GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
DOI 10.1007/s10708-011-9434-6
Farmers’ choice of wetland agriculture: checking wetland
loss and degradation in Lagos State, Nigeria
Olalekan John Taiwo
Published online: 25 September 2011
 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract The issue of food security has received cultivation; it shows different categories of factors
increasing emphasis in developing countries, particu- influencing the choice of wetland farming. Provision
larly in the cities. The emphasis on food security has of irrigation infrastructure and improvement in living
engendered agricultural expansion and encroachment standard of the people through poverty eradication can
on the coastal and inland wetlands in these nations. To discourage disadvantageous encroachment on wet-
facilitate and sustain the security of food in the lands in cities.
developing countries local and international policies
have been designed and employed; they have specif- Keywords Wetlands  Awareness  Farmers 
ically targeted abounding food production towards Agriculture  Perception
ensuring human survival in the cities. However, the
various ecological and socio-economic benefits deriv-
able from the preservation of wetlands and inland
valleys in these urban environments may be lost, with
the transformation in the land use and cover. This Introduction
study is therefore concerned with how wetland
degradation and loss can be checked and mitigated, The current global food and economic crisis has made
focusing on the developing countries and their cities. governments and civil society organizations to pursue
In this respect, the farmer’s awareness of the impacts development agenda focusing on urban food security,
of wetland cultivation and the role of accessibility, environmental management and human health (IFAD
socio-economic and biophysical factors influencing 2011; Scherr et al. 2011). The development agenda, no
the choice of wetland farming are examined. To this doubt, have involved the reduction of urban unem-
end, structured questionnaire on choice of wetland ployment, alleviation of poverty, strengthening the
agriculture in the urban and periurban wetland areas of means of livelihood in the urban centres, community
Lagos city was administered to the farmers. Simple building support, and the provision of educational and
frequency analysis is used to explain and interpret the recreational services (Konijnendijk et al. 2004; Oyer-
data generated. The data reveals a generally low level anti and Olayiwola 2005; Mercado 2008). May and
of farmers’ awareness of the implication of wetland Rogerson (1995) have observed that in developing
countries one policy means for achieving food security
and poverty alleviation is the urban agriculture. Urban
O. J. Taiwo (&)
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria agriculture as an integral part of urban system involves
e-mail: Olalekantaiwo@gmail.com the growing of plants and the raising of animals within
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and around cities. The plant cultivation and animal widespread wetland degradation, unsustainable utili-
rearing extend the frontier of agriculture to encompass zation level and its consequences for food and water
coastal and inland wetlands of the cities in a deliberate security (Dixon 2008). Nonetheless, changes in hydro-
bid to meet the nutritional needs of the huge urban logical regime of wetlands through agricultural con-
population (Scherr et al. 2011). At the household level, version alter both the habitat and the vegetation. The
the cultivation of wetland is aimed principally at general ecological functions of freshwater wetlands
achieving food security, poverty reduction, and have been documented in the literature (Bunn 1993;
employment generation. Campbell 1993; Catterall 1993). It is, moreover,
According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assess- noteworthy that the perceptions of these wetlands
ment (MEA 2005) on the Ramsar Convention which ecological functions, by the farmers in the community,
was titled ‘‘Ecosystems and Human Well-being: are rarely understood, consequently shaping their
Wetlands and Water Synthesis’’, the ecosystem pro- interaction with the wetlands. However, Wood
vides benefits for the wellbeing of humans—espe- (2006) indicated that farmer’s perception of catchment
cially the wetlands. Similarly, Raisin (1995) affirmed land use, wetland soil depth, and local geomorpholog-
that wetlands help in maintaining the biological health ical characteristics are critical in wetland agriculture.
of aquatic ecosystem as well as the terrestrial coun- Calvo-Iglesiasa et al. (2005) also showed that farmer’s
terpart that is connected with water courses. In knowledge is a valuable source of information for
addition, the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are documenting past and present land-use practices, local
important wildlife habitats and they form an integral cultural heritage and changes in the landscape, all of
part of a hydrological regime. Domestic water supply which are helpful for the design of landscape-orien-
and fishing are important benefits often derivable from tated policies. Kundiri et al. (2007) also pointed out
wetlands (Mmopelwa 2006). However, wetlands have that integrating such local knowledge into soil surveys
been regarded as unproductive wastelands whose will lead to better practical definition of mapping units
utility, as afore-stated, can only be enhanced by and give soil locally meaningful names.
