Table 4.7: Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Social Factors influences their participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes S/N Opinions Level of Agreement S.D* D*. A* S.A* Pop % Pop % Pop % Pop % Social Factors 1 Peers influence 57 5.6 361 35.3 351 34.3 255 24.8 2 Availability of female role model 131 12.8 290 28.3 293 28.6 310 30.2 3 Personal low expectations‘ 159 15.5 290 28.3 240 23.4 335 32.7 4 Parental level of education 242 23.6 279 27.4 268 26.2 235 22.8 5 Parents encouragement 186 18.2 257 25.1 356 34.8 225 21.9 6 Practice of engaging girls and young 170 16.6 349 34.1 177 17.3 325 31.9 adult females as house-helps 7 Spouse‘s encouragement 249 24.3 324 31.6 198 19.3 253 24.8 8 Need to take care of my children 207 20.2 282 27.5 285 27.8 250 24.5 9 Broken home‘ 216 21.2 289 28.2 273 26.7 246 24.0 10 Family background 182 17.8 288 28.1 317 31.0 237 23.1 11 Spouse‘s level of education 109 10.6 263 25.7 222 21.7 430 42.0 12 The belief that Western education 215 21.0 302 29.5 270 26.4 237 23.1 teaches the females unacceptable behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could lead to pregnancy 13 Bereavement 261 25.5 295 28.8 145 14.2 323 31.5 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D = Disagree A = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree Table 4.7. reveals significant variations in the participating respondents‘ degree of agreement with the notion that each of the 13 indicators of social factors influenced their participation in part-time NCE programmes. Efforts were then made to shed more light on the respondents‘ perception on the influence of each of the social factors‘ contribution to their participation in the part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education. 4.2.1.1 Peer Influence. From Table 4.7, it is observed that as high as 59.1% of the respondents ‗at least agree‘ with the opinion that their participating in part-time NCE programmes was influenced by peer influence. That as high as 59.1% of the sampled respondents at least agree with the notion that peers influenced their participating in the education programme under investigation buttresses earlier findings in the literature (Aderinoye, 2007). Further efforts were made to provide more information on how the 86 respondents perceived their participation in terms of enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and, social activities. The Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) conducted in the colleges of education involved helped shed light on the respondents‘ perception on the effects of ‗peers influence‘ on their enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. Majority of the sampled population attributed their enrollingfor the programme to their friends that were either already participating or were about to participate in the programme. They also readily identified the invaluable contributions of their participating friends to their regular class attendance, stimulating class interaction, and active participation in both continuous assessment and social activities. A typical participant‘s experience is captured by a third year student thus: I owe my participating in this programme to Tinuade, my very dear friend. Haven enrolled a year before, she not only persuaded me to enrol, but has continued to guide me through the programme, ensuring that I participate actively in all school activities to the full. 4.2.1.2 Availability of Female Role Model As revealed in Table 4.7, 58.9% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this social factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes provided by the sampled colleges of education in the study area. This is found to be in tandem with previous observations in the literature on the existing influence of lack of female role model on females‘ participation in education programmes (Brock and Cammish, 1997; Leste, 2004; Indawaba, 2006). Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area revealed that majority of the participants were of the opinion that they would have insisted on completing their formal education programmes if they had had female role models while they were younger. General consensus among them was that the present diverse roles being played by educated women in politics, administration and other spheres of national life in Nigeria motivated them to pick up their educational pursuits. They claim to ensure to be regular in class attendance, be active in class interaction, and participate actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.1.3 Personal Low Expectations Table 4.7 reveals that 56.1% of the sampled participants at least ‗agree‘ with the notion that their personal low expectations influenced their participating in part- 87 time NCE programmes provided by the selected colleges of education, buttressing earlier findings already documented in literature (Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). Focus Group Discussions reveal that personal low expectations, coupled with lack of female role models on the part of most of the sampled participants provided them easy and ready alibi to truncate their earlier participation in formal education programme. The importance of this social factor to females participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area is best captioned by a second year female student thus: As a female, I was made to belief that all I needed to do in life is to make myself beautiful, get married to a man that would „take adequate care of me‟. I therefore did not attach much value to education. Hence, I dropped from formal education at the earliest opportunity. Realizing the economic and other benefits of education through those that persevered spurred majority of the participants to enrol for part-time NCE programme as a stepping stone to realizing their dreams of acquiring better education. Because many of the participants in this category see education mainly as a tool for better employment and higher income, they readily give education all it takes, putting in their very best in every aspect of the programmes. 4.2.1.4 Parental Level of Education It is revealed in Table 4.7 that 49.0% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this social factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. That as high as 49.0% of the sampled participants identified this social factor as that which influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme conforms with earlier findings in the literature (Nwangi, 2004; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). Parent‘s, especially father‘s level of education is identified from the FGDs to influence adult female‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes in three distinct ways: the educated father not only serve as a role model to his daughter, but, since he comprehends the inherent challenges in educational pursuits, he gives a helping hand more than an uneducated father. General opinion from the FGDs is that the higher the father‘s level of educational attainment, the ready he is willing to assist his daughter‘s educational pursuits. Though earlier research findings (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999; 2006; Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; 88 Rahman & Uddin, 2009) have identified father‘s level of education as a major factor influencing females‘ participation in education programmes, the present study not only corroborate these earlier conclusions, it also provides empirical demonstration of the importance of this social factor in females‘ participation in education. 4.2.1.5 Parents Encouragement Table 4.7 revealed that 56.7% of the sampled students ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participation in Part-time NCE programme, subtly corroborating earlier findings in the literature (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003). Focus Group Discussions provide more insights into the diverse ways parental encouragement have influenced females participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. The influence permeates every facet of ‗participation‘ as envisaged in this study: enrolment, class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. A very good example of how parental encouragement influences females participation in the study area is provided by Bukola, a final year student: I owe my present academic pursuits to God and my parents whose persistent encouragement enabled me to decide to participate in the programme. Though many parents would have lost hope in me after I became pregnant in my fourth year is secondary school, they never abandoned me. They saw potentials in me which they believed only education can bring out. Another dimension of parental encouragement was provided by Doyinsola, a second year student, who claimed that her parents‘ readiness to assist in taking care of her three children whenever her academic programmes were on, provided invaluable incentives for her to attend classes regularly and punctually, and ‗have rest of mind‘ to participate actively in class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. In contrasting views to those stated above, some participants explained that students that do not enjoy parental encouragement often find their schooling programme more demanding than Bukola and Doyinsola cited above, and hence do not often participate actively in class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. 89 4.2.1.6 Practice of Engaging Girls and Young Adult Females as House-helps It is revealed in Table 4.7 that 49.2% of the sampled participants ‗at least agreed‘ that this social factor influenced their participating in the part-time NCE programme provided by the selected colleges of education in the study area, buttressing earlier findings in literature on practice of engaging girls and young adult females as house-helps being a social factor influencing participation in education programmes (UNESCO 2003; Oladosu, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). Focus Group Discussions in the study area identified two categories of females whose participation in the education programme was influenced by the practice of engaging girls and young adult females as house-helps. In the first category were those who experienced having their initial formal education programme truncated because they were recruited to work as house-girls. After marriage and settling down to family life, females in this category decided to enhance their initial dreams of being educated by enrollingin part-time NCE programmes. General consensus from the FGDs is that, seeing the programme as an opportunity to right an initial wrong in their lives, majority of females in this category readily put in their best in class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. The second category comprises females that at present engage girls and / or young females as house-helps. Majority of women in this category eulogised this practice, as it enabled them to unbundle all worries about domestic and other strenuous chores to their house-helps. This practice, they claimed, enhances their participation in school activities and enabled them have adequate time for personal private studies both in the school and even at home. The study has thus far established evidences that the selected social factors do influence females participation in part-time NCE programmes. 4.2.1.7 Spouse’s encouragement Table 4.7 reveals that 44.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme. That 44.1% of the sampled participants identified the encouragement received from their husbands as a factor that influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme corroborated earlier claims in the literature that this factor influences women participation in part- time NCE programmes (Walker & McGregor, 1998; Indawaba, 2006; Aderinoye, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). 90 General consensus from FGDs is that females who enjoy husband‘s encouragement generally participate better in terms of class attendance, class interaction, participation in continuous assessment and participation in social activities than females that do not enjoy husband‘s encouragement. The study has thus far established empirical evidences that the selected social factors do influence females participation in part-time NCE programmes, thus buttressing the earlier claims established in literature (Walker & McGregor, 1998; Indawaba, 2006; Aderinoye, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). 4.2.1.8 Need to take care of my children In Table 4.7, 52.3% of the respondents ‗at least agree‘, that ‗the need to take care of children‘ influenced their participating in the part-time NCE programmes of the selected colleges of education, confirming earlier researchers‘ (Evans, 1995; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003) that identified the need to take care of children as a social factor influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. Further investigations in form of Focus Group Discussions helped shed more light on how respondents perceived their participation in terms of enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and, social activities. The female participants identified the need to take care of the children as a major factor that influenced their enrolment in part-time NCE programmes. A typical example of how this social factor influenced females participation in part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education was provided by a third year student that participated in the Focus Group Discussions, who claimed, inter alia that: I am a married woman with four kids to cater for. My husband is a class teacher in another town and is only around during weekends or during the vacation periods. The whole problem of taking care of the children rest squarely on me. I opted for part-time programme because the class meets on weekends and during holidays when my husband could assist. Focus Group Discussions helped shed more light on perception of the sampled participants on the effects of taking care of their children on their participation, measured in terms of class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and, social activities. General consensus among the participants in the FGDs indicated that a possible indirect relationship exists between the amount of time a participating 91 woman devotes to taking care of the children and her regularity in class attendance, active class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities: the more the time devoted to taking care of the children, the less she her level of ‗participation‘ measured in terms of the indices used in this study. 4.2.1.9 Broken Home Table 4.7 reveals 50.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that broken home influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. This corroborates earlier findings in the literature identifying broken home as an important social factor influencing participation in education (Stromquist, 1989; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). Focus Group Discussions in the study area identified two categories of females whose participation in part-time NCE programmes were influenced by broken home. The first comprises females that had to abandon their formal education because their parents‘ marriage broke down, and now, as adults, had to make do with part time programmes. The second comprises females whose marriages have broken down. General consensus from the FGDs is that, of the two categories, the former (those whose parents‘ marriages broke down) usually participate better than females whose marriages broke down. Even for females whose marriages broke down, it was generally agreed that there appears to exist a sort of relationship between the time lapse between the collapse of the marriage, and the woman‘s active participation: the longer the time lapse, the more and better the active participation in terms of class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.1.10 Family Background In table 4.7, 54.1% of the respondents ‗at least agree‘ that this social factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes, providing subtle confirmation of earlier findings in literature (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). FGD identified two categories of females in this group. In the first were females from polygamous homes who had to forgo formal education in their younger days because their fathers believed in providing education for only the sons. The second group comprised of females that could not complete formal education in their younger years because of their position among the children: many first daughters had to drop for sons, while some none-first-born could not complete their formal education because of inadequate financial resources by the parent to foot the bills of 92 educating many children at the same time. Realising the golden opportunity provided by part-time NCE programmes, majority of females that have suffered initial deprivation due to their family background, readily participate actively in their educational programmes in terms of class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. 4.2.1.11 Spouse’s Level of Education Table 4.7 reveals that 63.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their husband‘s level of education influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. That more than 60% of sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this social factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programme buttresses earlier findings in literature that husband‘s level of education is a factor influencing women‘s participation in education programmes (Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). FGDs help provide insights into the diverse ways in which husband‘s level of education influences females participation in education programme in the study area. For instance, general consensus on ‗Husband‘s level of education‘ is that husband‘s level of education influences females‘ participation in education programmes. For instance, husbands with educational qualifications above the NCE are, generally, more ready to encourage their wives participating in part-time NCE programmes, while husbands with lower educational qualification are, generally, less enthusiastic about their wives getting more education. The study‘s findings on the influence of the husband‘s level of educational attainment as important social factor influencing females‘ participation in education programmes not only corroborate earlier research conclusions (by Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009), but also provide more vivid explanations on how this social factor affects females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. 4.2.1.12 The Belief that Western Education Teaches the Females Unacceptable Behaviours such as Uncontrollable Sexual Acts that could lead to Pregnancy Table 4.7 reveals that 49.5% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this social factor influenced their decision to participate in part-time NCE programme conducted by the sampled colleges of education in the study area, confirming earlier findings in literature (Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya, 2003). 