.,.' '., . . . .. ':,'.::- ;':~ jl
EDUCATION I
. FOR
MILLENNIUM
DEVELOPMENT . .~ .
ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF~.
PROFESSOR MICHAEL OMOLEWA .~. .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN   LIBRARY
Education for Millennium Development:
Essays in Honour of Professor Michael Omolewa
EDITORS
Marcie Boucouvalas, PbD Rashid Aderinoye
Professor and Programme Director As.rociate Professor and Ading Director
Adult Leami/lg and HRD Cel/tre for Literacy Training and
Virginia Tecb] 'National Development Programme jor Africa
Capital Region University of lbadan,
Falls Church, VA, USA I badan, Nigeria
EDITORIAL ADVISORS
James A. Ajala Morayo Atinmo
Professor and Head Professor and Head
Department of Huma» Kinetics Department of Library, .Achiual
and Health Education, and Information 5cience,
Ulliversity of lbadan, Universi[)' of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria Ibadan, Nigeria
Professor Thomas Olusola Fasokun Professor Dele Braimo
Obajemi Awolowo University Institute of Extra-Mural Studies
IIe-Ife, Nigeria National Univmity of Lesotho,
Lesotho
Professor Akpovire B. Oduaran
Professor and Head of Department
Adult and COlltinuing Education
UnitJersity of Botswana,
Gaborone, Botsu/ana
@
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5 enior Editor: Anthony Olumekor
Editor: Olugbemiga Akin-Williams.
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Contents
Prologue Xl
Foreword xv
Preface ..xvzz
Introduction XXl
_~rom the Table of the Head o] Department XXV
..
AcknowledgementJ xxvzz
Section 1:EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT 1
1. Education for Millennium Development: The
Transpersonal Challenge
Professor Boucouvaias, Martie 3
2. UNESCO and Global Partnership for Education
Development
Pagbuiu, Iyabo. PhD 14
3. Re-visioning the Vocational Purpose of Secondary
Education Curriculum in Nigeria for Millennium
Development
Aiade, Ibiwumi .Abiodun. PhD and
Adebanjo, O. O. (M.iJJ) 21
4. Special Education in Nigeria: Way Out of Millipede
Development for Millennium Educational Goals
Oyundqyin, J O. PhD and Eni-Oiorunda,
Toiu. PhD 34
5. Millennium Development Goals: The Place of Education
in Nigeria
Akinwumz~ Pemi Sundqy. PhD 44
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14. Recurrent and Continuing Education As Drives for
Attaining Education for All in Nigeria
EgUJryomi,D. A. PhD,· Ekom, Okora O. and
Dwa, UJ'ang 179
15. The Role of School Library in Promoting Lifelong
Education
Kotade, Helen K. and Olaojo,Pius Olatuf!ji 195
16. Global Knowledge ECOn01TIYT:he Challenges for
Industrial Education in Developing Countries
Hassan, MosboodAyinde: PhD 210
17. Implications of Budgetary Allocation of Adult and
Non-formal Education to Lifelong Learning in Nigeria
Olojede,A. A. and Dairo, Lateefat O. 226
18. A Situation Analysis of International Labour
Organisation Conventions and the Nigerian Labour Laws
Abu, PeterB. PhD and Bankole, Aka,,!ji R 245
19. Economic Reforms and Human Development in Nigeria
okuwa, Olttwakemi B. 265
Section 3: ADULT LITERACY 285
20. Adult Literacy: From Monitoring to Practice
Professor Wagner, Daniel A. 287
21. Comments On Literacy, Poverty and Democracy:
Can We Be Illiterate, Poor and Still Be Democratic?
Emerit«: ProfessorAkinpelu, J A. 316
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22. Communicating With Non-Literates
Professor Rogen, Alan 324
23. Building A Learning Society for the Millennium in
Nigeria: Challenges and Responsibilities
.Aderinoye, Rashid. PhD and Laoye, Deola, PhD 351
24. Towards the Cultivation of a Reading Culture in sub-
Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Scenario
okojie, VictonOa 370
• °
25. Achieving Scientific Literacy by the 21st Century,
Agenda for Universal Basic Education
Ezeliora, Bernadette 394
26. Promoting Information Literacy and Knowledge
Economy in Higher Education: The Nigerian Perspective
Professor Atinmo, Morqyo and .Adedeii, Segun. PhD 408
Section 4: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 433
27. Psychological Relevance of Participation in
Community Development
Adekola, Ganiy». PhD 435
28. Adult and Non-formal Education As a Panacea
for Transformation of Grassroots Communities in ,the
21st Century
Oyebamjji, M.A. PhD 446
Section 5: EDUCATION AND POVERTY
REDUCTION 457
29. The Role of Education in Poverty Eradication
Professor Fasoeun, Thomas Olusola 459
VIll
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30. Education As A Strategy for Environmental Sustainability
in Nigeria
Campbell, Omolara .Ayotunde 476
31. Empowering the Retirees: A Career Counselling Input
Adeyemo, D. A. PhD 495
32. An Overvie-w of the Effects of Poverty in Nigerian
Rural Areas
Ebirz"m, Ugomma 507
33. Enabling Education for Poverty Eradication in Nigeria
[aiyeoba, Adebola O. (NIrs), PhD and .Atanda,
Ademola 1. 519
34. Education and Poverty Eradication
lAwaI, B.O. PhD 538
Index 551
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Prologue
UNESCO: THE OMOLEWA MAGIC
History will be kind to Professor Tunde Adeniran, former Education
Minister who, in 2000, appointed Prof. Michael Omolewa as
Nigeria's Permanent Delegate to UNESCO. For in the last seven
years, the Professor of Adult Education from Ipoti Ekiti (Ekiti State)
has taken the country to higher levels than had been anticipated.