converting them for some other use (Bond et al. 1988). The physical process contributing to wetland degra-
Hence, large-scale wetland degradation and loss have dation and loss is complex, varied and not well
occurred in most parts of the world due to the understood as yet. Limited literature exists on factors
agricultural conversion, as well as urbanization ambi- that shape the locational choice behaviour of urban
tions, excessive exploitation of natural resources by farmers in cultivating urban wetlands. There have been
local peoples and ill-planned developmental activities considerable social, scientific and technological debates
(Kabii 1996; Nicholls 2004; Finlayson et al. 1999). In on the subject of crucial determinants of wetland
another contribution, it is established that conversion degradation and loss. Socio-economic and cultural
and encroachment on wetlands for agricultural activ- factors are recognized to influence the conversion of
ities—such as paddy fields—can destroy the breeding wetlands for agricultural purposes. In particular,
ground of many resident fish fauna and hinder the Oladele and Wakatsuki (2008) identified crop prefer-
possibility of their repopulation (Vass 2006). ences, farming system, culture, taste, land tenure,
Uluocha and Okeke (2005) identified certain knowledge of wetland cultivation, perceived suitability,
anthropogenic and bio-geophysical factors threatening farmers’ tribe, location of wetland, and farmers’ age as
wetlands in Nigeria: population pressure; rapid rate of important socio-cultural factors influencing wetland
urbanization; mining, oil and industrial waste pollu- agriculture. In the study, the role of wetlands in
tion; uncontrolled tilling for crop production; over- improving livelihood for the poor in developing coun-
grazing; logging; unprecedented land reclamation; tries, like Nigeria, was buttressed. Wilson (1996), on the
construction of dams, transportation routes and other other hand, showed that age, education, length of
physical infrastructure; marine and coastal erosion; residency, farming philosophy and the existence of
subsidence; ocean water intrusion; invasion by alien remnant semi-natural habitats on farms are important
floral and faunal species; sand storm, desertification variables which explain farmers’ dispositions toward
and droughts. These and other activities, such as wetland conservation. Similarly, Mulugeta (2004)
draining wetlands for construction purposes and mos- showed food shortage as the main factor behind wetland
quitoes control, have engendered concerns over the cultivation in South West Ethiopia.
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According to Wood (2006), people’s perception consequence of the expected rising demand for food
and their abilities to obtain benefits using varying support for the population. Moreover, Lagos State is
technologies in response to changing opportunities located in the southwestern part of Nigeria on the
influences wetland management options adopted. narrow coastal plain of the Bight of Benin, and the
Indigenous knowledge (IK) and farmer’s experience 180 km Atlantic coastline forms the southern bound-
exact strong influence on this environmental percep- ary of the state (Fig. 1). Mangrove and freshwater
tion. Indigenous management practices based on IK swamp forests dominate the coastal areas and the
have evolved over time, through farmers’ experience fringes of most lagoons and creeks in the state.
of the wetland environment. The various indigenous Lowland rainforest is prevalent in the upland area. The
knowledge practices can provide the basis for sustain- state experiences double rainfall regime with two
able wetland use strategies (Dixon 2008). The role of climatic seasons, the dry season (November–March)
farmer’s knowledge and environmental awareness are and the wet season (April–October). The drainage
therefore critical factor in wetland utilization and system is characterized by a maze of lagoons and
sustainability. Perceived biophysical characteristics waterways constituting about 22% (787 km2) of the
and attributes of wetlands may also influence the State’s total landmass. The major water bodies are the
decision to cultivate such wetland. Knowledge of soil Lagos Lagoon, the Lekki Lagoon and the Yewa and
and wetland attributes are often derived from experi- Ogun Rivers. Others are Ologe Lagoon, Kuramo
ence and indigenous knowledge of the soils and water Waters and Badagry, Five Cowries and Omu Creeks
regimes of the wetland (Wood 2006; Kundiri et al. (George 2001).
2007). This indigenous knowledge though not docu- Specifically, the study area covered five wetland
mented, is viable tool of knowledge transfer from one locations, Ogudu, Ogolonto, Okokomaiko, Ibeju and
generation to another. This study posits that farmer’s Majidun, in Lagos State. Again, the study examined
knowledge and perception of wetland attributes either the determinants of wetlands choice for agricultural
implicitly or explicitly influences wetland agriculture activities among farmers of the Lagos wetland areas—
site selection. The knowledge is critical in identifying the dominant influencing factors extending over
suitable site for cultivation as well as the type of crop 20 years up to the present. Wetland farming in Lagos
to be cultivated, while awareness of the environmental State is largely confined to the freshwater swamp and
implication of their occupational activities is central to flood plain areas where farmers use slash-and-burn
wetland sustainability and its management. It is method of land clearing. Hunting, fishing and wood
against this background that this paper seeks to harvesting were also practiced in the wetlands. While
address two interrelated question. These are: (1) do lake water was intensively used for irrigation by the
farmers know that cultivating wetlands affects the farmers, alternative methods of irrigation for improv-
ecological functions; and (2) what are the factors that ing efficiency of water use or alleviating hydrological
influence the farmers’ choice of wetlands and which pressures on the wetlands were not employed. The
also sustain their farming activities in the area. farming practices had resulted in impoverished soils,
salinization of the fields and waste of water resources,
and agricultural sustainability was at risk (Adetunji
Materials and methods 1994).