93 Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area revealed that this factor was more prominent among participants whose parents belonged to Islamic religion than those from Christian homes. The fear of the parents of a female being ‗corrupted‘ by Western ways of life prompted many Muslim parents to withdraw their daughters from formal school system, and marrying them off to suitors. It was later, as married women, that these females decided to continue their formal education through the part-time NCE programmes. General consensus from the FGDs conducted in the study area was that since the participants have now discovered that the early ‗fears‘ that prompted their initial withdrawal from formal school system was not ‗very true‘, or, at least was now not as serious as it was then, that they saw their enrollingfor part-time NCE programme as an opportunity to right the initial wrong. They now, generally, put in their best by observing regular class attendance, being actively involved in class interaction, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.1.13 Bereavement It is revealed in Table 4.7 that 45.7% of the respondents ‗at least agree‘ that bereavement influenced their participation in part-time NCE programmes provided by the sampled colleges of education affirming earlier findings in literature (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). Focus Group Discussions identify two categories of participants thus affected. The first are participants who had to drop out of formal education because of the death of their main sponsor. Participants in this category generally see participating in part-time NCE programmes as a way of re-gaining their lost opportunity, hence most of them make the best of it by participating actively in school activities. The second comprises of participants that lost their sponsors in the cause of participating in the part-time NCE programmes. Since women in this category did not anticipate having financial challenges by the time they enrolled for the programme, most of them were destabilised financially and psychologically, and could not participate actively as earlier anticipated by them. Hence, a number of them display truancy, absenteeism, low class interaction, and poor participation in classroom continuous assessment and social activities. The main thrust of the present study is providing evidence on the relative importance (weight) of each of these social factors as perceived to have influenced 94 females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. The remaining portions of this section is devoted to achieving this feat. A major strategy adopted to gauge the relative strength the respondents assigned to each of the factors is by ranking the scores attached to them in Table 4.7. Details of the ranking of the social factors from the respondents‘ perceptions in Table 4.7. are presented below. 4.2.1.14 Ranking Indicators of Social Factor in Terms of their Perceived Importance In performing the feat of ranking participants‘ perception on the contributions of each of these social factors,‘ the respondents‘ ratings of the social factors are scored based on the respondents‘ ‗level of agreement‘ as follows: 1 point for each ‗Strongly Disagree.‘; 2 points for each ‗Disagree‘; 3 points for each ‗Agree‘; and, 4 points for each ‗Strongly Agree‘. In tandem with the approach already adopted in earlier works in the literature (Longe, Longe and Ukpebo, 2009; Uebersax, 2006), total scores for each factor are obtained by adding the aggregate scores and are then converting them to percentages. For example, the scores for ‗Peer Influence‘, a social factor, is computed as follows: From Table 4.7 above, 57; 361; 351 and 255 respondents ‗Strongly Disagree‘, ‗Disagree‘, ‗Agree‘ and ‗Strongly Agree‘ with the notion that ‗Peers influence‘ (a social factor) influenced their participating in the NCE part-time programmes. The scores for this social factor is: (57 x 1) + (361 x 2) + (351 x 3) + (255 x 4) = 57 + 722 + 1053 + 1020 = 2852. The scores for each of the other social factors were computed following the same pattern of computation. Since a total of 1024 copies of the questionnaire were returned and used for data analysis in the study, the total maximum scores accruable to each indicator of social factor is 1024 x 4 = 4096. The total scores obtained for each factor is then standardized by dividing it by 4096 and multiplying by 100. For example, the percentage score for ‗peers influence‘ in the example above is 2852 x 100 4096 1 = 69.2 The breakdown of the aggregate and total scores of the social factors are presented in Table 4.8. 95 Table 4.8: Scoring Participating Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Social Factors influences their Participation in Part-time NCE Programme S/ Opinions Level of Agreement N S.D* D*. A* S.A* TS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Social Factors 1 Peers influence 112 112 193 386 323 969 396 1584 3051 2 Availability of female role model 85 85 253 506 347 1041 339 1356 2988 3 Personal low expectations‘ 151 151 242 484 418 1254 213 852 2741 4 Parental level of education 105 105 195 390 331 993 393 1572 3060 5 Parents encouragement 65 65 158 316 358 1074 443 1772 3227 6 Practice of engaging girls and young 207 207 282 564 285 855 250 1000 2626 adult females as house-helps 7 Spouse‘s encouragement 159 159 290 580 240 720 335 1340 2799 8 Need to take care of my children 214 214 231 462 268 804 311 1244 2724 9 Broken home‘ 166 166 352 704 258 774 248 992 2636 10 Family background 109 109 263 526 222 666 430 1720 3021 11 Spouse‘s level of education 162 162 290 580 226 678 346 1384 2804 12 The belief that Western education 187 187 293 586 173 519 371 1484 2776 teaches the females unacceptable behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could lead to pregnancy 13 Bereavement 204 204 264 528 225 675 331 1324 2731 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total Table 4.8 reveals significant variations in the total scores attached to the social factors rated in the study. For instance, while ‗Parents encouragement‘ and ‗Parents level of education‘ recorded total scores of 3,227 and 3,060 respectively, ‗Practice of engaging girls and young adult females as house-helps‘ and ‗Broken home‘ scored 2,626 and 2,636 points respectively. To enable us have a clearer picture of the perceived relative importance of each social factor as a determinant of female adults participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, the social factors are ranked based on their scores, from the social factor with the highest total scores, to the one with the least. The breakdown of the ranking is presented in Table 4.9. 96 Table 4.9: Ranking Participating Respondents‘ Scoring of Indicators of Social Factors Influencing Their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes S/N Social Factors Total % Rank Score Score 1 Parents encouragement 3227 78.8 1 2 Parental level of education 3060 74.7 2 3 Peers influence 3051 74.5 3 4 Family background 3021 73.8 4 5 Availability of female role model 2988 72.9 5 6 Spouse‘s level of education 2804 68.5 6 7 Spouse‘s encouragement 2799 68.3 7 8 The belief that Western education teaches the females 2776 67.8 8 unacceptable behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could lead to pregnancy 9 ‗Personal low expectations‘ 2741 66.9 9 10 Bereavement 2731 66.8 10 11 Need to take care of my children 2724 66.5 11 12 ‗Broken home‘ 2636 64.4 12 13 Practice of engaging girls and young adult females as 2626 64.1 13 house-helps Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Table 4.9 reveals that ‗Parental encouragement‘ is ranked highest (78.8%) by respondents in the study area, buttressing earlier findings in literature, of prominent roles played by parental encouragement in females education (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003). The second highest rated indicator of social factor influencing females participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, pooling as high as 74.7%, is ‗Parents level of education, buttressing earlier findings in the literature (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999; 2006; Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). Coming third, fourth and fifth are ―Peer influence‘ (74.5%), ‗Family background‘ (73.8%) and ‗Availability of female role model‘ (72.9%). The last three social factors that were rated least as influencing females‘ participating in part-time th NCE programmes in the study area are: ‗Need to take care of my children‘ (rated 11 th position with 66.5%); ‗Broken home‘ (rated 12 position with 64.4%); and, ‗Practice th of engaging females as house-helps‘ (rated 13 position with 64.1%). Findings from FGDs in the study area help shed more light on the 97 respondents‘ perceived effects of social factors to their participating in part-time NCE programmes. General consensus from the FGDs are summarised below: most of the participating respondents enjoy parental encouragement morally and financially. Instances of participants keeping their young children with their parents were cited in the discussion groups. Most of the participating respondents reported being influenced by their ‗intimate friends‘ who have either participated before or are current classmates. Most respondents confess to have helpers within and outside their immediate families helping them in taking care of their children. General consensus among the participants is that availability of additional helping hands lightens the burden of nurturing the family, thus boosting their active participation. A major factor also identified by most of the respondents is that lack of access to financial backing and early marriages played significant roles in their having to withdraw from formal education when they were young. They generally agree that they might not have withdrawn from formal education earlier if they had had a female role model, and that their now having female role models is significant in their decision to ‗actively participate‘ in part-time NCE programmes. The research‘s findings on social factors corroborated empirically, strong influence of the investigated social factors on participation in education programme that have been established in the literature. For instance, Ali (1988), Akinpelu (1994), Osilunu (1994), Indawaba (1998; 1999; 2006) Obanya (2003), Rahman & Uddin‘s (2009) findings on the effects of parents‘ attitude to education, is corroborated by the present study. It also corroborates earlier findings on the importance of economic factors on females‘ participation in education programme, identified by Dall (1989), Somefun (1995) and Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku (2008). Though earlier studies by Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku (2008) among others, identified practice of employing young female adults and girl child as house-helps as a major hindrance to females‘ education, the present study has not only corroborated this finding but has also identified how this practice, in some certain .instances (holding the home while attending school) enhances some females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in South-western Nigeria. 98 4.2.2 Cultural Factors and Indices of Female Participation Research hypothesis (H03) was stated and tested to investigate plausible relationships between cultural factors and females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes in the study area as stated in objective (iii). The results are presented below. Data in Tables 4.14., 4.15. 4.19. and 4.22. were used in constructing regression models for the relationship between female participation factor and cultural factors to participation in part-time NCE programmes. The results of the model are presented in Tables 4.10., 4.11. and 4.12. Table 4.10: Relationship between Cultural Factors and Female Participation Factors in Part-time NCE Programmes Variable Mean Std. N R P Remark Dev. Females‘ participation in 107.6927 11.5092 Part-time NCE 1024 0.415** 0.000 Sig programmes Cultural Factors 38.8440 7.7141 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.11: Analysis of Variance Model for Relationships between Cultural Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig Between Group 307.884 2 307.884 479.396 0.000 Within Group 17.983 1021 0.643 Total 325.867 1023 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.12.: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Cultural Factors on Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig Coefficient Coefficient β Std. Error (Constant) 26.18 54.123 .000 Submissiveness to parents instructions 0.86 0.066 .152 2.625 .000 Gender identity / labelling 0.69 0..051 .248 -2.149 .000 House responsibilities / chores 0.20 0.027 .368 8.448 .000 Spouse instructions 0.14 0.024 .201 3.184 .000 Practice of female seclusion 0.10 0.015 .198 4.384 .000 Early marriage 0.09 0.019 .146 1.278 .000 Sig. at 0.01 level 99 Interpretation and Discussion Table 4.10 reveals significant relationship between female participation factor and cultural factors to participation in part-time NCE programmes (r = 0.415**, N = 1024, P < 0.01). The null hypothesis is rejected and we conclude that significant relationship exists between females participation factors and cultural factors. Table 4.11 reveals that the computed F-value of the ANOVA (479.396) is greater than the tabulated value (3.00). Hence, the F-value of the ANOVA is statistically significant at beyond 0.001. Table 4.12 reveals that cultural factors significantly correlated with participation of female students in part-time NCE programmes: Submissiveness to parental instructions (β = 0.86; Gender identity / Labelling (β = 0.69); House responsibilities / chores (β = 0.20); Spouse instructions (β = 0.14); Practice of female seclusion (β = 0.10); Early marriage (0.09). In investigating the existing relationships between cultural factors and females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in the selected states, a Likert Scale was provided, containing 13 cultural factors derived from the literature and reconnaissance surveys of the researcher. Each interviewee was required to rate the extent to which she agree with the notion that each of the cultural factors influences her participating in part-time NCE programme. The breakdown of the results of the investigations is presented in Table 4.13. 100 Table 4.13. Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Cultural Factors influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes S/N Opinions Level of Agreement S.D* D*. A* S.A* Pop % Pop % Pop % Pop % Cultural Factors 1 Schools‘ programmes and calendars 186 18.2 257 25.1 356 34.8 225 21.9 not being responsive to local norms and practices 2 Time spent on household chores 189 18.5 214 20.9 226 22.1 395 38.5 3 Perceived hostile attitudes of male 136 13.3 298 29.1 342 33.4 248 24.3 co-students 4 Religious practice, such as female 57 5.6 361 35.3 351 34.3 255 24.8 seclusion 5 Absence of female instructors 133 13.0 306 29.9 341 33.3 244 23.8 6 The practice of early marriage 131 12.8 290 28.3 293 28.6 310 30.2 7 Responsibilities to the extended 143 14.0 314 30.7 279 27.2 288 28.1 family 8 Spouse‘s attitude to education 158 15.4 314 30.7 242 23.6 310 30.3 9 Fear of possible sexual harassment 268 26.2 229 22.4 293 28.6 234 22.7 by male instructors and co-students 10 Gender identity/labelling 121 11.8 237 23.1 358 35.0 308 30.0 11 The general belief that a woman‘s 147 14.4 331 32.3 180 17.6 366 35.7 place is in the kitchen 12 Submissiveness to parental 78 7.6 231 22.6 310 30.3 405 39.5 instructions 13 Spouse instructions 131 12.8 270 26.4 295 28.8 328 32.0 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total Table 4.13 reveals great variations in the respondents‘ degree of agreement with the notion that each of the thirteen indicators of cultural factors influenced their participation in part-time NCE programmes. Efforts were then made to shed more light on the respondents perception on the influence of each of the cultural factors‘ contribution to their participating in the part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education. 4.2.2.1 Schools’ programmes and calendars not being responsive to local norms and practices Table 4.13 reveals that 56.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study 101 area, corroborating earlier findings in the literature identifying schools‘ programmes and calendar not being responsive to local norms and practices as a factor influencing females participation in education programmes (UNESCO, 2003; Obanya, 2003; Salman, Olawoye & Yahaya, 2011). FGDs provide more information on how this factor influences females participation in part-time NCE programme in the study area. General consensus from the FGDs is that traditional festivals like Oro and Oloolu masquerade that a woman could only behold to her peril hinder women‘s active participation during the periods of their festivals. They generally clamoured for possibility of having breaks during these and other similar festivals. Participants that were traders also prayed that contact period should exclude Christmas, Easter and Eid-el Mulud periods when they usually experience bumper sales. There is the general consensus that the programme coordinators being insensitive to these festivals adversely influence females participation in the programme. 4.2.2.2 Time spent on household chores Table 4.13 reveals that up to 60.6% of the sampled respondents ‗at least agree‘ with the notion that this cultural factor influenced their participating in the Part-time NCE programmes provided by the sampled colleges of education, confirming earlier findings in the literature (Stromquist, 1995; Ankerbo and Hoyda, 2003) affirming that the time spent on household chores is a major cultural factor influencing females participation in education. Further investigations from FGDs helped shed much light on the respondents‘ perception on the time spent on household chores influences women‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area Household chores was seen in terms of ensuring that the members of the family and the visitors were taken adequate care of, in terms of being provided with good and nourishing food, ensuring that the children and the husband put on well- laundered clothing, and the ensuring the house ‗is well taken care of‘. Performing all these tasks was generally identified as a major challenge to an average female‘s ability to adequately participate in part-tme NCE programmes investigated in this study. A typical illustration of how task of household chores affect women‘s participation in education programme is presented by a third year student during one of the FGD sessions, thus: 102 I am a 35 years old widow with three kids aged between two and ten years. I am wholly responsible for providing and preparing the meals for the family, taking care of the laundering, taking the children to and from school and serving as their home lesson teacher. My typical daily routine spans from 4.00 in the morning to 10.30 in the night. It is not often easy to create some time for my academic pursuit. This adversely affect my punctuality in school, class interaction, and my active participation in classroom‟s continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.2.3 Perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students Table 4.13 reveals that 57.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ with the notion that perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students influenced their participation in the part-time NCE programmes in the study area. That as high as 57.