Omolewa has been lucky in several respects. First, his appointment
came immediately after democracy was restored in Nigeria in 1999.
His predecessor, Dr Olusegun Akinluyi (1993 - 1999), an equally
brilliant diplomat, was not so privileged. It was his lot to bear the
brunt of the international community against Nigeria during the
difficult years of the late Gen. Sani Abacha. But the clean break
came for Nigeria when President Olusegun Obasanjo was elected,
opening up space for the country in international circles.
Second, Omolewa had been consulting for UNESCO for several
years before his appointment, so he understood the politics,
orientation and language of the world body long before he turned
up at the Permanent Delegation in Paris.
Third, Omolewa was most lucky to have a president with a
perfect understanding of the importance of UNESCO.
Obasanjo had, by the way, visited UNESCO's headquarters in
Paris shortly after his election, but before his installation in, 1999.
That prompted Mr Federico Mayor, UNESCO's Director-G-eneral
at that time, to set up an Inter-sectoral Task Force for Cooperation
at the secretariat, with the mandate to produce a special Plan of
Action for the country in the areas of the organisation's competence.
Fourth, he was also lucky to have had Prof. Babalola Borishade
as Education Minister, immediately after the tenure of Adeniran.
Borishade supported all of Omolewa's initiatives, which helped to
consolidate initial gains. Another .plus is his ability to speak both
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French and German languages with as much ease as he speaks the
English language.
Once appointed, Ornolewa aggressively pursued the assignment
of pushing Niget-iato the frontline at UNESCO. He started by getting
Nigeria elected into several inter-governmental bodies within the
organisation. Borishade was elected vice chairman of the E9 Fourth
Ministerial Review Conference in Beijing, China in 2001. The E9 is
a group of countries with the highest population of illiterates.
He was also, shortly after, elected President of the 46th session
of the Conference on Education, (organised by UNESCO), which
took place in Geneva, Switzerland in September 2001. Borishade
also succeeded in negotiating with UNESCO for partnership in
respect of the Open and Distance Learning project in Nigeria.
Besides, the former Education Minister secured the placement of
Nigeria in China's Great Wall Fellowship, administered by UNESCO.
Then in October of the same year, Obasanjo was hosted at the
UNESCO General Conference, the first Nigerian President to do so.
Still in pursuit of creating more visibility for Nigeria, Omolewa
lobbied UNESCO to allow Nigeria hold an exhibition at UNESCO's
headquarters in Paris in August 2002. The strategy was to imprint a
positive image of Nigeria in the minds of the international delegates
who were billed to attend UNESCO's High Level Contact Meeting
on Education for All (EFA), which took place in Abuja on
November 18 of the same year. The meeting itself was zoned to
Nigeria through Omolewa's lobbying.
The exhibition was successful and attracted over 200 guests.
About 24 paintings and many other artefacts about the country were
showcased, spearheaded by renowned artist, Mr Kolade O'" shinowo,
who teaches Fine Art at the Yaba College of Technology.
The most significant of Omolewa's accomplishments came on
November 29, 2003, when he was unanimously elected President
of the 32nd session of the UNESCO General Conference. He is
the first Nigerian to be so elected, and it could take another 50
years or more for any other Nigerian to have the privilege. And
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from that point, he has continued to soar higher. He travelled far
and wide in this capacity, carrying UNESCO's message of peace
and dialogue, as opposed to war.
For instance, when he visited Yemen in 2004 as President of
UNESCO General Conference for the International Symposium on
. Dialogue alnong Cultures and Civilisations, he emphasised that such
dialogues alnong nations should be based on universally shared
values and the protection of the diversity of individuals and cultures.
He also affirmed that knowledge was necessary for any successful
dialogue, but that knowledge could only be so acquired through
education. To attain knowledge through education, Omolewa, at
that meeting, suggested a revision of textbooks, teaching material
and the training of teachers.'
Omolewa also brought more attention to contemporary issues
like hunger, terrorism and poverty. For instance, at the informal
forum of Permanent Delegates held in Paris in 2004, he urged
member nations to confront problems associated with globalisation,
non-respect for human rights and underdevelopment. He equally
carried his charisma to the Board of the Commonwealth of Learning,
based in Canada, made up of only four countries: the United
Kingdom, Canada, India and Nigeria. His contributions to the board
were enumerated variously when he was conferred with the COL's
Fellowship at its forum held in Jamaica in 2006.
Again, Omolewa's doggedness led to the inclusion of Osun
Oshogbo and Sukur in the World Heritage List, just as. the ~ymbol
of FESTAC (Festival of Arts and Culture) 77 now dot the lobby of
the UNESCO headquarters. ".
When Obasanjo visited UNESCO in 2005 in his capacity as
the chairman of the African Union (AU), Omolewa achieved two
feats: the award of the Artist for Peace certificate by UNESCO to
Prince Seven Seven, and the appearance of the Director-General,
Mr Koichiro Matsuura in Nigerian attire.
And at his valedictory lecture delivered in December, 2006 at
the University of Ibadan where he had taught for several years,
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three eminent personalities made remarkable comments about him.