Occasionally, few farmers applied herbicides first,
Study area which dries the vegetation off, and they subsequently
set fire on it. In the process of land clearing, the
Lagos State is Nigeria’s most populous state with an wetlands suffer loss and degradation, and other
estimated population of about 18 million residents. wetland functions are effectively impaired, due to
A UN study (1999) projected that the population the loss of vegetal cover and how they were removed.
would reach 20 million by 2010 and 25 million by The degradation in soil quality is mainly due to a
2015 and then the city would be the third most decline in the soil organic matter (Smith et al. 2000).
populous city in the world, meanwhile. The antici- According to Martins et al. (1991), Lugo and Brown
pated population swell will likely increase the pressure (1993), and Okore et al. (2007), this results in the rapid
on wetlands in and around the city, as a natural loss of microbial biomass, particulate organic matter,
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106 GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
2°50'0"E 3°0'0"E 3°10'0"E 3°20'0"E 3°30'0"E 3°40'0"E 3°50'0"E 4°0'0"E 4°10'0"E 4°20'0"E
Legend
Sampled Sites
Ifako/Ijaye
Lagos Roads Agege
Ikeja OgolontoIkorodu
Lagos LGAs Alimosho Kosofe Majidun
Ogudu Epe
Oshodi/IsoloShomolu
Mushin
Lagos Island
SurulereLagos Mainland
Ajeromi/ Ifelodun Ibeju Lekki
Badagry Ojo Ibeju Lekki
Amuwo Odofin Apapa Eti-Osa
0 5 10 20 30 40
Kilometers
2°50'0"E 3°0'0"E 3°10'0"E 3°20'0"E 3°30'0"E 3°40'0"E 3°50'0"E 4°0'0"E 4°10'0"E 4°20'0"E
2°0'0"E 4°0'0"E 6°0'0"E 8°0'0"E 10°0'0"E 12°0'0"E 14°0'0"E 16°0'0"E
Sokoto
Katsina
Jigawa Yobe
Zamfara Borno
Kebbi Kano
Kaduna Bauchi Gombe
Niger
Adamawa
Plateau
Kwara Abuja
Nassarawa
Oyo
Taraba
Ekiti Kogi
Osun
Benue
Ogun Ondo
Lagos Edo Enugu Legend
Anambra Ebonyi
Cross River Lagos
Delta Imo Abia
States
Bayelsa Akwa Ibom 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
Rivers Decimal Degrees
2°0'0"E 4°0'0"E 6°0'0"E 8°0'0"E 10°0'0"E 12°0'0"E 14°0'0"E 16°0'0"E
Fig. 1 Lagos State local government areas showing sampled sites
soil carbohydrate and enzymes. Vegetables and cere- watering or sprinkling methods. The water is obtained
als are the two dominant crops planted by farmers, from shallow wells dug within the field or drawn
while the water application is either through hand directly from nearby streams.
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GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115 107
Data collection and analysis understanding of the implications of wetland clearing
on water supply, soil quality, wildlife population,
In mapping variation in the wetland cultivation pesticide/herbicides usage, fertilizer usage and
extending over the 20 years period under consider- impacts on aesthetic beauty of environment. The role
ation two Landsat satellite images were used. Each of of distance in influencing the choice of wetland
the images was geo-referenced and rectified to the farming was explored using four distance-related
Nigeria Datum using the accompanying metadata file. variables. These variables include: (a) nearness to
Known locations on ground which were visible on the place of work; (b) nearness to human settlement/
images were used in geo-referencing them (the market; (c) nearness to main road; (d) nearness to other
images). Supervised classification (Isocluster) method farmers; and (e) nearness to water bodies. Moreover,
was used in the classification of the image data into on the locational choice behaviour of the farmers in
different thematic classes. Basically, developed areas the study area, five biophysical factors were consid-
(residential and industrial), mangrove forest, freshwa- ered. They were: (a) regular flooding; (b) gentle plain
ter swamp forest, lowland rainforest, water bodies and topography; (c) ease of land clearing; (d) soil fertility
farmland were the different landuse/landcover identi- condition; and (e) water holding capacity of the soils.
fied. The wetland vegetation was then separated from There was another set of factors considered in the
the non-wetland, and mangrove forest and freshwater study—the economic factors. The economic factors
swamp forest came under wetland forest. Using image have direct bearing on the productivity of the farmers.
differencing approach, the landuse/landcover map of These economic considerations can be broadly cate-
1986 was overlaid on the 2006 map to generate gorised into two: cost minimization and profit max-
another map showing areas where wetlands have been imization, and they generally include: (a) availability
converted to farmlands (Lillesand and Kiefer 1994). of cheap labour; (b) free land; (c) affordable land rent;
The resultant map shows areas where wetlands have (d) need to meet vegetable demand; and (e) need to
been converted to farmlands and where they had supplement personal income.