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this cultural factor influenced their participation corroborates earlier findings in the literature that perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students influence females participation in education (UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Rahman & Uddin, 2009; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). Focus Group Discussions in the study area provided more information on the respondents‘ perception of how perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. General consensus among the sampled participants is that majority of them that married early could not continue their formal education because their husbands feared that co-students may easily lure them away from their marriages. They generally opined that it was after they had delivered more than two children that their husbands were more confident of their loyalty to their marriages that they were allowed to further their education, though, in part-time NCE programmes. Since majority of females in this category had been longing for the opportunity to continue their education, they are reported to, generally attend classes regularly and punctually, participate actively in class interaction, continuous assessment, and social interaction. 4.2.2.4 Religious Practice such as Female Seclusion It is revealed in Table 4.13 that 59.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ with the notion that this cultural factor influenced their participating in part- time NCE programmes conducted by the selected colleges of education in the study 103 area. That more than a half of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that religious practice such as female seclusion influenced their participation in the educational programmes, conforms with earlier findings in literature (Fapounda and Ojo, 1995; Somefun, 1995). Focus Group Discussions in the study area help shed more light on the diverse way religious practice such as female seclusion influenced their participation. General consensus from the FGDs is that majority of the affected females could not complete their formal education because they got married early and their husbands put them in seclusion. They could now enrol for part-time NCE programme because their husbands now have younger wives and thus consider them to be rather old. Hence his releasing them from seclusion. Despite their being allowed to enrol for the programme, many women expressed the opinion that though they were no longer physically in seclusion, they found it rather difficult to freely interact and relate with males in the school, thereby curtailing their full interaction in the classroom and social activities. The respondents also generally agreed that many of the affected women attend classes regularly and punctually, and participate actively in continuous assessment. 4.2.2.5 Absence of female instructors It is revealed in Table 4.13 that 57.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that absence of female teachers influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, buttressing earlier claims in the literature identifying this factors as one of the factors influencing females‘ participation in education programmes (Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). FGDs conducted in the study area provide more information on how absence of female teachers influenced females‘ participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. General consensus from the FGDs is that absence of female teachers in secondary schools made most of the girls, especially those that needed to travel a long distance to and from school, vulnerable to assault by the males who dominated the schools. Absence of female teachers also denied the girls possible role models to make them aspire to excel in academics, hence their readiness to drop out of school at the slightest opportunity. With maturity into adulthood and realising the importance of education for personal and national development, sampled females in this category retraced their steps and enrolled for part-time NCE programme. It was generally 104 agreed that most of the participants in this category record ‗average‘ level of participation in terms of class attendance, class interaction, participation in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.2.6 The Practice of Early Marriage As revealed in Table 4.13, 58.8% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this cultural factor influenced their participating in NCE part-time programmes in the study area, corroborating earlier findings in literature (Indawaba, 2006). Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area reveal that this cultural factor is perceived to influence females‘ participation in two major ways. First, early marriage disallowed them completing their formal education as they had to drop out of school to get married. Second, now that they were ready to go back to school, their statutory roles as wives and mothers did not allow them go for full-time programmes, hence their enrollingfor part-time programmes. The practice of early marriage was also found to influence their active participation in the part-time NCE programme in two major ways: women that were married as the first wife in families that later developed into polygamous ones and had already put an end to child bearing had more time to devote to their academic pursuits and generally record better class attendance, class interaction, and better participation in continuous assessment and social activities than those that were their husbands‘ ‗young bride‘ who seldom had adequate time to effectively participate in the programmes‘ activities. 4.2.2.7 Responsibilities to the Extended Family Table 4.13 reveals that 55.3% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that the need to take care of their extended family influenced their participating in part- time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education, buttressing earlier research findings in the literature (Indawaba, 2006). Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area helped in shedding more light on the respondents‘ perception of how this cultural factor influenced women participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. Three categories of participants were found among those that ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participation: those whose husbands come from large affluent families; those that happened to be married to either the first son or the only son of the family; and those whose husbands were the most successful among their siblings. These participants were, in most cases saddled with the responsibilities of 105 preparing refreshment for endless visitors on daily basis, while weekends were often spent moving from one ‗celebration‘ to other. Combining these endless ‗responsibilities‘ with vigorous academic programmes was claimed to be very taxing .most of the women in these categories claimed that they enrolled for a part-time programme because they could not afford the ‗luxury‘ of full-time programme, since they had to take care of their extended family. Majority of them also claimed that their having to cater for the family did not give them adequate room to attend classes regularly and punctually, have adequate class interaction, nor participate actively in continuous assessment and social interaction. 4.2.2.8 Spouse’s Attitude to Education Table 4.13 reveals that 53.9% of the sampled students ‗at least agree‘ with the notion that their participation in part-time NCE programme was influenced by their husband‘s attitude to education, thus corroborating earlier findings in the literature, affirming the importance of husband‘s attitude to education as a factor influencing female‘s participation in education programme (Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003). Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) help provide more insights on how husband‘s attitudes to education influence women‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. For instance, general consensus on ‗Husband‘s attitude to education‘ is that husband‘s favourable attitude enhances the females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes, while husband‘s unfavourable attitudes hinder participation. In the same vein, husbands with educational qualifications above the NCE are, generally, more willing to encourage their wives participation in part-time NCE programmes, while husbands with lower educational qualification are, generally, less enthusiastic about their wives getting more education. Instances of where husbands‘ positive attitude towards education enhance their wives‘ participation were readily cited in the focus group discussions. Husband‘s positive attitude manifests in form of driving the wife to the study centre if not providing a private car for the woman; being around to provide financial, moral and psychological support for the woman. Instances of husbands that readily take over taking care of the children and handling all household chores to assist the wife‘s educational pursuits were freely cited. Hence, general consensus from FGDs is that the more well disposed a husband is to his wife‘s education, the more readily he assists her, and the more effectively the she participates in the programme in form of 106 attending classes punctually, participating actively in class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. The study‘s findings on the influence of the husband‘s attitude to females‘ participation in part-time NCE programme not only corroborate earlier research conclusions (by Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO, 2003) but provide more vivid empirical explanations on how these cultural factors affect females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. 4.2.2.9 Fear of Possible Sexual Harassment by Male Instructors and Co-students Table 4.13 reveals that 51.3% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that the fear of possible sexual harassment by male teachers influenced their participating in part-time NCE programme in the study area. That as high as 51.3% of the sampled participants identified the fear of possible sexual harassment by male teachers as a factor influencing their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study areas which corroborates earlier findings in literature identifying this factor as one of the factors influencing females participation in education programmes (Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). FGDs reveal two categories of women whose participation was influenced by this factor. The first are women who had their formal education truncated because their parents feared that the prevalence of male teachers and more matured male students in their daughters‘ schools might expose their daughter to being sexually harassed, hence their decision to withdraw them from schools. It was later in their adult lives that the participants in this category aspired to achieve their initial academic goal and enrolled for part-time NCE programmes. In the second category are women who would have participated earlier in part- time NCE programme, but had to postpone their participation because their husbands feared that they might be sexually harassed by the male instructors and / or co- students. It was later, after many of their friends and colleagues had successfully completed their programmes that their husbands had the confidence to support their enrollingfor the programme. General consensus from FGDs indicates that majority of participants in the two categories ended up being active participants in terms of recording regular attendance, being active in class interactions, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 107 4.2.2.10 Gender identity/labelling Table 4.13 reveals that 65.0% of the sampled female participants ‗at least agree‘ that this cultural factor influenced their participation in the part-time NCE programme provided by the sampled colleges of education. That they agree that this cultural factor influenced their participation is in tandem with earlier conclusions already documented in the literature (Shuaibu, 1995; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003; Leste, 2004; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008). Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area helped shed more light on perception of the sampled participants on the effects of the belief that a woman has lower mental capability than men on their participation. General consensus among the sampled participants is that their initial general belief that a woman has lower mental capability than men influenced their withdrawal from formal education during their youthful days. But with their realisation that their initial belief was erroneous, they retraced their steps in pursuing their academic career, by enrollingfor the colleges of educations‘ part-time NCE programme. Realising that they have lost much grounds by their initial mistake, they claim they readily participate actively in all class activities by recording regular and punctual class attendance, engaging actively in class interaction, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.2.11 The General Belief That A Woman’s Place Is In The Kitchen Table 4.13 reveals that 53.3% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that the general belief that a woman‘s place is in the kitchen influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education, thus corroborating earlier findings in the literature (Kember, 1981; Stromquist, 1995; Brock and Cammish, 1997). Focus Group Discussions conducted in the study area provide more information on how this cultural factor is perceived to have influenced women participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. General consensus from FGDs in the study area is that the general belief that a woman‘s place is in the kitchen, means that whatever level of education a woman attains, her cultural worth rests on how much she is able to provide mouth watering dishes for her husband and children. According to the participants, this cultural perception is drummed into an average girl‘s ears right from childhood to adulthood, and this influences an average girl‘s devotion to pursuing academic programmes. 108 They opined that the belief is much more responsible for the higher rate of withdrawal from formal education among girls. General consensus among the participants is that government‘s and non- governmental organisations‘ (NGOs) women empowerment programmes that became prominent in Nigeria since late 1980s played a significant role in making them realise the immeasurable importance of education and deciding to enrol for part-time NCE programmes, since they could not easily go for full-time programmes. With the realization that women have much brighter lives outside the kitchen, and that education is a master-key to their attaining these brighter lives, majority of the affected females claim that they generally put in their best in the education programme in form of attending classes regularly and punctually, actively interacting in class, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.2.12 Submissiveness to Parental Instructions Table 4.13 reveals that 69.8% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their mother‘s level of education influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, buttressing earlier findings in the literature that this cultural factor influences females‘ participation in education (Fapounda and Ojo, 1995; Walker and McGregor, 1998; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). General consensus from the FGDs is that submission to parental instructions is a very crucial factor influencing females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. A typical example of how parental instructions influences a female‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes is presented by Toyosi, a second year student thus: „After becoming pregnant in my fourth year in secondary school, I had to drop out of formal education and go and live with my husband‟s parents. I concentrated on taking care of my set of twins and gave up all hope on education. But my parents would not not give up on me. They persisted in encouraging me to go back to school. My finally going back to complete my secondary education and enrollingfor the part-time NCE programmes is a result of my submitting to their instructions‟. Though earlier researches by Fapounda and Ojo (1995), Walker and McGregor (1998) and Rahman & Uddin (2009) among others have established strong relationships between parental influence and female‘s participation in education, the present study not only corroborates their findings but has helped shed more light on the existing relationship. Another general consensus from the FGDs is that there is 109 general tendency for positive relationships between a participant submitting to her parents‘ instructions and the regularity of her class attendance, class interaction and participation in continuous assessment and social interaction: the higher the mother‘s level of education, the better the daughter‘s level of participation. 4.2.2.13 Spouse Instructions It is revealed in Table 4.13 that up to 60.8% of the sampled females participating in part-time NCE programme in the study area ‗at least agree‘ that their spouse‘s instructions influenced their participating in the programme, corroborating earlier findings in literature (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999; 2006, Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). FGDs classified the female participants into two major distinct groups: those whose participation enjoy their husbands‘ blessings, and those that are participating in disobedience to their husbands instructions. General opinion from the FGDs is that the more the females participating receives her husband‘s blessings, the more readily she enjoys his encouragements in her academic pursuits. The more the husband supports the wife, the more readily she participates actively in class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. Though earlier research findings (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999; 2006, Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Rahman & Uddin, 2009) have identified husband‘s instructions as a major factor influencing females‘ participation in education programmes, the present study not only corroborates these earlier submissions, but provides empirical demonstration of the importance of this factor in females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. More vivid illustrations of how submitting to husband‘s instructions influenced females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes were portrayed by Bisola and Tinuola, both in their second year. Bisola attributed her enrollingfor the programme and her participating actively in it in terms of attending classes regularly and punctually, having pleasant class interaction, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities, to her spouse‘s enthusiasms about her educational pursuits. In her words: Since my spouse is very enthusiastic about my educational programme, he provides all the required moral and financial support at his disposal: he takes care of our children, takes care of the house and even do laundry for me…all to ensure that I succeed! 110 Tinuola, on the other hand, is participating in the programme in deviance to her spouse‘s instructions on her education and so, did not enjoy the kind of support Bisola enjoys from her spouse. She confessed that she was not participating actively in the educational programmes because of her husband‘s hostile attitude towards her educational pursuits. The study has thus far established empirically that the selected cultural factors do influence females participation in part-time NCE programmes, thus buttressing earlier claims established in the literature. As stated earlier, a major thrust of the present study is providing evidence on the relative importance (weight) of each of these factors perceived to influence females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. The remaining portions of this section is devoted to gauging the relative weight attached to each of the cultural factors influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. A major strategy adopted to gauge the relative weight the respondents assigned to each of the cultural factors is by ranking the scores attached to them in Table 4.13. Details of going about effecting the ranking of the cultural factors from the respondents‘ perceptions in Table 4.13. are presented next. 4.2.2.14 Ranking Cultural Factors in Terms of their Perceived Importance In performing the feat of ranking participants‘ perception on the contributions of each of these cultural factors‘ ranking, the respondents‘ ratings of the cultural factors are scored based on the respondents‘ ‗level of agreement‘ as follows: 1 point for ‗Strongly Disagree.