UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN INAUGURAL LECTURES 1998 - 2002 VOLUME II IBADAN UNIVERSITY PRESS 2009 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Published by Ibadan University Press University of Ibadan Ibadan. © 2009, Ibadan University Press Publishing House First Published 2009 All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, including electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the Publisher. ISBN: 978 -121- 335 - 3 Printed by: Royal Bird Ventures, Mushin, Lagos. Access: 08023421089, 08033255586 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CONTENTS Page Foreword v 1. In Search of the Original Jesus S. Oyin Abogunrin 2. From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 'Wole Falayajo 29 3. Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian B. E. Olufemi 57 4. Distributional Inequity and the Problem of National Integration Sylvester Abumere 81 5. Ogi - Past, Present and Future Jo. Akingbala, 107 6. Arabic, the Muslim Prayers and Beyond Sayed H. A. Malik 115 7. Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture 0. Osonubi 139 8. Nutrition, Survival and Life Expectancy Funke Ajayi 153 9. Fertilizers: Nigerian Farmer's Dilemma G. O. Obigbesan 169 10. Safe for All: Give The Man Meat David 0. Alonge 193 11. Our Gasping Cities Layi Egunjobi 211 • 12. Investment in Nigerian Education: Relevance, Qualityand Governance at the Eve of the Third Millennium RemiLonge 231 13. Myth in History: A Classicist View J A. Ilevbare. 253 14. Natural and 'Unnatural' Products: The Fascinating Spice to Life D. A. Okorie 263 15. From Womb to Tomb: Protecting the Gate from the Crab IF. Adewole 287 16. Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production E. 0. Faturoti 303 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 17. Elements, Metals, Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age F.A.A. Adeniyi 347 18. From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge Babatunde Alabi 36 19. Democracy within and Outside the Ivory Tower J. D. Ojo 387 20. Learning in Tongues, Expressing Mysteries: Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices Ayorinde Dada 403 21. Restructuring Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock for Sustainable Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation Lanrewaju A. Oladosu 421 22. Compositional Character: Veritable Tool in the Appraisal of Geomaterials A. A. Elueze 513 23. Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa 553 24. Support through the Raging Storms of Pain Olaitan. A. Soyanwo 569 25. Giving a Voice to the Rural Population Janice E. Olawoye 583 26. Nutritional Engineering in Mammalian Reproduction: Obstetric and Gynaecologic Concerns A.I.A. Osuagwuh 609 27. Spatial Engineering and Accessibility C. O. Ikporukpo 623 28. Energy, Exergy, The Environment and the Future Olayiwola Fagbenle 649 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY FOREWORD It is an established tradition in universities all over the world to invite lecturers, on elevation to the professorial position, to deliver inaugural lectures in which they either summarize their research achievements or proffer to the academia and the nation critical views and recommendations on matters they consider to be of strategic importance. The University of Ibadan had in the past ensured that such lectures were promptly published and widely distributed by the Ibadan University Press. Paul Christopherson, a professor of English, was the first in this university to give an inaugural lecture. The lecture, titled "Bilingualism", was given on Foundation Day, 17 November 1948 and was promptly published in 1949. Since then, many professors from various departments have delivered inaugural lectures, which the University promptly published. However, the practice became stalled as from 1992 owing to a severe scarcity of funds. As a result, some inaugural lecturers published their lectures by themselves. However, many inaugural lectures have been "awaiting publication" without hope of ever seeing the light of day. Inaugural lectures have critical roles to play in the universities and the nation at large. They often contain highlights of research findings that may be of great value to the academic world, budding entrepreneurs, industrialists and even governments. Such lectures can also showcase to the outside world the academic attainments of individual lecturers and the entire university. It is against this background that I heartily welcome the financial intervention of the National Universities Commission, through the Direct Teaching and Laboratory costs allocation, that has enabled the publication of the backlog of inaugural lectures. For handiness and cost-effectiveness, we have decided to compile the lectures that emanated from one decade (1992-2002) in two volumes. We thank the NUC for the grant and warmly commend the volumes to research libraries and the reading public at large. University of Ibadan Professor Ayodele Falase Ibadan Vice-Chancellor April 2005 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1 IN SEARCH OF THE ORIGINAL JESUS S. Oyin Abogunrin Department of Religious Studies Introduction This is the third inaugural lecture from the Department of Religious Studies. The first lecture titled: "Religious Studies In An African University" was given by Professor James Welch on the University's Foundation Day, November 17, 1950. The second lecture, "The Obituary of God", was delivered by Professor Bolaji Idowu in February 1976, a few weeks before he left the University on retirement. In the first lecture Professor Welch put across the philosophy of the then new Department of Religious Studies, its aims, objectives and goals. In the second lecture, Professor Idowu discussed the reality of God and His active presence in the universe. My area of research within the large field of Religious Studies is New Testament Literature and Theology, focusing attention on the Historical Criticism of the Gospels and Pauline Studies. What has engaged my attention in the last twenty-four years or so is the contextualization of Biblical Theology in Africa. As a biblical scholar, living and practising in Africa, my main concern has been how to combine Africanness with sound biblical scholarship such that Jesus, the Eternal Word, can become incarnate in the life and thought of the peoples of Africa. Thus the Bible is made to speak in local rather than, in foreign idioms. Today's lecture is in the area of the historical criticism of the Gospels, focusing on one of the thorny issues in Gospel Studies, namely, the 'Historical Jesus'. The Nature of the Problem Men throughout the ages have been divided over the question: "Who is Jesus of Nazareth?" This raises the other relevant issues such as: Why so much interest and conflict over an individual? Why is it that His name, more than that of any other religious leader, either causes irritation or attracts worship and adoration? For more than two centuries, the life of Jesus 'has remained a matter of supreme interest in New Testament research. During the last fifty years the number of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 S.Oyin Abogunrin books written on the subject in the English language alone has swollen to fantastic proportions. Indeed, it will be a very difficult task today for any full- time reviewer to keep track of books appearing about Jesus. These are books written not only by Christians of different persuasions, but also by Jews, Muslims, Communists, etc., each of whom has his own reasons for being interested in Jesus. Jesus of Nazareth continues to fascinate people from many cultural and religious backgrounds. For example, many modem Jewish biblical scholars have a keen interest in Jesus, some of them believing that Jesus was a highly unconventional teacher from Galilee and was probably a Pharisee.' And back to the main questions we intend to deal with in this lecture: Was Jesus a real person, or a mythological figure? Did Jesus ever live? And if He did live, what are the real events of His life? The most unifying element in the New Testament writings is the common concern for Jesus Christ. The presentation of Jesus Christ in the New Testament begins with the Gospels, though they are not the earliest writings. The arrangement, which puts the Gospels at the beginning of the New Testament, was certainly not an accident, but a deliberate confirmation of the fact that the Christian faith has to do, first and foremost, with the person of Jesus Christ. The starting point in the New Testament, therefore, is Jesus of Nazareth, His advent, life, teaching, deeds, death, resurrection, , exaltation and His significance as an historical figure. However, some people will be surprised that for more than two hundred years, the very existence of Jesus has been challenged. Jesus' pre-eminent position in religious history the world over has led to a great deal of interest in the historical investigation of His own person and such questions as the following are asked: In what sense are the four Gospels historical? Are they true stories in every aspect, or are they mere historical novels? From where did the traditions which found their way into the Gospels come? What do we know of the origins of those traditions? Are the Evangelists trained historians? What was Jesus really like as seen by unbiased observers? What is the significance and correct interpretation of His life? Can Jesus be really accorded a place in history as a significantly influential figure? Since the 18th century scholars have claimed that the Gospels were written between A.D 100 and 150 or much later, because, according to them, it was only then that the early Christians invented Jesus as a historical figure. Many scholars have argued that the alleged controversies between Jesus and His Jewish opponents actually reflected the debates which arose within the early Christian community, rather than during the life time of Jesus. Of course, the primitive Christian community would be expected to try to recall what Jesus had said or done on certain occasions in order to resolve certain contemporary problems among members. It is true that to some extent these early concerns would have determined some of the traditions preserved in the four Gospels. Also, until very recently, official Soviet Union encyclopaedia and reference works referred to Jesus as a mere invention of the early Church. For our knowledge of Jesus we depend, for all practical purposes, on the writings of the early Christians. The Gospels were written by men who believed that Jesus was the Messiah and Lord. He was regarded as the Supreme UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 3 Representative of God and as the One possessing the key to human destiny. They were committed men who gave religious veneration to Jesus. What are the implications of this for the historicity of what they wrote? If they wrote as committed Christians, does this not call into question the impartiality with which they wrote their Gospels? If some of the Evangelists were dependent on the work of other Evangelist(s) for their information, would not the same consideration apply to these intermediaries? How can we be sure that the whole story has not been coloured by the pious imagination of the earliest Christians who saw the story of Jesus in the light of the religious position which they ascribed to Him after His death? Until the 18th and 19th centuries, most biblical scholars still regarded the Gospels as biographic or accurate historical records of the life of Jesus. Several scholars attempted to stitch together pieces from the four Gospels in order to write a modem biography of Jesus. Gaps in our knowledge of Jesus' life were often filled with imaginative reconstruction by adding guess work, especially about Jesus' early hidden years. Attempts were also made to reconcile contradictions. Modem critics argue that if the Evangelists had been scientific historians, disinterested recorders of what actually happened, then there is .some chance that they might have avoided such bias. But this is not what they were. What they wrote was meant to convert outsiders and strengthen believers. Critics, therefore, conclude that the Evangelists were not writing the history of Jesus' life, but rather religious propaganda. Other questions often asked are the following: Did they check their sources to ensure that these were reliable? Did they cross- examine those who told them about Jesus? Or did they simply believe what they were told, whatever was interesting and edifying? How can we be sure that they made efforts to tell the story with any degree of accuracy? The effects of these considerations have led many to seek the 'historical Jesus' in the sense of what they call "the un-interpreted Jesus". The common cry on the lips of critics is: "Let us get away from the Christ of dogma, as painted by credulous early Christians and their successors. Let us go back to Jesus as He really was." Implicit in this idea is that the Gospels were not written by the Apostles or their disciples, but are products of a later period, variously dated between AD 100 and 200. In the opinion of these radical scholars, the real Jesus must have been an ordinary human being and was not responsible for the rise of the Christian faith. Much of the 19th and 20th centuries research was also based on the assumption that the original event was an ordinary human life and it should therefore be possible through careful probing of records to uncover the ordinary life of Jesus as a historical figure. Hence, the term "historical" is used in a technical sense which may trap the unwary. It does not simply refer to Jesus as He really was, but to Jesus as an ordinary man that He must have been.' The liberal scholars are no longer ready to accept things like the virgin birth, the miracles, death for the sin which Jesus did not commit, the resurrection and the ascension. For them, the original Jesus is not directly accessible to history. They, therefore, conclude that it is fruitless to try to place Jesus within a process of historical development. What we know about Him now is not what He really UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 S.Oyin Abogunrin was, but what was revealed to the disciples through stories invented by some of them. They further argue that no chronological sketch of Jesus' life is available, except for the unconnected stories put together in the Gospels. What exactly gave rise to this negative development? The Rise of Modern Biblical Scholarship The critical approach to the study of the Scriptures arose in Europe as the old order crumbled with the Reformation and as a result of the rise of the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries. The terrible consequences of religious division in Europe had so succeeded in discrediting religious authorities that the intellectual avant-garde felt free to investigate the church's title deeds, among other issues. The old religious order had centred around an unquestioned acceptance of Judaeo-Christian understanding of God, which was losing its self- evident character under the pressure of rationalists criticism. The enlightened authority of religious tradition began to raise questions about church dogma. People were no longer ready to assume uncritically that the Bible spoke reliably about God and the universe. Natural science began to chalJenge the biblical picture of the world. The Bible was now regarded as a fallible human record which spoke unevenly about man, religion and history. , Historical criticism created the most serious crisis for faith, and this has not yet been completely overcome. The 19th century began with historical criticism of traditions and legends about the church and state. The unmasking of the Donation of Constantine as the legend of the foundation of the church-state relationship was only the beginning. Historical biblical scholarship developed within Protestantism. It launched a vicious attack on the doctrine of verbal inspiration which had declared the Scripture as infallible, self-sufficient, free of all contradictions and, thus, the absolute authority in all questions of faith and life. In the Roman Catholic circle, the assertion of the infallibility of the church's magisterium, as well as its incorruptibility and impartiality, was shown to be historically conditioned and was, therefore, questioned by critics.' Critics in Europe regarded the historical critical approach to the Bible and Church traditions as the foundation of freedom. Historical criticism not only undermined religious authorities, but also all other values and ethos of the society. The feeling then was that historical criticism had liberated men from the tutelage of the traditions and finally broken the last chains which philosophy and natural science had been unable to break. History was no longer endured passively as a destiny or providence. Life was no longer oriented on what is derived from tradition. Personal and social life was no longer ordered in harmony with the eternal laws of the cosmos, but on the basis of natural law. The meaning of history was no longer sought in the past made present by traditions or in eternity made present by religion, but in the open invitation to the future. Also, since the beginning of the Renaissance the sciences have liberated themselves from the limitations and the laws of theological metaphysics. Theology ceased to be the 'queen' of all sciences and the church was no longer regarded as the 'crown' of the society. It was argued that it was not possible for someone to accept the natural laws of nature in the context of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 5 technology during the week and turn round on Sunday to believe in supernatural miracles. The main focus of historical criticism is not the relationship between the Bible and church tradition, but between the Bible and Christ. The historical critical investigation of the Bible since the 18th century has been guided by an interest in getting to know Jesus Himself and to understand Him as He really was. This, it is believed, would liberate Jesus of Nazareth from the dogma of the Christ of faith and the liberation of faith from dogma. Furthermore, critics argue that the christological dogma of Chalcedon had to be overturned so that people could seek the historical Jesus, and that only through the search for the real historical Jesus could christological dogma be overturned. It is only by doing this that one can encounter the real Jesus. Many believing Christians are yet to make their peace with the current development. They have been unable to see how the critical approach can be compatible with revelation and faith in the Word of God, which the biblical text demands. Here the conservative Christians have a serious point. Christianity is a historical faith whose fundamental affirmations are expressed in the past tense. Also since we are dependent upon the New Testament writings for access to those past events which are the objectives of faith, we must accept that a distinction between what the Bible tells us and what "really" happened definitely poses a big threat to faith. However, if the historian of Christian origins is to be faithful to his task, he must steer a course between the uncritical acceptance of biblical narrative demanded by fundamentalism and theologically motivated scepticism whose hypercritical approach ignores the rules of historical probability and is uncritical of its own approach as the opposite extreme. A critical reading of the sources is the only one possible way for the historian, if Ill' is to use the New Testament writings, to reconstruct the past. New Testament writings are a proclamation in history, the history of Jesus as the saving act of God. They are proclamations of Jesus in concrete historical situations of the past. If we are to understand the authors, therefore, we must first understand the historical situation in which the books were first written." Biblical criticism in its grammatical sense means no more than the exercise of judgement. Used in this neutral sense, biblical criticism is not only permissible but commendable, if pursued in a scholarly and reverent manner. The critical study of the Bible has indeed been undertaken by scholars, the majority of whom are fully persuaded of the divine authority of the Scriptures. It is neither destructive nor faultfinding with the Bible, but objectively researches to find out the truth and nothing but the truth. It is not we criticizing the Bible, but the Bible criticizing us in our daily lives. Genuine biblical criticism does not affect the uniqueness of the Bible. Nevertheless, we must admit that some of the old ways of stating facts are no longer adequate for today and for the people of Africa. A new reformation is taking place, both within and outside Africa, so much new thinking and reasoning is going on in the continent. 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6 S.Oyin Abogunrin The Life of Jesus The research into the life of Jesus focused on the historicity of the Gospels through the investigation of the order of the gospels, their sources and the use they made of those sources. Lessing in his work composed in 1778 and published in 1784, proposed the existence of the "Gospel of the Nazarenes" or the "Gospel of the Hebrews", written in Aramaic soon after the death of Jesus, as the source of the Synoptic Gospels." J.J. Griesbach in 1783 said that Mark wrote after Mathew and Luke," J.G. proposed a plurality of sources and that the four Gospels were based on four revised editions of an original Aramaic Gospel, with each Evangelist making use of a different edition of it." But Marsh thought that there must have been an Ur-Marcus which formed the major source." 'Schleiermacher claimed that Matthew drew upon the Papias' Logia and Luke drew upon Matthew and that Mark was a later Gospel, with close affinity to Apocryphal Gospels." In 1818 J.K.L. Gieseler claimed that the Apostolic preaching must have taken some concrete forms, structured into Aramaic Gospel of the Nazarenes between AD 35-40, and later translated into Greek in order to meet the needs of the Gentile churches. He concluded that it is this Greek version that the Evangelists variously modified. I I C. Lachmann claimed that Mark was basic and was followed by Matthew and Luke.I2 B.H. Streeter proposed a four-document source, claiming that both Matthew and Luke drew upon Mark. He further proposed a common source used by Matthew and Luke to explain the material common to both Gospels. This common source, he labelled Quelle. Furthermore, for materials peculiar to each of Matthew and Luke, Streeter opines that they both derived these from two different sources. Therefore, he labelled as M the material special to Matthew and L for material peculiar to Luke. This means that Mark + Q +M = Matthew and Mark + Q + L = Luke. 13 For nearly a century the majority of scholars have accepted this hypothesis that Mark is the first Gospel, and that Matthew and Luke, and also John, to some extent, copied from Mark. Thus the rationalists abandoned the traditions dating back to the second century that Matthew, followed by Luke were the first Gospels to be written, and thereafter Mark and John. Accepting the ancient traditions about the origins of the Gospels and the Gospel order would render many of the rationalists' hypothetical sources of the Gospels unnecessary. However, during the last forty years many scholars have been calling for a return to tradition about the Gospel order. Also, the multiplication of hypothetical sources such as the Ur-Gospel, Greek and Aramaic Versions of the Gospel of the Nazarenes, the Oral Gospel, Ur-Marcus, Ur-Matthew, the Proto-Luke, the Logia, Q, Qa, Qb, Qc, Qd, the M source, the L source, the priority of Mark, the recensions of the various Gospels, mutilated Gospels etc, all these have failed to provide a satisfactory solution to the Synoptic problem." The supreme task of New Testament scholarship in Africa, therefore, is not to .further complicate an already confused and confusing situation by making its own addition to the number of hypothetical sources of the Gospels, but to make Christ crucified, a living reality in the thought of our time and to renew in it, once again, the awe and wonder of the Christian faith. This is not to say that African Christianity is not interested in the present critical probing and debate. If African Christianity UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 7 should neglect this aspect, how can it be well equipped to face the challenges of today and of the new millennium? Moreover, if the Christian faith is to be rational, it cannot avoid philosophical probing, and the evidence it uses in support of its biblical interpretation must be convincing. The appeal for faith and commitment cannot ultimately be separated from historical literary investigation. 15 The critical scholars having concluded that Mark was the first Gospel, the next step was to investigate the historicity of Mark. If Mark is not historical, then most of what we have in the other Gospels, which was allegedly copied from Mark, must ipso facto be false. The first major work, The Life of Jesus by D.F. Strauss, a junior lecturer at the Protestant Seminary of Tubingen University, was published in 1835. He argued that the Gospels must be judged to be unhistorical, both on the account of internal contradictions and because the modem scientific world no longer believes in angels, demons, voices from heaven, walking on water and other interferences with the laws of nature. Strauss argued further that the traditional belief in the historicity of the Gospels has become untenable to many and that biblical accounts have come into direct collision with modem scientific apprehension of truth and reality. He concluded that there were no such things as miracles because the closed system of nature brooked no such divine intervention. Strauss and his disciples conceded that Jesus performed some psychosomatic healings, but these could not be called miracles, which involved the suspension of the laws of nature. Strauss rejected outright the historicity of the Gospels, arguing that the real Jesus must have been an ordinary person whose life could be explained in human terms, and that if the Gospels were critically examined such picture of Jesus would emerge. 16 At that time, however, Christianity still commanded sufficient respect for such an attack on its title deeds to be considered an outrage. As a result, Strauss lost his post at Tubingen. When, indeed, in 1839, a liberal government in Zurich offered him a professorship, the people rebelled and that government fell. The young lecturer was pensioned before he arrived at the new post. 17 1. Weis in his work, Jesus' Proclamation of the Kingdom of God published in 1892, stated that Jesus meant to set up a rule in the immediate future. He was more like a fanatical preacher, warning people that the world might come to a sudden end at any time. 18 Also in 1892 W. Wrede in his work, The Messianic Secret, argued that Mark, on which the other Evangelists supposedly depended, was riddled with contradictions and wild improbabilities. He submitted that Jesus never claimed to be the Messiah and that the Gospels were not historical reports, but theological fantasies from which history could be extracted with great difficulty. Mark was only painting a theological picture of Jesus under the guise of history. Mark imposed his own theological theory on the available material which he rewrote and interpreted, not in accordance with what happened, but in accordance with his own ideas. Wrede concluded that the supernatural features in Jesus' ministry were created by Mark, the creative theologian. 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 8 S.Oyin Abogunrin Albert Schweitzer in his work, A History of Research Upon the Life of Jesus, with the sub-title, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906), tried to relate the research of scholars during the 19th century on the life of Jesus. He argued that rather than rejecting the miracles of Jesus, they can be explained. The following are some of his explanations: The walking on the water was an illusion of the disciples. Jesus walked along the shore in a mist and they took him for a ghost. When Jesus disclosed His identity Peter jumped into the water and was drawn to the shore by Jesus when he was sinking. Jesus entered the boat and they doubled headland and drew clear of the storm centre. They, therefore, thought that He had calmed the sea. Similarly, when He was asleep and the boat was about to sink, his disciples waked Him and He taught them about the wind and weather. At that moment they gained the centre of a hill which protected them and they marvelled among themselves, that even the winds obeyed Him. The feeding of the 5000 is explained thus: "When Jesus saw the multitude an hungered. He said to the disciples, we will set the rich people among them a good example". And Jesus began to distribute His own supplies and those of the disciples. The example had its effects, and soon there was plenty for everyone because the rich among the crowd similarly distributed their own supplies. According to Schweitzer, the various raisings from the dead should actually be called deliverance from premature burials. They were all cases of coma. In Judea interment took place three hours after death and how many would have returned to consciousness in their graves and thereafter perished miserably. On the transfiguration, Schweitzer posited that at night when Jesus was in the mountainous district, He had an interview with two dignified looking men whom His three companions took for Moses and Elijah. Form Criticism The arguments so far against the historicity of the Gospels are based on source criticism which deals with written documents alone; but this did not resolve the phenomenon of the Gospels. Scholars, therefore, feel that they must get behind the Gospels to know what was happening at the oral stage before the writing of the Gospels began. How did the stories about Jesus circulate during the first 20 to 40 years before any Gospel was written? How did these stories take concrete forms? This, therefore, led to the rise of form criticism. Form criticism, which arose in Germany, was devised by Hermann Gunkel to study the individual stories in the Pentateuch." Martin Dibelius21 and Rudolf Bultmann" were the leading scholars who applied the method to the study of the Gospels. Form criticism is not an alternative to source criticism, but a supplement to it. For example, source criticism, among several other theories, proposed a four-document hypothesis as the sources of the Synoptic Gospels. But it could not push the study beyond the written documents. Form criticism is an attempt to fill this gap. Secondly, form criticism arose from the challenge to historicity by W. Wrede who argued that the framework of Mark was the author's own creation based on what were originally independently circulating units. The third reason for the rise of form criticism is the attempt to modernize the Gospels in the light UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 9 of scientific revelations. The fourth reason is the quest of the historical Jesus aimed at rediscovering the original Jesus as He really was and to free Him, once and for all, from the chains of Church dogma." The form critics argued that the gospel stories first circulated in form of sermons and that some narratives were aimed at showing Jesus as a wonder worker. Such stories were created by story tellers in the early Church. According to Dibelius, there were also legends of the infancy story, as well as myths. For Bultmann, Jesus does not need any historical demonstration. What is important is the Jesus of faith, since little is known of the historical Jesus. The general feeling among the form critics is that it is not possible to know the historical Jesus because it is impossible to find reliable historical evidence about Him. The form critics claim further that 'form' is neither something accidental nor the result of the literary genius of an individual. Rather, it is a record of the spontaneous reactions of a community which grew out of a typical recurring situation to various issues and controversies which arose within the members and with outsiders. Each form had a function in the life of the community and reveals the concern which brought it into being. We, therefore, see that the thrust of form criticism is largely sociological." • Both Dibelius and Bultmann classify their material according to a variety of 'forms', although they differ in their terminology for them. The form critics believe that by observing certain laws which govern the transmission of material as illustrated by different Synoptic accounts of the same story, it is possible to arrive at the earliest recoverable form of the community's earliest renditions ever before the first Gospel was written. These forms constitute a function of life for the early Christian community and reveal the concerns which led to the creation of those traditions, as well as the nature of life in the early Church. Although Bultrnann agrees that the traditions in the Synoptic Gospels pre-supposed the preaching of Jesus, it is impossible to determine how much of this is traceable to Him. Rudolf Bultrnann reacted vigorously against the scholars of the 19th century who made a reconstructed biographical account of the life and personality of Jesus the sole aim of their research. This is because Bultrnann felt that it was a waste of time trying to investigate the accounts of Jesus' life since very little or nothing at all can be known about the historical Jesus. For Bultmann, what is central to the Christian message is not Jesus meek and mild, nor indeed the historical Jesus at all, but the Risen Christ. For a long time nearly all the form critics stated confidently that the Gospels were not biographies and that these books were concerned almost entirely with the significance, rather than the life history of Jesus. They further argued that the Evangelists were not concerned with any precise chronology; nor with the description of Jesus' personal appearance, and further, that no attempt was made to unravel the development of His personality, nor set Jesus in the historical context of His own day." Bultmann adopted, for his study of the Synoptic Gospels, the method of analyzing the small units of tradition which Gunkel had used in the analysis of the materials in Genesis and the Psalms. In his view, the literary analysis of typical forms in which traditions were preserved would show how they had been UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 S.Oyin Abogunrin used in early communities. Attention was turned from reported events to anonymous teachers, preachers, worshippers, collectors, editors, redactors etc. who were allegedly responsible for the stories in the Gospels and this led to historical scepticism about the Gospels. Form criticism had by now taken firm root in Germany because its presuppositions were already present in the German History of Religions and of its research traditions. This is why Bultmann thought that comparative study of folk literature would explain the laws governing the transmission of the Synoptic traditions." Bultmann vigorously opposed scholars who made the reconstruction of biographical accounts of the life and personality of Jesus the very centre of the Christian message. For him, it is the Risen Christ that was central to the Christian faith. He insisted that the early Church in its missionary preaching was only concerned with the fact that Jesus of Nazareth had once lived on the earth. 27 Of course, these may be the expectations of many modem readers of a biography. But a careful, open-minded reading will reveal that some of the issues raised by the form-critics are assumed in the Gospels. Their problem is that they have come to the Gospels with a preconceived notion that most of the accounts in the Gospels are unhistorical, hence their failure to see those facts which they claim to be looking for, but which are conspicuously present in the Gospels. Moreover, the Gospels must be set against the backdrop of their own times. When this is faithfully done, the Gospels will emerge both as the full-fledged biographies of Jesus and as the true story about His actual life and deeds and the significance of His life. A careful study of the Graeco-Roman biographies reveals that they rarely trace the character development of personalities. They allow the actions and words of persons to speak for themselves. This method was commonly used in sophisticated ancient biographical writings with long literary tradition. Therefore, if we find that the Gospels appear to portray the character of Jesus by reporting His actions and teachings, we are certainly not misunderstanding their intention, as the form critics would want us to think. Of course, ancient biographies are themselves diverse in forms and this does not make direct comparison with the Gospels easy. Several scholars have insisted that the early Church did incorporate Jewish teaching, as well as its own teaching, into the Gospels. They have therefore proceeded to argue that only materials which have no parallels in either the first- century Judaism or in early Christianity can be considered authentic or as coming from Jesus Himself.28 Such a view not only leads to a distorted picture of the life and times of Jesus, but amounts to separating Jesus from the religious tradition and culture to which He belonged. Jesus was born a Jew, raised up as one, lived as a Jew and, naturally, observed some of the Jewish customs. To agree with the form critics is like saying, concerning the late Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria, for example, that only things which could not be traced to the lgbo religion and culture, and to the political ideas of 1940s and 50s can be said to be authentic about Dr. Azikiwe. Or that anything that could be traced to the Yoruba religion and culture, and to the politics of the 1940s and 50s could not be true about the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus II late Chief Obafemi Awolowo and that only the ideas belonging to the year 2000 and thereafter could be true of Awolowo and of Azikiwe. In response to the form critics, Christ as a teacher was greater than the Christian community which He founded and it must be expected that He had His stamp on the form and content of the oral tradition which circulated about Him. Also, variation in tradition may not mean that a particular record of events is unhistorical since Jesus Himself might have on different occasions and in various places repeated some of His teachings in different forms, depending on the situation. Again, some of the variations among the Gospels might be additional information, rather than contradiction. Also, no form critical hypothesis which ignores the presence of the eyewitnesses is justified. The uniqueness of Jesus in whom the Christian faith is centred and for whom the early Christians were prepared even to suffer death must be noted. Would the early Christians have been prepared to die in defence of falsehood and what they know to be products of their own imagination?" Also, the historian's acceptance of the pre-suppositions of the form critics would amount to abandoning Jesus as a possible subject of -investigation, and reducing Him, who is the main subject of the Church's proclamation, to a mythological figure, with the consequent danger of depriving, that proclamation of all historical content. Christianity would then become a sort of myth. The argument of the form critics - that only materials that have no parallel in contemporary Judaism of the first century AD to the post-Easter Christian Church could be attributed to Jesus - is faulty because of the limitation of our knowledge of the first century Judaism, based on available Jewish sources. Furthermore, it is difficult to accurately date those Jewish sources and be definite about how much of these Jewish sources go back to the first century. Moreover, form critics set the beginning of the gospel tradition at Easter, but this is quite arbitrary. Form critics cannot dispute the fact that during Jesus' ministry, He was surrounded by a group of disciples who later constituted the earliest Christian community. The origins of the Jesus traditions, therefore, were in the Pre-Easter period. It can, therefore, be legitimately assumed that there was something about the historical Jesus which explains how He came to be the object of the Church's faith and preaching. Attempts to explain the origins of the synoptic materials in terms of collective creativity of the early Christian community rests upon an unproved assumption. Even if the Gospels were written to meet the contemporary needs of the primitive Church, the Evangelists appeared to have drawn upon the actual life stories about 'Jesus' teachings and deeds. What kept the early Christian community:"together was not just the Easter experience, but what they knew of Jesus before the Easter event and it is evident that this knowledge of Jesus' teaching and deeds was adequate enough to keep the Church going. The Church was interested in Jesus because it came into being as a result of the activities of Jesus and not as a result of invented stories after His death. Any theory which explains the contents of the Gospels as the creation of the early Church is ridiculous. Equally false is the theory that only a very tiny amount of information was handed over to the Church. The theories of the form critics are too weak to explain the rise of the early Church and faith in Jesus Christ. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 S.Oyin Abogunrin Assuming that it was the resurrection that brought the church into being, this must have carried with it some personal knowledge of who Jesus was. What the early Church taught about Jesus would be inexplicable unless there existed some previous knowledge of Jesus. The early church did not just esteem Jesus as a wonderful teacher and prophet; it regarded Him as the Messiah, the Son of God, Redeemer, Saviour and Lord. The Jesus of the form critics could not have been elevated to the status of the Jesus that we have in the New Testament. All the form critics agree that Jesus had disciples who survived Him. If so, did the disciples all forget all that Jesus ever did and taught and, therefore, need to create stories about Jesus? Had they no memory of what Jesus said in the course of His ministry which they must have told and retold over some period of time? Did they distort tradition so thoroughly that next to nothing of what Jesus actually said and did survived? If the form critics were all Jesus' disciples and were eyewitnesses, what would they have done or written after His death? Furthermore, the argument by form critics that the gospel materials lack the characteristics which are usually found in accounts given by eyewitnesses and, further, that our present Gospels look more like oral traditions, preserved and transmitted by communities rather than eyewitness testimonies of individuals; is untenable. The gospel traditions played an important part in the faith and life of the early Christian communities which preserved them. The eyewitnesses must have been responsible for the vivid details in the Gospels and must have exercised some control over the development and transmission of the traditions about the life of Jesus. If Jesus was proclaimed as a mythical figure for about seventy years and the gospel message still spread so fast, and churches were firmly established in different parts of the Roman Empire, why would the Church at that stage need the proclamation of Jesus as an historical person to assist it in evangelism when it had succeeded without it for seven decades? If the historical Jesus was invented after A.D 100, why would it be necessary to create so many detailed traditions? All the early Christian opponents agreed that Jesus once lived, had disciples, taught and performed miracles and was put to death on the cross by the Romans. Today nearly all historians accept that Jesus once lived and that the Gospels contain valuable materials about His life. The gospel stories indeed reflect Jesus' own time and situation rather than the time and situation of the early Church and, therefore, they cannot be the early-Christian inventions. Bultmann's claim that the gospel stories reflect the life situation in the rabbinic traditions cannot stand. We do not possess any evidence that similar debates existed within the Judaism of the day which would necessitate the creation of such scenes in Jesus' ministry. Also we have no account of such debates within the early Christian communities. Equally untenable is the argument which regards Jesus' sayings recorded in the Gospels as inspired utterances of early Christian preachers and prophets. It is true that the New Testament recorded some occasions when some sayings are attributed to the risen Jesus or to the Holy Spirit or to a prophet, but when such occurs, it is usually made clear in the passage. On most occasions when neither the content UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 13 • nor the context of gospel records points to a situation after Easter, the authentic- city of such materials should be assumed. However, H. Riesenfeld," and his student Gerhadson, both of whom were Scandinavian scholars, proposed an alternative to the presuppositions of the form critics. They postulated the existence of a community for the transmission of Jesus' tradition within the early Church, a situation where the transmission of tradition becomes a technical act of instruction. This reflects the method of the oral transmission of the Torah in Judaism. In Rabbinic Judaism there existed a methodically controlled transmission of the tradition of the fathers. Gerhadson sees a parallel in the ministry exercised by the Twelve in Jerusalem. Like in Jewish tradition, a group of official repeaters (the ministers of the word) could be responsible for the oral transmission of the Jesus tradition. Paul told the Corinthians: "For I delivered unto you what I also received" (I Cor. 11:23; 15:3). The words 'delivered' and 'received' parallel the technical terminologies used for the control of the oral transmission of the Torah. Obviously, the Twelve must have exercised influence, if not control, over the way and manner the Jesus tradition was transmitted at the early period. There may be some elements of truth in this because it was in this manner that most prophetic oracles, which ~ere first deposited with the disciples or the 'sons' of the prophets, were first preserved in poetic forms and were kept for some time before being committed into writing in ancient Israel. But this cannot fully explain the phenomenon of the relationship between the Gospels." To some extent, this has a parallel in the Odu !fa system of divination among the Yoruba of West Africa and the related groups. The !fa Corpus contains sixteen major divisions or "books" and 256 "chapters". It takes at least seven years of full-time apprenticeship to learn the art and scriptures by heart, and also to know the various myths connected with each chapter, as well as their meaning. It is in the !fa Corpus that we have the most ancient and purest traditions of the Yoruba people. The Yoruba ancient scriptures are memorized and recited in the way Quranic students memorize and recite the Quran. In spite of the fact that many ofthe experts of !fa divination system today are literate.and well-informed, the old system of memorization and recitation remains the only approved method of learning and practising the art." The New Quest of the Historical Jesus This was a new development during the 1950s and 1960s in consequence of the failure of the old quest and form criticism. J.N. Robinson argued that the old quest of the historical Jesus was both impossible and illegitimate. The new quest, unlike the old, was ready to accept that some historical information about Jesus survived in the Gospels or in the Kerygma. Of course, it is not that the exponents were seriously interested in the historical Jesus. Robinson underlined the illegitimacy of trying to work back to pure history since what we have in the Gospels are interpreted stories and sayings. He too believed that not very much could be traced back to the lifetime of Jesus. According to him, the task of the historian is to recognize the intention behind past historical records, since history is a matter of interpretation in which the interpreter may find himself being UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14 S.Oyin Abogunrin interpreted. He concludes that the Gospels are therefore an interpretation of facts and it is illegitimate to go behind them since the historical Christ remains inaccessible." The rise of the new quest was also due to Bultmann's theological hostility to the liberals' quest for the historical Jesus. He had argued that faith must be bolstered by rational arguments, lest its sufficiency for salvation be undermined. He stated further that faith must not be exposed to the risk of the historicity of the Gospels and, that they should be severed from historical claims. Also, he argued that faith is directed towards God Who cannot be identified with a bit of worldly reality. Finally, he advocated a new understanding of the incarnation against the position of liberal Protestantism which denies the historicity of the Gospels altogether. The new questers were in broad agreement with Bultmann on the above points, but they realized at the same time that since Christianity is centred on the crucified and risen Jesus Christ as the decisive revelation from God, objective investigators must at least be interested in what can be known about him by rational enquiry. The denial of the resurrection of Jesus and the substitution of an anti-theological explanation for this event cuts the thread of legitimacy which joins the faith of the early Church to the historical figure of Jesus. The Christian claim that' Jesus is Lord' would therefore be false. Evading the "risk of history" by showing no interest in the historical reality of Jesus is therefore unsatisfactory. Since the claims of Christianity are open to challenge, it must be ready always to meet this challenge with rational historical arguments. Abandoning the historical quest would be to break with something that has from the start remained the cornerstone of the Christian faith. 34 A disciple of Bultmann who broke away from him in October 1953, was E. Kasemann who insisted that we cannot separate the Christ of faith from the Jesus history, nor do away with the identity between the exalted Lord Jesus and the earthly Jesus without falling into docetism. Another disciple of Bultmann, who also broke away, is G. Bornkamm who admits that Jesus is the only reality of God who confronts men and calls them to a decision." Thus we see that the new quest admits that the Gospels contain some historical facts about Jesus, though they have been interpreted. Christ and Mythology There is another vital issue relating to our subject which needs to be discussed briefly. This is the issue of myths in the New Testament, first examined b~ Rudolf Bultmann and in the recent works edited by John Hick and others. 6 Bultmann wrote his essay on mythology in the New Testament in 1941. Bultmann was a professor of New Testament, who before then, had served as a chaplain in the army. He had been very concerned about the growing agnosticism in Europe and in the army. He believed that the major cause was that the modem man could no longer accept the myths contained in the New Testament. He was convinced that an undemythologized New Testament Christianity was no longer alive and could not make sense to the modem man. He argued that both the Old and New Testaments were obsolete and were unable to tackle the problem of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 15 man in this age. It is the reason man has fallen into agnosticism. Moreover, he argued further that the New Testament is unscientific and too elementary for the modem scientific minds. It must, therefore, be purged of these elements that make it unacceptable to the present scientific age. Bultmann regarded the resurrection and miracles as impossible. He went further to say that not very much is known about Jesus as a historical figure, and His contributions to the thoughts of the New Testament are almost impossible to identify. He also submitted that Christ is neither the main figure of the New Testament nor is He responsible for all that is attributed to Him. Bultmann considered the. Old Testament more embarrassing than helpful. In his view, the myth of God's saving act in Jesus was derived from gnosticism and Jewish apocalyptic. The idea of sacrifice is an anachronism rather than the essence of the Christian faith. He argued further that, today, nobody would interpret a case of epilepsy or mental illness as demonic possession. The modem man would take these as illness and go to a doctor. Cholera epidemic would be seen in terms of germs, rather than as divine visitation. Moreover, in Bultmann's view, it is impossible to use electric light, radio, television etc. and, in case of illness, consult a medical doctor and at the same time believe in the existence of demons and miracles. Bultmann's radical criticism of the New Testament notwithstanding, he maintains that God has done something decisive in Jesus Christ and that Christianity is a Gospel. Unlike many scholars before him, Bultmann believes that the myths should not be eliminated from the New Testament but must, rather be interpreted, and also that Christianity is an event rather than an invention. Yet he did not accept the supernatural in the life of Jesus, such as the virgin birth, miracles, and the resurrection. He accepted only the interpretation of these. For him, faith does not depend on the resurrection appearances, but on being crucified with Christ.37 Bultmann, who was greatly influenced by such existentialist philosophers as Heidegger and Kierkegaard, opined that if all the stories in the Bible could be interpreted existentially, there would no longer be conflict between religion and science. For him, Religion would cease to make statements about the material universe, and the field would be left entirely to science. The problem with Bultmann's position, however, is that Christianity cannot make such a wholesale withdrawal from the world and still remain true to itself. Also what man believes about creation, providence, prayer and miracles implies that God is not only the Lord of the individual life, but of the material universe. The early Church did not create the miracle and resurrection stories, as suggested by Bultmann, but merely responded to them. Christianity cannot dispense with the Gospel traditions about Jesus and still remain the true Christian faith. The latest major debate on the issue can be found in the book, The Myth of God Incarnate edited by John Hick and published in 1977. The volume contains articles by various scholars who are no longer persuaded by the fundamentals of the Christian faith. This gave birth to a series of articles written in reaction to this strong challenge to the authenticity and historicity of the Christian faith. These were published in 1977 in the volume titled: The Truth of God Incarnate edited by Michael Green. The two sides were brought together and academic papers on the subject were presented and discussed. This resulted in another volume titled: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 16 S.Oyin Abogunrin The Myth of God Incarnate: The Debate Continued, edited by Michael Goulder and published in 1979. The first volume, The Myth of God Incarnate, is an attempt to rethink christo logical beliefs and the primacy of soteriology. The main arguments of some of the authors go thus: the Christians in the early Church lived in a world in which supernatural causation was accepted without question and in which divine visitations were not unexcepted. Such assumptions, they argue, have become foreign to our situation. It is further claimed that in the West today, both popular culture and the culture of the intelligentsia have come to be determined by human and natural sciences to such an extent that the supernatural causation of, or intervention in, the affairs of the world has become incredible. Therefore, they have maintained that, Jesus could not have been a real man and at the same time be unique in a sense different from that in which each of us is a unique individual. A literal incarnation, no matter how sophisticated the arguments in its support, cannot avoid the elements of docetism and it requires the believer to accept a claim for Jesus' uniqueness in a way not acceptable to the majority of our contemporaries. They are of the view that Christianity, as traditionally conceived, is alien to the present climate. Also, that it is notoriously difficult, to the point of impossibility, to prove the sinlessness of Jesus. How, for example, could even the most consistent companion of Jesus have been sure that He remained unbrokenly true to His own principle and never, for example, "looked . on a woman to lust after her", in the sense of Mathew 5:28? They, therefore, conclude that everything in the four Gospels would have occupied only some three weeks; meaning that the overwhelmingly greater part of Jesus' life and deeds remains unrecorded. John Hick and his colleagues are not saying anything very new, although they have been able to strengthen and perfect arguments on the belief that the Bible cannot be more than a compilation of myths in the light of the present Western culture and the development of science. Most of what we have considered so far deals with the historicity of the Christian faith. Therefore, before concluding, it is necessary to consider the nature of history, the modem understanding of what history is and how much that has influenced many Biblical scholars and theologians. History and Faith The task of the modem historian is often described as aiming at an objective reconstruction of the past. He is expected to determine and understand what has happened in the past. But since he has no direct access to the past, he has to make use of the various kinds of evidence by means of which the past events have left traces of themselves for the historian. He has to work back to the facts which underlie them, and interpret them. He must possess the skill and talent to draw up creative hypotheses, where and when required, for a critical analysis of the evidence. The word 'history' is derived from the Greek word historia meaning "enquiry". The noun historia comes from the verb historeo, meaning 'to inquire' 'to visit for the purpose of coming to know someone or something', 'to get information from' . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 17 Modem historiography has its origin in the 19th century, which is regarded as the great age of facts and enquiry. The 19th century was occupied with names, dates, places, occurrences, sequences, causes and effects. It found the idea of objectivity in the natural scientist's investigation of the physical phenomena. But since the historian often stands within the history which he is investigating, total objectivity is apparently unattainable. The historian must know how to select the right facts, in other words, those which shed light on the historical phenomenon which he is investigating. His task consists mainly of material selection, collation, ordering and evaluation of the historical data. This means that the reconstruction of the past ultimately depends on the historian's judgment." But the ancient historians did not view their task in the same way as their modem counterparts. Their criteria of significance were quite different. They were mostly concerned about transmitting to their readers what they considered important, useful and edifying in their reconstruction of the past. Pedagogical example, whether good or bad was the aim of ancient historiographers. The ancient historiographer did not share our scruples about passing judgements on the past personalities or events. He freely composed speeches, slating his own perception of the significance of past events and placing them on the lips of the actors in the historical drama. Attention was focused on prominent persons and political changes which they brought about. The biographical genre is therefore no guarantee that the events took place precisely as reported. Also, the scope of investigation by ancient historians were restricted to what was considered appropriate. The sources for the investigation of the Christian movement during the first century are the New Testament writings. Archaeologists have investigated the various sites mentioned in the New Testament, and this has given us valuable insights into the historical context of Jesus' ministry and the world in which Christianity arose. But archaeological finds have not shed light on some important areas of the historical Jesus. This is because during the first century, Christians did not construct places of worship and prayers, but assembled in private homes. Their simple worship required no distinctive ritual objects and the Scriptures they used were those of the Synagogues. We, therefore, depend largely on the four Gospels for our information on the historical Jesus. We have tried to demonstrate that in spite of the difficulties raised by critical scholars, the Gospels contain reliable material about the Jesus of history. The problem of the historical Jesus is part of the problem of studying ancient history and has to be studied, to a large extent, essentially by the same methods. Therefore, the quest of the historical Jesus faces the same difficulties as any other historical study of the same period. The historical study is not aimed at denying the truth contained in the Gospels, but rather, at applying the method of historical science as the basis of assessing the historical worth of the Gospels. When this is done with an open mind, the historical value of the Gospels can never be in doubt. Furthermore, the historical phenomenon that we are dealing with is not just the life of Jesus Christ, but also the church which was triggered off by His life. The Christian understanding of history is that of a God who reveals Himself and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 S. Oyin Abogunrin acts in history. The God about Whom Jesus spoke is the God Who stoops down to seek out and to save man. But if Jesus is not more than a mere prophet and teacher, then the Christian message is false. The Biblical concept of God is that of a God Who not only seeks and saves, but expresses Himself in the incarnation by coming to dwell among men in some tangible way, Otherwise, God will remain unknowable. The Christian conception of history is that of a history which finds its centre and climax in the coming of Jesus. The death and resurrection of Jesus are the basis of the hope for the future. This has rescued history from being a cyclical process, in which something continually happens, and makes it into a goal. But to accept the Christian view of history is to affirm that Jesus is more than an ordinary man who discovered the truth or to whom the truth about God was revealed. By this statement we are asserting that God has done something decisive in Jesus Christ and this is a proof that Jesus Christ is related to God in a unique way." We must be careful not to move away from the Gospel roots in history. There is no doubt that in spite of some problems identified in the gospel records concerning the life, deeds and sayings of Jesus, there is a personal originality, combined with profundity of insight. He is not just the greatest reformer that ever existed and a martyr of whom religion cannot be said to have made a bad choice in pitching on Him as an ideal representative and guide of humanity. Jesus is more than all these. Indeed, the Christian faith is about the act of God in Jesus Christ. Hence, Christianity affirms that there is no other way to God and that the relation is both complete and continuing in Jesus only. What took place in Jesus is decisive and the Christian faith does not expect any future revelation of God to supplement, supersede, or correct the one already given in Jesus Christ. Henceforth, the relationship between God and man is once and for all defined by the relationship with God in Jesus Christ. What God has accomplished for humankind in Christ Jesus, is accomplished once and for all. It is finished, and it is of decisive significance. The reconciliation between God and man is once and for all achieved. It is God in Christ reconciling the world to Himself (II Cor: 5:19). Historical evidence may sometimes appear contradictory, and with immense gaps in it. Quite often the material may be so vast and the questions that can be asked so endless as to make some process of selection inevitable with different possible pictures of the same event thereby emerging. This is one serious and valid observation that critical scholars have always made about the Gospels. But nobody can write history and conclude, as a result of some apparent contradictions, for example, that Karl Marx or Bishop Ajayi Crowther, the first African bishop in the 19th century, never lived. It is not purely 'accidental' that the four canonical Gospels have survived. Perhaps the most notable phenomenon is the re-emergence of the historical Jesus from the midst of critical uncertainties resulting from critical historical research. A large number of believing Christians have yet to make their peace with critically historical approach to the Scriptures. They could not see how the critical approach can be compatible with the reverence which the biblical text demands. One can appreciate this deep concern. But Christianity is a historical UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 19 religion, that is, it is a faith whose credal affirmations are expressed in the past tense. Also the problem is compounded because the critical approach' is a challenge to the ancient ecclesiastical dogma of the verbal inspiration and inerrancy of the Bible, which appears to rule out, a priori a critical approach to the Scriptures. Interest in Jesus of faith to the almost total neglect of the Jesus of history almost naturally leads to historical scepticism and flight from history. But the reconstruction of the past, in order to be meaningful, must remain relevant to faith. The Gospels are not just a form of the Kerygma, but sources of what actually happened. If the historian of Christian origins is to be faithful to his task, he must steer a course between the Uncritical acceptance of biblical narratives demanded by fundamentalism and a theologically motivated criticism, whose hypercritical approach ignores the rules of historical probability; and is itself as uncritical of its own way as the opposite extreme. A critical reading of the sources is the only one possible for the historian, if he is to use the New Testament writings to reconstruct the past. He has no other option, but to ask whether or not these things really happened in the way in which they are presented in the available records. However, before the historian accurately evaluates the evidence, he must first identify the historical material contained in his sources. It is a fact that the New Testament, being a collection of religious writings, contains certain affirmations about which the historian is not competent to pass a judgement. Nevertheless, this does not mean that the historical method and religious beliefs are incompatible. Consequently, there is no need for the historian to deny the existence of God or God's activity in the world. Faith affirmations and historical affirmations often differ in their content, but not all the time. For example, with the statement: "Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures", the first part "Jesus died" is a historical fact, but the second part, "for our sins" belongs to the dogmatic interpretation of the passion story; yet this dot not make the second part . unhistorical. The Easter event gives credence to such an interpretation of Jesus' death. Jesus Christ has remained the .most remarkable phenomenon in human history. Jesus Christ was and is different from everyone else. What makes Jesus universally significant? Is the human race one? If so, what effects does this have on the human race? Scientists assume that the universe is one; this cannot be proved. But since without a single consistent universe they could not do what they do; scientists find this a convenient assumption to make. And empirically, there must be somewhere a central point where the universe is located. Nobody has any idea about its location. If it can be proved that the human race has a single history, then there is the possibility that there could be a central point at which all human threads converge and from which all threads diverge. It would, therefore, mean that a theology of history is possible. In Christian theology of history, the death and resurrection of Christ are the central point of history, This is the point where all roads of the past converge and all roads of the future diverge. The biblical concept of history is that of narrowing down to a point. Human history begins with Adam who is the father of us all, and ends with Jesus UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20 S.Oyin Abogunrin Christ, the last Adam, Who in His person won victory over sin and death for humankind. The Gospels present Jesus as constituting Himself the true Israel and the One in Whom the whole destiny of Israel is realized. From the point at which He supremely tasted death for sin through obedience, He was supremely vindicated through the resurrection. It is at this point that the proclamation of the Gospel begins, and is to be preached as long as the world lasts. The African Perspective The above leads us to the following pertinent questions: Of what value to Africa is the current debate on the historicity of the Gospels, as well as the question of the historical Jesus? What can African Christianity benefit from the critical study of the Gospels, which has dominated the West for more than two centuries? Is it possible to pursue the question of the sequential order and the literature of the Gospels purely from the academic point of view, quite unrelated to the attested primitive traditions of the immediate generations after the Apostolic age? Can African biblical scholars brush aside the age-long accepted traditions and convictions of the church from the beginning before we can explain the phenomena of the Gospels? In the light of the African experience is the multiplication of hypothetical sources the solution to the problem of the sources of the Evangelists? Can we completely remove the Gospels from their cultural milieu and the conditions obtainin~ in first-century Palestine and impose Western cultural understanding of the 20t century upon their texts as if the Gospels actually originated from the West in the 20th century? What effects has the imposition of modern understanding of the nature of history on the cherished traditions of the Church? Can African biblical scholars brush aside the age-long accepted traditions and convictions of both Judaism and the Church because Western culture no longer has room for the supernatural? In the light of African experience, can the current Western approach be the best for African Christianity? African Christianity has benefited tremendously from the cumulative labours of Western scholars These scholars have kept African theologians aware of the questions being raised about the Bible which are pertinent to serious biblical research. At the same time, the increasing efforts in Africa to make biblical scholarship relevant should similarly be seen as contributing to the history of the enquiry. But as far as Christianity in Africa, is concerned, the concern for the truth is still whole and unfragmented. The liberal scholars' approach to the question of the origin of the Gospels has not always been the best or the right way to understand the milieu out of which the Gospels emerged. One of the major reasons for this is the fact that there .is a wide gap between the thought-world of the Bible and of that of Western critics today. The majority of Africans still live in the world of the New Testament, where belief in demons and a host of unseen supernatural powers is still potent and real. A Jesus emptied of all such supernaturalism as is contained in the Gospels would therefore be meaningless in the African setting. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 21 In Africa today, the primary source of history is still largely oral tradition. Ancient traditions are still much cherished. Even now the history of most African peoples is still unwritten, and still lives on in the form of oral traditions, songs, family eulogies and genealogies, most of which have taken definite forms over the centuries or for countless generations. The fact that modem investigators into African history are often confronted with apparently conflicting traditions does not necessarily impugn the validity of such historical facts. Therefore, it cannot be concluded on that basis that the people of Africa have no history, and that everything about them is false. It is often left to such investigators to scientifically analyse their collections and decide whether the contradictions are real or only apparent. To return to our major concern, it is significant that all ancient evidence is generally unanimous about the origins of our four canonical Gospels. The concern for the truth and objectivity by serious scholars should not mean the rejection of the old tradition. Instead, it should lead to commitment to a thorough investigation of such information without preconceived ideas. It is important to note that our ideas about what could have happened about two thousand years ago may not actually reflect the position of things then. Furthermore, it is a very dangerous procedure to brush aside external evidence, which is basic to any serious historical research. • The modem approach to history is, as we have argued, quite alien to the approach of the ancient historians. It is, therefore, unacademic and unscientific to impose our present Western understanding and interpretation of history on the ancient people. The Gospels are essentially a product of faith and of the experiences of committed individuals and the community of believers. The Gospels, therefore, require some kind of special treatment and understanding. Undoubtedly, before the written Gospels appeared, many of Jesus' traditions had taken definite forms at the time the majority of the eyewitnesses were still around. This would mean that correspondence among the Synoptic Gospels must not be traced to some hypothetical written sources alone, but also to the forms of oral tradition before the first written Gospel appeared. The stories of Jesus' sayings, parables, healings, miracles, etc must have been told and retold at various centres in the early church. Within a period of twenty to thirty years of oral transmission, those traditions must have assumed some definite concrete forms. Many forms of Jesus' sayings must have been memorized and some translated into Church hymns, as is the case within the churches in Africa today. The constant appeal to hypothetical sources to explain the origins of the Gospels gives the impression that the Evangelists were so ignorant and uninformed about the tradition of Jesus before they began to write and that they had to resort to copying from existing written documents or written stories created to glorify Jesus in the second century A.D. in composing their Gospels. But the Evangelists, whether they were apostles or not, were prominent and well- informed members of the early church where the tradition about Jesus took definite forms, and they were quite familiar with these. But what is the state of contemporary Christian theology in the West today? Is theology speaking to the contemporary society, any longer? Who, is it that, fired what can be described as the fatal shot at Christian orthodoxy in the West? UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 22 S.Oyin Abogunrin The modern Christian theologian it is that fired the shot, and in so doing, he killed himself by eliminating the Bible, the sole reason for his existence and has, therefore, in effect committed suicide." Contemporary liberal Western theology . is incapable of offering any firm advice to modem secular society. The present secular dilemma of uncertainty is matched by an equal, if not greater, religious uncertainty of the modem theologian. Philosophical objectors to historic Christianity have succeeded in establishing a new religion - naturalistic Deism. They fought vigorously to eliminate the miraculous claims of the Scriptures. But the foundation of this teaching is the denial of the historicity of the Gospels by scholars of the Age of Reason and their successors, some of whom now live and practise in Africa. Biblical studies must not be divorced from the world of reality and practicability and the world of daily living, if it is to continue to speak to human needs. Modem Biblical studies are becoming more and more theoretical and speculative because of the attempt to equate them with abstract philosophy. Christianity did not begin as speculative thought, nor as speculative systematic theology. It began as a way of life, not based on intellectual speculative presuppositions, but on a faith which was in fact, founded on absolute trust in Jesus Christ and loyalty to Him as the Lord of all. In a situation where biblical scholars are failing to reach the Church, and in a world where communication has broken down between it and theologians, as well as between them and the Church, theologians need to reexamine their methodology and vocabulary and they must be honest about this. They should ask themselves whether they are being bogged down by modernism, or they are being actuated by the living, dynamic incarnate Christ. In a changing world, the Christian affirmation .is__that God is unchanging. However, there is need to recognize that our world is changing. There are epoch-making discoveries. Man's knowledge about himself, the physical universe and culture does undergo constant changes. Biblical scholarship must serve the society, the Church, and the changing world. Biblical scholars must not allow the fmdings of science and history of religion to become a snare in their confrontation with the world. As long as the source of the message is the living God, it cannot be out of date. The biblical scholar must see himself, first and foremost, as an apostle of Him who is the Truth and must, therefore, face all the facts about the Bible as we have them today. The Bible is a speaking book and where it has ceased to be such a book, the scholar is no longer communicating, because he has lost touch with both the word and the world. The sum total of the Christian message is this: that God became incarnate in the historic Man, Jesus Christ. The New Testament world, which is said to be alien to the West of today, is not strange to the present African world. A Jesus emptied of all the supernaturalism that is associated with Him in the Gospels and with his disciples in the Acts of the Apostles will be meaningless and irrelevant in the African context. The concern for the truth and objectivity by scholars must not translate to the rejection of the Bible story and the inherited traditions of the Church. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 23 Conclusion In Conclusion, it is clear from all we have said above that the original Jesus is the One we read of in the Gospels and in the New Testament and Whose coming had been predicted by several prophets centuries before He was born. The Jesus of most of the various critics is fake. The Jesus they speak about has never lived. He exists only in the various hypotheses, classrooms and in their imagination. Their kind of Jesus is too weak and powerless to be the Jesus of Nazareth Who commands respect, worship and adoration. The original Jesus is the One proclaimed as the Redeemer and Saviour of mankind. He came to proclaim the gospel of freedom and "to preach the good news to the poor, to proclaim release to the captives ... and recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed and to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord" (Luke 4:16-19). It was for this reason that Jesus went to the cross. Through His death and resurrection, Jesus became triumphant over the power of sin, death and the forces of evil. What does Jesus as the Redeemer mean in the context of Africa? We are quite familiar with wars, famine, political oppression, suppression and murders in Africa today. Not less than 40% of the annual budget of many African nations is spent on the purchase of arms, while education, agriculture and health receive much less emphasis. The arms are not meant for fighting external aggressors, but to suppress, maim and kill political opponents. Consequently, more than half of the total population of refugees in the world is Africans. In addition, all African countries are price takers. We have to sell at the price dictated to us for all our exported raw materials, and when these are turned to finished products, we buy at the price dictated. All these have combined with greed, mismanagement of national resources and avarice by most African leaders to impoverish the continent and cause economic decay. Oppression and political unrest have turned highly educated Africans to refugees in foreign lands, while the poor die helplessly in their thousands daily. The currencies have been heavily devalued in most African countries - in several places by well over 1,000%. Africa is fast becoming desolate and her children are fleeing their mother land in their thousands on a daily basis to Europe, America and Asia, either as refugees or in search of comfort, security, peace and livelihood. The ready-made Jesus, encased in a statue of wood or gold, enshrined in • Cathedrals, endorsed by the Church doctrines, is quite often, not the real Jesus. The real Jesus is the love of God that creates the miracle of redemption and life in abundance in the midst of hopelessness. The real Jesus is the pain of God mingled with the pain of humanity, as clearly demonstrated on the cross. The real Jesus is the hope pf redemption in places where people live in despair in the midst of death. The challenge of the incarnate Son of God proclaimed in the Gospels, in this multi-religious world, is that biblical scholars in Africa should look more deeply into the multi-religious, multicultural, multi-political and multi-colonial experience of Africa in order to see how Jesus can become incarnated as the life-giving Redeemer once again as it were, in the suffering of the peoples of the crisis-laden Africa, an Africa in serious agony. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 24 S. Oyin Abogunrin How can we affirm in Africa and elsewhere that Jesus is the Redeemer in every sense of the word in the midst of growing affluence by far less than one percent of the population: where millions are deprived of the basic necessities of life like food, shelter, health care delivery, good drinking water, equal opportunity to education and the right to ancestral land through structural injustice and violence? Life that is abundantly given by God is being regularly diminished, distorted and destroyed by fellow citizens who constitute the ruling oligarchies in Africa. Millions are marginalized and oppressed politically and economically, and have become outcasts politically from their God-given land- millions to whom life seems to be a curse, rather than a blessing. But we are urged all the time to accept murder, injustice, oppression and political persecution as the will of God. Unless we have rapid changes and there is genuine repentance and a complete change of attitude by all concerned in and outside Africa, we may not, in many African nations, be too far away from a bloody revolution. People are hungry and angry. When the people rise up, all the arms in the world may not be able to suppress them. The effective witness of the Church's faith in God is her tireless efforts in proclaiming the Gospel of freedom in Christ to all men for the transformation of the world through social change and by helping man to become his best. The confession of Jesus as Lord and Saviour ought to lead the confessors to work for the freedom of all men from poverty, ignorance, disease, and for liberation from all kinds of dehumanizing conditions of life, which are the griefs and anxieties of Africa. Jesus of Nazareth is where the poor and oppressed are, and wherever Jesus is, the Church ought to be found actively involved there. Biblical studies in Africa must emphasize the presence of Christ with the people who are struggling for a better life against the forces of injustice and oppression. Our scholarship must also show that Jesus continues to participate in the people's struggle to attain full humanity. Biblical studies in Africa must be at the service of the Church, the peoples of Africa, and humanity as a whole while, at the same time, serving as the motivating force for the mobilization of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ in the on-going struggles in Africa for freedom, self-identity and human dignity. Moreover, Christianity cannot be expected to think of abandoning to the powers of evil the great human society for which Christ died. Jesus loves and expects His followers to love humanity and seek to serve it as He did. The alleviation of human suffering and the achievement of abundant life for all have a primary claim on Christianity in Africa and elsewhere. This is why it is incumbent on every Christian to strive hard towards the elimination of all causes of suffering and deprivation, and achieve liberation for all victims of social injustice and misfortunes. The woes of Africa are due to the selfishness, greediness, visionlessness and planlessnessof our leaders, especially in a situation where the self-interest of the leaders has become the national interest. In collusion with foreign partners, our leaders divert most of the money made from our export into their private accounts, which money directly aids the economy of the receiving nations, while the continent becomes poorer and poorer by the day. Can it be true that some of the loans given to the Third World' countries are from the ill-gotten gains of their UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of.the Original Jesus 25 leaders stacked away in their secret accounts in Asia, Europe and America? Some of the loans themselves are fictitious and are sometimes shared by the officials of the creditors and borrowing nations. When the economy is totally ruined, citizens are called upon by political leaders who are living in plenty, through the stolen wealth, to bear the pains of structural adjustment programmes and of regular currency devaluation as dictated by foreign creditors. What the present African leaders are doing is worse than what the chiefs who sold their brothers and sisters into slavery did in the 18th and 19th centuries. The current leaders are actually destroying the African soul and mortgaging Africa's future. Today, a large number of Africans and Asians are migrating to the West and this is putting untold pressure on the economy and labour market of those countries. Of course, they are partly responsible for the plight of Africans today because of the policy which allows ill-gotten wealth from the 'Third-World' leaders to be kept in their banks without question. This is likely to get worse as the economic and political situation saving deteriorates in Africa and Asia. And will this not amount to an indirect revival of the old slavery in Africa? Laws should be made to allow courts to investigate those suspected to have looted their nations' wealth, and if they are found guilty the money so looted should be repatriated to the accounts of those nations. This is more meaningful and practicable than the current campaign for reparation in Africa. Also, the Christian nations in the West must not only support the law against international fraud in order to support the poor nations in Africa and Asia, but must fight for the cancellation of current debts owed by the Third World countries. This will help those nations to begin life afresh. This will also reduce the unnecessary pressure on the economy of the Western nations. At the end, both sides will benefit. Jesus knew what it is to be rejected by one's own people: He knew what it is to be arrested, brutally beaten, tried, condemned to death, and cruelly crucified. Jesus says: "I came that they may have life and that they may have it more abundantly". Theologians must see themselves as God's mouthpiece and agents of this abundant life. What we are saying is that the essence of the message of Jesus is as stated in 1902 by Dr. Mojola Agbebi: "The great essentials of Christian religion are that the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised up and the poor have the Gospel preached to them.?" Those are the words of the original Jesus who is the same yesterday, today and forever more. Notes and References S. o. Abogunrin, "Jesus of Nazareth in Two Centuries of Historical Research", Proceedings of The 5th Annual Conference, Nigerian Association for the Study of Religions. No.1, (September 1979), pp. 101-115. "The Modem Search for the Historical Jesus in Relation to Christianity in Africa". Africa Theological Journal. Lutheran Theological College, Aruza, Tanzania, (1980) pp. 18-29. ''The Language, and Nature of the Resurrection in the New Testament", Journal of Evangelical Theological Society, Wheaton College, Graduate School, U.S.A. Vol. 24, No. (1981) pp. 55-65; A. Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus. (London 1910); D.F Strauss, The Life of Jesus Critically Examined. (philadelphia & London 1972); G. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 26 S. Oyin Abogunrin Bornkamm, Jesus of Nazareth, (E.T. London and New York 1960); Howard Marshall, I Believe in TheHistorical Jesus. (Hodder and Stoughton, London 1977); Otto Borchert, The Original Jesus, (ET. LM. Stalker, London, 1933); Norman Anderson, Jesus Christ: The Witness of History, (lntervarsity Press, Leicester, England, 1985); Josh McDowell, More Than a Carpenter, (Worldwide Publications, Minneapolis Minnesota, 1977); J.N.D. Anderson: Christianity the Witness of History, A Lawyer Shifts the Evidence for the Life and Resurrection of Jesus Christ, (Tyndale Press, London, 1969); Charlotte Alien, The Human Christ; The Search for the Historical Jesus. (A Lion Book, Oxford England, 1998); Graham N. Anderson, The Gospels and Jesus, (Oxford Bible Series, Oxford University Press, 1989); Johnson M. Cheney, The Life of Christ in Stereo, (Multnomah Press, Portland Oregon, 1969); R. Bultmann, History of the Synoptic Tradition, (London, 1968); New Testament and Mythology: Kerygma and Myth, (New York 1961); F.F. Bruce, Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament, (London 1974); T.R. Glover, The Jesus of History, (London 1917): E. and M.L. Keller, Miracles In Dispute, (London 1969); G. Vermes, Jesus the Jew, (London 1973); A. Harrisville, The Historical Jesus and the Kerygmatic Christ; (New York 1964); M. Kahler - The So-called Historical Jesus and the Historic Biblical Christ, (Philadelphia, 1964); P. Althans, The So-called Kerygma and the Historical Jesus, (Edinburgh 1959); G.N. Stanton - Jesus of Nazareth in New Testament Preaching, (Cambridge 1974); P. de Rosa; Jesus Who Became Christ, (London 1975); D. Flausser, Jesus (New York 1969); E. Stauffer; Jesus and History, (London 1960); C.H. Dodd, The Founder of Christianity, (London 1971); W.R. Farmer, Jesus and the Gospel, (Fortress Press, 1982); The Gospel of Jesus, (Westminster/John Knox Press, Kentucky, Louisville 1994); F.F. Bruce - Tradition Old and New, (The Paternoster Press, 1970); Robert Morgan and John Barton - Biblical Interpretation, Oxford Bible Series, (Oxford University Press, 1988): Gerald Bray, Biblical Interpretation: Past and Present (Apollos lntervarsity Press, Leicester, England 1996): Schuyler Brown, The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament, (Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, London and New York 1993). 2 I. H. Marshall, I Believe in the Historical Jesus, p. 56. 3 J. Moltmann - Theology Today, Tr. by 1. Brown, SCM Press Ltd., 1988, p. 57ff. 4 S. O.Abogunrin, "The Synoptic Gospel Debate: A Re-examination From An African Point of View", The Inter-Relations of the Gospels, Ed., D. Dungan-Mercer University Press, Leuven, 1990, pp. 404ff; "The Synoptic Gospel Debate: A Re- examination in the African Context" African Journal of Biblical Studies. Vol. II Nos. I and 2, 1987; p. 31f, 46-49; "The Modem Search for the Historical Jesus and Christianity in African" - Africa Theological Journal, vol. 9, No.3, 1980. p. 26f. 5 S.O. Abogunrin, "Biblical Research in Africa: The Task Ahead" African Journal of Biblical Studies, Vol. 1, No.1 April, 1986, p.lOf. 6 G.E. Lessing, "Neue Hypothesen uber die Evangelisten als bloss menschiche Geschichtess-chreiber betrachtet" Theologischer Nachfass (Berlin, 1784) 45-72, esp. 68; S.O. Abogunrin - The Interrelations of the Gospels, 382. W.R. Farmer, The Synoptic Problem: A Critical Analysis, (New York: Macmilliam 1964), 5f. 7 1.1. Griesbach published his synopsis as a part of the first edition of his Greek New Testament in 1744, but later republished the synopsis separately in 1776. Four editions of the synopsis were published under different titles, cf, E. Lohse - The Formation of the New Testament, Tr. By M.E. Boring (Nashville Abingdon Press, 1972, pp. 121-131; S.O. Abogunrin op. cit. 382. 8 S. O.Abogunrin, African Journal of Biblical Studies, Vol. I I , Nos.l and 2, 27. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Search of the Original Jesus 27 9 B. F. Westcott, An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, (1888), 167ff; S.O. Abogunrin, African Journal of Biblical Studies, Vol. 11, Nos. 1 and 2; 27 ff. 10 Ibid.28. 11 N.B. Stonehouse, The Origins of the Synoptic Gospels, London, Tyndale Press, 1964, 58ff.V.H. Staton, The Gospel As Historical Documents, .1909, II, 30, cf, A. Farrar in Studies in the Gospels, ed. D. Nineham (1955), 55ff: W. Lockton - Church Quarterly Review, July, 1922. 12 S.O. Abogunrin, op. cit, 28. 13 B. H. Streeter: The Four Gospels, A Study of Origin, London Macmillan (1924); V. Taylor The Life and Ministry of Jesus (1954), 14, F.C. Grant - The Gospels, Their Origin and Growth (1957) 50-51; A H. Neile-New Testament Introduction, 2nd Edition, rev. By C.S.C. Williams (Oxford University Press, 1953) 59ff; S.O. Abogunrin, Inter-relations of the Gospels, 384Ibid.385ff. 14 E.A. Abott, The Corrections of Mark Adopted by Mathew and Luke, London (1901), F.e., Burkit: The Gospel History and Its Transmission (Edinburgh, T and T Clack, (1911) 42-58; J.c. Hawkins, Horae, Snopticae. Contributions to the Study of the Synoptic Problem (Oxford Clarendon Press, 1922) 20ff; B. H. Steerer, op. cit. 293- 311; K. and S. Lake-An Introduction to the New Testament (1938) 6ff; C. Torrey- The Four Gospels: A New Translation (1933); T. Nicklin, Gospel Gleanings (1950) 3Iff; W. Bussmann, Synoptic 32 Studies 1, (1925) 1-66; N.B. Stonehouse- Origins of the Synoptic Gospels: Some Basic Questions (London Tydale, 1964), 63ff; e.H. Turner, "Historical introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", part 2; - Journal of Theological Studies -1908-1909, 175; J.P. Brown - "An Early Revision of the Gospel of Luke - Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 78 (1959) 21- 227, J. Martin - The Reliability of the Gospels, Hodder and Stoughton (1959). 15 S.O.Abogunrin op. cit., 386-388. 16 Robert Morgan with John Baton, Biblical Interpretation, Oxford University Press, 1988, 44ff; D.F. Strauss, The Life of Jesus, E.T. 1983 ed. M.C. Masey, Life of Jesus for the German People (1865, E.T. 1977) The Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History, (1865). 17 Johannes Weiss, Jesus' Proclamation of the Kingdom of God, 1892; ET. 1971. 18 William Wrede - The Messianic Secret (1901; ET. 1971); The Task and Methods of New Testament Theology (1897, E.T. 1973). E. Lohse, The Formation of the New Testament, Tr. By M.E. Boring, Abingdon, 198, 34f; G.N. Staton, The Gospels and Jesus, Oxford University Press, 1989,23f. 19 Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus, (London and New York, 1910) 52ff, R.M. Morgan with J. Barton, cp. cit., 48f. 20 Hermann Gunkel, Creation and Chaos (1895); cf B.W. Anderson (ed) Creation in the Old Testament (1984), The Legends of Genesis (1901 Reprinted 1964); What Remains of the Old Testament (London 1928). 21 M. Dibelius, From Tradition to Gospel, (Cambridge 1971). 22 R. Bultmann, The History of the Synoptic Tradition (Oxford 1968); Theology of the New Testament, (London 1952, 1955) . 23 E. Lohse, op. cit. 108ff. 24 S. Brown, The Origins of Christianity: Introduction to the New Testament (Revised Edition) Gen. Ed. P.R. Acroyd and G.N. Staton (Oxford University Press. 1993) 39ff. 25 Robert Morgan with John Barton, op. cit. 100ff. 26 Ibid. 105ff. R. Bultmann, Jesus Christ and Mythology, S.C.M. Press Ltd., (London- British edition, 1960); Existence and Faith, Hodder and Stoughton. Fontana Library UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 28 S.Oyin Abogunrin (1961); Kerygma and Myth. A Theological Debate, ed. H.W. Bartsch, Tr. By R.H. Fuller, (2nd edition,S.P: c.x. London 196). 27 R.F. Collins, Introduction to the New Testament, S.C.M. Press, London, 1983; K.F. Nickle - The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction (S.C.M Press London, 1982). 28 G.N. Staton, op. cit., 17-18,20-24. 29 S. Brown, The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament, Revised Edition, Eds. P.R. Ackroyed and G.N. Staton (Oxford University Press, 1993) 14ff, 36ff. 30 S.O Abogunrin, Africa Theological Journal, op. cit., 30ff. 31 S. Brown, op. cit. 41 ff. 32 lfa refers to the divination instruments and belief system which Orunmila, the oracular divinity, introduced into the world. Orunmila is said to be one of the sixteen aboriginal divinities that descended upon the earth from heaven at the time of the creation of the solid earth. He was a witness to everything that was created by Olodumare, the deity. Orunmila represents the divine wisdom; (cf. S.O. Abogunrin) "St. Paul's Idea of the Pre-Gospel: Man According to Romans", Kiabara: Port Harcourt University Journal of Humanities, 31 (1980) 5-31. Interrelation of the Gospels, op. cit., 399-400 33 J. M. Robinson, A New Quest of the Historical Jesus, 39ff, I.H. Marshall, I Believe in the Historical Jesus, 128ff. 34 R. Morgan with J. Barton, op. cit. 118ff .• 35 E. Kasemann Essays On New Testament Themes, London, 1964, 15-47; l.H. Marshall, Op. Cit., 130. 36 G. Bomkamm Jesus of Nazareth 1956, E.T London Hodder and Stoughton 1963. 37 R. Bultmann, Jesus Christ and Mythology, (S.C.M. Press Ltd., London, 1960); Existence and Faith, (Collins, London, 1964). Kerygma and Myth of Theological Debate, Vols. I and II, ed. H.W. Bartsch, Tr. R.H. Fuller, S.P.C.K., London 1964; The Myth of God Incarnate, ed., John Hick: (S.C.M. Press Ltd. London 1977); The Truth of God Incarnate, ed; Michael Green, (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Incarnation and Myth: the Debate Continued, ed. Michael Goulder (S.C.M. Press Ltd., London, 1979). 38 E. Lohse, Op. cit. 106-110; R. Morgan, with J. Barton p. Cit., 96ff. S. Brown The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction To the New Testament (Eds. P.R Ackroyd and G.N. Starton, Oxford University Press, (1993) 5-18. Howard Marshall Op. CU. 170ff, R. Morgan with J. Barton Op. Cit. 96ff. 39 I. Howard Marshall, I Believe In the Historical Jesus 219ff. 40 S.O Abogunrin - "Biblical Studies In Africa: The Task Ahead" African Journal of Biblical Studies. Op. Cit. 20ff; J.W. Montgomery, The Suicide of Christian Theology, (Bethany Fellowship, Minneapolis, Minnesota 1970), 17ff. 41 S.O. Abogunrin, "The Church, And Cultural Renewal In Africa" Indian Missiological Review, Vol. 10, No.3, pp. 235-254. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 FROM GATEKEEPER TO GATEWAY: ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATION 'Wole Falayajo Institute of Education This is the fifth inaugural lecture from the Institute of Education. The first was given almost twenty years ago, (in 1979 to be precise) by Professor Yoloye. Others have been given by Professors Obayan, Bajah and Obemeata in 1982, 1988 and 1992 respectively. What an inaugural from the Institute of Education is going to focus on, is not easily given away like an inaugural from any of the other departments in the Faculty of Education. For example, an inaugural from the department of Educational Management will more likely than not address some issues in the planning and or administration of education. An inaugural from the Institute of education can address any of the areas of education which an inaugural from the Faculty of Education will address. In a sense, this is simply obvious, after all, whether from the Institute or the Faculty, we will still be talking about education. But the point I want to make is that the Institute of Education, being both an organized research and service unit in education, attracts staff with specialization in all the sub-fields of education. I do not intend to talk about what the Institute of Education is and what it does in this lecture but I will have cause much later on to put forward some views about how education (Faculty and Institute) should be structured in the Universities in the country. Whenever I am in the midst of colleagues in the field of education. I always state that my field of specialization is Measurement and Evaluation without the prefix 'educational', in the midst of a mixed group however; the need for that prefixis compelling lest I be taken for some kind of surveyor or something even worse! The Nigerian educational enterprise is like a gigantic beast, which on close examination displays some healthy tissue, some diseased tissue, and some scare tissue. There is room for controversy about how healthy or sick the creature really is. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 30 'Wole Falayajo Pessimists will say that the creature's death is imminent and unavoidable. Optimists will say that the creature is not dying any faster than is natural, and will foresee a long and useful life for it. It is possible that the creature is not well enough understood for us to know how healthy or sick it is, however, it must be cherished for its contribution to Nigerian society. There is great need to help it to stay alive and improve its health, in order that those contributions may continue. Aware that the creature has trampled and destroyed as well as built, its virulent pathologies must be diagnosed and excised as quickly as possible. (Adopted from Cooley and Lohnes 1976). This quotation very aptly· provides a justification for the subspeciality in education referred to as educational evaluation. This lecture is focused on an area . of educational evaluation - educational assessment. By way of preliminary remark, let me clarify the link between three commonly occurring terms in this field viz Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation. Measurement is the undimensional operation of assigning numbers to the properties or characteristics of an object or entity'; it is a quantification procedure. Assessment on the other hand is the process of collecting information on anything of interest for the purpose of taking decision on that thing. Evaluation on the other hand uses the information obtained from assessment and measurement to place a value or worth on an entity. This is the sense in which both assessment and measurement are subsumed under evaluation. I will therefore like to begin this lecture by a discussion of some issues in educational evaluation. . All public institutions providing one kind of social service or the other are usually expected to provide 'proof' of their legitimacy or effectiveness in order to continue to receive public support. The intensity of demand for proof and what will constitute acceptable proof will depend on the nature of the relationship between society and the public institution. In the words of Suchman (1963) "In general, a balance will be struck between faith and fact, reflecting the degree of man's respect for authority and tradition within the particular system versus his scepticism and desire for tangible "proofs of work". What is Educational Evaluation? There are as many definitions of evaluation as there are people who care to attempt a definition. Some win offer a conceptual definition by saying that evaluation is the process of determining the value or amount of success in achieving a predetermined objective; or the procedures of fact-findingabout the . results of planned social action (Hyman, Herbert H 1982). If one goes further to state that this process includes formulation of objective, identification of proper criteria to be used for measuring success, determination and explanation of the degree of success and recommendations for further programme activity, then one would have provided an operational definition of evaluation (Suchman op cit). The range or variation in- these definitions is captured in the comprehensive characterization of 'evaluation as .the determination (whether based on opinions, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment ill Education 31 records, subjective or objective data) of the results (whether desirable or undesirable, transient or permanent; immediate or delayed) attained by some activity (whether a programme, or part of a programme) designed to accomplish some valued goal or objective (whether immediate, intermediate or ultimate). The key elements in this characterization are: determination which represents the process; results which are the criteria; activity which is the social intervention and value which stands for the objective. From the above characterization of evaluation, it would appear fairly obvious why there should be such a field as evaluation of social intervention programmes. But in reality, educational evaluation did not come to its own as a field of scholarly discipline until very recently when compared with other sub-disciplines in education. For example, courses in educational evaluation and testing (a component of evaluation) were introduced into pre-service teacher education programmes in this country only in the early seventies . . Approaches to Evaluation otherwise known as Models of Evaluation Different approaches (which are complementary rather than competing) have been adopted by evaluators in carrying out their assignments. The first approach which was spearheaded by Tyler (1950) was that which saw evaluation as a way of finding out the extent to which programme objectives are being achieved. In its original formulation this approach was considered rather static. Later improvements to the Tyler's model such as the Stake (1967) model introduced some important components. These components were such as to make it possible not only to document the attainment o~ nonattainment of --- 25 20 15 10 5 o o m c...m z 15 z o15 z Q (")r- c o o -t UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 43 PERFORMANCE ON LITERACY TEST BY SECTOR 45 10 URBAN 40 • RURAL 35 - 30 I--- - 25 - 20 15 10 5 o (ll o m ;>; -no m z m z o o ;0 ~ o ;0 r c m G) zo 6 <: ;0 --I PERFORMANCE ON LIFE SKILLS TEST BY SECTOR 45 o URBAN 40 • RURAL 35 I-- 30 I-- >-- 25 ~ 20 15 10 5 o om o m '-- ;>; ;0 -rt m z G) m z o o ;0 r c m G) z -< <: oo o --I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 44 •Wale Falayajo PERFORMANCE ON NUMERACY TEST BY STATE AND SCHOOL TYPE 60 r-------------------------------~----~II.D~P~U=B~LI~C~~r--. • PRIVATE 50+-----------------------~~------~--~------------~ 40 30 20 10 O -noJ mo Em '- z o o ;uGi Gi z -< <' o;u r o o --; PERFORMANCE ON NUMERACY TEST BY STATE AND SCHOOL TYPE ID PUBLIC r • PRIVATE 70 60 50 40 30 f- 20 10 o }> OJ OoJ o zm '- ;>; -n OJ }> c m Gi m z o ::0 r c Gi z o-< o ;u OJ o o <' --; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY FI'O/Il Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 45 NATIONAL PERFORMANCE ON NUMERACY SUB-SKILLS 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 z -n e Ql s: oCD CD 3xr $2 Q) ~ 0 (/) CD 0" e S[ 3 :::J a; n" CDUl (/) ~ NATIONAL PERFORMANCE ON LITERACY SUB-SKILLS 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 ,, 0 SO ;u 0 CD 0 ~ <= Q)$2 C. 3 ~ e S" "0 :::J a; co $[ co 0" :::J UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 46 'Wale Falayajo PERFORMANCE ON LITERACY TEST BY STATE AND GENDER 40 IDMALE L 35 • FEMALE 30 I--- r-- «, 25 r-- I--- I--- r-- I--- - 20 r-- I-- 15 10 5 o ~OJ OoJ o zm '- x z ;0 -n c mr c Gi m o o ;0 OJ Gi z -< o o o <: --I PERFORMANCE ON LIFE SHILLS TEST BY GENDER 40 0 1 MALE I • FEMALE 35 30 I--- I-- I--- r-- r-- 25 - 20 15 10 5 0 ~ ~ O~J~ OJ 0 mz '- ;>; ;>; z ;0 --I -n ;>; ~ c 0 m Gi ~ m 0z 0-< ~ o ;0 r C Z OJ ~ Gi <: --I0 0 ;0 UNIVERS TY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 47 NATIONAL PERFORMANCE ON NUMERACY SUB-SKILLS 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Z "Tl c: Ql s::: GJ(l) (l) 3 @: Q) CT en ~ 0 (l) 0 c: !e. Cil ::> Ci! e(n'r 3 ~ NATIONAL PERFORMANCE ON LITERACY SUB-SKILLS 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ~ :::0 0 2 (l) 0 ~ Q) !l a:s.. 3 ;:!: c: "0 :j" <0 Ci! <0 SoP·: ::> UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 48 'Wole Falayajo NATIONAL PERFORMANCE ON SUB-SKILLS OF LIFE SKILLS TEST 35 34.5 34 33.5 33 32.5 32 31.5 31 30.5 30~~=-~~~~~~~~~~~L-~~ The general impression that one has about the low level of pupil's attainment in cognitive skills at the end of primary education in Nigeria has been made quite understandable by results from this survey. Opinions are usually expressed about level of attainment of pupils after the publication of the results of public examinations like the end of primary-school cum selection examination into junior secondary schools. Unfortunately, no meaningful remedial action can be taken at this stage. But with the kind of result we have obtained from this survey; coming as it does, two years before the end of primary education, some remedial actions can still be taken. This is the real strength of the national assessment approach to the evaluation of pupils' learning. One of the most revealing results of this survey was that the vast majority of the pupils in primary four going to primary five could not read instructions written in English. With the present policy on education, pupils begin to learn English language from the first year in school and by the beginning of the fourth year (primary four), English becomes the language of instruction. The pupils are expected to have completed reading three or four graded readers in English by the time they are at this level, most of the pupils in the sample claim that English is one of the subjects they like , majority of them have the required text book for English. "What then was the problem, one might ask?" Even though most of the teachers (63 percent) reported that they had access to pupils' text, only few of them (37 percent) had access to the required teachers' guide. Also, only very few schools (19.9 percent) had any form of library facilities. The problem may therefore be the way the language is taught. One may recall at this point the experience from the famous Ife six year project on the use of mother tongue as language of instruction in all classes at the primary education level while English.was taught as a subject. The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 49 project team looked at the then existing programme for the teaching of English and found them unsatisfactory. The team therefore developed an enriched English language programme and trained the teachers who will use it. The result showed that the experimental group was better than the control pupils both in English and some of the other school subjects. The lesson is therefore clear, that something quite drastic must be done about the teaching of English in our primary schools. For a start, even primary school teachermust have a copy of both the pupils' text and the accompanying teachers' guide. The teachers' guide must be written in such a way that it will be 'robust' against the quality of the teacher. In other words, any teacher, including low quality ones, can use the guide with reasonably good results in terms of pupils' learning. The effect of language (English) is noticeable in the performance in all the skill areas. For example in numeracy, any test item which had even the minimum amount of words in it constitutes a big problem for the pupils because they Will not be able to read such an item. The result of this was that' performance on such items was not better than chance performance. The effect of language on performance also came out strongly in the relational analyses carried out.•Interest in English (as indicated by English being reported as 'my best subject') and not finding any"topic in English difficult show up as two of the best ten predictors of performance. It can be concluded from all of the above observations that the most urgent step to take in order to improve pupil performance in Primary schools in the country is some kind of 'Literacy Campaign' in English Language. Learning Environment The questionnaires used in this survey provided information for 'painting a picture' of the environment in which learning was taking place in the schools. Environment in this case should be taken to include. the human, material and psychological. . The Teacher as Provider of the Immediate Learning Environment Most schools in the sample (80 percent) had teachers with either a Teachers Grade II Certificate or the Nigeria Certificate in Education as the minimum qualification for teaching in the nation's schools. The teachers had an average of eleven years of teaching experience and have been teaching primary four for at least three years in their current school. One can therefore say that the typical primary four pupil in the country is likely to have a teacher with about eleven years of teaching experience and who has also been in the pupils' school for at least three years. These observations .seem to be signals for expecting good performance from the pupils; but the reality of the situation in the schools was that pupils did not performance well. Again, one may ask, 'what went wrong?' First of all, let us recall some of the results reported earlier in this write-up. These 'experienced' teachers do not usually have copies of either the recommended text books for pupils and/or the accompanying teachers' guides. Also, when an attempt was made to use some of the teacher variables to predict pupils' performance, no teacher variable featured among the best ten predictors UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 50 'Wole Falayajo pupils' performance, no teacher variable featured among the best ten predictors of pupils' performance, There must therefore be something in between these teacher variables and the performance of their pupils. One obvious thing that comes to mind is the pattern of interaction between the teachers and their pupils i.e. the classroom 'practice of the teachers. Unfortunately, this was not covered by the present survey. The result was more or less implying that teachers do not make a difference; but one knows they do. The next survey must therefore include taking a sub sample of teachers whose classroom practices will be observed. From such classroom observations one may be able to identify those teacher practices which tend to promote learning and those which do not. Next to the classroom as learning environment, the whole school is the next factor that can facilitate or impede learning. The School as a Facilitator of Learning Schools can facilitate learning through both the human and material resources available in them. Schools must, as a first prerequisite for facilitating learning, provide a pleasant physical surrounding such that pupils will like coming to school. From the response to the pupils' questionnaire, pupils indicated that they love school. This must be in spite of the physical structures which our data collectors reported they saw during the field work. One cannot but note the sharp contrast between most of the privately owned schools and the public schools in terms of their physical structures and general surroundings. The 'tone' of a school is generally determined by the effectiveness of the leadership of the school. Most of the headteachers in the sampled schools had either the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) (49.6 percent) or the Associateship Certificate in Education (ACE) (18.6 percent) and they were mostly very experienced teachers. Most schools did not have the necessary facilities for effective learning. The few schools which had libraries, laboratories and other special rooms tended to be private schools. Less than half of the schools had such necessary materials for record keeping as School Diaries, Continuous Assessment Record Books etc. Most head-teachers reported that poor conditions of service and irregular payment of salary are some of the most serious problems they have to contend with. The general picture that emerges from the above scenario is that our schools did not provide conducive environment for learning. It is on the basis of some of these observations that the World Bank has come in with some loan to revamp the whole of the primary education sector. Most of the loan is expected to go into the production of text books and their distribution, effective supervision of the schools, development of assessment instruments for monitoring learning achievement in the schools and improvement of the managerial skills of the headteachers of the schools. The Home's Enabling Role For Pupils' Learning Achievement The role of the home in providing an enabling environment for pupils to achieve cannot be over emphasized. The home must provide the material needs of the pupils; the home must ensure that the pupils are in good health by making sure that they are well fed and that they receive proper medical attention when UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 51 environment for the pupils. Parent's level of education; amount of books available in the home and presence of such gadgets as radio and television are some of the factors that make for this enabling environment. In this survey, most parents reported that they provided exercise books and writing materials for their wards, but many did not provide text books. Many of the parents also arranged for their wards to have extra help with their school work after school hours, there was every indication that many parents tried to give support to their wards, but there were still quite a number who were not quite supportive. Some headteachers reported lack of interest on the part of some parents (27.4 percent) leading to outright withdrawal of the pupils from school in some cases (22.9 percent). Pupils in rural schools gave 'sickness' as the major reason for being absent from school. In the final analysis, it is the home that will decide which children will come to school and which ones will not. This is particularly true in a country like Nigeria where there is still some ambivalence as to whether primary education is compulsory or not. The official policy (which is almost twenty years old) stipulates that primary education shall be free and compulsory as soon as possible. There are however, no sanctions put in place which will handle cases of those who do not send their children t9 school. Miscellaneous Matters Arising I will like to end this lecture by bringing up some issues either as matters arising directly from the lecture or as related matters. I have in the course of the lecture tried to compare national examinations with national assessment bringing out the essential differences I hope I have not created the impression that one can be substituted for the other; this is not possible. What we are trying to present is an approach to assessment (national assessment) which will profitably complement the other (national examination) in providing the educational system with a rich database for decision making. National examination will always be with us. But as it is now it is bedevilled with a big problem which is threatening the integrity of the whole educational system. The Problem of Examination Malpractice This is a problem that, to most people has defied all attempted solutions. It appears candidates are always a step ahead of those seeking solutions to the problem. A very comprehensive study of this problem was undertaken by Uwadiae (1996) showing the multidimensional nature of the problem. The bottom line to the problem of examination malpractice, most writers on the subject agree, is what we may call the low level of learning that now takes place in our educational institutions. The immediate consequence of this situation is lack of self confidence on the part of the students. The question then is why is there little learning taking place in our schools? I will suggest three major reasons: there is very little time being devoted to learning; the resources for ensuring that some learning will take place are not present in most cases and .most teachers are not very competent. Any attempt to tackle the phenomenon of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 52 'Wole Falayajo examination malpractice must first addr.ess these th.ree basic issues. I will talk about the teacher component of the solution presently. The attempted solutions to examination malpractice can be classified as follows: Legal - decrees have been promulgated and suggestions have been made about reviewing the decrees to make prosecution of offenders easier. Moral - there is now in place an examination ethics project.I am not well informed about the activities of that project. Security Measures - this is the earliest of the solutions and the students seem to have beaten the security outfits hands down by their sheer ingenuity in devising new approaches. Curiously enough, there doesn't seem to have been what I will call a professional solution yet attempted - the 'testing profession' if we can call it that. This solution involves the use of multiple forms of each examination paper which will be randomly assigned to candidates in the examination hall. Each paper may have as many as four equivalent forms going on at the same time such that candidates sitting together will be working on different forms and no candidate will have a foreknowledge of which form he/she will be working on. The equivalence of the different forms will have been established at the test development stage. The use of equivalent forms is the standard procedure we used in the lEA studies and the prototype national assessment study discussed earlier. Of course, we were constrained to use this procedure for a reason different from trying to prevent malpractice. Another professional approach is to revisit the practice of continuous assessment (CA) in schools. The original intention for CA was that if students know that what they do at school will count towards their final assessment, the urge to cheat at the final examination will be reduced somewhat. There was a rider to the combination of internal and external assessment - the performance on the external examination must not be below a certain level before the candidate can have an overall pass. This rider was adopted to forestall the envisaged problem of inflating the internal assessment scores. Some studies were also done on the problem of finding appropriate weighting for internal and external assessment (Bandele 1984), Falayajo (1988). Teachers are expected to be assisted by the provision of standardized instruments made available at a central location which they can use to improve the quality of their internal assessments (Ojerinde and Fa/ayajo 1983). Teacher Education Teachers constitute one of the pivots of any educational system; consequently the education of teachers is a serious issue whenever we are thinking of improving that system .. In our discussion of the results of the prototype national assessment study, we mentioned the need to reinforce the competence of teachers in the teaching of English and Mathematics by providing them with comprehensive teachers' editions of the pupils textbooks. This of course is an adhoc and piece- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 53 meal approach to the problem. The big problem really is that our teachers are no longer being well trained to do the work they are expected to do in school. The professional nature of the preparation of teachers seems to have at best taken the second place in the scheme of things. Teachers who are being prepared to teach in primary schools may never have seen the primary school curriculum guidelines (let alone have a copy) before stepping into the classroom. The situation of those being prepared for the secondary schools (the popular B.Ed teachers) is even worse. Some of them may not have stood in front of a class for ten days before being absolved into the teaching force. There is a need for a complete restructuring of the content of the programme of the preparation of prospective primary school teachers. I am here referring to the NCE programmes. All NCE programmes must be completely targeted at preparing primary school teachers. All the contents of this programme which presume that the NCE is a preparatosy for University entry should be expunged and be replaced with what will ensure more competent primary school teachers. For example, one out of the three years of training should be devoted to guided supervised practical training in schools. In the case of teachers being prepared for the secondary' schools. (both junior and senior) the time has come to say goodbye to the B.Ed,programmes. I believe it was a child of emergency or a crash programme to produce graduate teachers. Anybody who wants to be a secondary school teacher should come to the University and take a regular degree of B.A or B.Sc and then do a postgraduate professional training for teachers. If the B.Ed must be retained, then it should be an avenue for upward mobility for the teachers in primary schools (remember they unll all be NeE) and such a B.Ed programme will be located in the Colleges of Education (not in the Universities) and the graduates will still be primary school teachers. What is the implication of these for the existing set up in the Faculties and Institutes of Education in the Universities? I believe that the dichotomy between the Faculty and the Institute should disappear. There should be one 'something' of Education. What the something should be called is not a big issue even though for obvious reasons (I trained in an Institute Jor Studies in Education) my choice is clear. But the most important point I what to make is that this something of education will run only Postgraduate programmes and will also retain all the existing departments and new ones to be created as departments. The something of education will run both academic and professional programmes. Management of Nigerian Examination System The four bodies managing the national examinations in the country - WAEC, JAMB, NABTEB, NBEM need all the help they can get in coping with the enormous task of conducting national examinations. The final comment I will like to make which applies to WAEC, NABTEB and NBEM is that the Research division of these bodies should be strengthened. Take for example the professional solution to the problem of examination malpractice which I suggested earlier. Only a very virile research division can effectively initiate the use of this approach. Issues in the development of item bank (not item pool) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 54 'Wale Falayajo callibration of the items and establishing parallelism among the different test forms are all assignments for the research division of examination bodies. There is therefore a need for capacity building for the personnel of this division. As I said earlier, I do not feel that JAMB should be scrapped but the task of conducting selection examinations for the Universities should be taken away from it. It should be transformed into a Testing organisation providing Testing service to the Nigerian public. This will make it similar to the Educational Testing Service (ETS) of the United States. In this new status it can produce tests which Universities and other educational institutions can use on individual basis. A ready example of the type of test that comes to mind is the development of Aptitude tests. Institutionaiising National Assessment This lecture has given me yet another opportunity to sensitize the public to the need for establishing national assessment of education as part of the routine management of our educational system. Sometime in February this year, my technical committee presented the report of the prototype study to an audience made of State Commissioners of Education, Directors of Planning, Research and Statistics divisions of Federal and State Ministries of Education. This was expected to have been followed up with a number of zonal sensitization meetings, only one of such zonal meetings has been held to date. There is an urgent need for a national protem committee to be set up to work out follow up activities to the national report of the monitoring of Learning Achievement (prototype national assessment) study. The ICEE of our Institute ran a one month capacity building workshop for senior officials of State Ministries of Education in 1996. This needs to be followed up. The use of national assessment as a device for having effective control over the performance of educational system has become imperative and the government is well advised to move in the direction of institutionalizing this approach to assessment. REFERENCES Abdulraiful A. Kolawole (1991) "Development and Validation of an Achievement Test in Physics for Senior Secondary Class Two". Unpublished M.Ed. Project. University of Ibadan. Capper Joanne (1996) Testing to Learn-Learning to Test, Washington D.C: Academy for Educational Development. Clark C. Abt (Ed.) (1976) The Evaluation of Social Programs Bevely Hills; Sage Publications. Cooley William W. And Lohnes Paul R. (1976) Evaluation Research in Education, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Fagerlind Ingemar and Saha J. Lawrence (1983) Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective Oxford: Pergamon Press. Falayajo 'Wole (1982) "Proposal for a National Assessment of Educational Achievement Project "Seminar Paper presented at the Monthly Seminar of WAEC Lagos. Falayajo 'Wole (1993) "Abuses of Continuous Assessment at Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria". In Maduka C. (Ed.) Examination Malpractices UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Gatekeeper to Gateway: Assessment in Education 55 in Nigeria Public Examinations Benin: Faculty of Education, University of Benin. Falayajo, 'Wole (1974) "The Training of some Prospective Science Teachers in Nigeria: A Cross-sectional Study".- Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto. Falayajo, 'Wole (1983) "National Assessment of Educational Achievement: Continuous Assessment Programme at the National Level. Education and Development Vol. 3 No.2, pp. 283-293. Falayajo, 'Wole (1984) "lEA Second International Mathematics Study; A Survey of Students' Mathematics Achievement in some States of Nigeria'. Paper Presented at the Fifth International Congress of Mathematics Educators in Adelainde, Australia. Falayajo, 'Wole (1986) "The Role of the West African Examination Programme in Education and Social Development? Paper presented at the Conference of the Comparative and International Education Society Toronto, Canada. Falayajo, 'Wole (1988) "From Assessment of Students to the Evaluation of Educational System". Paper presented at WAEC Monthly Seminar. Falayajo, 'Wole and Osafehinti 1.0. (1988) "A Study of Curriculum Coverage in Mathematics in Relation to Students Attainment". Journal of Research in Curriculum Vol. 6 No.2, pp. 133-138. Falayajo, 'Wole et. al. (1997) Assessment of Learning Achievement of Primary Four Pupils in Nigeria: National Report of Monitoring of Learning Achievement Project. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education. Faparusi, A.a. (1987) "A Longitudinal Study of Students' Achievement in Junior Secondary Schools Mathematics in Ondo State of Nigeria". Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Ibadan. Farombi, J.G. (1990) "Development and Validation of an Achievement Test in Physics for Senior Secondary School Year One Students" Unpublished M.Ed. Project University of lbadan. Kellaghan Thomas (1986) "Can Public Examinations Be Used to Provide Information for National Assessment? In Murphy et al. (Ed.) National Assessment: Testing the System Washington DC: The World Bank pp 33-47. Lapointe E. Archie (1993) "Why A National Assessment" Paper presented at IAEAlWorid Bank Workshop on National Assessment held in Nairobi, Kenya. Lockheed E. Marlaine (1996) "International Context for Assessments" in Murphy et al. (Ed) National Assessments: Testing the System. Washington D.C. The World Bank pp. 9-19. Murphy Pand et. al. (Ed.) (1996) National Assessments: Testing the System Washington D.C. The World Bank. Nwambogela A., (1980) "Construction and Validation of an Arithmetic Standardized Achievement Test for Primary Six of Ibadan City Schools: Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis. University of Ibadan. Omolewa Michael (1976) The Adaptation Question in Nigeria Education 1916-1936. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. Vol. 8No.3, pp. 93-119. Omolewa Michael (1977) The Cambridge University Local Examinations Syndicate and the Development of Secondary Education in Nigeria 1910-1926. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria Vol. 8, No.4, pp. Ill-l30. Onwuakpa F. 1. (1991) "Development and Validation of an Achievement Test in Mathematics for Senior Secondary Cla.ss One". Unpublished M.Ed. Project, University of Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 56 'Wale Falayajo Osafehinti, O. Isaac (1984) "Correlates of the level of Achievement in Mathematics at the End of Secondary Education in Oyo State of Nigeria" Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation University of lbadan. Pressel L. Paul (1976) Handbook of Academic Evaluation San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Scriven M. (1967) 'The Methodology of Evaluation." In R.Tyler, R. Gagne, and M. Scriven, Perspectives of Curriculum Evaluation AERA Monograph 1. Chicago: Rand McNally. Stufflebeam, D.l. et. aI., (1971) Educational Evaluation and Decision Making. Itasca II: Peacock. Suchman A. Edward (1967) Evaluative Research, New York: Russel Sage Foundation. Tyler R.W. (1950) "The Functions of Measurement in Improving Instruction" In Lindquish E.F. (Ed.) Educational Measurement, Washington D.C.: American Council on Education. Tyler, R.W. (1966) The Objectives and Plans for a National Assessment of Educational Progress. Journal of Educational Measurement 3, PR 1-4. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3 FISH HUSBANDRY AND MEDICINE: THE EXPERIENCE OF A TROPICAL VETERINARIAN B. E. Olufemi Department of Veterinary Medicine Introduction This year's inaugural lecture from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine is the 6th from the Department of Veterinary Medicine and the 20th from the Faculty. I thank God, to whom. honour and glory belong, for giving me the opportunity to fulfil this academic responsibility in this historical year - the 50th anniversary of the founding of the University of Ibadan - the First and the Best. While human medicine deals with only the health of man, veterinary medicine has a much wider scope, dealing with the other animals (aerial, terrestrial or aquatic). When I was employed in 1975 as a Lecturer II, I became the first Veterinarian in Nigeria to be asked to specialize in Swine diseases. This interest has continued until date. In 1981, I widened the scope of my specialist interest to include the fish species. I was privileged, through a University of Ibadan Staff Development Fund to train at the famous Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Scotland. My veterinary background became an advantage to me in my study of fish husbandry and medicine. I thus became the first Nigerian Veterinarian to train as a fish diseases and management specialist. I have decided to limit the scope of today's lecture to fish husbandry and medicine, leaving Swine diseases and management to another occasion. Definition of Aquaculture Aquaculture has been defined in a number of ways. It has been called "the art of cultivating the natural produce of water; the raising or fattening of fish in enclosed ponds". Another author has defined aquaculture as "the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled conditions. Thus, aquaculture is "underwater agriculture". No single definition is universally acceptable, but as the term is used in this lecture, I will consider aquaculture UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 58 E.£. Olufemi broadly and state it to be simply the large-scale husbandry or rearing of aquatic organisms, in this case fish, for commercial purposes. Mariculture of course, is aquaculture in brackish water or sea water. The farming of fish, either for food or as a hobby, is a relatively new industry. Man has held fish in ponds and harvested the fruits of the sea for centuries but the knowledge of intensive production methods only developed from the early part of this century. As the rapid increase in production of farmed fish has occurred, so too have the problems. Congregating fishes in intensive systems leads to higher stocking densities resulting in stress and disease. For domestic animals, a farmer goes to his veterinarian for advice on husbandry, disease and therapy. Sadly this has not generally been the case in fish farming although many highly gifted non-veterinary fish pathologists have ably advised in this area. The Role of Veterinarians Veterinarians are now realizing that their responsibilities do not cease with warm-blooded animals. They are uniquely qualified to assess production practices and disease in the context of both welfare for the animal and profitability for the client. Clinically competent scientists, whether medical or veterinary, can indeed contribute effectively in the assessment and management of fish diseases. Thus the work of Professor Mackie and his medical colleagues on the Furunculosis Committee set up by the British Government in 1930 marked the first real recognition of the economic importance of fish diseases, and provided what Stanislaus Snieszko, the doyen of American fish pathologists (who himself received part of his training at the Jagelonian University Veterinary School, Poland) referred to as 'a "must" for anyone who intends to study communicable diseases of fish'. Since the 1960s, however, driven by the economic imperative of the commercial expansion of fish culture, our knowledge of fish diseases has expanded beyond all bounds, thanks to the scientific endeavour of multidisciplinary research workers. It is however noteworthy that the contribution of the Veterinary Scientists has been significant both in its volume and its quality. The major advantage that the veterinarians bring to the discipline is the comparative dimension, the ability to relate aetiology and host responses of disease patterns seen in fish populations to the whole spectrum of such conditions in the vertebrate phylum. In contrast to the situation in the 1960s, when the embryonic fish farmer had virtually no one to turn to (except in the USA where extension services were often very good), nowadays, practising veterinary surgeons are servicing fish farms and farmers just as any other sector of livestock production and being seen to be an essential adjunct to intensive fish production. One of the features of farmed fish clinical medicine is the generally low value of the individual fish. Thus it is usually possible to sacrifice a few clinical examples to gain diagnostic information which is often of a much higher order of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 59 sophistication than in species where the individual is the subject rather than the flock or school. , My work, as a veterinarian working in the tropics, I believe, has contributed greatly to the advancement of the veterinarian's role in fish clinical medicine. Of particular importance in this respect, of course, is an understanding of the aquatic environment, and of the husbandry systems in which the fish are being maintained. Of no less importance, however, is the understanding of the differences in the pathophysiology and immune response, which a poikilothermic . existence imposes on fishes. In the past it was, on occasion, a concern within the veterinary profession as to whether fish were a proper concern for them. The contributions which veterinarians have subsequently made are very clearly demonstrated in this lecture. The lecture also demonstrates that, as with any other livestock production system, the veterinarian by training, by legislative rights and responsibilities, and by experience is the appropriate professional to practise the diagnostic skills derived from the integration of the collaborative scientific efforts of the aetiologists, pathologists and fish biologists of whatever discipline who have created the corpus of primary knowledge. Aims of Aquaculture The aims of aquaculture are similar to those of agriculture, but with some very important differences: 1. Impounding water with the intention of rearing fish really constitutes the creation of a new environment while conventional agriculture makes use of the existing environment. 2. Fish culture can thus be more productive than conventional livestock rearing on the same area of land - rather than rearing pigs in a multi- storey building! 3. Fish farming can make use of marginal land, such as marsh, which is otherwise unsuitable for agricultural development. 4. It is also a more efficient food production system than almost all other types of animal farming. Proportionally fish contains a greater amount of edible flesh than pigs, sheep, cattle, goats, etc, and eats a smaller quantity of food to produce this flesh. In other words, to produce one kilogram of meat, a cow would need to consume about 45kg of food, a chicken around 12kg, while a fish would need as little as 5kg. This high efficiency of food conversion is partly due to fish being cold blooded (poikilothermic). Assuming the temperature of their surroundings, they do not have to burn energy to keep warm, and this saving may be expressed as growth. The buoyance of their watery environment also reduces the energy requirement for movement and support - they never have hills to climb. Their excellent food conversion efficiency is also partly due to the quality of their diet. However, there are some disadvantages of fish farming: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 60 R.E. Olufemi 1. The proportion of protein in the diet of ruminants is low, and they live mainly on food sources unusable directly by man, especially in poorer countries. In contrast, most fish need a fairly high percentage of protein in their diet. 2. The constant nature of an aquatic environment means that fish does not have to develop the robustness that characterizes land animals, and they are therefore prone or vulnerable to a wide range of predators, parasites and diseases. They can tolerate only relatively small changes in their physical environment and a disease can mean destruction of the entire stock. The evolutionary answer to these problems has been an incredibly high reproduction rate. 3. The capital required to set up an intensive fish farm and the operational demands are considerable. The term intensive refers to the high density production of organisms per unit area compared to that occurring naturally. " History of Fish Culture Fish culture has a substantial history, although its exact origin is still somewhat of a mystery! An Egyptian bas-relief on the tomb of Aktihetep (2500 B.C.) shows what appears to be men removing tilapia from a pond. In China, carp is known to have been spawned and reared about 2500 years ago, although many scholars believe the practice in that country may be twice as old. Wen Fang, founder of the Chou Dynasty, is often called the first fish-farmer. It is said that when Wen Fang's predecessor, the emperor of the Shang Dynasty, confined Fang to an estate in Hunan Province (1135 to 1122 B.C.), Fang built ponds and kept records on the growth and behaviour of the fish. Fan Li, who wrote about aquaculture in 475 B.C., supported the idea of carp culture and described its practice in his Yang Yu Ching (Treatise on Fish-breeding). It was found that when certain combinations of fish were used, greater yields were achieved, and this system of polyculture has been in use ever since. Aquaculture methods spread from China to Korea and then to Japan about 1700 years ago. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle also spoke of carp, suggesting that the Europeans were also interested in farming this fish. Carp culture was brought to England in the 15th century AD for the first time. Wild fish had been kept before then in England, in "Stewponds", as security for times when red meat was difficult to obtain. The death penalty could be imposed on anyone caught stealing a fish from another's pond. In modem Africa, attempts to cultivate tilapia species were made in Kenya in 1924. The Congo followed the Kenyan example in 1937. In Central East Africa, the first trials of fish ponds were probably those made in Zambia in 1942 and in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1950. The origin of fish cultivation in Nigeria is probably more recent. Efforts were made to develop fish cultivation after the second world war. The need to increase the amount of animal protein eaten by pregnant women was recognized by the late Professor Oladele Ajose in the early fifties. He UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 61 constructed the first fish pond in the former Western Nigeria at Dora in 1954 for the raising of ta'ble fish which eventually served as cheap and readily available animal proteins not only to pregnant women but also the community of Dora. There was about a decade of slumber in the construction of other ponds but thereafter, the Government decided to set up demonstration fish ponds which were widely accepted by individuals and communities. Since its introduction to Western Nigeria, the development of fish culture could be conveniently divided into three phases as follows: (i) the persuasive and initiation phase - (1956-1977) (ii) the partially assisted phase (1978-1982) (iii) the do-it-yourself phase (1983 to date) Today, aquaculture accounts for over 13 million metric tons of aquatic products harvested each year in the world over, and the industry is growing rapidly even in Nigeria. It is extremely important in Asia, where carp, tilapia, yellowtail, salmon, shrimp and seaweeds are grown. In Central America, aquaculture is dominated by a very productive shrimp industry. In Europe, the Atlantic salmon, eels, trout, carP, oysters and mussels are cultured in large numbers. Israel's freshwater and marine culture systems are among the best in the world. In Canada, salmonids are the most cultured species. In the United States, catfish, salmonids, baitfish, crawfish and several species of mollusks also generate significant amounts of income and here at home in Nigeria, fish species cultured include common carp, Clarias spp., Heterotis niloticus, Heterobranchus sp, Gymnarchus niloticus, and of course our most popular of all - ihe tilapia species. The Farming of Tilapias Tilapia has been something of an overnight sensation in fish farming. It has actually been exploited for some considerable time, but its potential as a farm fish was "rediscovered" during, or just after, the Second World War. According to Chimits (1955). Since World War II a new fish, tilapia has appeared among the tools of trade of fish culturists and has provoked keen interest everywhere; it has made prodigious progress in fish culture in warm waters and there are great expectations for it as a new source of protein food. Fossil remains of members of the genus Tilapia about 8 million years old have been found (Fryer and Iles 1972). These were found in Lake Victoria area and possibly of a marine ancestor (Kirk, 1972), but little was known about the group until just over a century ago. One member of the group, Aureochromis niloticus, was the subject of detailed observations in Egypt of 5,000 years ago. Depicted in many Egyptian paintings, it was regarded as sacred, symbolizing the hope of reincarnation. There UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 62 B.E. Olufemi is a biblical reference indicating that fish ponds were extant in Egypt in the early part of the first millenium B.C. (Isaiah 19:10). Tilapia also formed a major fishery at that time. Kirk (1972) in a review related to culture, discussed tilapia with special reference to the aspects of physiology and breeding behaviour which are relevant to its culture in fresh and brackish water heated effluents; Mathes (1973) lists some 400 references on tilapia in his bibliography of African publications. A computer search of catalogued literature had indicated the existence of some 3000 papers dealing with some aspect of the biology of tilapia. Detail husbandry techniques have been succinctly described by Maar et al, (1966). Bardach et ai, (1972) and Huet (1972), with emphasis being placed on the biology of the group and ways in which it may be manipulated to improve production. Once promoted as the "miracle fish", several species of tilapia especially Sarotherodon mossambicus, were widely distributed around the tropics during the 1950's. However, the original hopes that tilapia culture would make a significant contribution to protein production soon turned to disillusionment, especially in Africa, as the problems associated with its husbandry became apparent. Although tilapia was relatively simple to cultivate, resistant to poor water quality and diseases, and able to efficiently convert many organic animal and agricultural waste materials into high quality protein, these advantages were offset by one highly significant disadvantage: excessive reproduction in culture ponds. The result of this prolificacy was a large number of small, unmarketable fish which were certainly not acceptable to the African consumer who was traditionally accustomed to the larger fish obtainable from rivers and lakes. Consumers in South East Asia, with their different cultural background, were better able to utilize small fish. The inability to control this unwanted reproduction soon discouraged most attempts at tilapia culture and thousands of fish ponds throughout Africa and Asia were either abandoned or used to rear other species of fish. Several workers, recognizing the potential of tilapia continued to study methods of reducing or eliminating unwanted reproduction and of improving culture methods in general. The continued success of their efforts has led to a relatively recent revival in tilapia culture, which now seems to have a very hopeful future. As a result of these efforts, enthusiasm for the species has become so high that some have begun to describe tilapia as the future "aquatic chicken". Workable technologies are now available for raising some of the species or hybrids of tilapia on a profitable basis, even though many problems still remain to the solved. Fish Diseases Intensive production of fish increases the probability and severity of parasite and disease outbreaks, some of which can kill an entire population in a short time. Diseases cause economic losses from: (i) mortality (ii) treatment expense UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 63 (iii) growth reduction during and after an outbreak (iv) increase in the time required for the fish to reach market-weight size and therefore postponement or loss of the opportunity to sell the fish The frequency and importance of diseases which occur on fish farms can be the result of overstocking of ponds, poor conditions of farming e.g. handling the fish badly or feeding them incorrectly. In the wild state, fish are widely dispersed and diseases are often not noticed; the risks of contamination are fewer and losses less. Diseased fish usually exhibit either physical or behavioural signs, or both. These signs can be helpful, but also misleading; in almost all instances an accurate evaluation can be made only at a diagnostic laboratory. The following physical signs suggest disease and the corresponding associations which are often made: • Dead or dying fish - many diseases, cause should be investigated. • Open lesions or sores, bloody or reddened areas - bacteria; bacteria secondary to parasite infections; external parasites; toxins. • Gaping mouths - low oxygen; diseased gills. • • Scale loss - Myxobolus notemigoni (milk scale disease); • External parasites; fighting; predation; rough handling. • Gills pale, eroded, puffy, bloody or brown, or gill covers flared - anaemia; vitamin deficiency; gill disease; environmental stress; toxins; external parasites. Branchiomyces (fungus); Flexibacter columnaris (bacterium). • Bleached skin colour - vitamin E deficiency; low oxygen • Exophthalmia (popeye), stargazing - bacterial dropsy; brain flukes; gas bubble disease; malnutrition; environmental contaminants. • Bloated belly (dropsy) - bacteremia; white grubs (flukes); ligula (tapeworm); catfish virus (affects fingerlings). • White "fungus" patches - external fungus; Epistylis (protozoan). • Bloody internal organs - bacteria; virus; vitamin A or B deficiency. • Fluid in body cavity (cloudy, bloody, or clear) - bacterial dropsy; catfish virus; malnutrition. • Nodules, pustules, white spots - myxosporidian cysts (protozoons); larval trematodes (flukes); Ichthyophthirus or Ich (protozoon); yellow grub (fluke); lmval nematodes. • Folded fins or tail, pectoral fins pointed forward - toxins; many diseases. • Spinal curvature - vitamin C deficiency; pesticides; genetic deformities. • Excess mucus (light grey film), sloughing of skin scratches on body - external parasites; fungus; fighting; predation. • Emaciation (thin fish, pinheads) reduced growth - any disease that causes fish to reduce feed intake or cease feeding; under- feeding; malnutrition; intestinal worms (helminths); vitamin deficiency. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 64 B.E. Olufemi • Air bubbles under skin - gas bubble disease (excessive N~ or O2 in the water). • Cloudy eyes - eye flukes; nutritional deficiencies. • Red spots near bases of fins - larval lernaea (copepod); external parasites; bacteria. • Foul smelling lesions - Edwardsiella tarda (bacterium). • "Hole in-the-head" - Edwardsiella ictaluri (bacterium). • Brown blood - nitrite toxicity. • Behavioural signs also indicate the presence of certain diseases. These include: • Swimming weakly, lazily, erratically or in spirals - many diseases. • Failure to feed - many diseases. • Scratching, flashing, or rubbing against objects in the pond - external parasites. • Twitching, darting, convulsions - toxins; nutritional disease; external parasites. • Failure to flee when exposed to fright stimuli - low oxygen; metabolic factors; many diseases. ' • Crowding or gathering in vegetation, shallow water, or at water inflow, hiding under objects to avoid light - many diseases; low oxygen; toxins. • "Topping" or "piping" at water surface, floating head-up, moribund (dying) -low oxygen; toxins; external parasites; bacteria. From the foregoing, it can be seen that the agents of disease in farmed fishes are very numerous and various. On aetiological basis, these can be divided into four groups - in increasing size. These are: (i) Viruses (ii) Bacteria (iii) Fungi (iv) Parasite (v) Nutritional and/or metabolic diseases It is important to note, however, that erratic behaviour and syndromes characteristic of infectious diseases may be produced by environmental stress (low oxygen, supersaturation of dissolved gases such as nitrogen or oxygen), toxins (hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, nitrite, many pesticides and even therapeutic agents used to treat infectious diseases), and nutritional deficiencies. Stressed fish are very likely to allow pathogens in the water to invade their tissues. Most pathogens normally occur in small numbers in water or on the fish surface. Some occur within a few fishes without causing any harm - these are referred to as carrier fish. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 65 Viral Diseases of Fish Viruses are successful parasites or pathogens that utilize a wide range of hosts from the bacteria and algae to the specialized cells of the highest vascular plants and warm-blooded animals. It is not surprising, therefore, that viruses are also found in fishes. Fish viruses are essentially similar to the viruses found in warm- blooded vertebrates. The routes of infection of fish viruses are essentially similar to those found in other vertebrates, namely oral, respiratory, cutaneous and vertical i.e. from generation to generation. The venereal route has not been documented but cannot be excluded. Domestic and international transfers of live crier fish and contaminated eggs are major factors in the spread of the causal viruses, and this calls for fish health control regulations. Nottidge, Olufemi and Ibe (1992) showed that the tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, did not show any sign of illness or abnormality irrespective of the route of challenge with rabies virus. The work confirmed the hypothesis that fishes are not susceptible to rabies virus even though the fish used was a tropical fresh water species with the temperature of the water being high enough to support the growth of the virus. Clark (1972), had successfully propagated rabies and rabies- related viruses in poikilothermic cell lines with some degree of attenuation, it was therefore pertinent to investigate fish reaction to rabies virus experimental challenge in vivo. The clinical, histopathological and diagnostic aspects of the major fish diseases now known to be of viral aetiology have been summarized, Olufemi (1988). These include lymphocystis, infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN) , viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VIIS), carp virus septicaemia (CVS) and infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN). IPN virus is the aetiological agent of serious disease of trout and other salmonids and has been isolated from non-salmonid fish. Lymphocystis disease is the only viral disease of fish demonstrated to date in cichlids from the East African lakes (Paperna et al 1983). Lymphocystis disease virus (LDV) is the aetiological agent of this common benign, unique, giant-cell disease of worldwide distribution found in many freshwater and marine fishes. It is the oldest and best-known fish virus. The virus is unique in that it evokes a non-lethal infection resulting in neoplastic like growths or flat patches on various parts of the body - usually the external body surface. The infection seldom causes death but, depending on the size and location of the lesion, swimming behaviour may be greatly affected. The virus infects cells of the fibroblastic series and causes extensive changes, particularly an increase in the size of the cells. Nigrelli and Ruggieri (1965) gave a detailed histo-pathological description of the infected cells, which included hyaline capsule, enlarged nucleus, often in various stages of necrosis, one to several nucleoli, granular cytoplasm, and single or clustered intracytoplasmic inclusions. Lymphocystis disease can cause severe problems in marine fish culture and in tropical aquaria and represents a potential hazard for intensive culture systems. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 66 B.£. Olufemi Bacteria Diseases of Fish Bacteria are responsible for many fish diseases especially those associated with environmental stresses such as handling. Bacteria are always present in water and they usually almost always occur in small or large numbers on the skin or inside healthy fish. Unlike the situation in higher animals, most of the organisms associated with disease in fish are naturally occurring and widely distributed saprophytes which utilize the organic and mineral matter in the aquatic environment for their growth and multiplication. Only comparatively few species such as Aeromonas salmonicida, Haem oph ilus piscium and possibly Renibacterium salmoninarum appear to be true obligate parasites which are unable to survive for any length of time outside the fish host. Although the distinction between saprophyte and parasite is of prime importance when disease control or eradication measures are being considered, it is of less significance in the diagnostic bacteriology laboratory as both types of organisms may be isolated from the external body surface or internal tissues of apparently healthy fish. The transition from commensal to pathogen is invariably triggered by the imposition of one or more "stress" factors which increase the susceptibility of the fish to bacterial infection. Poor water quality and temperature changes are probably the most commonly encountered factors which predispose to clinical disease, but overcrowding, trauma, transportation, nutritional deficiencies, parasitism and primary viral infections may all adversely affect resistance. It is important that this should be borne in mind when assessing the significance of laboratory isolates and prescribing treatments as chemical or antibiotic therapy or prophylactic vaccination measures are seldom entirely satisfactory without proper attention being given to correcting the underlying causes. Representatives of 25 bacteria genera have been implicated as pathogens of freshwater and/or marine fish (Austin and Allen- Austin (1985). Olufemi, Akinlabi and Agbede (1991) isolated eight different bacterial organisms, each isolate originating from a different case, from the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burch) in tropical fresh-water earthen ponds in Ibadan. A considerable number of bacterial diseases of freshwater fish have been recognized in Nigeria. Ogbondeminu and Okaeme (1986), Fasanya et al. (1988), Ibiwoye et al. (1989), found that most of the bacterial microflora associated with the skin of Clarias and Tilapia species were Gram negative rods and cocci - usually Escherichia and Citrobacter. The Gram positive cocci were mainly Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium Olufemi, et al. (1991), however, isolated Lactobacillus fermenti from C. gariepinus. The organism was considered to be an opportunistic pathogen, although there has been a report of a pathogenic Lactobacillus sp. in fish from North America (Ross and Toth 1974).Other opportunistic organisms isolated from our laboratory are Micrococcus roseus and Enterobacter cloacae. The pathogenic organisms we isolated are Actinomyses (Corynebacterium) sp., Mycobacterium marinum, Pseudomonas anguilliseptica and Edwardsiella tarda (Olufemi et al. 1991). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 67 Fungi Diseases of Fish Because fungi are larger than bacteria, they were recognized earlier as agents of disease. However, of the estimated 200,000 species of fungi known, only about 40 are now known to cause infectious disease (mycoses) in marine or fresh water cultured fish species. Fungi associated with tilapia culture ponds in Nigeria have been described (Okaeme and Olufemi, 1997). Compared' with the bacteria and viruses, however, knowledge of fungal pathogens/parasites of aquatic animals is relatively fragmentary. This area of study has presented me with a rewarding and exciting experience! The fungal origin of a disease is usually suspected on the basis of its clinical behaviour and the appearance of the lesion. The most convincing diagnostic evidence is usually provided by detection of the fungus in lesions and exudates by direct microscopic examination and by isolation and cultivation. In addition, animal inoculation serves to distinguish between pathogenic and non-pathogenic (saprobic) fungi, which can be identical in colonial and cellular morphology; the saprobes are usually innocuous in test animals. Problems Associated. with Studies on Mvcotic Diseases in Fish While mycotic infections of fish are known to exist and have been documented in both fresh and salt water environments (Wolke 1975; Richards 1978; Olufemi, et al. 1983), far less is known about these diseases than is generally known about diseases of bacterial or viral aetiology. The lack of knowledge relates to a significant degree to the consensus that fungi infecting fish are normally secondary invaders. This doubtless, relates also to the fact that the commonest most obvious and most frequently studied fungal pathogen of fish, Saprolegnia parasitica (diclina) appears in many ways to be the example of a secondary opportunistic invader par excellence. Although it is accepted that it may eventually result in mortality, it is generally assumed that a traumatic or primary bacterial or viral disease allows it to invade and thus it is these which must be controlled. There are reports, however, that some piscine fungal disease outbreaks unassociated with other pathogenic agents have been epizootic in proportion and responsible for considerable mass mortality. Such epizootics have been recorded under both aquacultural and natural conditions (Wood et al., 1955; Carmichael 1966; Fijan 1969; and Olufemi et al., 1983). An important fungal (mycotic) disease of fishes is aspergilomycosis caused by Aspergillus species. This disease was first described by Olufemi et al. (1983). The Aspergilli as Pathogens of Cultured Fishes: Historical Background The genus of moulds known as Aspergillus has always been a factor in man's environment. Even before the development of the microscope, Aspergillus colonies were well-known as the white, yellow, green, red or black moulds seen on foods and rotting vegetation, although of course, attempts at proper interpretation of the cause of such growths were not feasible at that time. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 68 B.E. Olufemi Michelli (1729) was the first to distinguish the stalks and spore heads peculiar to the genus: He noted that the spore chains radiated from a central structure to produce a pattern that suggested the 'aspergillum' with which he, as a priest, was familiar. He therefore applied the name Aspergillus to the moulds he observed because of the similarity in appearance between the fruiting head of the mould and the brush (aspergillurn Latin - rough head) used for sprinkling of holy water. Considerable interest had developed by the middle of the 19th century when the Aspergilli began to be recognized as active agents in processes of decay, as farmenting agents capable of producing valuable metabolic products, and significantly as causes of human and animal disease. The genus began to take definite form with the work ofWehmer (1901). In the years since 1945, many new species of Aspergillus have been described. Altogether, more than 132 species and 18 varieties have been recognized, in contrast to 77 species and 8 varieties in the Manual of the Aspergilli of 1945 (Raper and Fennel, 1965). Parallel with the dramatic increase in the size of the genus has been an even greater proliferation of the published literature relating to the aspergilli as agents of decomposition, as tools for physiological and genetic studies, as agents responsible for the production' of a variety of products in industry, and significantly as primary or secondary pathogens of animals and man. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 69 Aspergillomycosis in Tilapias Although systemic diseases caused by a range of pathogenic fungi have been defined under aquaculture conditions (Wolke, 1975; Richards, 1978), systemic disease of fish associated with Aspergillus spp. had not been described until comparatively recently (Olufemi et al., 1983, Olufemi, 1984, 1986). This is probably because of the lack of detailed study of tropical fish culture diseases, and the lesser importance of systemic mycotic infections compared to aflatoxicosis. Nevertheless, losses under tropical conditions can be extremely high, and aspergillomycosis is bound to cause even more serious problems as the tropical fish farming industry expands. First report related to Aspergillus infection of fishes was derived nom Kenya (Olufemi, Agius and Roberts 1983) where mortalities in intensive tilapia culture at Bamburi, Mombasa, occurred. This led to detailed pathological investigations and microbiological analyses of feedstuffs being used, and thus to the definition of the condition as systemic aspergillomycosis (Olufemi et ai, 1983). The account described aspergillomycosis associated with A. flavus and A. niger which occurred under intensive aquaculture conditions. The cause and effect relationship which was successfully ascribed to A. flavus and A. niger in the experimental infection which followed, coupled with the clinicopathological findings suggested that it was genuinely an aspergillomycosis problem. The presence of the two species may have indicated a synergistic effect and the nature of the outbreak also suggested that the original infection probably occurred via contaminated food and emphasizes the importance of prevention of mycotic contamination in tropical farm animal diets. Pathogenicity There are always difficulties in specifically relating particular species of Aspergillus to actual clinical disease outbreaks because of the ubiquity of the organism. Mere isolation without direct association with clinical histopathological damage is not satisfactory. It is also difficult to be certain with outbreaks of apparent clinical Aspergillus infection, as to whether the infection was primary or the Aspergillus was simply taking opportunistic advantage of a pre-existing condition. Therefore, experimental infection studies should be carried out. In such studies on the experimental pathogenesis of aspergillomycosis in tilapias, Olufemi (1983; 1984; 1986) showed clearly that these fishes are highly susceptible to infection by members of the genus Aspergillus although there is variability in the pathogenicity of the various species. A. flavus was shown to be more pathogenic to fish than A. niger, and the combination of the two species produced a more serious disease than the monospecific infection (Olufemi, 1983). Clinical outbreaks with Aspergillus sp. are serious because of infection by more than one Aspergillus species - conditions which Olufemi (1985) termed polyspecific infection. The pathogenicity of Aspergillus species may be attributable to theirabililty to grow under the environmental conditions provided by the host, water temperature appearing to playa significant role in this regard. At 26°C, A. flavus was about twice as pathogenic to Oreochromis niloticus than at 17°C. A. flavus UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 70 B.E. Olufemi was able to produce mortalities at various temperatures, whereas A. niger was usually only able to initiate the disease when the water temperature was low (17oC)(Olufemi (1983). . Histopathology The histopathological picture associated with aspergillernycosis may best be described as a systemic necrotizing septicaemia characterized by the formation of granulomas (Olufemi, 1984). The disease may either occur as an acute fulminating or a chronic proliferative form. In the former, larger areas of organs, . especially the liver, undergo necrosis. Histologically, there is usually diffuse distribution of macro phages within a stroma of necrotic tissue and fungal hyphae (Olufemi 1985; 1986). The chronic form is probably more common under aquaculture conditions and is characterized by the production of granulomas particularly in the gut wall. Diagnosis A presumptive diagnosis of aspergillomycosis can be made from recently dead of moribund fish. A positive diagnosis must rely on the isolation of the organism or histopathological examination of the lesions. Immunological techniques are widely used in' human and in animal medicine for the detection of the disease organism or for testing for the carrier state. The amount of immunity conferred by previous exposure or vaccination can usually be measured by the quantity of specific antibody present in that animal. The use of such techniques for the diagnosis of disease exposure or infection in fish has not been in practice. This is often because of difficulties in obtaining adequate amounts of blood, although there are also major problems relating to environmental effects on antibody production. It has been shown however, that by using the Ouchterlony immunodiffusion test, it is possible to detect and to identify antigens of the Aspergillus species fungi in fish with overt disease (Olufemi 1984; 1986). Serological studies were carried out with extracts of Aspergillus species and sera samples obtained from Aspergillus infected and non- infected tilapias by means of Ouchterlony gel-diffusion technique. Clinically affected tilapias were positive for the presence of circulating antibodies. Possible Control Methods of Aspergillomysosis and Aflatoxicosis The knowledge of the epidemiology of any disease provides the possibility of an approach to its control. Although until recently aspergillomycosis had not been described in fishes, there is an extensive literature on aflatoxicosis in fish, the intoxication leading to hepatoma in a wide range of fish species (Ashley et al 1964;Butler 1965; Halver 1965; Wales 1970, 1979; Wales and Sinnhuber;1966; Wolf and Jackson 1963), but particularly in the rainbow trout (Majeed, Jolly and Gopinath, 1984). Aflatoxicosis results from the elaboration of aflatoxins, as metabolic products, by aflatogenic species of Aspergillus jlavus as it grows on feedstuff prior to feeding. Undoubtedly one way to prevent fungal contamination of feeds and subsequent mycotoxin formation or aspergillomycosis developing, is the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 71 maintenance of good husbandry and the adequate and rapid drying of feeds to a water content at ~hich fungal growth cannot occur. In the tropical humid atmosphere, moisture absorption during storage means that most fresh fish feeds are subject to fungus spoilage if stored for any excessive periods of time and/or under adverse conditions. Consignments of nuts or cereals rejected for human use should not be used for fish feed compounding. Although aflatoxin residues and infective Aspergillus spores may be removed during oil refining (Dollear 1969), the meal will retain residual toxicity. Some ingredients, especially oil seed meals such as peanut or cottonseed meals, used in the formulation of modem pelleted fish feeds, are generally recognized as the foods most frequently contamiated by aflatoxins or Aspergillus spores (Sinnhuber et al., 1968; Wolf and Jackson, 1%3~ . Fish feed manufacturers, especially those producing pellets for tilapias, will inevitably include increasing levels of vegetable proteins in rations as fish meal prices rise, with limits imposed by the necessity of providing sufficient dietary essential amino acids. Such ingredients must, therefore, be very carefully checked for the presence of pathogenic (or toxin producing) fungi such as the Aspergilli. Numerpus methods have been evaluated for the destruction of Aspergillus organism and aflatoxin in agricultural produce. Although aflatoxins are relatively stable to heat (Dollear 1969), studies with cottonseed meal and cereal grains have demonstrated the feasibility of decontamination by very high temperature treatment in the presence of ammonia (Campbell 1972; Goldblatt 1973). The ammonia-treated product may subsequently be used for animal feed. Treatment of agricultural products with ethylene oxide not only kills insects and fungal contaminants but destroys aflatoxins, These modes Of. treatment or decontamination warrant further investigation as far as fish pellets are concerned. The problem of contamination of equipment, buildings, walls, ceilings, and other structures on the fish farm, should not be overlooked. Aspergillus spores are readily air-borne. and may travel considerable distances; Cleanliness, of course, will contribute significantly to retardation of growth of fungi. In addition, fungistatic paints may be used on walls, ceiling and all structures likely to be subject to fungal growth. Commonly used in such paints are copper- containing compounds. Care should, however, be taken to prevent pollution of water by the copper compounds as these at certain concentration levels are toxic to fish (Olufemi 1985). Investment in husbandry and storage improvements will therefore appear to be more productive than the continuous expenditure on chemotherapy which as far as aspergillomycosis is concerned, may be at best palliative. Consequently, the only sound approach to Aspergillus problems is prevention. Care should be taken in the storing, handling, shipping and processing of high fungus hazard products so that they will not become invaded by Aspergillus species. Together with this must go a relatively foolproof system of surveillance - sampling and testing to make sure that no products significantly contaminated with the fungus escape detection. In the developed countries although this is not exactly easy, it is at least feasible. In the less-developed countries this may not be possible, and in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 72 B.E. Diu/em; some of those countries where tilapia culture is intensifying and expanding, it is likely to be a problem for a long time to come. Parasitic Diseases About 100 genera of protozoan and metazoan parasites have been described as the aetiologic agents of fish and shell fish diseases (National Academy of Sciences, 1977). Fortunately, only a handful of these parasitic organisms are of serious consequence to pond cultured fish. Sairg (1971) states that ectoparasites are the largest group of disease organisms in warm water fish ponds .. The significant parasites as far as Nigeria is concerned, include members from the Phylla Protozoa, Platyhelminths, Aschelminthes, Arthropoda and Annelidae (Olufemi 1986). Fish parasites can be grouped according to their usual location on the host. Ectoparasites are found on the external body surface, including the gills, while endoparasites locate in internal organs such as the liver, kidney or intestines. According to Bauer (1961), parasites affect fish populations by causing: 1. mortality (1-100 percent) 2. reduction in growth 3. weight loss, 4. . suppression of reproductive activity or efficiency In addition to these effects the poor carcass quality of fish infested with parasites can result in reduction in market value for aesthetic reasons (Rogers .'1978). An understanding of the parasites life cycle is essential in developing rational prevention and treatment strategies for the control of parasitic disease problems (Olufemi 1988). Diseases of Nutritional and Metabolic Aetiology Generally, nutritional diseases are not recognized as a problem in warm water pond fish culture unless stocking rates approach or exceed 4,000 kg/ha, This is believed to be due to the availability of natural foods in the pond's environment. However, nutritional problems in fish populations may appear in the form of reduced fecundity, slowed growth, decreased appetite, increased susceptibility to infectious disease, frank morbidity with clinical signs and pathological lesions, mortality, or some combination of these. It is well known that prolonged storage of feed may result .in reduction of feed quality, particularly for vitamin C and the essential fatty acids (Lovell 1976; National Academy of Sciences 1977). Disease Prevention Only a few therapeutics are available for the treatment of fish diseases, and it is generally recognized that disease prevention is more economic than treating sick fish with expensive drugs and chemicals. The following management practices often will prevent disease outbreaks: (i) Suitable Pond Management: Where infectious disease organisms are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY · Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 73 known to OC.cur,disease can be eliminated from the pond after the fish have been harvested. The remaining fish can be killed and if possible, the pond hould be completely dried. Apply just enough fresh calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) to cover the entire pond area at a ratio of 100 gm per square meter (1000 kgiha) or 1 tonlhectare), and additional liberal amounts to the puddles and wet-spots. This chemical leaves no final toxic residue. The application of calcium hypochlorite (HTH) to water at the rate of 40 pounds per acre-foot (10 ppm available chlorine) has been used for killing fish, and also kills many types of disease organisms. The chemical should remain in the pond two or more days before the pond is drained or flushed. The HTH must be used with caution, because the chemical is corrosive and very irritating to the skin, eyes and nose. If all fish are kept out of the pond for several weeks many fish pathogens (but not their spores) will die. Treatment of brood stock of fmgerlings to remove the external parasites is a simple precautionary measure. Also, the exclusion of wild fish that enter fish ponds may help to avoid disease outbreaks. (ii) 'Maintenance of a Disease-free Water Supply: Ordinarily no 'pathogens are introduced with well water. Water from springs, however, may contain wild fish that pass infectious organism along to the cultured fish. If water from streams or reservoirs containing fish is used, one can expect pathogens to be introduced into the culture ponds. At some fish farms, the contaminated incoming water is passed through sand and gravel filters to remove certain protozoans arid larger parasites. Reservoir water can be treated with Rotenone® to remove unwanted fish, or with HTH (Calcium hypochlorite) to remove predators and parasites. The chemical must be dissipated or neutralized before fish is stocked into the pond. There is no practical way to remove bacteria and viruses from large, flowing supplies of surface water. (iii) Constant Surveillance: Where there is danger of transmitting infectious diseases through fish transfer, the fish should first be inspected. The practice of disinfecting nets, .seines, tubs and other equipment before and after harvesting and transporting fish, even though no disease problems are observed, reduces the possibility of introducing or spreading infectious diseases. Recommendations 1. Emphasis should now be on investments to improve and/or increase CULTURE rather than CAPTURE- methods of fish production, especially as it is now generally appreciated that fish supplies through CULTURE can playa very important role both from the socio- economic viewpoint as well as environment conservation. It should be UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 B.E. Olufemi possible to achieve self-sufficiency in fish production within the next few years - let us for example, take the year 2010 A.D. as the magic year, since the year 2000 A.D. is no longer realistic! 2. Provision of incentives through the "Accelerated Fisheries Production Programme" has been a major thrust of fisheries policy in Nigeria in the past. The provision of incentives has been less successful than expected. Where subsidies had been provided, it had always been impossible for people to take government for Jess than Father Christmas. Loanees grab the loans through the schemes as their share of the 'National Cake' for which only the 'stupid' would actually be jailed for failing to repay! Besides, the Federal Departments in me past distributed certain facilities and imputs on political/national character basis, rather than with respect to needs, and the preparedness of the communities to put the facilities into full use. Such facilities as bcreholes, cold storage, ice making machine, etc, now lie idle in many States of Nigeria today and some are being considered for privatization! The determination of government to "leave market forces to take its normal course has also not been helpful, since the policy allowed unsubsidized prices of imputs to rise far beyond the reach of most fish ,farmers. Ayeni (1991). advocated that what is required mostly is .people ,based grassroot planning. He opined that past developmental programmes appeared to have been "inflicted" from above, onto the people at the grassroot. He advocated a developmental effort which seeks to ask what people do and wish to do better; what they use .and wish to be modernized; and how the Sarkin Ruwas, the' Councillors for Agriculture at .the Local Government level, the State Agricultural and the Federal Fisheries Officers, as well as Research Scientists, come together to plan for what is requiredand how best to do things. Government investment should now therefore be based on what the people "ask for" and not what "we think" they want at the Federal level. 3. Farmers with major investments in fish culture should seriously consider' arranging for training in parasite identification and disease diagnosis' for themselves and key personnel, and setting up basic facilities for examining fish and monitoring water quality. This training may provide diagnosticians with vital information that could save time in verifying or selecting the proper treatment This training, I make bold to announce, is possible at the University of Ibadan, if the NUC would approve. 4. The establishment of specialist fish disease laboratories appear necessary to handle fish clinical materials or specimens referred by fish farmers or by veterinarians. To start with, a fish disease laboratory in every State of the Federation is desirable. The fish diagnostic aspect should be part of the State veterinary diagnostic laboratory dealing with all species. A microbiologist will serve all species and so does a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 75 histopathologist, and I so humbly recommend . 5. Fish treatments themselve•s may either be supplied by the Veterinarian on prescription or be available to the client directly on general sale. In either case, the Veterinarian should be responsible for all fish treatments, as is now the case in most parts of the developed world. 6. In our present state of knowledge on diseases of fish and their control, there are a number of diseases, especially viral infections, for which there are as yet no known treatment, and the infected stock has to be destroyed in order to prevent the disease from spreading to other culture installations. Legal provision is therefore necessary to enable authorities concerned to destroy such stocks and when the infection has been caused by factors beyond the farmer's control, provision for payment of appropriate compensation should be made. 7. The development of aquaculture on either a large or small scale involves the use of a number of specialized equipment and supplies, which are not ordinarily available from the open markets in Nigeria. Examples are: . (a) hatchery equipment like jars and troughs (b) rearing tanks (c) special pumps for use in hatcheries and rearing facilities (d) ova and fry graders and containers (e) special trucks for transport of fry and live adult fish (f) cages for cage culture of fish or cage fabric or vinyl-coated plastic netting for making cages (g) feed dispensers and feed timers etc. It is extremely difficult to base a large-scale aquaculture industry on regular import of all such equipment. In the interest of overall economic development therefore, it is advantageous to develop such, auxiliary industries. The effort of Rural Agricultural and Industrial Development Services (RAIDS) in this connection is highly commendable. RAIDS has recently produced a smoking equipment for rural use. A lot more remains to be done! 8. At the present stage of our development in Nigeria, most· forms of aquaculture are to be classed as high-risk activities. This is due to hazards, some of which are beyond the control of the operator as they. result from environmental changes such as adverse weather conditions, changes in water supply, natural calamities like typhoons, floods, etc and others like epidemics of mortality due to diseases, pollution from . domestic, agricultural or industrial effluents, which are only partly under his control. Besides providing assistance to control or minimize the losses caused by such disasters, governments, often provide financial and material assistance to farmers and entrepreneurs to rebuild their UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 76 B.E. Olufemi installations and culture stocks. This can become a major burden on governments. An alternative means of mitigating such losses is by provision of insurance cover through comrriercial underwriters. There are, at this stage of the industry, major problems in arranging insurance cover from the point of view of both the underwriter, who has to provide the cover, and the aquaculturist who needs protection. First of all, there has hardly been any insurance underwriter willing to cover risks, associated with aquaculture production at reasonable premium rates. The general lack of knowledge of insurance companies of the commercial and industrial characteristics of aquaculture and the nature of the risks that they are required to underwrite, has been a major handicap. Insurance covers have to be based on the principle of spreading the cost of risks among the insured by charging premiums that in total exceed the losses that will have to be compensated. The twofold problem that stands in the way of the spread of aquaculture insurance is the lack of expertise among underwriters to assess risks and the scarcity of enterprises that are ready to participate in insurance schemes. The underwriters have to enlist the services of scientific and technical experts to help in assessing risks and advise them on the prevention and reductipn of losses. An insurance facility meant to cater for the needs of the aquaculture industry and available through the normal insurance agents, is now necessary and when sufficiently well developed and well spread in the country, would contribute substantially to greater investments in aquaculture. REFERENCES Ashley, L.M., Halver, J.E. and Wogan, G.N. (1964): Hepatoma and flatoxicosis in trout Fed. Proo., 23, p. 105. Austin, B. AIlen and Austin, D. (1985): A review, Bacterial Pathogens offish. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 58, 486-506. Bardach, J.E., Ryther, J.H. and Mchamey, W.D. (1972): Aquaculture: Thefarming and husbandry of fteshwater and marine organisms. New York, London: Wiley- Interscience. 868 pp. (Book). Bauer, O.N. (1961): Parasitic diseases of cultured fishes and methods of their prevention and treatment pp. 265-298, In, V.A. Dogiel, G.K. Petruschevki and Yu. I. Polyansk (eds.) Parasitology of fishes. London: Oliver and Boyd Ltd. Butler, W.H. (1965): Liver injury and aflatoxin in G.N. Wogan (ed.) Mycotoxins and Foodstuffs. Mass: MIT Press, Cambridge. Campbell, A.D. (1972): Chemical and biological alterations of mycotoxins and their relationship to control of the mycotoxin problem. Abstracts. !UP AC Symposium control of mycotoxins, Goteborg, Sweden, p.6. Carmichael,J. W. (1966): Cerebral Mycetoma of trout due to a phialophora-like fungus. Sabouraudia, 5. pp. 120-3. Chimits, P. (1955): Tilapia and its culture: a preliminary bibliography, FAO Fish Bulletin, 8,(1): 1-33. ' . Clark, H.F. (1972): Growth and-attenuation of rabies virus in cell cultures of Reptilian origin. Proc. Soc. Exp. BioI. and Med. 139(4): 1317-1325. Dollear, F.G .' (1969): Detoxification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds in L.A. Goldblatt UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 77 (ed.)Aflatoxin. New York: Academy Press. Eveland, W.C., Marschall, J.D. and Silverstain, A.M. (1957): Specific immnochemical staining of Cryptococcus neoformans. Am. J. Pathol. 33, pp. 616-17. Fasanya, O.O.A., Oladimeji, A.A. and Yakubu, Ll.J, (1988): Bacterial microflora associated with the skin and gills of Tilapia nilotica (Oreochromis niloticus). Nig. J. Appl. Fish and Hydrobiol. 3. 49-50. Fijan, N. (1969): Systemic Mycosis in Channel catfish; Bull. Wild. Dis. Assoc., 5: pp. 109-10. Fryer, G. and IIes, T.D. (1972): The Cichlid fishes of the great lakes of Africa: Their biology and evolution. Oliver and. Edinburgh: Boyd. 641 pp. (Book). Goldblatt,L.A. (1973): Learning to live with mycotoxins: Aflatoxin - a case history. Pure Appl. Chern. 35, p.223. Halver,J.E. (1965): Aflatoxicosis and rainbow trout hepatoma in G.N. Wogan (ed.) Mycotoxins infoodstuffs, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press pp.209-34. Huet,M. (1972): Textbook of fish culture: Breeding and Cultivation of fish. Translated by H. Kohn Fishing News. (Books) Ltd., Farnham, Surrey, England. 436pp. Ibiwoye,T.I.I., Okaieme, A.N., Okojie, P.V.A. and Agbontale, I.A. (1989): Bacterial fish disease investigation and pathology of the integument (Skin and fins) of Clarios spp. and Tilapia spp. in the NIFFR hatcheries. National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research (NIFFR) Annual Report, pp. 32-35. Kirk,R.G. (1972): A review of recent developments in Tilapia culture, with special reference to fish farming in the heated effluents of power stations. Aquaculture 1 (1): 45-60. Lovell,R.T., (1976): Nutritional Diseases in Channel catfish. F AO Technical Conference on Aquaculture, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 10 pp. Majeed, S.K., Jolly, D.W. and Gopinath, C. (1984): An outbreak of liver cell carcinoma in rainbow trout, Sa/mo gairdneri Richardson, in the U.K . J. Fish. Dis. 7, pp. 165-8. Maar, A., Mortimer, M.A.E. and van der Lingern, I. (1966): Fish culture in central East Africa. F AO Publ. 53608661E. 158 pp. (Book) .. Mattes, H. (1973): A bibliography of African fresh water fish.FAO/UN Rome .. 299 pp. (Book). : Micheli, P .A. (1729): Nova plantatum genera juxta T ownefortii methodum disposita. Florence, 234 pp. Nigrelli, R.F. and Ruggieri, G.D. (1965): Studies on virus diseases of fishes. Spontaneous and experimentally induced cellular hypertrophy (Lymphocystis disease) in fishes of the New York Aquarium, with a report of new cases and an annotated bibliography (1874-1965). Zoologica 50: 83. N.Y. Nottidge, H.O., Olufemi, B.E. and The, M. (1992): Experimental. inoculation oftilapias (Oreochromis niloticus) with rabies virus. Trop. Vet. 10,53-56. Ogbondeminu, F.A. and Okaeme, A.N: (1986) Bacterial flora associated with an organic manure-aquaculture system in Kainji Basin Area, Nigeria. Int. 1. Zoon. 13: 54-58. Olufemi, B.E., Agius, C. and Roberts, RJ. (1983): Aspergillomycosis in intensively cultured tilapia from Kenya. Vet. Rec. 112. Pp. 203-204. Olufemi, B.E. and Roberts, RJ. (1983) Experimental Aspergillomycosis in tilapias. Proceedings of the international symposium on tilapia in aquaculture, Nazareth, Israel. May 8-13,1983. pp. 185-192. . Olufemi, B.E. and Roberts, R.J. (1983b) Methods for the isolation of Aspergillus species pathogens offish from clinical materials. Vet. Rec. 112. p. 15. Olufemi, B.E. (1984) Aspergillomycosis in cultured 'tilapias, Ph.D. Thesis, University of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 78 B.E. Olufemi Stirling, Scotland. Olufemi, B.E. (1985) The Aspergilli as pathogens of cultured fishes: Recent Advances in Aquaculture, Vol. 2 (ed.) James F. Muir and Ronald 1. Roberts. Croom Helm, London and Sydney, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. pp. 193-217. Olufemi, B.E., R.J. Roberts and G.N. Frerichs (1986) Serological aspects of aspergillomycosis in cultured tilapias (Oreochromis niloticus). Trop. Vet. 29-38. Olufemi, B.E. (1986) Application of the fluorescent antibody technique (F AI) to the demonstration of Aspergillus organism in formalin-fixed tissue oftilapias. Journal of Fish Diseases 9, 91-93. Olufemi, B.E. and RJ. Roberts (1986) Induction of clinical aspergillornxcosis by feeding contaminated diet to tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L): Journal of Fish Diseases 9: 123-128. Olufemi, B.E. (1986) Diseases and Parasites of Cultured Fishes. Aquaculture Training Programme for Fisheries Officers and Superintendents at Oyo fish farm. Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Federal Department of Fisheries Division. July-August, 1986. Olufemi, B.E. (1988a) Viral diseases of fish. In Viral diseases of animals in Africa. OAU-STRC, Lagos, Nigeria. pp. 393-403. Olufemi, B.E. (l988b) Strategies/or Disease Prevention on Fish Farms. Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association Continuing Education Workshop on "Animal Disease Prevention". Conference Centre, University ofIbadan. July 11-16. . Olufemi, B~E. and Roberts, R.J. (1989): Fungal isolates from tilapia (Oreochromis spp) and from pelleted fish ration. Zariya Veterinarian 4, No.1 pp. 70-72. ' Olufemi, B.E., Akinlabi, D.A. and Agbede, S.A. (1991) Aerobic bacterial pathogens isolated from the African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burch) Trop. Vet. 9: 177-180. Okaeme, A.N. and Olufemi, B.E. (1997) Fungi associated with tilapia culture ponds in Nigeria. J. Aqua. Trop.l2(4),267-274, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Prt. Ltd.' Papema, I. Van As. J.G. and Basson, L (1983) Review of diseases ·affecting cultured cichlids. In: Fishelson, Land Yaro, Z. ed. Proceedings International Symposium on tilapia in aquaculture. Nazareth, Israel, May 8-13, 1983, Tel-Aviv, University of Tel- . Aviv. pro 173c184. Porter, B.M., Comfort, B.K., Menges, R. W. Haberman, R. T. and Smith, C.D. (1965) Correlation of Fluorescent antibody histopathology and culture on tissues from 372 animals examined for histoplasmosis and blastomycosis. 1. Bact. 89, pp. 748-51. Raper, K.B. and Fennel, D.I. (1965) The Genus Aspergillus.Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 686 pp. Richards, R.H. (1978) Mycology of te\eosts: In R.J. Roberts (ed.) Fish pathology .Lcndon: Bailliere-Tindall. 328pp. Rogers, W.A. (1978): Parasitic diseases of fresh water fishes. Marine Fisheries Review 4G(3): 56-57. Ross, AJ. and .Toth, RJ.(1974): Lactobacillus - a new fish pathogen. Progressive Fish Culture 36: 191. . Sairg, S. (1971): Diseases of fishes. Block 3: The prevention and treatment of diseases of warm water fishes under subtropical conditions, with special ernphasis on intensive fish farming. T.F .H. Publications Inc. Ltd., Neptune, New Jersey, 127 pp. Sinhuber, R.O., Wales, J.H., Ayres, J.L.;Engebrecht, R.H. and Amend, D.L. (1968): Dietary factors and hepatoma in rainbow trout (Salmo gaaairdneri) I:Aflatoxins in vegetable protein foodstuffs. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 41 (41), pp. 711-18. Wales, J.H. and Sinhuber, R.O. (1966): An early hepatoma epizootic in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Calf Fish and Game, 52. pp.85-91. Wales, HI. (1970) Hepatoma in rainbow trout. In S.F. Snieszko (ed.) A symposium on UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fish Husbandry and Medicine: The Experience of a Tropical Veterinarian 79 Diseases of Fishes and shell fishes. American Fisheries Society. New York. pp.351- 65. Wales,J .H. (1979) Induction of hepatoma in rainbow trout Salmo gaairdneri, (Richardson) by the egg bath technique. F Fish Dis. 2, pp. 563-6. Wehmer,C. (1901) Die pilzgattung Aspergillus in Morphologischer physiologischer and Systematischer Baziehung Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. 33. pp. 1-157 (Commonly cited as Wehmer's Monograph). Geneva. Wolf, H. and Jackson, E.W. (1963) Hepatoma in rainbow trout: Descriptive and experimental epidemiology. Science, 142 pp.676-8. Wolke, R.E. (1975) Pathology of bacterial and fungal diseases In Ribelin, W.E. and Migaki, G. The Pathology of Fishes. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. pp.33- 116. Wood, E.M., Yasutake, W.T. and Lenihan, E.C. (1955) A mycosis-like granuloma of fish.J. Infect. Dis. 97. pp.262-7. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 DISTRIBUTIONAL INEQUITY AND THE PROBLEM OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION Sylvester Abumere Department of Geography Introduction I regard it a great honour and privilege to be asked to give the 1997/98 session inaugural lecture on behalf of the Faculty of the Social Sciences. Looking atthe records, this is the 10th inaugural lecture from the Department of Geography, the first having been given in 1951 by Professor B. J. Gamier. My own specialization enables me to look at what happens to economic development in space. This would mean that whereas ecoriomists view economic development mainly in sectoral terms, geographers like me' regard it as taking place among areal units. This geographer's viewpoint underlies the issues raised in this inaugural address. My first thought was to christen this address ''Nigeria's Two Nations and the Problem of National Unity". After much agonizing, I opted for today's title, "Distributional Inequity and the Problem of National Integration". Distributional inequity is taken to mean differential availability of the fruits of economic development among populations in different Nigeria's areal units. Economic development itself is defined as economic growth plus spread. This would mean that if the benefits of economic growth were concentrated in the hands of a few people or in a few areas, that would not be economic development at all. Equality of access by people and areas to the good things of life is therefore, perhaps, the best way of measuring development. Indeed, the 1996 Report of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 1996) states that distributional equity is at the heart of economic development. Unequal access is not only inequitable, it can also do tremendous damage to national integration. I did not realize the extent of the distributional inequity in the space economy of Nigeria until 1976 when we started, studies in the new Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. I discovered that over the whole Territory which is about 8,000 sq.kms and therefore two and-a-half times the size of Lagos State and larger than UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 82 Sylvester Abumere many of Nigeria's current 36 states, there was no single secondary school, no hospital and no single mile of tarred road. Everywhere you went, there was poverty and a high level of governmental neglect. One came away with the conclusion that Nigeria must truly be two nations - a nation of haves and of have-nots. Later, I found out that the level of deprivation in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was true of almost the whole of the Middle Belt of Nigeria in which the FCT is situated. This is usually traced to the neglect of the Middle Belt during the colonial administration. The fact was that unlike the areas to the north which produced exportable crops such as groundnut or to the south which produced palm oil and kernels, rubber and cocoa, the Middle Belt produced mainly food crops such as yams which turned out not to be of much interest to the British. The area did not therefore receive much attention from the colonial administration in the distribution of social and physical infrastructures. Whatever the reason for the neglect of this area, the point I want to make is that my visual experience in the FCT stimulated my interest in the whole issue of unequal access to development infrastructures. I started to investigate why we have rich and poor areas in a nation, and the consequences of this. In what follows, I will attempt to share my findings. The lecture divides into five sections. After this introduction, I move on to the issue of the spatial pattern of development in Nigeria. This will enable me to distinguish between the areas that have access to development opportunities and those that are not. I will then examine the access gap, that is, the gap of opportunities between the areas that are developed and those that are not. This will be followed by an explanatory framework. Lastly, the obstacles placed in the way of nation-building and national integration by the unequal or "two-nation" phenomenon will be taken up. Space and Economic Development in Nigeria In 1911, the Dutch economist, Boeke (Boeke 1953; Furnival 1939), produced a classic on the two-nation concept. He noted the co-existence within one economy of two economic systems, different in behaviour, organization and performance, a phenomenon he described as a dual economy. The duality consisted of a modern, developed, enterprising, industrial, innovative and rich sector and a traditional, subsistence, unentrepreneurial and poor sector. Rather than viewing this dualism in the form of sectors, geographers have often viewed it in terms of space. It is then argued that under certain conditions, growth begins to occur in a certain region and this may produce backwash effects in other areas leading to their stagnation. The consequence of such conditions is the perpetuation of an economy with a dynamic growing area existing side by side with a stagnating one (Hirschcman 1958; Mydral 1957; Friedman 1966; Logan 1972). The idea that space can be subdivided into areas that have development and areas that do not have or into rich and poor areas has dominated researches in regional development in the last three decades or so. In any attempt to categorize the Nigerian space according to levels of development, the problems of measurement and data will loom large. It used to be fashionable to measure economic development by per capita income alone. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Distributional Inequity and the Problem of National Integration 83 The quadrupling of oil prices by OPEC countries in 1973 forced a rethinking of this strategy. This was because many of the Middle East OPEC countries then, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Quatar and the United Arab Emirates, had per capita incomes greater than those of many European countries. It became absurd to argue that these Middle East countries were more developed than the numerous European countries. To obviate this problem, many variables are now used to measure development. These variables attempt to capture the many dimensions of development including economic, social, political and cultural dimensions. Using many variables immediately confronts the researchers in Nigeria with formidable data problems. The data required on the variables are either unavailable or prone to numerous errors. This usually means that the right balance has to be struck between number and reliability of variables. To distinguish between the areas of more or less development in Nigeria, two strategies were adopted for this address. The first was to use the results of the Report on Human Development in Nigeria produced by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 1996). The second was based on nineteen indicators of development with the states of Nigeria as the points of observatiori. The statistical techniques of factor and multivariate analysis were used to regionalize the results. UNDPResuits In chapter 3 ofthe-UNDP's Nigerian Human Development Report (UNDP 1996) an examination was made of the widening gap of opportunities over the nation's space. The Report used three indicators to measure development - longevity, knowledge and income. Longevity was measured as life expectancy at birth. Knowledge was measured by two variables including levels of adult literacy and mean years of schooling. Income was measured by purchasing-power based on real GDP per capita, adjusted for the Local Cost of Living (that is, purchasing power parity, PPP). These variables were regarded, as providing adequate approximation of the command over resources needed for a decent living. Data on the three variables were then combined to obtain composite indices for .the states of Nigeria. !able 1 shows the result. so obtained .. .: -, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 84 Sylvester Abumere Table 1 Components of HDI for Nigeria (1992) SIN State Life Adult Mean Educa- Real Adjusted HDI Expec- lite- years tional GDPper GDP tancyat racy % of attain capita (PPPS) Birth school ment (PPPS) (years) % \. Bendel 53.7 65.6 4.00 45.07 5,003.4 5,003.3 0.631 2. Rivers 50.2 5\.9 3.84 35.88 4,860.7 4,860.7 0.539 3. ClRiver 57.8 69.4 3.27 47.36 2,626.0 2626.0 0.5\3 4. Lagos 6 \.4 65.0 3.92 44.64 2,034.7 2,034.7 0.489 5. Imo 60.0 75.6 3.80 5\.67 1,34\.1 1,34\.1 0.466 6. Gonzola 57.8 26.0 2.15 18.05 665.\ 665.1 0.214 7. Ondo 49.4 50.6 3.29 34.83 422.9 422.9 0.212 8. Ovo 51.3 40.4 3.11 27.97 678.\ 678.1 0.210 9. Niger 54.9 16.0 1.04 11.01 1,262.0 1,262.0 0.191 10. Benue 53.5 27.0 1.91 18.64 809.5 809.5 0.188 11. Kwara 45.9 40.0 3.00 27.67 1,020.1 1020.\ 0.\83 12. Anambra 44.9 43.\ 2.91 29.70 860.1 860.1 0.174 \3. Kano 57.1 12.1 0.73 8.31 692.6 692.6 0.161 14. Plateau 39.5 36.7 2.\8 25.19 1,224.1 1,224.1 0.\49 15. Sokoto 49.2 2.7 0.43 \.94 1,246.2 1,246.2 0.\28 . 16. Bauchi 36.7 39.8 2.03 27.21 762.2 762.2 Q.127 17. Ozun 37.4 4\.8 2.81 28.80 619.3 619.3 0.126 18. Kaduna 36.6 30.8 \.52 21.04 876.4 876.4 0.\01 19. Borno 37.0 10.0 0.55 6.85 957.8 957.8 0.042 HDIof 5\.5 50.7 1.20 34.20 1,215.0 1,215.0 0.246 1993 Source: UNDP (1996). Nigerian Human Development Report, p. 29. From Table 1, the stat es with the highest life expectancy at birth are Lagos and Imo with 6 t."4years and 60 years respectively. The states with the lowest life expectancy include Kaduna (36.6), Bauchi (6.7), Borno (31.0) and Ogun (37.4). In the case of adult literacy, Imo State has the highest level (75.5%), followed by Cross River (69.4%), Edo and Delta States (former Bendel) (65.6%) and Lagos (65.0%). States with the least levels of adult literacy include Sokoto (2.7%), Borno (10.0%) and Kano (12.1 %). As for mean years of school, former Bendel tops the rest with 4 years, followed by Lagos (3.92 years). Rivers (3.84) and lino (3.80). The states at the bottom are Sokoto with 0.43 years of schooling, Borno with 0.55 and Kano with 0.73. In the case of Real GDP per capta, former Bendel, Rivers, Cross River and Lagos, in that order, top the list while at the bottom are Ondo,Ogun, Gongola, Oyo and Kano. The composite index derived from these variables, the HDI index, can be seen clearly in Table 1. From this Table, former Bendel, Rivers, Cross River, Lagos and Imo top the list. Note that all the states in the north, apart from Gongola, performed poorly on the HDI. Also note that Ogun State is the only southern state ranking with the low performing northern states (Fig. 1). From this figure, northern Nigeria is virtually a sea of low performing states. The contrast in distributional inequity between the north and the south cannot be more UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Distributional Inequity and the Problem of National Integration 85 dramatic. In summarizing Table 1, UNDP (1996) reckons that on the basis of their Human Development Index (HDI), the three leading states of former Bendel, Rivers and Cross River, would easily have qualified in 1990 as middle human development countries occupying positions 79th, 91st and 96th respectively in the world while the lowest HDI - Ogun, Kaduna and Borno would have occupied 148th, 150th and 161st (i.e. the last positions respectively). HOI OVe.!'i ,.~'il OM..llJ JJ! [U ~I .~~I Health is a crown on the heads of the healthy people, but only the sick people see it. On the ephemeral nature of worldly power: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 128 Sayed H.A. Malik If the position you occupy were to last for ever, your turn would not have come. Influence of Arabic on other Languages As the language of the Qur'an and a vehicle of Islamic culture Arabic has influenced the languages of Muslim peoples, resulting in syntactical and lexical borrowings. In Asia, Persian, Turkish, Urdu and Malay are amongst the languages that have been tremendously influenced by Arabic. In Africa too, Somali, Swahili, Mandinka, Wolof, Hausa, Fuffufde, Kanurr and Yoruba have acquired loans from Arabic words and expressions. Thus, Arabic has enriched these languages with thousands of religious, political, legal and commercial words and expressions. Arabic Influence on Swahili Swahili, which is spoken in Tanzania and other East African countries, has been greatly influenced by Arabic. One of the theories concerning the origin of Swahili language is that it is a creole that came into being when the coastal Bantu tribes in East Africa inter-married with Arabs. In this connection, Dr. G.S.P. Freeman-Greenville in his article on medieval evidences for Swahili has argued., Swahili owes much to Arabic: and the first indication of such a process of hybridization on the East African coast is in the Peri plus of the Erythraean sea, written by an unknown Alexandrine Sea-Captain of the l" Century A.D ...37 Professor Muhammad Hassan Bakalla computes that Swahili has borrowed more than thirty percent of its vocabulary from the Arabic language". It is interesting to note that the influence of Arabic is also reflected on proper nouns and epithets used in the Swahili language. For instance, the name of the capital of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, is borrowed from the Arabic phrase "ddrus-saldm" meaning "the home of peace". Also the popular Swahili epithet for Julius Nyerere, the former Tanzanian President, is "mwalimu" which is borrowed from the Arabic word "Mu'allim" meaning "a teacher". Arabic Loan Words in Hausa Hausa has borrowed extensively from Arabic". It has also adopted Arabic names for the seven days of the week. Apart from many lexical items used in Hausa which are loan words from Arabic, a good example of the influence of the latter on the former is the use of the pronoun prefixes /ya-/ and /ta-/ for masculine and feminine nouns respectively. The following sentences amply illustrate this point: ARABIC HAUSA MEANING (i) yadhhab yana tafiya he is going ~~ (ii) tadhhab tana tafiya she is going ~j:j UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and Beyond 129 Similarly, the pronominal suffixes I-ka/ and I-kil are used for masculine and feminine nouns respectively in both Arabic and Rausa as shown in the following examples: ARABIC HAUSA MEANING (i) baituka gidanka your house (masculine) 4- (ii) baituki gidanki your house (feminine) ~ Some other examples of the Arabic lexical items commonly used in Rausa are the following: ARABIC HAUSA MEANING (i) al'ahad lahadi Sunday ~'il (ii) al'ithnain litinen Monday ~~I (iii) 'aththulatha talaata Tuesday ~~I (iv) al'arbi'a' laaraba Wednesday ~~..)'il (v) alkhamis alhamis Thursday ~I (vi) aljum'ah juma'a Friday ~I (vii) assabt asabari Saturday ~I (viii) al'akhbar labaari news .;.p.'il (viii) jaridah jariida newspaper o~ (ix) dars darasi lesson U".;J (x) talib daalibi student ~ (xi) '11m ilimi knowledge ~ (xii) mu'allim maalami teacher ~ (xiii) mithal misaali example JIlt Arabic Loan Words in Yoruba Yoruba language is also not free from the influence of Arabic. Prof. Ogunbiyi (1984) has identified eight subject matter groups in which the Yoruba language has borrowed words and expressions from the Arabic language". As a matter of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 130 Sayed H.A. Malik fact, the range of Arabic loan words in Yoruba shows the impact of the language on the linguistic and cultural life of the Yoruba people. Here, an attempt will be made to focus attention on some of the Arabic loan words which are frequently used by Yoruba speakers in their daily speech, in Yoruba classical poetry (ewi), as well as in Yoruba radio and television programmes. Reference will also be made to some Arabic words used in the translation of the Bible into Yoruba. (A) Examples of the Arabic loan words used in ewi. 1. Iyan ajaju 10 n fa sababi ibinu A continuous argument causes anger. The Yoruba word sababi is borrowed from the Arabic word sabab meaning "reason, cause". The ewi in which this word was used was read on N.B.C. Ibadan by Olalomi Amole on March 6, 1976. 2. Ma fi epe ye kadara omo Don't change the child's destiny with curse. The word kadara is borrowed from the Arabic word qadar meaning "destiny, fate". The ewi was read on N.B.C. Ibadan on March 23, 1976. 3. Alamori aye kanpa The affair of this world is not a simple thing. The word alamori is borrowed from the Arabic world al' amr meaning "affair". This ewi was read on N.B.C. Ibadan on November 11, 1976. 4. E tuuba ninu ise ibi Repent of evil deeds. The Yoruba word tuuba is a loan word form the Arabic word taubah meaning "repentance" . 5. E da aniyan tuntun ninu odun tuntun Make a new intention in the new year. The word aniyan is borrowed from the Arabic word an-niyyah meaning "intention". The Yoruba words tuuba and aniyan were used in the ewi read on Radio Nigeria, Ibadan by Ademola Isola on December 31, 1982. (B) Examples of Arabic loan words used in Yoruba news bulletins. 1. N won kan saara si ijoba ipinle Oyo fun mimu itoju awon omo abirun ni ibaada. The Oyo State Government was commended for taking good care of the handicapped children (i.e. The Government regarded the care of the handicapped children as a divine service). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and Beyond 131 2. Olori ile wa ni ki awon omo akeko mu ere idaraya ni ibaada gegebi bi nwon se mu eko won ni ibaada. Our Head of State appealed to school children to take sports seriously just as they take their studies seriously. The word ibaada is borrowed from the Arabic word ibaadah meaning "divine service, act of devotion". This word was used in the 8p.m. Radio O-Y-O Yoruba News Bulletin of December 16, 1981 and 11.00 a.m. Radio Nigeria, Ibadan Yoruba News Bulletin of May 18, 1982 respectively. 3. An toka aleebu si awon towa ni ijoba We pin-point the fault of those in Government. The word aleebu is a loan word from the Arabic word al- 'aib meaning "fault, defect". The statement in which the word aleebu was used was made by a pastor in a Palm Sunday sermon carried on NTA Ibadan Yoruba News Bulletin at 9.30a.m. on April 4, 1981. 4. Komisanna Adedoja se sapdakata si ile ise Redio 0-Y-0 fun ise daadaa reo Commissioner Adedoja commended Radio O-Y-O for its truth and sincerity. The word sadankata is a loan word from the Arabic expression sadaqta meaning "you have spoken the truth". This expression was used in the Radio 0- Y-O Yoruba News Bulletin at 5.3Op.m. on April 1, 1986. 5. Nwon da seriya fun awon ole naa The robbers were given the punishment they Deserved in accordance with the law. The word seriya is a loan word from the Arabic word Shari 'ah meaning "Islamic Law". This expression is often heard on Radio and Television in reports on cases of robbery and the punishment attached to it. (C) Examples of Arabic loan words used in Radio advertisements 1. E yee gba riba mo Stop taking bribe The word riba is a loan from the Arabic word riba meaning "usury, bribe". This statement is often heard on Radio Nigeria, Ibadan. It is designed to eradicate bribery in the Nigerian society. 1. E yee je haramu Stop engaging in an illegal act. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 132 Sayed H.A. Malik The word haramu is a loan word from the Arabic word haram meaning "illegal act, cheating." This statement is also often heard on Radio Nigeria, Ibadan. It is meant to discourage corruption in the society. 3. Eyin sowosowo e yee se makaruru o you traders! Stop engaging in dishonest acts. The word makaruru is a loan word from the Arabic word makruh meaning "a destested thing, a dishonest act". Radio O-Y-O designs this advertisement in order to discourage traders from cheating or engaging in commercial malpractices. (D) Examples of Arabic loan words used in various editions of the Yoruba Bible. 1. "Jesu pade won, 0 wipe, Alafia" "Jesus met them and said, "Hail!" The Yoruba word a/aajia is a loan word from the Arabic word al-afiya meanmgvgood health, well-being". It is used in Matteu, 28:9, Samneli 3:21 and Iwe Owe 17: 1. 2. "Gbo adura mi, Oluwa" "Hear my prayer, 0 Lord". The Yoruba word adua is borrowed from the Arabic word ad-du'a' meaning "prayer". It is used in Orin Dafidi, 102:1; 65:2 and 142:8. 3. "Kalamu ayawo akowe li ahon mi" "My tongue is like the pen of a ready scribe". The word ka/amu is borrowed from the Arabic word qa/am meaning "pen". It is used in Orin Dafidi 41: 1. 4. "0 si wi fun won pe, E je ki a 10 si ilu miran, ki emi ki 0 le wasu nibe pelu". "And he said to them, let us go on to the next towns, that I may preach there also". The Yoruba word iwaasu is borrowed from the Arabic word wa 'z meaning "sermon, preaching". The word is used in Marku, 1:38 and 1:7 as well as in Matteu, 10:7. 5. "Bi a ti koo ninu iwe Woli Isaiah". As it is written in Isaiah the Prophet". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and Beyond 133 The word wolii is borrowed from the Arabic word waliy meaning "saint, holy man". This word is used in Marku 1:2. All the Arabic words used in Yoruba which are cited above are taken from BIBELI MIMO (The Bible in Yoruba, corrected edition) published by United Bible Societies, Lagos, 1969. The English translations are taken from the HOLY BIBLE Revised Standard Version published by Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., London 1957. Indeed the general distribution of Arabic loan words in Yoruba and their acceptability all over Yorubaland indicate that the words must have entered the Yoruba language and perhaps in the early days of Islam in Yorubaland. This is why such words and expressions are often used by Yoruba men and women regardless of whether they are Muslims, Christians or Traditional worshippers. That the history of the contact between Yoruba and Arabic through Islam has been a very long one is attested by this popular Yoruba saying: Aye l'aba 'fa Aye l'aba 'male Osan gangan ni igbagbo wole de". We met ifa (the Yoruba traditional religion) in this world, We met Islam in the world; but Christianity came later in the day. While talking about the influence on some important Nigerian languages, we consider it pertinent to remark that Arabic is, indeed, qualified to be regarded as a Nigerian language. This view can be supported by the fact that a Nigerian ethnic group, the Shuwa Arabs, who are found in Borno State, speak Arabic as their mother tongue. Since these Shuwa Arabs have a definite location within the political map of this country, it cannot be denied that they are bonafide citizens of Nigeria. Religious prejudices notwithstanding, it is virtually impossible to eliminate Arabic loan words from the living vocabulary of the .\'J'i~erianlanguages referred to in this lecture. I venture to say that any attempt to rembve the indelible impact of Arabic on these languages will be an exercise in futility. This is because not even a dictator can prevent people from speaking as they please. Africa's Lingua Franca: Arabic as an Option In the quest for Pan-Africanism, the Union of writers of the African peoples agreed on the need to adopt a national language for all the countries of Africa. This is clear from the following statement made by Professor Wole Soyinka, one of the members of the Union: . At the Conference in Algiers in 1975, the All-Africa Union of Teachers boldly resolved that the continent of Africa adopt one UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 134 Sayed H.A. Malik common lan~uage and proposed a selection from Hausa, Arabic and Swahili" . The call for the adoption of Swahili was later made by the Union and it was repeated by Professor Wole Soyinka at the 1977 FESTAC colloquium. Without going into the merits of the choice of Swahili by the Union, ~ic seems to be highly qualified to the lingua franca of Africa. After aU, it is not a foreign language as is the case with English, French, Afrikaans or other non- African languages. This view is predicated on the premise that Arabic is the national language of the whole of North Africa and the common language of many communities in sub-Saharan Africa. In this connection, Last has this to say: The lingua franca of the community was Arabic, and thus it transcended national divisions'", The criteria to be used in choosing a national language, as advocated by Professor. Ayo Banjo, 44include the following: 1. Population: This has to do with the number of people who already speak the language as native speakers and whether there is a standard variety of the language. 2. Acceptability: How acceptable the language is to the native speakers of other languages 3. Typology: What the relationship of the language is to other languages. 4. State of Development: This has to do with whether or not the language . already has a standard orthography in use. 5. Literary Status: This has to do with the quantity and quality of the literature existing in the language. ... " ,,~. Bearing these criteria in mind, the choice would seem to be Arabic as far as choosing a lingua franca for Africa is concerned. ' First, Arabic has the largest number of people who speak it either as a native or non-native language in Africa. Also, there is a standard variety of Arabic which enjoys universal acceptability all over the Muslim world. Secondly, the influence of Arabic on many African languages has been discussed. Thirdly, there is a well-known Arabic script which has served and is still serving as a medium of writing many African languages. Fourthly, it has been established that a large quantity of good quality Arabic literature exists in the Arab world and in Muslim communities in Asia and Africa. Fifthly, Arabic has been recognized as an international language: it is one of the six official languages used by the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.) and-the African Petroleum Producers Association (APPA), Arabic'is the only indigenous African language. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and Beyond 135 Problems Facing the Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria I do not intend to dwell at length in this lecture on all the pedagogical and related problems facing the Arabic language in Nigeria. This important aspect has been treated extensively by non-Nigerian and Nigerian Arabists such as Mr. Selim Hakim, Professor Ayoub, Prof. Ogunbiyi and Prof. Malik. Nevertheless, an attempt will be made to highlight some aspects of this problem. These aspects include the following: 1. Weak Background of Arabic Learners The standard of the students who learn Arabic in secondary schools is very low. The reason for this is that most of these students have no previous knowledge of Arabic before their admission to secondary schools as a result of non-teaching of Arabic in their primary schools. Hence, these pupils know absolutely nothing about Arabic. 2. Inadequacy of Trained Arabic Teachers In most states in Nigeria, there are no colleges where Arabic teachers are trained. In the Northern states where a few Arabic teachers' colleges exist, the teachers produced in those colleges are few, and as such, they cannot meet the demand for trained Arabic teachers in both the primary and secondary schools. Hence, there is scarcity of trained Arabic teachers in most states of Nigeria. 