remained unchanged over the time period. The map In addition, focus group discussion (FGD) was also
provided the basis for sampling of farmers who were used in harmonising the views of the farmers. The
interviewed. farmers specialised in the cultivation of vegetables and
Moreover, Data on demographic variables of farm cereals particularly during the dry season, between the
operators, characteristics of the farming operation, month of November and March. The frequency of and
irrigation practices, attitudes towards environment and percentage responses of the farmers were used to
the wetland resources, knowledge on the impact of describe their awareness level and perceived socio-
agriculture on the local environment and opinions on economic and biophysical factors often considered in
the common agricultural policy reform were collected wetland site selection (Oladele and Wakatsuki 2008).
through a survey using a combination of personal
interviews and questionnaire. Structured question-
naire was administered to a total of 160 farmers Results and discussions
randomly selected in the neighbourhoods where
wetlands have changed to farmlands. The structured Socio-economic characteristics of farmers
questionnaire focused on issues of environmental
awareness as well as perceived socio-economic and The age distribution among the farmers shows that
biophysical factors often considered by wetland 8.0% were between the ages of 15 and 25 years, 64.7%
farmers in their choice of lands for cultivation. The were between 26 and 50 years, and the remaining
survey was conducted between January and February 27.3% were between 51 and 75 years. None of the
2008, which coincided with the dry season when respondents indicated that they are more than
farmers utilize the flood plain mainly for raising 75 years. The data demonstrates that the bulk of the
vegetables. Information on age, gender, education and farmers are within the age of 26 and 50 years. The
length of stay of farmers were obtained from their gender pattern also reflects variation as there were
responses in the questionnaire. Farmers’ awareness of more male farmers (75.3%) than female farmers
wetlands functionalities were assessed based on their (24.7%). The gender variation may be a reflection of
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108 GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
the cultural antecedents associated with land owner- indicated they were not aware of any negative effects
ship structure, tenancy and agricultural practices in their farming activities might have or had on the
southwestern Nigeria where male folks dominated in wetland functionalities as well as quality. Only 13.8%
agricultural practices. were aware of some of the listed impacts. A break-
The educational attainment among the sampled down of the various impacts examined is contained in
farmers revealed that 21.8% did not have any formal Table 1.
education; 52.8% had primary education; and 19.0% Impact of fertilizer usage on wetland waters and
had secondary school education. The remaining 6.4% aquatic organisms had the highest farmer’s awareness
indicated they had tertiary education. Thus, the level (3.3%) and use of pesticides on wetland had the
implication is that the study area is dominated by least (1.6%). A Chi-square analysis of the relationship
people with low educational status. In the regard of the between farmer’s awareness and level of education,
lengths of stay of the farmers, it was discovered that income and radio ownership shows that the variation
9.3% of the farmers had spent between 0 and 2 years; in the level of awareness is explainable in terms of
15.4% had spent between 3 and 5 years; 39.4% had different educational levels (F = 34.12, P [ 0.05). Of
spent between 6 and 8 years; and 17.7% had spent all the variables used to explore the determinant of the
between 9 and 12 years. The remaining 18.2% have level of awareness of the farmers about the ecological
spent more than 12 years in farming. In all, 75.3% had impacts, it was only their level of education that turned
spent more than 6 years in farming activity in the out significant. The low level of awareness of the
wetlands. There was marked variation in income implications of farming in wetlands could have arisen
among the sampled farmers as 32.4% indicated that from the prevailing low level of education among the
they earned between N1,000 and N30,000; 44.1% sampled farmers. Establishing this fact, more than
earned N31,000–N60,000; and 15.4% earned between 63% of the sampled farmers indicated they possessed
N61,000 and N100,000. The remaining 8.1% earned primary school leaving certificate.
more than N100,000 per annum. The maximum area
of farmland indicated by the farmers was 2 acres with Distance effect on choice of wetland agricultural
a mean of 0.6 acres. Farmers with 1 or less than 1 acre location
of farmland are the majority, 66%. The other 34% had
less than 2 acres of land that they cultivate. Generally, The assessment of the farmers’ view of distance-
the amount of land under cultivation was small and related variables shows that closeness to place of work
one of the reasons provided for the small farm size was was particularly important for respondents who
the insecurity of land tenure system. The farmers were engaged in wetland agriculture as secondary occupa-
uncertain of whether the owner would allow them tion. This category of respondents prefers wetland
continue farming their portions of land; therefore, they location close to their place of work so that they could
cultivate small land holdings to reduce their perceived return to farm after each day’s work. This character-
risk. istic is particularly common among the artisan group.