‘ ; 2 points for ‗Disagree‘; 3 points for ‗Agree‘; and, 4 points for ‗Strongly Agree‘. In tandem with the approach already adopted in earlier works in literature (Longe, Longe and Ukpebo, 2009; Uebersax, 2006), total scores for each factor are obtained by adding the aggregate scores, and the total aggregate scores were converted into percentage scores. In ranking the cultural factors, the procedure earlier adopted for ranking respondents‘ perception on social factors are applied. The breakdown of the aggregate and total scores of the cultural factors are presented in Table 4.14. 111 Table 4.14: Scoring Participating Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Cultural factors Influence their Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes S/ Opinions Level of Agreement N S.D* D*. A* S.A* TS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Cultural Factors 1 Schools‘ programmes and calendars 186 186 257 514 356 1068 225 900 2668 not being responsive to local norms and practices. 2 Time spent on household chores 189 189 214 428 226 678 395 1580 2875 3 Perceived hostile attitudes of male 136 136 298 596 342 1026 248 992 2750 co-students 4 Religious practice, such as female 57 57 361 722 351 1053 255 1020 2852 seclusion 5 Absence of female instructors 133 133 306 612 341 1023 244 976 2744 6 The practice of early marriage 131 131 290 580 293 879 310 1240 2830 7 Responsibilities to the extended 143 143 314 628 279 837 288 1152 2760 family 8 Spouse‘s attitude to education 158 158 314 628 242 726 310 1240 2752 9 Fear of possible sexual harassment 268 268 229 458 293 879 234 936 2541 by male instructors and co-students 10 . Gender identity/labelling 121 121 237 474 358 1074 308 1232 2901 11 The general belief that a woman‘s 147 147 331 662 180 540 366 1464 2813 place is in the kitchen 12 Submissiveness to parental 78 78 231 462 310 930 405 1620 3090 instructions 13 Spouse instructions 131 131 270 540 295 885 328 1312 2868 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total Table 4.14 reveals significant variations in the total scores attached to the cultural factors rated in the study. For instance, while ‗Submissiveness to parental instructions‘ and ‗Gender labelling‘ recorded total scores of 3090 and 2901 points respectively, ‗Fear of possible sexual harassment by male instructors and co-students‘ and ‗Schools‘ programmes and calendars not being responsive to local norms and practices‘ scored 2541 and 2668 points respectively. To facilitate having a clearer picture of the relative importance of each cultural factor as determinant of female adults participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, the cultural factors are ranked based on their scores, from the cultural factor with the highest total 112 scores, to the one with the least total score. The breakdown of the ranking is presented in Table 4.15. Table 4.15: Ranking Participating Respondents‘ Scoring of Indicators of Cultural Factors Influencing their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes S/N Cultural Factors Total % Rank Score Scores 1 Submissiveness to parental instructions 3090 75.4 1 2 Gender identity/labelling 2901 70.8 2 3 Time spent on household chores 2875 70.2 3 4 Spouse instructions 2868 70.0 4 5 Religious practice, such as female seclusion 2852 69.6 5 6 The practice of early marriage 2830 69.1 6 7 The general belief that a woman‘s place is in the 2813 68.7 7 kitchen 8 Responsibilities to the extended family 2760 67.4 8 9 Spouse‘s attitude to education 2752 67.2 9 10 Perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students 2750 67.1 10 11 Absence of female instructors 2744 67.0 11 12 Schools‘ programmes and calendars not being 2668 65.1 12 responsive to local norms and practices. 13 Fear of possible sexual harassment by male instructors 2541 62.0 13 and co-students Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Table 4.15 reveals that ‗Submissiveness to parental instructions‘ is ranked highest (75.4%) as an indicator of cultural factor influencing respondents‘ participation in part-time NCE programme in the study area. Next in order of importance, based on respondents‘ ranking, in descending order, are: ‗Gender identity/labelling‘ (70.8%), ‗Time spent on household chores‘ (70.2%), ‗Spouse instructions‘ (70.0%), ‗Religious practice, such as female seclusion‘ (69.6%), ‗The practice of early marriage‘ (69.1%), and ‗The general belief that a woman‘s place is in the kitchen‘ (68.7%), ‗Responsibilities to the extended family‘ (67.4%), ‗Spouse‘s attitude to education‘ (67.2%), ‗Perceived hostile attitude s of male co-students (67.1%), ‗Absence of female instructors(67.0%), ‗Schools programmes and calendars not being responsive to local norms and practices‘ (65.1%), and ‗Fear of possible sexual harassment by male instructors and co-students‘ (62.0%). That cultural factors adopted for the study are found to influence females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria corroborates 113 earlier findings in the literature that these indicators have very significant influence in women‘s education (see Ali 1988; Akinpelu 1994; Osilunu 1994; Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Rahman & Uddin, 2009; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) conducted for the study help provide insights into the contributions of cultural factors to females‘ participation in the part-time NCE programmes covered by this study. Overwhelming consensus among the participants in FGDs is that their submission to their parental instructions enhances their participating in the programme. Instances of some of their colleagues who, though academically superior, yet could not participate in any educational programme because of their parents do not provide enough encouragement were readily cited by discussants. Next to submission to parental instructions is the wrong gender perception they made that prompted them to withdraw from formal education while they were younger. Prominent among these wrong perceptions are: belief that a woman‘s education would end up in the kitchen; that male co-students could be hostile to them; and that male instructors and co-students might harass them sexually. Majority also identified absence of female teachers in the formal schools they were attending, as their main reason for dropping out of formal education system. In discussing effects of religion on participation, examples of friends and colleagues that could not participate in the programme mainly because they were in purdah were readily cited. Significant proportion of the participants also attributed their participation to having to withdraw from formal education to get married at ‗tender‘ ages. In providing explanations on how husbands‘ favourable attitude towards education influences their participation, most of the participants identified their hushand‘s positive attitude to education as a major contributory factor. Instances of their fathers obtaining earlier promises to the effect that their husbands would allow them to further their educational pursuits before consenting to their marriage, were readily cited during discussions. In the FGD sessions, significant proportion of participants attributed their participation to diverse commitments to attending to extended family matters. Some even claimed that the time spent in the FGDs by them was ‗stolen‘ form their shuttling from one engagement to another. The issue of absence of female instructors affected the participants in two major ways: some that were still haunted by their earlier experience of having to withdraw from formal 114 education because of absence of female teachers, and those that believe that their participation would have been ‗more rewarding‘ if there had been female instructors who they could freely discuss some confidential matters with. 115 4.2.3 Economic Factors and Indices of Female Participation Research hypothesis (H04) was stated and tested to investigate possible relationships between economic factors and females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes in the study area as stated in objective (iv). The results are presented below. Data in Tables 4.20., 4.21. and 4.22. were used in constructing regression models for the relationship between female participation factor and economic factors to participation in part-time NCE programmes. The results of the model are presented in Tables 4.16., 4.17. and 4.18. Table 4.16: Relationship between Economic Factors and Females Participation Factor in Part-time NCE Programmes Variable Mean Std. N R P Remark Dev. Females participation in 107.6927 11.5092 part-time NCE 1024 0.485** 0.000 Sig programmes Economic Factors 39.6391 9.7147 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.17: Analysis of Variance Model for Relationships between Economic Factors and Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig Between Group 461.826 2 461.826 719.094 0.000 Within Group 26.974 1021 0.963 Total 488.800 1023 Sig. at 0.01 level Table 4.18.: Regression Model for Relative Effects of Economic Factors on Females Participation in Part-time NCE Programmes Model Unstandardized Coefficient Standardized T Sig β Std. Error Coefficient (Constant) 26.18 48.185 .000 Financial supports 0.51 0.028 -.429 3.297 .000 Parental occupation 0.42 0.035 .415 5.279 .000 Spouse‘s occupation 0.35 0.032 .401 9.725 .000 Cost of programme 0.23 0.024 .214 8.427 .000 Sig. at 0.01 level Interpretation and Discussion Table 4.16 reveals that there was significant relationship between Female participation factors and Economic Factors to part-time NCE programmes (r = 0.485**, N = 1308, P < 0.01). Null hypothesis is rejected and we conclude that 116 significant relationship exists between female participation factors and economic factors to participation in part-time NCE programme. Table 4.17 reveals that the computed F-value of the ANOVA (719.094) is greater than the tabulated value (3.00). Hence, the F-value of the ANOVA is statistically significant at beyond 0.001. Table 4.18 reveals that economic factors significantly correlated with participation of females in part-time NCE programmes: Financial supports (β = 0.51); Parental occupation (β = 0.42); spouse‘s occupation (β = 0.35); Cost of programme (β = 0.23) In investigating the existing relationship between economic factors and females‘ participating in part-time NCE programmes in the selected states, a Likert Scale was provided, containing 13 economic factors derived from the literature and reconnaissance surveys of the researcher. Each of the interviewees was required to rate the extent to which she agrees with the notion that each of the economic factors influences her participating in part-time NCE programme. The breakdown of the results of the investigations is presented in Table 4.19. 117 Table 4.19: Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Economic Factors Influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes S/N Opinions Level of Agreement S.D* D*. A* S.A* Pop % Pop % Pop % Pop % Economic Factors 1 Spouse‘s occupation 169 16.5 323 31.5 316 30.9 216 21.2 2 Perceived limited employment 243 23.7 273 26.7 197 19.2 311 30.5 opportunities for school leavers. 3 Father‘s occupation 182 17.8 288 28.1 317 31.0 237 23.1 4 Timing of the studies contact 249 24.3 324 31.6 198 19.3 253 24.8 5 Lack of sponsorship‘ 156 15.2 306 29.9 324 31.6 238 23.3 6 That the money they are making in 242 23.6 279 27.4 268 26.2 235 22.8 their present ‗business‘ is very much needed at home 7 Financial support from spouse 121 11.8 237 23.1 358 35.0 308 30.0 8 The need to provide for the children‘s 170 16.6 349 34.1 177 17.3 325 31.9 education first 9 Direct cost of the programme, like 216 21.2 289 28.2 273 26.7 246 24.0 school fees, text books etc 10 Mother‘s occupation 200 19.5 293 28.6 210 20.5 321 31.5 11 The opportunity costs of education, 215 21.0 302 29.5 270 26.4 237 23.1 like the need to lock up shop to attend classes 12 Indirect cost of the programme, like 261 25.5 295 28.8 145 14.2 323 31.5 transportation etc 13 Financial support from parents 186 18.2 270 26.4 293 28.6 275 26.8 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree Table 4.19 reveals great variations in the participating respondents‘ degree of agreement with the notion that each of the 13 economic factors influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme. Efforts were then made to shed more light on the respondents perception on the influence of each of the economic factors‘ contribution to their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education. 4.2.3.1. Spouse’s Occupation It is revealed in Table 4.19 that 52.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their husbands‘ occupation influenced their participation in the part-time NCE programme. That more than a half of the sampled participants identified this factor as influencing their participation is a subtle confirmation of earlier findings in the literature affirming the importance of this factor in influencing females‘ 118 participation in education programme (Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). FGDs identify two categories of participants whose participation was influenced by their husbands‘ occupation. In the first group were those whose husbands were businessmen in private employment or contractors. Many of the husbands in this category do not, generally encourage their wives‘ participating in education programme, since they believed that education would bring less financial rewards than investing time and money in business. They also generally prefer their wives to be either self-employed or to be full-time house wives. Participants in this first category often have tough time convincing their husband to allow them to enrol in education programme. And, once enrolled, their continued participation depends on the husband‘s magnanimity. Hence ,they record low level of participation in terms of class attendance, class interaction, in continuous assessment and social activities. The second category comprises of those whose husband are engaged in teaching and allied professions. General cosensus from FGDs is that women in this category, generally receive a lot of support from their spouses that enhances their active participation: they are more regular and punctual in class attendance, class interaction, they participate more actively in continuous assement and social activities than their counterparts in the first group. 4.2.3.2 Perceived Limited Employment Opportunities for School Leavers It is revealed in Table 4.19 that 49.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their husbands‘ occupation influenced their participation in the part-time NCE programme. That more than a half of the sampled participants identified this factor as influencing their participation is a subtle confirmation of earlier findings in the literature affirming the importance of this factor in influencing women‘s participation in education programme (Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). FGDs identify two categories of females whose participation was influenced by their husbands‘ occupation. In the first group were those whose husbands were businessmen in private employment or contractors. Many of the husbands in this category do not, generally encourage their wives‘ participating in education programme, since they believed that education would bring less financial rewards than investing time and money in business. They also generally prefer their wives to be either self-employed or to be full-time house wives. Participants in this first 119 category often have tough time convincing their husband to allow them to enrol in education programme. And, once enrolled, their continued participation depends on the husband‘s magnanimity. Hence ,they record low level of participation in terms of class attendance, class interaction, in continuous assessment, and social activities. The second category comprises females whose husband are engaged in teaching and allied professions. General cosensus from FGDs is that participants in this category, generally receive a lot of support from their spouses that enhances their active participation: they are more regular and punctual in class attendance, class interaction, they participate more actively in continuous assement and social activities than their counterparts in the first group. 4.2.3.3 Father’s Occupation Table 4.19 reveals that 54.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their father‘s occupation influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme, buttressing earlier findings in the literature affirming father‘s occupation as a factor influencing female‘s participation in education (Indawaba, 2006; Walker and McGregor, 1998; Aderinoye, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). General consensus from FGDs conducted in the study area is that when a father is engaged in white collar job or is involved in working with or for educated people employed in white collar jobs, he is most likely to aspire that his children be educated. If, especially, he has a female boss he likes and admires, he is most likely to cast her into a model for his daughter, wishing that his daughter will, one day, at least reach the boss‘ status via education. Many of the sampled participants readily identified with this insinuation, affirming that their participation in the programme owes much to their aspiring to at least equal some of the females that bossed their fathers. This long-held aspirations encouraged them to put in their best by attending classes regularly, being actively involved in class interaction, participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.3.4 Timing of Studies Contact Table 4.19 reveals that 44.1% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programme in the study area, corroborating earlier findings in the literature that timing of the studies‘ contact influences women participation in education programmes (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003). 120 FGDs conducted in the study area identified two categories of participants whose participation was influenced by the timing of the studies contact in the study area. In the first category were females working as teachers in government schools. For this category of females, the timing of the studies‘ contact is appropriate as it usually falls within the schools‘ vacation period, weekends or evenings after school. General consensus from the FGDs is that majority of females in this category, because they find the timing of the studies contact appropriate, often participate actively in terms of class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. In the second category were participants who were either self-employed or were employed in private organisations. Participants in this category usually work longer hours in more days than classroom teachers in the first group. They thus complained of the challenges posed by the timing of the studies contact to their active participation in the programme. Females in this category were found to be generally less active in participation than those in the first group: they attend classes less regularly and less punctually, they interact less in classes, they participate less in continuous assessment, and participate less in social activities. 