3. Non-availability of Suitable Instructional Materials At present, there are not enough good books on the Arabic language suitable for various categories of readers and levels of learners. The problems that have been identified as confronting the teaching of Arabic in Nigeria at present are in no way insurmountable. One way of solving the problems is the early introduction of Arabic language at the primary school level. The merit is that many pupils will have a good background in Arabic. Consequently, many of them will be encouraged to learn Arabic in secondary schools as well as in Teachers' Colleges and other institutions of higher learning. The training of Arabic teachers should be taken very seriously at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. To achieve this objective, refresher courses, seminars and in-service training prorammes should be organized for Arabic teachers. With regard to the availability of instructional materials, the situation has improved through the emergence of a new breed of indigenous Nigerian Arabic writers such as Binuyo, Hijab, the late Professor Suwaid, Professor Ogunbiyi, Professor Malik and Professor Oseni. Nevertheless, a lot more needs to be done in the area of the provision of a wide variety of suitable Arabic books and instructional materials which employ new audio-visual techniques and supplementary aids such as phonographs, magnetic tapes, slides, flashcards, films as well as language laboratories with facilities for group and individual practice. While such books should be very relevant to the learners' environment, they should also reflect the true picture of Arabic and Islamic culture. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 136 Sayed H.A. Malik It should be admitted that the religious factor has far-reaching consequences on people's attitude to Arabic in Nigeria. This has also affected government support for the cause of Arabic scholarship. Consequently, Arabic has suffered considerably from religious prejudice and subjectivity. Considering the various aspects of Arabic and its relevance to sub-Saharan Africa, its religious and historical values, its linguistic and literary values, its indelible impact on a number of indigenous African languages and its role on the international scene, there is need to re-appraise the role of Arabic in Nigeria. This is with a view to formulating an objective and realistic policy which will improve the teaching of Arabic and encourage more people to learn it so that access to the original sources of our heritage as preserved in Arabic documents will be made possible for many Nigerians in the next millenium. It should be pointed out that an important aspect of the Islamic culture and civilization is literacy in Arabic. Through Islamic education, non-Arab Muslims all over the world are exposed not only to Arabic and Islamic literature but also to new ideas and the Arabic literary world. A remarkable feature of the exposure of non-Arab Muslims to a different civilization is the fact that Islam offers an alternative access to a renowned culture and enduring human civilization other than through Christianity and submission to European cultural colonization. It is-appropriate on this occasion to remember my late mother, who did not live long enough to enjoy the fruits of her labour. I pray that Allah may have mercy on her. I must also express my sincere gratitude to my father, who made my nature the object of his precious care. My profound thanks are due to my wife and children for their patience over the seemingly interminable period of time involved in my study and writing of Arabic materials which compelled me to be away from them for most of the hours of the day and night. In terms of love, care, affection and assistance my wife, Khadijah Titilade, is to me what Khadijah bint Khuwailid was to Prophet Muhammad. I pledge my eternal love for her and our children. I also convey my appreciation to my benefactors, friends and well- wishers. . In my efforts to be a Nigerian Arabist, I have benefited, as is to be expected, from the knowledge and expertise of many teachers whom I hold in high esteem. But, encouragement, inspiration and scholarly guidance came at a crucial time from the late Professor Muhammed Salim El-Garh and the late Professor Musa Ajilogba Abdul, both distinguished scholars who made outstanding contributions to Arabic and Islamic scholarship. It is to their memories that this humble exercise is dedicated. Mr. Vice-Chancellor, distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen, I can think of no better words to conclude this lecture than the divine words contained in the following verses of the Qur'an: .~c"..J..r: t'l r--'--'I Q-.o'8~..~J - It.. .-J-l 1. And of knowledge, you (mankind) have been given only a little. (Qur'an 17:85). . .~ ~ (j~ Ji J:,i ~ -2 2. And above all those endowed with knowledge is the All-knowing (Allah) (Qur'an 12:76) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and Beyond 137 REFERENCES I. Chejne, A.G. (1969). The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press), P. 12. 2. Abd al-Tawwab, R. (1980) "Fusulun Fi Fiqh al-' Arabiyyah", Chapters in Arabic Philology (Cairo, Maktabat al-khanji), 3. Browne, E. g. (1928). A Literary History of Persia, (Cambridge, Vol. 2), P. 4. 4. Hitti, P.K. (1976). Arab Civilization in B.S. Gayne (Ed.), The Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 2 (New York, Americana Corporation), P. 112. 5. Ibn Manzur, M. I. (1955) Lisan al- 'Arab, Vol. I (Beirut, Dar Bayrut), P. 7. 6. Taymur, M. (n.d.) Mushkilat al-Lugbati-l- 'Arabiyyah, (Cairo, Maktabatu-l-Adab), pp. 6 and 7. 7. Chejne, Op. cit., P. II. 8. Potter, S. (1971). Language in the Modern World, (Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Ltd.), pp. 103 and 104; Lord, R. (1967). Comparative Linguistics., (London, The English Universities Press Ltd.), pp. 29-31 and Barber, C. (1964). The Story of Language, (London, Pan Books Ltd.), chapters vii, x and xv. 9. Hunwick, J. O. (1965). Report on a Seminar on the Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria, (lbadan and Kano), p. 31. 10. Last, D. M. (1967) The Sokoto Caliphate, (London, Longman, Green and Co. Ltd.), p.227. • II. Hunwick, Op. cit., pp. 32 and 33. 12. Kamera, W. D. et. al (1986). "The Socio-cultural and Economic Factors in Developing a National Language: The Case of Kiswashili in Tanzania", The Arts and Civilization of Black and African Peoples, Vol. iv, (Lagos, The Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization), p. 131. 13. Boyd, J. and Mack, B.B. (1999). The Collected Works of Nana Asma 'u Daughter of Usman Dan Fodiyo (1793-1864), (lbadan, Sam Bookman Publishers), p. xxii. 14. Bidmus, K. (1972) "A Literary Appraisal of the Arabic Writings of the Yoruba Ulama", Unpublished M. A. Dissertation, University oflbadan, pp. 3 and 4 quoting Richard Lander. Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa (London, 1830), p. 277. 15. Biobaku, S. O. (1957). The Egba and their Neighbours 1842-1872, (Oxford), p. 25. 16. Johnson, S. (1973). The History of the Yorubas from the Earliest TImes to the Beginning of the British Protectorate, (Lagos), p. xxiii. 17. Tolmacheva, M. (1978). "The Arabic Influence on Swahili Literature: A Historian's View" Journal of African Studies, Vol. 5, No.2, (London), p. 224. 18. Bakalla, M.H. (1983). Arabic Culture Through Its Language and Literature, (London, Kegan Paul International), p. 18. 19. Chejne, Op. cit., p. 16. See also Crittenden, P.W. (1971). The Achievements of Islam, (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan Education Ltd.), pp. 6-20. 20. Hitti, P.K. (1970). Islam: A Way of Life (Regnery/Gateway, Inc.), p. 106. 21. Bakalla, Op. cit., p. 266. 22. For a detailed analysis of the uses to which Arabic was put in the nineteenth century, see Hunwick, J. O. (1964). "The Influence of Arabic in West Africa", Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, Vol. vii, (Legon, Ghana), pp. 37-40. 23. Bivar, A. D. H. and Hiskett, M. (1962). "The Arabic Literature of Nigeria to 1804: A Provisional Account", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Vol. xxv, pp. 104-118. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 138 Sayed H.A. Malik 24. Kensdale, W.E.N. (1955). Catalogue of the Arabic Manuscripts in the University Library, Ibadan, Nigeria. 25. Balogun, I.A.B. (1975). The Life and Works of 'Uthman Dan Fodiyo, (Lagos, Islamic Publications Bureau). 26. Ogunbiyi, I. A. (1987). Of Non-Muslim Cultivators and Propagators of the Arabic Language. Inaugural Lecture (Lagos State University). 27. Bashir, U.A. (1985) Qa'imatu 'Asma 'u al-Makhtutat al- 'Arabiyyah Li'Ulama' Sokoto, (List of the Names of Arabic Manuscripts on Sokoto Scholars)", (Sokoto History Bureau). 28. Last, op. cit., p. 222. 29. Ibid., p. 233. 30. Hunwick, (1964). "The Influence of Arabic Language in West Africa", pp. 24-41. 31. Shittu, D.O. (1977). "The Nigerian Draft Constitution and the Shariah Controversy", NATAIS, No.1, p. 114. See also Population Census of Nigeria, May 1962: Historical Events ofEde District Council, p. 1. 32. Last op. cit., p. 192. 33. Bamgbose, A. (1985). "Language and Nation Building" Review of English and Literary Studies, Vol. 2, No.2, p. 97. 34. Banjo, A. (1985). "On Citizenship in a Multilingual State", Review of English and Literary Studies, p. 184. 35. .Shalaby, A. (1973). Tarikh al-Tarbiyati-I-islamiyyah, (History of Islamic Education) (Cairo, Maktabatu al-Nahdati-L-Misriyyah), p. 287. 36. Ibid., p. 287. 37. Kamera, op. cit., p. 125. 38. Bakalla, op. cit., p. 18. 39. Abubakar, a. (1972), Al-Thaqafatu-L- 'Arabiyyah fi Naijiriya (Arabic Culture in Nigeria), (Beirut, Mu'assasatu 'Abdul Hafiz al-Bisat), pp. 387-469. 40. Ogunbiyi, I. A. (1984). "Arabic Loan Words in the Yoruba Language", Arab Journal of Language Studies 3 (1), pp. 161-180. 41. Gbadamosi, T. G. O. (1978). The Growth of/slam among the Yoruba, 1841-1908, (London, Longman), p. 16. 42. Soyinka, W. (1977), "The Scholar in African Society", Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture-Colloquium: Black Civilization and Education, (Lagos), p. 14. 43. Last, op. cit., p. Lxxx. 44. Banjo, L. A. (1986). "Language Policy in Nigeria", The Arts and Civilization of Black and African Peoples, Volume four of Black Civilization and African Languages, (Lagos, The Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization), pp. 112 and 113. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7 BOTANY - BEYOND CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE O.Osonubi Department of Botany and Microbiology Introduction I give honour and glory to Almighty God for making today a reality and for giving me the opportunity to deliver this inaugural lecture on behalf of the Faculty of Science. The topic of my inaugural lecture is "Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture". As an agriculturist and a botanist, I have chosen this topic because of its interest to humanity and also to marry the tower and town, town and gown in botany and agriculture. In order to bring the topic into a more appropriate focus, I have decided to break it into the following subheadings: (a) What is Botany? (b) The contribution of Botany to agricultural sustainability (c) Adaptability and adoptability What is Botany? To any scientist, Botany is simply the study of plants. Whereas to a plant biologist, botany is the mother of all sciences, which is to say that botany is all encompassing, directly and indirectly related. For example: In agriculture, without green plants, there can be no agriculture; In medicine and veterinary medicine, No human being or animal can survive without consuming plants or its products; In pharmacy, most drugs are products of plants; In chemistry, dyes, essential oils, common reagents like alcohols are obtained from plants; In physics, speeds and forces are checked by plants; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 140 0. Osonubi . In geography, location, vegetation and spatial relations are appropriately occasioned by distribution of plants; In urban planning, the interest is in the cosmetic relocation of plants (trees, grasses and flowers) in the cities and their residences; In zoology, all flesh is grass. The Contribution of Botany to Agricultural Sustainability What is agricultural sustainability? Sustainability in agriculture is a biologically- based system that ensures long-term adequate levels of food production without degrading the resource base i.e. soil medium. In the last two decades, International Agricultural Research Centres (!ARC) situated in the tropics, particularly in Sub-saharan Africa have been concentrating their efforts on the development of improved crops based on biological processes. One of such fanning systems is referred to as alley farming/alley cropping (Kang and Wilson 1987) or hedgerow intercropping or avenue cropping (Wijewardene and Waidyanatha 1984). Other natural methods regarded as biologically based systems include planting of cover crops, crop rotation and biological pest control (Reganold et al. 1987). Alley cropping concept was introduced by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (lITA) in the mid-1970s. It is a fanning system in which arable crops are planted in the alleys formed by hedgerows of trees/shrubs, particularly legumes. The system combines both the cropping and the fallow phases. The hedgerows are cut back at planting and subsequently pruned at regular intervals during cropping season to prevent shading and to reduce competition with the associated food crops. The prunings are used as mulch for the associated food crops. The system offers longer cropping yield with increased ,land use efficiency. However, alley cropping has not matched the reported potential because the trials were regarded as peculiarities of the research scientists by the resource-poor fanners. Furthermore, the monetary benefits of alley-cropping are not realized until 2-3 years after commencement. The role of soil microorganisms in management of the resource base has been ignored or virtually overlooked by most soil and plant scientists. For example, most research programmes in the name of sustainable agriculture underscore the role of mycorrhizal fungi as a soil microbiological resource for crop production. Until about 20 years ago, mycorrhizal fungi were known to increase P uptake, enhance N2 - fixation of Rhizobium, and drought resistance of plants in the greenhouse experiments, particularly in temperate countries. Most of these greenhouse studies showed that mycorrhizal associations are effective biological mechanisms for the plants to counteract commonly found edapho- climatic tropical stress situations. Until 10 years ago, no practical experience had been gained on how to manage mycorrhizal fungi under field conditions in Nigeria and no practical results had been presented on whether mycorrhizal fungi could be used as a soil microbiological resource to improve crop production in the tropics. The term 'rnycorrhiza' was coined by Frank in 1885 to describe the symbiotic association of plant roots and fungi. Of the five types of mycorrhizae, two of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture 141 them - ecto- and endo- mycorrhizae are the most important. For the purpose of this inaugural lecture, endomycorrhiza which is also known as vesicular- arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) will be described and will henceforth be referred to in this lecture. These are some of the beautiful microorganisms called VA.· mycorrhiza which God has made available to man for the purpose of improving crop yields and to reduce the use of inorganic fertilizers.The word mycorrhiza means - myco: fungus; rhiza: root, hence mycorrhiza means 'root fungus'. In VAM type, the mycorrhiza consists of spores, vesicles and arbuscles (hence the name) and hyphae. The spores germinate and produce both intercellular and intracellular hyphae which penetrate the root cortical cells, forming specialized haustoria - like structures within the cells called arbuscles, where metabolic exchanges take place between fungus and host cytoplasm. In many VAM fungi, there is development of spherical sac-like structures known as vesicles which are formed in the cortical cells and function as nutrient storage organs or as propagules in root fragments. The YAM-fungal hyphae extend from the root out into the soil where they interface with soil particles. Soil (extraradical) hyphae function as absorptive structures for mineral elements and water. Because of the extension of hyphae from the root into the soil for several centimetres, they can effectively absorb immobile nutrientsfrom the bulk soil and thereby bridge over the zone of nutrient depletion around roots. The soil hyphae also attract other microbes and together they form water-stable aggregates necessary for good soil tilth. In summary and for all ecosystems, the coupling of plants with rhizoshpere microbial processes is optimized by VAM fungi and they form symbiotic relationship with plant roots (Bethlenfalvay 1982). The main purpose of this inaugural lecture is that of painting VA mycorrhizae into the picture of sustainable agriculture in Nigeria. The impression created hitherto was that VAM fungi would work best in infertile acid soils (Sieverding 1991), however, our evidence shows that they can work in near neutral and alkaline soils in Nigeria. My first effort into mycorrhizal research 10 years ago was exciting. In contrast to many reports, trees that are drought tolerant are less dependent on mycorrhiza (Fig. 1) and only those trees that cannot withstand drought-stress are more dependent on mycorrhiza for survival under 5 Ectomycorrhiza Unstressed 1::.. Drought stressed 0 • 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Drought response index Fig. 1: Relationship between Mycorrhizal dependency and Drought response index MD= 7.16 - 8.16DRlr=-O.96 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 142 O.Osonubi drought-stressed conditions (Osonubi et al. 1991). This pioneering work was done in conjunction with IITA and Drs. Awotoye and Atayese who were then in the forefront of mycorrhizal research. In my desperate attempt to test the practical application of mycorrhiza in the field, I sought collaboration with lITA and within a short time, a research grant under the auspices of Alley Farming Network for Tropical Africa (AFNETA) managed by lITA was made available. This gave me and my team the ample opportunity of exploiting the benefits of VAM fungi in the field. Then the issue of where to practise alley farming came in and we approached the Faculty of Agriculture which told us that the only land for the type of research we were contemplating was available at Ajibode but that it had been abandoned by students because of nematode infection and the fact that the top of the slope was too gravelly for cropping. We jumped at the offer, nevertheless, as it would provide the sort of challenge required. To the glory of God, that land has been under cultivation from 1990 to date as a result of alley cropping and mycorrhizal research. It was this experience that led us to the title of this inaugural lecture "Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture". In an alley cropping carried out and constantly monitored for six years at Ajibode, it was consistently shown that VAM fungi improved both the yield of cassava intercrop (Fig.2) and hedgerow trees (Awotoye et al. 1992; Atayese et al. 1993; Osonubi et al. 1995; Okon et al. 1996; Fagbola et al. 1998 a and b; Liasu, 1999). This work was carried out in conjunction with Drs. Atayese, Awotoye, Fagbola, Okon and Messrs Oyetunji, Liasu and Adetunji. Glomus clarum Glomus etunicatum Acaulospora dilatata Fig. 2: Effect of VAM inoculation on cassava tuber yield during six-year continuous alley cropping. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture 143 VAM inoculation had no effect on cassava root yield in year one as there was no mulching of cassava with the prunings from hedgerows. However, in years two and three, root yields improved significantly because VAM made the nutrients from the applied prunings available to cassava. Also, cassava root yields from the uninoculated alleys of Gliricidia ('Agun mani ye) (and Leucaena ('Sekeseke') were increased over the yields in year one. In the inoculated plots after year three, the root yield of cassava alley-cropped with Gliricidia was about 80-100% greater than cassava alley-cropped with Senna ('Cassia') and control (without trees). In years four and five, VAM inoculation had no effect on the cassava root yield except when fertilized (year five). The non-significant difference in the root yields of cassava between inoculated and uninoculated plots could be attributed to competition between the hedgerows and cassava plants. Hence, when more nutrients (fertilized with 25kg hal NPK) were made available to the plots, cassava root yields in both inoculated and uninoculated plots increased in years, five and six. The sporadic root yield increase in inoculated Senna plot (years five and six) could be attributed to the fact that the competition between Senna hedgerows and cassava had been removed by fertilizer application. This is likely to be so as many fine roots of Senna trees inhabit the same topsoil with cassava roots (Ruhigwa et al. 1992). In other comparative experiments, similar alley cropping experiments were set up at the top and base ofthe slope (Fig. 3) (Osonubi et al. 1994). In year one, cassava root yields were significantly lower at the top than at the base of the slope, the latter being more fertile than the former. However, in year two, VAM inoculation restored the anomalies between the top and base of the slope by bringing the cassava root yield to similar levels. The root yield restoration between the two parts of the slope could not have been due to alley cropping alone as the root yields from the uninoculated plots varied significantly from each other irrespective of hedgerows. G ~ Gliricidia sepium L ~ Leucaena /eucocepha/a S = Senna siamea 35 C ~ Control (without trees) o• M+ ~ InoculatedM· ~ Uninoculated 2~-30 I I LSD (5%) '0 I Q'si,25 I I ~ 20 s: (/) I ~ 15 I ro m> 10 (/) (ro) 5 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~11 ~ o IG L S CIG L S CIG L S CIG L S •CIG L S CIG L S CIG L S CI 1 2 3 4 5 5 (fert) 6 Year of alley cropping Fig.3: Effect ofVAM on cassava tuber yield at the different parts of the slope during a two-year alley cropping period, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 144 O.Osonubi Alley Cropping Experiments with Mixed Hedgerows In contrast to the two alley cropping experiments in which one tree species was utilized as hedgerow, the present experiment utilized the mixing of interplanting of two tree species as hedgerows. In the experiment, the objective was to determine the influence of mycorrhizal inoculation and two pruning regimes on the leaf biomass and nutrient yield of sole Gliricidia sepium (a nodulating tree), Senna (syn Cassia) siamea (a non-nodulating tree), and their mixtures as hedgerows and their subsequent effect on two cassava cultivars and intercropped maize. In both Gliricidia and Senna, there were similar leaf dry matter in sole and mixed inoculated or uninoculated trees for either of the pruning regime and for most of the pruning harvests, although significant differences occurred between inoculated and uninoculated mixed or sole trees (Fig. 4). There was no difference between the total leaf dry matter of the two- and three-month pruning regimes in Gliricidia. However, in contrast to Gliricidia, the total leaf dry matter of two- month pruning regime of Senna was lower than its three-month pruning regime except for sole uninoculated trees. G = Gliricidia sepium L = Leucaena leucocephala Top of slope 25 Base of soIpe S - Senna siameaC = Con trol (without trees) • M+ = Inoculated 20 OM· = Uninoculated LSD (5%) 15 r- f- e- - 10 e- s'" r-r-: - r-2- "a0; 5 .;;' (e5 0 -•..... n -- G L S C G L S C s: 0'") .r Year 1 .l= '>'""'" o''"" 30 Top of slope Base of slope 25 20 f- e- 15 f- f- f- 10 5 0 nil n G L S C G L S C Year 1 Fig. 4: Effects of pruning and VAM inoculation on leaf dry matter ofG. sepium and S. siamea. Vertical bars represent LSD (5%). UNIVER ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Botany - Beyond Conventional Agriculture 145 Generally, inoculation and mixing of trees in the same hedgerows significantly increased the total Nand P yield in Gliricidia and Senna with greater values in the former than in the latter (Table 1). In Gliricidia and except for mixed inoculated trees, while total N yield in the leaf was higher in three- monthly pruned trees, the converse was the case for P. For Senna, the total Nand P yields were higher in three-monthly than two-monthly pruned trees. Table 1: Effect of pruning regime and mycorrhizal inoculation on the total foliar Nand P yield of hedgerow trees. Treatment Prunning regime +- N- P ~ (kg ha") G. sepium SoM 2 months 358.4d 14.7c SoM· 2 months 250.2g i5.5k MiM 2 months 810.0a 16.2a MiM· 2 months 267.3f 8.5g SoM 3 months . 454.4c 11.5fSoM- 3 months 302.7e 4.51 MiM 3 months 551.1b 15.5b MiM- 3 months 349.3d 5.8i S. siamea SoM+ 2 months 233.6h 8.5g SoM- 2 months 92.9k 4.3m MiM 2 months 312.4e 12.8e MiM- 2 months 119.0j 6.21 SoM 3 months 301.2e 11.5f SoM- 3 months 117.8i 4.51 MiM 3 months 349.6de 13.6d MiM- 3 months 186.91 7.8h Interactions MxMi *** *** MxPr ** ** MixPr ** * MxMixPr ** ** Means within each column followed by different letters are significantly different at Poto..hi>.,) . •• ~ ~ ~11•.•'.\ti\<,t lp'.l .~ Cl~~i''''(••101L ;I'i~','y .....!rit>\h) e..~. ~QM5U4~1o.-l<.·'I:~1\:l e"'ffer-~ ~tA l22.00· >2.53 Optimum 31.50 3.05 p Low <0.435 <0.33 Medium 0.435-0.520 0.33-0.37 High >0.520 >0.37 Optimum 0.640 0.45 K Low <20.70 <1.78 Medium 20.70-23.55 1.78-1.80 High >23.55 >1.80 Optimum 27.42 1.79 Ca Low <22.00 <0.43 Medium 22.00-25.80 0.43-0.44 High >25.80 >0.44 . Optimum 30.11 0.44 Mg Low <6.60 <0.23 Medium 6.60-12.80 0.23-0.32 High >12.80 >0.32 Optimum 12.65 0.32 Table 6: Evaluation ofEUF-K data for cassava crop on an Alfisol EUF Extraction time Ranking-order EUF K-Ievel for (min.) (low, medium, optimum root hlzh e kle soil) vield 1. 5 10 11-15 15 16.8+ ReI. yield 57-73 88-96 98-99 (%) 2. 5 10 11-14 15 17.3++ 17.1 (R.Y) 61-84 88-95 99.2 3. 10 25 26-35 40 42.9+ (R.Y) 72-82 84-98 99 4. 10 25 26-35 40 46.8++ 44.9 (R.Y) 65-80 82.97 98.8 5. 30 40 41-55 60 69.3+ (R.Y) 58-83 84-95 97 30 40 41-55 60 69.7++ 69.5 (R.Y) 60-81 74-97 98 + Fresh root ++ Dry weight Source: Akinrinde, Obigbesan and Okeke, 1983) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 182 GiOi Obigbesan Fig. 4: Calibration ofEUF-K soil test values for maize yields in field experiments In our other works on soil testing for plant nutrition we have elucidated the micro-nutrient status of tree crop plantation soils of South West Nigeria, the importance of zinc and copper in cacao production and. the safe and toxic application rates of boron for cacao seedlings for the benefit of cacao farmers (Chude and Obigbesan 1982, 1983, 1984). We have also identified the critical nutrients needed for the establishment of coconut plantations in Coastal Plain Sands such as found in Badagry area (Amalu and Obigbesan 1990; Obigbesan and Amalu 1994). Role of Fertilizers in Crop Yield and Quality The role of soil and fertilizer nutrient elements in the quality, storability and disease infestation of farm/crop produce did not attract the attention of early fertilizer researchers on food crops in Nigeria even though by the 1960s there was enough information to encourage the establishment of fertilizer recommendations on the basis of fertilizer response zones in the different ecological areas (Hartley 1937; Doyne et al. 1938; Obi 1959; Mann 1963; Amon and Adetunji 1969; Goldsworthy 1966). Even though farmers recognize and accept that fertilizer input would boost their crop yields, many farmers would decline to apply fertilizers to yams, claiming or arguing that chemical fertilizers would impair the quality attributes of tubers such as taste, colour and shelf life of harvested tubers. Some would even swear that yams fertilized with the popular sulphate of ammonia did not store well nor pound well and farmers in Kabba area complained that yams grown with 125 kgN/ha sulphate of ammonia blackened on cooking. These complaints could be attributed to the misuse of fertilizer \ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fertilizers: Nigerian Farmer's Dilemma 183 elements arising from lack of knowledge of the appropriate fertilizer nutrient ratios and type of fertilizer suitable for their soils. Similar observations of darkening of potato flesh as a result of K deficiency are well documented and the application of K fertilizers minimizes the proportion of tuber darkening. From our experiments at Eruwa in 1977 and 1978, we established that yams might not need P-fertilizer doses beyond 30 kgPlha as they were able to utilize P efficiently at low concentrations (0.07 ppmP) in the soil solution due to mycorrhizal association (Vander Zaag, Fox, Kwakye and Obigbesan 1980). Unfortunately, food crop farmers are yet unable to take full advantage of the mycorrhiza input to reduce fertilizer costs because of the complex technology. Results of our investigations on the role of fertilizer and soil nutrients revealed that incomplete nutrient application (nutrient imbalance) adversely affects yield and quality. For yams, optimum yields were obtained (15-38 % higher yield) with combined application of 60 kg Nand 30 kgPlha in the Savannah zone of Western Nigeria. Higher N rates led to significant yield reduction and subsequently accelerated the sprouting of yams during storage while adequate P rates suppressed sprouting thereby promoting the shelf life (Kpeglo, Obigbesan and Wilson 1981). Our recent findings (Adeniji, Obigbesan, Asiedu and Bokanga 1998) confirm that application of nitrogen alone reduced the quality, while a combination of N.P.K.-Mg improved the general acceptability of yam tubers when pounded or fried (1999). Our data in Table 7 revealed for the first time ever, that yams are greater depleters of soil nutrients than cassava, removing about four times as much N and at least twice as much P and K as cassava that was reputed to be a voracious depleter of soil nutrients (Obigbesan and Agboola 1978). Table 7: Nutrient Removal by Yam Crops Through Tuber Harvest Yam species Fresh Dry Nutrient removed, kg/ha tuber matter yield yield t/ha t/ha N p K Ca Mg D. alata 35.9 9 12 16.9 162 2.8 7.9 8 D. cayenensis 33.5 11.6 10 14.8 139 2.9 10.1 5 D. rotunda cv 39.5 12.1 15 18.2 176 3.9 10.7 efuru 5 D. rotunda c. v. 20.4 7.2 82 10.5 91 2.1 6.6 Aro It is my significant contribution, in collaboration with an erudite professor of nematology to elucidate the spread and host preference of the serious yam pest, Scutellonema Bradys, under different soil fertility regimes. We found that increasing N application from 60 to 90 kglha escalated the nematode population UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 184 G.O.Obigbesan in white yam (D. rotunda), while P did not favour nematode buildup (Obigbesan and Adesiyan 1981). This has led to a caution to farmers that application of incomplete nutrient has deleterious effects on produce quality. Cassava Nutrition: of Yields, Starch and Cyanide The nutrition of root crops was hitherto a neglected field of study in Nigeria as breeding only dominated the scene of early improvement research (Ekandem 1961). There was therefore no official fertilizer recommendation for cassava production in Nigeria before we took off. My work on cassava unravelled the N and K needs of currently recommended cassava varieties, identified the fertilizer responsive (TMS 60506) and non-responsive (TMS 53101) types so that farmers would save their money on fertilizer input where necessary. I have provided far reaching and practically useful information on root quality, starch and HCN content, for industrial processors of food and textile and nutrient removal by specified cassava cultivars released to National Food Production Programme by the National Seed Service for large-scale growers. Although it can be cultivated in impoverished nutrient deficient and marginal soils where other crops will fail to produce reasonable yields, golden cassava responds very well to generous doses ofN, K and P even when applied to a preceding crop of maize (Zea mays). By allowing the crop to grow up to 15-months, the starch yield was more than doubled and about thrice that at 9 months. The TMS 53101 produced maximum starch yield with 60 kg N while the improved 60506 type needed 90 kgN/ha. In co-operation with a renowned plant pathologist, we were able to demonstrate that adequate K application (90 kgK20/ha) significantly reduces bacterial blight, Xanthomonas manihotis, a serious and devastating disease of cassava (Adeniji and Obigbesan 1976) in Nigeria and the tropics. Nitrogen, an essential nutrient that is most limiting in crop production proves to be indispensable for high yields. My research has established a salient fact that when high N level results in high HCN in cassava leaves and roots, but that thorough processing as is done traditionally reduces the cyanide in the end- product tgari, lafun, etc.) to negligibly low and tolerable levels (Obigbesan 1983). This fact was demonstrated to the world body of root crop scientists in Lima, Peru in 1983. Issues of Cassava Cyanide The cyanogenic character of cassava is not in doubt; the importance of cassava in agricultural and economic development and in food security is also indisputable. However, the literature is replete with reports on health implications of chronic cyanide toxicity in animals and humans that feed on high cassava rations. These are attributed to the breakdown products - cyanohydrins and hydrogen cyanide (Fig. 5). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fertilizers:NigerianFarmer's Dilemma 185 (':!,.. C:'::N eH,o1l J o O-~ tn, elll011 o ·O-.~- .e. n.I . • 011 ell, 011 .C,li, OH . 011 . ~. 011 ~ 011 Linalnlrh {COlllcnt,,',",,) -t t- CII,OIl ~'".~" ~", ell, •. Cz:U • IIC-:N .• t:o •.uc-=k..;! eIn, IOH ell, i 011 I'tCctUIK ttytlrfll\.T. "~I!1"n' U~·',Ir"'Jf;I; Cy:.ni:ic Cyanide Fig. 5: Structure and Hydrolytic Bye-Products of Cyanogenic glycoside in Cassava Our National Root Crop Research Institute, Umudike and the lITA, Ibadan with whom I closely collaborate, are concerned with cassava safety and have produced low cyanide cassava varieties TMS 30001; TMS 4(2) 1425; NR 84175; NR 84204. When, therefore, in mid-to-late 1989 Nigerian newspapers came out one after another with screaming horrible headlines such as: "Boiled cassava is dangerous" (Nigerian Tribune May 29, 1989) "Killer gari now in the market" (The Vanguard, July 13, 1989) "Four kids die after a meal, cassava wreaks havoc in family" (The Daily Champion, October 11, 1989). It was incumbent on us to inquire: "Who's givinggari a bad name?" (Vanguard, October, 1989) In collaboration with Professor O. L. Oke ofObafemi Awolowo University with sponsorship by lITA, I had the privilege to organize a national workshop involving all stake-holders - farmers, plant breeders, agronomists, biochemists, processors, sociologists, toxicologists, medical consultants and journalists. The workshop examined the long-term and short-term effects of such reports on the cassava-based industry, the economy of Nigeria and the food security of the people. Besides the clinical presentation of reported cases of cassava meal poisoning at Lagos University Teaching Hospital LUTH and Adeoyo State Hospital, Ibadan, the fresh gari samples I collected from poisoned victims did not contain intolerable levels of cyanide. The workshop communique concluded that reported deaths were not due to cyanide and allayed the fears of the populace to "keep eating your gari but ensure thorough processing of cassava roots". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 186 c.o. Obigbesan Use of Local Raw Materials as Fertilizers The use of organic manure as fertilizer has stood the test of time. Farmers especially in northern Nigeria commonly use kraal manure and droppings from roaming animals. Vegetable and flower growers in urban and peri-urban areas make lucrative business utilizing organic refuse collected from urban wastes. The highly priced products like vegetables, tomatoes, peppers and flowers adequately compensate the enormous labour input costs of transportation, sorting, and application of the large quantity required (10-20 tonnes per ha). I commend the Oyo State Government for floating its "Pacesetter Fertilizer Company" at Bodija, Ibadan, which as a deliberate effort at waste disposal and environmental cleansing, produces composted manure which is sold to farmers state-wide. This is common in many other West African countries. However, and here is a real dilemma, the plant nutrient content of the Bodija manure Grades A & B (see Table 8) is very low, particularly in N & P and would need to be fortified with mineral fertilizer as already emphasized some twenty years ago by Agboola and Obigbesan (1975) that crop production can best be sustained by integrated management of crop residue, organic manure and mineral fertilizers. Table 8:Nutr!ents Composition of "Pacesetter Company" Organic Fertilizer N P K Ca Cost of Unit SOkg cost bag to per kg the nu- farmer trient (% dry wt*) GRADE A 1.16 1.48 1.82 3.62 GRADEB 0.94 0.28 1.15 1.19 Kg Nutrient per 50kg Total, . bag kg . GRADE A . 0.58 0.74 0.91 1.81 4.04 ~350.00 ~6.6 GRADE B 0.47 0.14 0.58 0.59 1.78 ~300.00 ~168.5 NPK 7.5 7.5 7.5 - 22.50 ~950.00 W42.2 -15-15-15 The Department of Agronomy has collaborated with the Raw Materials Research Development Council (RMRbC) and NARP to adopt local raw materials for use as fertilizers. I have been leading a team of Phosphate Research to study the agronomic efficiency and soil ameliorating potentials of Ogun Rock Phosphate and Sokoto Rock Phosphate for direct use as fertilizers by resource poor farmers. Our efforts ate Yielding fruitful rewards in the efficacy of ground phosphate rocks applied directly to forage grass (for livestock) maize and even polybag oil palm seedling designated for distribution to farmers of Community-based Technology Transfer Centre (CTTC) (Figs. 6,7,8,9, and 10). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fertilizers: Nigerian Fanner's Dilemma 187 Fig 6: Maize responds better to ground rock phosphates than SSP in an acid soil (Dystric Nitrosol, Benin Fasc, pH4.8/3.8) Fig 7: Incontrovertible response ofPennisetum species (millet) to Sokoto Rock Phospha e in an Ayepe soil (Typic Kandiudalf/Ferric Luvissol, pH, 6.8/5/9) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 188 G.o. Obigbesan Fig 8: In Psdeficient Alfisols, ORP and SRP produce bountiful forage grass yields Fig. 9: Incontrovertible response of polybag oil palm seddlings to Ogun Rock Phosphate in an Ultisol UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fertilizers: Nigerian Farmer's Dilemma 189 Fig. 10: Superior performance of oil palm seedlings fed with local rock phosphates compared imported SSP in an Alfisol Conclusion In this lecture, attempt has been made to highlight the development of the science of plant nutrition as basis for fertilizer use development and soi 1 testing as a desideratum for fertilizer recommendation to farmers. I have spotlighted the dilemma facing Nigerian farmers who cultivate increasingly infertile soils to produce less food for meeting the needs of this nation. My research efforts were also spotlighted. It is my submission, that Nigerian farmers in the next millennium would have no option but to use fertilizers for sustainability and productivity. As rightly observed by Breman, the Director of IFDC-A (1999), "an improvement in soil fertility can lead to greater food security, a drop in food prices, an increase in exports, the control of degradation of resources and desertification, a slowdown in urbanization and migrations and finally, a reduction in the change of global climate." Since the achievement of self-sufficiency and food security depend on sustained soil productivity, the salvation of this country will depend on the fertility of our soils and souls. Government is, therefore, enjoined to invest in basic infrastructure especially transportation and energy systems in the rural areas. Government should ensure that sufficient price incentives exist to make fertilizer use profitable for farmers. Farmer education on fertilizer use technology should be intensified. Since Nigeria possesses basic raw materials needed for fertilizer production, a more patriotic move should be made to develop and exploit the available ones such as Tar sand, Ogun phosphate and Sokoto UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 190 G.o. Obigbesan phosphate rocks, for fertilizer manufacture instead of costly importation from Togo and Morocco. Investment in Soil Testing as a holistic programme at established institutions should be embarked upon without further delay for fertilizer advisory purposes. REFERENCES Adegoke, O.S., Ajayi, T.R., Nehikhare, J.1. and Rahama. M.A. 1991). Fertilizer Raw Material Situation in Nigeria. Proceedings of National Organic Fertilizer Seminar Kaduna, 26 - 27 March (1991) 17 pages. Adeniyi, M.O. and Obigbesan, G.O. (1976). The effect of potassium nutrition on the bacterial wilt of Cassava. Nigerian J Plant Protection. 23, pp 1-3. Adeniyi, M.O. Obigbesan, G.O.; Asiedu, R. and Bokanga, M. (1998). Influence of fertilizer on yield, storage and food qualities of yams. Proceeding, 7th Triennial Symposium International Society for Tropical Root Crops. Africa Branch (ISTRC - AB), Cotonou, October, 1998. Agboola, A.A., Obigbesan, G.O. and Fayemi, A.A.A. (1975), Inorganic Materials as fertilizers. Soils Bulletin, 27 FAO, Rome. Akinrinde, F.A., Obigbesan, G.O. and Okeke, J.E. (1983). ElectroUltrafiltration extractable K in relation to crop yields in tropical soils. Amalu, V.C. and Obigbesan, G.O. (1990). Some characteristics of selected soil profiles in coconut growing areas of southern Nigeria. Niger Agric. 24;pp. 97-106. Amon, B.O.E. and Adetunji, S.A. (1970). Review of soil fertility investigations in Western Nigeria. Research Report No. 55, Research Div. MANR, Western Nigeria. Chude, V.O. and Obigbesan, G.O. (1982).Copper and Zinc status of tree crop plantation soils in South Western Nigeria, Niger J. Soil Science 3, pp. I-B. Chude, V.O. and Obigbesan, G.O. (1983). Safe and toxic application rates of boron for cacao (Fheobroma cacao) seedlings. Plant and Soil 74, pp. 145-147. Doyne, H.C., Hartley, K.T., and Watson, K.A. (1938). West African Soil types and manual experiments in Nigeria. Proceedings Third African Agric. Conference. Ekandem, M.J. (1970). Cassava Research in Nigeria before 1967. Fed. Agric. Res. Memo 103,p.15. Falusi, A.O. (1987). Economic and Technical Efficiency of fertilizer Use in Agricultural Production in Nigeria. Proceeding of National Fertilizer Seminar, Port Harcourt, October 28 - 30, 1987, pp. 222 238. Faulkner, O.T. (1934). Some experiments with leguminous crops at Ibadan, Southern Nigeria. 1925-1933. Emp. J Exp. Agric. 2, pp. 93 - 99. Federal Department of Agriculture FDA, (1980). Fertilizers and Their Application to Crops in Nigeria. Goldsworthy, P.R. (1967). Response of cereals to fertilizer in Northern Nigeria: II Maize. Institute for Agric. Research. Hartley, K.T. (1937). An explanation of the effects offarmyard manure in Northern Nigeria. Emp. J Exp. Agric. 5, pp. 254 - 263. International Fertilizer Development Centre IFDC (1988). Nigeria Fertilizer Sector: Present Situation and Future Prospects. Technical Bulletin T 18 IFDC. Irving, B.S.A. (1951). Fertilizer studies in Eastern Nigeria 19471951, Eastern Nigeria Technical Bulletin No.1: 34 pages. Kpeglo, K.D., Obigbesan, G.O., Wilson, J.E. (1981). Yield and shelf life of white yam (Sioscorea rotundata) as influenced, by fertilizer nutrients. Beitraege trop. Landwirtsch. Veterinary Med. 19(3), pp. 301 - 308. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fertilizers: Nigerian Farmer's Dilemma 191 Mann, W.S. (1963). A study in the Economics of Fertilizer Use in Eastern Nigeria. Technical Bulletin No.5, Min. Agric. Eastern Nigeria, 25 pages. Nehikhare, J. I. (1987). Raw Material Sourcing for Fertilizer Production in Nigeria Proceedings of the National Fertilizer Seminar Port Harcourt, Oct. 28 - 30, 1987, pp. 47 - 55. Nemeth, K. (1979). The availability of Nutrients in the Soil as determined by electro- ultrafiltration (EUF)., Advances in Agronomy. 31, pp. 155 - 188. Obi, J.K. (1959). The standard DNPK experiments. Technical Report, No.8, Regional Research Station, Samaru, Nigeria. Obigbesan, G. O. (1973). The influences of potassium nutrition on the yield and chemical composition of some tropical root and tuber crops. In: Potassium in Tropical Crops and Soils. IPI, Berne, Switzerland, pp. 311 - 322. Obigbesan, G.O., Adesiyan, S.D. (1981), 'The influence offertilizer nutrients on population levels Santellonema bradys in three yam Species. Nematologia Mediterranea 9, pp. 21 - 28. Obigbesan, G.O. (1981), Nutrient requirements of yams, (Dioscorea species). Agricultural Research Bulletin Vol. 2, No.1, Ibadan University Press. 20 pages. Obigbesan, G.O., Agboola, A.A. Fayemi, A.A.A. (1992). Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer needs of cultivated yams, (Dioscorea species. in savannah zone of W. Nigeria., Niger Agric. J., 17118, pp. 129140. Obigbesan, G.O. (1991). Issues of cassava cyanide:Nigeria's experience. Proceedings Ninth Symposium of International Soc. Trap. Root Crops (ISTRC), Accra, Ghana, pp. 233 - 236. Obigbesan, G.O. and Amalu, U.C. (1994). Critical Nutrients in the establishment of coconut plantations in Coastal Plain Soils. Proceedings 21st Annual Conference, Soil Science Soc. Nigeria, Uyo. Obigbesan) G.O. and Udosen, N.A. (1995). Suitability of Nigerian phosphate rocks for direct use as P sources for crop production. African Soils, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 341 - 344 Ogunfowora, O. (1987). Fertilizer Policy and Programmes in Nigeria. Proceedings of the National Fertilizer Seminar, Port Harcourt, Oct. 28 - 30, 1987, pp. 17 - 28. Vander Zaag, P., Fox, R.L., Kwakye, P.K. and Obigbesan, G.O. (1980). The phosphorus requirements of yams (Dioscorea species). Tropical Agric. (Trinidad), 57, pp. 97-106. Watson, K.A. and Goldsworthy, P.R. (1964). Soil fertility investigations in the Middle Belt of Nigeria. Emp. J. Exp. Agric., 32, pp. 290 - 302. UNIV RSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 SAFE FOR ALL: GIVE THE MAN MEAT David O. Alonge Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine Introduction Ever since Eve tempted Adam with the forbidden fruit, food has played an important role in the life of man. Buddha affirms that hunger and love constitute the generic force of all human history and according to Massayeff (1956), civilization cannot develop until alimentary needs have been satisfied. This is the second lecture from the department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine since the department was established in the 1974/75 session. The first lecture was delivered by Professor G.O. Esuruoso who is the founding father of the department and the first African Dean of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. As an undergraduate student of this university resident in Independence Hall in 1967, Peter, one of the porters, often taunted Geology and Veterinary students. He shouted at a Geology student: "Go siddon, your friend dey study medicine, you dey study stones". He would quickly turn to a few of us veterinary students asking if indeed we were doctors because we never went to University College Hospital, Ibadan to complete our training. Many may still wonder, even as a new millennium arrives, who a veterinary doctor is and what is the scope of his functions and services to humanity. He is: A doctor of animals; trained to produce animal protein directly or indirectly for the human public. Moreover, according to an American senator, Will Rogers: "The veterinarian is the best doctor in the world. He can't ask his patients what is the matter, he's just got to know". Those of us who specialize in veterinary public health are dedicated to ensure a complete physical, mental, and social well-being of humans through the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 194 David 0. A Longe application of veterinary medical science, resulting in extending life expectancy and delaying the inevitability of death in man. By our training, veterinary public health veterinarians are biomedically literate, biostatistically numerate and socio- economically cost-conscious. We are the windows of veterinary medicine to the human world. With the creation of the Federal Ministry of Environment, Nigeria has joined the rest of the world in the fight to save our environment. There is now more public concern about the implications of animal wastes and animal food processing wastes being dumped into the environment. In the USA, 60 million pigs produce an estimated 100 million tons of faeces and urine a year into the environment (Meadows, 1995). Public Health Veterinarians are working everywhere to find a balance between producing livestock and protecting the environment. The topic of today's inaugural lecture is of interest to all mankind. By the end of this century, 80% of the world population will be living in Africa and the other third world countries and a significant number of these will have large food deficits (FAO 1990). On a worldwide basis, cereals (maize, rice, sorghum, and millet) supply more than 50% of human requirements for energy. Animal products, meat,_ milk, eggs and animal fats supply 17% of the energy requirements and 32% of the protein. However in the countries of Australia, New Zealand and North America, for example, the amounts of protein available per head per day is 30-40.0 gm compared with 4.5g in Africa and 4.8g in the Far East (Bender 1992). On October 13 1999, the world population reached the 6 billion mark. Out of these, about 2 billion people are chronically undernourished. About 500 million of these are famine-starved, with skeletal limbs and swollen bellies, with an imminent danger of death. About 2.5 billion people are dying slowly, dying because of ignorance, local taboos and religion rather than by famine. They are dying of malnutrition rather than starvation. Dying sometimes in the mid of plenty and according to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), dying at an astonishing rate of 28 children per minute because of malnutrition and attendant diseases. Many of the world's starved do not only live in the sprawling urban slums, of Ajegunle and Foko and in other rural areas but also on the University of Ibadan campus, Bodija estate, Ikoyi, Asokoro-Abuja and other GRAs of Nigeria. Many lecturers and professors do not earn enough to eat well. Nutrient deficiencies produce a wide variety of illnesses; in fact, nutritional deficiency contributes to much of the ill health in Nigeria. The most important forms of malnutrition in Nigeria are protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM). The two clinical forms of PCM are nutritional MARASMUS and KWASHIORKOR. According to Latham (1996) Marasmus is due primarily to an energy (calorie) deficiency; in kwashiorkor, protein deficiency predominates and leads to a slow rate of growth, to poor development, to increased susceptibility to infections, and eventually to permanent physical stunting. Forty percent of all the malnourished are children and chronic malnutrition is particularly devastating to the young. Most of the rest of the malnourished are women. Millions of emaciated mothers are giving birth to emaciated babies, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Mall Meat 195 many of whom soondie. According to WHO (1984) 19.7% of babies born in Africa are below 2.5kg. This is a reflection of the devastating consequence of malnutrition during and after pregnancy. Such babies are three times more likely to die in infancy than those who were born weighing more than 2.5kg. Even when they survive, their chances of healthy growth and development are greatly reduced. Life expectancy which averages 70 years in the developed countries averages 50-52 years in Nigeria and lower in other developing countries. There is a problem. The present world population of conventional meat animals i.e. the cow, sheep, goat, pigs and poultry cannot feed the human population today. Even by using today's advanced methods of breeding and feeding and production of livestock, enough meat will not be available tor many people who would like to eat it (World conference on animal production, 1983). There is the need therefore to look at other sources of meat and fish. What is Meat? In his book on Food Hygiene, Alonge (1992) defined meat as "freshly dressed or treated tissues, mainly skeletal muscle from warm blooded animals suitable for use as food". All other types of meat must be so qualified, for example, meat from snake is snake meat, or from dog is dog meat and from elephant is elephant meat. Types of Meat Edible meat is in four categories and these are: • Red meat i.e. beef, pork, goat meat, mutton and lamb; • Poultry - broilers or fryers, turkey and duck meats; • Seafood - fish, prawns, crayfish, lobsters, crabs and other shellfish; • Venison or bush meat - deer, antelope; • Nigerian meat products - Kundi, Kilichi, or Balangu, Tinko, Randa, Banda or Tsire, meatballs or asun; • Meat analogs - Today, with the advent of high technology, meat imitations or meat analogs are manufactured to simulate the flavour and texture of meat, fish or shellfish. The use of meat imitations will increase in future, as population grows and conventional sources of protein become more scarce. Sources of Animal Protein Meat comes from a few dozen out of the 3000 mammalian species. The human diet is diverse. Some tribes, like the traditional Inuit of the Arctic region, the Masai of East Africa and the Fulani of Nigeria derive most of their foods from animal sources. The seal and polar bear are important in the diet of the Eskimos; the Kangaroo is eaten by the Aborigines of Australia and the whale in Norway and Japan. Mankind eat a wide range of foods of both animal and vegetable origin. Many are even pure vegetarians. Conventional sources of meat include the cattle, lambs, sheep, goats, swine, camels, horses, rabbits, hares, game animals like antelopes, deer, buffalo, also UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 196 David 0. Alonge poultry, ducks, geese and turkeys. Unconventional sources of meat include guinea pigs, frogs, pigeons, pheasants, crabs, turtle and termites. Others are the giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus), squirrels, porcupine, snails, bats, rats, mice, snakes, rainbow lizards, alligators, beetles, palm grubs, locusts, grasshoppers and birds. Dried caterpillars called monimoni in Ibadan is particularly good in vegetable soup. The importance of game meat has erroneously been, focused mainly on large game such as antelope, deer, buffalo, etc. In fact, in terms of their contribution to daily diet, the more important are the smaller wildlife species. Across West Africa, bush meat consumption is high especially in the tsetse fly infested forest zones where bush meat provides up to 84% of the total meat consumed. In 1979, Professor Ajayi of the Department of Wildlife, University of Ibadan, confirmed that the large rodent called grass cutter or cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) is a delicacy. Meat consumption is based on availability, price, religion, and cultural beliefs. Those rejected for various reasons in one culture are fully accepted in others. In Nigeria, the amount and type of meat eaten vary with income. Meat is held in high esteem in most communities. It has prestige-and value and it is often regarded as the central food around which meals are planned in rich families and 5-star hotels. Various types of meat are often made the basis of festivals and celebrations. Without ram meat, Ileya festival is not complete. From the popular as well as the scientific point of view, meat is a food of high nutritional value. In 1988, when the issue of alternative sources of meat for hungry Nigerians was first raised, the Nigerian press went to town with sensational headlines and cartoons. Headlines like "Eat rats and lizards for protein: the new balancing diet for the masses", "Oba alleged to have been driven from his palace by rats: he has missed millions of Naira from a lucrative trade", and "Hungry? Have a lizard" were flashed across newspapers in Nigeria. These may sound funny but the fact is that the food situation in 1999 is worse than what it was in 1988 when I made public the idea of alternative sources of protein. It was not a funny case for that woman in 1988 who had four children two of whom showed clear manifestations of Kwashiorkor. The poor woman had only W20.00. Should the woman use her W20.00 to buy liver and kidney for the children or convince her husbandto go to their village and catch rats or find any of the alternative sources of protein to save the children? Which option is more practicable? You need not take any of my suggested alternative sources of protein, if it is not conducive to your general well-being for any reason whatsoever especially, if you have enough money to buy cow hide (ponmo). Flesh that is Toxic or Unsuitable for Man I will be misleading this audience to give the impression that all meats are suitable for man as food. Ichthyosarcotoxic fishes are marine organisms whose flesh, skin or viscera contain naturally occurring poisons which when eaten will produce biotoxication in man. Biotoxins are present in the fillet and liver of some, sharks and rays, the gonads and liver of puffer fish contain UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 197 tetradotoxin. Murray eels and raffish contain neurotoxins. Outbreaks of paralytic shellfish' poisoning are common in fish-eating communities. Shellfish accumulates saxitoxin, a highly potent poison that is not destroyed by cooking. Community elders and kings in the past would rather commit hara-kiri by going into their inner chambers and eating a piece of tiger's liver than face the shame of accusation of any wrongdoing by their people. Nutritional Value of Meat Products Give the man meat, the man you see, is the meat he eats! Protein is a critically important part of diet. Dietary protein is broken down into amino acids during digestion. Cells build up new proteins from these amino acids to serve specific functions. Proteins play a role in virtually every cellular function. For instance, proteins regulate muscle contraction, antibody production, blood vessel expansion and contraction to maintain normal blood pressure. No .wonder, the 1999 Nobel Prize for Medicine was won by Dr Guenter Blobel, a German scientist who discovered how proteins find their rightful places in cells. The most significant contribution which foods of animal origin make to human nutrition is in the high quality proteins they supply (table 1). In addition to providing the essential amino acids, which are the units from which tissues are synthesized, proteins also serve in the form of nucleoproteins and enzymes. Proteins are molecules essential to maintaining the structure and function of all living organisms. Table 1: Comparative Sources of Protein Conventional % Unconventional % Sources of Meat Protein Sources of Meat Protein Beef 18 Rabbits 20.4 Goat meat 19 Guinea Pigs 22 Pork 16 Hares 22 Lamb 17 Giant Rats 20 Mutton 18 Grasscutter 21 Fresh Fish 19 Snakes 20 Dried Fish 47 Pigeon & Ducks 18 Eggs 12 Crabs 17 Ostrich meat 22 Turtle 16 Guinea fowl 18 Pheasants (aparo) 18 Winged Termites and beetles 20 Dried Caterpillars (Monimoni) 53 There are 23 amino acids 10 of which are classified as essential and 13 semi- essential or non-essential. Proteins come from both animal and plant origin. Animal proteins contain more of the essential amino acids and a higher nutritive value than do the vegetable proteins. A table of comparative biological values of some animal and vegetable sources of protein shows that beef and chicken have higher protein efficiency ratio and net protein utilization values than beans and soyabeans (table 2). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 198 David 0. Alonge Table 2: Biological Values of Vegetable and Animal Proteins Biological Value Net protein Protein Efficiency (BV) Utilization (NPU) Ratio (PER) Soybean 2.0 76 62 Dry Beans 1.4 59 44 Beef 2.3 72 70 Chicken 2.4 75 73 Source: Rao, M.N., FAO World Animal Review, 1973. Factors which in addition to essential amino acid composition in determining the quality of proteins, are availability of amino acids and the digestibility of the proteins. Animal proteins are more digestible and there is a higher degree of availability of amino acids in animal proteins. Animal proteins possess a significant supplementary value to vegetable proteins most of which are deficient in the essential amino acids, Lysine and Methionine. Increased production and consumption of animal products are the only rapid and efficient solution to the problem of protein malnutrition in the developing countries. Fats are found in meat as deposits under the skin, as in pigs and poultry, and stored around the organs like the kidneys and intestine. Small amounts of fat are visible between the bundles of muscle fibers, which give the typical marbling seen in meat from cattle hump. There is a need to maintain sufficient fat in meat to ensure good eating quality and a minimum fatness level is often required. Because of the inter-muscular fat in cattle hump, the meat (Ike malu) is tender, succulent and very palatable and of course more costly. The amount of carcass meat obtained from animals varies with the type of animal. The meat part of a cow is 34%, 16% bones, 16% organs, abdominal and the intestinal contents 16% and the hide or skin is 6%. The organ meats are liver, heart, brain, pancreas, tripe, feet, tail, testes, intestines, cheek meat, head meat and fat - these are collectively called the offal. The nutrient contents of the offal are richer than lean meat in iron and copper and Vitamin B complex. The liver is particularly rich in Vitamin A, BJ, B2' B12' niacin and Vitamin C, while the kidney is a rich source of Vitamin BJ, B2 and B12. The lungs and the spleen have high contents of Vitamin C. Ears and feet (Bokoto) have a high protein content but much of this is collagen and of poor nutritional value. Medical scientists incriminated meat as one of the sources of low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDLc) which leads to coronary heart disease (CHD) in man. The dietary goal should be reduction of cholesterol intake by selective intake of certain meats with low level cholesterol and by decreasing intake of other types of meat. However, the benefit of eating good meat to man out-weighs any suggestion of eliminating meat from man's diet. The health hazards are often due to man's ignorance, gluttony and overeating (A man weighing 68 kg should not consume any more than 109g of meat per day). While the cholesterol debate UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 199 continues, the U.S. Food and Nutrition Board has concluded that evidence does not warrant specific recommendations about dietary cholesterol for the healthy person, who does not need to be concerned about fat intake (Salunke 1996). The ostrich is really the king of all birds. The family pattern of the ostrich confirms this. The family pattern of the ostrich is polygyny in which a cock lives with a "head hen" and two auxiliary hens. The head hen tolerates the other two hens and all lay their eggs into a common nest before, dismissing the two junior hens. The cock then sits on the eggs for 42 days. It is the largest living bird, the tallest at 10 feet (3 meters) and weighs about 330 kg. At the peak of the Roman Empire, ostrich flesh was the most prized meat of the emperors. Today, in Europe, USA and South Africa, ostrich meat is the best and the most costly meat in the world. It is reputed to be cholesterol free. The best meat in the carcass of a cow is the sirloin steak. It is tender, lean and palatable when properly prepared. In the animal body, if you want meat that is fat free, go for the heart muscle, once the fat on top of the heart is trimmed off, the heart muscle itself has no fat. The heart muscle had to be fat free, tough with a high quantity of myoglobin (the muscle O2 carrier) since the heart is expected to work continuously for about 70 - 120 years in man. • Let every common man eat snail meat. If he has no money to buy, he can at least pick some snails in the bush near his hut. Snail meat tastes nice and does the body a lot of good. Snail meat contains a protein content of 88.37 gm/l00 g. It is low in fat content at 1.64%, and low in cholesterol with only 20.28mg/l00gm. Snail meat contains high calcium levels (185.7 mg 1l00g), phosphorus (61.24 mg/l00g) and iron (Fe). It is a low energy food at 64 calories per 100g, which is good for diabetics (Olatokun 1999). Those who eat cow leg (bokoto) and cow hide (ponmo) should have consolation in the fact that they do not need to be afraid of over-weight or cholesterol because they are already on a weight reducing diet. Cow leg [BokotoJ and ponmo have only 0.7% fat, 99 calories and about 18% low grade protein. Eat sun-dried or lightly smoke-dried fish, you will have 68.6% protein and only 3.5% fat. Most fresh fish (except the fatty Clarias - Eja Abori) has only 50- 60mg/100g cholesteroL Fish fillet contains a lot of polyunsaturated fatty acids; and according to Professor Agbedana in his 1997 inaugural lecture some fish are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and eisacopentanoic acid (EPA) which is therapeutically applied for lowering blood cholesteroL Fresh marine shrimps and prawns are good with 18.7% protein and only 1.77% fat. However, avoid shrimps caught in Lagos Lagoon because they are heavily contaminated with Hepatitis A virus. Fresh Hake (Panla) is another good fish with 29.5% protein and 2.6% fat. Of the insects, smoke dried palm grubs (itun), (Rhychophorus spp.) give high energy, 24.3% protein but very high fat of 55%. The protein content is surpassed by dried caterpillars (monimoni) with 53%. protein and high energy content of 392 kilocalories. . Data available point to the fact that the total meat available to Nigerians is very low at an average of 11.2kg per person per annum. If every Nigerian has a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 200 David 0. Alonge fair share of this, never will there be any fear of cholesterol and coronary heart disease. However, since Nigeria is a rooter country, the smart ones loot either the meat or the money to buy the meat. The result is.that the "big man" eats 10 times the normal share of meat due to him, he grows rosy cheeks, thick neck, and comes down with chronic heart disease (CHD) to the bargain. . The good news is that the average Nigerian who lives at a modest survival level have no fear of coronary heart disease since in any case he eats, on the average, less than 5gm of meat per day. At the local bukataria, he orders gari, vegetable stew and when asked for the number of pieces of meat, he usually shakes his head - none or at best asks for cow hide (ponmo) or a tiny cut of oku eko (frozen fish). What is definitely not healthy as one gets older is sheep brain with 2,200mg/100g cholesterol, so also are sheep and pig kidneys and liver which have relatively high cholesterol at 400-410mg/100g. If you must eat deep oil- fried broiler chicken, take the pains to remove the skin. For the rich ones, eat veal (fillet of calves) - it has 21.1% protein and only 27% fat. Rabbit should be the meat of the people, it is easy and cheap to rear at home on weeds and table left-over with a guaranteed 22% protein and only 4% fat. • Perhaps the best meat around the house is that grandmother's chicken. It is not big but full of flavour with little or no cholesterol. Safe and Wholesome Meat One of the main services of the veterinary public health veterinarian is to ensure that meat and meat products for the public are free from defects. Veterinary examination of the carcass and organs to assess whether they are fit for human consumption is carried out immediately after slaughter and dressing. Meat inspection is not intended to turn bad meat into a good meat product. The cattle, sheep and goats at the farm level are the raw materials for the production of meat. If the raw material is bad, the product cannot be good. On the farm, animals should be properly fed and housed. All sick animals should be treated; only healthy animals should be sent for slaughter. Meats from sick and undernourished animals are watery, gelatinous and of poor quality. Such meats do not keep well; they shrink and give bad flavour after cooking. We ensure that inspected and passed meat derived from healthy, properly slaughtered animals reach the consumer in clean, unspoiled and wholesome state. Therefore unhygienic transport, exposing the meat to heat, dust and bacterial contamination nullifies all previous hygienic measures taken from the farm gate to the abattoir. Never should meat meant for human consumption be carried in the boot of a taxicab, for example. Apart from prevention and control of diseases of animals transmissible to man, public health veterinarians play parts in protecting public health during wars, disease emergencies, volcanoes and atomic reactor blowouts. In nuclear accidents, grasses are contaminated by radioactive fallout, the cattle comes along to eat the grass, and the dangerous radioactive elements on the grass are passed UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 201 into the milk. Veterinarians .determine if such milk is fit for human consumption. In war situations, refugees always move with their pets and animals, vets play major roles in such situations. Meat Preservation While I advocate tapping other sources of meat, what is available must be preserved in good condition for future use or must be preserved in the production areas for sale in distant market locations. The ingenuity and experience of man have led to a situation today that provides the means of securing his food supply in a great variety of ways. Highly significant in this supply system is the ability to prevent deterioration of food so that it is available at times after production and in places distant from its source. Post harvest food losses are very high especially in the developing countries where experts have reported production losses of 40 to 50% in grains, yams, fruits, dried fish and meats. As the human population worldwide has drastically increased passing the 6 billion mark 2 weeks ago, foodstuffs especially meat, have become more scarce and precious. Therefore, it will become more necessary than today to prevent spoilage of available meat. In this, regard, I have spent most of my research career working to develop meat preservation technologies that are applicable to the Nigerian situation. Three of such methods include: • Smoke-Drying of meat • Clay meat ball • Irradiation of dried meat in a controlled environment Smoke - Drying of Meat Meat was processed as early as prehistoric times, probably by drying in the sun and later by smoking and drying over wood fires. Homer, in 850 BC recorded procedures for smoking and salting of meat. Smoke-dried meats in Nigeria are known as Kundi (Yoruba) or Banda (Hausa) and Biltong in South Africa. The early man who was a hunter hung his kill over his fire to keep flies off it. He soon noticed that smoked meat remained edible a little longer and had a more agreeable taste and flavour. Today, virtually all types of meat and meat products, are smoked. Among the traditional meat processors, smoking is particularly popular because the cost and the technology to maintain energy consuming preservation methods of refrigeration and freezing are beyond their reach. The firewood, the basic material for smoke production is made of 50% Cellulose, 25% hemicellulose and 25% Lignin. Smoke is the result of destructive anaerobic distillation of wood followed by partial oxidation. Hamm (1977) and co-workers analysed wood smoke and found that smoke is a fine mixture of gases, liquid and solid particles originating from thermal decomposition of wood at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 500°C. The gases are methane, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The liquid or colloidal phase contains some 219 compounds including 45 phenols, 70 carbonyls i.e. ketones and aldehydes, 20 acids, 11 furans, 13 alcohols and esters, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 202 David O. Alonge 13 lactones and 27 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Forster and Simpson 1961). The solid or particle phase consists of charcoal, fly ash and condensed long-chain tars. Smoking Procedure Most of the work I am about to describe was carried out at the Federal Meat Research Institute, Kulmbach, Germany where we analysed the Nigerian Kundi Small pieces of meat weighing about half-a-kilo were set over a wire net placed on a locally fabricated half-drum oven (adogan). Pieces of hardwood were set on fire below the meat. The fIre was allowed to glow red. The temperatures were taken at two points using a high temperature Nickel- Chromium thermocouple thermometer. The temperatures of the smoking fire (the glow temperature) range between 634 and 1160°C. The smoking temperature i.e. the temperature around the meat during smoking averaged 192°C. According to Alonge (1987), smoke drying to a level that the meats can be stored ordinarily for over 6 months took 6-8 hours. Smoke-dried meats were then stored without refrigeration in paper boxes. The meat pieces were examined and analysed monthly over 6 months to determine the factors that help extend the storage life. _ _ What keeps the meat good over the storage period are smoke deposits, the high smoking temperatures with the resultant microbial killing effects and dryness leading to a reduced water activity (Aw) value of 0.70 and a slight acidic environment of pH 6.85 (Alonge 1987). Taste and Flavour of Meat Many people love the taste and colour of suya and kebab. The light golden yellow colour of properly smoked meat is due to carbonyl-amino acid reactions. The more carbonyls we have in the smoke, the higher the intensity of the colour. The "smoky" taste of suya is attributed to the phenolic fraction of smoke. The phenols are formed by pyrolysis of lignin, the two main components of phenol being guaiacol and syringol. The palatability or sweetness of freshly smoked kundi and suya was measured by Dipeolu and Alonge (1995) (table 3). Guaiacol is responsible for the sweet, sharp, and dry taste of smoked meats. The amounts of total phenols in relation to guaiacol were determined to be between 8.7 and 77.5mg/Kg. Table 3: Taste of Meat and Components of Phenol COMPONENT OF PHENOL TASTE OF SMOKED MEAT Guaiacol Sweet, sharp, dry taste Syringol Peculiar fresh, smoky flavour 4-Methyiguaiacol Burning but pleasant and sweet i-Eugenol Sweet, fruity, mild taste o-cresol Unpleasantly smoky sharp but sweet Dirnethvphenol Charred sharp sweet and dry UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 203 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) As a public health scientist, I was more interested in the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoke, which are transferred into the meat during smoking. The types and the average amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Kundi were determined (table 4). The thin-layer chromatographic method was used for the separation while the quantities were determined by Spectrophotofluorometry. Twelve polycyclic aromatic hydro- carbons (PAH) were determined in Kundi including two highly carcinogenic chemicals - Benzo(a)pyrene and Benzo(c) phenan-threne. Table 4: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Nigerian Smoke-dried Meats Amount Carcinogenicity PAH (1l2/k2) Ratlnz I Benzo ajpyrene 0.85-66.91 +++ 2 Benzo c lphenanthrene 0.80-11.60 +++ 3 Benzo c fluoranthene 3.40-21.70 ++ 4 Benzo li fluoranthrene 5.30-8.20 ++ 5 Ben(a anthracene , 1.10-14.70 + 6 Chrvsene 2.20-30.80 + 7 • Jdeno(cd)pyrene 1.40-5.50 + 8 Benzo(e)pyrene 1.90-10.00 + 9 Cvclopentaf cd)pyrene 0.40-5.50 - 10 Benzo(k fluoranthene 1.90-10.30· - 11 Benzof zhimervlene 1.90-5.20 - 12 Trinhenvlene 0.50-1.10 - +++ = Highly Carcinogenic ++ Moderately Carcinogenic + = Low Carcinogenicity = No Evidence yet It is pleasing to note that Kundi meat that is smoked to a light brown. colour at temperatures below 400°C is free of any polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. However darkly smoked meats at over 600°C glow temperature have large deposits of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Alonge 1988). During storage in the market stalls, Kundi usually absorbs moisture from the environment thereby allowing spoilage and contaminating zerophilic toxigenic fungi to grow on them. The fungi that were isolated on stored meats include Aspergillus fIavus, Aspergillus niger, Eurotium amstelodami, Penicillium and Fusarium species. All these species usually produce toxins, and other groups of cancer causing chemicals. Kundi meats growing fungi were screened for the presence of aflatoxins, all samples were negative (Alonge 1986). Please permit me to digress a bit on an issue which the Federal government of Nigeria needs to take an immediate positive action if this country .is ever to start and maintain any technological development. I have two postgraduate Ph.D students who have been sweating to find solutions to some environmental contaminants causing cancer and diseases in Nigeria. They are finding things very difficult, the government of Nigeria UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 204 David 0. Alonge believes that we should steal other nation's technologies rather than develop technologies applicable to our own environment and climate. Those of us who have spent years in various western laboratories have stolen nothing. We have legally acquired these technologies, sometimes beating the white boys in their own game. We came back home hoping to set up our own laboratories and eager to use the knowledge acquired to train young Nigerians to solve our peculiar problems. We need such laboratory equipment including a high powered liquid chromatograph (HPLC), a mass spectrometer, reagents and constant electricity. Sadly, we are still waiting for the miracle of a visitation panel report to recommend to government to buy basic research equipment for our laboratories. Like Fe1a's song, "laboratory equipment nko? E no de". Abi e dey? What an illusion? The Clay Meat Ball I grew up as one of eight children of a peasant farmer and petty trader mother. After working in our father's farm in the mornings, the afternoons were usually free for us to conquer our environment until dark. We picked fruits and snails; we set traps ,to capture rats; and fished in a nearby river; we also poached termite hills to capture the termite queen, The termite queen is usually completely enclosed in a round clay case with some perforations for aeration and feeding. We usually cooked the termite queen in its clay ball in hot ashes below the fire made to cook the family dinner. That was in the early 1950s. In 1975, I went to New Zealand, a country where you have more animals than human beings. I was taught the principle of meat canning. Between 1991 and 1993, I remembered the delicious queen termite we baked in her own clay shell. What I learnt from the termites is that meat can be preserved in clay balls combining the principles of canning with the ingenuity of the worker termites that protect their queen in a clay ball. As carried out by Alonge (1993) meat pieces were wrapped in fresh banana leaves and pottery clay was molded round each piece and cooked in hot ashes. In my folly, I attempted to be modem and started by wrapping the meat in aluminum foil. The attempt failed and I had to revert to ordinary banana leaves. This method has now been perfected to cook and dry meats inside clay balls for long term storage over many years. It is gratifying to report that this project was one of the projects selected in Switzerland in 1993 by the Rolex "Spirit of Enterprise" awards committee as a "science and technology project that seeks to achieve innovative steps forward in research, experimentation and application". Use of Ionizing Radiation to Preserve Meat In 1986, in a continued quest for technologies that can preserve more food for Nigeria's ever increasing population, a fellowship of the International Atomic Energy Agency, took me to RIKIL T in Wageningen, Holland. There I learnt the intricacies of using gamma rays to preserve all types of food, including meat. Food irradiation is a deliberate treatment of food product by exposing it to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 205 machine-generated x-rays at a maximum of 5 Mev or 0.8 picojoule, or electrons at or below 10 Mev or 1.6 picojoule or to gamma-radiation from a radioactive colbalt-60 or casium-137 with an average 1.25 and 0.66 million electronvolts (Mev) respectively (WHOIFAO 1988). In these studies, traditionally smoke-dried beef in Nigeria were air freighted to Holland within four days of production. On arrival, they were vacuum-packed in a special plastic foil. The packaging material is an FP 1550 laminate made of 15~m polyester coated with 50~m polyvinylidene chloride and 50~ polypropylene terephthalate. The packs were treated in a 6°Cobalt gamma- irradiated chamber to a dose of 3kGy. Packs of meats were stored ordinarily for months at room temperatures. At this stage of the development of the technology, I wrote an epilogue: If you can't see it, If you can't taste it, If you can't detect it, You may eat it. Alonge (1990) However, it is the right of the consumer to kn'Owand choose to eat any food item that has been irradiated. Because of this, the WHOIFAO (1988) ruled that any food item irradiated must be labelled with the radura logo. In 1990, I therefore set out to develop a microbiological method to identify meats that have been irradiated. Investigations were carried out to identify irradiated chicken using the synergistic killing effects of sodium chloride, heat and irradiation. In a model study, frozen chicken was treated with 8% NaCI solution plus heating at 55°C for 15 minutes and irradiated to a dose of 4kGy. The cfu reduction by 4 log cycle of the natural Lactobacilli plantarum load in the chicken was significant enough to differentiate between irradiated and un-irradiated frozen chicken (Alonge 1990). Though this technology is one of the peaceful uses of atomic energy, consumers are concerned about safety. The safety of the technology and the foods treated have been fully investigated by the joint FAO/IAEAlWHO Expert Committee on the wholesomeness of irradiated foods. The committee concluded that "the irradiation of any food commodity up to an overall average dose of 10kGy presents no toxicological hazard; hence toxicological testing of food so treated is no longer required". (IAEA 1981). I am happy to announce that using this high technology, I have succeeded in preserving Nigerian' Kundi for 10 years without refrigeration and without spoilage. Conclusion In my research career, I have maintained an ability to see the horizon as well as the immediate foreground. I have pursued the new and more difficult technologies, while some of the age-long traditional methods of meat presentation and preservation have been polished. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 206 David 0. Alonge Hunger and malnutrition are still with us. There is a hunger epidemic in Nigeria today; people are picking dustbins to survive. The President of Nigeria confirmed this on October 6 1999 when he said that 65% of Nigerians live below poverty line. The children of Nigeria today and the future development of the country are at risk. Many Nigerian children who have untreated kwashiorkor today will surely die from lack of food, even before they attain the age of coronary heart disease. This is, according to Agbedana (1997). Without food there is no life, no hope, no society and no future. Those who survive kwashiorkor today will suffer from mental retardation and will never be the brilliant scholars that will develop the new technological tools to solve the problems of Nigeria in the new millennium. People who are generally malnourished cannot achieve feats, be it physical fitness, intellectualism, scientific, techno-logical and spiritual development. This is probably why most Nigerian athletes who won medals at the Olympics and most of the footballers who score goals in the world cup matches are those based in Europe and the USA where they are well fed. Recommendations The declared policy of the pre~ent government is poverty alleviation. The following should be the major components of the programme towards the achievement of a sustainable national nutrition security. 1. Food security, resulting in adequacy and stability offood supplies, and economic and physical access to food. 2. Drinking water security, resulting in a reduction in intestinal infections and in the incidence of such diseases as diarrhoea and hepatitis. 3. Minimum income security, giving all Nigerians the requisite purchasing power for balanced nutrition by making sure that all Nigerians are gainfully employed. 4. Nutrition intervention, leading to the protection of old and infirm persons, pre-school age children, pregnant and nursing mothers from undernutrition and malnutrition. 5.. Nutrition education, culminating in a widespread under-standing that every family should solve the problems of malnutrition affecting them through eating what good food and meat that is available. 6. Population stabilization, leading to a proper balance between population growth and resource availability. 7. Sustainable livelihood security for the poor. The government and the rich in the society must promote development plans that would benefit the poorest sections of the Nigerian community. Faced with these realities, the following practical steps must be taken, and very fast too. To survive as a nation, let us look inwards. Nigeria is endowed with abundant human and animal resources. The following constitute some interim and long-term solutions to some of our food problems. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 207 Oil for Food Exchange Nigerians are hungry. Worldwide, it is an acceptable practice that famine- stricken populations must be provided with emergency food assistance to alleviate their immediate suffering. The government may immediately go into negotiations with Australia, New Zealand and Argentina who are presently overproducing meat and milk under an "Oil for Meat" or "Cocoa for Milk" exchange programme. The valid and durable solution is investment in sustained agricultural development for local food production. We have had enough of politics, all we are saying: give us food now! Keep Personal and Family Small Meat Animals Livestock for use in developing countries like Nigeria should, like computers, be getting smaller and becoming more "personal". Mainframes such as cattle cannot solve the widespread shortage of meat because they require too much space and expense for the landless and the poor. Miniframes, such as sheep and goats, should now play increasing roles in providing protein for the people. Tiny, "user- friendly" species like rabbits, guinea pigs, grasscutters, guinea fowls, pigeons and snails should now be reared at the family house level. In 1974, a survey by Sellers et al., of 769 houses in towns and 506 households in villages-in the old Western state, showed that 58.4% of households - kept goats, 88% had chickens, 9.4% had sheep and 4.32% had pigs. In a similar survey by Bakare (1992) at Ibadan and environs, the number of households keeping goats had dropped to 35%, chicken 19%, sheep 14%, and rabbit 8%. Today, less than 10% of households keep any form of livestock. Apart from being financial securities on feet, household livestock are ready food and financial securities in the time of want. People usually fall back to these animals at the time of festivals to entertain visitors and even sell them to pay their children's school fees. City dwellers should not be left out. Those who have fenced yards may raise sheep and goats and a few chickens, those in sky scrappers may easily raise guinea pigs in their kitchens. Promotion of Massive Poultry Production Massive poultry production is the fastest and easiest way of bridging the gap of our serious nutritional protein deficiency. Poultry are sources of protein with the shortest gestation period. Broiler meat can now reach your dinning table in as little as six weeks while a modem hybrid layer is capable of producing 300 eggs in 52 weeks. According to Agbato (1999), a major poultry farmer in Nigeria, to achieve rapid and cheap poultry production, the Federal government should fund a programme of indigenization and acclimatization of pure line poultry breeds. The result will be superior performance of layers and broilers in our hot and humid environment. Government should also remove custom duties and other taxes from imported inputs as a form of subsidy to produce cheap poultry products. Flood the Market with Maize There should be a special programme to produce more maize. In maize lies the ultimate solution to our hunger and malnutrition. More maize means more food UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 208 David 0. Alonge for man (maize can be converted into more than 80 dishes) and more feed for the livestock. Overnight the dead poultry industry will rise and new love for pig rearing will grow and feed supplements to the Fulani cattle herdsmen will supply us more beef. As an interim measure, the ban on maize, especially yellow maize should be lifted immediately to make maize available for man and animals. The good news is that genetically engineered variety of high protein maize called "QPM"-Quality-Protein Maize may be grown in Nigeria. Eat What is Available To outsiders, the idea of eating small animals seems repulsive but we should realize that shortage of meat is one of the most serious food problems of developing countries. Small animals that are prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house and handle could easily be the solution to the problem. Meanwhile, let us take our eyes away from the dwindling and highly costly beef, mutton, pork and fish and look at some cheaper but unconventional sources of meat. At present, in some African countries, unconventional and game meats account for 70% of meats eaten in Ghana, 60% in Botswana while in Nigeria it is only 20% of the total animal intake. REFERENCES Agbato, O. O. (1999). The state of poultry industry in Nigeria: main problems and indication of solution, options and implications for veterinary practice. Proceed. VARF Continuing Education Workshop for Veterinary Officers. Ibadan, 8-10 September 1999. Agbedana, E. O. Cholesterol and your health. Lecture. 1997.University of Ibadan Inaugural Alonge, D. O. (1986). Isolation of Potentially Toxic Xerophilic Fungi from Smoke- dried Meats (Kundi/Banda). Zariya Veterinarian, Vol 1, No 2, 65-68. Alonge, D.O. (1987): Factors affecting the quality of smoke-dried meats in Nigeria. Acta Alimentaria (Hungary), Vol. 16, No 3, 263-270. Alonge, D.O. (1988): Carcinogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAR) determined in Nigerian Kundi (smoke-dried) meat. Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture, Vol. 43, 167-172. Alonge, D.O., H. Stegeman, D. Is Langerak, and Th.C. Wolters (1990): Effects of Irradiation and Packaging on the Shelf life of Kundi, Nigerian's Smoke Dried Meat. IFFIT Research Report No.86, 22 pages. Alonge, D. O. (1992): Food Hygiene. Pub!. Farmcoe, Ibadan. 20 chapters. 135 Pages. Alonge, D.O. (1993): Preserving Meat on the Equator: The Clay Meat Ball IN Spirit Of Enterprise: 1993 Rolex Awardfor Enterprise. BURl Buri Druck AG, CH-3001, Bern pI45-147. Ajayi, S.S (1971). Wildlife as a source of priorities for development. Niger. field 26(3) 115-127. - Ajayi , S.S (1979). Utilization of forest wildlife in West Africa. Report No. Miscl79/26 prepared for the forestry department, FAO Forestry Paper No 90, Rome. 43-46. Bakare, A. A (1992). Household Livestock in Ibadan. DVM Dissertation, University of Ibadan. Bender, Arnold (1992). Meat and Meat Products in Human Nutrition in Developing Countries. FAD Food and Nutrition Paper No 53, FAD Rome. Dipeolu, M and D. 0 Alonge (1995): Determination of the Levels of Phenols and the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Safe For All: Give the Man Meat 209 Importance of Phenols in Nigerian Smoke-dried Meats. Tropical Veterinarian 13, (3&4) 135 - 144.' Dufour, Darnah. (1987) Insects as food: A case study from the Western Amazon. American Anthropologist 89(2),383-397. Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Macrae, R., R. K. Robinson and M. 1. Sadler Eds._Academic Press. London. 1993. Forster, W. W. and T. H. Simpson (1961): Studies of the smoking process for foods. 1. Sci. Food Agric. 12,363. Hamm, R (1977): Analysis of smokes and smoked foods. Die Fleischwirtschaft 57, 92-98. !AEA, (International Atomic Energy Agency). Wholesomeness of the process of food irradiation. !AEA, Vienna. TECDOC-256 (1981). Latham, Michael C. Nutritional-deficiency Diseases. Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc. 1996. Massayeff, Rene (1956): La Farm. Publ. University of France, Paris. Meadows, Robin (1995) Livestock Legacy. Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 103, No 12 Pages 1096-1100. Olatokun, Abosede A [1999]). Profitability study of snail farming in selected snail farms in Ibadan. M.Sc Dissertration, University of Ibadan; pp. 10-11. Rao, M. N. Proteins in human nutrition. FAD World Animal Review, No.5, 33-42, 1973. Salunke, D. K. (1996) Human Nutrition. Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc. Quality Protein Maize. US. National Res. Council, 1988). WHO/FAO. Food Irradiation - a technique for preserving and improving the safety of food. WHO, Geneva (1988). World Conference on Animal Production (1983): New Strategies for improving meat production for human welfare. Proceed. 5th World Conf. Animal Production, Tokyo, pp 22-32. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 11 OUR GASPING CITIES Layi Egunjobi Centre for Urban and Regional Planning Introduction My professional preoccupation is planning. Interestingly, planning is what everyone does consciously or unconsciously, explicitly or implicitly. The writing of a letter (a simple activity) to a friend would have been preceded by such thoughts as why, how, and when, before going into the real act of letter writing. A trip from Ibadan to Abuja certainly entails such organizational details regarding timing, resource requirements and choice of accommodation on arrival at Abuja. Or consider yet another human activity like "establishing a new university; the prospective proprietor would go into such considerations on the need for an institution, enrolment possibilities, curriculum development, manpower requirements, finance, location, physical development, equipment, etc. All these require thinking ahead. These futuristic tendencies entail giving rational considerations to the determination of goals to be achieved, the resources to be expended, what strategies to adopt, what time frame as well as monitoring and evaluating the proposed actions. This, in essence, is planning. There are various forms of planning. In broad terms, these may be economic, physical, corporate, or strategic planning. I belong to the realm of physical planning which is basically concerned with ordering of structures and activities in space in a rational and environmentally sustainable manner to achieve health, convenience, economy, safety, and beauty. Physical planning takes place at various spatial levels. At the most micro scale may be found a housing environment or a petrol filling station. At a higher scale may be found a neighbourhood, or an industrial estate. Yet, at a higher scale is planning at the settlement level ranging over a village, town, city, metropolis, conurbation and megalopolis. Of course, physical planning takes place at regional level and even at the national level. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 212 Layi Egunjobi As earlier noted, the goal of planning centres on the quality of human life. Where, therefore, a person cannot lay claim to such human desires as well-being, peace, security, happiness and satisfaction, it is either an evidence of lack of planning with its twin brother - management or a manifestation of inefficient planning where it exists. Let me make this unsavoury remark to start with. Although physical planning is an incredibly challenging professional and intellectual pursuit, a planner in this part of the world requires a lot of courage to be able to raise up his head as belonging to the planning profession. Or howoften do you entertain such queries from visitors entering a typical city as Ibadan when they ask: 'Are there no planners in this country?' A query such as this is borne out of unpleasant experiences people are faced with including noise, epileptic urban services, uncollected wastes, inaccessibility, air pollution and insecurity. The issue of urban planning has always set me wondering why some animals and insects appear to be better planners than human beings. I have casually observed termites in one of their cities between Jebba and Mokwa in the middle-belt of Nigeria. Termites, as we know, belong to the large order, Isoptera, of social insects that live in highly integrated colonies. The colonies are multi-storey structures built under, on and over, the land. They are of various heights and sizes. A distribution of the colonies in space appears to have exhibited a pattern whereby those of almost .equal heights are found at averagely equal distances apart. It is amazing to watch the heights and sizes of these colonies in proportion to the size of those insects. What you might call 'termite scale' in this instance is many folds higher than the 'human scale' that we consider marvellously high when human. size is related to a forty-storey building in the heart of New York. More amazing is the obvious fact that the multi-storey colonies have no manufactured reinforc.ement materials; yet, they stand the annual rains and fires. I have watched the king and the queen, the reproductives, the soldiers, the alates and the workers - all demonstrating a sense of collective responsibility. The question keeps on ringing why man has not been so successful living in agglomerations of human heads that are called cities. Perhaps a comparatively relevant question is why some cities function as well-oiled machines, while others just struggle to provide basic services? The title of my lecture is, 'Our Gasping Cities'. My exhortation is specifically on Nigerian cities. As organic entities, cities have the attributes of existence which may be lived with or without hindrances, with dignity or indignity, with happiness or sorrow. My submission is that our cities are not only ailing, quite a number of them are on the verge of breathing the last breath. At the same time, I sincerely believe that given the right physician, our cities will be brought back to consciousness and could eventual! y survive the new millennium. In developing this thesis, the second part of the lecture tries to set the contextual boundaries from a historical perspective. The third part focuses on the growth and development characteristics of Nigerian cities highlighting their various yet to be addressed pathological and .physiological problems. The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 213 concern in section four is proffering explanations to the observed phenomena regarding Nigerian cities and their people. The last substantive part i.e. section six, tries to answer the big question, 'will they survive? The Nature of Cities Talking about the nature of cities presupposes that we know what a city is or that, at least, there is agreement on what a city is supposed to be. On the contrary, there is hardly any such consensus. The problem arises because, one, there are various sizes of substantial concentrations of population over the earth surface. Two, settlements vary in the special functions they perform. Three, their forms or morphologies vary quite markedly; and four, they grow so fast and merge into other settlements thereby making their boundaries difficult to determine. It is no surprise therefore that the term 'city' is associated with various meanings, depending on whether it is defined by demographers, geographers, politicians, economists, sociologists, or historians. To the student of Greek and Roman history, for example, it means not only the walled town such as Athens or Rome but the territory surrounding it, the inhabitants of which enjoyed the privileges of citizenship - in other words, a city state. (See The Enclyclopedia Americana, International Edition,_Vol 6, 1974). Perhaps a somewhat universal definition of a city is a settlement with a relatively dense aggregation of population of considerable size in which the conditions of life can be described as 'urban' in contrast with the rural life of the open country. Here again, the question of what is 'urban' arises. In order to sharpen the focus on this definition, we may borrow from Whynne-Hamrnond (1979) who associates 'urban' with 'diversity of function'; that is where all types of occupations, industries and services are represented. Cities are therefore much larger than towns and have a greater number of functions including finance, industry and administrat~. . The beauty of physica!'flanning in this regard lies in the fact that while it recognizes the functional relationships between and among cities, it pays particular attention to the peculiar identities of individual cities. It goes further to preconceive what the identity of a new city is _expected to be. Every city is unique. So, we can talk about: newborn baby cities, doddering old-man cities, cities in a hectic whirl of youth, poor guttersnipe cities, fat millionnaire cities, quiet studious cities ... (adaptedfrom Whynne-Hammond 1979) How did cities develop over time? The life and achievements of cities are prominently represented in the earliest pages of recorded history. In the ancient world, estimates of scholars put the population of Athens at the height of its glory at a range of 40,000 to 140,000; Jerusalem at 30,000; and Carthage at not more than 300,000. Following the Barbarian invasions beginning in the 4th century A.D., cities virtually disappeared from Western Europe for a period of several hundred years known as the Dark Ages. Constantinople, at the extreme eastern UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 214 Layi Egunjobi limit of Europe, was the only European city to survive the Dark Ages with a population of 100,000. There followed an Urban Revival period which saw the rebirth of cities consequent upon the impetus which trade received in the 10th century. This period was so remarkable that by the lSth century, there were six European cities - Constantinople, Paris, Naples, Venice, Milan and Lisbon - with more than 100,000 population. The era of modem cities, however, appeared to have crowned the phenomenon of urban development. Transportation and trade are the factors that explain the urban revolution of this period. The age of exploration and discovery beginning in the 15th century with far reaching advances in navigation replaced local trade with world trade. With the development of mechanized means of land transportation beginning in the 19th century, and later of air transportation, urban complexes like New York and London witnessed astronomical growth where workers could live far from work, amusements and shopping, and goods could be moved to and from cities. In the 1960s, cities were scattered over the world and, at least, 40 cities representing all the continents, had populations exceeding 2,000,000. This 'age of the city' has become the characteristic form of existence for a majority of people especially in the US and Western Europe. Today, the population sizes of the world's 100 largest metropolitan areas, according to the Population Crisis Committee varies between 2,350,000 (Pune, India) to 28,700,000 (Tokyo- Yokohama, Japan). Looking through history from the classical era through the medieval and renaissance periods to modem times as sketched above, it will be seen clearly that the history of cities is almost as old as history itself. But cities in history did not come about their locations, functions and forms by accident. They are results of planning thoughts, ideas and visions. For example, Pslato in his Republic developed his view of an ideal state. It is his belief that the city should be limited in size "in order to maintain its integrity and unity" (Mumford 1973). Much more idealistic in physical description is Plato's ideal city as described in Laws where he envisaged a self-reliant entity with sufficient land to feed its population. Plato's ideal city once achieved is not subject to further changes; rather, the pattern is supposed to be static and maintained by punitive measures. One other Greek visionary thought is that of Aristotle. In the pages of Politics, he put forth what he considered as the structure of an ideal city. He saw the city as an avenue to forge commercial interests as well as ensure adequate security. In his planning thought, Aristotle was able to relate the institutional arrangements ofthe state with the ideal physical forms of its cities. However, like Plato, Aristotle's ideal city could only be sustained by strict social controls - albeit in disguised forms in what was supposed to be democratic city-states. These philosophers of ancient Greece may have influenced Sir Thomas More in 1516 when he first used the word 'utopia' to describe an imaginary, ideal country. His ideal society was an epitome of the perfect environment. In this state, all men are equal, prosperous, educated, wise and morally upright. The location of the island of utopia is in the middle of the ideal country - the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 215 commonwealth of utopia. There are 54 spacious green cities in the land each cited at an average distance of about 40 km. from one another. More gives a detailed description of one of the 54 cities: Amaurote, the capital city of Utopia lies by the side of a hill, or rather a rising ground. Its almost square figure lies adjacent to a river called Anider. A bridge built of stone links the city to other cities within the commonwealth. The city is compassed with a high and thick wall with towers and forts, as well as a broad and deep dry ditch round the three landward sides with the river making up the fourth side. The city roads are broad and well protected from the winds. The houses are uniformly built and they all have gardens behind them. The gardens are so meticulously kept that they all produce plentiful fruits and beautiful shrubs. Looking through the utopian philosophies of the early Greeks and that of the exponent of the tradition - Thomas More - one is struck by the close bearing they have with cities and city planning. It has in fact been asserted that "indeed, the first utopia was the city itself' (Manuel 1973). Put in other words, utopia is "essentially the apotheosis of the city" (Tillich 1973). This has important implications for planning as the problems of settlements have in the main been almost synonymous with the problems of cities. A characterization of cities over time and in space coupled with the philosophical and practical attention devoted to them are clear indications of their importance in the way they affect our lives. Cities are capable of affecting, and indeed do affect, our lives both positively and negatively. These have been de- scribed as the "pretty" and the "ugly" faces of cities - a sort of two sides of the same coin (Egunjobi 1997). The "pretty" face presents cities as centres of innovation, generators of revenue and formidable markets contributing significantly to the overall development of countries (see Beauce 1990 and Harris, 1990). On the other hand, the "ugly" face depicts cities as "parasites" on the rural environment where deterioration in living environment ushers in diseconomies, and where ill-health, social disorder originate and predominate. At the end of the day, we are prompted to conclude that cities are inherently neither good nor bad. The essence of this neutral school of thought is that cities are like fire which can be used or misused. This neutral view has been aptly summarized by Christopher Morley's Where the Blue Begins: All cities are mad: but the madness is gallant All cities are beautiful: but the beauty is grim. (Quotedfrom Whynne-Hamtnond 1979) Nigerian Cities at Risk? The issue at stake is the determination of the extent to which Nigerian cities are beautiful or mad, pretty or ugly, livable or unlivable? In considering this question, it is instructive to start by asking individuals in this lecture theatre to imagine his/her own ideal city. I can see my own ideal city flowing with milk and honey. In this city, everyone is gainfully employed. Everyone has equal access to all basic needs. Rights of the individuals are recognized and protected; and there is cooperation and peace. May we call this "The Global Paradise n. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 216 Layi Egunjobi In another one moment, imagine another city called 'The Hell on Earth '. This is a direct opposite to the life I first imagined - something akin to what you find in the book of Revelations, in The Holy Bible, where all the dwellers of this city enjoy are pains, suffering and regrets. If we assume these two cities as representing two extremely conditions, then there must be, theoretically speaking, one thousand and one varying conditions lying between the two. The one nut we want to crack is having an understanding of where Nigerian cities as a group lie along this continuum, left or right, or a little to, or further away from, the centre? . But before delving into this, it is important to know a little bit about the growth, distribution and characteristics of the Nigerian cities. It is an established historical fact that urbanization in Nigeria predates the British colonial administration. Estimates of population of towns by the early explorers, missionaries and merchants, as collated by Mabogunje (1968), indicate the existence of substantial human settlements in this part of the world during the nineteenth century (Table 1). During this period, Sokoto in the north, Ibadan and Abeokuta in the south-west had populations of 100,000 and over. Others with substantial population sizes include Zaria, Oyo, Kano and Ilorin. These settlements had developed from commercial and trading activities as well as administrative centres, religious points, defence posts 'Of combinations of these functions. Table 1: Nigerian Towns with Population of over 20,000 in the 19110 Century Town Population PeriodIY ear Sokoto 120,000 1825-1827 Ibadan 70 000-100,000 1856-1891 Abeokuta 60 000 - 100 000 1851-1867 Horin 70000 1853-1856 Iwo 20000'- 60,000 . 1856-1890 Osogbo 60000 1890 Zaria 40,000-50,000 1825-1827 Ede 20,000 - 50 000 1856-1890 Kano 30,000 - 40,000 1822-1824 Iiaive 30 000-40 000 1853-1867 Ovo 25 000-40 000 1856-1878 Ogbomoso 25,000 - 40000 1856-1883 Lagos 20 000-40 000 1856-1864 Iieou-Ode 13000-40000 1890-1891 Oke-Odan 24000-30 000 1890-1891 Deegoa 30000 1822-1824 Arzonou 30,000 1822-1824 Baebaezie 20000-25 000 1825-1827 Dikwa 25,000 1851-1855 Iseyin 15,000-24,000 1852-1956 Wawa 18000-20000 1825-1827 Tabra 18000-20000 1825-1827 Ado 20000 1879 Koso 20,000 \ 1825 Epe 20000 1879 Source: Mabogunje 1968. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 217 • The colonial administration by the Township Ordinance classified towns across the country into three categories. Lagos which was the capital, was the only first class town; eighteen others were classified second class, while another twelve fell into the third class category. This tended to have influenced colonial administration's decisions on investment in infrastructural facilities and services. Thus Lagos, the only first class town, was the first to be served with electricity in 1896, while other second class towns such as Port-Harcourt, Enugu, Kano, and Abeokuta were served in the early and mid-1900s. An important influence of colonial administration on urbanization in Nigeria is that it brought about changes in the structure of cities. It introduced western town planning tradition through the designation of Government Reservation Areas (GRAs), which developed side by side with the traditional residential areas. . Compared to the indigenous urbanization era and the colonial period, the most dramatic pace of urbanization occurred after independence, from the eat1y 1960s. Post-colonial administration continued in a more forceful way the policy of concentrating public investments on the already urbanized and fast-growing centres especially Lagos (the national capital then), Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu and Benin-City (regional capitals then) and a few others including Port-Harcourt and Kano. Private sector investments also, of course, followed this trend. The post- colonial administration also pursued the policy of administrative decentralization which saw the inherited three regions in 1960 increased to 36 states .in 1992 each with a capital "supporting regional universities, technical colleges, other institutions of higher education, hospitals, and other services requiring large population thresholds" (Salau 1979). In addition, the post-colonial period saw the establishment of a few new towns; some resulting from economic development projects such as the construction of dams, and others for administrative purpose. Notable in this regard is the building of Abuja in the middle-belt of the country as an alternative national capital to Lagos. Resulting from the public and private investment and other decisions, the share of urban population increased from 5 percent in 1921 to 33 percent in 1984. In more specific terms, those centres with populations of 100,000 or more rose in number from only 2 in 1931 to 62 in 1984. The 500,000 category of cities were only 2 according to the 1963 population census; by 1984, there were 14 of such cities. The conclusion that clearly shows itself is that even though more Nigerians still live in the rural areas, the pace of urbanization has been dramatic showing extraordinarily high rates of 5-10 percent per annum. A first visible aspect of this is the rapid expansion of Nigerian cities' areal extent. For example, Lagos which had a population of only 7,400 in 1911 and covered an area of no more than 4 square kilometres had grown in population to 665,246 in 1963 and by 1978 had increased in areal extent to 879 square kilometres incorporating numerous outlying fishing and farming villages (Aina, Etta and Obi 1994). Thus, "this city has multiplied itself in area more than two hundred times within a six and a half decade period. This sprawling tendency is observable in other cities including Ibadan, Port-Harcourt and Kano. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 218 Layi Egunjobi , A crucial aspect of this is that city growth is largely uncontrolled; and like a carelessly tended or totally neglected yam plot which necessarily does not bring forth the required yield even with adequate rains and fertile land, the cities are diseased by such infections as slum housing conditions, limited coverage of urban services, unreliable service provision, general environmental deterioration, confused transport systems, incessant flood and fire disasters (Egunjobi 1986b). This is to say that our cities are not only at risk, they are already manifesting signs and symptoms of ailments at varying stages of severity. An elaboration of these and the way they impact on the quality of life of urban dwellers is the concern of this section of the lecture. In discussing conditions of human life in the cities, we shall adopt the approach of viewing the city environment at three levels: these are the housing environment, the neighbourhood environment and the wider city environment - borrowing from Hardoy and Satterhwaite (1989). With respect to housing in Nigerian cities, there are the twin problems of quantitative and qualitative deficiencies. The rate of housing formation which is consequent upon movement of rural migrants into the cities is far higher than the rate of housing construction. A sharp perspective of the problem is provided by an estimate of urban housing deficit for Nigeria which in 1990 was put at 7.7 million dwelling units (Toure and Fadayomi 1992). The housing crisis is worsened by' high cost of building materials and inaccessibility to urban land ownership. The immediate result of this problem is homelessness on the part of the very poor, and environmental health degrading shelters for the not-too-poor. This in financial terms implies a huge investment in housing which, of course, is one out of many sectoral demands. Since it is difficult to match the supply with the demand for housing, there is always a qualitative deficiency. To illustrate, the proportion of households in one room apartments in the cities varies between 41.2 percent in Sokoto to 76.3 percent in Lagos. According to an inter-continental study by the Population Crisis Committee (1990), which looked into conditions of living in the world's 100 largest metropolitan areas, the average number of persons per room in Lagos is 5.8. These are clear indications of overcrowding (Fig. 1) which are associated with such health problems as tuberculosis, meningitis and influenza (WHO 1992). Most of the houses are not provided with essential utilities and services (Fig. 2). Findings from a study of three sampled cities (lbadan, Kaduna and Enugu) show that the proportions of households with in-house pipe-borne water connection varies between 65 percent and 69 percent. However, the proportion that has water most of the time varies among these cities between 22 percent and 31 percent (Onibokun 1989). For the majority of the sampled urban population, the taps remain dry most of the time. A significant number of houses in Nigerian cities are not provided with kitchens. In effect, cooking with firewood, charcoal or kerosine often takes place in living rooms or passages. This, along with inadequate ventilation, dusty or damp floor conditions creates indoor pollution and contribute to respiratory infections with women and children more at risk as more of them spend more time in and around the home. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 219 Figure 1: A Sea of Heads Fig. 2: Epileptic Service UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 220 Layi Egunjobi The situation from the perspective of the neighbourhood environment is similar to those described with respect to the housing environment except that neighbourhood problems are viewed from a wider spatial perspective. The first observation that is made from the neighbourhood level is unhealthy locational situation of residential apartments in poor neighbourhoods. Illegal structures are erected along hill slopes as can be seen in Ibadan, Abeokuta and Enugu, or in marshy areas of Lagos, Port-Harcourt, Warri and Calabar. The water supply situation and the disposal of waste water constitute another environmental problem at the neighbourhood level. In Lagos Metropolitan area, for instance, 60 percent of the pipes run through open drains where some pipes are burst open. The inhabitants living nearby invariably resort to fetching water from these burst pipes. This, according to a study, contributes to the intensification of the occurrence of diarrhoea (Odumosu 1993). In our cities, a sizeable proportion of the populace defecate along local streams or drainage areas, or may simply use the open space around dilapidated or abandoned public latrines. Others use pit latrines. The general picture is that of inadequacy of sanitation facilities. Sanitary facilities are either not available, or where available, poorly maintained. In a large part of Ibadan, water is always not available to flush WCs. Pit latrines are dug without environmental considerations side by side with shallow hand-dug wells which supply water for domestic purposes. In this city, typhoid is prevalent. Between 1971 and 1973 when there was an outbreak of cholera in the city, the most affected part was the traditional core areas where population density was highest and where water and sanitation facilities were most inadequate (Adesina 1987). Another element of the urban environment is wastes disposal. As many Nigerian cities pass the million mark in population, collection ~d disposal of wasreshave l5ecomea major urban environmental problem (Egunjobi 1986c). In Lagos, lbadan, Kano, Port-Harcourt and Enugu, uncollected heaps of solid wastes which constitute health hazards are observable (Fig. 3). Secondly, the cities' disposal sites have also become environmental hazards. The wastes are not treated sanitarily while in some cases the disposal sites have been e~mlfed by residential and other urban landuses. Fig. 3: The Waste Invasion UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 221 The wider city environment exhibits such health problems as air pollution and water pollution on-a wider scale than those observed aj:the neighbourhood scale. Air pollution and water pollution at the city scale are a product of industrial establishments that are springing up in the larger cities of Lagos, Fort-Harcourt and Kano. The increasing rate of car ownership among the middle and high income classes also contributes to urban air pollution while accident rates are also increasing sharply in cities. One other problem that is felt at this scale is noise pollution. The variables through which pollutants reach us include not only the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, but also the sound we hear. In 1966, Peter Enahoro in his book, How To Be A Nigerian, made a satirical reference to the 'Nigerian noise' when he wrote: In the beginning, God created the universe; then He created the moon, the stars and the wild beasts of the forests. On the sixth day, He created the Nigerian and there was peace. But on the seventh day while God rested, the Nigerian invented noise. Enahoro has certainly got a firm grip of the Nigerian's. behaviour with regard to noisemaking: but it is fair to point out that this is essentially a city problem. In fact, it appears the dictum holds that the bigger the city, the bigger the mess. A pilot study on this urban problem reveals that in the city of Ibadan, deafening sounds from record-players top the list as the most obnoxious source of noise (Egunjobi 1986a). This is followed by other sources such as the use of grinding machines, intra-city traffic, power generating plants and religious worship in a descending order of intensity Others are the noises generated by activities in open markets and motor parks. Excessive noise like excessive heat or cold has many degenerating effects on human life. Studies on environmental noise show that these effects range from interference with speech communication and sleep to psycho-social stress and loss of hearing. Indeed, urban noise pollution has been found to have contributed to reduced efficiency and bizarre behaviour of workers. In 1984, the head of the Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) Unit in Lagos University Teaching Hospital gave a warning that more Nigerians might lose their hearing in the next few decades as a result of continuous exposure to urban noise (The Guardian, 21 March 1984). He based his warning on the increasing number of his patients who complained of hearing loss in recent years. Furthermore, our cities suffer from inadequate intra-connectivity, City transport which serves as the sinew binding together various land uses has not only remained inefficient, it has grown over the years to be expensive and dangerous. Quite a proportion of the people of Lagos have had to cut drastically their sleeping hours to avoid being caught in traffic hold-up. They typically leave their homes by 5.00 a.m. and do not return from work until very late in the night. The rate of car ownership has since the oil boom days increased, whereas the required urban road space has not increased correspondingly. _0 lbadan provides another example of the chaotic transport situation where an UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 222 Layi Egunjobi estimated 50 percent of houses in the traditional core is not accessible to vehicular traffic. Yet, half of the limited available road spaces are illegally taken over by traders bearing in mind that every street in Ibadan is characterized by one form of trading activity or another. Although the role of urban transportation is to facilitate the movement of people and goods comfortably and safely, where they are required, and recognizing that there is no alternative to mobility, what exists in our cities is a litany of inconveniences and frustration as evidenced in road congestion, pollution, accidents - all of which are fatal to the quality of life in cities. This characterization of living conditions in the wider city environment takes us to the issue of insecurity from such crimes as burglary, armed robbery and street fighting. Every other household in the cities has been a victim at one time or another in residential apartments, on the roads and even in offices. This has constituted a formidable anxiety-based problem. It has also contributed to a high cost of living. This is because urban residents have to expend a significant proportion of their incomes in fencing their homes, in providing burglary proofing, guard dogs, lighting, metal doors, close-circuit TV and even African traditional measures - a situation which Agbola (1997) describes as "Architecture of Fear" (Fig. 4). Fig. 4: Architecture of Fear Lack of safety and security in the cities is not limited to crimes and urban violence. It involves such other physical hazards as fire outbreak, structurally failing houses and urban floods. These have been increasing in rates, resulting in personal property and business losses. Looking at the various indicators we have thus far applied to assess the degree of livability in our cities, it should be possible to assign a grade of performance to the cities (see Table 2). Have they passed this simple test? Perhaps a fair conclusion in this regard is that the cities are on the verge of both physical and spiritual death. For example, one of our cities - Lagos ranks 98th on the scale of livability among the world's 100 largest Metropolitan Areas (Population Crisis Committee 1990). This, if the metaphor is clear enough, is the gasping of Nigerian city dwellers for shelter, mobility, utilities and services. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 223 Table 2: Q.uality of Life Indicators in Lagos Metropolitan Area No. Indicator Score 1. Public Safety (murders per 100,000 people) NA 2. Food Costs (% income spent on food) 58% 3. Living Space (persons per Room) 5.8 4. Housing Standards (% Homes with water/electricity) 50% 5. Communications (Telephone per 100 people) 1 6. Education (% of Children in Secondary School) 31% 7. Public Health (Infants deaths per 1,000 Live births) 8511,000 8. Peace and Quiet (Levels of ambient Noise) (1-10) 7 9. Traffic Flow (Miles per Hour in Rush Hour) 17.4 10. Clean Air (Alternate Pollution Measures) NA 11. Growth Rate of Metropolitan Areas in the 1980's(A verage 5.86 annual rate) 12. Urban Living Standard Score (in rank order among 98th 98th the World's 100 Largest Metropolitan areas) Source: Population Crisis Committee, 1990. Governance as a Pre-eminent Factor An attempt to explain the plethora of problems which our cities are faced with leads one into a number of disaggregated factors as proffered in planning literature. These include poor funding of urban development projects, scarcity of technical and professional skills, disregard for urban development related laws and ineffective urban planning practices. These and other such factors by category fall on the laps of the private sector developers whose profit motive ambitions produce social disbenefits, and the public sector that is concerned with collective choices of goods and services. Subsumed in these two major categories are the planning professionals as a class having responsibilities for the application of laws and regulations that govern urban development functions. Although there is the apparent conflict of interests between the private operators and the public sector, there is a logic in the assertion that the latter that are found in the business of governance take the lion's share of responsibilities for building the cities and making them function for human benefit. Where this is not happening or happening lukewarmly, they have to take the blame. This is because the city is a public good and urban planning as a distinct field in the public domain seeks to protect public interest through regulatory powers (Solesbury 1574). The pre-eminence of governance as a factor explaining the gasping cities will be illustrated with a few selected cases. (i) A Big City Without A Master Plan: One is referring to lbadan in the south-western part of the country. The effect of this is that this city has over the years been growing in all directions without direction. The frustration of professional planners in this city, can be imagined in the absence of a standard zoning arrangement, the frame work of which a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 224 Layi Egunjobi city plan would have provided. Factories are located within residential areas. New buildings continuously spring up in the suburbs engulfing the villages and eating away the farmlands without control. There are more shops than living rooms. The situation is so much chaotic that nobody is able yet to determine the exact boundaries of the city. This confusion makes it an almost impossible task to make projections for the utilities and service needs of the city. The case being made is that lack of political will has largely been responsible for these conditions. (ii) A Planned City Without Planning Discipline: Abuja is Nigeria's showpiece of a city having been built from the scratch when "money was not a problem", and which expectedly was to enjoy benefits of the latest technology and an enlightened vision in city development. However, an urban planning and development monitoring alarm had to be raised as early as 1984 when an international meeting on new capital cities in the developing countries was held in Nigeria. The delegates noted contraventions in the implementation of Abuja Master Plan - which contraventions were defended as "necessities of replanning". The situation in Abuja has remained the same as reported in a Nigerian daily 'of October 1, 1999. Worried by constant abuse of building and environmental laws in Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Minister was determined to stop all encroachment whereby all open spaces meant for recreation were turned by people to build illegal structures (The Guardian, October I, 1999). Senate Committee on FCT had earlier heard that a former Minister in charge of the Territory was responsible for distorting the development of the second phase of the plan by converting open spaces, roads and recreational areas into plots, and allocating them to people described as "favourites and lackeys" (The Comet, October 3, 1999). (iii) Cities With Crippled Land Law: For over two decades (1978-99), the ineffectiveness of Nigerian Land Use Law has continuously been highlighted. The law has put all land within Nigeria under public control. The objective includes equity in access to urban and rural land. Since 1978 when the law was put in place, it is the consensus of Nigerians as reflected in research findings (Egunjobi 1991) that accessing the land through public apparatus has been as difficult as ever. The paradox in this case is that it was far more difficult for some State Military Governors to acquire land for public use than to acquire for themselves. What is more, the Land Use Law hampered the preparation of layouts which contributed to haphazard pattern of urban development at the cities' peripheries. Here again, the public sector that promulgated the law without public participation (an anathema of the military regime) and demonstrated no capacity for enforcing the law, and wilfully refused to revoke or amend the law, takes all the blame. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 225 (iv) Cities Where Management Functions Are Uncoordinated: In 1987, Egunjobi and Oladoja in one of their studies of Ibadan found that 16 different agencies were responsible for the management functions of the city. The amazing observation about these agencies is that there was little or no collaboration among them. The result is that the urban populations which they all serve are at risk of the ensuing danger, inconveniences and inefficiencies. Thus, it is not uncommon to see a newly paved road by an agency, being ripped open by another agency for the purpose of installing water pipes or underground telephone cables without consultation, or an urban road rehabilitation work that unearths some already laid pipes or cables. Yet complaints and counter- complaints are often lodged as and when the tap is dry and the agency in charge of water complains about lack of electricity to pump water into the city, or when the fire fighter is unable to function because the hydrant to the site of fire incident has no water. Furthermore, it was discovered that certain provisions of the laws in respect of the agencies are either at variance with, or duplicative of one another. For example, an agency in a particular city has power to allocate spaces for erecting temporary shops whereas another agen,cy in the same city has powers to demolish illegal structures which turn out to be the same shops. (v) The City Where Political Power Reigns Supreme: A short story based on our research on 'Politics and Development Control' suffices in this case. Consequent upon political pressure, the Commissioner in charge of Local Governments in Ibadan suspended the then Ibadan Metropolitan Planning Authority (IMPA) and ordered that a house under construction that had reached the lintel stage should not be demolished by the Development Control Departments of the Authority for contravening planning regulations (Egunjobi 1985). His rationale was that any contravener ought to have been spotted and dealt with by the Development Control Officers from the foundation stage. The ingenious minds of the political party faithfuls harped on this and erected illegal structures by accelerated process at week-ends when .the Control Officers were not on duty such that part of the-building would have reached the lintel level. In this case, they were out of the Control Officers' nets according to the Commissioner's private law. This obviously meant a, high rate of contravention of development control laws and a sustained continuous trend of disorderly mode of urban development. (vi) The Law-maker is the Law-breaker in my City: This sound curious, but that is the case. Our conservative observation shows that between 1997 and 1999, we have-built five times the number of petrol filling stations that had existed since the importation of the first vehicle into the country. However, the astronomical rate of increase in the number of stations is not necessarily, the worrisome aspect of this story, but the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 226 Layi Egunjobi wanton disregard for the relevant urban planning and environmental laws. Despite the provisions of these laws that stipulate the minimum distance between one station and another for safety and health, we have observed eight petrol filling stations in a row without a single vacant plot in between any two of the stations. It is our considered opinion that these potential land mines should not have been that strategically located if public laws are made to be obeyed for the public benefit. (vii) The City With Half A Million Local Governments: In this hypothetical city, and yet typical of our cities, all sense of economies of scale has got lost. It no longer makes sense to talk of collective responsibility and cheaper delivery of goods and services communally. The true picture is that every home especially in the sub-urban areas is a self-catering entity (a local government?) in terms of provision of day and night- guards, water, electricity, waste disposal services and road maintenance. Close to the homes, of course, are proliferated private nursery and primary schools as well as health centres. This is almost analogous to the concept of ecological house where the owner may remain in-doors for months (by choicejwithout necessarily being in want of anything from outside the home (Egunjobi 1997). Forced ecological housing situation in this context translates into a shameful indictment of the public providers of urban utilities and services. The issue that is being considered in this respect is that there is hardly any more responsibilities left for the government to shoulder such that questions are raised as to whether government is established to serve people or vice versa. Certainly, it is difficult to see if there is any fundamental difference between what the ruler calls' "community participation" and what the citizen sees as "governmental irresponsibility". Will They Survive? In an attempt to answer this question, we take into consideration the inevitability of urbanization, the peculiarity of the pace of urbanization in developing countries, as well as the positive empirical tendency that urbanization is amenable to planning. Our premise in a more precise form is that urbanization in itself is not an undesirable phenomenon if anticipated or observed. Undesirability of urbanization results from planlessness or unserious planning. So, our answer to the question posed is in the affirmative. Our gasping cities are going to survive; however, this is with the obvious proviso of the timely intervention of a qualified physician. This translates into the requirement of political will, which is a function of responsible leadership. The intricate relationship between politics and planning has never been disputed in time or space. This is irrespective of whether planning is considered under an authoritarian or a democratic political climate.r On -the one hand, irresponsible political interference can, and does hinder the execution of planning proposals. On the other hand, people in public affairs can invoke political power to facilitate urban planning and management. This essentially depends on UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 227 awareness, motivation, commitment and degree of enlightenment on the part of the leader and those other leaders at various governmental levels down to the community level. • The efficacy of urban planning as an instrument for promoting and sustaining human quality of life has been amply documented. Our study in this instance shows that the more intensive the planning activities in a neighbourhood, the higher, the level of environmental sanitation status of the people in the particular area (Egunjobi, 1995). Yet, health maintenance is just one of the many goals of urban planning. Others, if we can recall, include safety, economy and aesthetics. If by general education, or simple logical reasoning or empirical evidences, the rulers who hold political and bureaucratic powers realize that the survival of the present and future cities are essentially in their hands, they will develop by choice that culture of city planning and management that is premised on discipline and sincerity of purpose. • To end this discourse, let me quickly proffer some specific recommendations as planning challenges in the new millennium to those in politics and public affairs. This is in recognition of the light that appears to be appearing at the end of the tunnel in recent times: (i) It is imperative that every city and- indeed all settlements including villages in the country should be covered by master plans as stipulated in the Urban and Regional Planning Law of 1992. This will save the present unpleasant situation where planners do not have reference points to make land-use decisions which has contributed to disorderly development. (ii) A review of Abuja Master Plan and Abuja Regional Plan is, after two decades, rightly overdue. The necessity for this stems from the need to collate and analyze those experiences learnt through genuine professional planning practice as well as through Wilful distortions to the Plan to derive selfish benefits. (iii) There is the need for the Nigerian Land Use Law to be revised. According to our nationwide evaluative study of this law, a sizeable proportion of 71 percent of the sampled professionals and 47 percent of the general public wished to see the law amended (Egunjobi 1991). Citizens were sympathetic to the cause of the law, but were skeptical about the framing of it and the organization of its implementation. It is therefore recommended that a broad-based machinery should be set up for getting the land policy revised to make it achieve the intended objectives. (iv) The need for rationalizing conflicting and duplicative functions of various urban agencies, and effecting coordination to achieve efficiency has become important at this stage of our city life. More specifically, every urban region has the requirement for an Urban Planning and Development Coordinating Committee (UPDCC) to serve as a clearing house for all urban projects and management functions. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 228 Layi Egunjobi (v) A national programme of Town Planning Education should be instituted. The objective will be basically to make Nigerians - the rulers and the ruled alike - planning literate. This will serve the purpose of enlightenment that will make those in public affairs more alive to their responsibilities, while at the same time will ensure that citizens know their rights and are ready to participate on this ground in city planning for sustainable deve 1opment. REFERENCES Adesina, H.O. (1987) "The Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Cholera Diffusion within Ibadan, Nigeria, 1971 -1974: in Akhtar (ed.) Health and Disease in Tropical Africa; London, Paris, New York: Harwood Academic Publishers. Agboola, Tunde (1997) Architecture of Fear; Ibadan; lnstitut Francais de Recherche en Afrique (IFRA), Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan. Aina, Tade Akin, Ette, Florence Ebam and Obi, Cyril I. (1994) 'The Search for Sustainable Urban Development in Metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria,' Third World Planning Review, Vol. 16; No 2, May, 1994 pp. 201 - 219. Beauce de Thierry (1990) 'Address': in The United Towns Organization (Organizers) The Mainspring of Economic Development in Developing Countries; The City of Lille, pp. 33 - 36. Egunjobi, Layi (1985) 'Politics of Development Control'. Paper Presented at the National Workshop on 'Development Control and Planning Administration in Nigeria', Organized Jointly by the Physical Planning Department (NISER~, and the Centre for Urban and Regional Planning (CURP), University oflbadan; 24 _28th June. Egunjobi, Layi (1986a) '(Urban) Environmental Noise Pollution in Nigeria'; Habitat International, Vol. 10, No.3 pp. 235 - 244. Egunjobi, Layi (1986b) 'Human Elements in Urban Planning and Development', Ibadan: Habitat International, Vol. 10, No.4 pp. 147 - 153. Egunjobi, T.O. (1986c) 'Problems of Solid Waste Management in Nigerian Urban Centres', in Adeniyi, Eniola O. and Bello-Imam, I.B. (eds) Development and the Environment, NISER, Ibadan; Chapter 14, pp. 303 - 318. Egunjobi, Layi and Oladoja, Ayoade (1987) 'Administrative Constraints in Urban Planning and Development' Habitat International, Vol. II, No 4, pp. 87 - 94. Egunjobi, Layi (1991) 'An Empirical Study of the Implementation of the Nigerian Land- use Policy; A Research Report Prepared for the Social Science Council of Nigeria in Collaboration with the Ford Foundation. Egunjobi, Layi (1997) 'Conceptualization the House as Ecological System, in (ed.) Housing in Nigeria; Proceedings of a National Conference; Ile-Ife; Obafemi Awolowo University. Egunjobi, Layi (1997) 'The Role of City in National Development'; in Nigerian Institute of Town Planners (NITP) Proceedings of National Workshop on Managing Nigerian Urban Settlement for National Development in the zr' Century; A Challenge to Physical Planning Practice, University of Ibadau, 10- 11 April 1997. Hardoy, Jorge E. and Satterhwaite, David (1989) Environmental Problems in Third World Cities: A Global Issue Ignored? London: lIED Issue Paper. Harris, N. (1990) Urbanization, Economic Development and Policy in Development, Countries. London: Development Planning Unit Working Paper No.1 O. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Our Gasping Cities 229 Mabogunje, Akin L. (1.968) Urbanization in Nigeria; London: University of London Press Ltd., pp. 64 - 9l. Mumford, Lewis (1993) 'Utopia, The City and the Machine,' in Manuel Frank E. (ed.) Utopians and Utopian Thought. London: Souvenir Press (Educational and Academic Ltd). . Odumosu, Abimbola O. (1993) Status of Water Quality in Lagos'; in Pickford, John (ed.) Water Sanitation, Environment and Development; Proceedings of the Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Accra, Ghana, 6 - 10 September. Onibokun, Adepoju G. (1989) 'Urban Growth and Urban Management in Nigeria in Stren, Richard E. and White, Rodney R. (eds.) African Cities in Crisis; Managing Rapid Urban Growth. Boulder, San Fransisco and London. Westview Press. Salau, A.T. (1979) 'Urbanization, Planning and Public Policies in Nigeria', in Obudho, Robert A. and EI-Shakhs, Salab (eds) Development of Urban Systems in Africa, New York: Praeger. Solesbury, W. (1974) Policy in Urban Planning: Urban and Regional Planning Series, Oxford, New York: Pergamon Press. Tillich, Paul (1973) 'Critique and Justification of Utopia'; in Manuel, Frank E. (ed) op cit. Toure, Moriba and Fadayomi, T.O. (eds) (1992) Migrations, Development and Urbanization Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa; Senegal: CODESRA Book Series. World Health Organization (1992) Our Planet, Our Earth; Report of the Health Organization Commission on Health and Environment, Geneva: WHO, pp. 197 - 229. Whynne-Hammond, Charles (1979) Elements of Human Geography; London: George Allen & Unwin, pp. 137; 157 - 176. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 INVESTMENT IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION: RELEVANCE, QUALITY AND GOVERNANCE AT THE EVE OF THE THIRD MILLENNIUM RemiLonge Department of Educational Management Preamble This lecture is indeed inaugural, being the very first coming from the Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, in the University ofIbadan. The Department of Educational Management was established in 1976, as a result of the tripartite agreement between the Federal Ministry of Education, the UNESCOIUNDP and the University of Ibadan. The objective of that agreement is to bring about human resource generation to meet the growing needs of educational administration and planning in Nigeria. The project tagged NIRl751103 was the first to be so established in Nigeria and in fact in Africa South of the Sahara. This is confirmed in the National Policy on Education (1977), which specifically stressed the point to ensure adequate supply of manpower for implementing the policy. Consequently, a Department of Educational Management was established in the University of Ibadan. Ever since, the department has vigorously pursued the set objectives through various academic programmes - undergraduate, postgraduate, and in-service training programmes to administrative and planning officers in the federal, state and the local governments. At this juncture, I wish to acknowledge the pioneering work of Dr. T.O. Ohikhena, who, as the first Head of the department, worked in collaboration with the UNESCO Technical Team!, to lay a solid foundation for the Department of Educational Mariagement, University oflbadan between 1976 and 1983. One of the early research projects of the department was undertaken by Professor (Mrs.) R.S. Longe (my humble self) in 1979, titled, "Factors ! UNESCO 1ECHNICAL 1EAM in the persons of D.N. Nwaniki. C.N. Cwnming. G.K Pederson, A Lulsegged., C. Conrad. W.M. Zaki. H.N. Pandit, AS. Patwari and AAJ. Spee. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 232 Remi Longe Influencing Current Costs of Secondary Education in Nigeria". The report of the research was later adapted and published by UNESCOIIIEP in 1982 (IIEP research report 46). This was followed by Durosaro (1985), a micro planning research, titled, "Internal Efficiency of Secondary Education" which was supervised by me. In another research activity in educational administration, Ogunsanya (1981), looked at "Teacher Job Satisfaction and Productivity as Correlate of School Goal Achievement". Likewise, Ibukun (1983) conducted a study on "Leadership and Resource Situation as Contingency Factor for School Success". Akinwurniju (1986) began a study on "Gaps Between Demand and Supply in University Education in Nigeria". In more recent times, we have focused our research on the subject of "Internal Efficiency of the Education System and Gender Issues". Ajayi (1998) on "Resource Utilization", concluded that, education managers justify education as investment rather than consumption. On "Gender and Decision - making", Longe and Babalola (1999a), found that a large gender gap in Education at the primary and secondary levels in Nigeria has led to significant welfare losses. In another recent study of the relationship between women education and household democracy, Longe and Babalola (1999b), hypothesized that exposure of couples to modernizing institutions such as schools will facilitate the acceptance of the democratic system of power sharing at home. The focus of my research all along has been in the area of Educational Planning with emphasis on cost analysis, women education and national development. However, on this unique occasion of the first inaugural lecture of the department, I am looking beyond this area to present in a broader perspective, Nigeria's Investment in Education. Consequently, I chose the topic "Investment in Nigerian Education: Relevance, Quality and Governance on the Eve of the Third Millennium". Introduction The decades of the 1980s and 1990s marked a downturn in Nigeria's educational system. During these decades, the country, which had hitherto experienced upward mobility in the 1970s, suffered enormous economic, political and social crises. While other countries of the world are warming up for the global challenges of the 21st century, many Nigerians as well as important international observers are becoming increasingly concerned about how to create the base for a growth path that would ensure rapid development in Nigeria. In addition to the traditional question of how the education system contributes to students' intellectual growth, a new question is being asked: 'How can the educational system contribute to national competitiveness in the coming millennium?' According to Lewin (1993) and AASA (1994) stakeholders want to know which type of education benefits society by. • providing greater earning power; • enriching the quality of life; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 233 • promoting equal opportunity; • maintaining a free market economy; • enhancing personal fulfilment; • ensuring world leadership; • and preserving democracy The human capital model argues that skills are acquired through investment in education, which adds to the overall volume of national competitiveness. However, according to Cappelli and Lannozzi (1993) structural changes in the economy, changes in policy, and shifts in demographics may adversely affect the link between education and development. Studies such as that of Cappelli and Lannozzi have served as a caution to many admirers of the human capital theory. Holding to the tenets of the human capital theory but without losing sight of the caution to many admirers of the theory implied in the work of Cappelli and Lannozzi, this lecture pursues the thesis that investment in education, among other public supports for human services, is an indispensable part of any realistic programme for economic and social recovery in Nigeria. Global Thoughts Concerning Investment in Education The belief that investment in education boosts economic growth dates back to the time of Adam Smith. The concept however, gained global attention during the human capital movement of the 1960s. Schultz (1961) and Denison (1962), in their pioneering works, showed that education contributes directly to economic growth by improving skills and productive capacities of the labour force. Considering the economic needs of African countries following their independence in the 1960s, most of the nations, including Nigeria, quickly embraced the human capital concept as basis for defending their huge investments in education at various levels. Unfortunately, reports from the field concerning the actual economic value of investment in education in the 1960s produced ambivalent results. Consequently, in the 1970s, research on educational investment suffered a great setback. Nevertheless, in the 1980s, the World Bank demonstrated a renewed interest in the concept of education for development. Hicks (1980), Wheelers (1980), Longe (1981), Psacharopoulos (1984 and 1985) and Akangbou (1986), among others reaffirmed the importance of education in promoting economic growth. In fact, in the 1990s, there has been overwhelming evidence that education is one of the keys to social and economic development. Many studies of farm productivity, family enterprises and wage earners have demonstrated that an increase of one year in average years of education may lead to a 3 percent rise in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As shown in the World Development Report 1990, the results of this research vary from region to region. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 234 Remi Longe Obstacles to Realization of Investment Benefits in African Education For most groups of developing countries, the effect of education on GDP is clearly positive. This result demonstrates the economic importance of investing in education. Ironically in Africa, the increase in average years of education, which in 1985 was 3.25 is expected to have a negligible positive effect on GDP. Three main reasons can explain this exceptional behaviour of education in relation to economic growth in Africa. First, Africa might have failed to attain the educational threshold for economic growth. Studies have shown that the higher the initial level of education, the greater the benefits from increasing the average years of schooling. For example, about four years of schooling is needed to attain functional literacy. Investments in education may yield substantial returns only when they are big enough to push the economy over such a threshold. Contrary to this, in the 1980s, many countries in Africa had extremely low enrolment rates, while in other African countries, enrolment rates either stagnated or fell (World Bank 1991). Of more importance than the quantitative threshold are the issues of relevance and quality of African education as they affect economic growth. The quality of education, in this context (World Bank report 1995, p. 75) includes the learning environment and students' outcomes. From the input side, quality of education can be inferred from: • . student's capacity and motivation to learn; • the curriculum or the subjects to be learned; • teachers who know how to teach and can actually teach; • time to learning; • and the requisite tools for teaching and learning. According to World Bank report, (1990, P. 45), education in many countries of Africa remains cf poor or mediocre quality, particularly when it comes to the basic skills upon which countries will depend to meet the needs of the labour market in the 2151 century. Poor quality of education in Africa is manifested through absentee teachers, emphasis on rote learning, outdated curricula, shortages of textbooks and lack of relevant materials. In addition to these, quality shortfalls in African education systems are also showing up in output indicators such as the results of internationally comparable tests. All these ills are most likely to have unfavourable effects on the expected interaction between education and economic growth in the continent. The issue of governance cannot be overemphasized as far as the developmental impacts of education are concerned. One important lesson from the past is that the economies, which committed themselves to investment in education may fail to achieve commensurate level of economic growth owing to bad governance. either at the national/state or at the institutional level. When economies and institutions of learning are badly governed, investments in education may not produce optimal result. This was the case in the Philippines UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 235 where several years of authoritarian rule, which squandered foreign borrowings, prevented people from benefiting from their greater skills (World Bank 1991 and 1999 p. 61). Perhaps, it is correct to say that the Nigerian experience of the last decade is similar to that of the Philippines considering the apppalling state of education in Nigeria. It is appropriate to quote here, the concern in Akinkugbe (1994) in the Second Obafemi Awolowo Foundation Dialogue: "today we lament the glaring inadequacies in our educational industry: primary, secondary, special, technical, tertiary, in which there is abundant evidence of crippling i@rtia, criminal neglect and pervasive decay in values and standards". ~. There is overwhelming evidence that education is a weapon in the fight against poverty. There can be little doubt that educating the children of the poor greatly improves their chances of escaping poverty. Since the power of all able- bodied poor is in their labour, increasing the productivity of this labour is clearly the most effective way to combat poverty. Infact, the effectiveness of education as a tool to combat poverty goes beyond productivity in the labour market. One year of receiving mother's education has been associated with a 9 percent decrease in under 5 mortality. It has been found that the children of better- educated mothers, other things being equal, tend to be healthier. Just as the education of parents has positive effect on child nutrition and of course better nutrition improves the child's capacity to learn. Studies in Kenya, among other developing countries, show that protein-energy malnutrition is related to lower cognitive test scores and worse school performance. Another study from Indonesia discovered that micro nutrient (Iodine) deficiencies reduce cognitive performance among nine-to-twelve-year old children. Iron deficiency decreases the child's alertness, which in turn affects learning (World Bank 1990, Del Roses and Marek 1996). Vitamin A deficiency has long been associated with blindness and the severity of measles. A milder vitamin A deficiency affects growth, including brain development. If the full benefits of education in Africa are to be realized, pupils must be adequately nourished and good governance, which is still rare in Africa, is needed to achieve this. This lecture has hitherto discussed the concept that, education is necessary to promote social, political and economic growth. It has also dropped a hint that such education needs to be relevant, qualitative and well governed. Having set the general conceptual context, the next section specifically deals with Nigerian investment in education at all levels. Investment in Nigerian Education Hypothetically, investments in education are depressed during an economic recession and rise again as economic growth resumes. This is a recent finding of Psacharopoulos and others (1996) in a study that uses data from 1984, 1989 and 1992 household surveys to investigate the earnings/education relationship in Mexico. Table 1 shows data on Nigerian investment in education between 1980 and 1993 to test the Mexico's finding. Using the GDP per capita as the indicator of economic growth, Nigerian economy was seriously depressed between 1980 and 1988. The table reveals that t~e GDP, which was $650 in 1980 reduced by UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 236 Remi Longe 43.08 percent to $380 in 1985 (that is within 5 'Years). Within 8 years, the economy has depressed by 56.92 percent from $650 in 1980 to $280 in 1988. In response to the economic depression, per capita education spending reduced by 55.36 percent between 1981 and 1984 and by 80.36 percent between 1981 and 1988. This implies that education spending reduced faster than national income during depression in Nigeria (see Fig. 1). Table 1: Investment Trends in Nigerian Education Period Year GDPPer Education Education as Education capita 1987 spending per percentage of spending per US$ capita in US $ annual budget student In US $ 1 1980 650 3.4 5.2 190.94 1981 530 5.6 7.8 302.55 1982 450 4.5 7.9 82.16 1983 390 3.9 7.4 82.16 1984 370 2.5 8.0 n.a 1985 380 . 2.5 8.0 55.59II 1986 270 2.1 4.8 n.a . 1987 280 1.6 2.7 n.a. 1988 280 2.1 2.0 n.a. III 1989 310 3.09 7.2 16.66 1990 340 3.06 5.3 15.75 1991 330 2.00 4.1 10.25 1992 320 2.80 6.3 7.10 1993 320 3.90 7.3 6.44 Note: (i) n.a. = not available. (ii) Efforts have been made to remove the effects of changes in exchange rate of Nigerian currency, through its conversion to US dollars. Sources: (i) Babalola, Lungwangwa and Adeyinka (1999, (I) (ii) IBRD/W orld Bank (1995) World Tables (Table II) (iii) Central Bank of Nigeria, CBN (1992, 1993) (III) The table reveals that the fall in the share of education in the national budget did not respond immediately to the corresponding fall in the GDP per capita. In fact, there was a five-year lag between the fall in the later and the former. On the other hand, the education spending per population responded after a year. This shows the demographic effects on education investment. It is interesting to note that, in spite of the dwindling national income, Nigeria showed an unwanted commitment to education through a continuous increase in the share of education in the national budget. Nevertheless, the gains in budget share must have been eaten up by increase in population within the period. The year 1986 was a bad one for education in Nigeria. The budget share of education dropped by 40 percent from 8.0 percent in 1985 to 4.8 percent in 1986. This has been shown to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 237 be as a result of the adoption of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). By 1988, the education share has dropped by 75 percent of the 1984 figure. 9 8 pc .I Ill' t'lk--' j.Ala .1\ 7 II ,r\ vV 6 V )r-, 5 ---'" 1\ rI i'\ II I", / ~ j ~ I'-.1I4 I i'-- / -~~1\ l)3 '" .. 7. ~ ..J'....- 2 """ l<- t--.. " f":'I ~ o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Year ~ Log GDP per capita - Educ. Spending per population -.- Educ. As % of budget ~ Log educ. Spending per student Fig. 1: Investment trends in Nigerian Education On this table, three economic periods in Nigeria are shown. The first one spans from 1980 to 1985, which can be referred to as the pre-SAP recession period. The second one spans from 1986 to 1988, which can be classified as the SAP period, and the third, the post-SAP recovery period, is 1989 upward. The post-SAP period is characterized by growth in the economy, in the education spending per capita and in the education as a percentage of the annual federal budget. There was a 3.23 percent increase in GDP per capita within this period. The education spending per capital also increased by 26.21 percent while the share of education in the budget increased by 1.39 percent within the referenced period. These results confirm the Mexican experience, where it has been demonstrated that investment in education increases during recovery. Nevertheless, we are quick to add that there is a difference in responses of Nig erian government during recession and recovery as far as its commitment to education is concerned. The government was reluctant to reduce education budget during recession until the adoption of SAP in 1986. Moreover, as soon as the economy picked up in 1989, the country increased the budget share of education from 2.0 percent in 1988 to 7.2 percent in 1989. The table reveals that Nigeria actually struggled between 1989 and 1993 to attain the pre-SAP share. The story is different as far as expenditure per student in US dollars is concerned. In figure 1 it is revealed that, in spite of the government's efforts at increasing the share of education in its budget, the expenditure per student UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 238 Remi Longe continued to decrease at an alarming rate. The expenditure per student, which was $302.55 in 1981 reduced to $55.59 in 1985, through $16.66 in 1989 to $6.44 in 1993. One quick explanation to this outrageous cut in public spending per student is in connection with enrolment increase during the period in question. Considering the amount of hardship, which the drastic reduction in expenditure per student must have brought into the education system in Nigeria, the next section measures the impacts on the quantity, quality and relevance of the education provided at all levels. The Relevance of Nigerian Education Education: Relevant to Who? This is the type of question, which should agitate the audience's mind. It is this type of question that has brought into the education circle, the economic concept of stakeholders. Consumers and suppliers of educational goods are generally referred to as stakeholders in education. These stakeholders include students, parents, employers of labour, governments, bilateral and multilateral donors, publishers, institutions of learning and other individuals/organizations whose interests are at stake in the process of providing education. , The concepts of globalization as it affects the scope of production and distribution of skilled work force has introduced a new dimension to any modem discussion on relevance of education. That is why, in this lecture, efforts are made to revisit the traditional debate on the relevance of Nigerian education in the context of the recent international interest on globalization of education. Relevant in What Sense? By relevance, we refer to the extent to which education can be used by the society to realize its dreams. Following the independence in 1960, Nigeria decided to build a free, democratic, united, just and egalitarian society where there will be bright and full opportunities for all citizens. Economically, the country's desire is to be a great, strong, dynamic and self-reliant economy. It is hoped that education at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal school system, would contribute in no small measure, to the achievement of the social and economic goals of this nation. Relevance to the society aside, education is supposed to contribute to recipients' aspirations in life. The extent to which education can assist an individual to live a useful life in the society will determine the private relevance of such education. Relevant in What Way? Education becomes relevant through its following traditional roles: (the National Policy on Education, 1981): (a) Attitudinal Role: by which the education system is expected to inculcate certain attitudes in recipients in Nigeria. This is to create in them values such as national consciousness, national unity, sense of national/personal survival, respect for the worth and dignity of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 239 individuals, respect for dignity of labour, faith in man's ability to make rational decisions, sense of shared responsibility, and others. These are relevant values within the country's pluralistic context. (b) Skilled-development Role: by which, the Nigerian education system is expected to develop in recipients, certain skills to enable the citizens to contribute to economic growth of the nation and earn money for personal living. This is basically what our education at the tertiary level is doing. (c) Knowledge or Information Role: Which involves imparting the appropriate knowledge of Mathematics, English, Economics, Religious Studies and others to help recipients in understanding the world around them. This is in fact the most emphasized of the three roles. The three roles of education are translated into actions through the curricula at all levels. In Nigeria, efforts have been made to indigenize the curricula and therefore, make education more relevant to the community needs. Conflict of Relevance In recent times, the Nigerian curricula faced a severe conflict of relevance when measured against the international expectations. The general belief at the international level is that education in developing countries, especially Africa, serves to develop students' intellectual power with little or no emphasis on how the education can contribute to economic competitiveness required in the 21SI century. At the international level, two competitive strategies have been developed. One is to compete, based on low wages. This ironically, is a path the United States is presently pursuing (Faux 1992). The other strategy is to compete for higher wages. The success of this strategy lies in a national ability to create and maintain a high-quality work force. This, in effect, requires a competence- based, vocational and work-oriented curriculum. The belief is that high quality work force is the source of adaptability in a market place, which is changing at an accelerated rate. . The argument that the Nigerian curriculum is mainly of a general form and therefore does not contain substantial economic potentials has been found to be faulty. Findings indicate that the allocation of more inputs to academic education, as we have it in Nigeria, had a positive effect on economic development. Kuroda (1995), for instance, observes that countries that allocated more inputs to academic education in 1980 grew more rapidly throughout the decade than those countries that allocated fewer inputs. The data further showed that vocational education had some structural inefficiency. This is pointing to the fact that our values are right and that our emphasis on academic instead of vocational curriculum is also right. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 240 Remi Longe There is a need to be careful of the import mentality in education. The waves of globalization that are currently blowing across Africa can be dangerous if our curriculum is not adequately protected from the dominant ideology of the former colonial masters. We need to respect the principle of self-determination as far as what Nigeria considers the best values to be taught in our schools, colleges and universities. A situation where the international donors determine education priorities for the recipients does not promote real development. There is already evidence to show that Nigerian scholars are consumers of scientific knowledge created particularly by the World Bank, to shape the thinking of our people and therefore import certain cultural arbitrariness closely associated with economic dominance. Openness to foreign information is a good value but some information may undermine national sovereignty, values and curriculum. That is why we should continue to gear Nigerian education towards meeting the needs of the local communities. Quality of Nigerian Education Introduction In Nigeria today, there is mounting concern about the .state of schooling at all levels. This is rooted in the realization that literacy levels and academic achievement will determine individual job attainment and earnings as well as the general economic well-being of the society. Moreover, the quality of life in the society will be affected by the level and quality of social skills acquired in schools. It is wrong however, to attribute the low levels of literacy and school achievement in Nigeria to the school alone. This is because, other factors such as the home, the society, the mosque/church, government and personal characteristics are also important in child development. Nevertheless, fingers are generally pointed at governments and schools for the low levels of literacy, academic achievement and social skills in Nigerian institutions of learning. In fact, there is a general concern about the level of material inputs allocated by governments to various institutions of learning on a per student basis, and also the level of efficiency with which fixed amounts of material inputs are organized and managed to raise student achievement in Nigerian schools. Ironically, governments have been exempted from the quality issue in Nigerian schools on the ground of economic inability. While government is aware of the fact that technical evidence has consistently shown that school quality can be improved by increasing expenditure per student, they have argued that economic reality on ground cannot support immediate implementation of such findings. Consequently, this lecture has to focus on issues that can help to improve the quality of education in Nigeria in the short-run. Long-run issues bordering on increase in public spending on education are considered as pending ones in this lecture. Overall, seven main issues will be addressed, namely: \ (i) student's capacity and motivation-to learn; (ii) subject to be learned; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 241 (iii) teachers who know and can teach; (iv) time for iearning; (v) requisite tools and technology; (vi) acquisition and use of inputs; and (vii) performance standards. Quality Problems and Related Issues in Nigerian Institutions of Learning The pursuit of quality is the concern of teachers, parents, children, employers, governments and international communities. Each of these parties has its own views about what constitutes good education. Consequently, it has been a difficult task to agree on what should be a good practice in our schools. This problem is further-compounded by the heterogeneous nature of Nigeria as a multi-ethnic country. What is considered as a minimum entry qualification into the University of Ibadan, for instance, may be different from that of University of Sokoto. This may be as a result of the prevailing conditions within the communities in which the two universities are situated. , Even when there is a consensus as to what a good education should be, this standard is expected to be the minimum attainable. It will be foolish to suggest that schools should stop at the minimum, since it is doubtful if we can ever attain perfection in education. It is therefore left in the hands of individual institutions of learning to define what it considers as a qualitative education within the context of the minimum standards (if available) and subject to its resources, social conditions and limitations. This implies that quality of education will keep on changing from place to place and from time to time as schools continue to make efforts at caring for the stakeholders' needs. An important indicator of quality of education is the value added to schooling. This includes the learning gain and the increased probability of income-earning activity. It also involves research productivity in the case of higher education. Some of the value added to schooling can be measured quantitatively (as quantitative indicators) while others can only be measured qualitatively through experiences, judgement and professional knowledge (that is qualitative indicators). The quantitative indicators, for example, might include the attendance rate, dropout rate, repetition rate, passing rate, the number of years since the school was last painted, or the number of days in service training undertaken by staff. On the other hand more aspects of the qualitative indicators could include evidence of good communication with parents, the existence of appropriate policy documents and the evidence of efficient use of resources. Setting Performance Standards Generally, our assessment of the quality of education in Nigeria is often based upon qualitative evidences through experience, professional judgement and knowledge. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 242 Remi Longe We will combine both quantitative and qualitative indicators to discuss the quality issue earlier identified in this lecture. A logical starting point for a discussion of quality of education is the performance standards. Is there any agreed standard of performance against which we can measure the quality of education in Nigeria? The answer is "yes" and "no". Yes, because there is the National Universities Commission's (NUC) Approved Minimum Academic standards for all Nigerian Universities. The Approved Minimum Standards specified length of academic year, minimum number of teaching weeks per session, external examiner, continuous assessment, minimum number of credits required for graduation and the academic contents expected to be covered by each department in all disciplines of Nigerian universities. The NUC, in line with Decree No 49 of 1988, appointed thirteen panels to set the minimum standards. The panels, made up of between six and twelve senior members of the academic staff, headed by respected professors, were to produce draft proposals. Each panel was given a free hand to co-opt other members of the community they felt would make meaningful contribution to their work. When the drafts were ready, they were sent to every academic department in all the Nigerian universities for their critical comments on the documents. The output of this process is known as the "Approved Minimum Academic Standards for all Nigerian Universities" published by the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1989. After a decade, the Approved Minimum Academic Standards for All Nigerian Universities (AMAS) is yet to gain total acceptance in all Nigerian Universities. The extent of compliance with the AMAS varies between universities and departments. In most cases, it is reluctantly practised. This reflects the level of consensus reached during the process of setting the standard. In order to arrive at generally acceptable standard, there is need to involve the politicians, the professional educators and the students. The politicians are to judge what knowledge and skills they wish schools to impart to their children. The professionals are to supply the effective strategies which could be used to reach objectives and the students are to judge what skills they consider useful for them. The NUC seemed to have ignored this process of consensus building while setting the minimum standards. Consequently, the AMAS is like forcing something down the throat of a sick individual. The assimilation would then be gradual, difficult and forceful. In effect, the minimum standards have become the maximum practices in most of the universities where AMAS is currently adopted with' some seriQ\\~n~~~, "In spite of these problems, the" university system is far" ahead of other education sub-systems in Nigeria as far as standards of performance are concerned. Right now, various education authorities decide on what standards of education they consider good for their people within their areas of jurisdiction. In most cases, the standards are unilaterally set by the politicians with little or no consideration for the involvement of other stakeholders. . Nigeria is ripe enough to set standards of performance for education at all ' levels. The process can be through a general conference on educational development. The conference can involve politicians, professional educators at UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 243 the school and ministry levels as well as parents, students and other important groups in the society. Moreover, we cannot objectively measure the quality of education where there is no standards of performance against which we can compare the existing practices. The first thing therefore, is to set a national minimum standard of performance at all levels of education in Nigeria. Improving Students' Quality As important as the existence of performance standards in education is, students' capacity and motivation to learn can make or mare a good schooling system. Home and school are the two main socializing agents as far as student's willingness, ability and readiness to learn are concerned. Studies (Lombard, 1994; Schaeffer, 1987; Bryant and Ramey, 1987) comparing the effects of home and school influences conclude that more. than 60 percent of difference in student achievement can be attributed to differences in individual and family characteristics. Unfortunately however, most Nigerian parents are finding it increasingly difficult to provide adequate family supports for their children particularly during the formative age. There is a high prevalence of poverty that has resulted in acute nutritional and health problems among Nigerian school children. Temporary hunger (a situation where a child is made to miss at least one of the meals, a situation jokingly referred to among students as 0-0-1, 1-0-0, 1-0-1) has become household norms in Nigeria. The effects of this on the level of attention paid by school children to learning cannot be overemphasized. Temporary hunger can affect student's concentration in school, while chronic malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, parasitic infections and physical impairments can lead to less regular attendance, grade repetition and also to more dropouts. In recent times, there is a rising concern about child labour, street trading with children leading to withdrawals from schools. These have combined with the nutritional and health problems to reduce the ability of some Nigerian children to achieve any measure of success in schools. Once the foundation is weak, the superstructure is bound to be weak. As the Bible says "if the foundations are destroyed, what can the righteous do?" (Psalm 11:3). The quality of Nigerian education system is closely linked with the level of preparation of Nigerian children right from the home. It is therefore important to introduce school-based interventions that will complement the unmet needs of the deficient children before a permanent cognitive damage is done. Such interventions, could for instance, be directed toward the physical, emotional and cognitive development of the rural and poor children, particularly during their formative ages. Without doubt, educational investments that are geared toward school health and nutrition programmes have the potential to boost learning and achievement among the poor. Family support programmes, which focus on parent's literacy and sensitization can also go a long way to help parents to endorse schooling and discourage child labour. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 244 Remi Longe : Improving Teacher's Quality The quality of teachers is ~s important as the quality of the students when we refer to quality of education in Nigeria. Longe (1984) pointed out that as a result of social, political and economic situations, it has gradually become difficult to find teachers who know and. are motivated to teach their subjects in Nigerian public schools. Most of the' teachers at all levels of education in Nigeria are poorly prepared. Those in the service are rarely exposed to new theories, techniques, demonstrations and practice. This is because oflack of well-designed continuous in-service traineg. Feedback to teachers through research findings are absent. However, there are so~' distance learning outfits, which are meant to upgrade the teachers on their jobs. These are in form of external degree programmes, part-time programmes, crash-programmes and others. The quality of these programmes is still doubtful since little emphasis is often placed on teaching practice. Ironically, the students themselves do not complain because they want cheap certificates. Government is economically handicapped and therefore cannot condemn proliferation of satellite study centers which are more or less money- making centers for host institutions in Nigeria. Improving the Quality of Instructional Time Availability of knowledge teachers is an essential ingredient of quality. However, the quality of time available for teaching and learning these subjects is important with respect to quality of education in Nigeria. Do teachers have quality time to teach? Do students themselves have sufficient or quality time to learn? What demand has the present economic situation in Nigeria imposed on teacher's time? Considering that home-work forms an essential as well as integral part of quality in education, do students have enough time to attend to assignments? These questions require answers. Nigerian schools have experie ced incessant closures in recent times. These closures are as a result of-strike" ctio?s, student crises, fuel shortages, political disturbances and social upheavals among' others. Many teachers have been squeezed between devalued income and increasing private responsibilities. There have been evidences of divided interest and loyalty among teachers especially in the public schools. Cases of absenteeism have increased among teachers and students. All these have affected the quality of education adversely. It is important to point out the effects of lack of public utilities such as electricity, water, transport system, postal and telecommunication systems on the quality of time available for teaching. Lack of telephone, for instance, has serious effects on the commuting time by teachers, students, and inspectors of education. The commuting time is further wasted as a result of poor transport system in Nigeria. Time scheduling in Nigeria's schools has been made very difficult since the enabling environment is generally not predictive. Generally, the actual time spent is usually less than the expected time allocated to teaching. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment j. Nigerian Education 245 On a global standard, primary schools are 'expected to spend about 880 days of teaching per year. It is rare to find public schools that spend such a quality time on instruction in a single year in Nigeria. It might be wise for us to adopt a flexible scheduling of school days, weeks and year to ensure that different schools meet required international specification for time of instruction. Improving the Quality Control Systems Quality control has to be emphasized in order to improve the quality of education in Nigeria. School inspection has to be-improved at the primary and secondary school levels. Longe (1986) advocated for the return of the colonial type of s:~~100linspection in Nigeria. This is because studies have shown that the difference in performance between teachers in public and private schools is as a result of the differences in the supervisory modes. The system of accreditation, moderation and external examination at the tertiary education level should be taken more seriously to enhance the quality of graduates being produced. This is more so since the quality of higher education is not being controlled through external examination. Which means, the control of the quality of the higher education depends on how faithful each institution is in subjecting itself to accreditation, moderation and external assessments. Having suggested the . essential ways by which the quality of education can be improved in Nigeria, the last part of this lecture opens a Pandora box containing an age- long debate on the type of autonomy accorded institutions of learning. Governance of Nigerian Education Introduction Governance, in this lecture, is restricted to the manner by which. the public education system in Nigeria is being controlled. This definition is necessary in order to point out the effects of political structure on the education systems. As earlier stated in this lecture, the experience of the Philippines, where several years of authoritarian rule which squandered their foreign borrowings, showed that, when economies are badly managed, investments in education may go waste. There is need to exercise caution with respects to the direction of association between governance at the supra level and that at the institutional level. It is not an unusual thing to see a democratic government being wasteful while an authoritarian one is not. It can therefore be spurious to jump to a conclusion that once Nigeria has experienced several years of authoritarian rule like that of Philippines, investments in Nigerian education must have gone waste. The examination of the relationship between the leadership style at the governmental level and the corporate performance of various institutions of learning in Nigeria are a topic for future discussions. The focus here is on the examination of the state control of education with the hope that such critical appraisal will lead to possible policy changes in Nigerian education. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 246 Remi Longe Models of Governance The model of governance of education can be discussed from two extremes. That is; decentralization and centralization. As far as decentralization and centralization of education are concerned, Nigeria has exercised various degrees of authority and responsibility for education since her independence in 1960. Shifts in patterns of educational governance, particularly at the primary level, are paradoxically currently a cause of uncertainty and turbulence for many of us in the education business. In fact, the governance of Nigerian primary education has been characterized by one step forward and two steps backward. Nevertheless, this type of confusion is not peculiar to Nigeria alone. In the United States of America, for example, education was very much a local affair up through the late nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century, school administration became centralized under the leadership of education professionals in the districts (local) and states. This was aimed at correcting abuses of the earlier decentralized system. Now, the centralized system in the United States is coming under attack as being too bureaucratic and unresponsive to local needs. According to Fiske (1996), a movement favouring decentralization through vouchers, charter schools, and school-based management is gaining ground, not only in America, but also in the developing world. Governance of education is a political issue. Its discussion requires a thorough understanding of the concept of decentralization - the meaning, the type, the dimensions, the advantages and disadvantages. It should be noted that we should not confuse political decentralization with administrative decentralization. Political decentralization is concerned with allocating power to make decisions about education to citizens or to their representatives at lower levels of government. On the other hand, administrative decentralization involves assigning responsibility and authority for planning, management, finance and other activities to lower levels of government without losing the decision-making power. Since different amount of power can be decentralized, it is important to differentiate among de-concentration, delegation and devolution of power (Fiske, 1996). De-concentration is a shift of management responsibilities from the central to lower levels in such a way that the central ministry remains firmly in control. On the other hand, delegation involves lending authority to lower levels of government, or even to semi-autonomous organizations such as churches. Delegation of power is usually done with the understanding that the delegated authority can be withdrawn if abused. It should be noted that while de- concentration involves responsibility without authority, delegation implies responsibility with revocable authority. Unlike in de-concentration, people with delegated power are allowed to take decisions and use their discretion where necessary. Devolution of power concerns a permanent transfer of authority over financial, administrative and pedagogical matters to lower levels of government. Many governments are sceptical about devolution of power in education since it is generally believed that education is a political tool that can be misused by political opponents. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 247 Balancing between Decentralization and Centralization The choice of the mix of decentralization and centralization is not an easy one. The governance model adopted in a country can be determined by factors such as national priorities, international social order, group interests and economic trends in a country. Central to the model of governance adopted in a country are its economic strength and political will. Chad, Togo and Uganda are examples of 'weak countries' where government inputs are lacking. In these countries, semi- autonomous (religious/racial) groups have long operated some schools. Indonesia is a 'fairly strong country' with military dominance. In Indonesia, various Islamic religious groups operate substantial numbers of schools. Prohibiting these schools is a difficult task and the authorities have to tolerate their existence. However, government grants are used to strengthen the power of the state and to encourage the schools and their owners to take a positive stance toward the ruling regime (Bray 1996). Azerbaijan is a weak state in which the government is trying to maintain legitimacy despite major religious and ethnic tensions. Encouraging semi- autonomous groups to operate their own schools could strengthen religious and ethnic divisions and exacerbate already serious political tensions. Singapore is a strong country with enormous resources, authority and a robust self-image. In spite of its strength, Singapore encourages financial decentralization of education because it recognizes that such activities help generate interest and commitment to the educational process. This is in spite of its earlier experience when the country felt threatened by the notion of racially-based community bodies organizing their own schools. There is a strong move in support of decentralization of the school system in Nigeria. Ade-Ajayi (1994) advocated for decentralization in the school system, with more community involvement and less of the heavy hand of government bureaucracy. In the same vein, Ogunsanya (1998) suggested the abandonment of the policies of centralization, regulation, and control for the policies of genuine privatization and liberalization. Such decentralization, Ade-Ajayi concluded, should in no way impair the structure of national system of education in making educational opportunities available to all on the basis of equality and merit. Nevertheless, there is increasing evidence that households are already contributing, directly or indirectly, to the costs of education. The debate has now shifted to household's participation in school management and autonomy of institutions of learning. Household ill Governance of Education: A Change to Be Considered This section points to a change in the right direction in the governance of education across the world. Nigeria may want to re-appraise its present practices and see if lessons can be drawn from the governance gap identified herewith. We are conversant with household's participation in educational financing in Nigeria. The country is yet to involve parents and students in the governance of schools and universities. We are familiar with the concept of Board of Governors of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 248 Remi Longe secondary schools in Nigeria, but are they actually governing these schools. Longe (1984) suggested a participatory planning model that will involve Nigerian parents, communities and students in the decision-making process and in the implementation of programmes at the school level. The involvement of students in the governance of institutions of higher learning is still seen as inimical to a good tone of a school in Nigeria. It requires boldness to suggest such student's involvement in university governance especially in a period when students of higher education are allegedly associated with violence and occultism. Nevertheless, schools are communities of truth, made by truth and for the promotion of truth. What then is the truth about household involvement in governance in education. The truth is that governments in several countries of the world are currently making every effort to encourage school-household partnership in educational development. Mauritius and Jamaica for example have set up a social mobilization campaign (SMC) to stimulate active parent/community participation in school governance. In Mauritius, government's funds are being used to encourage parent-teacher associations (PTA) in school governance. The case of School Development Boards (SDBs) in Sri Lanka legislated the establishment of SDBs with the purpose of promoting community participation in school management. Each SDB consists of representatives from the school staff, parents, past students, and well wishers. The Board is chaired by the school Head. The SDB is made up of ten subcommittees to decide and implement school projects. The ten subcommittees are: • Educational development to improve academic curricula and mode of teaching; • Co-curricular activities to promote extracurricular activities; • Moral development to promote cultural, religious and moral activities; • Physical resources to develop infrastructures such as building and maintenance of physical resources; • Library and educational equipment to improve facilities; • Schoolbooks, midday meals and uniforms to decide on school requirements; • Welfare and community relationship to strengthen welfare activities; • Communications to interact with media and the community; • Finance to utilize and disburse school funds; • Student personality development to develop the personality of the pupils and the school. This initiative is faced with problems. The main problem is in connection with the capacity of parents, community members and students to make informed decisions on educational issues. The common solution adopted in New Zealand, Jamaica, Botswana and. Uganda, to mention a few, is community training. In UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 249 New Zealand for example, parents trustees were trained; in Jamaica, parents were trained on how to manage schools; in Botswana, trainings were organized to empower parents, especially in the rural areas to become effective in the school Boards. In Uganda, Action Aid (AA) was put in place to train PTA and members of the school management committees. If these initiatives are adopted in Nigeria, parents and students can be empowered to become watchdogs to stimulate the right attitude to work among the teaching and management staff of our schools and universities. Let teachers at all levels be aware that students, parents and members of the community are watching them and at the same time reporting their activities to the authorities through an official procedure. I believe people will work. Teachers will be regular, punctual and more effective at work. Consequently, academic achievement will be improved. In a similar vein, a watchdog activity from the side of parents will cause schools to be on their toes. Fraudulent practices, ineffectiveness and inefficiencies can therefore be reduced to the bearable minimum. Moreover, parents who are involved in school management will be willing to support the school financially . . Autonomy of Institutions of Learning: Another Change to be Considered Autonomy of institutions of learning is an age-long debate, especially in Nigerian higher institutions of learning. Government usually frowns at such debates on the ground of the adage that says "who pays the piper dictates the tune". It is important for our government to note that school autonomy is not the same as either local financing or administrative decentralization, although the three are often confused (World Bank 1995:126). Fully autonomous institutions have authority to allocate their resources (not necessarily to raise it). This includes the authority to deploy personnel and to determine such things as the timing of school day, the duration of the school year, and the language of instruction to fit local conditions. Moreover, teachers must have authority to determine c;l~~"F,.Q,Q,W- Q"Cactices wifumfu~\\m\~ 'SIC b)' 'abtoa~ national curriculum. Once a teacher has been told ahead of time that examination is coming up on a specified date, the teacher sh?u.ld be left to use flexibility in classroom practices. Though grossly abused, this IS what we do in Nigerian universities, but it is yet to be extended to the lower levels of education. Teachers should be monitored and supported by standards, learning assessments and school inspectors (such as head teachers). School staff must be accountable to the local community to provide a check and balance situation in an autonomous institution of learning. -.=There is a wide gap between the ministry and the schools in Nigeria. It takes(days, months, and years) for schools and ministries to communicate. Many tunes, schools operate without supervision, without check, and without control. The autonomy of institutions, we are suggesting here is not the type of laissez-faire supervisory mode currently being practised in our public schools. We a~e s~ggesting the type in operation in the international non-governmental orgamzations such as the UNICEF. In these organizations, staff operate flexible UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 250 Remi Longe time within the limits of the institutional standards concerning the number of hours that should be spent per day and the targets of performance that must be reached at the end of a given period. We in the Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan have consistently channeled our research efforts on issues affecting the education system in Nigeria. The results of our research projects some of which have been mentioned in this lecture often point to possible changes in the Nigerian Education System. However, most of these research reports are left on the shelves unused. It is not encouraging that research - research-based recommendations are hardly ever consulted. On this, I use this opportunity to make a fresh appeal that the government makes a firm commitment for the use of research reports. REFERENCES Ade-Ajayi, J.F. (1994) "Nigerian National System of Education: The Challenges of Today". The Second Obafemi Awolowo Foundation Dialogue. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Adedeji, S.O. (1998) "The Relationship between Resource Utilization and Academic Performance in Vocational Education in Osun State Secondary Schools". Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Ibadan: University oflbadan. Ajayi, A.O. (1998) Resource Utilization: The Mandate of Education Managers. Ibadan: University oflbadan. Akangbou, Stephen D. (1986) Financing Nigeria University, Faculty of Lecture No.2, Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan. Akinkugbe, 0.0. (1994) "Nigeria and Education". The Challenges Ahead. The Second Obafemi Awolowo Foundation Dialogue. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Akinwumiju, J.A. (1986) "An Analysis of the Gaps Between Demand and Supply of University Education in Nigeria (1964 - 1984)" African Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 1, No.2. American Association of School Administrators (AASA) (1994) How Our Investment in Education Pays Off Arlington, Virginia USA. Babalola, J.B. (1995) " Harmonization of African Curricula: An Institutional Framework" lfe Journal of Curriculum Studies and Development, Vol. 1, No.2. Babalola, J.B; Lungwangwa, G. and Adeyinka, A.A. (1999) "Education under Structured Adjustment in Nigeria and Zambia". Journal of Education, Vol. 34, No.1, pp. 79 - 98. Mc Gill. Bray, M. (1996) Decentralization of Education: Community Financing. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Cappelli, P. and Lannozi, M. (1983), Challenge to Develop Incentives for Investment in Attainment in Order to Produce a More Productive, More Competitive Workforce. Pennsylvania: Reports-Research. Dension, E.F. (1962), The Source of Economic Growth in the United States and the Alternatives Before us. New York: Committee for Economic Development. Del Rosso, J.M. and Marek, T. (1996), Class Action: Improving School Performance in the Developing World Through Better Health and Nutrition, Washington, D.C. The World Bank. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Investment in Nigerian Education 251 Durosaro, D.O. "Research Allocation and Internal Efficiency of Secondary Education in Bendel State, Nigeria" Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University ofIbadan. Fabunmi, Martins (1996) Differentials AJlocation of Educational Resources and Secondary School Academic Performance in Edo State. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis Ibadan: University of Ibadan. Faulx, J. (1991) "Economic Competitiveness and Human Capital Investment Gap". Washington, D.C: Opinion Papers (120). Hick, N. (1980) Economic Growth and Human Resource. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Ibukun, W.O. (1983) Principal Leadership and Resource "Situation as Contingency Factors of School Success in Ondo State". Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Kudora, K. (1995) "Allocating Resources to Academic or Vocational Secondary Education for Economic Development? Empirical Evidence for Priorities of Investment in Education". Buffalo: The Comparative and International Education Society. Jaiyeoba, A.O. (1994) The Impact of School Administration Operational Areas on the Implementation of the two-tier Systems of Secondary Education in Oyo State. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis Ibadan: University ofIbadan. Lewin, K.M. (1993) Education and Development: The Issues and the Evidence. London:. Overseas Development Association. Longe, R.S. (1982) Factors Influencing Current Cost of Secondary Education in Oyo State of Nigeria. Paris: International Institute of Educational Planning. Longe, R.S. (1984) "Planning for a Responsive Curriculum", in Obayan, Pai (Editor) Curriculum in Theory and Practice, Ibadan. Education Research and Study Groups University of Ibadan. Longe, R.S. (1984) "Participatory Planning for Improved Quality and Control in the School System" The Manager Vol. No.1. Longe, R.S. (1984) Relationship Between Unemployment, Education and Economy: An International Comparison. Education and Development. Vol. 4, Nos. 1 and 2, July 1984, pp. 4 -1 5. Longe, R.S. (1985) "Educational Planning, Reform and National Development in Nigeria". In Hashim, Isa (Editor) Issues in Public Sector Management in Nigeria. Lagos: Centre for Management Development (CMD). Longe, R.S. (1985) Utilizing the Skills of Women for National Development In Adeniyi Eniola and Sunday Titilola (Editors). Leadership and National Development: Proceedings of a National Conference. Ibadan: Nigeria Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER). Longe, R.S. (1986) "The Functional Dependence of Educational Planning on School Supervision". African Journal of Educational Management. Vol. 4, Nos. 1, March 1986. Longe, R.S. (1987) "Graduate Employment in Private Organisations: The Influence of Qualifications, Job Experience and Employer's Attitude". Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies. Ibadan Curriculum Organisation of Nigeria. Longe, R.S. (1994) "Disparity in Education as Barrier to Women Participation in Technological Development in Nigeria". Journal of Educational Theory and Practice Vol. 1, Nos. 1 and 2. Longe, R.S. (1996) " Women, Education and National Building in Nigeria", In Ayodele, S.O. (Editor) Education in the Services of Humanity, Ibadan, University of Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 252 Remi Longe Longe, R.S. and J.B. Babalola (1999) "Gender makes a Difference in Education for National Development". University of Ibadan. Department of Educational Management. Ogunsanya, M. (1981) "Teacher Job Satisfaction and Productivity as Factors of Academic Goal Achievement in Oyo State Secondary Schools". Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis University oflbadan. Ogunsanya, M. (1998) Economic Globalisation, National Economic Restructuring and the Collapse of Primary Education in Nigeria. Dakar. CODESRIA. Psacharopoulos, G. (1984), "The Contribution of Education to Economic Growth: International Comparisons, International Productivity Comparisons and the Causes of the Slowdown" (ed). J. Kendrick. Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger. Psacharopoulos, G. and Woodhall, M. (1985) Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices. London: Oxford University Press. Psacharopoulos, G. (1996), "Returns to Education during Economics Boom and Recession: Mexico 1984, 1989 and 1992" Education-Economic Vol. 4, No.3, pp. 213-219 World Bank ( 1990) World Bank Development Report: Poverty. The New KJV (1982) The Holy Bible. Korea: Thomas Nelson, Inc. World Bank. (1991) World Bank Development Report: The Challenge of Development Washington,. D.C.: The World Bank. World Bank (1995) Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. World Bank (1999) World Development Report: Knowledge for Development. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 13 MYTH IN HISTORY: A CLASSICIST VIEW J. A. Ilevbare. Department of Classics In June 1966, Professor John Ferguson, wrote in the Foreword to AFRICA IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY: This volume of papers reflects one of the central interests of the Ibadan University Department of Classics. It is natural that, in Africa, we should study ancient Africa; the field is fascinating, the opportunity vast, and work in English scanty. That book was one of the first fruits of Ibadan efforts in reshaping, perhaps, rewriting the history of Africa in Classical antiquity. It was also the other side of the coin to the Renaissance a decade earlier of African and Nigeria history in our Department of History. Before then, African history, ancient and modern, to European and North American public, unfortunately including their scholars, was little more than British, French, German, Spanish and Portuguese Colonial or Empire History. Africans were said to be savages, lacking real history and civilization of any significance. And what was known of their past is said to be shrouded in myths and irretrievable from the dark past. Hence, Africa was called the dark continent. With the glorious trail blazed by the Dikes and Ajayis, Esan in his comparative study of !fa and the Greek oracle at Delphi (1959) brought new relevance of Classics and the Classical Studies nearer home to Nigeria and at the same time demystified Africa. The next two years, the wind of autonomy blew over U.c.I. The academic curriculum of the department was revised to give prominence to Ancient Greek and Roman Culture. Ancient North Africa came more and more into focus. The process of re-examining, re-interpreting North African history to strip it of myth had begun. Ibadan Department of Classics School of African History was born. The speaker before you is a product of this school. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 254 JA. Ilevbare The focus of this lecture is not mythology per se. It is not the intention to trace the history of ancient North Africa and its development from myths nor to classify the various and varying faces and phases of myths in history. This talk will be restricted to aspects of, and examples drawn from, the history of North Africa from 500 Be. to 500 AD., highlighting the interplay of myth and historical facts in an attempt to strip them of their prejudices, fantasies and imaginations and bring to bear on them the benefit of our colonial experience. Like modem Africa, North Africa in antiquity experienced colonization in the time span of a thousand years; first by the Phoenicians of the homeland (lOOO - 500 Be.) and then from the beginning of the 5th century, the empire in Africa and, indeed, western Mediterranean sea, was expanded and consolidated by the most powerful Phoenician settlement at Carthage built on the site of what was to become modem Tunis. Greek colonization was mainly centred on Cyrene (Benghazi in modem Libya). Their cultural influence was felt deep into Carthaginian domain to the west. The Romans ousted the Carthaginians in 146 BC. and annexed Cynereaica in the next century. The Vandal invaders came in the fifth century AD., and played a major role in undermining Roman power, thus paving the way for their mutual downfall, when the Arabs came in the sixth century. Yet, throughout this millennium neither the government of the Princes of Africa, nor their culture of farming and normadism, nor their other institutions were annihilated. From time to time, these bounced back and continued to thrive to varying degrees until this day (cf Monceaux, Hist. Litt., I, 1901, p.29). It is against this colonial background, that our discussions will unfold. Beside this, almost all our primary sources came from the writings of these colonial masters. These authors themselves constituted the political class that provided the provincial governors, military leaders who conquered the indigenes. They were also the men of commerce and industries who exploited and expropriated North Africans. They were the same men who, at various times, came into direct contact with the natives of Africa. Though few, they wielded enormous influence, out of proportion to their numbers. Though enlightened, they often fed their peoples back home with inaccurate information, some of which bordered on the marvellous. For instance, the acclaimed father of history, the Greek, Herodotus (fifth century BC) told of dog-headed men, apes living in communion with men. The Roman historian, Livy who wrote in the time of Augustus Caesar (27 BC - AD 14), saw the Carthaginians as men of bad faith (Punica fides) and treacherous to the core; the native African, the Numidian, they assumed, were fickle weather cocks; men reckless in falling in love (praeceps in venerem); and their kings, only too ready to go to war for the sake of a woman (Sophoniba) and, in the process, destroyed their kingdoms. But when it came to the Roman conqueror of Hannibal at Zama (202 BC) Publius Cornelius Scopio Africans, Livy suppressed the great general's weakness in the face of Spanish women while waging war in that country (Spain). Livy saw nothing wrong with his treachery in breaking off abruptly negotiations with King Syphax only to attack the prince that very night. Livy saw this action as the mark of an excellent general. All these and similar perfidy ancient Graeco-Roman apologists considered absolute virtue and utmost military skill. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Myth ill History: A Classicist View 255 Such biased attitudes were unfortunately accepted by modem western scholars of the nineteen and twentieth centuries who wrote Greek and Roman history for their kiths and kins. Both writers and readers saw themselves as great colonial masters, treading the glorious paths blazed by the Greeks and the Romans. Hence, we find in the works of these modem but secondary sources, the propagation of myths inherited from Graeco-Roman sources. They repeat the African disregard and disrespect for bonds of marriage; in their view, in a polygamous situation, true love was non-existent but dissolved among numerous women, all of them regarded as mere chattels. These claims are nothing more than echoes from Herodotus, Livy, Sallust and Caesar. However, concrete evidence shows that Sophoniba was to king Masinissa, the greatest treasure. In 203 BC, a calvary battle was fought at the Tower of Agathocles resulting in the exchange of Masinissa's mother, a Numidian woman, for a distinguished Carthaginian general, Hanno. Both examples come from the third century BC and were located in what is now Tunisia and Algeria where polygamy had been firmly established. Other women held in high esteem included, Pudentilla, mother of Apuleius in second century AD; the woman married to a local chief at Thubursicu Numidarum honoured by the entire city and recorded on an inscription of AD 100; Monica, the mother of St. Augustine of Hippo; Cyria the sister of Firmus both in the fourth century AD. And, perhaps, the mother of King Jugurtha to which we shall return below. What emerges from the above is that the ancient African historian at Ibadan of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s had to contend with the same problems as his counterpart writing on pre-colonial modem Africa. It is this distortion in Ancient North African history that we endeavoured to demystify and, perhaps, here lies what we profess. Before giving an outline of our efforts, a few thoughts may be spared for giving one or two reasons for the bias and myth. The first that comes readily to mind is sociological, arising from the social situation of the earliest writers in, and carried over to later, antiquity. The horizon of the average Greek or Phoenician of 10th to 5th centuries BC was limited to the immediate boundaries of his Polis (city-state), the population of which hardly exceeded five thousand. Their outlook was further circumscribed by the sea, which was never far away from the inhabitants of the islands and numerous peninsulas and creeks of the mainland on which most cities were built. The sea was proverbial for its treachery particularly in winter, due to the ignorance of the ancient mariners. And so, whoever was able to venture beyond the immediate confines of his city-state (no larger than a village today), came back with stories about strange (not the perjorative terminology "barbaric" of today) land, padded with myths and the marvellous, to enhance the exploits of the traveller. A cursory look at the epics of Homer and Virgil; the book of Apollonius of Rhodes, the novels of Lucian pleasurably named True Story, the Golden Ass of Apuleius native of Madaura in Africa, the Satyricon of Petronius, the minister of the emperor Nero and Herodotus' Histories of Egypt and the Maghrib, to mention a few, will tell the whole story. Though no malice was harboured, no injury intended, there was an undertone of superiority complex. The main aim was to magnify the stature of the traveller and his tale. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 256 J.A. Ilevbare Between early Greek historiography and travellers" tales, there was only a thin dividing line. Here oral tradition stands as a cross between history and myth. And so, in Herodotus, tales of the marvellous and historical facts were hopelessly jumbled together or placed side by side. The perplexity of the (modem not ancient) reader is relieved by the innocent protestation of the writer, that, so he was told (iv. 187)--the Libyans said so; he could not vouch for the truth; that he or the reader should opt for the most probable. No sinister motive in such distortions. But in the hands of imperial writers (Herodotus himself must be numbered with this group in his account of the Persian invasion of Greece) historiography was made to serve a definite end: namely, the glorification of the imperial power, of families of the principal actors in the empire and, in the process, of the superiority complex of all the above. The other side of the coin, of course, is the suppression of the culture, achievements of the adversary of' imperialism and investing them with opprobrium. In many of our most important modem authorities, the traits/reasons canvassed above are apparent. So also it is in regard to modem African History. Therefore, with Thucydides, the greatest and the most objective Greek historian of the fifth century BC, in whose hand historiograph achieved a height comparable to modem standards unadulterated, we may assert: It will be enough for me, however, if these words of mine are judged useful by those who want to understand clearly the events which happened in the past and which (human nature being what it is) will at some time or other and in much the same way, be repeated in the future. (Transl: Warner) It has indeed been repeated. Let me retrace my steps and mention, all-be-it, cursorily some of the myths found in aspects of Ancient North African -History and the reinterpretation provided (by this speaker). At this juncture, I must acknowledge my debt to the monumental work of Stephane Gsell (1903-1929), LA. Thompson, Teutsch, Monceaux, Gruen, Broughton to mention a few. The rest will be listed in the references. Syphax, king of Western Numidia until 203 BC is said to have revolted against the Carthaginians in the early years of the Second Punic War (218-202 BC), because his Carthaginian wife, Sophoniba, had been taken from him. But Livy, recording events that took place 12 years later in 206/205, reduplicates this marriage, saying that Syphax renounced his earlier (216-213) treaty of alliance with Rome through pressures from his new bride. The assumption in the word, revolt, is that Syphax was a king subject to Carthage. The truth is that Syphax was an independent king. He went to war with Carthage (2171216 BC) to recover some territory Carthage had taken from him. The territory he obviously got back when the war ended in 212 Be. But Syphax's treaty with Rome was allowed to linger on until 206 Be. There was only one marriage between Syphax and Sophoniba. It took place in 206/205 BC to cement UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Myth in History: A Classicist View 257 the alliance between Syphax and Carthage. The alliance was brought about by common interests of both parties, namely, the partitioning of Masinissa's Massylian kingdom. The conspiracy by Carthage and Syphax to partition the Massylian kingdom drove into the arms of the Romans, Masinissa who had, hitherto, in Spain, fought on the side of the Carthaginians against the Romans. The acceptance by Rome of the alliance of Masinissa compelled Syphax to renounce his alliance with Rome. It became impossible for both Numidian kings to remain Roman allies after one had subverted the kingdom of ·the other. Therefore, the woman was not the real reason for the change in alliance. The real cause was the territorial ambition of Syphax. Similarly, Massinissa was regarded by the Romans, especially Sallust, as a vassal of Rome. By the help and favour of Rome, according to Sallust, he had recovered his kingdom from Syphax and Carthage and had annexed that of Syphax. Therefore, Massinissa held his kingdom in trust for Rome as a provincial governor. He was a teleguided puppet of Rome. So went the myth. The truth, gathered from other Roman and non-Roman sources, contradicts this fervent Roman imperialist picture. It is now known that the strategy for the destruction of Carthaginian and Syphax's Numidian forces at the camps was mapped out and executed by Massinissa. While the. Romans were still basking in the euphoria of the victory on the Great Plains (203 BC) where Massinissa with his own hand captured Syphax, Massinissa single-handedly overran Syphax's territory. On the battle field of Zama (202 BC), that final confrontation between Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, it was the horsemen of, and led by, Massinissa that swung the battle round in favour of the Romans. Massinissa spent the next 54 years on the throne, leaving behind him a rich and powerful kingdom. If Massinissa needed Rome in 204/203, Rome needed him also and more so thereafter. Whenever the Romans committed aggression and land grabbing against the indigenes, they paraded themselves as pacifiers, resettlers and civilizers. And this so-called civilizer role is consistently re-echoed by modem authorities. (Pacification and civilization were, in similar situation, to become the slogans of 19th and 20th centuries colonial powers). Hence the resistance of such tribes and nationalists as the Musulami and Garamantes (22-19 BC and AD 6); Tacfarinas (AD 17 - 24), the Nasamonians (c. AD 70 - 78); the Baquates (AD 118, 168-169, 232-234); the Mazices, the people of Lusius Quietus (98-117 AD) and Firmus, the king of the lubaleni (AD 372). In the case of Firmus, the war was caused by Roman attempt to set aside Firmus, the rightful king, in favour of their puppet, Zammac. The puppet was seen as a traitor by his people and was killed. The Romans got the pretext they needed for war. A striking repetition of Jugurtha- Adherbal-Hiempsal episode of 118-105 Be. The imposition of oppressive taxes fuelled this war. In each of these cases, the resistance spread over very wide areas across national boundaries embracing the Gaetulians, an umbrella name used for tribes that ranged the Steppe regions south of the coastal mountains and the Saharan Atlas down to the desert beyond, stretching from the hinterland of the Gulf of Sidra and Gabes to the Atlantic ocean. As shall be seen below, the geographical extent of the revolts could not be an accident: there must be some well established bonds holding these peoples together. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 258 J.A. flevbare My first efforts were directed at myth in the status of women, the family, and the so called bastardy of the African child, and the succession principle, especially in regard to the Numidian royal family. Herodotus fifth century Be and Sallust first century Be, followed by Ammianus Marcellinus fourth century AD, observed that Ailicans married numerous wives. According to Herodotus, Nasamonians were promiscuous; Sallust averred that their love was dissipated among the numerous wives who, one and all, were regarded as mere chattels. Livy added that the Numidian African was very quick and reckless in falling in love. Livy, Ammianus Marcellinus and the Greek historian Polybius agreed that North Africans especially the kings fathered numerous children by wives and concubines while Polybius and Sallust emphasized that some of such children, obviously by concubines and women of low births, were illegitimate. All modem authorities re-echoed these views with only a few (notably S. Gsell) attempting a rationalization. The assertions of Greek and Roman writers were readily accepted by modem scholars for, in this regard, the Graeco-Roman and modem European customs are similar and so they could not see and understand African way of life. Many wives and children were part and parcel, and at the very root, of the economy of the people based on unmechanized agriculture and pastoral nomadism. Just as was to be the cas!! with pre-colonial Nigerian society, wealth was reckoned not only in the numbers of cattle and acres of land but also in the number of wives and children. In such a situation, no child was illegitimate. The history of Numidia (modem Algeria) 105 Be was distorted by factions of Roman politicians who invoked this mistaken notion of bastardy against Jugurtha, king of that country at that time (118-105). Inspite of the fact that even in the second century Be the Romans (Livy xxix.29) had recognized the Numidian custom that the oldest agnate male, not necessarily the eldest son of the last king, must succeed to the throne-and this obviously applied at individual family level-some politicians in Rome conspired to subvert the throne of Jugurtha first by splitting the kingdom between Jugurtha and his younger cousin Adherbal; and then, when the latter was killed in battle, by declaring war on Numidia. Jugurtha was defeated and ultimately deposed. It was alleged that Jugurtha was a bastard, too ambitious for his situation in life and so not fit to become king. This point was even stretched beyond all imagination by Sallust that Masinnissa, his grandfather, had marked him out for his bastardy and debarred him from the Numidian throne!! It is noteworthy that Masinnissa had been survived by forty-four sons; three of them were singled out by Polybius as legitimate, among whom was Jugurtha's father, Mastanabal. It is also worth noting that Jugurtha was recognized by his uncle and successor of Masinissa, Micipsa, as heir apparent. Micipsa, according to the confused account of the Roman historian Sallust, subsequently did him (Jugurtha) the favour of sharing the throne with Micipsa's sons born much later. All these are active distortions and myths. The truth is that Numidia was a rich client kingdom whose rich agricultural and mineral resources the Romans had exploited since the defeat of Hannibal. The exploitation had mainly been carried out privately by Roman senators (cf. Nigerian Senators) and business class (equites) on individual basis, for private pockets, to enhance their political, military and social status. Whoever UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Myth in History: A Classicist View 259 became the patron of the king stood to reap enormous benefits. The best way to achieve this end was to install a puppet on the throne. And this was what Jugurtha resisted and which led to his downfall. Before concluding (this section), I wish to go a little further than anybody has ever done. If you like, this is my floridula, the little contribution to knowledge, today. The myth of Jugurtha's bastardy, as shown above, was hinged on the allegation that his mother was of low birth! 