Similarly, nearness to human settlement provided the
Farmers awareness of the impacts of wetland needed market for vegetables and cereals brought
development from the wetland farms. While this guaranteed the
required market to sell the vegetables and cereals, it at
Awareness of the impacts of agricultural activities on the same time reduced the cost of transporting the
the wetlands ecological functionalities was examined. produce to market. Nearness to the main road is
The awareness nature was assessed using the six another distance-related indicator of the choice of
indicators derivable from the general response of wetland for cultivation and it was desirable for
farmers (Davies and Claridge 1993). These six indi- ensuring cost reduction. The nearness of wetlands to
cators are water supply, soil quality, wildlife popula- main road implies the farmers’ perception of the
tion, herbicide and pesticides, fertilizer, and aesthetic importance of accessibility in farm production. The
beauty of the environment. Generally, awareness of advantage inherent in agglomeration of scale is
the impact of farming in the wetland ecosystems was measured by the nearness to other farmers. Nearness
low among the sampled farmers. 86.2% of the farmers to other farm locations ensures that farmers can benefit
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GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115 109
Table 1 Awareness of the
Awareness indicators Aware Unaware
environmental implication
of wetland cultivation (%) Effect of agricultural activities on water supply 2.1 14.6
Effects of agricultural activities on soil quality 1.9 14.8
Effects of agricultural activities on wildlife population 2.2 14.5
Effects on the pesticides on wetland 1.6 15.1
Effects of the use of fertilizers on wetland 3.3 13.3
Effects of agricultural activities on aesthetic quality 2.7 13.9
Total 13.8 86.2
from knowledge of other farmers, apart from sharing rather indirectly influenced the farmers’ locational
agricultural inputs as well as cost of transporting the choice: they enabled profit maximization for the
farm produce. Perhaps, most important is the factor of farmers, especially given that wetland agriculture
wetlands’ nearness to water body, in the study area. largely takes place in dry season when the water level
Nearness to water body is particularly important recedes. In the Table 2, the importance of economies
because of the mostly seasonal nature of farming in of scale in wetland farming is also shown.
the wetlands. The wetlands were cultivated typically The economies of scale accounted for why it was
during the dry season when water would have receded almost difficult to see a whole flood plain occupied by
and the soil will only be relatively wet. one single farmer, but rather a group of farmers. In
From the data generated, about 73% of the farmers fact, there were a number of local associations that
indicated that they implicitly considered all or some of worked to improve the socio-economic wellbeing of
the factors, above-mentioned and contained in farmers in the area. Although the factor of nearness to
Table 2, in choosing where to farm in wetlands in work place, though important, did not directly deter-
the study area of Lagos State. Notwithstanding, this mine choice of wetland farm location. The low
locational choice was arrived at in an iteratively percentage of respondents on this factor might be as
objective manner. As a factor, nearness to water a result of the low number of farmers who took
bodies recorded the highest frequency of 17.0%; wetland farming as secondary occupation.
nearness to other farmers was 14.9%; and nearness to
human population/market was 14.5%, ranking the
Perceived biophysical factors’ influence
third most important factor in the choice of wetlands
on wetland agriculture
farming. These three variables together constituted the
most important distance-related factors that influenced
The results show that while there seems to be a good
choice of wetland cultivation among the farmers.
understanding of most of the biophysical factors
The factor of nearness to water body can be regarded
among the sampled farmers, the consideration of
as the most significant factor that determined where
vegetation, as a factor, in identifying choice wetland
the wetland farming took place. The other factors
locations appears to be poor. Wetland vegetation in the
study area is almost similar across the state; and, most
Table 2 Distance related indicators of wetland cultivation (%) times, the vegetation does not necessarily reflect soil
Distance based factors Important Unimportant fertility. Among the various biophysical indicators of
wetland conversion, regular flooding regime appeared
Nearness to place of work 12.9 7.1 to be the most important visible factor influencing
Nearness to market or human 14.5 5.5 choice of wetland locations, as 13.9% of the respon-
population
dents indicated so. This is closely followed by the
Nearness to main road 14.1 6.0
topographical condition of the wetlands; the locational
Nearness to water bodies 17.0 3.0
advantage ensured that agricultural activities can go
Nearness to other farmers 14.9 5.0
on throughout the year. 12.70% of the farmers
(economic of scale)
preferred gentle well drained soil rather than undulat-
Total 73.4 26.6
ing soils. The ease of vegetation clearing is the third
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110 GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
Table 3 Biophysical factors considered in wetland selection population of the city, Lagos. Availability of free land
(%) was also an encouraging factor in wetland cultivation.
Biophysical factors Important Unimportant In most of the wetlands where there were farming
activities, the farmers did not pay rent; only in few
Regular flooding 13.9 2.8 locations did the farmers pay rent. In the Table 4,
Gentle plain topography 13.4 3.2 10.8% respondents indicated that affordable rent was
The ease of land clearing 12.7 4.0 not important in their choice of wetland site selection.