4.2.3.5 Lack of Sponsorship It is revealed in Table 4.19 that 54.9% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme in the study area, confirming earlier findings in literature that lack of sponsorship influences women‘s participation in education (Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008). FGDs identify two categories of participants thus affected. In the first category are females who had their earlier dreams of formal education truncated because of lack of sponsorship. Sampled females in this category decided to continue the realisation of their initial dreams by enrollingfor part-time NCE programme. General consensus from the FGDs is that most females in this category often put in their best in the programme by attending classes regularly and punctually, being actively involved in class interaction, and participating actively in continuous assessment and social activities. In the second category are females who presently face challenges of footing their education bills because they lack sponsorship. General consensus from FGDs is that majority of females in this category often come late to classes when they come at all, are unable to be actively involved in class 121 interaction, and do not participate actively in continuous assessment and social activities 4.2.3.6 That the Money Made from Present ‘Business’ is Very Much Needed at Home Table 4.19 reveals that 49.0% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that the fact that the money they were making from their present ‗businesses‘ were very much needed at home influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme. That as high as 49.0% of the sampled participants identified this factor as one of the factors influencing their participation buttresses earlier findings in the literature (Dall, 1989; Somefun, 1995). General consensus from FGDs indicates the need to survive the ‗biting economic hardship‘ prevailing in Nigeria compelled most of the females to engage in petty business activities to augment their income. Much as they would love to devote much time to their academic pursuits, they confessed that the fact that the money they make in their present businesses are very much needed at home compels them to do less than their academic programme deserved. They thus agreed that this factor adversely affect their participation in the programme, as it adversely influence their class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities. 4.2.3.7 Financial Support from Spouse Table 4.19 reveals that 65.0% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that financial support from their husbands influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme, buttressing earlier findings in literature identifying this factor as one of the important factors influencing females‘ participation in education programme (Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). FGDs identify two major ways by which husband‘s financial supports influenced females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. In the first case, if the husband readily supports his wife‘s educational pursuits, the stress the woman goes through in procuring relevant materials are lightened as financial assistance is guaranteed. She thus has more opportunities to participate actively in the programme. Instances of women who usually drive personal cars given to them by their husbands were readily cited. These women could conveniently go for their lectures without hassles and could conveniently interact in the class, participate actively in continuous assessment and social activities. 122 The second scenario is when the woman does not enjoy financial supports from her husband, or the financial support is not adequate to meet the inherent financial challenges in pursuing an academic programme. General consensus is that women in this category do not often enjoy participating in the programme, and often have less optimal participation in terms of classroom attendance, class interaction, participation in continuous assessment and participation in social activities. 4.2.3.8 The Need to Provide for the Children’s Education First Table 4.19 reveals that 49.2% of the sampled ‗at least agree‘ that the need to provide for the children‘s education first influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme, buttressing earlier findings in the literature identifying the importance of this factor in women‘s participation in education (Cross, 1981; Brock and Cammish, 1997; Leste, 2004). Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) conducted in the study area identify two categories of females whose participation in part-time NCE programme was influenced by this factor in the study area. The first category comprises females that had to delay their enrolling for the programme because they had to make room for the family‘s lean resources to be expended on the children‘s education first, and the females were able to enrol after the children either graduated or the family‘s resources improved enough to cater for both mother‘s and children‘s education. Participants in this category were said to be more actively involved in the educational programme as they strive to make for the lost years. Hence, they generally, on the average, attend classes regularly, interact well in the classes, and participate actively in continuous assessment and social activities. In the second category were participants whose ‗stepping aside‘ for the children to first complete their education was due to the mothers‘ commitment to their children succeeding in educational pursuits. These females thus spent a lot of time teaching, guiding and nurturing their children‘s educational programmes, ensuring they were always around to guide them through the primary and secondary education. Majority of participants in this category do not usually have more than three children, and they devote their time to carrying these children to and from school every day. Instances where they had to spend hours waiting for the children for hours after normal school periods for the children to attend coaching classes were freely cited. Such females usually delay their educational pursuits till when the youngest of their children is admitted into tertiary education. Like their colleagues in the first category, 123 females in this category were said to be generally actively involved in the educational programme they registered for, trying to make up for the lost years. 4.2.3.9 Cost of School Fees and Textbooks Table 4.19 reveals that 50.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influenced their participating in part-time NCE programme in south- western Nigeria. That nearly a half of the sampled participants identified cost of fees and textbooks as factors that influenced their participating in the education programme buttressed earlier findings in the literature that this factor influences females‘ participation in education (Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). FGDs reveal two main categories of people that were affected by inability to pay the required tuition fees and costs of textbooks. In the first category were those that had to drop from formal education programme because they were not able to foot the bills, but now that they were older and were more economically bouyant, resorted to part-time NCE programmes as a means of achieving their desired academic dreams. In the second category were females that had normal formal education up to the secondary level but had to resort to part-time programme because of their perceived higher direct cost of full-time programme. General consensus from FGDs is that majority of the participants whose participation was influenced by the cost of school fees and textbooks were ‘very serious‘ in their academic pursuits, always striving to attend classes puntually, that many of the participants had to go for part-time programmes because they could not afford the direct costs of attending full-time programmes. 4.2.3.10 Mother’s Occupation Table 4.19 reveals that 52% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that their mothers‘ occupation influenced their participation in the part-time NCE programme. That as high as 52% of the participants identified this as a factor that influences their participation corroborates earlier findings in literature identifying mother‘s occupation as a factor influencing females‘ participation in education (Indawaba, 2006; Walker and McGregor, 2006; Aderinoye, 2007; Adetunde & Akensina, 2008; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). General consensus from the FGDs is that females whose mothers are employed in white-collar jobs, who interact with teachers and / or people in academic environment are more likely to participate in educational programmes than those 124 whose mothers do not have similar occupations. Examples of participants whose mothers‘ were employed in different occupations ranging from cleaning and menial jobs to higher executive cadres in educational environments were readily cited, and most of them affirmed that their participation was influenced by their mothers‘ occupations. General consensus is that most participants in this cadre generally actively participate in the education programme in terms of class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities 4.2.3.11 Opportunity Costs of Schooling, Like the Need to Lock Up Shops Table 4.19 reveals that 49.5% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that the opportunity costs of schooling influenced their participation in part-time NCE programme in the study area, buttressing earlier findings in literature that opportunity costs of education influence females participation in education (Dall, 1989; Somefun, 1995). FGDs identify two categories of participants whose participation were influenced by opportunity costs of education. In the first category were females who could not adequately participate in formal education as girls since their parents were not ready to forgo the opportunity costs of sending their girl-child to school. In the second category were females who found the challenges of having to lock up their shops to attend lectures daunting, and readily complain about the huge ‗price‘ they had to pay to be educated. A typical example of women in this category is Blessing, a first year student: As a single parent, I am wholly responsible for the up-keep of my two children. I manage my shop myself because I cannot find a trustworthy person to man it in my absence. I enrolled for this programme to improve my worth. My having to lock up my shop whenever I go for lectures is having a negative effect on my business, and is adversely affecting my class attendance and other class activities. 4.2.3.12 Transportation Costs It is revealed in Table 4.19 that 45.7% of the sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that transportation costs influenced their participating in part-time NCE programme in the study area, buttressing earlier findings in the literature identifying transport cost as a factor influencing women‘s participation in education (Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Ankerbo & Hoyda, 2003). 125 FGDs identify two major ways in which transport costs influenced females‘ participation in the continuing education programme. In the first case, transportation costs influenced the participants‘ choice of school. Since the final certificate to be awarded by the various colleges of education in south-western Nigeria is the same National Certificate in Education (NCE), proximity of the study centre to the applicant‘s place of abode is reported to play very significant role in her choice of college of education. Another main way in which transport cost was reported to have influenced females‘ participation in NCE pat-time programme is in the choice of course (i.e. subject combination) to enrol for. Instances where many of the participants had to drop some combinations in which they were initially interested for others, mainly because their initial preferred combination was not offered in nearby study centres, were freely cited. It was also generally agreed that once decisions on the school and subject combinations were taken, each student tried to put in her best in her academic pursuits by attending classes to the best of her ability, participating to the best of her ability in class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. 4.2.3.13 Financial Support from Parents Table 4.19 reveals that 55.4% of the sampled participating women ‗at least agree‘ with the notion that their parents‘ financial support influenced their participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, thus corroborating earlier findings in literature that financial support from parents influences females‘ participation in education (Indawaba 1998; 1999 & 2006; Obanya 2003; UNESCO 2003; Breines, 2005; Okeke, Nzewi & Njoku, 2008; Rahman & Uddin, 2009). Parents‘ financial support is identified from the FGDs in the study area, to influence female‘s participation in part-time NCE programmes in the study area in three distinct ways: when parents readily support their daughter‘s education, they provide both financial and psychological supports, and are ready to give helping hands compared to parents that are not providing financial supports for their daughters‘ education. General opinion from the FGDs is that the more the parents are well-disposed towards females‘ education, the more they are willing to assist and encourage their daughter‘s educational pursuits. The more the parents readily provide the required financial assistance, the more the daughter participates actively in class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. Though earlier research 126 findings (Ali, 1988; Akinpelu, 1994; Osilunu, 1994; Indawaba, 1998; 1999; 2006, Obanya, 2003; UNESCO, 2003; Rahman & Uddin, 2009) have identified parents‘ financial assistance as a major factor influencing females‘ participation in education programmes, the present study corroborates these earlier conclusions and provides empirical demonstration of the importance of this factor in females‘ participation in education programmes. As stated earlier, a major thrust of the present study is providing empirical evidence on the relative importance (weight) of factors perceived to influence women‘s participation in part-time NCE programme in south-western Nigeria. The remaining components of this section is devoted to gauging the relative weight attached to each of the economic factors in influencing women participation in part- time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. A major strategy adopted to gauge the relative strength the respondents assigned to each of the economic factors is by ranking the scores attached to them in Table 4.16. Details of the ranking of the economic factors from the respondents‘ perceptions are presented in Table 4.20. 4.2.3.14 Ranking Indicators of Economic Factor in Terms of their Perceived Importance In performing the feat of ranking participants‘ perception on the contributions of economic factors‘ ranking, the respondents‘ ratings of the economic factors are scored based on the respondents‘ ‗level of agreement‘ as follows: 1 point for ‗Strongly Disagree.‘ ; 2 points for ‗Disagree‘; 3 points for ‗Agree‘; and, 4 points for ‗Strongly Agree‘. In tandem with the approach already adopted in earlier works in literature (Longe, Longe and Ukpebo, 2009; Uebersax, 2006), total scores for each factor are obtained by adding the aggregate scores, and converting them into percentage scores. In ranking the economic factors, the procedure earlier adopted for ranking respondents‘ perception on economic factors are applied. The breakdown of the aggregate and total scores of the economic factors are presented in Table 4.20. 127 Table 4.20: Scoring Participating Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Economic factors Influences their Participation in Part-Time NCE Programmes S/ Opinions Level of Agreement N S.D* D*. A* S.A* TS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Economic Factors 1 Spouse‘s occupation 169 169 323 646 316 948 216 864 2627 2 Perceived limited employment 243 243 273 546 197 591 311 1244 1971 opportunities for school leavers 3 Father‘s occupation 182 182 288 576 317 951 237 948 2657 4 Timing of the studies contact 249 249 324 648 198 594 253 1012 2503 5 Lack of sponsorship‘ 156 156 306 612 324 972 238 952 2692 6 That the money they are making in 242 242 279 558 268 804 235 940 2544 their present ‗business‘ is very much needed at home 7 Financial support from spouse 121 121 237 474 358 1074 308 1232 2901 8 The need to provide for the 170 170 349 698 177 531 325 1300 2699 children‘s education first 9 Direct cost of the programme, like 216 216 289 578 273 819 246 984 2597 school fees, text books etc 10 Mother‘s occupation 200 200 293 586 210 630. 321 1284 2700 11 The opportunity costs of education, 215 215 302 604 270 810 237 948 2577 like the need to lock up my shop to attend classes, 12 Indirect cost of the programme, like 261 261 295 590 145 435. 323 1292 2578 transportation etc. . . 13 Financial support from parents 186 186 270 540 293 879 275 1100 2705 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total Table 4.20 reveals significant variations in the total scores attached to the economic factors rated in the study. For instance, while ‗Financial support from spouse‘ and ‗Financial support from parents‘ recorded total scores of 2901 and 2705 respectively, ‗Timing of the studies contact‘ and ‗Perceived limited employment opportunities for school leavers‘ scored 2503 and 1971 points respectively. To facilitate having a clearer picture of the relative importance of each economic factor as determinant of females participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area, the economic factors are ranked based on their scores, from the economic factor 128 with the highest total scores, to the one with the least total score. The breakdown of the ranking is presented in Table 4.21. Table 4.21: Ranking Participating Respondents‘ Scoring of Indicators of Economic Factors Influencing their Participation in Part-time NCE programmes S/N Economic Factors Total % Rank Score Scores 1 Financial support from spouse 2901 70.8 1 2 Financial support from parents 2705 66.0 2 3 Mother‘s occupation 2700 65.9 3 4 The need to provide for the children‘s education first 2699 65.9 4 5 Lack of sponsorship‘ 2692 65.7 5 6 Father‘s occupation. 2657 64.9 6 7 Spouse‘s occupation 2627 64.1 7 8 Cost of school fees and text books 2597 63.4 8 9 Transportation costs 2578 62.9 9 10 The opportunity costs of education, like the need to 2577 62.9 10 lock up shop to attend classes 11 That the money they are making in their present 2544 62.1 11 ‗business‘ is very much needed at home. 12 Timing of the studies contact 2503 61.1 12 13 Perceived limited employment opportunities for 1971 48.1 13 school leavers. Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 Table 4.21 reveals that ‗Financial support from spouse‘ is ranked highest (70.8%) as an indicator of economic factor influencing respondents‘ participating in part-time NCE programmers in the study area. Next in order of importance, based on respondents‘ ranking, in descending order, are: ‗Financial support from Parents‘ (66.0%), ‗Mother‘s occupation(65.9%), ‗The need to provide for children‘s education first‘ (65.9%), ‗Lack of sponsorship‘ (65.7%), ‗Father‘s occupation‘ (64.9%), ‗Spouse‘s occupation‘ (64.1%), ‗Cost of school fees and textbooks‘ (63.4%), ‗Transportation costs‘ (62.9%), ‗The opportunity costs of education, like the need to lock up shop to attend classes‘ (62.9%), ‗That the money they are making in their present ‗business‘ is very much needed at home‘ (62.1%), ‗Timing of studies contact‘ (61.1%) and ‗Perceived limited employment opportunities for school leavers‘ (48.1%). FGDs provide insights into the respondents‘ rating of economic factors, as they influence their participating in part-time NCE programmes. Despite challenges 129 that warranted their dropping out of formal education programme, absence of financial assistance stands out as a significant factor generally identified by participants during focus group discussion sessions. Their husband providing the financial assistance they lacked as spinsters were generally identified as a very important factor in their current participation. A major factor they generally identified as being responsible for their delaying ‗till now‘ is the need to ensure that the children were provided adequate avenues for education, and it was only after the guaranteed economic wherewithal to pursue the programme without in any way jeopardising the children‘s chances, that they enrolled. Parents‘ occupation was found to influence females‘ participation in part- time NCE programmes in two major ways: females whose parents are employed in white-collar jobs, who interact with teachers and or people in academic environment, report enjoying more parental support than their colleagues whose parents do not have similar occupations. Another major factor that was generally identified in delaying many participants postponing their participation ‗till now‘ is their being preoccupied with economic activities, the economic returns of which they believed was very much needed at home. This is especially true in cases where they had to give preference to their children‘s education first. It is only when the stress of children‘s education had been successfully tackled and the economic stress abates sufficiently, that the necessity of manning the business is light enough to give room for embarking on part- time NCE programmes. The financial stress that necessitated giving preference to children‘s education first, was also identified as being responsible for other ‗excuses‘ like ‗inadequate resources to meet the required direct and indirect costs of education‘. The research‘s findings on economic factors influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes corroborate earlier findings in literature. For instance, findings on the influence of parents and husband‘s occupation and income corroborate earlier findings by Rahman and Uddin (2008) among others; the study‘s findings on the influence of perceived employment opportunities of school leavers corroborated earlier findings by Ali (1988), Akinpelu (1994), Osilunu (1994), Indawaba (1998; 1999; 2006), and Obanya (2003). In the same vein, findings on opportunity costs of procuring education by females corroborate earlier findings by Dall (1989), Somefun (1995), Williams, Archavantikul and Havanon (1998) among others. 130 4.3. Enrolment Differentials in Part-time NCE programmes The trends in enrolment for part-time NCE programmes in the sampled colleges of education between years 2000 and 2010 are presented in Table 4.22. 131 Table 4.22: Comparative Trends in Females‘ Enrolment for Part-time NCE Programmes in Federal CE Osiele, Alayande CE Oyo and Osun State CE Ilesa Year Students‘ Enrolment Federal C.E., Osiele Alayande C.E., Oyo Osun State C.E. Ilesa Total Total Females % Total Females % Females Total Females % Total Females % Females Females Females 2000 98 54 65.3 105 60 57.1 121 73 60.0 324 187 57.7 2001 112 70 62.5 910 263 28.9 141 89 62.9 1163 422 36.3 2002 170 118 69.4 599 197 32.9 146 96 65.8 915 411 44.9 2003 268 189 70.5 715 242 33.9 185 104 56.2 1168 535 45.8 2004 395 289 73.2 167 75 44.9 182 106 58.2 744 470 63.2 2005 490 344 70.2 256 115 44.9 250 148 59.2 996 607 60.9 2006 372 243 65.3 424 205 48.3 259 150 57.9 1055 598 56.7 2007 191 151 79.1 133 58 43.6 294 177 60.2 618 386 62.5 2008 145 113 78.0 320 118 36.9 500 319 63.8 965 550 60.0 2009 116 93 80.2 449 235 52.3 473 274 57.9 1038 602 58.0 2010 102 88 86.3 416 216 51.9 494 301 60.9 1012 605 59.8 Total 2449 1752 71.5 4494 1784 39.8 3045 1837 60.3 9998 5373 53.7 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011 132 Table 4.22 reveals significant increase in students‘ enrolment in part-time NCE programmes of the selected colleges of education from 324 in year 2,000 to 1012 in 2010, a 212.3% increase over a period of eleven years, with overall average yearly increase of 19.3%. Overall females‘ enrolment for the three colleges of education increased from 187 in year 2,000 to 605 in 2010, a 223.5% increase over a period of eleven years, with an average annual increase of 20.32%, more than the overall average annual increment in students‘ enrolment. Females not only constituted 53.7% of the overall students that enrolled for part-time NCE programmes in the selected schools between year 2,000 and 2,010, they recorded higher presence than males for seven of the eleven years covered by the study, and constituted less than half of the registered students in 2001, 2002 and 2003 when females constituted 36.3%, 44.9% and 45.8% respectively of the overall students enrolment. Observed increasing females‘ enrolment for part-time NCE programmes might be an indication that governments‘ efforts in achieving the targets of Millennium Development Goal on females' education are yielding positive results. The observed increasing females‘ enrolment is also in tandem with observations of Obanya (2003), UNESCO (2003), Indawaba (2006), and Aderinoye (2007), among others. When students‘ enrolment is considered on basis of the colleges of education, significant variations are observed. For instance, Alayande College of Education, Oyo, recorded highest enrolment of 4,494 students during this period. Coming second is Osun State College of Education, Ilesa, with 3,045, while the least patronized is Federal College of Education, Osiele, with 2,229 students. When compared in terms of proportion of females' enrolment, College of Education, Osiele, recorded the highest proportional of female patronage, with 1,752 (71.5%) of the 2,449 students that enrolled during the period being adult females. Coming second with 1,837 (60.3%) of the 3,045 enrolled students being females is Osun State College of Education, Ilesa. Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo recorded the least percentage of female enrolment among the three sampled colleges given that 1,784 (39.8%) of the 4,494 enrolled students during the period were females. It could also be observed in the passing, that while Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo recorded higher male patronage than females for eight out of the eleven years covered in the study (years 2001 to 2008 out of between 133 years 2000 and 2010), other colleges of education covered in this study recorded higher proportional of female enrolment throughout the study period. Investigations for plausible significant variations in females enrolment in part- time NCE programmes in the colleges of education on the basis of college ownership were conducted. To achieve this, simple linear regression models were fitted into the data on trends in females‘ enrollingfor part-time NCE programmes in the selected colleges of education (in Table 4.22) which yielded results that further confirmed the trend in variation of females participation among the selected colleges of education (Table 4.22). Table 4.23: Linear regression of females enrolment over the years 2 College of Education a b t R Federal, Osiele -2119.136 1.136 0.118* 0.002 Emmanuel. Alayande, -3355.682 1.755 0.224* 0.006 Oyo Osun State, Ilesa -49757.5 24.9 6.950** 0.843 Source: Computed from Table 4.10. ** = Significant at 95% ; * = Not Significant at 95% 2 The values of R for the colleges indicate significant variations in the percentage of female enrolment in each school explained by the regression model. For instance, while nearly 0.0% of the trends in female enrolments in part-time NCE programmes in Federal College of Education (FCE), Osiele and Emmanuel Alayande College of 2 Education (EACE), Oyo, were explained by their regression models, the value of R for Osun State College of Education (OSCE), Ilesa, indicates that as high as 84.3% of adult females‘ enrolment for the programme are explained by the regression model. While the values of the ‗t‘ for FCE and EACE are not significant at 0.05 level of significance, indicating that their regression models might not provide adequate explanations for the observed trends, the value of the ‗t‘ for OSCE is significant at 0.05, indicating that the regression model might provide adequate explanations for the observed trends. The regression models obtained from the table are: for FCE, y =-2119.136 + 1.136x + c; for EACE, y = -3355.682 + 1.755x + c; and, OSCE, y = 49757.5 + 24.9x + c The positive value of b in each of the models above indicates trends towards increase, in relation to years, the chance of female students‘ population increasing: with a unit increase in the year of establishing the part-time NCE programme, the population of 134 adult females enrollinghas the chance of increasing by 1.136 units in Federal College of Education, Osiele; 1.755 units in Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo; and 24.9 units in Osun State College of Education, Ilesa. From the observed trends, it may be concluded that there are significant variations in females participation in part-time NCE programme in the colleges of education on the basis of college ownership. 135 4.4 Students’ Perceptions of the Influence of ‘Participation Factors’ on their Academic Achievement A research question was raised to investigate existence of possible significant differences in effects of females participation factors on females participants‘ academic achievements in the colleges of education on the basis of college ownership. To this end, a research question was raised and investigated. The details of the investigations are presented in what follows. In investigating this research question, a Likert scale was used to obtain information on the perceptions of both the participating females and their instructors on the influence of females‘ participation (in terms of class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment and social activities) on the students‘ academic achievement in the study area. The results of the investigations are presented under two subheadings: Students‘ Perceptions of the Influence of ‗Participation factors‘ on their academic achievement; and Instructors‘ Perceptions of the Influence of ‗Participation factors‘ on students‘ academic achievement. The extent to which participating adult females‘ agree with the notion that class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities enhance their academic achievement, are presented next. 136 Table 4.24 : Participants‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Indices of Participation Enhances their Academic Achievement in Part-Time NCE Programmes S/N Opinions of Participants on each Level of Agreement index of participation by College of Education S.D* D*. A* S.A* Pop % Pop % Pop % Pop % 1 Class Attendance Fed, CE Osiele 19 9.4 53 26.8 78 39.2 49 24.6 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 60 19.5 75 24.2 89 28.8 86 27.5 Osun State CE Ilesa 53 10.2 107 20.8 193 37.4 162 31.6 TOTAL 132 12.9 235 23.0 360 35.1 297 29.0 2 Class Interaction Fed, CE Osiele 43 21.6 49 24.7 66 33.3 41 20.4 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 43 14.2 86 27.6 113 36.4 68 21.8 Osun State CE Ilesa 78 15.3 128 24.8 171 33.2 138 26.7 TOTAL 164 16.1 263 25.7 350 34.1 247 24.1 3 Participation in Continuous assessment Fed, CE Osiele 40 20.1 55 27.4 41 20.6 63 31.9 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 53 17.0 94 30.2 86 27.9 77 24.9 Osun State CE Ilesa 82 16.0 147 28.5 103 20.0 183 35.5 TOTAL 175 17.1 296 28.9 230 22.5 323 31.5 4 Participation in Social Activities Fed, CE Osiele 42 21.2 49 24.5 65 32.5 43 21.8 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 62 20.0 86 27.8 126 40.5 35 11.7 Osun State CE Ilesa 110 21.3 145 28.2 153 29.8 107 20.7 TOTAL 214 20.9 280 27.3 344 33.7 185 18.1 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. 4.4.1 Class Attendance Table 4.24 reveals that 64.1% of the sampled participating females in the three colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that class attendance enhances their academic achievement. When the three colleges of education were compared, variations were discovered in the ratings: about seven in ten (69%) of sampled participants in Osun State College of Education (OSCE), 63.8% in Federal College of Education (FCE), Osiele, and 56.3% in Emmanuel Alayande College of Education (EACE), Oyo, ‗at least agreed‘ that class attendance enhances their academic achievement. It is also revealed in the Table that only OSCE, Ilesa, recorded the highest percentage of participants (69.0%), above the 137 overall average (64.1%) of the participants that ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influences their academic achievement. FGDs conducted in the study area helped in shedding more light on how class attendance is perceived to enhance academic achievement in the study area. General consensus among the participants is that what students learn ‗first-hand‘ from the instructors stay longer in memory than what a student copies from her colleagues. It was also generally agreed among the participants that familiarity with the instructors style and method of teaching often help in knowing areas of emphasis requiring students‘ particular attention, especially for examination. The table has shown that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of the participants‘ perception of their class attendance enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first. Coming second was FCE, Osiele, while EACE, Oyo, came third. 4.4.2 Class Interaction In the case of plausible influence of class interaction on academic achievement of students, Table 4.24 reveals that while 58.2% of the sampled participants in the three colleges of education ‗at least agreed‘ that this factor enhances their academic achievements, 53.7%, 58.2% and 59.8% of respondents from FCE, Osiele, EACE, Oyo, and OSCE, Ilesa, respectively, ‗at least agree‘ that this factor influences their academic achievement. As in the case of class attendance, only OSCE, Ilesa, recorded a percentage of participants (59.9%) that is above the overall average for the three colleges of education sampled. FGDs conducted in the study area emphasised that participating actively in class interaction encourages the students to study well to participate effectively in class interaction. They thus imbibe study habits that enhance their academic achievements. The table has shown that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of the participants‘ perception of their class interaction enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first, second was EACE, Oyo, while FCE, Osiele came third. 138 4.4.3 Participation in Continuous assessment Table 4.24. reveals that 54.0% of the sampled participants in the three colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that participating in continuous assessment enhanced their academic achievement. Only OSCE, Ilesa recorded higher percentage of respondents (55.5%) that at least agree‘ that this factor enhanced their academic achievements. Next to OSCE, Ilesa, is EACE, Oyo (52.8%) followed by FCE, Osiele (52.5%). FGDs emphasise that participating actively in continuous assessment encourages students to study well to enhance their participation in this regard. Since many instructors openly circulate students‘ scores in continuous assessments, students usually try to enhance their scores to boost their egos among their colleagues and to enhance their scores in the examination, thus boosting their academic achievements. Table 4.24. reveals that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of the participants‘ perception of continuous assessment enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first, second was EACE, Oyo, while FCE, Osiele came third. 4.4.4 Participation in Social Activities Table 4.24 reveals that 54.3% of sampled participants ‗at least agree‘ that this factor enhances their academic achievements. Less than this figure, 52.2% and 50.5% of the respondents form EACE, Oyo, and OSCE, Ilesa, respectively accorded similar rating to this factor, although the overall average for the three sampled colleges of education was 52.8%. General consensus from FGDs reveal that most of the social activities in which the students were involved in were mainly those that usually take place outside the ‗schooling periods‘. Many complained that they usually have tight schedules, especially during the contact periods, they sparingly involve themselves in social activities, though participants that claimed to be actively involved in social activities claimed that their participation enhances their academic achievements. This insinuation is found to be true in the case of one Mrs. Ajayi, a third year student, who, despite being actively involved in sporting and social activities, was one of the best two in her set. The study has thus far established empirical evidences that female participants in the study area have identified that the female participation factors adopted for the study 139 influence their academic achievements in the part-time NCE programmes, thus buttressing the earlier claims established in the literature (Cross , 1981; Graham-Brown, 1991; Brock and Cammish, 1997. As stated earlier, a major thrust of the present study is providing evidence on the relative importance (weight) of each factor perceived to influence women‘s academic achievements in Part-time NCE programmes in South- western Nigeria. The remaining sections of this chapter is devoted to achieving this. A major strategy adopted to gauge the relative strength the respondents assigned to each of the females participation factors is by ranking the scores attached to them in Table 4.24. Details of the ranking of the social factors from the respondents‘ perceptions from Table 4.24. are presented below. 4.4.5 Ranking Female Participation Factors in Terms of if Participants’ Perception Enhances Academic Achievements In performing the feat of ranking participants‘ perception of the contributions of each of these females participation factors, the respondents‘ ratings of the females‘ participation factors are scored based on the respondents‘ ‗level of agreement‘ as follows: 1 point for ‗Strongly Disagree.‘ ; 2 points for ‗Disagree‘; 3 points for ‗Agree‘; and, 4 points for ‗Strongly Agree‘. In tandem with the approach already adopted in earlier works in the literature (Longe, Longe & Ukpebo, 2009; Uebersax, 2006), total scores for each factor are obtained by adding the aggregate scores, and the total aggregate scores were converted into percentage scores. In converting the scores to percentages, the total respondents from each college of education is taken into consideration in computing the percentage scores for each college. For example, since the total number of sampled participants in the FCE, Osiele, is 199, the maximum possible score on each participation factor is 199 x 4 = 796. The percentage score of any participation factor is obtained by dividing its sum total (TS*) by 796, and multiplying by 100. Since 310 and 515 participants were sampled in EACE, Oyo, and OSCE, Ilesa, respectively, percentage scores for any participation factor in EACE is obtained by dividing its sum total (TS*) by 310 x 4, and multiplying by 100. In the case of OSCE, the sum total (TS*) is divided by 515 x 4, and the result is multiplied by 100. The breakdown of the aggregate, total and percentage scores of the females participation factors are presented in Table 4.25. 