The Vice Chancellor, Prof. Olufemi Bamiro described him thus:
"Prof. Omolewa's life and achievements signpost what I call the
spirit of (the University of) Ibadan: a spirit of commitment to the
highest ideals of scholarship and service, not just to the country
but to the world at large; a can do spirit of resilience and
determination to overcome and be great again even in the face of
obviously daunting odds; a capacity to turn problems into catalysts
for progress, and to recast challenges in the form of golden
opportunities to prove beyond any doubt that the human spirit cannot
be broken."
Reading his citation at the lecture, the Vice Chancellor of the
National Open University of Nigeria, Prof. Olugbemiro Jegede said,
were the world a grand stage to vie for elective office, and the continents
as political parties, Prof. Omolewa would have easily become a
unanimously elected world President for peace, friendship, culture,
history, humility, respect for human dignity and the promotion of
regional and global cooperation, collaboration and partnership.
Match all these with the comments of Asha Kanwar, the Vice
President of the COL who read the conferment citation of the
COL award on him. ''When I met him a long time ago in India,"
Kanwar said, "he stood apart from everyone in the room because
of his infectious smile and unmistakable laughter. I remember his
telling me that when one door shuts, another opens. The
quintessential optimist has made ope-ring doors for others' almost a
career. He is renowned author and has guided many institutions in
shaping and developing their responses to the challenges of
Education for All and the MillenniumDevelopment Goals. Ornolewa
can be described as "OkunriJl meta,)'a ya mefa" (a strong man 'with
diverse p0\.vers of accomplishment.
www.tbeintellectualng.coJ?2
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Foreword
Once again I arn invited to present a foreword in respect of one
who I once described as the 'the spirit of Ibadan,' a living symbol
of what has come to be known as the Ibadan brand. This is no
other person than Professor Michael Abiola Omolewa.
This time around, it is the Faculty of Education of Nigeria~s
Premier University at Ibadan that is honouring him with a book, titled,
Education and JUillennium De7)elopment: EHtryS in Honour of Professor
Michael Abiola Omolewa. I want to say without mincing words that I
am glad to associate myself with this great work with contributions
from various parts of the world. This further shows that the man
Omolewa is not just a Nigerian but a citizen of the world.
Education as a human right was enshrined in the Universal
Declaration on Human Rights in 1948, a document that can
rightfully be characterised as the Magna Carta of our time. In today's
knowledge-driven society, education is perceived as a vaccine that
solves all problems. Education, therefore, serves as a catalyst for
economic well-being, democracy and good governance, social justice,
environmental preservation, peace building, among others, in this
age of globalisation and in the realisation of the UN Millennium
Development Goals. It is an established -fact that education will
continue to serve as a catalyst for genuine empowerment,
reconciliation and the building of bridges in the context of the 8-
point Millennium Development Goals. Education does this not
merely through the learning of universally-shared values, but also
through everyday practice in claSSr001TISs,chools, colleges, and
indeed all learning envirorunents, including the non-formal structure.
This, I believe, guided the Faculty of Education in the choice of
this publication to honour our erudite scholar.
UNESCO, the organisation in which Professor Orriolewa is
serving as the Nigerian Permanent Delegate/Ambassador, has a
culture of prorno tiny education, as it also subscribes to the
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principles, goals and target of the United Nations Millennium
Declaration. Education is instrumental to poverty alleviation and
reduction of hunger, diseases, gender equity, maternal health and
sustainable development. The publication of Education for Millennium
Development, in the present volume aptly pays tribute to the work of
Michael Omolewa, the President of the 32nd UNESCO General
Conference, and Permanent Delegate of Nigeria to UNESCO, a
distinguished Professor in the Faculty of Education, Department
of Adult Education. There is no doubting the fact that Professor
Omolewa had a distinguished career as a scholar, civil servant,
diplomat, and builder of bridges between university and the rural
populace. He is indeed a distinguished community leader and a
renowned scholar of international repute.
His studies both at home and abroad attest to the fact that
education remains the only social vaccine for all problems and for
the realisation of the MDGs. To Professor Omolewa, literacy should'
be perceived in the context of lifelong learning, a basic human right"
and an essential skill for both economic and social advancement
and improvement of livelihood. No wonder that another group
outside Nigeria wrote a book titled, Widening Access to Education as
Social Justice, to eulogise our distinguished colleague for whom
education remains the only tool for realising the UN MDGs.
Education is an enduring asset that grows in value the more it is
used. Thus, ensuring that education is put to sustained use for
development is a big challenge to all stakeholders in education.
I, therefore, join our Faculty of Education at the University of
Ibadan to wish the erudite scholar happy retirement and more
meaningful contributions to humanity both at home al;d on the
international scene.
Thank you.
Professor Olufemi Bamiro, FNSE
Vice Chancellor,
Tlniuersity of Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Preface
I am delighted to have been invited by the editors of this volume to
contribute a preface. Unfortunately illhealth at the moment prevents
me from having ~ greater share in the production of the book in
honour of Michael Omolewa but to write something about him at
this stage is a great honour. I share with him his commitment to and
practice of the discipline of history as well as adult education - and
history seems to me to be particularly important at this stage of the
world's life cycle, for it gives perspective to all we do.