Fertile soils 11.8 4.9 Moreover, availability of labour in the study area was
Water holding capacity 11.5 5.2 not a critical factor in wetland site selection also. The
Type of vegetation 7.5 9.1 farm size was relatively small and labour hardly
Total 70.8 29.2 exceeded three people on the average, as Gbadegesin
(1991) and Oladele and Wakatsuki (2008) have also
established. Conclusively, the three dominant eco-
most important biophysical factor determining wet-
nomic considerations for wetland site selection are:
land site selection for agricultural purposes. Based on
need to supplement personal income, need to meet the
these findings, it is evident that the perceptions of
vegetable requirement of the city and availability of
biophysical factors are also important in the choice of
free lands.
wetland for farming (Table 3).
Other factors that influence wetland agricultural
Perceived economic factors’ influence on wetland
decision
agriculture
Table 5 shows the data on three additional factors that
Gbadegesin (1991), noting the high percentage of low
might affect the spatial distribution of farmers in
income earners among the farmers in the peri-urban
wetlands in and around the urban and peri-urban areas
and urban areas, suggested that farming in the urban
of Lagos. Only 2.1% indicated that their choice of
environment for most developing countries might be
wetland location is influenced greatly by government
driven by the human struggle for survival. This
policy, especially on land allocation for agriculture.
implies, most importantly, the need to supplement
The agricultural land zoning policies of Lagos State
personal income compelled some farmers to find
government might have influenced the choice of
supportable wetland for agricultural cultivation.
wetland farm sites by the farmers. The state govern-
18.9% of the respondents identified this factor as a
ment often allocated plots of land for people to farm on
very important reason for taking to wetland farming.
either short or long term tenure. Furthermore, wetland
Another 17.9% engaged in wetland farming for the
cultivation specifically for mosquito control purpose
purpose of meeting the demands for vegetable by the
was insignificant among the respondents, as well. Only
Lagosians (Table 4). Vegetable farming in the wet-
0.47% indicated they cultivated wetlands in their
land areas was also popular because the production
neighbourhoods in order to reduce the risk of
could be done all year round, given the growing
mosquitoes. Unlike the other two variables, the fear
of delayed rain was one major factor that usually
Table 4 Economic factors considered in wetland selection attracted people to wetlands. With the increasing
Economic factors Important Unimportant uncertainties about climate (i.e. climate change),
Availability of cheap labour 4.4 15.6
Free land 14.4 5.5 Table 5 Other factors considered in wetland selection
Affordable rent 9.3 10.8 Others Important Unimportant
Need to meet the Vegetable/cereals 17.4 2.6
needs Government allocation 2.1 31.2
Need to supplement personal 18.9 1.1 Fear of delayed rain fall 24.6 8.7
income Mosquitoes reduction mechanism 0.5 32.9
Total 64.4 35.6 Total 28.2 71.8
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GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115 111
wetlands are more prone to come under continuous and this has informed the way they interact with the
cultivation, particularly in the vicinities of large cities wetlands.
like Lagos having burgeoning populations. Majority of the farmers are not aware that the
process of water extraction for irrigation purpose as
well as canalization can alter wetland hydrology at the
Discussion and conclusion local level. Canalization from farmer’s view is an
attempt to reduce energy expended in fetching water
Gbadegesin (1991) noted that urban farming in the for irrigation. Contrarily, canalization also drains
cities of developing countries is predominantly a water from the wetland and hence creates isolated
coping strategy adopted by households where the patches of dry land which subsequently altered the
monetary incomes are generally insufficient. The vegetation (Dixon 2008). The process of vegetal
agricultural conversion was a dominant factor respon- removal either through the slash-and-burn means or
sible for wetland conversion in the mid 1950s to mid through the use of herbicide exposes wetland soils to
1970s (Dahl and Johnson 1991), and through the 20th elements of weather. This situation normally allows
century it has been stimulated by technological for subsequent soil erosion. Expectedly, soil loss and
innovations, demographic change, commercialization leaching occur and the soil fertility is thereby reduced,
and government policies, particularly those empha- hence demanding the need to add fertilizers (Adetunji
sizing improvement in food security (Dixon and Wood 1994).
2004; Wood 2006). Agricultural expansion into wet- In a bid to sustain and boost crop productivity and
lands has therefore engendered wetland loss and yield, farmers employ different types of fertilizers.
degradation. The conversion of the wetlands for Agro chemicals are used without due consideration for
agricultural purposes has produced isolated wetland the physical and chemical properties of soils in most
clusters, disrupted the ecological, social and cultural farms. However, because of the continuous and
functions of these wetlands, while it has satisfied only intensive use of land, farmers often applied both
the economic needs of the farmers. It should be noted fertilizers and poultry manure to improve their harvest.