140 Table 4.25 : Scoring Participating Respondents‘ Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Female Participation Factors Enhances their Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE Programme S/N Opinions of Participants Level of Agreement TS* % on each index of participation by College of S.D* D*. A* S.A* Education Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* 1 Class Attendance Fed, CE Osiele 19 19 53 106 78 234 49 196 555 69.7 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 60 60 75 150 89 267 86 344 821 66.2 Osun State CE Ilesa 53 53 107 214 193 579 162 648 1494 72.5 2 Class Interaction Fed, CE Osiele 43 43 49 98 66 198 41 164 483 60.7 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 43 43 86 172 113 339 68 272 826 66.6 Osun State CE Ilesa 78 78 128 256 171 513 138 552 1399 67.9 3 Participation in Continuous assessment Fed, CE Osiele 40 40 55 110 41 123 63 252 525 66.0 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 53 53 94 188 86 258 77 308 807 65.1 Osun State CE Ilesa 82 82 147 294 103 309 183 732 1417 68.8 4 Participation in Social Activities Fed, CE Osiele 42 42 49 98 65 195 43 172 507 63.9 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 62 62 86 172 126 378 35 140 754 60.8 Osun State CE Ilesa 110 110 145 290 153 459 107 428 1287 62.5 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total % = percentage score Table 4.25 reveals that majority of the sampled participants highly rated their perceptions of female participation factors‘ in enhancing their academic achievements. For instance, every one of the participation factor was rated by more than 60% of the participants as enhancing their academic achievement. The female participation factor that received highest rating was class attendance, where 72.5% of the participants in OSCE rated it as enhancing their academic achievement. Despite the general high ratings of the participation factors, variations were observed in the ratings among the colleges of education sampled. To provide a clearer understanding of the participants rating of their perception on 141 female participation factors enhancing their academic achievement, especially, to enable us easily comprehend the variations in the scores of the sampled colleges of education, the average scores of the colleges were obtained and presented in Table 4.26. Table 4.26: Colleges of Educations Scores on Students‘ Perception of Participation Factors Enhancing Academic Achievement Colleges of Education Class Class Contin. Social Average attendance Interact. Assessmt Activ. % % % % % Fed. College of Educ. Osiele 69.7 60.7 66.0 63.9 65.1 Emman. Alayande Coll. of Educ. 66.2 66.6 65.1 60.8 64.7 Oyo Osun State Coll. of Educ. Ilesa 72.5 67.9 68.8 62.5 68.0 Source: Author‘s computations from Table 4.25 Table 4.26 reveals that when the sampled colleges of education were evaluated based on the participants perceptions on the extent to which female participation factors enhance their academic achievement, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated highest, with an average of 68.0%, coming second with 65.1% was the FCE, Osiele, while EACE, Oyo, was rated third, with 64.7%. 142 4.5. Instructors Perceptions of the Influence of Participation Factors on Enhancing Students Academic Achievement. The extent to which the instructors agree with the notion that class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities enhance participating females‘ academic achievement, are presented below. Table 4.27: Instructors Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Indices of Participation Enhances Students Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE. Programmes S/N Opinions of Instructors on each Level of Agreement index of participation by College of Education S.D* D*. A* S.A* Pop % Pop % Pop % Pop % 1 Class Attendance Fed, CE Osiele 7 18.3 6 14.6 18 45.7 9 21.4 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 6 14.4 9 23.5 13 33.5 12 28.6 Osun State CE Ilesa 1 3.0 9 21.2 13 32.0 17 43.8 TOTAL 14 11.7 24 20.0 44 36.7 38 31.6 2 Class Interaction Fed, CE Osiele 9 22.4 8 19.5 14 34.5 9 23.6 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 8 20.6 9 23.2 9 21.4 14 34.8 Osun State CE Ilesa 5 13.2 9 21.7 10 24.8 16 40.3 TOTAL 22 18.3 26 21.7 33 27.5 39 32.5 3 Participation in Continuous assessment Fed, CE Osiele 6 15.3 8 19.8 16 40.2 10 24.7 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 6 16.1 8 20.5 17 41.9 9 21.5 Osun State CE Ilesa 3 8.5 8 19.1 19 48.5 10 23.9 TOTAL 15 12.5 24 20.0 52 43.3 29 24.2 4 Participation in Social Activities Fed, CE Osiele 8 19.4 11 26.4 13 32.6 9 21.6 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 4 10.8 12 30.8 11 27.2 12 31.2 Osun State CE Ilesa 6 14.0 11 28.5 10 26.0 13 31.5 TOTAL 18 15.1 34 28.3 34 28.3 34 28.3 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. 4.5.1 Class Attendance Table 4.27 reveals that 68.3% of the sampled instructors ‗at least agree‘ that class attendance enhances participants‘ academic achievement. When compared on school basis, it was revealed that while more than three in four (75.6%) of instructors in OSCE, Ilesa, ‗at least agree‘ that class attendance enhances their students‘ academic 143 achievements, 67.1% and 62.1% of instructors in FCE, Osiele, and EACE, Oyo, respectively, accorded similar ratings to this factor. FGDs reveal that instructors deliberately encourage class attendance by giving snap tests, making conscious efforts to ‗make class lively‘, and awarding marks for punctuality. These, they claimed, encourage students to attend classes regularly and promptly, thereby enhancing their academic achievements. The table has shown that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of instructors‘ perception of students‘ class attendance enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first, second was the FCE, Osiele, while EACE, Oyo, came third. 4.5.2 Class Interaction Table 4.27 reveals that although 60.0% of the sampled instructors in the three colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that class interaction enhances their students‘ academic achievements, more that this average (65.1%) of instructors in OSCE, Ilesa, gave similar ratings to this factor, while 56.2% and 58.1%, of instructors from EACE, Oyo, and FCE, Osiele, respectively, accorded similar ratings to this factor. FGDs reveal that instructors have devised the strategy of identifying students that are academically weak and those academically strong. Efforts were often made to pair the ‗weak‘ and the ‗strong‘ to enable the weak learn from their ‗strong‘ colleagues, without ‗pulling the latter down‘. Instances were cited where students that were initially ‗weak‘ improved their academic achievements as a result of class interaction. The table has shown that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of the instructors‘ perception of their students‘ class interaction enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first. Coming second was the FCE, Osiele, while EACE, Oyo, came third. 4.5.3 Participation in Continuous assessment Table 4.27 reveals that 67.6% of all instructors sampled in the three colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that participation in continuous assessment enhances their students‘ academic achievements. The table reveals that overwhelming majority of the instructors in each of the sampled colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that this is so: 72.4% for OSCE, Ilesa; 64.9% for FCE, Osiele; and, 63.4% for EACE, Oyo. 144 FGDs reveal diverse ways in which continuous assessment was assessed in the study area. Most of the instructors reported that ‗bonuses‘ were often awarded for asking questions, for answering questions, for solving ‗problems‘ etc., and that students were encouraged to eagerly participate in continuous assessment. Another method adopted by most of the instructors is to give the students ‗home assignments‘ that usually constitute a part of their continuous assessment. These, the instructors generally agree, enhance the students‘ academic achievements as they were encouraged to master each topic they were taught in the course of the programme. The table has shown that when the colleges of education are classified in terms of the instructors‘ perception of their students‘ participation in continuous assessment enhancing their academic achievements, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated first, FCE, Osiele was second while EACE, Oyo, came third. 4.5.4 Participation in Social Activities Table 4.27 reveals that 56.3% of all the instructors sampled in the three colleges of education ‗at least agree‘ that participation in social activities enhances their students‘ academic achievements. When compared among the three colleges of education sampled, instructors from EACE, Oyo topped the list, with 58.4% of them at least ‗agreeing‘ with the notion that this factor influences their students‘ academic achievements. Second in the list were instructors from OSCE, Ilesa, where 57.5% of the instructors ‗at least agree‘ that the factor influences their students‘ academic achievement. While the third were instructors from FCE, Osiele, where 54.2% of the gave similar ratings. FGDs reveal various ways in which participation in social activities enhances students‘ academic achievements. Examples include participating in students unionism, social, cultural, academic and non-academic associations which often bring members into limelight, making them realise why they should always endeavour to have impressive academic results. Instances of where average and below average students become serious in their academic pursuits after attaining responsible positions in their various associations were freely cited. The study has thus far established empirical evidences that instructors in the study area have identified that the female participation factors adopted influence participants‘ 145 academic achievements in the part-time NCE programme, thus buttressing the earlier claims established in the literature (Brock and Cammish, 1997; Kalu, 1997; Kalantari, 1999; Muhammad, 2005; Petress, 2006). As stated earlier, a major thrust of the present study is providing evidence on the relative importance (weight) of each factor perceived to influence women‘s academic achievements in part-time NCE programmes in south- western Nigeria. The remaining sections of this chapter is devoted to achieving this. A major strategy adopted to gauge the relative strength the respondents assigned to each of the females participation factors is by ranking the scores attached to them in Table 4.27. Details of the ranking of the social factors from the respondents‘ perceptions in Table 4.27. are presented below. 4.5.5 Ranking Female Participation Factors in Terms of Instructors’ Perception of Enhancing their Academic Achievements In performing the feat of ranking instructors‘ perception of the contributions of each female participation factors‘ ranking, the respondents‘ ratings are scored based on the respondents‘ ‗level of agreement‘ as follows: 1 point for ‗Strongly Disagree.‘ ; 2 points for ‗Disagree‘; 3 points for ‗Agree‘; and, 4 points for ‗Strongly Agree‘. In tandem with the approach already adopted in literature (Longe, Longe & Ukpebo, 2009; Uebersax, 2006), total scores for each factor are obtained by adding the aggregate scores, and the total aggregate scores were converted into percentage scores. In converting the scores to percentages, the total respondents from each college of education is taken into consideration in computing the percentage scores for each college. Since 40 instructors were sampled from each college of education, the maximum possible score on each participation factor is 40 x 4= 160. The percentage score of any participation factor is obtained by dividing its sum total (TS*) by 160, and multiplying by 100. The breakdown of the aggregate, total and percentage scores of female participation factors are presented in Table 4.28. 146 Table 4.28 : Scoring Instructors Degree of Agreement with the Opinion that each of the Following Female Participation Factors Enhances Participants Academic Achievement in Part-time NCE Programmes S/N Opinions of Participants Level of Agreement TS* % on each index of participation by College of S.D* D*. A* S.A* Education Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* Pop SS* 1 Class Attendance Fed, CE Osiele 7 7 6 12 18 54 9 36 109 68.1 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 6 6 9 18 13 39 12 48 111 69.4 Osun State CE Ilesa 1 1 9 18 13 39 17 68 126 78.8 2 Class Interaction Fed, CE Osiele 9 9 8 16 14 42 9 36 103 64.4 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 8 8 9 18 9 27 14 56 109 68.1 Osun State CE Ilesa 5 5 9 18 10 30 16 64 117 73.1 3 Participation in Continuous assessment Fed, CE Osiele 6 6 8 16 16 48 10 40 110 68.8 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 6 6 8 16 17 51 9 36 109 68.1 Osun State CE Ilesa 3 3 8 16 19 57 10 40 116 72.5 4 Participation in Social Activities Fed, CE Osiele 8 8 11 22 13 39 9 36 105 65.6 Emman. Alayande CE Oyo 4 4 12 24 11 33 12 48 109 68.1 Osun State CE Ilesa 6 6 11 22 10 30 13 52 110 68.8 Source: Author‘s Field Surveys, 2011. * S.D. = Strongly Disagree D. = Disagree A. = Agree S.A. = Strongly Agree SS = Sum TS = Sum Total % = percentage score Table 4.28 reveals that majority of the sampled instructors highly rated their perceptions of female participation factors in enhancing academic achievements. For instance, every participation factor was rated by more than 60% of the participants as enhancing participants‘ academic achievement. The female participation factor that received highest rating was class attendance, which recorded as high as 78.8 percent among the instructors in OSCE, Ilesa. Despite the general high ratings of the participation factors, variations were observed in the ratings among the colleges of education sampled. To provide a clearer understanding of the participants rating of their perception on female participation factors enhancing their academic achievement, especially, to 147 enable us easily comprehend the variations in the scores of the sampled colleges of education, the average scores of the colleges were obtained and presented in Table 4.29. Table 4.29: Colleges of Educations Scores on Instructors‘ Perception of Participation Factors Enhancing Participants Academic Achievement Colleges of Education Class Class Contin. Social Average Overall attendance Interact. Assessmt Activ. % Average % % % % % Fed. Coll. of Educ., 68.1 64.4 68.8 65.6 66.7 65.4 Osiele Emmanuel Alayande 69.4 68.1 68.1 68.1 68.4 66.4 Coll. of Educ., Oyo Osun State Coll. of 78.8 73.1 72.5 68.8 73.3 70.7 Educ., Ilesa Source: Author‘s computations from Table 4.28 Table 4.29 reveals that both the participating females and their instructors rated each of the female participation factors more than 60% in enhancing the participants‘ academic achievements. When the average aggregate scores of the sampled colleges of education were considered, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated highest by both the participating females (68.0%) and the sampled instructors (73.3%). FCE, Osiele, was rated second by the participants (65.1%), though it was rated third by the instructors (65.6%). While EACE, Oyo, was rated third by the participants (64.7%) and second by the instructors (68.1%). On the whole, when the overall average of the scoring of ratings by both participants and the instructors were obtained, to reveal the overall ratings of the sampled colleges of education in terms of the extent to which females participation factors were perceived to enhance participants‘ academic achievement, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated highest with overall average of 70.7%, EACE, Oyo, was rated second with 66.4%, and FCE, Osiele, was rated third with 65.4% (last column, first row, of Table 4.26). The study has thus provided empirical evidence on rating of the studied colleges of education based on females participating in part-time NCE programmes and the instructors‘ perception of the effects of students‘ participation on their academic achievements. 148 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents the summary, conclusions and recommendations consistent with the outcome of the study. 5.1 Summary of Findings The study was carried out based on the observation that as a result of vigorous efforts by the Nigerian government to encourage females participation in part-time NCE programmes to enhance their contributions to educational development of the nation, females participation in the programmes have improved significantly as many females that dropped out of formal education readily participate in the programmes. Although historical antecedence of south-western Nigeria in western education, the old western region being the region where Universal Primary Education (UPE) was introduced in 1955 and ‗Free Education at all Levels‘ was introduced in 1979, might play some roles in explaining the rate of participation of females in educational programmes in the region, the unprecedented increasing level of participation of females in part-time NCE programmes deserves empirical investigations. Salient question arising from the observed trends in females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria is: To what extent do the socio-cultural and economic factors influence female participation in (enrolment, class attendance, classroom interaction, continuous assessment, and social activities) in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria, especially now that education is generally, seen as a sine qua non to individual career development? This study, therefore, attempted to determine the extent to which the combinations of socio-cultural and economic factors influence female participation in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education. Four hypotheses were tested to meet the objectives of the study and two research questions were raised for the study. The instruments used for the study were two sets of questionnaire, complemented with Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The data collected from the field were analysed and discussed fully in chapter four of the study. The first chapter started with general introduction to the study which served as a background to the study. Other issues discussed in the chapter were statement of the 149 problem, aim and objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope of the study and the operational definitions of terms. The second chapter of the study comprised the review of the literature and relevant concepts related to the study. In the chapter, the following adult learning models were examined: Chain of Response (COR); Characteristics of Adult Learner (CAL); and the Interdisciplinary, Sequential-specificity, Time-allocation, Life-span (ISSTAL) Models. Chapter three was on the methodology adopted for the study, and the approach used to collect relevant data for the study. The research design adopted for the study was descriptive survey research design. Two sets of questionnaires were used to gather information from participating females and their instructors. The data was complemented with FGDs. The sample for the study was drawn from three colleges of education from Ogun, Osun and Oyo states in south-western Nigeria. 