For Michael has been on the educational stage in Africa and
internationally for lnany years; and I aln sure he will not completely
depart from it now that he is retiring from his onerous duties at the
university and from some others of his multiple positions. I was
minded to write these 'multiple identities', but the great thing about
Michael is that whatever task he is engaged in, he remains the same
Michael many of us have known for so many years. Almost always
quiet, a still and calm presence, he can nevertheless impress his
views forcibly when needed. Always cheerful, with a joke or with a
smile on his face, he can nevertheless show his strong sense of
seriousness which underlies all he does. I kept bumping into Michael
in various parts of the world, not just Africa, for he is so widely
known; but he was always the same when we met, and we simply
picked up the conversation where we had left it off at our last
meerrng.
I 'would not outline here his career - others will do that more
effectively than I can. But in lnany ways this collection of papers
reveals the widespread of his interests. Most of them concern
education in Nigeria at various levels - for Michael feels strongly
about the need for loyalty to his native state; not that that prevented
him from. criticising it when he felt it necessary or deploring the
many barriers which slowed down the achievement of the
development goals in that country - I heard him lament that progress
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was so slow, not just in Nigeria - but also in Africa as some of the
essays in this collection show. Beyond that, his work at UNESCO
shows Michael is a living tribute to globalisation.
In these pages we see an education which will help the nation,
the continent and the world to meet the Millennium Development
Goals; education which will lead to poverty alleviation, both in
the rural and urban, through better vocational opportunities; higher
education to meet national needs and open doors for professional
advancement, although the privatisation of education, especially
the universities, is not without its problems; bridging the gap
between higher education and basic education; harnessing the new
technologies to meet new' educational needs; education to meet the
universal environmental concerns; mobilising Qur'anic schools and
other educational institutions to work together to meet the nation's
needs; using all forms of schooling including distance education;
spreading scientific knowledge and understanding more widely.
Education for special needs is a major concern of his. His
experience in this field leads him to passionate engagement with
the providers of education for those in greatest need, both the
carers and the needy themselves, And who have greater needs
than those families affected by HIV / AIDS or abused children?
Concern for women's participation in national life through
educational opportunities is a key concern of his - including women's
health as well as their schooling; and especially the education of
.girls as part of the national strategy.Another is the concern for the
educationally excluded - how to communicate with them, to learn
from them, to use their concerns as the basis for their dev,elopment?
Some of these papers - like Michael - take a broad sweep;
others (again like Michael) concentrate in detail to get one thing
right. The secondary school vocational curriculum; the location and
construction of school buildings; the training and continuing
support of teachers at all levels; the use of mentoring as a strategy
for learning; the training and support of teachers and of school
managers.
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The education of adults (especially adult literacy) too has been
a major concern of Michael for many years, along with schooling;
whether it is called continuing education, recurrent education or
lifelong learning, new educational opportunities need to be fully
developed and available to all adults - he has often said it has been
inadequately funded and supported; and the promotion of reading
among all age groups by libraries and reading circles is a passion of
a great reader like him.
But Michael's interest and concerns go beyond education alone,
for as these papers reveal, his is an awareness that "education
alone cannot lead to the desired change": that however much skills
and knowledge are acquired, if the socio-political contexts do not
allow for real choices, real opportunities, there will be no
advancement; that community development is needed; that both
new technologies and appropriate technologies need to be
developed side by side; that industry needs to be encouraged and
at the same time become more responsible for development. Other
developmental groups need to play their part - like the religious
bodies of all faiths, like the police. Parents are important alongside
teachers to enhance education; promoting scientific understanding
in the community is another point. All of these facets of a
universal approach to development which Michael has done and
continues to do so much to support are reflected in the pages of
this volurne.
The .aim Michael has set before him is no less than the
development of both the nation of Nigeria and the continent of
Africa and of the individuals in the nation and continent - tYuough
education and the mobilisation of people and resources to this
goal. Opportunities seem to be the key word: to provide all people
- learners and teachers, politicians and workers, men, women, boys
and girl.with the opportunity to advance and to help the nation
advance. Michael himself will continue to advance in years and
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wisdom, in advocacy and practical progralnmes at international,
national and local level. Those who have contributed to this volume
and his many other friends wish him well for many years into the
future.
Professor Alan Rogers
Centrefor Applied Research in Education
Scbool of Education and Lifelong Learning
University of Eml Anglia
Norwicb NR4 7TJ
Uppingbam Seminars in Development
Hill House
8 Station Road
Reepham Norfolk NR10 4LF
tel 01603-870491
•
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Introduction
About three years ago, we conceived the idea of writing a book of
Readings in honour of Professor Michael Omolewa, not knowing
that other groups across the globe were also planning same, notably,
the authors of the 'Widening Access to Education as Social Justice."
The main reason for embarking on this current book project at this
time was to judiciously and sincerely honour Professor Michael
Omo lewa at his voluntary retirement, in appreciation of his
enormous contributions to the development of education both at
the local and international scenes.
The book project was the sole initiative of the Faculty of
Education, University of Ibadan. However, recognition was
accorded scholars from other universities across the globe. Hence
the multi-component and diversified treatment of the theme of the
book: Education forMillennium Development. The contributions
received from adult education and education family in general within
and without, are a. testimony to the enormous span of academic
influence of Professor Omolewa as an academic mentor,
educationist of international repute and an academic grandfather.
This erudite scholar strongly believes in using education to solve
all problems including, developmental issues. He is also a strong
advocate of widening access to education as social justice, as lack
of access breeds inequality, marginalisation, pauperisation and other
unintended outcomes. .•.