that ‘‘while wetland drainage and cultivation can make In this regard, Adetunji (1994) noted that the intensive
a key contribution to food and livelihood security in cropping of these soils necessitates the use of fertil-
the short term, in the long term there are concerns over izers, especially nitrogen which is applied annually at
the sustainability of this utilization and the mainte- about 100 kgNha-1 as urea. Ironically, the possible
nance of wetland benefits’’ (Dixon and Wood 2004; contribution of nutrients from fertilizer application to
Wood 2006). underground and surface waters is a major concern
An understanding of the consequences of wetlands among soil and environmental scientists (Logan et al.
functional alteration, through its conversion to agri- 1980; Milburn and Richards 1994; Adetunji 1994).
cultural land use, depends on factors bordering on This is particularly important because the predominant
awareness of the ecological importance of wetlands soil (Igbessa series—Oxic Tropaquent) along the flood
and on the value placed on it by individuals and plain and valley bottom have their water table within
society at large (Wood 2006). The awareness of the 140 cm of soil surface. The adjacent streams are
ecological functions of wetlands can be obtained usually the main source of water for domestic use
through formal education and training, government without any other supplementary sources (Adetunji
and non-governmental organization sensitization pro- 1994). Farmers oftentimes do not embark on soil
grammes and through the media. However, because of testing prior to land cultivation—probably because of
the limited number of non-governmental organiza- the prohibitive cost or lack of knowledge of its
tions whose priorities are preservations of wetland importance. Hence, most of these farmers depend on
ecosystems, coupled with the absence of suitable observable visual attributes of soils and vegetation to
government policy on wetland preservation, wetlands determine nutritional status of soils (Wood 2006).
in Lagos State have suffered loss and degradation, on a Agro chemicals are applied without consideration
large scale, by farming activities, as well as specula- for its impact on adjacent water bodies; fertilizers and
tions on the lands. Some of the farmers actually other agro chemicals are washed from farmlands to
viewed wetlands as inexhaustible natural resource, water bodies and streams; and thus the water bodies in
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112 GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
the vicinity of the wetlands are massively polluted were to the road, the easier for farmers to transport
(Adetunji 1994). It is clear that the value that the their produce to markets. However, many of the
society places on wetlands determines to a large extent farmers indicated that the roads to their farms were in
the way people interact with it. It is therefore no poor condition; most of the times, they depended on
surprise that most of the farmers indicated that they do the use of motorcycles for the transportation. Yet, only
not believe that clearing wetland for agriculture 34% of these farmers had their own personal motor-
altered the aesthetic beauty of the environment. To cycles. Others used the services of commercial
them, wetlands are more or less waste lands and their motorcycles for the purpose. Indeed, commercial
value can only be enhanced through various conver- motorcycle service was more attractive to them
sions; in their pristine state, wetlands hardly have any because it cost less to transport the same unit of
usefulness. Their aesthetic appreciation of the wet- produce in comparison with chattering commercial
lands is subjective and it shapes the farmers’ interac- taxi cabs.
tion with their environment. Suitable hydrology in the area of wetlands was
Among the categories of wetland farm sites choice generally recorgnised by the farmers as a critical factor
factors that have been considered in this study are that influenced their locational choice. Even in a flood
those related to accessibility, or distance. Nearness to plain, farmers still preferred river bank, because they
place of work, nearness to market and human popu- could not afford digging shallow wells or embarking
lation, nearness to road, nearness to water bodies and on canalization. Some of the farmers also posited that
stream, and nearness to other farmers all belong to the farmland productivity was highly dependent on
distance-related factors category. Some of the farmers, closeness to river, or water source. Shallow well,
for instance, chose certain wetland site because of the watering cans and other such farming facilities were
proximity to their places of work. These farmers were shared by farmers within the same area of wetland.
mainly those that took agriculture as a part-time Direct fetching of water was employed by 2/3 of the
activity, and are largely the artisans who combined farmers while the remaining 1/3 depended on shallow
artisanship with farming in supplementing the house- wells. However, it should be noted that excessive
hold incomes. Most of them also employed labourers water extraction and the building of additional canals
for different farming operations; hence, their role is to channel water may affect the functionalities of
just supervisory. On accessibility to market and human wetlands.
population, the choice of wetland farm site was Most of the farmers indicated that they were
informed by the desire for cost efficiency (i.e. cost attracted to their present farm locations because other
minimization) and profit maximization in moving both farmers were already cultivating the sites. The relative
inputs and produce between market and farm, as well ease of finding other farmers from whom agricultural
as by the consideration of the perishable nature of the inputs could be borrowed or with whom they could be
produce. There were no storage facilities to preserve shared was encouraging. Sometimes, farmers share
farm produce. Majority of the farmers had preference techniques of cropping that yielded better productiv-
for a wetland location within 3 km from market. The ity. It was also easier for agricultural extension officer
vegetables were harvested in the morning and trans- to reach the farmers in clusters. In addition, the
ported to the market; and sometimes market women existence of farmers’ association providing loan
often came to the farms to buy the vegetables in bulk facilities as a cooperative society, drew the farmers
directly from the farmers, and then transported them to to wetland farm sites, in the same vein. Hence,
market. Usually, about five market women chattered a nearness to other farmers, apart from helping farmers
car to load all the vegetables and drop each of them reduce cost of agricultural inputs, also duly furnishes
with her portion in their various market stands. the farmers with constructive ideas and occasionally
According to the market women, the transportation facilitates farming finances towards sustained agricul-
cost was so reduced by about 50%. tural productivity, in the wetlands.