5.2 Major Findings from the Study The following were the major findings of the study: (1) Relationship between female participation factors in part-time NCE programmes and social factors: The study revealed a significant relationship between females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes and social factors (r = 0.313**, N = 1024, P < 0.01). (2) Relationship between female participation factors in part-time NCE programme and cultural factors: The study revealed a significant relationship between females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes and cultural factors (r = 0.415**, N = 1024, P < 0.01). (3) Relationship between female participation factors in part-time NCE programme and economic factors: The study revealed a significant relationship between females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes and economic factors (r = 0.485**, N = 1308, P < 0.01). (4) Relative Importance of the social, cultural and economic factors in influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes: The study revealed that the social, cultural and economic factors were not equally rated as contributors to females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes. For instance, of the ten 150 most highly rated factors influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes, five were social factors, four were cultural, and only one was an economic. The factor that was most highly rated as contributing to females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria was ‗Parents‘ encouragement‘(social factor). The remaining nine most highly scored factors that make up the ‗top ten‘, from the second to the tenth, are: ‗Submissiveness to parental instructions‘ (cultural); ‗Parental level of education‘ (social); ‗Peers influence‘ (social); ‗Family background‘ (social); ‗Availability of female role model‘ (social); ‗Gender identity / labelling‘ (cultural); ‗Financial support from spouse‘ (economic); ‗Time spent on household chore‘ (cultural); th and, ‗Spouse instructions‘ (cultural). The least rated factor, rated 39 out of the 39 factors, is ‗the perceived limited employment opportunities for school leavers‘, an economic factor. (5) Trends in females enrolment for part-time NCE programmes in the colleges of education: The study revealed significant overall increase in females‘ enrolment (212.3%) in part-time NCE programmes in the three colleges of education between years 2,000 and 2010. Regression models for trends in females enrolment obtained for the overall and each of the colleges of education are: Overall for the three colleges: y = 321.71 + 27.791x + c. ; FCE, Osiele, y =-2119.136 + 1.136x + c; EACE, Oyo, y = -3355.682 + 1.755x + c; and, OSCE, Ilesa, y = 49757.5 + 24.9x + c Implying that OSCE, Ilesa, experienced highest rate of increment in females enrolment (24.9 units per unit increase in year) over the period, 2000 to 2010; followed by EACE, Oyo, that experienced 1.755 units increase per year; and the last is the FCE, Osiele, that experienced only 1.136 units increase per unit increase in year. (6) Influence of females participation on their academic achievements in part-time NCE programmes of colleges of education on the basis of college ownership: The study revealed that both participating females and their instructors rated each of the female participation factors more than 60% in enhancing academic 151 achievements. Considering the overall aggregate percentage scores of the participants and the instructors for females participation factors enhancing academic achievement among the sampled colleges of education, OSCE, Ilesa, was rated highest with overall average of 70.7%, EACE, Oyo, was rated second with 66.6%, and FCE, Osiele, was rated third, with 65.9%. 5.3 Conclusion Based on the study‘s objectives and methods adopted for the study, a significant relationship was observe to exist between females participation factors in part-time NCE programmes and social, cultural and economic factors adopted for the study. The study revealed that social factors were rated highest as influencing females‘ participation in part-time NCE programmes, and that perceived limited employment opportunities (an economic factor) was the least rated factor influencing participation. Different trends were observed in the rate of females‘ enrolment for part-time NCE programmes between years 2000 and 2010, with OSCE, Ilesa, experienced highest rate of increment in females enrolment (24.9 units per unit increase per year); followed by EACE, Oyo, that experienced 1.755 units increase per year; and FCE, Osiele, experiencing only 1.136 units increase per year. When the colleges of education were ranked on the basis of the participants‘ and Instructors‘ ratings of the extent to which female participation factors influenced participants‘ academic achievement, the study revealed that OSCE, Ilesa, was rated highest with overall average of 70.7%, EACE, Oyo, was rated second with 66.6%, and FCE, Osiele, was rated third with 65.9%. It was concluded that social, cultural and economic factors could adequately serve as determinanats of females participation in part-time NCE programmes in south-western Nigeria. 5.4. Recommendations (1) There is the need for urgent public enlightenment campaigns targeted at the husbands and parents on the importance of females participating in part-time NCE programmes in the study area. (2) Public enlightenment campaigns should also be undertaken through mass media, to popularise the existence of part-time NCE programmes in the study area. 152 (3) There is the need for cultural revival, stressing the importance of females and the diverse ways they could contribute to development if appropriately encouraged. To this end, gender education should be incorporated into schools programme right from primary to tertiary levels. (4) There is the need to introduce more flexibility in the part-time NCE programmes to accommodate local norms and customs as this will enhance females‘ participation. (5) The anticipated flexibility to be introduced into the part-time NCE programme should include consideration for more appropriate timing of the contact periods to accommodate the diverse occupations of participants. (6) There is the urgent need to provide more comfortable seats and tables in the study centres to enhance learning and reduce the inconveniences of participants. (7) The idea of having crèche and children playing groups within the premises of the study centres or nearby, should be given urgent attention to encourage mothers‘ participation in the programme. (8) Concerted efforts should also be made to recruit more female instructors in the study centres. (9) Legislations should be enacted illegalising the practice of early marriage to discourage the practice of withdrawing girls from schools for marriage. (10) Legislations should also be enacted with stiff penalties for engaging young girls as house-helps. 5.5 Contributions to Knowledge The study has provided a framework for policymakers, government, administrators, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), educationists, proprietors of institutions, women in development, and those interested in gender equity, that social, cultural and economic factors influence women participation in part-time NCE programmes. 5.6 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies The scope of the study cover only part-time NCE programmes in south western Nigeria. Due to the comprehensiveness of this study, questionnaires were administered on random sampling basis. 153 However, the limitations encountered in the course of carrying out the research include non-availability of some relevant data, as well as uncooperative attitudes of some of the participants and instructors. Despite these challenges, the final data collected and used for analysis are adequate representation of the main focus of the study and do not have any adverse effects on the final outcome of the study. The study only covered females participating in these part-time NCE programmes in terms of enrolment, class attendance, class interaction, continuous assessment and social activities. Efforts were not made to obtain and scrutinise academic results of the students. Hence, the research‘s recommendations are limited to strategies to enhance females‘ participation, without any mention of the anticipated academic competence of the final products. 5.7 Areas for Further Research This study has been delimited to south-western Nigeria. A broader scope through comparative analysis of females‘ participation in NCE programmes in different geo- political zones of Nigeria will be necessary to determine the effects of social, cultural and economic factors on females‘ participation. 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Leaving early: undergraduate non-completion in higher education, Falmer Press, London. 162 APPENDIX I (For Female Participants) SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF FEMALES’ PARTICIPATION IN PART-TIME NCE PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. January, 2011 Dear Respondent, Kindly help respond to this questionnaire which is designed to find out the extent to which socio-cultural and economic factors serve as determinants of females‘ participation in Part-time NCE programmes in South-western Nigeria. Your response will be treated strictly confidential as the information provided will be used purely for research purposes. Thank you. Instruction: Please mark (X) where necessary. SECTION A: Personal Information 1. Age : (a) less than 20 ( ) (b) 20-29 ( ) (c) 30-39 ( ) (d) 40-49 ( ) (e) 50-59 ( ) (f) 60 and above ( ) 2. Marital Status:(a) Single ( ) (b) Married ( ) (c)divorced( ) (d) Separated ( ) (e) Widow ( ) 3. Religion:(a) Christianity ( ) b) Islam ( ) ( c) Traditional African ( ) 4. Name of the Village/ Town/City: _____________________________ 5. Local Government Area: _____________________________________ 6. State: _______________________________________ 7. Occupation: (a) Farming ( ) (b) Business ( ) (c) Artisan ( ) (d) Teaching ( ) ( e) Public Service ( ) (f) Private Sector Service ( ) (g) Others (Specify) ___________________ 8. Average Income per month (in Naira):(a) less than 10,000 (b) 10,000 – 19,999( ) (c) 20,000 – 39,999 ( ) (d) 40,000 – 59,999 ( ) (e) 60,000 and above. 9. Highest level of education attained by your father :(a) None ( ) (b) primary ( ) (b) secondary ( ) (c) tertiary ( ) 10. Highest level of education attained by your mother: (a) None ( ) (b) primary ( ) (b) secondary ( ) (c) tertiary ( ) 11. Your father‘s religion: a) Christianity( ) b) Islam ( ) c) Traditional African ( ) 12. Your mother‘s religion: a) Christianity( ) b) Islam ( ) c) Traditional African ( ) 13. Number of wives married by your father: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) (e) more than 4 ( ) 14. Your mother‘s position among your father‘s wives: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) (e) 5 ( ) (f) 6 ( ) (g) more than 6 ( ) 15. Number of your mother‘s surviving children: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) 163 (e) 5 ( ) (f) 6 ( ) (g) more than 6 ( ) 16. Gender of your mother‘s surviving children: Number of Males:_____ Number of Females ________ 17. Your position among your mother‘s children: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) (e) 5 ( ) (f) 6 ( ) (g) more than 6 ( ) 18. Level of educational attainment of each of your mother‘s surviving children: Position of the child Gender Level of education attained st 1 nd 2 rd 3 th 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 8 th 9 th 10 19. Number of your father‘s surviving children: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) (e) 5 ( ) (f) 6 ( ) (g) more than 6 ( ) 20. Gender of your father‘s surviving children: Number of Males_____ Number of Females ____________ 21. Your position among your father‘s surviving children: (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( ) (d) 4 ( ) (e) 5 ( ) (f) 6 ( ) (g) more than 6 ( ) 22. Your age when you contracted your present marriage: (a) less than 20 ( ) (b) 20 – 29 ( ) (c) 30 – 39 ( ) (d) 40 – 49 ( ) (e) 50 – 59 ( ) (f) at least 60 ( ) SECTION B Instruction: In responding to the items, please mark (X) in the column that conforms with your level of agreement or disagreement. The key to the columns are: S. A. = Strongly Agree (4 Points) A. = Agree (3 Points) D. = Disagree (2 Points) S. D. = Strongly Disagree (1 Point) 164 S/N Opinions Level of Agreement S.A. A D S.D. A Perception on Social Factors Scale 23. My friends influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 24. Availability of female role model influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 25. My having personal low expectations influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 26. My parents‘ level of education influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 27. My parents‘ encouragement influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 28. Practice of engaging girls and young adult females as house- helps influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 29. My spouse‘s encouragement influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 30. Time spent on household chores influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 31. ‗Broken home‘ influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 32. My family background influences my participation in part- time NCE programmes 33. My spouse‘s level of education influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 34. The belief that Western education teaches the females unacceptable behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could lead to pregnancy influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes B Perception on Cultural Factors Scale 35 Schools‘ programmes and calendars not being responsive to local norms and practices influences my participation in part- time NCE programmes 36. Time spent on household chores influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 37. Perceived hostile attitudes of male co-students influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 38 Religious practice, such as female seclusion influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 39. Absence of female instructors influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 40. The practice of early marriage influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 165 41. Responsibilities to the extended family influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 42 Spouse‘s attitude to education influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 43 Fear of possible sexual harassment by male instructors and co- students influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 44 Belief that a woman has lower mental capabilities than men (i.e. Gender identity/labelling) influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 45 The general belief that a woman‘s place is in the kitchen influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 46 Submissiveness to parental instructions influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes C Perception on Economic Factors Scale 47 Spouse‘s occupation influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 48 Perceived limited employment opportunities for school leavers influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 49 Father‘s occupation influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 50 Timing of the studies contact influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 51 Lack of sponsorship‘ influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 52 That the money we are making in the present ‗business‘ is very much needed at home influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 53 Financial support from spouse influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 54 The need to provide for the children‘s education first influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 55. Cost of School fees and textbooks influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 56. Mother‘s occupation influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 57. The opportunity costs of education, like the need to lock up shop to attend classes influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 58 Transportation costs influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 59 Financial support from parents influences my participation in part-time NCE programmes 166 D Perception on Female Participation Scale 60 My attending classes regularly enhances my academic achievement 61 My being actively involved in class interaction enhances my academic achievement 62. My participating actively in continuous assessment enhances my academic achievement 63 My participating actively in social activities enhances my academic achievement E Perceptions on Academic Performance Scale 64 My husband‘s encouragement enhances my academic performance 65. My father‘s encouragement enhances my academic performance 66. My mother‘s encouragement enhances my academic performance 67 The time I spend on household chores adversely affect my academic performance 68. Time spent on social activities outside school adversely affect my academic performance 69. The need to provide for the children‘s education first adversely affect my academic performance Thank you. 167 APPENDIX II (For Instructors) SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF FEMALES’ PARTICIPATION IN PART-TIME NCE PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. January, 2011 Dear Respondent, Kindly help respond to this questionnaire which is designed to find out the extent to which socio-cultural and economic factors serve as determinants of females‘ participation in Part-time NCE programmes in South-western Nigeria. Your response will be treated strictly confidential as the information provided will be used purely for research purposes. Thank you. Instruction: Please mark (X) where necessary. SECTION A: General information 1. Name of the Village/ Town/City:----------------------------------------------- 2. Local Government Area:--------------------------------------------------------- 3. State:---------------------------------------------------- 4. Name of Study Centre: -------------------------------------------------------------- 5. Name of College of Education affiliated to:------------------------------------------------------- SECTION B: Personal Information 6. Age : (a) 20-29 ( ) (b) 30-39 ( ) (c) 40-49 ( ) (d) 50 - 59 ( ) (e) ≥ 60 ( ) 7. Marital Status:(a) Single ( ) (b) Married ( ) (c)divorced( ) (d) Separated ( ) (e) Widow ( ) 8. Religion:(a) Christianity ( ) b) Islam ( ) ( c) Traditional African ( ) 9. Highest educational qualification:----------------------------------------------- 10. Years of Experience as an instructor:--------------------------------------- 11. Average monthly remuneration as an instructor (in naira):---------------------------- 12. Number of courses handled by you per week:--------------------------------- 13. How many hour-periods do you have per week? ------------------------------ SECTION C Instruction: In responding to the items, please mark (X) in the column that conforms with your level of agreement or disagreement. The key to the columns are: S. A. = Strongly Agree (4 Points) A. = Agree (3 Points) D. = Disagree (2 Points) S. D. = Strongly Disagree (1 Point) 168 S/N Opinions Level of Agreement S.A A D S.D. . A Perception on Female Participation Scale 14 In the Part-time NCE programme, attending classes regularly enhances students academic achievement. 15 In the Part-time NCE programme, being actively involved in class interaction enhances students academic achievement. 16. In the Part-time NCE programme, participating actively in continuous assessment enhances students academic achievement. 17 In the Part-time NCE programme, participating actively in social activities enhances students academic achievement. Thank you. 169