Nevertheless, by a happy historical coincidence, one southern
scholar from Ipoti-Ekiti, Nigeria, whose whole life has been one of
intense advocacy of Education for Millennium Development
came to the limelight when he was elected the President of the
UNESCO, General Conference on September 29th, 2005 in Paris,
France. That scholar is Professor M.A. Omolewa who has also been
Nigeria's Permanent- Delegate to UNESCO since 1999. It is in the
light of this, that the Faculty of Education wishes to honour its
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former Dean, for his enormous contributions to the advancement
of knowledge, through adult and non-formal education specifically
and education in general.
The book is arranged into two volumes of five sections each.
Volume 1, which contains thirty-four chapters, has the following
sections:
Section I: Education and Development
Section II: Adult and Lifelong Education
Section III: Adult Literacy
Section IV: Community Development
Section V: Education and Poverty Reduction
Volume 2, consists of forty chapter and has the following sections:
Section I:: Gender Issues
Section II: Basic and Teacher Education
Section III: Health Education
Section IV: Private Sector Initiative in Higher Education
SectionV: Information Technology
The many issues discussed in this book are challenging, insightful
and thought-provoking. The chapters are rich, robust and are written
in such a way that educational planners, policy makers, all tiers of
government, external donor agencies, NGOs, CBOs, politicians,
.scholars, students and the general readers are certain to profit from
it. This volume, taken holistically should provide a corpu,s of highly
educative literature, which would be of benefit to all who desire a
global picture of Education for Millennium Development. To
ensure quality assurance, contributions of authors were submitted
to scholars across the globe for the purpose of peer review.
I would be remiss in this introduction if I fail to acknowledge the
contributions of the faculty committee on the valedictory programme
for Professor Omolewa, and notably the contributions of its members
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and editorial advisors, reviewers and authors too numerous to mention.
I could not but appreciate several individuals, especially the members
of the Faculty Committee set up for this task, notably its chairman,
Professor James Ajala, Professor Morayo Atinmo, Dr Rashid
Aderinoye, Drs Bola Jayeoba, O. Abbas, Ayo Ahmed, Dr Abidoye
Sarumi, Dr S. O. Adedeji, Mrs K.olade, Dr Kehinde Kester, Dr
Ojokheta Kester, Dr Sunday Eniola and Dr D. Adeyemo.
It should be mentioned that the adult and non-formal education
family within and without worked together in this piece in the spirit
of global unity and support for the development of scholarship in
the area of Education for Millennium Development.
Commendation should be accorded the Vice-Chancellor, whose
words of encouragement motivated us to pursue this project to its
logical conclusion. That he agreed to write the Foreword to this
book is itself a testimony to his enthusiasm and commitment to the
promotion of Education for Millennium Development. We are
immensely grateful to the Nigerian Permanent Delegation to
UNESCO for the financial support towards the publication of this
book. To contributors and editors, I say thank you all.
On a final note, I wish to express the faculty's profound gratitude
to our eminent Professor Michael Abiola Omolewa who made
himself available for the send-forth programmes, particularly the
delivery of the valedictory lecture and attendance of the dinner.
Finally, I recommend this book to all as we are in the era of
Education for All.
Thank you and God bless.
Professor A. Bunmi Alegbeleye
Dean, Facufry of Education,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
2006.
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12
PEACE EDUCATION: A HARBINGER FOR 
CONDUCIVE WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT
Ajala, E.M. PbD
Department o f Social Work, University o f Ibadan, Nigeria.
Introduction
The continuous rise in the number of violent conflicts between 
nations, within nations/states, industries and even in homes has 
been alarming that it remains a big threat to global tranquillity. For 
instance, Olisa (1998), Matsuo (2000) confirm the decimation of 
millions of human lives and wastage of immeasurable material 
w ealth  due to several m ajor upheavals like V ietnam  war, 
Afghanistan war, the Middle East wars etc. Adeyemo (2000) said 
that by the end of the 20th Century and the beginning of 21st 
century, Africa stood at a crossroad because of frequent ethnic 
clashes, m ilitary coups and counter-coups, frequent uprising, 
conflicts and wars as well as religious violence.
Ajala (2003a) observed that at national level, especially in 
Nigeria, ethnic militia groups like Oodua Peoples Congress (OPC) 
in the South-West, Movement for the Actualisadon of Sovereign 
State of Biafra (MASSOB) in the East, Niger Delta volunteer Force 
(NDVF) in the South—South, Arewa Youth Movement (AYF) in 
the North are creating tension and causing violence. They are 
aggrieved by the economic depression created by past regimes
146
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Peace Education: A Harbinger f o r  Conducive Workplace Environment 147
coupled with continuous mismanagement and corruption, improper 
allocation of economic resources within/between different ethnic 
groups and general impoverishment. These regional agitations had 
been met with military incursions. For instance, the establishment of 
military force code named “Operation Restore Hope” in the Delta 
region in 2004 so as to restore peace has only heightened militancy in 
the area and kidnapping of expatriates as ransom for peace. The 
detention of militant leaders of OPC, MASSOB, NDVF has equally 
worsened the assumed peace in their different areas. Ah these indicate 
that the perceived peace have not been achieved thereby suggesting 
that an alternative approach to the problems should be sought.
In Nigeria, at the industrial level, conflicts of late have resulted 
from federal government economic reforms hke Monetisation 
(2003), Civil Service Reform (2004) etc. As managements of 
d ifferent industries try to fulfil the reform  policies, labour 
(employees) are always wounded and aggrieved thereby setting the 
stage for conflict. It has also been observed that sacking of workers, 
w ithdraw al o f pay and other punitive m easures have little  
redemptive impact on the root causes of much of the conflicts at 
work place. The continual occurrence of conflict at workplace 
distracts both management and workers from achieving stated 
objectives of the company. There is the need therefore for 
intervention in their thoughts and lives by orientating them towards 
peaceful and non-violent solutions.