1! He was said to be the son of a concubine. It has been demonstrated above that, in North African society, bastardy did not exist. What then is the true picture? The issue may be examined from three angles: the political (or governmental), the commercial (or trading) and the sociological (or marriage practices). First, the commercial. It is a long established fact that the peoples of North Africa had, by the fifth century BC, enjoyed trading relations among themselves for a long time. Herodotus (II; IV) showed clearly that caravan routes from Lepcis Magna (Lebda) Sabratha and Oea (Tripoli) ran to the Oases of Aujila, the base of the Nasamonians transhumants and Fezzan, the home of the Garamantes. These peoples were also in contact with Cyrene and, judging by their mobility, with the oasis in which was situated the oracle of Ammon, visited by Alexander the Great in 331/330 BC Ammon was in Western Egypt. The same Nasamonian piloted Phoenician traders from Carthage through the Saharan desert to what is generally accepted to be the River Niger port of Timbuctu in modem Mali or by some to be even Lake Chad (T & F, 1969). It is also known that other groups of Africans conducted trade by caravans running through the valley of wadi Bei el- Chebir via Bu Ngem where the Romans were to build a military fort in AD 202. Another ran from Tunis Tamalleni northward to Lebda and westward south of Lake Djerid to the Oasis of Zibans, Gemellae and from there to Dimidi. From Dimidi it hugged the southern foot of Mt. Warsenis, along the river Nahr Wassel to Tiaret plateau, River Mina, Altava (Lamoriciene), River Siga basin, to River Moulouya (Sallust's Muluccha) and beyond to Volubilis in modem Morocco terminating at Sala (modem Rabat). At various points, the route branched ofIinto the coastal mountains to the north and Saharan Atlas and the desert to the south. By the reign of Jugurtha at the end of the second century BC, the routes had been firmly established and were to provide the Romans the main lines of military forts down to the third century AD when Roman Empire in the Maghrib attained its greatest extent. Jugurtha himself controlled several big cities fortified all over his large kingdom such as Capsa (Gafsa) in the extreme south-east oasis, Vaga (Beja) to the North-west, Cirta (Constantine) further north, Thala in the desert and another on the river Moulouya in the far west to mention a few. These forts served a triple purpose: as trading (market) centres, sites of royal palaces and so seats of provincial administration equipped with treasuries and military bases. They also controlled the various caravan routes mentioned above. Through these cities and emporia, Jugurtha exercised political and economic control backed by strong monetary system. King Bocchus of what is now northern and eastern Morocco acknowledged the overwhelming influence and popularity of Jugurtha, not only in Jugurtha's Numidia, but also in his (Bocchus'): UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 260 J.A. flevbare Moorish kingdom. For, when called upon by the Roman general Sulla to betray Jugurtha, Bocchus asserted that his subjects might revolt because of the popularity of Jugurtha among them. The mention of Bocchus brings us to the third and last point: marriage ties and kinship group. From time immemorial (a thing which literary and archaeological evidence confirms), the institution of marriage had been used to build kinship groups to reinforce political, economic and military ties. In Classical Greece, among Athens/Corinth/Sicyon, in Rome, between Julius Caesar and Pompey; the Claudian and the Julian families resulting in the Julio-Claudian dynasty of 27 BC -AD 68. Such marriage alliances are evident in the betrothal and marriage of the Carthaginian Sophoniba first to Masinissa, then to Syphax and back to Masinissa. It is clear from the examples cited above that the practice cut across tribal and national boundaries. Bocchus married the daughter of Jugurtha himself. To the hypocritical Romans, who, pretending to be monogamous, but indeed having numerous concubines that included slaves, the numerous wives of Africans must also be slaves. And like Roman offspring by slaves, the children of African polygamy must in their eyes be illegitimate and of inferior civic status. This is Roman myth. In fact, the strength and stability of African society, political, economic and military, was greatly enhanced by trans- national ties of marriage resulting in interlacing and interlocking networks of kinship groups which the Graeco-Roman imperialist could not see or, if they understood, swept under the carpet to boost their imperial ego and majesty. Wheataker (1994) in his recent study of land exploitation in this geographical area has shown that kinship groups all over the Maghrib were still built on such economic and military considerations during French colonial era and the people remained nomadic. From all indications, Jugurtha's mother was neither a concubine nor of servile origin. Jugurtha's mother must have been a Gaetulian. The Gaetulians were' a warlike transhumant (semi-nomadic) people, of consumate military prowess, at once mobile and guerilla in nature; whom the Roman imperial power found extremely difficult to pin down or subjugate. For to the Gaetulians Jugurtha (and indeed other princes before and after) often retreated in defeat to regroup and fight again. To repeat myself, through commerce, military suzerainty and kinship, Jugurtha exercised far reaching control over the Gaetulians, who, like the Hausa/Fulani across the Savannah belt of West Africa today, grazed their cattle east to west, west to east across ancient Maghrib. Therefore, North Africa in antiquity enjoyed more cohesion and cooperation than has hitherto been allowed. Here lies the strength of Jugurtha, of Tacfarinas, of Firmus and more recently of Ben Bella as well as Ben Kedda of Algerian war of independence. In sum, concubinage, bastardy, the worthless status of women in polygamy, contradicting reckless abandon with which the African fell in love, the fickleness of the African and his perfidy, all these are myths in history. All have been coloured by prejudice, misunderstanding and the paraphernalia of travellers' tales and must be seen as such. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Myth in History: A Classicist View 261 Bibliography Abun-Nasr, J. M. (1971), A History of the Maghrib, Cambridge. Albertini, E. (1955), L 'Afrique Romaine, Alger. Ammianus Marcelinus, Ed. 1.c. Rolfe, Loeb, Heinemann, 1956, XXIX.5. Appian, Libyca, ed. H. White, Loeb, Heinemann, 1956. Apuleius, Apologia, ed. H. E. Butler and A. S. Owen, Oxford, 1914. Apuleius, Metamorphosis, ed., Loeb, Heinemann. Augustine, Opera Omnia, ed. J. P. Migne, Patrologia, Latina, Paris, 1841-1842. Badian, E. (1958), Foreign Clientelae, Oxford. Badian, E. (1971). Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic, Itheca, New York. Baradez, J. (1949), Vue aerienne de l'organisation romaine dans Ie sudalgerien, Fossatum Africae, Paris, 1949. Bates, O. (1970). The Eastern Libyans, Cass, London. Benabon (1976), La resistance africaine a la romanisation. Caesar, Commentariorum Libri, ed. Renatus du Pontet, Oxford, 1900-1910. Chabot, J. B. (1940-1941), Recueil des inscriptions libyques, Paris. Courtois, C. (1955), Les Vandates et I 'Afrique, Paris. Daniels, C. M. (1970), The Garamantes of Southern Libya, New York. Desanges,1. (1962), Catalogue des tribus africaines de l'antiquite classique a l'ouest du Nil, Darkar. Diodoms Siculus, ed. Putnam and others, Loeb, Heinemann, 1933-1967. Frend, W.H.C. (1952), The Donatist Church. Goodchild, R. G. and Ward-Perkins, J. B. (1949 & 1950). 'The Limes Tripolitanus, I & II'. Journal of Roman Studies, 39 and 40. Gsell, S. (1913-1929), Histoire ancienne de I 'Afrique du Nord, Paris. 8 Vols. Herodotus, Historiae, ed. C. Hude, Oxford, 1927. Ilevbare, J. A. (1977), 'Jugurtha', Museum Africum, Ibadan, 6. ---------------- (1981), 'Masinissa's Will', Museum Africum, 7. ---------------- (1981), Carthage, Rome and the Berbers, Ibadan University Press. ---------------- (1985), 'Syphax, Carthage and Rome, the Myth of Sophoniba', Museum Africum, Ibadan, 8. Leschi, L. (1957), 'Rome et des nomades du Sahara central', Etudes d 'epigraphie, d'archeologie et d'histoire africaine. Livy, Ab Urbe CondUa, ed. R. S. Conway and others, Oxford 1914-Lucia, Vera Historia, ed. Loeb. Mazard, 1. (1955), Corpus Nummorum Numidiae Mauretaniaeque, Paris. Monceaux, P. (1901-1923), Histoire Litteraire de I 'Afrique chretienne ..., Paris, 7 Volumes. Picard, G-ch (1968), The Life and Death of Carthage, Trans!. Collon. (1968), London. Polybius, The Histories, ed. W.R. Paton, Loeb, heinemann, 1922-1927. Rachet, M. (1970), 'Rome et Berberes', Collection Latomus, 110. Romanelli, P. (1959), Storia delle province romaine dell' Africa, Rome. Sallust, The War with Jugurtha and other Works, ed. J. C. Rolfe, Loeb, Heinemann, 1920. Silius Italicus, Pul!;ca, ed. J. D. Duff, Loeb, Heinemann, 1934. Tacitus, Annales, ed. C. D. Fisher, Oxford, 1906. Thompson, L. A. and Ferguson, I. eds. (1969), Africa in Classical Antiquity. Ibadan University Press. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 262 J.A. Ilevbare Thucydides, Historiae, ed. H. S. Jones and 1. E. Powell, Oxford, 1902. Vergil, Aeneid, ed. Austin, Oxford 1966. Walsh, P. G. (1965), 'Masinissa', The Journal of Roman Studies, 55. Whittaker, C. R. (1993), Land, City, Trade in the Roman Empire, Variorum.UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14 NATURAL AND 'UNNATURAL' PRODUCTS: THE FASCINATING SPICE TO LIFE D. A. Okorie Department of Chemistry h Introduction If this lecture had been given over ten years ago, the title would have been completely different and the scope narrower. The intervening years had therefore been used in further consolidating the platform which propelled me to professorship and in reaching out to other areas at a more relaxed pace. It is in consonance with these that I have chosen the broader title; Natural and 'Un- Natural Products': the Fascinating Spice to Life. As a Professor of Organic Chemistry, I would naturally be expected to treat the title from a Chemist's point of view. This I will set out to do. The Oxford Universal Dictionary Illustrated (1969) defines chemistry as "that branch of science which deals with several elemental substances, or forms of matter, of which all bodies are composed; the laws that regulate the combination of these elements in the formation of compound bodies and the phenomena that accompany their exposure to diverse physical conditions". Briefly put, chemistry can be described as that branch of science which is concerned with the composition and properties of substances and the changes which they undergo. Chemistry touches almost every facet of the world that God created and the world that man has made. There is an aspect of chemistry in almost all branches of science. Hence you hear of Biological Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, Agricultural Chemistry, to mention just a few. Even in everyday life in Nigeria, chemistry is mentioned. Currently, in Nigeria when a man and a woman agree to move together it is said that their body chemistries agree. Organic chemistry is the area of chemistry involved with the study of carbon compounds. The carbon atom, because of its peculiar properties, is very unique amongst all the atoms so far known. Carbon atoms can join with one another to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 264 D.A.Okorie form compounds having long chains or short chains, or numerous rings and then join with other kinds of atoms as well. The increased knowledge of the structures of these organic compounds, as we shall see later, has led to a better life for all of us. A spice, according to the New Collins Compact English Dictionary could be anything that adds flavour, relish, piquancy, "interest etc, for purposes of this discourse, to life. As a verb, the Oxford Universal Dictionary defines spice thus: "to season, to affect the character or quality of, by means of some addition or modification" . Let us now return to the title of this lecture. Natural products are not products that occur freely or combined in nature, like coal which occurs in and around Enugu; crude oil present in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria or even the bitumen deposits in Ondo. These are more aptly referred to as natural resources. Natural products are compounds that can be obtained or extracted from plants, animals or organisms that inhabit the land or waters. A very good and well known example is sugar, which can only be obtained from the appropriate sugar cane or sugar beet. Sugar does not occur as sugar deposits or sugar mines. With the above comparison between say, crude oil and sugar, I believe we now can distinguish between natural products and natural resources. It therefore follows that what is not a natural product, for purposes of this discussion, is an 'unnatural' product." Natural Products from Plants As mentioned earlier, natural products are extracted from plants, animals or organisms. The discussion will be limited mainly to the products from plants, because of time constraint. Many higher plants produce economically important groups of organic compounds such as oils, dyes, resins, tannins, gums, waxes, flavours, pesticides and pharmaceuticals (Balandrin 1985). These groups of compounds are well known to all of us. They all, in their respective ways, add some value to the quality of life. I will now start with medicinal plants. Medicinal Plants Right from the beginning of time, man has relied on plants for the cure of many diseases and treatment of many ailments and for sustenance of life. There are a number of references to this in the Holy Bible. In the beginning of creation, God said in Genesis Chapter 1, Verse 29 and I quote: And look! I have given you the seed bearing plants throughout the earth and all the fruit trees for your food. In the book of the Prophet Isaiah, Chapter 38 Verse 21, the healing power of the plants was highlighted and I quote: For Isaiah had told Hezekiah's servants, Make an ointment of figs and spread it over the boil, and he will be well again. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Natural and 'Unnatural' Products 265 All the quotations are from the Living Bible Version of the Holy Bible. There have been stories and myths about how the ancient man came to recognize what plants to use and for what diseases. In some cases, it is believed, it was by trial and error and by observing animals in the field. African folklore has it that as a traditional medical practitioner (herbalist) walks through any forest, especially those around his area, most plants reveal their medicinal uses to him. Whatever might have been the source of information, the important thing is that the knowledge has been passed down in most cases to generations after. The body of knowledge is now fully documented all over the world. Chemists, pharmacognoscists, biologists and other scientists have waded into the field, to attempt to establish scientific bases for the use of these medicinal plants and obtain other scientific information. Many people in Africa, Asia and South America still patronize traditional medicine. The main reason being that the conventional Western type of health care facilities are not enough to meet the health needs of the population in practically every country in those areas, as the few facilities that are available are unevenly distributed. As Professor Salako put it in 1982, in a workshop in this University of Ibadan and I quote: The short fall between the needs of the population and what can be provided by the hospitalsand similar institutions is provided by the traditional healers who therefore occupy a very important place in the health care of West African countries. Apart from traditional healers being the providers of all levels of health care to a large group in the population who just have no alternative, these practitioners are also consulted by people in all walks of life for a variety of other reasons. To some, these healers are practitioners of last resort when all else have failed. There is also a widespread belief in many African cultures that certain diseases cannot be safely handled by Western type of medical institutions. You might be wondering what an Organic Chemist is doing with these medicinal plants. The medicinal plant chemist and his collaborators are the scientists that work on these medicinal plants in a scientific way, with the following aims: (1) to confirm the medicinal uses of the plants by carrying out bio-assays of the crude extracts; (2) to isolate, chemically identify and characterize the active principles i.e. the compounds responsible for the reported healing action; (3) to, where possible, undertake a synthesis of the isolated active principles with a view to making the compounds more easily available. It is not possible to discuss in the time allocated, all the ethnomedicinal plants and their bioactive principles. However, attempts will be made to highlight how these secondary metabolites from the plants have assisted the health care delivery system and therefore helped to add spice to life, thus lengthening life UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 266 D.A. Okorie span. The groups that will be dealt with here are anti-malarials, antifungal, antibacterial and anticancer com-pounds. Antimalarial Compounds Malaria being one of the greatest killer diseases in the continents of Africa, Asia and South America, has been very rigorously tackled in these places with the use of medicinal plants, (Oliver-Bever, 1986;. Perry 1980; Morton 1981). Recent reports indicate that over 800 plant species from over 200 genera have been documented as being used in folklore for the treatment of malaria in the three continents. In Nigeria, many plants have been used, either alone or in combination with others, by traditional medicine practitioners and their adherents. Some of the plants are Picralima nitida_(Apocyynaceae); Carica papaya (pawpaw) (Caricacae); Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae), Alchornea cordifolia (christmas bush, in Sierra Leone) (Euphorbiaceae); Newbouldia laevis (Bignoniaceae), Mangifera indica (mango) (Anacardiaceae); Ocimum canum (Labiatae); Azadirachta indica (dongoyaro) (Meliaceae); Cinchona officianilis (Rubiaceae). Azadirachta indica (dongoyaro) has been the most investigated in Nigeria for anti-malarial activity (Ekanem 1978; Okpanyi et al. 1981; Ade-Serrano 198~). Although the research has confirmed the use of the leaves and stem bark of the plant in traditional medicine for treatment of malaria, the active principle responsible has not been identified. Cinchonna species are well known worldwide for the treatment of malaria in traditional practice. Chemical investigations of extracts from the bark of the tree led to the isolation of the alkaloid quinine (fig. la) as an active principle (Schwyzer 1927). Quinine remained for many years, the major anti-malaria drug, but was later on gradually replaced in the 1940s upwards by a series of synthetic drugs, 'unnatural products'. However, the new problem of resistance of certain strains of Plasmodium falciparum, the malaria causing parasites, to chloroquine and other unnatural anti-malarial products, has brought back the c1amour for quinine and for re-introduction of quinine and other Cinchonna alkaloids (Annon 1983). A stereoisomer of quinine, quinidine (fig. 1b) isolated from the Cinchona species, was found to be more potent as an antimalarial than quinine (White 1985). Quinidine was however found to have cardiac depressant properties and was therefore dropped as an antimalarial. One other very exciting development in the field of anti-malaria drugs from local medicinal plants was the result of the chemical characterization of extracts of the medicinal plant, Qin ghao, Artemisia annua (Compositae) which the Chinese had used for over 2000 years in traditional treatment of malaria. The active principle, Artemisinin (qinghosu) was chemically characterized as the sesquiterpene lactone endoepoxide (fig. l c) (Liu et at. 1979). It has a higher chemotherapeutic index than chloroquine and possesses antimalarial properties against strains of Plasmodium which are sensitive or resistant to all the known and available antimalarial drugs (Warhust 1985). Some derivatives of artemisinin, like sodium artesunate (melthyl-dihydro artemisinin hemisuccinate) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Natural and 'Unnatural' Products 267 (fig. l d) artemether (melthyl-dihydro artemisinin) are used clinically for the treatment of cerebral malaria with a cure rate of 90% (Li et al. 1982). The search for antimalarials from medicinal plants will continue a'S long as malaria parasites continue to be, chloroquine .resistant. S'o far the resistance seems to be towards the synthetic drugs, the 'unnatural products'. , 1 2 H.CH:3";- . o 3 4 Fig. 1: Antimalarial Compounds UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 268 D.A. Okorie In our laboratories, we had chemically examined some plants which are used traditionally for treating malaria and other fevers (Dalziel 1937; Bep-OLivier 1960). They include Trichilia heudelottii (Meliaceae), (Okorie et al. 1967, 1968 and 1972); Anthocleista djalonensis and A. vogelli (Loganiaceae) (Okorie 1976 and Okorie and Onocha 1995); Uvaria chamae_(Annonaceae) (Okorie 1977) and Polvathia suaveolens_(Annonaceae) (Okorie 1980 and 1981). Although many new compounds' structures (figs. 2a-h) and some known ones have been isolated and characterized, the actual active principles have not been identified. Heudelorrtn C. R'::: H. R2"" BuS CH(OAcl' CO; R3 =Pri CH(OH)· CO. HeudeJottin E~ R' •• CHO, R2;:rSusCH(OH1'CO', R3 ==Pr1 CHIOHI· CO~ HeudeJot.tin F; Rb CHO,R2;::BuSCH{OAC}· CO, R3== PriCH(OH1'CO 1 DJALONENOL CHO R2V0'~~POR 3 . R,. ~ ATANISATIN f CLAUSANITIN R1 = >=\..., Hz =H. R3 =CH3 R,,,,H. R2 :'/-L,R3=H HO OH 0 OH O· 10 11 OR CHAMl-lVARIN CHAMUVARITIN 12 POLYAVOL ENSIN, R =Ac POLYVOLENSNOL, R =OH Fig. 2: New Characterized Compounds UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Natural and 'Unnatural' Products 269 Antifungal and Antibacterial Compounds . A number of plants have been used in traditional medicine in tropical Africa for the treatment of skin disorders, gastro intestinal diseases such as dysentery and those caused by worms, respiratory tract infections like bronchitis and the ailment generally referred to as cough. In most of the cases, the traditional medicine practitioners have claimed success. Correspondingly, the active ingredients in these plants have been extracted and have been shown in the laboratories to be responsible for the activities. Some of the plants are given below. Garcina spp are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases in different parts of the world. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, aqueous extracts of the stem bark of G. huillensis are used to treat bronchitis, pneumonia, skin diseases, dermatitis, venereal diseases etc. (Bakana 1984, Vlietinck 1987). The 80% ethanolic extract was found to exhibit significant antibacterial and antifungal activities. Garcinol (fig. 3a), a highly prenylated benzophenone was extracted from the plant and found to be responsible for the antibacterial .and anti-microbial properties. Garcinol exhibited antibacterial properties against gram-positive cocci and antifungal activity against all fungi and dermatophytes tested (Vlietnck 1987). From the fruit pulp and seeds' of G. kola, (bitter kola), a benzophenone, kolanone, with antibacterial properties was isolated. G. kola is used to prevent or relieve cough and is said to be particularly effective against bronchitis and throat troubles, while the root sap is used to cure parasitic skin diseases (Dalziel 1937). A pyranoxanthone (fig. 3b), which has fungicidal activity, was isolated from the root bark of G. gerrardii, while xanthochymol, with antibacterial activity, was present in different African and Asian Garcina spp. Disopyros usambarensis (Ebenaceae) is a plant whose twigs are used in Malawi as chewing sticks for the cleaning of teeth. It was therefore generally assumed that the plant would contain antibacterial and antimicrobial substances. One of the com-pounds, the naphthoquinone, 7-methyljuglone, extracted from the plant turned out to be one of the most active compounds in the fungus Clasdosporium cucumerinum bioassay (Marston 1987). It was antifungal even at 0.025 ug (Marston et al. 1984). Piper auineense is a plant used in West Africa in foods as a spice and in many traditional medicinal preparations for the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders, cold, cough, venereal diseases and bronchitis (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961). Piperine (fig. 3c); dihydro piperine (fig. 3d) and guineensine (fig. 3e) have been isolated from the plant. The first two compounds showed antimicrobial activities against Mycobacterum smegmatis, while the third compound, guineensine, exhibited insecticidal properties. We have carried out a total synthesis of insecticidal guineensine to confirm the structure (Okorie et al. 1979). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 270 D.A. Okorie OH .'.rH • HO~O o OH OH 13 <~~r-i-C=HIr-CHI HI· 0-V O-N .H H H 16 17 Fig. 3: Antifungal and Antibacterial Compounds UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Natural and 'Unnatural' Products 271 Berlina grandiflora (Leguminosae) is a medicinal plant whose bark and leaves are used for treating intestinal problems and as a purgative amongst others in Congo Brazaville (Asuzu 1993). In Enugu State, Nigeria, it is used in combination with another plant Piliostigma thonningii for treating intestinal worms (Asuzu 1994). One of my former students, now Dr. Nkechi Enwerem, in her Ph.D work carried out a phytochemical and anthelmintic activity investigation of the plant. She confirmed that the extracts of the stem bark demonstrated significant anthelmintic activity in the in vivo and in vitro studies. The active compound was identified as betulinic acid (fig. 4a). She went further to show that other fractions had anti fungal and antibacterial activities. The compounds responsible for the activities were found to be Lupeol (fig. 4b) and Apigenin (fig. 4c) respectively (Enwerem 1999). HO 20 Fig. 4: Anthelmintic Compounds Uvaria chamae (Annonacea). The ethanolic extracts of U_chamae demonstrated inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and Mycobacterium smegmatis when tested for antimicrobial activity. The major oil obtained from extraction of the roots, is benzyl benzoate (Okorie 1977). It is used in the treatment of scabies as an acaricide. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 272 D.A. Okorie • We have also examined a number of medicinal plants which are used for the treatment of dysentery amongst other diseases, from which we isolated and completely characterized some new compounds. The plants include Clausena anisata (Rutaceae) (Okorie 1975), Uvaria chamae (Annonaceae) (Okorie 1977), Myrianthus arboreus (Urticeae) (Okorie et al. 1984b) and Schumanniophytum magnificum (Okorie et al. 1983). Anti-Cancer Compounds Uvaria spp are medicinal plants used for the treatment of various ailments in traditional medicine. The roots of Uvaria chamae are used for the cure of fever, severe abdominal pains and as a purgative. The crude ethanol extracts of the stem bark of Uvaria chamae and the roots of Uvaria acuminata were found to show activity in vivo against p-388 leukemia in the mouse and in vitro against cells derived from human carcinoma of the nasopharynx (KB) (Cole et al. 1976). In short, they exhibited tumour-inhibitory activity. The activity was traced to the compounds - flavonoids and dihydrochalcones. Two new compounds, benzyldihydrochalcones named chamuvarin(10) and chamuvaritin(ll) were isolated from the roots of Uvaria chamae (Okorie 1977). The mutagenic effects of chamuvaritin were investigated using Salmonela typhbimurium tester strains by Uwaifo, Bababunmi and Okorie (1979). They found that the compound was mutagenic in tester strains TA98 and TAl 00 and require activation by the hepatic S-9 micromal enzyme preparation. On the other hand, uvaretin, which is structurally similar to chamuvaritin, isolated from Uvaria acuminata, has been shown to be an anti-tumour agent (Cole 1976). The stem bark of the plant Taxus brevifolia yielded a very important anti- cancer drug, taxol (Taylor et al. 1971). Taxol showed significant activity against various cancers and leukemias; sarcoma 180, Lewis lung tumour, Walker 256 carcinosarcoma (Vanek 1997). According to Schiff et al. (1979), taxol has a very unusual mechanism of action in that it stabilizes microtubule instead of inhibiting its formation. In this, it is quite unlike other anti-cancer agents like vinca alkaloids and maytansine. It is not being stated here that only drugs ensure better health. There are other contributors which are also natural products. Things like vitamins, which help to spice our lives. It is known throughout the history of mankind that deficiency of some vitamins has led to death. Deficiency of Vitamin C, which occurs in citrus fruit leads to scurvy; Vitamin B 12 is required to prevent a fatal form of blood disorder called anaemia, Vitamin K is required as co-enzyme for the production of three or four proteins that help the blood to clot. Agrochemicals from Plants Improvement of methods of combating diseases has meant longer life for all of us. With increasing world population and decreasing arable land, starvation and severe malnourishment will be the natural end result. In Africa, where the population has been growing at an alarming rate, the food supply has to be increased for us to survive. To increase world food supply, there must be improvements in food production and methods of food preservation amongst UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Natural and 'Unnatural' Products 273 other factors. Food production can be increased also by adopting new methods of farming and by growing hybrid crops. Pesticides The food that is produced is depleted by our other neighbours and in some cases, co-tenants, the pests. These pests affect not only crops and stored grains but also transmit or harbour the organisms that cause dreadful diseases in man and livestock. There are a number of insecticides of plant origin. The three well known plants that yield insecticidal compounds are Tobacco, Berries and Chrysanthemum. From tobacco leaves, the class of insecticides known as nicotinoids was extracted, the active ingredient being nicotine (fig. 5(a). The rotenoids were found in the roots of leguminous plants, the active ingredient is rotenone (fig. 5(b). From the flower heads of the genus Chrysanthemum, the class known as pyrethroids was isolated, the active ingredients are pyrethrin I and II (fig. 5c) and cinerin I and II (fig. 5d). The pyrethroids are the most active of the three groups against a broad spectrum of insect pests. All the natural insecticides are non-persistent, degradable and therefore environmentally friendly. Their short lifetime in the environment greatly reduces the probability of insects developing resistance to them by minimizing the contact time between the chemical and the insect. The main drawback of using natural insecticides is their relatively high cost. CH30~;H3 0 22 I o I " ROTENONE ) = CH2 CH3 .D NICOTrNE CH~3CH30 ~CH , ~ _ 0 -.;: CH2 CH = CHCH = C·t'!2 ' CH'" C:::R a PYRETHRII:::, , 25psi CNH(CH2l5NH ,C 33Reduced s pressure 12 ~ () adipic' acid Hexurnernylene diamme Nylon 56 -g o u >. .D c: o .~'" Hooe -< ,"COOH, HOCHlCH20H ,. {OCH2 CHl OOC~_}- co} n 34 t) >5. cc... Terepht holrc acid GlycOl Polyethy lene rerephr ha/are co &iJ CH3 = 30 :0 b- -.- C.J~ 10 -so 100 15(1 1:'00 250 ).,.., I tfforc. (~t-6&)'( Fig. 10: YieldlEffort Curve for Eleiyele Lake Fishery UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 321 As earlier pointed out, though there was increased fishing effort in 1982s the catches were not the highest. However, biological processes such as random pulses in recruitment of particular year classes and natural productivity as shown by the Morpho-Edaphic Index (MEI) and total dissolved solid could have great effect. It is worth noting that the Eleiyele lake though has a smaller area, its productivity was higher than that of Asejire (Table 2). The location within the city and the influence of runoff of network of rivers could provide higher nutrification and consequently higher productivity. For the Asejire case, the actual yield in 1979, 1982, 1984 and 1985 were outside the yield against effort curve. However, for the Eleiyele case, the actual yield in 1979, 1982, 1985 and 1986 were equally outside. While it seems that the Asejire lake fishery was operating in 1986 within a safe zone, that of Eleiyele seems to be clearly demonstrating a case of overexploitation as most of the later years were clearly out of the equilibrium yield effort zone. Lastiy, our study employed the use of Walter (1986) graphical method to assess the changing state of the Asejire and Eleiyele lake fisheries (Figures 11 and 12). Basically, Walter (1986) attempted to reduce the noise amplification where catch per unit effort against effort have been used, recommended the use , of catch against effort. With Walter's recommendation and observation, the range of estimate is lower compared with other method estimates. For Asejire, Walter's method gave the total allowable catch (TAC) between a range of 65 tonnes and 147 tonnes while the effort is correspondingly within a range of97 boat-days and 196 boat days. Thus, the Asejire fishery should be managed between the stated figures. O.75aY I AI. ~ 160 1'0 120 i 100 S ~. 0.2511~~ ~"., 60 40 20 0 20 40 ~ 80 100 120 140 1~0 180 200 220 Z40 [(fort (_today.) Fig. 11: Catch Versus Effort Data for Eleiyele Lake Fishery (Water graphical method) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 322 E.O. Faturoti "'. 100 80 J 60 £.. .lAY ~ co ze 0 Z(, 40 ~~ SO lOll 120 UO 16t' 180 200 zee r/fort (~o.t-d.,..) Fig. 12: Catch Versus Effort Data for Eleyeile Lake Fishery (Water graphical method) The Eleiyele fishery, using the Walter's method gave between 30 and 70 tonnes of catch from a recommended efforr'of 126 to 198 boat days. The lesson learnt is that capture fisheries has been traumatized by ripples of various dimensions. Its predictability has been a matter of concern worldwide. It is therefore not surprising that what has been a major source of fish supply to the teeming population who relish fish is fast declining. Consequently, the trend in increased productivity of fisheries resources has shifted to culture fisheries. This is discussed hereunder. Sustainability and Culture Fisheries "If you give a man a fish, you feed him one day, but if you teach him how to farm fish, you give him food for life. " This ancient Chinese proverb succinctly captures the great importance placed on aquaculture development in the near and far eastern civilization of China and South-east Asia where aquaculture has an illustrious and ancient tradition. With the desperate desire to increase food production. culture systems become quite relevant. As it is the case in Agricultuie, fisheries have a synonymous practice which is aquaculture. Aquaculture is the farming of all aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. This practice has been recognized as a viable option to supplement natural aquatic productivity and hence provided a key to local food fish security, particularly in low-income food deficit countries (LIFDC). Globally, there has been a steady increase in total world fish production from 99 million tonnes in 1990 to 122 million tonnes in 1997 (FAO 1999a) (Table 4). The bulk of the increase has come from aquaculture whose output has more than doubled over the periods, whereas the capture fisheries saw only a marginal increase. Indeed (FAO-NAGA 1997) it has been revealed that in the developing countries output volume from aquaculture grew at a rate of approximately 11% a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 323 year during the period 1985-1995, this compared with a rate of only 2% in the developed countries. Table 4: Global Increase of Aquaculture Production World fish production Nigeria 1997 · 122r'" 25,000 tonnesi 1990 ---"'~~99 tonnes 18,000 tonnes Growth rate of Aquaculture Developing Developed (1985-1995) countries countries 11%' 2% Source: FAO 1984 Africa Aquaculture Situation Nigeria's aquaculture production at 15,000 tonnes is second in Africa after Egypt. 84% of total aquaculture production in Africa from Nigeria and Egypt. 16% from other countries in Africa. World aquaculture production of fish and shell fish (Table 5) totalled 30.8 million tonnes in 1998 and had an estimated value of US $47 billion with China topping the league tables by producing 20.8m tonnes. With the 1998 estimated production of seaweed and other aquatic plants, the total world aquaculture harvest amounted to nearly 39.4m tonnes. Table 5: Production offish, crustaceans and moll uses by principal producers in 1998 (tonnes - metric value - USS '000) 1990 1991 1992 1997 1998, .. World total- 13,084,267 15,470,000 28,824,238 30,863,067 tonnes Volume 24,652,574 25,000,000 45,812,563 47,081,116 World total + sea Weed and aquatic Plants - tonnes 39,400,000 China - tonnes 6,482,402 19,315,623 20.795,367 Volume 8,217,342 20,509,594 21,715,957 Norway- 150,028 367,298 408,862 tonnes Volume 773.205 1,081,823 1,133,580 China + aquatic 26000,000 Plants India - tonnes 1,012,121 1,862,250 2,029,619 Volume 1,600,285 2,141,902 2,222,789 India + aquatic Plants 2,290,000 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 324 £.0. Faturoti Volume 2,200,000 Japan - tonnes 804,293 806,534 766,812 Volume 2,885,463 3,525,432 3,061,798 Indonesia- 499,824 662,547 696,880 tonnes Volume 1,477,269 2,051,972 2,137,787 NIGERIA- 28,000 tonnes ASIAN COUNTRIES = 27m tonnes VALUE = $38 billion EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 2m tonnes NORTH AMERICA 656,288 tonnes SOUTH AMERICA 601,027 tounes AFRICA 185,817 tonnes Comparing figures since 1990, there has been a year by year rise in farmed fish and shell fish production. Between 1990 and 1991 the volume rise was almost the same but from 1992 the harvest soared from 15.47m tonnes to 30.86m in 1998. World farm production is much less evenly spread than the world catch. The latest figures show that it continues to be dominated by the Asian countries - 27m tonnes valued at US $38 billion. European farms follow far behind producing a total of almost 2m tonnes with Norway topping the scale at 408,862 tonnes. North America comes third with 656,288 tonnes followed by South America at 601,027 tonnes. Africa produced at a total of 185,817 tonnes. If China's 6m tonnes of aquatic plants are included, China produced 26m tonnes, well over 50% of world production. India came in second place with 2.29m tonnes, but its estimated $2.2 billion value was less than the $3 billion from Japan's 766,000 tonnes and was about the same as Indonesian farmers earned from their 696,000 tonnes. In 1981, I met the state of aquaculture in Nigeria quite appalling. In my submission on Nigerian aquaculture during the International Seminar on Aquaculture organized by Department of Aquaculture and Allied Fisheries of Auburn University, Alabama, USA to the international participants of the Aquaculture Training Programme held in 1982. I observed the following features of Nigerian aquaculture. • Expansion of warm water fish culture on the African Continent involving the use of techniques of fertilization and feeding began rather late by early 1950s when compared with Asiatic aquaculture. • In Nigeria, the art of fish culture was just over 25 years old then; now, about fifty years old. • Noticeable achievement and documentation had practically been mostly a government affair. • Early private initiatives for the adoption of: unworkable government UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 325 model fish farm were defeated inspire of the fact that the natural conditions for rapid aquaculture development in Nigeria are favourable. • No single law and regulation for aquaculture in Nigeria • Lack of adequately trained manpower in aquaculture. • Public sector initiatives were demonstrated in building of six model fish farms in a country as big as Nigeria. • Standardized inputs (feeds, fingerlings, fertilizer and lime etc) and usage practices were undeveloped. • Fish being cultured were fed with table waste and roughages that do not meet the nutrient requirement of such species. • Statistics on aquaculture were practically unavailable. I also observed that the major constraint to Fisheries development in Nigeria and aquaculture in particular derived from Nigeria's wrong concept of the status of Fisheries at independence. Fisheries was believed to be synonymous with Zoology of aquatic species. Whereas, Fisheries is an economic terminology encompassing the state of commercially important aquatic resources, their exploitation and their utilization. Therefore the emphasis in fisheries is quantitative with qualitative undertone. By this definition, investors are not interested in the anatomy and physiology of fish species, neither are they interested in the biomaterial properties of fish. Investors would like to know of the quantities of fish harvestable, how to harvest them and how lucrative the fish market is. As far as they are concerned, fish is a commodity of trade like cement, yam, rice etc. and their major interest is the magnitude of return on their investment relative to other competing products therefore, the pre-occupation of the fisheries workers should have been to encourage capital formation and increase fish production in a bid to enhance fish consumption by Nigerians for proper growth (physically and economically) and good health. As in agriculture, aquaculture also recognizes the interplay of all relevant experts in all fields of human endeavour. In trying to chart the course of aquaculture programme within our Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, I recognize the need to have animal fish nutritionist, aquaculture engineers, economist, fish diseases expert, fish breeders/geneticists, limnologist extentionists, soil scientists, among others all working in consonance to develop aquaculture sector of our economy. For the aquaculture industry to thrive, apart from development of adequate manpower, there is also the need to research and develop various inputs of production such as feed, fish seeds (fingerlings), inorganic and organic fertilizer and economics of production. Consequently, in the last two decades, I have focused my research activities on some of these areas. In my research pursuit, I observed that the nature of Nigerian multispecies fisheries provides a diversity of species that have potential for aquaculture in the nation's natural waters. Table 6 shows culturable fmfish and shellfish in Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 326 £.0. Faturoti Table 6: Culturable Finfish and Sliellfish in Nigeria Local Species Availability of seed for Known feeding habit stocklnz Tilapia melanopleura Year round and adequate Algae, Phytplankton, Detritus various suonlementarv feed Orocharomis niloticus " " Sarotherodon gahlae Tilapia zilli Chrisichthys nigrodigitatus (cat Bivalves-supplementary feed-groundnut cake fish) and palm kernel cake essential Liza fa/cipinis Year round and adequate Detritus, phytoplankton, algae, supplementary feed Mugil bananensi " " Liza gradisauanmis " " L. dumeri/i " " Mueil curema " " C/arias lazera/Clarias gariepinus " Omnivorous, supplementary feed Heterotis niloticus Seasonal and inadequate Phyto and zoo plankton Ethma/osa fimbriata (Bonea) Seasonal (?) Phvtonlankton Panaeus duorarum (pink shrimp) Seasonal Detritus of both animal and plant origin Machrobrachium sop. Seasonal Detritus of both animal and vegetable origin Lates ni/oticus (Nile Perch) Scarce Predatory Hemichromis [asciatus Adequate Predatory Latjanus apodus (Snapper) Inadequate Predatory Lutiianus aeenes Inadequate Predatory Gvmnarchus niloticus Inadequate Predatory E/ops /acerta Inadequate Predatory Crassostere gasor (Oysters) Almost through the year Phytoplankton and adequate H bidrsa/is Seasonal Omnivorous D. engvcephalus Seasonal Herbivorous Distichodus rostratus Seasonal Herbivorous Malaplerurus e/ectricus Seasonal Predatory Megalops at/anticus (Tarpon) Seasonal Predatory Pomasdasys jube/ini (Grunter) Seasonal Predatory Exotic Species alreadv introduced C. carpio (Common carp) Year round and adequate Omnivorous M sa/moides (Large mouth bass) " Predatory L. macrochirus (Blue gills) " Omnivorous C. cat/a inadequate Herbivorous C. mrigala Inadequate Herbivorous L. rohita Inadequate Herbivorous Exotic species worth introducinl! C. ideUa (Grass carp) Nil Feeds on grass and weeds H. molitrix (Silver earn) Nil. Phytoplankton Source: Faturoti, 2000 As in other forms of agricultural and livestock production, there is the need to understand the environmental requirement as well as feeding regime before any meaningful aquaculture practice could be undertaken. Furthermore a fish species should be able to breed in captivity. There is therefore the need to stimulate all natural factors for fish to grow and reproduce under confined artificial facilities such as ponds, raceways, and aquaria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 327 Fish Feed Development In 1983, I approached Pfizer Livestock Feeds requesting the organization through a proposal to support the development of fish feeds for some culturable fish species in Nigeria. The company is reputed for producing feeds for all categories of domestic livestock such as poultry, pigs, rabbits etc. All these livestock had well-developed feeds that meet their requirement for production. As of that time, Nigerian aquaculture had no reliable fish feeds formulation. Consequently, my proposal was to work out the nutrient requirement of some culturable fish species using the requirements to develop practical fish feed formulations for various species. I worked with other scientists to lay a foundation for what is now seen as a dependable fish feed industry in Nigeria. In the last two decades, in over forty publications, our team of scientists comprising Faturoti, Balogun and Ugwu (1986); Ayinla (1988); Bamimore (1990, 1993); Aransiola (1991); Lawal (1991); Omitoyin (1995); Ipinjolu (1998); Obasa (1998) and Akande (2000) have contributed progressively and severally to the development of fish feed, seeds and other various inputs in aquaculture development and practices. Fish feeds were developed for popularly cultured fish species in Nigeria such as Clarias gariepinus - aro; Heterobranchus spp - aro eJese; Chrysiochthys nigrodigitatus - eja obokun; Tilapia ~pp - epiya and Heterotis niloticus - alapa. From our results on feed and protein utilization (Tables 7a, 7b and 7c) a range of 37% and 40% was optimum protein content of diets for juvenile Clarias ganepinus. Table 7a: Gross composition of experimental diets DIETS Percent Protein 31% 34% 37% 40% (M) + Yellow maize 36.70 30.30 29.92 17.54 Groundnut cake 32.97 37.23 41.49 45.74 Fishmeal 9.89 11.17 12.45 13.72 Blood meal 6.59 7.47 8.30 9.12 Oil 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Brewer's waste 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Bone meal 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 Oyster shell 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Ad-Vit 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 +Microencapsulated egg diet (48.8% crude protein). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 328 £.0. Faturoti Table 7b: Proximate composition of experiment diet DIETS Percent Protein 31% 34% 37% 40% (M)+ Determined Dry matter (%) 87.54 89.70 88.30 88.39 Crude protein (%) 30.96 34.03 36.79 39.72 48.8 Ether extract (%) 10.22 10.43 10.61 10.80 43.2 Crude fibre (%) 3.54 3.66 3.75 3.86 Ash(%) 13.12 15.53 10.56 10.65 Calculated Calcium (%) 1.53 1.58 1.62 1.67 Available Phosphorus (%) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90 Lysine (%) 1.49 1.65 11.65 1.97 Methionine (%) 0.57 0.63 0.68 1.73 Methionine + Cystie (%) 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 Metabolizable energy (ME) Kcal/kg) 3106.01 3081.45 3040.7 3008.45 4810.00 Total digestible 80.33 80.72 4 80.84 nutrient(TDN) 75.55 75.69 80.67 75.36 Starch equivalent (SE) 10.03 9.06 75.42 7.57 9.86 Me: Protein ratio 8.27 +Microencapsulated egg diet (48.8% crude protein) Table 7c: Growth and nutrient utilization of young Clarias lazera fed different dietary protein levels DIETS Percent 31% 34% 37% 40% (M) (SE+) Protein Initial 1.04 1.06 1.03 1.07 1.01 0.02N" weight (g) Final 1.82c 1.81c 1.67b 2.93b 1.40a 0.59++ weight (g) Weight 77.23c 70.75c 52.03b 89.85d 32.23a 12.59+ gain (%) FCRl 20.17c 12.08b 15.91b 7.22a 26.80d 3.51++ PERL 0.16b 0.32c 0.17b 0.35c 0.08a 0.02+ SGRJ 1.13a 1.73b 1.66b 2.29c LOla 0.51+ (WID) PPV4 10.55b 21.44c 11.22b 49.73d 5.02a 1.86+ Nrn" 5.99b 5.77b 4.92b 14.30c 3.00a 1.36+ NPUo 1.23c 1.08c 0.85b 2.29d 0.39a 0.12++ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 329 In a more detailed work on feed development for Clarias gariepinus, six experimental diets with varying protein contents between 25% and 40% were studied. Furthermore, their interplay of feeding on heteroplastic and homoplastic hypohysed products of Clarias ganepinus were also studied. A range of 31 % to 40% was responsible for the various performances of fingerlings, juvenile and adult CIarias. (Tables 8a, 8b, 9, and 10). Survival was best for the products of broodstock raised on 40% for both heteroplastic and homoplastic hypohysed Clarias. Table 8a: The Gross Composition of Experimental Diets Ingredients I 2 3 4 5 6 Yellow 49.45% 43.08% 36.70% 30.30% 23.92% 17.54% Maize Groundnut 24.47% 28.72% 32.97% 37.23% 41.49% 45.74% Cake Fish Meal 7.34%. 8.62%. 9.89% 11.l7% 12.45% 13.72% Blood 4.89% 5.74% 6.59% 7.47% 8.30% 9.15.% Meal Oil 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% Brewer's 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% Waste Bone Meal 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50". Oyster 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% Shell Vitamin 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% Premix Sodium 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% Chloride Calculated 25% 28% 31% 34% 37% 40% Crude Protein UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 330 £.0. Faturoti Table 8b: Proximate composition of the Experimental Diets Diet Crude Protein Fibre Moistu Ash NF Me Calorie re % % % % % Kea1/kg Protein ratio 1 25.26 3.33 13.53 10.64 37.39 3169.74 125.48 2 28.19 3.45 13.45 8.93 35.93 3137.45 111.29 3 30.96 3.54 13.42 9.71 32.39 3106.00 100.32 4 34.03 3.66 13.34 12.27 26.27 3081.45 90.55 5 36.79 3.75 12.39 14.47 21.00 3040.74 82.65 6. 39.72 3.86 14.06 14.4 17.16 3008.45 75.74 NIC 31.73 2.62 9.8 5.18 46.98 2990.00 94.24 OMR Table 9: Heteroplastic Hypophysation of C. gariepnus using Cyprinus Carpio Pituitary and response of the Hatchings Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 DietS Diet 6 NIOMR Feed Average FI.Okg FO.9kg FI.Okg FO.85kg FO.90kg FO.75kg FO.8kg Broad stock 46cm 4'4cm 40cm 43cm 41cm 41cm , Weight M500g M550g M520g M600g M450g M48g M460g 30cm Ilcm 32cm 35cm 29cm 32cm 32cm Standard M500g M500g M5330 M500g M500g M450g M500g length 31cm 31cm g32cm 30cm 30cm 30cm 31cm Average No 4,500 4,100 4,300 3,850 4,200 3,700 3,800 of eggs Average 4,100 3,600 3,400 3,100 3,700 3,100 3,000 No. of Hatching Average % 91 87.8 79 81 88 83 79 Hatching Average 800 750 1,200 900 3,200 2,800 550 No. of Surviving fry Average % 19.5 20.83 38.71 29.03 86.46 90.32 18.33 Survival M=Male F= Female UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production :33r Table 10: Homoplastic'Hypophysation ofC. gariep;,us ~nd response ofih~ Hatching 'Experimental Diets Diet I -Diet'f Diet 3 ' Diet 4 Diet 5 Diet 6 NIOMR " Feed Average F1.5kg FO.9kg Fl.Okg FO.80kg Fl.Okg FO.80kgc FO.8kg Broad stock 44cm' 46cm' 47cm 36cm 46cm m 41cm Weight,' Ml.Okg Ml.Okg M1.3kg MO.8g MO.7kg ,. MO.5kg MO.6kg 53cm ' 46cm, 53cm 40cm 36cm 35cm 37cm, Standard. Ml.Okg, Ml.Okg, Ml.Okg MO.8kg' MO.8kg MO.6kg .. MO.6kg length 53cm 47cm '48cm 38cm 38cI11 36cm 36cm Average No 6,500, 4;500 4,600 ,4,000 ,,4,200 4,360 3,900 of eazs . '. Average 5,200 3,300 3,200 3,000 3,600 3,700 3,100 No. of ( Hatching Average 0/0 80.00 73.3 69.57 75.0 85.7 86.05 79.49 Hatching 1~ ,i ' ',' " Average 1,100 ' 60 850 1,600 3,000 3,200 840 No. of , , , Surviving " fry Average % 2L10 ' 26.06' ' "26..56 53.3 ' ,."-; 83.3 ' 86.49 27.10Survival "':", ' ,', ' , M=Male F= Female In a bid to improve on' survival of early life forms of Clarias gariepinus under culture conditions through in depth study of nutrient requirements' within the first 28 days of egg to hatchlings (unfertilized eggs to advanced fry), series of experiments were undertaken. Our findings revealed that· the chemical composition of the early life forms were widely varied within the first 28 days (Table 11). Furthermore, the early feeding stages (fryjwere subjected to varying experimental diets~C~O%, 40% and 50% r,rotein content) (Table 12), varying stocking densities (5.0fry/m2, and 80fry/m) and varying feeding levels ,(10%, 20% and 30% body.weight). ' At 50fry/m2 (Table 13) the highest survival rates were recorded. Mean weight of the fry also varied with the stocking density and feeding regime. The weekly mean weight distribution is presented in Figure 13. As the fry ages, the weight variation within the population varies. This situation is crucial to the performance of hatchery operation in Catfish fanning. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 332 £.0. Faturoti Table 11: Proximate Composition of the Early Life Forms of the Experimental ClarUIs gariepinus S/lNo. Early life form %CP %EE %Moistu %Ash %NFE re I. Unfertilized eggs 34.29 337 Table 14: Proximate, Gross Energy and Mineral Composition Parameters Fish Meal Raw Offal Cooked Offal SEM ANOVA SIG. Moisture (%) 6.3r 8.58- 8.27- 0.37 *** Crude Protein (%) 72.16- 47.48c 61.58b 3.58 *** Crude Fat (%) 7.50c 22.82- 16.45b 2.23 *** Ash (%) 13.19- 1O.85b 8.96c 0.63 *** Crude Fibre (%) 0.34c 4.95- 3.46b 0.68 *** NFE(%) 0.34b 6.09- 2.20b 0.91 *** Gross Energy Kcal/kg 3012.14c 5278.14c 5060.38b 361.02 *** Calcium (%) 4.82- 0.42b 0.23b 0.75 *** Iron 0.347- O.OOb O.OOb 0.01 *** Potassium (%) 0.38b 1.13- 1.10- 0.12 *** Magnesium (%) 0.37- {US- O.27b 0.02 *** Sodium (%) 0.18c 3.11- 2.57b 0.46 *** Phosphorus (%) 3.14- 0.71b 0.38c 0.44 *** 250 '00 50 o~--------------------------------- 0' 2345 &'·789101,,213141516171819202122 Time (weaks) Fig. 18: Growth Response oi Clarias gariepinus Fed Different Level of Chicken Offal Meal. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 338 £.0. Faturoti Table 15: Economic Analysis of Cgariepinus fed differently processed offal Parameters Control Diet Raw Offal Cooked SIG offal Production period (days) 147 147 147 Stocking densitylha 40,000 40:000 40,000 Surface area of pond 0.002b 0.002a 0.002b Pond Depth (em) 0.78ab 0.74b 0.82a *** Net production (kg/pond) 11.38b 21.02a 22.83a * Survival rate (%) 91.80b 94.12ab 98.36a *** Feed input 22.22< 85.31 a 76.65b * Cost of feedlkg(3) 1O.37a 2.50< 2.85b *** Total cost offeed (3) 230.46a 213.28a 218.45" * Total value offish 569.09b 1050.80" 1141.71" NS Profit Index 2.47< 4.93" 5.23" *** Incidence of cost 20.25" 10.15b 9.57< *** Gross profit (3) 338.63< 837.52b 923.26" *** Means followed by the superscript on the same horizontal row are not significantly different (*p> 0.05 or *** P> 0.001). NS =Not significant In pursuit of better utilization of chicken offal, chicken offal was processed into meal following the procedure used in the production of commercial fishmeal. The chicken offal meal was used to substitute fishmeal in the diets of Clarias gariepinus within a range of 0% to 100% with 25% intervals (Table 16). The growth responses in Fig. 19 indicated that 75% substitution level chicken offal meal for fishmeal was best, a pointer to drastic reduction in cost of production of catfish diet when chicken offal meal is engaged. Efforts were also made in this study to x-ray the economic performance of fed chicken offal meal. Indicators on the profitability of this approach of feeding is demonstrated in Table 17. Again, the 75% substitution level of chicken offal meal for fishmeal, conferred the best advantage for the catfish production system. Table 16: Gross Composition of Experimental Diets Ingredient Control 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% Fish meal 20.45 15.34 10.23 5.11 - Chicken offal meal - 5.61 11.22 16.82 22.43 Soyabean meal 20.45 20.45 20.45 20.45 20.45 Groundnut cake 24.53 24.53 24.53 24.53 24.53 Yellow maize 29.47 29.47 29.47 29.47 29.47 Bone meal 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 Oyster shell 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Palm oil 2.25 1.75 1.25 0.77 0.27 UtJPremix 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 % of crude protein 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 VitaminlPremix: Anglican Nutrition Products Company (ANUMPCO). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 339 ..-.~.':,f7'3:::~_ 'l "~ IIi) 3.C . 2 ~:.;. :':.3i r.:; ~ ~.~.:F·:. fi" -: '::': ~ !;=:- , '3,9 l46 -~ .' -".; IS / I :.~" r- r-r-- ~. :?:S I~ (- -?' I ...~! i.~ r-r- :.07 : I; 1,0 I I ~ 1 ir ,,--I' .1 I i: i\ i i II ·I1' II; !I 11 I'j I nil I il I;1 II I' I I ,I I~, u I j G i j u I i: ~ ,. '.' _._- Fig. 19: Monthly Variations in Progestrone (ng/ml) Table 17: Economic Analysis of C. gariepinus fed varying levels of COM Parameters Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 SIG 10% 25% 50% 75% 100010 Production period (days) 147 147 147 147 147 Stocking density/ha 40.000 40.000 40.000 40.000 40.000 Surface area of pond (ha) 0.002a 0.002a 0.002a 0.002a 0.002a NS Pond depth (ern) 0.78a 0.78a 0.78a 0.78a 0.78a NS Net production (kg/pond) 11.38" 12.47ab 12.22ab 13.35a ll.406ab * Survival rate (%) 91.80" 95.08a 90.16a 90.16a 93.44a NS Feed input (kg) 22.22" 22.7a 22.14a 22.98a 20.75a NS Cost of feed (kg) 10.37 9.49b 8.61c 7.72d 6.8c *** Total cost of feed 230.46" 215.88a 190.60b 177.28b 141.75c *** Total value offish 569.09b 623.70ab 61O.8ab 667.53 570.34b * Profit index 2.41' 2.89d 3.21c 3.77b 4.03a *** Incidence of cost 20.25" 17.30b 15.9c 13.28d 12.42c *** Gross profit 338.63 407.82 420.24 490.24 428.60 Means followed by the same superscripts in the horizontal row are not significantly different (*P>O.05 or *** P>O.OOl); NS: Not Significant In 1996, a proposal was submitted to the Research Grant Scheme of the World Bank: Assisted National Agricultural Research Project (NARP). The overall objective of our project was to further develop fish feeds suitable for indigenous fish species. The only grant given to Fisheries nationwide under the Research Grant Scheme was to our team of scientists under my leadership. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 340 £.0. Faturoti Arising from this grant, we were able to develop over 60 fish feed formulations that considered the interplay of least cost feedstuffs for more effective and economical production of fish feeds through aquaculture. In addition a FAT-NARP computer software programme ammenable to rapid formulation of fish and robust enough to interact with 80 fish feed parameters relating to quality, quantity and economics of aquaculture production was developed. • Fish Seed Multiplication Our contribution to aquaculture development will not be complete without a submission of what has been done to make available through our research another important input (fish seeds/fingerlings) to fish farmers. The successful large scale cultivation of any organism for human consumption demands that the living resource be easily renewable. Removal of standing crop in agriculture for instance is followed by re-seeding and the reproduction of cattle can be assured either through natural means or by artificial insemination. It is clearly disadvantageous to cultivate any organism when the supply of the young cannot easily be replenished. This problem is even more acute in Nigeria where only a few species of fish are cultured. There are two solutions to this problem which are either collecting fish from natural sources' or breeding fish in captivity. The latter opjion has received more attention in our research agenda in view of the rapid growth which aquaculture is experiencing in the country. Reproductive processes are by no means fully impaired in captivity. The progressive development of gonads remains in general inhibited up till the final stages of gamete maturation, and it is only at the point of gamete release that the sequence is arrested. Both gonadal maturation and spawning behaviour have long been known to start in responses to environmental stimuli such as temperature, photo period and the amount of rainfall etc. In aquaculture, it has proved possible to intervene successfully at the stage where the needed environmental cues are lacking and to push the process to an artificial completion. This has been accomplished through the technique of induced breeding through hormonal manipulation. However, a knowledge of the gonadal hormones associated with reproduction is necessary for a successful manipulation externally. It is noteworthy that our earlier work on Clarias gariepinus succeeded in the more rapid dissemination of methods of artificial propagation which presently has made it possible for most hatchery operators and fish farmers to produce in massive quantity fmgerlings/seeds for grow out ponds. Effort was also initiated on another aquaculture fish species which is highly relished. The species is Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, also a catfish but with the local name Obokun. This fish commands high consumer's acceptability that it is implicated in its ability to hook lovers by its occultic potency. It has been reported that estranged wives have resulted to this "Obokun" fish to win back the hearts of their husbands. Our baseline study was to determine the gonadal steroids of Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (progesteron, testoteron, and oestradiol) and also determine the seasonal and environmental influences on these hormonal parameters (figs. 20, and 21). Radioimmunoassay (RIA) procedure was employed to determine the effects of season on the three steroids. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 341 Fig. 20: Monthly Variations in Oestradiol (nglml) rt I p "I 21 I 139~ !' 0,7'2 . X--" ,','\ 076 ' _0_"7,,U, II) r,," - o.~~!> I! ~6 ('11 F=j] O~,H 0;37 J: -1:; 'I! r - -'1 i /l [ 1'1 ..=-':'\ 0 IF f' -:l ' 0,tz O •• , ,'I I I ), • IJr--::;? J-~r:l !...j.. f.t"'j~ ,-;.. ··~··t, . .1.... JI~:·I.~ •..._••~,?; .c.:::",; Fig. 21: Monthly Variations in Testosterone Progesterone Mean progesterone concentration was 1.76mgjml in April, dropped to the lowest concentration in August and rose to a maximum concentration of 2.32mglml in September. Oestradiol The plasma concentration of 17b oestradiol was lowest in May 129.62pglml and highest in November, 318. 77pglml. The progesterone and oestradiol peaked during the spawning period .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 342 E.O. Faturoti Testosterone Mean testosterone concentration was lowest in October (O.07mglml) and highest in February 4.52mglml. The testosterone level peaked in the hot late dry season month thereby indicating an indirect influence of ambient temperature on the level of the male gonadal hormone. I like to conclude this discourse by recognizing how far our studies have impacted on the concept of aquaculture as an aqua-business or commerce. As recognized by FAO, the concept of sustainable commercial aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic organisms with the goal of maximizing profit and mainly by the private sector \Wthout financial assistance either by a donor or government. By generating its own funds, commercial aquaculture offers the prospect of financial self-sufficiency. Sustainable commercial aquaculture can in the medium and long term contribute to increasing food security, hunger and poverty alleviation, economic growth and employment generation. Development of sustainable commercial aquaculture requires suitable physical, technical, economic, market conditions, legal and policy environment. I have been able to capture the concept of aquaculture and its potential in Nigeria and Africa. For the past one year, I have been involved through Food and Agriculture Qrganization of United Nations (FAO) in a survey of Commercial Aquaculture in sub- Saharan Africa. Through my contributions, the prospects for sustainable commercial aquaculture development particularly in Nigeria and Africa in general have become brightened. For commercial aquaculture to be sustainable: • Farms must offer the prospects of competitive profits. Our survey has revealed that all the commercial fish farms are quite impressed about the future of aquaculture. This is as a result of the present encouraging performance by the farms studied. • Unfortunately, I am not in a position to disclose profits declared by such farms. However, the message is clear - aquaculture is profitable. • The level of returns must also be stable. The level of demand for fish and the deficit position of our fish supply guarantees returns on investment. It also requires more entries and intensification of production systems for higher yield. • The fish farmed and the farming processes must be acceptable and meet general, cultural, gender and social norms, especially when the output is intended for domestic consumption. The fish from aquaculture are quite acceptable. The demand at present cannot be met. • Aquaculture operations must also be environmentally friendly, in part because sustainable development requires intergenerational equity. Therefore aquaculture's contribution to the potential well-being of future generations should be expected to be at least as high as the present, which implies that both natural and man-made assets be at least maintained over time. Our studies further revealed the advantages of commercial aquaculture to include the following: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 343 • Contribution to food security, directly by producing fish for food, and indirectly by generating employment income for the purchase of food. • Contribution to the government revenues. • Contribution to source of hard currency through exports; even if consumed domestically, the output from commercial aquaculture may replace imported fish and this saves foreign exchange. • When located in isolated rural areas, commercial aquaculture can generate positive externalities by pressuring for improved infrastructure, promoting the development of small communities and discouraging youths from migrating to cities. • Commercial aquaculture can generate jobs in secondary (processing, marketing, transportation ... ) industries. • Commercial aquaculture can stimulate research and technological development and some of it can be funded by the industry itself. The situation as presented is one that brightens hope for sustainable aquaculture and fish self-sufficiency in Nigeria and Africa. However, it is not time for our team of aquaculturists to rest on our -oars. It is however, recommended that actions should be identified to re-quantify the potential of commercial aquaculture in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. The government should tackle the problem of low private investment in the sector as well as inadequate and the need for increased feed and seed in quantity and quality. This calls for an advanced pragmatic research agenda. Action should be taken to consolidate and promote the gains of commercial aquaculture in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. There is need to enhance the transfer of appropriate technology in the promotion of commercial aquaculture. It is by addressing these developmental issues that the ripples that still permeate the fish production sector of our economy can be settled for sustainability, improved living conditions, poverty alleviation, food security and indeed the well-being of entire human race. "Nobody fights water·and wins", water is a precious gift of nature, a vehicle for fish production to better the lot of mankind. I like to call on all and sundry to support in every little way the sustenance of our fish production and settle the ripples of our life. Ripples and Development of the University System The management of ripples in the fish industry gives some useful insight into ways of handling the ripples in our educational system and the socio-political system of our country. It is my personal observation over the years as a researcher, teacher and administrator in the University system that the lack of sustainability of many potentially viable projects has been largely due to the culture of personalizing and narrowing the frontiers of knowledge by limiting such projects to the ability and absolute control of the Chief executor. I am referring to the carving and grabbing of empires by individual scientists. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 344 E.O. Faturoti There is a need to start seeing the University as a corporate body where interdisciplinary research can be nurtured to bave bearing on the development of our society. Any viable organization exists because of a felt need in the society. This need might be obvious, unexpressed or unappreciated. It is therefore the responsibility of the University to make its impact felt through development of such research projects that bear direct relevance to solving the needs of different facets of our society. As the sustainability of the fish industry can only be guaranteed through the recognition of the need to develop all facets of that industry. So, it is that the talents of all must be recognized within the system and these should be judiciously harnessed for the improvement of our community and the larger society. The nation is presently nurturing a nascent democracy. The concern is that kleptocracy, sycophancy, and hippocrisy keep dominating our polity. The way out of this, is to build the culture of self reliance particularly in our youths. It is only as we recognize and develop the talents of each individual rather than encouraging them through our examples of reaping where we do not sow and chanelling their energies to be job creators rather than job seekers, that we can redress these issues and move towards a new social order. The Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry has over the years tried to inculcate this into its students; it is our intention in the immediate future to bring our impact to bear more on our society through increased production of food, meat, fish and other agricultural produce through staff and students whose talents would be harnessed for this purpose. We also have our research agenda which in essence will be market-oriented, farm-gate targeted, and private-sector driven to ensure the sustainability of our training and research programmes. It is our conviction that by harnessing the talents of all in executing this agenda, we will be contributing our quota not only in meeting the nutritional needs of our society but also building a group of virile, energetic, curious and responsible youths in our graduates who will be fired by seed of self-reliance to find fulfilment in selfless and responsible service to the community. It is my humble submission that all stakeholders should be allowed to find their usefulness in our community and the larger society. Through this, we will be better positioned to manage the ripples in different facets of our community and thereby restore Ibadan to its place of leadership and excellence nationally and in the global academic community. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Beneath the Ripples and Sustainable Fish Production 345 REFERENCES Akande, G.R. (2000)"Post-harvest preservation and utrlization of Bonga (Ethmalosa fimbriata). Ph.D. thesis, University ofIbadan, Nigeria. 335 pp. Aransiola, M.O. (1991) Some aspects of the biology, nutrition and reproductive physiology of the African Catfish, Chrysichthy nigrodigitatus (Laccpede). Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 293 pp. Ayinla, O.A (1988) Nutrition and reproductive performance of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822). Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 433 pp. Bamimore, M.A (1990) Performance of African Catfish - fry (Clarias garieoinus) raised on natural and artificial diets in a hatchery. M.Phii thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Bamimore, M.A (1994) Performance of Clarias gariepinus fingerlings raised under varying culture conditions. Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 226 pp. FAO (1995) World Agriculture Towards 2010. (Alexandratos, N.ed) England: John Wiley and Sons. FAO (1999a) The State of World Fisheries and Aquacultural1998. Rome: FAO 112 pp. Faturoti, EO., AM. Balogun and L.L.C. Ugwu (1986) Nutrient utilization and growth responses of Clarias (Clarias lazera) fed different dietary protein levels. Nigerian Journal of Applied Fisheries and Hydrobiology 1: 41-45. FDF (1994) Fisheries Statistics of Nigeria, 3rd Edition 1985-1994. Ipinjolu, J.K. (1998) Utilization of some Carotenoid precursors in the diets of juvenile orange Koi Carp (Cyprinus carpio, Linneans). Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria 301 pp. lawai, L.A. (1991) Ecology of the African Bony Tongue (Heterotis Niloticus Cuvier in the Badagry Creek of Nigeria). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Obasa, S.D. (1998) Utilization of Soyabean meal in the nutrition of Chrysichthys walkeri (Gunther), Ph.D. thesis, University ofIbadan, Nigeria. 207 pp. Omitoyin, B.D. (1995) Utilization of Poultry by-product (Feather and Offals) in the diets of African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus_(Burchell). Ph.D. thesis, University oflbadan, Nigeria. 249 pp. Walter, G.G. (1986) A robust approach to equilibrium yield curves. Can J. Fish Aquat Sci, 43: 1332-1339 .