Nearness to road network, another accessibility- Besides the accessibility-related factors, biophysi-
related factor, was no doubt very important for the cal factors were also identified by farmers as influ-
evacuation of produce from farm to market, given the encing their choice of wetland farming. In particular,
bulky nature of the farm produce. The closer the farms annual flooding of the wetlands had its use; this
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GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115 113
allowed the soil to retain water which became useful vacant. The farmers put these land spaces to produc-
during later dry season for planting vegetables. In fact, tive use until the time government comes and drives
farming operations were mostly limited to the dry them away. The apparent insecure and uncertain land
season, from November to April. The ability of the tenure tells on the crop types and the adopted
soils to retain flood water is therefore critical for the management strategies employed by farmers. Indeed,
sustained crop production in the wetlands. Fortu- some farmers always cultivated small plots of land, in
nately, the water-holding capacity of wetland soil is the wetland area, just to meet the vegetable require-
relatively high because of the predominance of clay in ment of their immediate families. Nonetheless,
the soil profile. Closely associated with this water- mostly, the farmers interviewed had practiced agri-
holding capacity of the soils is the fertility nature of culture because of the need to supplement their
the wetlands. Wetland soils are mostly rich in personal incomes, particularly the off-season income
alluvium and other essential mineral elements that for the full-time farmers.
are left behind after the storm water recedes. Princi- Other factors that influenced sites for wetland
pally, farmers are lured to convert wetlands to agriculture include government land allocation poli-
farmlands because of its rich fertile soil content cies which zone farming activities to a particular part
(Rouvalis 1988; Pyrovetsi and Daoutopoulos 1997). of the city, as in the case of the Iba-Lasu area of Lagos
Showing the fertility, soils in wetlands are dark-grey in State. Also, some of the farmers abandoned upland
colour. Since most of the wetland areas covered in this areas for wetland areas because of the fear of delayed
study was within the flood plain of inland water, the rainfall. Climate change is therefore one determining
topography is equally relatively plain. This particular factor in the increasing transformation of wetlands to
attribute helped in water retention for crop production. agricultural lands. Ambastha (2007) has noted that
Site devoid of trees and stumps were, though, desir- some people held negative views about wetlands as
able, but those with short grasses were most preferred breeding sites for mosquitoes. This study, on the
by the wetland farmers. Fallow areas in the wetlands contrary, reveals that mosquitoes reduction is least
also attracted the farmers. among the factors influencing choice of wetlands for
Availability of affordable local labourers, more- cultivation—notwithstanding few farmers in the urban
over, stimulated farmers’ interests in certain wetland wetlands vicinity indicated mosquito breeding ground
sites. The farming operations yet, largely, used manual as a determinant factor.
labour and were highly labour-intensive. The labour Wetlands have remarkable benefits, which may be
consideration was more germane because most of the lost due to intensive threat arising from increasing
family members who could assist in farm works were urbanization, agricultural expansion, pollution, dam
in schools, or they were apprenticed to artisans. The construction, unsustainable government policies and
farmers were compelled to seek for labour outside the poverty (Mitsch et al. 2000; Tiltons 1995). Based on
family unit; otherwise, they might be unable to cope these stated factors, it is deducible that a number of
with the various activities involved in farming. factors interact together to determine the observable
Availability of free and affordable lands was another pattern of wetland agriculture. Principally, awareness
economic factor that attracted farmers to the wetland of the ecological advantages of wetlands does shape
area. Many of the farmers engaging in wetland what the people do with the wetlands. The awareness
agriculture are actually low income earners, with can come in the form of perceived attractive features
some others actually engaging in farming to earn of the wetland, and this could be biophysical or
themselves personal income (Gbadegesin 1991). It is economical. Knowledge of these factors would help
therefore understandable that the farmers prefer land government and urban planners to alleviate challenges
that is absolutely free or where they pay very minimal of wetland loss and degradation, particularly in the
rent. This situation has created intensive competition metropolitan areas of developing countries.
between wetland agriculture and urbanization. Urban Summarily, in a general sense, wetland farmers
expansion continues to displace agriculture due to the seemed to have a more negative attitude toward the
activities of land speculators. It is common to notice wetland resources, their conservation issues and the
large concentration of farmers mainly on government impact of their practices on the ecosystem. Their
lands or within a public right of ways which are awareness and willingness to adopt an ecology-
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114 GeoJournal (2013) 78:103–115
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