Furthermore, at workplace sometimes, there is a high level of verbal, 
physical and psychological violence in relationship between management 
and labour. The existence of such violence, no doubt, affects negotiation 
between management and labour, and as well detrimental to relationship 
and conducive work environment. Consequently, the welfare of the 
organisation members is negatively affected.
It is against this background that this paper looks at peace studies, 
which requires the contributions of a variety of discipline, an 
integration of interpersonal and systems-oriented approaches to the 
problem of industrial conflict and promotion of workers welfare.
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148 Education f o r  Millenium Development:Essays in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolewa
Some concepts are closely interwoven in the application of peace 
education to resolving industrial conflicts and promotion of 
conducive work environment to boost and protect workers’ welfare. 
These concepts are discussed as follows:
Concept of Violence
The most obvious form of violence is an act to do physical harm to 
other people. Violence includes physically harming another, shoving, 
pushing, harassing, intimidating, coercing, brandishing weapons, and 
threatening. The corollary understanding of peace will aid the 
definition of violence. That is why Fell (1988) maintained that if 
we are to be interested in peace, we also have to be interested in 
violence. Broadly speaking, violence within a society falls into two 
main categories: overt or direct violence, in which people are 
physically damaged in some way (this is easily recognised) and covert 
or structural violence. Violent conflict can be viewed from being 
either direct or structural.
D irect V iolence
This is the common meaning attached to violence. It is referred to 
as physical injuries and the infliction of pain that is caused by a 
specific person. Killing and beating, be it at war or at interpersonal 
situations represent direct violence. Bulham (1985) also confirmed 
that direct violence might also take the form of verbal and 
psychological abuse. Therefore, direct violence is a clear stibject- 
action-object relationship where one party hurts the oth^r party 
through a violent act. Such act leaves behind it the harming effects 
on the body, mind and spirit of the sufferer (Galtung, 1996).
Despite the assumed negative effect of direct violence, violence 
in interpersonal relations may be employed as an instrument for 
robbery, revenge or honour. Moreover, states use organised violence 
to achieve foreign policy goals (Nicholson, 1992). Furthermore, 
direct violence is institutionalised in prison systems, concentration 
camps, military forces and militia settings.
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Peace Education: A Harbinger fo r  Conducive Workplace Environment 149
Structural Violence
Structural violence often work slowly in eroding human values and 
shortening lifespans. It includes poverty, hunger, repression, and 
social alienation, denial of educational opportunities, free speech 
and freedom of association. All aforementioned conditions are 
associated with uneven life chances, inequitable distribution of 
resources and unequal decision-making power. Galtung (1969) 
confirmed that structural violence is typically built into the very 
structure of society and cultural institutions.
Simple illustrations of the components of structural violence 
are necessary. Freire (1998:37), in confirming oppression as a form 
of structural violence, which is maintained by manipulation of 
relations, said that it is:
A situation in which one person exploits another person or hinders his 
or her pursuit of self-affirmation as a responsible person. Such situation 
in itself constitute violence, even when sweetened by false generosity, 
because it interferes with the individual’s ontological and historical 
vocation to be more fully human.
Another component of structural violence is inappropriate 
economic structures. When economic structures that are necessary 
for staying alive are not, met structural violence set in. Fischer (1993) 
confirmed that the loss of life attributed to malnutrition and starvation 
exceeds the number of people who have been killed by war. This is a 
confirmation that death by starvation is no better than being killed 
by a gun. Jeong (2000) concludes on economic structural violence by 
saying that social stability based on law and order without providing 
the means for survival is regarded as only a privilege for a select few.
D iscrim ination  is another form of structural v io lence. 
Discrimination results in denying people important rights such as 
economic opportunities, social and political equality and a sense of 
autonomy and freedom (Jeong, 2000). The gross violation of human 
rights and dignity prevents the attainment of self-fulfilment of the 
affected individuals, which is another form of structural violence.
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150 Education f o r  Millenium Development:Essays in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolewa
Moreover, when human beings are denied decent education, housing, 
freedom of expression they are structurally brutalised.
Concept of Peace
The concept of peace is not the traditional definition of peace as 
absence of war but the inclusion of many situations that guarantee 
positive human conditions. Peace is obtained by changing social 
structures that are responsible for death, poverty and malnutrition. 
It can be either positive peace or negative peace.
Negative Peace
This focuses on the absence of direct violence such as war. Negative 
peace can be brought about through various ways. Firstly, peace 
through negotiation or mediation rather than through physical force 
in order to eliminate manifest of violence.
Secondly, through stable social order. Wenden (1995) confirmed 
that the notion of a stable social order is a form of negative peace. 
Therefore, in a negative peace approach, preventing war requires a 
large array of international agreement and institutions that can 
support stable relations among nations. It should be noted that since 
stability and order can be maintained by an oppressive system, then 
negative peace is compatible with structural violence.
Positive Peace
The absence of direct violence does not explain how to deal with 
unacceptable social order, therefore changing human conditions has 
become an important goal of peace. Peace is not only concerned 
about the overt control or reduction of violence but also about vertical 
social developments that are responsible for hierarchical relationship 
between people. Therefore, the concept of positive peace means the 
removal of structural violence beyond the absence of direct violence.
Equality is an essential element of peace because its absence 
encourages tensions of all types. In addition, elimination o f various 
forms of discrimination is a pointer to human realisation. Galtung
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Peace Education: A Harbingerf o r  Conducive Workplace Environment 151
(1969) mentioned that positive peace would not be obtained without 
the development of just and equitable conditions associated with 
equalitarian social structures.
The goals of positive peace touch upon many issues that 
influence quality of life, including personal growth, freedom, social 
equality, economic equity, solidarity, autonomy and participation 
(Galtung, 1973). Thus, Ajala (2003a) in defining peace concluded 
that “peace involve cooperation and non-violent social change, 
aimed at creating more equitable and just structures in any society.” 
He therefore presented a diagrammatic definition of peace thus:
PEACE
! 1
NEGATIVE PEACE POSITIVE PEACE 
(Absence of personal violence) (Absence of structural violence)
t 1
DIRECT VIOLENCE INDIRECT VIOLENCE 
(Personal like assault, riot, (Structural like poverty, hunger, 
terrorism, war) discrimination, apartheid)
t ■VIOLENCE
Fig 12. 1: A Diagrammatic Representation of Definition of Peace 
Using the Dual Concept of Violence and Peace.
Adapted from Hicks. D. (1988), 6. Education fo r  Peace: Issues, Principles, and 
Practice in the Classroom.
The United Nations (1996) in line with internationally accepted 
view sees peace as the enjoyment of economic and social justice, 
equality and the entire ranges of human rights and fundamental
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152 Education f o r  Millenium Development:Essays in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolewa
freedoms within society. In line with the UNO’s view, Ajala (2003b) 
using Bjerstest (1990) idea identifies the interacting goal areas of 
peace for developing harmonious environment in the world, which 
can be extrapolated into the workplace. The interacting variables 
are world citizen responsibility, egalitarian attitude, preparedness 
for non-violence and readiness to search for alternatives.
Fig. 12.2: Diagram on Interacting Goals of Peace
Source: Bjerstedt, A. (1990): Education For Peace in the 1990s: University 
o f  Fund.
Peace Education and the Workplace Environment
The creation of peace culture without ignoring the culture of 
violence calls for proper understanding of peace education. The 
importance of peace education would be educating workers to 
recognise both structural and behavioural violence. Workers who 
recognise the conditions, under which violence is done to human 
beings without specific human intention, will be freer to participate 
in the restructuring required for a more peaceable world of work.
Ajala (2003a) agreed that the problem of peace in work place 
can be classified into five underlying peace values thus and that if  
these underlying principles are well mastered by management and 
staff, industrial conflicts will be reduced and a conducive work 
environment will be guaranteed.
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Peace Education: A. Harbinger f o r  Conducive Workplace
Table 12. 1: Peace Values Underlining Industrial Conflicts
S/N Problem of Peace at Work Value U nderlying Peace
1. Violence through strikes, lock­ Non-violence
outs etc.
2. Inequality through pay etc Economic welfare
3. Injustice between/within Social justice
management and workers ■yj
4. Environmental damage/ Ecological balance
industrial hazard
5. Alienation of workers Participation
Education about conflict involves not only knowledge and 
understanding of. conflict itself- types, levels, causes, and courses — 
but also encompasses learning for conflict resolution — experiencing 
the skills and processes of resolving conflict (Burnley, 1988). The 
objective of resolving conflict through peace education is to 
encourage the acquisition of skills and attitude by parties involved 
in the conflict for non-violent behaviour in the course of action.
While peace education involves learning about peacemaking, 
peacekeeping, and peace building, its ultimate objective goes beyond 
transmission of knowledge to development of peaceful people through 
appropriate knowledge, attitudes and skills about peace itself.
Therefore, the aims of education for peace are thus to develop 
the knowledge, attitudes, and skills, which are needed in order to:
(i) explore concepts of peace as a state of being and as an active 
process;
(ii) enquire into the obstacles of peace and the causes of lack of 
peace;
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154 Education f o r  Millenium Development:Essays in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolewa
(Hi) resolve conflicts in ways that will lead toward a less violent 
and a more just world; and
(iv) explore a range of different alternative futures in particular 
ways of building a more just and sustainable world society 
(Hicks, 1988).
Promoting peaceful behaviour among workers and management 
in industries and other pairs in contemporary issues require curricula 
that will affect their attitudes, values, competence, personal and political 
beliefs. The applications of such, acquired skills are hereby discussed.
Application of Knowledge in Peace Education to 
Industrial Conflict Resolution
Knowledge and understanding in the following areas will help in 
stemming industrial conflicts and promote peaceful people who, 
through collaborative activity, can share their views, work together 
and achieve jointly identified goals. Workers and management should 
have knowledge about general principles of peace and conflict that 
are applicable to all types and levels of conflict. This generic 
knowledge according to Nelson, Van Slyck, and Cardella (1999) 
and Ajala (2003b) include:
• Principles about tendencies toward bias in perception of others 
(e.g. prejudice, dehumanisation),
• Factors in escalation and de-escalation of conflict;
• Causes and consequences of cooperation, competition and 
violence;
• The role and dynamics of emotion in human relations;
• the importance of reconciliation following conflict;
• effective communication, problem solving, and decision 
making;
• conflict resolution strategies (e.g. negotiation, mediation, 
arbitration);
• non-violent methods of social influence (e.g. positive 
incentives and
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Peace Education: A Harbingerfor Conducive Workplace Environment 155
• reinforcement, friendly initiatives, nonviolent activism and 
resistance).
Application of Skills in Peace Education to Industrial 
Conflict Resolution
Imparting knowledge is not sufficient to create a peaceful person. 
Teaching the skills necessary for peacemaking, peacekeeping and 
peace building are required by both employers and employees. 
Without the necessary skills of conflict resolution, conflict resolution 
may see no further than win/lose possibilities.
D’Zurilla (1986), Nelson, Golding, News and Blazina (1995), 
Freeney and Davidson (1996), all confirm that problem solving and 
conflict resolution competencies (skills) can be taught effectively. 
When peace education skills are properly acquired, parties so 
involved are more cooperative and less violent in their interpersonal 
relationships with others.
Assertiveness training is an effective skill for management and 
labour to influence each other without being aggressive as confirmed 
by Wise, Bundy, Bundy and Wise (1991). In addition, training in anger 
management and emotional self-control have also been confirmed to 
aid conflict resolution skills development (Feindler and Ecton, 1986).
Furthermore, both employers and employees should acquire 
additional skills to resolve conflict in non-violent ways to stimulate 
harmonious work environment and promote workers’ welfare. These 
include communication skills of active listening; perspective faking; 
empathy; methods of conflict resolution like negotiation and mediation; 
techniques for non-violent social influence; abilities to manage anger, 
anxiety, tension, and other emotions in oneself and others.
Steps in Skill Acquisition
Liss, Edelman, Tennent and Bellard (1995) suggested the use of 
“TRIBE” as plausible steps to inculcate the required skills in both 
management and workers. The steps are:
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156 Educationf o r  Millenium Development.’Essajs in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolewa
T = Tell what’s up with you.
R = Reflectively listen to the response.
I = Identify what’s important.
B = Brainstorm possible solutions.
E = Evaluate solutions and try it.
Despite the aforementioned steps, another method of inputting 
these skills of peace education is known as negotiation process and 
is described by Bodine, Crawford and Schrunpf (1994) as:
• Agree to negotiate.
• Gather points of views.
• Focus on interest.
• Create win-win options.
• Evaluate options.
• Create an agreement.
Application of Attitudes in Peace Education to 
Industrial Conflict Resolution
Myers, (1996) opined that attitudes and values are important causes of 
behaviour and that behaving often causes a change in attitudes. The 
implication of this statement for peace education within industry is 
that both management and labour should directly address and support 
the development of peaceful attitudes and values, and work environment 
that encourages both management and labour to take peaceful actions, 
which promote development of peaceful attitudes at their workplace.
The following ten values tagged “industrial harmony and equality 
values” are accepted as educational objectives for peace education 
in industries and industrial harmony for good workers’ welfare:
1. A good life for others (improving the welfare of both 
management and labour).
2. Rule by the people (industrial democracy — involvement of 
both management and labour in decision making).
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Peace Education: A. H arbingerfor Conducive Workplace Environment 157
3. Interdepartmental cooperation (having different departments 
in the organisation working together to help one another).
4. Social progress and social reform  (readiness by both 
management and labour to change their opinions for better 
decision making).
5. A world of peace (harmonious working environment; absence 
of violent industrial conflict).
6. A world of beauty (beautification, landscaping, and conducive 
work environment).
7. Human dignity (respect for each other -  management and 
labour; treating each other as someone at work).
8. Equal opportunity for all (no discrimination of any sort in the 
establishment)
9. Greater economic equality (ability to move either vertically or 
laterally within the organisation i.e. occupational mobility).
10. Preserving the natural environment (the attainment of set 
objectives by both management and labour).
From the points itemised above, the following essential attitudes 
of peaceful people in a work organisation are deduced:
• a preference for non-violent methods for conflict resolution,
• a preference for collaborative approaches to resolving conflict,
• tolerance and appreciation for human diversity including 
diversity in attitudes to conflict and peace.
Implications for Industrial Social Work
Peace education should be seen by industrial social workers as 
conflict mediation and resolution. This approach focuses on analysis 
of conflict and on ways of resolving such conflict non-violently. 
This process in peace education guarantees conflict resolution at 
work place peacefully. However, one needs to recognise the danger 
of reproducing inequality where an equal balance of power exists 
between management and labour.
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158 Education f o r  Millenium Development:Essays in Honour o f Professor Michael Omolern
Peace education is further to be pursued as personal peace by 
industrial social workers. This is primarily interpersonal, stressing 
the need for empathy and cooperation with a focus on the process 
of education itself and a need to transform hierarchical structures 
at all levels of the work environment, which is a peace-building 
process.
As a helping profession, social worker should see peace 
education as a problem-solving approach where empowerment skills 
to resolve conflict non-violently are learnt. This suggest that a 
curriculum should be designed to incorporate issues like, diversity 
appreciation , p rejud ice and to lerance, critica l th ink ing, 
communication and listening skills, problem solving, peaceable 
alternatives to social and political injustice within the workplace.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is hoped that conflict resolution, at industrial level, 
through peace education will become a real integral part of every 
workplace, so that it will become an instrument of changing people’s 
minds about violence. This favourable alternative dispute resolution 
initiative (peace education) will help both management and workers 
manage conflicts successfully and non-violently both within and 
outside the work setting. It will allow participants (management 
and workers) have the opportunity to learn and grow, to increase 
community and cultural understanding, value diversity, and prevent 
prejudice by focusing on intergroup relations and create ytin-win 
solutions.
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Peace Education: A Harbingerfor Conducive Workplace Environment 159
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