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADA LIBRARY 17 ELEMENTS, METALS, CATIONS AND HUMAN DISEASES: A COMING OF AGE F.A.A. Adeniyi Department of Chemical Pathology Introduction I feel extremely honoured this evening standing before this august assemblage of eminent scholars, committed academics, selfless patriots and thoughtful friends in order to render an account of what, I have, along with others, been able to structure together over a period of about two and a half decades or more concerning my speciality area within the discipline of Chemical Pathology. This lecture is the third in the series for the 2000/01 academic session and indeed the fourth from our Department of Chemical Pathology. The first was delivered by Professor David Olatunbosun, someone I referred to a short while ago as my mentor and I am repeating it for emphasis. He was a previous Head of Department and he is currently the Provost, College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology. The second was by Professor Babatunde Osotimehin, also a previous Head of Department and more importantly a former Provost of our dear College and the third was by Professor Oluyemi Agbedana, the present Head of our Department. Our Department is constituted into nine speciality areas under six units. The first lecture came from the Trace Elements Unit, the second from the Endocrinology Unit, the third from the Lipid Unit and this present one is again coming from the Trace Elements Unit. Over the years until today, society has been sending the same message to us, professional scientists; what they say to us is this: tell us about the end points of science and technology, and not the basic science underlying them! Such a call from the lay public, to my mind is unfair and unjustifiable to science itself. It is in response to this kind of request from basically unscientific minds that I have decided, in this humble presentation, to review the interactive roles of some basic entities of science in the pathogenesis of certain human diseases. An inspection of the Periodic Table of Elements will reveal that as of today 106 elements have been allotted slots in the table (fig. 1). In order to maintain the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 348 F.A.A. Adeniyi structural and functional integrity of its cells, the human body needs only 21 of these elements. The human body needs C, Hand 0 to make up water, simple lipids and carbohydrates; water constitutes about 70% of the total body weight in an adult male and about 60% in the adult female. Lipids serve many important structural and biochemical roles in the human body in addition to providing a concentrated source of energy. Carbohydrates provide about 50% of our energy needs. The human body also needs Nand S to make proteins and other nitrogenous substances; proteins serve to maintain body structure, to regulate body functions and to allow for body growth. The human body also requires Ca and P for various vital physiologic and biochemical processes. For example, the ionized calcium fraction i.e. the divalent cations of Ca has six principal functions in the human body. It is required for skeletal mineralization, for blood coagulation, for neuromuscular conduction, for the maintenance of normal tone and excitability of skeletal and cardiac muscle, for stimulus secretion coupling in various exocrine glands and for the preservation of cell membrane integrity particularly in terms of Na+ and K+ exchange. It is also mandatory for the human body to have adequate supplies of K, Na and Cl. These three elements maintain in part, the electrolyte composition of tissue cells and circulating fluids. Electrolytes are of extreme importance to the human body. All metabolic events in man are effected to some reasonable degree by the relative and absolute concentrations of the electrolytes. Electrolytes are important determinants of osmolality, state of hydration of the body and pH (i.e. H+ concn) of both the intracellular (ICF) fluid and the extracellular fluid (ECF). In addition, membrane potentials and normal functioning of nervous and muscle tissue are closely regulated by the concentration differences between ICF and ECF electrolytes. These 10 elements that I have mentioned are among the group we commonly refer to as bulk or macronutrient elements. Chemists refer to them simply as macroelements (fig. 2). There are 13 other elements which are either concerned with the activation of many enzymes systems or are integral parts of some of the enzymes themselves. They are referred to as trace or micronutrient elements. Again, chemists refer to them simply as microelements. Most of these microelements function in the body as metalloenzymes, as co-enzymes, as enzyme activators or as component atoms in other biologically active macromolecules such as I in thyroid hormones, Fe in hemoglobin and Cr in glucose tolerance factor. These elements (fig. 3) are further sub-classified as essential trace elements to distinguish them from nineteen other elements which also satisfy the criteria for classification as trace elements but which unfortunately are either toxic or inert to the human body. Those nineteen elements are referred to as non-essential toxic elements (fig. 4). In man, a trace element is defined as one that makes up <0.01 % of the total body mass. Of the 13 essential trace elements, 11 of them are vital for the life and health of humans. These are Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn, Mo, Co, Cr, I, F and Se. Bo and V are required essentially by plants and animals. A summary of these essential trace elements of man indicating their sources, RDAs, RNls, ESSADls, major functions, deficiency, groups at risk and toxicity is shown (fig. 5). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Elements, Metals. Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age 349 During these past twenty-five years or more, I have, in collaboration with some of my teachers, some of my colleagues and with all my PG students looked more closely into various aspects of these essential trace elements of man. We have carried out some comprehensive relevant investigations on all of them. We have also studied two of the non-essential toxic elements viz: Pb and Cd. We have done this because the toxic elements are adventitious as far as the human body is concerned. They all can gain entrance into the human body via food, water, external environment and by physical contact. However, because of the limitation of time for an inaugural lecture, a limitation which must again not be a reason for compromising or sacrificing quality, I have decided in this humble presentation to discuss some of our major findings for three essential trace elements (Copper, Zinc and Magnesium) and one non-essential toxic element (Lead). Copper Copper is an excellent catalyst for many oxidation - reduction reaction systems. The element shows great versatility for an impressive variety of oxidation - reduction reactions including the formation of water from Hand 0 at body temperatures. Such a reaction will be highly explosive without the catalytic cover of copper. A good number of important diagnostic and investigative enzymes have been shown to be copper metalloenzymes. These include cytochrome-c- oxidase, superoxide dismutase, ceruloplasmin, tyrosinase, uricase, dopamine-Be hydroxylase, lysyl oxidase, spermine oxidase, benzyl amine oxidase, diamine oxidase and histaminase to mention a few. The element functions in the synthesis of Fe and protoporphyrin to form heme. Among the most significant clinical features of a copper deficiency state is a microcytic hypochromic anaemia. While working in the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of Lancaster, Lancashire in England between 1976-78, we were particularly inquisitive about the form of anaemia that results from a Cu-deficiency state. This is the same form of anemia that is associated with Fe- deficiency. Our experimental efforts using the Wistar albino rats as an animal model were quite rewarding. We conclusively established that for ionic Fe, the divalent cation of the metal i.e. the Fe'" ions to be transported out of the intestinal mucosal cells, there must be adequate amounts of the copper transport protein, an a2 globulin, ceruloplasmin. So, as it is, even when Fe was sufficient in the diets of our Cu- deficient animals, a microcytic hypochromic anemia characteristic of Fe deficiency still resulted. These early observations by Heaton, Loveless, Alfaro, Nehlawi and Adeniyi':' have since been confirmed in human by many others'", The most current consensus of opinion on this subject today can be summarised thus (fig. 6). Certainly, this kind of information must be important and valuable to the clinician who is confronted with a patient who may not be responding to the direct conventional treatment for iron deficiency anaemia. Still treading in the terrain of the hematologist; in one of our earliest investigations published in the "Lancet" in 1973, we established a direct correlation between hypocupremia and the degree of irreversible sickling that might have taken place in a sickle cell anemia patient. This observation was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 350 F.A.A. Adeniyi made by Olatunbosun, Isaac-Sodeye, Adeniyi and Adadevoh", The observation emphasizes the cooperative role of divalent cations of Cu ++ with other monovalent and divalent cations of other essential micronutrients in the maintenance of the structural integrity of the red cell membrane. On the other side of the coin are situations associated with hypercupremia and problems associated with excessive accumulation of copper in the human body. In two separate studies we established hypercupremia in pregnancy and in women using oral contraceptives. We suggested that the hypercupremia was being determined by estrogen levels. This is particularly so as plasma Cu rose with increasing age of normal uncomplicated pregnancy and levels did not change with increasing age of abnormal complicated pregnancies. Additionally, plasma Cu levels rose in women using oral contraceptives that contain high levels of derivatives of estradiol, while levels did not change in women fitted with intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs). The sum total of these various observations made by Olatunbosun, Adeniyi and Adadevoh" emphasize the fact that Cu is necessary for the healthy development and maintenance of all products of conception. All essential trace elements of man are toxic if taken in sufficient excess. However, Cu toxicity is rare from dietary sources. Nevertheless, severe Cu- toxicity may result from an inborn error of Cu metabolism. This is Wilson's disease (hepato-lenticular degeneration). The disease is characterized by compensatory physiologic and biochemical processes in the liver and brain. The disorder is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait usually in the second or third decade of life. The inheritance of the disorder requires consanguinity of parents. The abnormality is coded on chrosomone 13. It may be present at any age, even in the seventh decade. The fundamental defect in this disease appears to be an inadequate synthesis of the copper binding protein ceruloplamin. Consequently, plasma ceruloplasmin is significantly decreased while loosely albumin-bound copper is significantly increased and so copper is easily dislodged from these weak complexes and deposited in many structures of the body. The most vulnerable sites are the liver, basal ganglia, cornea, kidney and cerebral cortex, causing damages in those locations. The true incidence of the disease is still largely unknown probably because the diagnosis is often overlooked. Estimated incidences in the developed world vary between 1 in 200,000 to 1 in 20,000. Because of these problems associated with an accurate diagnosis of the disease in its early stages, we tried a pilot study. While on a prolonged intermittent attachment as visiting Lecturer in the Department of Chemical Pathology at the Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto between 1983-90, we selected at random, 48 apparently healthy young men who .were most likely, from a well-guided oral interview, to be offsprings or products of consanguinous marriages. In one of these individuals, we established a significant hypocupremia, significant hypoceruloplasminemia and significant hyper-cupriuria (fig. 7). From available evidence in the literature, this is indeed the classic biochemical picture in Wilson's disease. One year later, we were lucky to be able to bring back to Ibadan a needle biopsy of the liver of the same subject who was then undergoing a hepato-portal enterestomy. The histologic features of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY _Elements, Metals, Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age 351 the liver that were later confirmed to us include a nonspecific hepatocellular degeneration with glycogen deposition, pleomorphic mitochondria, ballooning nuclei, steatosis, piece-meal necrosis, diffuse fibrosis and micronodular cirrhosis. Our suggestion, Adeniyi; Bot and Johnson," from this study was that since the clinical features of Wilson's disease are so non-specific, laboratory measurements and investigations may offer the best means of establishing an early diagnosis. _ ' We commend this to clinicians as one of the avenues to explore when -confronted with liver disorders which appear insidious in onset and in characteristic behaviour. Zinc Zinc is needed for growth and repair of tissues. Its essentiality in the human diet was first recognized in -1963 when a syndrome of growth depression and delayed sexual development seen in a group of Iranian and Egyptian men consuming diets based on vegetable protein was alleviated by supplements of zinc. Although the diets were not low in zinc per se, they were high in grains containing phytates which interfered With zinc absorption thereby causing a deficiency. Because of the diverse roles that zinc plays in cellular metabolism, the symptoms of zinc deficiency are non-specific and can resemble the symptoms of deficiencies of other essential nutrients. However, some of the most important features of severe zinc deficiency are dwarfism (impaired growth), anaemia, hypogonadism, hepatos-plenomegaly, idiopathic hypogeusia (loss of taste), dysgeusia (abnormal taste), hyposmia (loss of smell), dysosmia (abnormal smell), malabsorption, depressed immunity, cirrhosis, and acrodermatitis enteropathica. Zinc is involved in the proper functioning of at least seventy enzymes. These include alkaline phosphatase, aldolase, carboxypeptidases A, B and C, carbonic anhydrase, glutamic dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, leucine aminopeptidase, pyruvate carboxylase and reverse transcptase. Since pregnancy-can also be considered as a form of disease (after all, in some people, it is often accompanied by nausea and vomiting) and since it is associated with cellular growth, we examined the implications of hypozincemia in human pregnancy. We also found it worthwhile and useful to study the suitability of assessment of zinc status in the differential diagnosis of hepatic disorders. - In the first set of preliminary experiments; we confirmed the previous observations of others, firstly that in human pregnancy, estrogens are strongly bound to plasma proteins" and secondly that zinc exists in two forms in the human plasma!', some firmly bound to the globulins and a greater percentage loosely bound to albumin. From our various observations and those of others, we deduced that there is -active competition between estrogens and most of the loosely bound zinc for binding sites on the plasma proteins. Overall, our various data led to the suggestion that during pregnancy when zinc is lost from the plasma, an increased population of unbound zinc results leading to substantial zinc influx into' the. leucocytes and into the products of conception. Such an hypothesis is in agreement with previous reports of in vitro and in vivo studies UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 352 F.A.A. Adeniyi which suggested that zinc influx into the leucocytes was directly dependent on extracellular zinc concentration'"!', Consequently, we went further from the position of properly corroborated data that our observation of significantly lower .'concentration of zinc in cord plasma of infants with reduced birthweights and reduced plasma estrogens in their mothers indicated the positive roles of zinc and estrogens in the course and eventual outcome of human pregnancy". These various observations were made by Adeniyi in 1987. In the second set of experiments, we looked more closely at the blood levels of zinc in liver disorders since hypozincemia has been shown by us (Adeniyi and Meluduj' and by others" as a consistent finding in hepatic diseases. For a proper and an accurate evaluation of our data, we limited our investigations to four types of hepatic pathology viz: hepatitis, extrahepatic cholestasis, cirrhosis and primary liver cell carcinoma. Plasma zinc levels in hepatitis and in extrahepatic cholestasis were significantly lower than in cirrhosis and PLCC. Differential diagnosis of liver disorders can therefore be made using the plasma zinc in patients with hepatitis and extrahepatic cholestasis on the one hand and patients wish cirrhosis and PLCC on the other. Hepatitis can be differently separated from extra hepatic cholestasis by a negative correlation that we found present in hepatitis between plasma zinc and plasma albumin. PLCC can also be differential separated from cirrhosis by a negative correlation which we also established between plasma zinc and total bilirubin in PLCC. Our suggestion from this study is that this diagnostic approach if used in conjuction with: . (a) standard liver function tests based on the excretory, clearance, conjugating and synthetic capabilities of the liver. (b) standard measurements of enzyme activities such as those of ALT, OCT, L.Ds, lCD, 5'N the patient may be spared from the rigors of extensive invasive clinical exploratory procedures. Magnesium By our criteria for classification, Mg does not strictly belong to the group we commonly refer to as trace elements, nevertheless, it performs so many functions in intermediary metabolism that it sometimes can stand in for divalent trace metals like Mn and Zn. . In the Kreb's cycle. for example, Mil ++ activates the enzyme ICD in the oxidative decarboxylation of isocitric acid to Q- ketoglutaric acid. That reaction cannot proceed without the metal activator Mn++.Mg++stands in for Mn++in that reaction. Also, the enzyme ALP has four zinc atoms in its molecular structure. Two of the atoms are necessary for the maintenance of the quarternary structure of the .enzyme proteiri while the other two are required for enzymatic activity. It has been shown that the two zinc atoms necessary for enzymatic activity can be replaced by magnesium without change in the overall activity of the enzyme. For these two reasons, we conventionally and conveniently group Mg with the essential trace elements. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Elements, Metals, Cations and Hilma" Diseases: A Coming of Age "353 Magnesium deficiency is rare in the normal population. However, in clinical' medicine, causes for"hypomagnesemia may be viewed under seven categories viz: Gastro- intestinal, nutritional, renal, endocrine, metabolic, neo-natal and childhood. Between 30-40010 of Mg in the diet is absorbed. 1,25(OH)2D3 one of the ten hormones involved in Ca and P metabolism is also a major factor in Mg absorption and as Ca in the diet increases Mg absorption decreases. Mg is necessary for the utilization of ATP and it is therefore an important activator of enzymatic reactions involving ATP. Such reactions are extremely important in the metabolism of CHO, lipid and proteins and in the synthesis of DNA. It is against this background that hypomagnesemia has been vaguely cited in the pathogenesis of Diabetes Mellitus. Early in 1991, I assembled a group of medical scientists, physicians and two of my postgraduate students so that we could 1001.( into the prospects of magnesium supplementation in Diabetes Mellitus. I explained to the members of this group how weImy VG students and I) arrived at the decision to initiate that kind of study. I laid out the aims and objectives before the members and solicited for their cooperation in terms of laboratory space, laboratory reagents, accessibility of my PG students and other ancillary staff to clinics, petty funds and -consumables for use in the clinic and most importantly a completely (Tee hand in the selection of patients and control subjects. The cooperation that I .received from the members of this group was wonderful and encouraging. We started on the selection of subjects and collection of biological samples and we embarked on the preliminary investigations and measurements. As luck would nave it, two years into the project, one of my PG students who was involved in it (in actual fact the study encompasses his Ph.D work) secured a World Bank study' fellowship through his "home university, the University of Maiduguri. I quickly made arrangements for him with the Division of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Disorders, Department of Medicine at the University of Liege in Belgium, a suitable place for the tenure of the fellowship. Professor P J Lefebvre, the Director of jhe Center kindly and thoughtfully approved our request. The arrival of Mr. Meludu (now Dr. Meludu) at Liege, coincided with the arrival of Dr. Castillo from the University of Granada, Spain. Dr. Castillo's interest was along the same line as ours and the study became more interesting. At Liege and at Granada, our preliminary experiments at Ibadan were repeated for confirmation of results. New experiments were designed and successfully executed and what finally came out of all these efforts was the manufacture of ampoules of magnesium salt supplements. Successful clinical trials were conducted both at Liege and at Granada. It is clear that such clinical trials on patients cannot and must not be the last. Trials will have to continue in many parts of the world including Nigeria and appropriate approval from government regulating bodies has to be given before such approach for treatment can be considered conventional. At the risk of complete oversight, let me quickly highlight the summary of the results of some of the investigations that we made which led to the clinical trials with magnesium supplements:· c . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 354 F.A.A, Adeniyi (a) We established that magnesium depletion is a consistent feature of OM and that magnesium administration enhances glucose oxidation by increasing insulin sensitivity. ' '; (b) We showed a remarkable difference between Africans and Caucasians in the handling of extracellular and intracellular magnesium following an oral glucose load. The findings further re-emphasize the significance of magnesium in the adequate utilization of glucose. , (c) We' observed that glucose infusion increases plasma magnesium concentration while it decreases erythrocyte' magnesium concentration: In the diabetic state' therefore, hyperglycemia will probably aggravate these effects thereby leading tointracellular, magnesium depletion and magnesuria. (d): We provided evidence that insulin administration consistently decreases plasma magnesium concentration while it has a tendency to increase erythrocyte magnesium concentration; We therefore suggested that depletion of intracellular magnesium in the diabetic state may be a consequence of insulin resistance. " All these represent some of the, observations 'of Meludu, Akinlade, Castillo, Scheen, Adeniyi.r Taylon-Lefebvreend us on this subject matter which were reported in six different publications between 1995-97. Let me now round up the body of this story by reviewing some of the major findings that we made in our study of a classic non-essential toxic-element, lead. ' ' Lead ' ' , Lead, (Pb) is a toxic trace element, that has no useful function in the human body and technically, its ideal blood level should be .considered as zero. However, because of its excellent physico-chemical properties, the element has been found: to be useful in a wide, variety of occupations that are extremely beneficial to man. The largest single use of lead is for.themanufacture of storage batteries. Lead salts also form the basis of many paints and pigments. In its arsenate compound; it enjoys wide applicability in the insecticide industry. The sulphate and acetate' compounds have important uses in rubber compounding while lead naphtenate is used extensively as a dryer, ,.Tetra-ethyl lead, one of the most important compounds of lead, is used as an anti-knock additive in gasoline. , In view of the diverse roles, of lead in the industries, painstaking attention should always .be paid to those precautionary measures that are capable of protecting against undue exposure of workmen, artisans and the general populace to lead. This is because lead is .a poison in all its forms. Excessive exposure of humans to lead in the air, food,' and water has been known to have significant adverse effects on the renal, nervous,hemopoietic, immune and endocrine systems. '. , '. ' In the 'light of these ev idences, we designed and successfully executed two studies on lead between 1994-98. In the first, we explored the magnitude of lead poisoning in two distant states of Nigeria and in the second, W€! examined ways whereby individuals in lead-based occupations whomay develop.lead poisoning can quickly be identified and appropriate intervention made. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Elements, Metals, Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age 355 For the interpretation of our results, in both cases, we categorized two levels of lead poisoning. Metabolic poisoning, we defined as existing when it is possible to detect alterations in metabolism that result from the lead absorption and clinical poisoning as a stage when the absorbed lead starts to produce signs and symptoms which are obvious to the patient or to the attending physician. Consequently, metabolic poisoning may exist without clinical poisoning but not the converse. In the first study, we established that blood lead levels are significantly higher in individuals occupationally exposed than in normal control unexposed subjects and in such individuals, one or more deleterious signs or symptoms may be evident. These include anemia, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, dulling sensation, insomnia, irritability, gout, weight loss, memory loss and metallic taste. An even more worrisome discovery was that among our supposedly control subjects, over 80% of them had values falling outside the commonly acceptable blood levels. This implicitly indicates the severity of the problem in the states where the study was conducted and by extension, in the whole country as a whole. This is more so as contributory factors for exposure that we discovered included excessive use of alcohol and tobacco, undue exposure to exhaust from vehicles using lead gasoline, exclusive use of wells as sources of drinking water and increasing consumption of the Nigerian table salt. It .has been well established that the Nigerian table salt contains higher concentrations of lead than salt from many other parts of the world. Also, lead in gasoline is commonly considered to be one of the most important contributors to environmental lead which determines lead levels in occupationally unexposed subjects. Petroleum products that contain high lead levels are major factors in atmospheric lead pollution in countries using such energy sources. Overall, our data in this phase of the study suggest that lead poisoning arising from occupational and environmental factors is of a high magnitude. Precautionary measures appear sensible and desirable by all who are occupationally and/or environmentally exposed. In the second study, we investigated a wide range of biochemical indices including blood lead, total and ionized calcium, inorganic phosphate, total protein and albumin, uric acid and 1,25(OH)203' Serum total and ionized Ca levels and 1,25(00)2 03 levels were significantly lower in lead workers than in control population: Uric acid was also positively correlated with blood lead. The biochemical abnormalities that were established· in our report clearly reflect metabolic poisoning and we suggest that they may be helpful in its early detection before the onset of clinical poisoning particularly in nutritionally disadvantaged communities like ours. Conclusion This is an overview or a summary of some of our observations on three of the essential trace elements and one toxic element. The approach to our studies on these four elements is representative of the approach we took in viewing all the others. .' Let me quickly observe that scientists carry out experiments for a number of ~, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 356 F.A.A. Adeniyi reasons, amongst which is a desire to promote some particular application of science either by advancing basic understanding or by developing an appropriate technology. Technology is the application of Science to solve the various problems of the human being. It is used to accelerate development and to improve the health, economic and social well-being of the populace. Needless to say that scientific research is a cultural activity, a means of training and refining the mind, tastes and manners and a means of training in the discipline of objective enquiry just as the study of history for example. It follows from this that much of fundamental basic research has no apparent application at the time it is done. Indeed, basic researches may be done with no application in mind. It is very often only with hindsight that we can see their importance. It is this point that non-scientists and science - related professionals who do not have the benefit of relevant research - oriented training often find difficult to grasp. So, as it is, experiments at the time they are done may appear to have no relevance to the conquest of disease because that cannot be foreseen. They do, however contribute to the body of knowledge in a subject out of which knowledge application may come. Every serious and committed scientist or a practitioner of science - related vocation depends on this body of knowledge, a point aptly exemplified by Sir Isaac Newton in 1675 when he wrote to Robert Hooke: "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants". " During the past two and a half decades or more, we have carefully identified the giants in our area of speciality and from their shoulders, we have been usefully and meaningfully interacting with the consumers of our research findings. We have been telling them many things and they have been happy listening to us. Among these are: (i) that when chelators are being administered to a patient with Wilson's disease, due attention must be paid to the copper status in such a patient; (ii) that although a patient with hemochromatosis may come to clinical attention with one of four symptom complexes, only a knowledge of the iron status in such a patient can bring out the correct diagnosis clearly and unequivocally; (iii) that because magnesium is extremely necessary for the utilization of ATP, it is an important activator of all enzymatic reactions involving ATP and it will play significant roles in carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism. It is therefore necessary to assess its status in many metabolic disorders; (iv) that because zinc is needed for growth and repair of tissues, it is necessary to assess its status in pregnancy, liver disorders, leg ulcers, abnormalities of taste and smell and in sterility among others; (v) that in handling complications that may arise as a result of oxidative cellular damage, the interactive roles of manganese and selenium should be well appreciated; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Elements, Metals, Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age 357 (vi) that treatment of a patient with gout may not be effective if the patient is from a region with high environmental molybdenum and if nothing is done about the probable high content of molybdenum in the patient's diet; (vii) that presenting complaints such as weakness, numbness, tirtgling in the extremities, -difficulty in walking, loss of vibratory sense, in- coordination of movements and disturbed mentation by a patient may ultimately require the assessment of cobalt status; (viii) that excessive consumption of excessively refined foods will rid the body of chromium and chromium is extremely important for the utilization of insulin in glucose metabolism; (ix) that in managing a patient with hypothyroidism, it must always be remembered that Iodine has only one role in the human body. It is required to complete the formation of the hormone, thyroxine; (x) that the relationship of Fluorine with dental caries and with motted enamel should be well understood. , When through our contributions in research we continue to disseminate such information, and our consumers are paying desired and deserved attention to them, the situation can only be summed up just in one direction and one direction alone, it is indeed a coming of age for the essential trace elements of man. Recommendations Included in this presentation, are some of the contributions that we have made over the years and as humble as they may be, they are not without their frustrations and lamentations. On some occasions, we had to throwaway expensive materials for experiments mid-way owing to inexplainable and embarrassing prolonged power outages. On other occasions, we had to delay the investigations for weeks because of erratic supply of pipe-borne water. At other times we had to wait helplessly and watch labour union leaders prosecuting what, in some cases, we regard as unnecessary and thoughtless strike actions. On many occasions in the -past, some of those actions appeared to have political undertones. They were probably being arranged, financed and fuelled by an irresponsible and an unelected government that could only rule by dividing the people. As soon as there were periods of respite from such ungodly acts, we usually rushed into our laboratories to re-assemble our thoughts and ideas. Indeed, our golden rule in those days and even today, the dictum that has enabled me today to pronounce my "Ebenezer" in my career this evening, is the dictum that you also know too well, and which every member of this community can attest to its efficacy today, it is "try, try and try again". In our University today, there are a few issues the corrections of which require urgent attention: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 358 F.A.A. Adeniyi (a) Our research efforts are being greatly detracted from because of lack of facilities; facilities, which in other societies are freely provided simple facilities such as basic amenities of life (b) Our interest in meaningful scientific research is being dampened by extreme shortage of funds; a single law maker of the Federal Republic of Nigeria today wants to continue breaking the law by insisting on basic allowances which are many times the amount of funds required by a serious and committed scientist researcher to develop projects that will eventually promote the health, economic and social well-being of the populace (c) Lawlessness in our various campuses pervades the air; there are union leaders who periodically call out their members on total strike over the flimsiest excuse and irrespective of the essentiality of their jobs; they go further in encouraging their henchmen to even disrupt, disorganize and disturb services that they know nothing about and which they are not capable to provide; they then sit back and roll out demands to their employers; some of those demands on close analysis are similar to demands usually being made to psychiatrists by their patients! It is my hope that your new administration, which is evidently clear that it has the input of God in its positioning, will competently address all these issues and will be able to put a seal of finality on their solution. One of the surest ways to eradicate this kind of irresponsibility among members of staff is good and exemplary leadership and working out of schemes and measures that are capable of fostering unity and genuine friendship among members of different unions within the University. We have to develop an attitude of being our brothers' keepers and we have to show our mutual respect. A professor who has no such expressions as "Thank you", "I am sorry", "Well done" for even a cleaner in his office cannot be a dependable leader. For those of us that have interacted with you for a long period of time, we know that such expressions are very close to your lips. In the body of this presentation I described a joint study between Ibadan, Liege and Granada. Among the factors that facilitated the success of that study was a direct telephone line which I personally installed in my office since 1986. There are many of us here today who have no telephone culture. We have to be on the road most of the time carrying out assignments which can simply be accomplished over the telephone. It is not enough for principal officers of the University and members of council to have unhindered access to telephone in their homes and offices while professors will have to queue in front of telephone kiosks in the Maintenance Department to make calls. It is my advice that you should see it as a matter of extreme urgency that every Department in this University has at least one direct telephone line within the next one year. In like manner, every member of the academic staff should have an unlimited access to a computer in the nearest future. The question of regularity of payments of salaries and adequacy of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Elements, Metals, Cations and Human Diseases: A Coming of Age 359 remunerations also have to be addressed. Whatever factors that are responsible for delay in the payment of salaries should be looked into urgently and appropriate actions should be taken. It is also important that members of staff should not be exposed to unfair temptations. A research team leader who is administering fat grants but whose salary cannot take him home will probably develop funny ways of balancing his research account. At this point let me quickly acknowledge the tremendous efforts of the present Federal Government in promoting and enhancing the welfare of workers in our country today. In whatever direction and angle that we may look at it, this is a government that is most unlike any other that we have had in this country before - a humane and listening government indeed. On Thursday October 05, 2000, on page 6 of the "Punch" newspaper I read and I proudly quote "for the first time after many years, we have a leader and a government whose mind is in the right direction". This was said by Professor Jerry Gana, a minister of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, one who is evidently competent to spot the difference between a good government and a bad one, having previously served in two or three other governments that were widely accepted to be bad ones. Finally the administration of an academic community must be carried on in a way so as to motivate all members of staff. A chief executive of a University who vacates his seat regularly and willingly allows himself to be conscripted into attending meetings similar to those of the notorious Vision 2010 (a poor and blurred vision) and those of apparently thieving foundations will surely loose focus and will surely end up destroying all that a University should stand for. I want to observe that this community by accepting you without question as its leader for the next five years has given to you its highest accolade and it hopes to receive from you in turn the lustre of your achievements. For those of us who had interacted with you in the past we know that the lustre is truly brilliant and we hope you will bear us out in the years ahead. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 FROM VIBRATIONS TO FRACTALS: EXCITEMENT AT THE FRONTIERS OF KNOWLEDGE Babatunde Alabi Department of Mechanical Engineering Without any iota of exaggeration, one can say there is hardly any branch of science, in which vibration does not play an important role. For the engineers, vibration is essentially a practical matter which they have to contend with routinely. The study and understanding of the nature and features of vibrations have received considerable attention over a number of centuries. One can not but take a bow when confronted with the landmark contributions of many great mathematicians, physicists and engineers to the excitement at this frontier of knowledge. These giant contributors include: • Sir Isaac NEWTON (1642-1727) • Compte de Joseph Louis LAGRANGE (1736-1813) • Marquis de Pierre Simon LAPLACE (1749-1827) • Sir William Rowan IIAIVIILTON (1805-1865) • Lord John William RAYLEIGH (1842-1919) • Emeritus Professor S. TIMOSHENKO (1879-1972) In the world of vibrations, they are still revered as superstars. All of them have foiled relentlessly at the frontiers. They doggedly explored for the best ways and the most appropriate probing tools, to unravel the deepest secrets of the nature of vibrations, and the effects of vibrations on matter and structures. Each one of them, has several laws and theories accredited to him. They cumu- latively and progressively amassed sure knowledge, in the subject matter and, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 362 Babatunde A/abi have helped in their own ways, to push further the frontiers of knowledge significantl y. The most obvious reason why a body should vibrate is simply that it is shaken by some external agent. However, the two basic properties required by a body to vibrate Freely are: (1) mass or inertia, which is an indication of its capability of possessing kinetic energy by virtue of its motion; and (2) the ability to store potential energy by virtue of its distortion from its position of rest. A very common example of the second property is the restoring forces induced by elasticity. Incidentally, all the materials used by engineers, ranging from steel to concrete, as well as the human body, possess both mass and elasticity. Therefore, for the engineers there is no place to hide and there is no running away From vibrations. Understandably, engineers devote a lot of interest and energy to vibration control problems and solutions. In the past few decades, economic and design trends favouring progressive increase in power and velocity in modern machines, have constrained the emergence of vibration analysis, as the pre-eminent focal point ill mechanical engineering design problems. It is seemingly self-evident that problems of great practical significance, such as the vibrations of turbine blades, the vibrations of railway tracks, the vibration of foundations, the vibrations of electricity power transmission lines and the behaviour of ships in waves, can be thoroughly understood only on the basis of the fundamental concepts and theories of vibration. It is no secret that increase in the power and speed of machines implies that there will be correspondingly more energy to cause vibrations, which in turn implies that there will be a corresponding increment in the dynamic response of mechanical systems and structures. Some of this undesirable features) there from, include malfunctioning of equipment loss in reliability of machines, fatigue of materials, wear fretting of machine components, noise nuisance and human discomfort. Vibrations control is no stranger to excitement or innovation, primarily due to the combination of the numerous advantageous applications of vibrations, and the attendant severity of some of the unwanted side-effects of vibrations. This is why there is never a dull moment at this particular frontier of knowledge. Noise Control Sound may be described simply as a physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing, whenever vibrations of certain frequency range reach the inner ear. Sound is vital for communicating, but when it becomes noise, it is, a nuisance, capable of killing communication altogether. Noise is basically a subjective term, referring to an unwanted blend of sounds. Noise is also widely recognized as the de-facto running-mate of vibration. Its frequency, which is the number of vibrations per second, is calibrated in hertz (Hz). The human ear perceives sounds in the frequency range, 20Hz to 20,OOOHz,while elephants are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 363 sensitive to low-frequency sounds, known as infrasounds (below 20Hz), whereas dolphins and bats though virtually blind, move about thanks to ultrasounds which they emit at greater than 20,OOOHz. The ear is a marvellous instrument with a tremendous sensitivity, which is usually expressed in decibels (dB) - a logarithmic scale. The audible threshold is set at zero dB, 85dB is the risk level, 90dB the danger level and 130dB the pain threshold, i.e, a range of sensitivity which is 1013 times more than the audible threshold. Beyond this point the ear- drum may rupture. This extremely wide sensitivity range and the stereophonic ability of the human ear to distinguish sounds from a general background, makes effective noise control rather difficult and complicated. Interestingly, researchers are not used to hoisting a white flag of surrender. Any wonder then that the noise control frontiers continue to attract the attention of many talented researchers and investigators, who are contributing immensely to the excitement at this sector of the frontiers of knowledge. The noise of public-work machinery, such as pneumatic drills and concrete mixers, is highly irritating and unpleasant for both the operatives and anyone else who happens to be nearby. Similarly, traffic and low flying aircraft are major causes of noise pollution in cities, and as such, noise pollution ranks among the foremost environmental problems in the industrially developed countries. In jhe case of Nigeria, a typical developing country, major sources of noise pollution include the religious worship-centres, the open markets, road traffic and the countless internal-combustion electricity generators, in both the industrial and residential areas. However, Nigerians don't really talk much about noise pollution, largely because it is completely overshadowed by the demands of the struggle for day-to-day survival, or it has become part of the day-to-day experiences that it has been relegated to the sub-conscious. Most people don't need much persuasion to agree that too much noise can damage the ears. An explosion of 140dB can cause permanent deafness, for it destroys certain cells in the inner ear that are not capable of regeneration. On the other hand, permanent deafness can also occur gradually due to long duration exposure to sound-level of about 85dB. However, what they don't know is that the human body is also affected in other ways too. There are immediate effects, such as, cardio-vascular problems with an accelerated heartbeat and high blood pressure, gastric-intestinal problems, a decrease in alertness and ability to memorize, nervousness, pupil dilation and a decrease in the visual Field. These effects may be temporary; others are long lasting, such as insomnia, bulimia, anxiety, depression and even sexual malfunctions! The persistent trend to higher speeds of machines and means of transportation by road, rail and air, coupled with an increased reliance on automation and miniaturization, have resulted in vibrations at higher Frequencies. Incidentally, the level of sound power produced by a vibrating machine component is approximately proportional to the square of the velocity of vibration. By the time the vibration control engineer would have succeeded in reducing the vibration level to a half, the effective reduction in sound power level is a mere 6dB; and when there are many machines contributing to a noisy environment, then treating only one will have a minimal reduction effect. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 364 Babatunde Alabi Vibration Induced Discomfort The human body has many suspended organs, 'Such as the brain, heart, eyes and the lungs, as shown in Fig. 1. Moreover, the body shivers when it is cold, heart beats, lungs oscillate, larynges vibrate, etc. Any wonder then that exposure of the human body to vibration can cause a change of comfort-level, a change in performance or a reduction in health and safety-level (1). The sensitivity of human beings to vibration is remarkably high. The range of sensitivity depends largely on the vibration level, vibration frequency, vibration axis or direction, and vibration duration. However, there are often many additional extrinsic variables including physical factors such as the sitting and task dynamics, age, sex, height, weight and miscellaneous psychological variables. Stiffn"~ ~ 01 -- - bnck bon •. RIIht '.9 -- ..••.,•• _I. •"• '"II 1 t L- Vlbratlnll .olld platform or ground ~ Fig. 1: Mass-spring-dashpot model of a human body exposed to whole-body vioration in the standing position UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 365 The problem is further complicated by the inherent ability of the human body to sense vibrations even at very low levels. Thus making it rather difficult for the engineers to guarantee a certain level of comfort. A case in point is the sudden ground-borne vibration from an unseen source, such as a high-speed train, which can be very annoying and destabilizing. In dealing with this problem, engineers have introduced a distinction between "whole-body vibrations ", which is generally considered to be that due to vibration from a platform which is the main supporting surface for the body (e.g. a tractor-seat) and "Iocal vibrations" due to, for example, hand-held tools. It is, therefore, understandable why a lot of attention is focused by aircraft manufacturers, railway/train designers and automobile companies on finding cost-effective solutions to vibration isolation and vibration transmission problems; especially in the areas of suspension and seat designs. Expectedly, this frontier continues to arrest the attention of great minds and brilliant researchers worldwide. The sheer magnitude of innovative solutions being introduced regularly, constitute a monumental testament to the great excitement at this frontier. Vibration Induced Loss of Reliability Reliability may be described simply as a measure of the ability or capability of an item (e.g. a product, an equipment, etc.) to perform a required function consistently, under stated conditions and designated environment, for a specified minimum period of time or minimum number of cycles or events. Reliability is, therefore, of great concern to the engineers. The functional "availability" of any equipment depends critically both on reliability and on maintainability. The overall system reliability, R, depends on the total number of components, n, and the individual component reliability, r, such that R=rR The power law governing R, effectively constrains the design engineers to go for a high degree of individual component reliability, in order to ensure a reasonable value for the system reliability. For instance, with r = 99.9%, Table I shows that system reliability decreases sharply with doubling the number of components: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 366 Babatunde Alabi Table 1 : System reliability sensitivity to number of components SIN Number of Components System Reliability (R) (n) % 1 25 97.5 2 50 95.1 3 100 90.5 4 200 81.9 5 400 67.1 6 800 44.9 7 1600 20.2 8 3200 4.1 '. -. Therefore, in designing machines, it seems advantageous to keep the number of components very low, which incidentally is contrary to the demands of full automatic control and self-adjusting systems. These conflicting demands have constrained the need for very high standard of engineering and quality control. Effective and efficient performance of many machines depends on the accurate geometric profile of their working parts (2); for example, the accuracy of gear tooth profiles is critical to the correct performance of gear wheels. If vibration occurs between machine parts, it may degrade the quality of the surface finish through substantial increment in the rate at which parts become worn, eventually causing a deterioration in the performance of the machine concerned. Ironically, small errors in the geometry of rotating parts and gear wheels, may also on its own cause vibration. In the case of scanning photocopiers, the scanned image of a stationary original is formed onto a moving photoconductor. Imperfections on the moving parts, their assembly or interconnections, introduce vibrations which inevitably degrade the quality of the copy. Vibration is also associated with alternating stresses, hence the ever present danger of failure of systems and components by fatigue. In the case of lathes and other machine tools, the possible onset of fatigue is a more important reason than the reduction of machining accuracy, for making strenuous effort to prevent vibration of such machines. Modem cutters and precision tools are capable of removing metal rapidly, but their hardness and wear resistance have been achieved only at the expense of resistance to fatigue. When a machine component is exposed to shock and vibration, a condition of resonance can greatly magnify the imposed motion, by a factor of 50 to 100, especially when the environmental conditions in service arc such that the damping is reduced. In which case, there is an obvious need for vibration endurance testing under extreme conditions expected to occur during service. For UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 367 example, resonant vibration is one of the causes of blade failure in turbo- machinery, because during steady motion, any given blade passes any given point at accurately Fixed intervals. If, for instance, a water turbine blade receives a splash, then it will do so at regular intervals and may break as a result of resonance. Nevertheless, just like most other things in life, there are also many ways in which resonance may be put to good use. For instance, to shake a sieve mechanically, it is natural to mount it on springs, and to obtain the assistance of a resonant condition. Other examples include the pneumatic drill and the concrete- mixer. Sophisticated electronic equipment and on-board computers which are installed in helicopters, aircrafts and guided-missiles are normally supported on resilient "anti-vibration" mountings to ensure that the vibration of their environment do not affect them adversely, or impair then-accuracy, or cause the malfunction of a control system whilst in service, after passing a quality control test in a stationary position. Similarly, many sensitive equipment used in optics and metrology require input vibration to be limited to less than O.Olm/i acceleration, and displacement amplitudes to be limited to less than 25nm. Typical machinery and building vibration occurs at 10 to 100Hz with displacement amplitude ofless than 100 urn. Consequently, effective isolation of sensitive equipment from vibrations, requires an isolation system with a transmissibility of about 0.001 or below, and a fundamental frequency of the order of 2 Hz or less. Modern engineering relics heavily on exploring the boundaries of ideas and expertise. This prompted the adventure into Fractals and Chaos to be discussed next. Fractals Many of my colleagues often ask me, "What is this fractal stuff that you are now working on", some have jokingly inquired whether fractal is a new fancy word for fracas or fraction. Well, the term "fractal" is relatively new. The Polish-born French mathematician, Benoit Mandelbrot, coined the word and introduced it to the English speaking scientific community in 1977, in his famous landmark hook entitled "Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimensions", (3). He had observed that many important spatial patterns of nature, are either irregular or fragmented to such an extreme degree, that the well-known classical geometry (comprising of regular shapes, curves and surfaces such as circles, cones, spheres, etc.) is hardly of any help in describing their form. For instance, mountains are not cones, and the coastline of a typical oceanic is/and is neither straight, nor circular, nor any of the familiar classical curves. Similarly, no surface in the traditional classical geometry can adequately represent the boundaries of clouds. In general, many patterns of nature, which are of interest 10 mankind, involve a higher level of complexity, well beyond the scope of classical geometry (4,5). Fractals may be described simply as a family of shapes or fractal sets, which can be used advantageously to facilitate adequate representation of many seemingly complex forms and patterns encountered daily in nature, science and art. Some sets are curves, others arc surfaces, still others arc clouds of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 368 Babatunde Alabi disconnected points, while others arc so oddly shaped that there are no good terms for them in either the sciences or the 'arts. The most useful among them involve chance, and their irregularities are statistical in nature. The term "fractal" emanated from the Latin adjective "fructus", which has the same root as ''fraction'' and "fragment" and means "irregular or fragmented". It is related to "frangere" which means "to break". Fractal is indeed the ultimate multi-disciplinary tool. If there was a medal to be awarded for excitement at the frontiers, it must go to fractals. Things that fractals can model include: • Weather • Human body rhythms • Stock market and other e.conomic • Machine breakdown pattern in a Systems Factory • Fluid flow • Plants • Geologic activities • Planetary orbits • Animal group behaviour • Socio-economic patterns • Cancer cells growth pattern • Celestial mechanics The elegance and visual beauty of fractal art is one of the reasons for the excitement amongst the general public over the invention of fractal geometry. Fractal designs arc now common feature on greeting cards, posters, calendars and T-shirts Fractal Geometry Fractal geometry is often referred to as the language of nature. Its structures are what gave orders to chaos. Elements of this new language are very simple algorithms (i.e. mathematical rules or recipes), which can be readily transformed into intricate geometric slopes and forms through iteration. A well-known iterative process in nature is the process of cell division, which is 1 into 2, 2 into 4, 4 into 8, etc. The development and supply of algorithms is infinitely large. But once this new language is mastered, one can easily and precisely describe the forms of clouds, or any natural object or any pattern for that matter, just as easily as an architect describes a building, using the language of traditional classical geometry with lines, circles, ellipses, spheres, etc. The power of fractal geometry lies in its simplicity, which pivots on the idea that instead of a complex shape, just think of the simple rule that generates it. fig. 2, illustrates the simple rule that generates the famous Koch snowflake curve. The rule states that anytime that a simple line is encountered, divide it into three equal parts and replace the middle segment by two equal segments forming part of an equilateral triangle. Thereafter, iterate by repeating the line replacement procedure over and over. At each stage of the iteration, each of the four line UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 369 replaced by Fig. 2: The replacement procedure for generating Koch snowflake curve segments (ie. the generator) is replaced by four new line segments with length one-third of their parent line (i.e. the initiator) fig. 3 shows the first five stages in the construction of the Koch snowflake curve. Similarly, fig. 4 shows the iterative procedure for generating a variation of the Koch snowflake curve. 5(h stage 4th slagc 2nd sf:l~e 1st stage G('IICnl/O/' Fig. 3: First five stages in the iterative procedure for generating the Koch snowflakes UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 370 Babatunde Alabi replaced by Fig. 4: The replacement procedures for generating a variation of Koch snowflake curve Michael Barnsley, an English-born mathematician invented the Fractal Transform, which automatically detects fractal codes in real-world images (i.e. pictures) 161. The discovery led to fractal image compression, whereby it is only necessary to store the fractal code of a digitised photograph. The original picture can then be easily reproduced at will through iteration. Fractal image compression is now a multibillion naira business, because it can be used for the efficient and reliable storage of high-quality images on compact disks, and it can also be used to increase the number of television channels carried by a communication satellite. Fractal Dimension A central role is played in the study and application of fractals by the concept of "fractal dimension". In many ways, the fractal dimension of an object is comparable to the artificial description of the average family size in a country, which for population description purposes may be assigned values such as 4.7 in the case of Nigeria. Clearly, no one attempts to visualize what a 0.7 person looks like. it is simply a convenient and useful mathematically concise description of the average family size, for planning purposes and to aid comparison with the average family size in other countries. If the average family size in U.S.A, U.K, and Ghana are given as 2.1,2.3 and 5.6 respectively, one can easily see that there is an intuitive link between the average family size and the level of development of a country. Similarly, the fractal dimensions associated with a set of five lines, with varying degree of ruggedness, are shown in fig. 5. It is clear and self-evident that there is an intuitive link between the fractal dimension allocated to each curve and its apparent structure in two-dimensional space. Clearly, one can easily figure out what a curve with a fractal dimension of 1.68 will look like. Furthermore, one can logically deduce that a curve of 1.78 fractal dimension would occupy space more efficiently and have a longer length than a curve of 1.69 fractal dimension. In which case, fractal dimension can be used readily and advantageously, to summarize data concisely. With minimal effort, one can learn to associate a fractal dimension with a visible level of ruggedness or smoothness, and that experience becomes the basis of intuitive interpretation of fractal dimension for various natural systems. Similarly, a rugged surface can be given a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers a/Knowledge 371 number between two and three which indicates how the structure fills the space it occupies. Predictably, the concept of fractal dimension has inspired researchers in all disciplines to a host of exciting new works and fascinating speculations. Topological F.·actal Dime.f'n..,s~io>L!.!n,-- "!"D~iLO.en!nLJlsioll 1 LOO 1 LOH 1 1.31 1 1.38 1 1.56 Fig. 5: Fractal dimensions oftive rugged lines Chaos A close relative of fractals is chaos, which also first came to public attention in the mid-seventies. Fractals and chaos are perhaps the most exciting current areas of research [7]. Their powerful combination has radically questioned our understanding of equilibrium, stability, harmony and order. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly clear that no physical phenomenon is really random. In reality, a phenomenon appears random only through the incompleteness of our knowledge of the system involved. The term "chaos" does not imply random disorder, rather it refers to apparent disorder with hidden patterns. For instance, the apparent randomness of daily weather forecast and the predictability of the seasons. Incidentally, our feeling of beauty is inspired by the harmonious arrangement of order and disorder as it occurs in natural objects. Some of us can already see that chaos is, indeed, a form of order. We tend to acknowledge this, even in some of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 372 Babatunde A lobi phrases we occasionally employ, a popular one being: "chaos is the order of the day". Chaos theory seeks to show how seemingly trivial factors affect larger systems. For example, behavioural scientists suspect that the causes of traffic congestion are often remote and very complex. The suspicion is that a traffic wave starts long before the journey, maybe at home with one driver's domestic row over housekeeping allowance. This intricate and infinitively complex web of chain reactions echoes the famous "butterfly wings causing a storm" hypothesis beloved by chaos theory researchers. Chaos theory is particularly useful in the study of dynamical systems (i.e. systems which change with time). One is often interested in the study of the pattern of the temporal evolution of these systems. This is very useful and advantageous for decision-making and prediction, examples of dynamical systems include: • Weather conditions in a city; • Parts of the human body and their functioning, • Diseases and their behaviour with time; • A market and its response to certain economic stimuli, • Machines health condition in an industrial plant, • Chemical compounds and their reactions; • Population profiles with time of animal/plant species; • Military targets and the strategies needed to overcome them; • Workers remunerations and productivity profile with time; • Elementary particles and their interactions; • Creation, motions and annihilation of stars and then-configurations; • Electrical systems and their interactions; • Food production, preservation and storage. Chaos experiments to show how randomness can create deterministic shapes and forms akin to those found in nature have always been of great excitement and fascination to the general public. This is exemplified by the popular "chaos game". To play the game, simply draw an equilateral triangle and label the vertices 1,2, and 3 as shown in fig. 6, this is the game board. One also needs a device to generate the numbers 1,2 and 3 randomly. An ordinary die that is used for a "Ludo game" generates the number 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 randomly. The ordinary die can also be used for the chaos game, simply by identifying the faces 6 with 1,5 with 2, and 4 with 3, by re-labeling. The die will now be the generator of random numbers from the reservoir of 1,2, and 3. By throwing this die repeatedly, the random numbers which appear, for instance, 3, 1, 1,3,2, 1,2,2,2,3,2, l.. will drive a process. The rules of the game are very simple. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 373 2 L- ~ ~ Fig. 6: This is the game board for the chaos experiment (1) Start the game by picking an arbitrary point on the board and mark its location by a tiny dot. This is the current "game point" and for easy referencing may be designated by Xo. (2) Now, throw the die. If, for example number 3 appears, we now generate the new "game point" x), which is located at the mid-point between the current game-point Xo and the vertice with label 3, on the game board. This completes the first cycle of the game. (3) Now repeat the cycle by rolling the die again, and depending on the number that conies up, mark the location of the new game-point which is halfway between the last game point and the randomly chosen base (i.e. the labeled vertice on the board). Fig. 7 shows the chaos game board after (i) 100 steps, (ii) 500 steps, (iii) 1000 steps and (iv) 10,000 steps. Predictably, the distribution of the point is random but curiously the picture that is generated by the dots is absolutely deterministic. It is the famous Sierpinski gasket, which is shown in fig. 8.·Perhaps any seemingly random process has its own characteristic signature (i,e. a distinctive imprint), /1'1 ,·f .•. ,.'.:', ~-. ,' . . ' . " . Fig. 7: The game board after 10 000 steps UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 374 Babatunde Alabi Fig. 8: The Sierpinski gasket Scientists, ever so eager to crack the mysteries of nature, were predictably excited by the discovery of fractals and chaos theory. Sensing the possibility of a quantum leap at the frontiers of knowledge, the study of the nature and features, of the interplay between order and chaos, is inducing useful collaborations among researchers, in a wide range of disciplines. Enormous time, effort and talent are being invested at these frontiers, with the belief that, all forms of, nature must ultimately surrender their intrinsic codes that drive forms and processes (i.e. their recipes and numerical secrets) and draw themselves through numbers alone; using iterated algorithms as the facilitator, while computer graphics remains the effort amplifier and a reliable pointer to the index of possibilities. The Journey So Far - An Overview An inaugural lecture offers the opportunity for every Professor to show the world in general, and to his peers in particular, his contribution to the extension of knowledge in his chosen field of specialisation, and to submit himself to both public and peer appraisal, and simultaneously prove his worthiness to the prestigious professorial chair. This is the tradition worldwide. In this great institution, inaugural lectures constitute an enduring academic tradition, in fulfillment of the ultimate level in academic obligation. So far, I have presented what is essentially an outline of the long journey from vibrations to fractals, and have signposted the general areas of excitement along the frontiers of knowledge. However, an inaugural lecture, being a debt owed by every professor appointed in this University, is essentially a personal affair. Therefore, I shall now proceed and describe a few of the developments and research undertaken by me as a scholar and a consultant. No attempt will be made to review a topic and most of the references will be to work with which I have been involved. . Power Transmission Line Vibration One of the major problems confronting the power transmission engineer is the fatigue failure of overhead power lines; this is usually caused by aeolian UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 375 vibration which is excited by the periodic forces generated when alternating vortex shedding by the conductor occurs in a cross wind. It usually has an amplitude less than the diameter of the conductor and a frequency between 5Hz and 60Hz. Because of the damaging effects of these vibrations and the attendant disruption of electricity power transmission, damping devices are fitted to most conductors. There arc many damping devices available, of which the most popular is probably the Stockbridge damper, shown in fig. 9. The efficiency of the damping action depends on the system parameter such as damper location, conductor span and tension. In 1984, Alabi (8), developed a method for determining the best location of vibration dampers on a conductor for optimum vibration attenuation over the aeolian frequency range. Only by correctly locating the damper on a conductor can the maximum damping of conductor vibration be achieved. Therefore, correct location can lead to economics in the size of damper, or allow longer conductor spans to be used, since the dynamic stress levels are bound to be reduced. The method was successfully applied to a short span cable in a series of laboratory tests conducted at Imperial College, London. Fig. 10 shows the test arrangement. 1 Centre of gravity Counter weight of the countenvcight IArrows on sectioned IJaff indicate modes of vibr:ttion of the d:ull PCI Fig. 9: An illustration of the Stockbridge dumper UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 376 Babatunde Alabi C"BU: L OMAPfJl Fig. 10: Laboratory test atrangement for the cable-damper system The effectiveness of a vibration-damper is essentially a function of its natural frequencies, mass, location and the conductor parameters such as span length, tension and the mass per unit length. A vibration-damper design may be basically more efficient than another design, if both were examined in isolation, detached from the conductor. But the important criterion for determining the relative effectiveness of the two vibration dampers when fitted to a conductor, is the dynamic response of the conductor-damper systems within the frequency band in which they are supposed to operate. In 1989, Alabi (9), developed a simple analytical method for comparing the effectiveness of aeolian vibration-dampers when fitted to a conductor. In addition, I was able to demonstrate that an ideal vibration-damper must be capable of introducing a large in-phase deformation force along with a large energy dissipation over a wide frequency range. Elastic Vibration Problems involving Infinite Media A variety of dynamic boundary-value problems in plane elasticity are considered as wave propagation problems in an infinite medium. The idea of infinity is mathematically convenient, when the aim is to find closed form analytic solutions to problems involving simple homogeneous systems. However, for most practical engineering problems, the configuration of the domain is complicated and irregular, so that it is not possible to find closed form solutions, and recourse is made to numerical methods of solution, such as the traditional finite difference, lumped parameter, finite element and the boundary element methods. Unfortunately, these methods pose serious difficulties when they are implemented directly for cases involving infinite systems, for two main reasons: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 377 (1) only a finite number of elements or nodal points can be considered; and (2) the difficulty of simulating the radiation condition at infinity in a finite model. In 1979, Alabi (10) developed a general mapping finite model for the solution of elastic vibration problems involving infinite media. In this method, the original infinite problem domain is condensed by mapping into a considerably smaller, finite, rectangular domain by implementing a suitable orthogonal curvilinear coordinate transformation, as can be seen in fig. 11(a) and 11(b). The radiation condition at infinity is satisfied through a change of the dependent variables. The model generated a lot of interest and excitement all over, because of the attendant huge savings in computer resources (11,12,13). The model is of particular interest to naval forces with fleet of submarines, and having a permanent need to operate quietly to avoid detection by enemy acoustic listening devices. When implemented to investigate the acoustic field of a submarine inside the belly of the ocean, the savings is enormous and may run into millions of dollars. c;; ++00 ~ Fig. 11(a): The Elastic half-space x'\ Fig. 11(b): Mapping of the region ABCDEFGH of Fig. I I(a) into the region abcdefgh of the XI X2 curvilinear coordiantes UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 378 Babatunde Alabi Another set of problems of considerable interest is that of a reservoir embedded in an elastic medium, often encountered in the investigation of surface deformation associated with volcanism, detonation of buried charges during oil exploration and many other areas of seismology. In examining this problem, it is often assumed that the source of dilatation is a spherical reservoir, while the matrix is an elastic medium of infinite extent (14). In 1985, Alabi (151), developed and introduced an advantageous numerical method, for the evaluation of the displacement field generated inside the soil, by time-harmonic tractions applied to the surface of an embedded cylindrical reservoir, whose cross-section has an arbitrary shape. In this case, I also used mapping primarily to condense the physical problem domain (16). Vibration of Foundations Foundations constitute a prominent feature of many engineering structures such as forging machines, high-rise buildings and retaining-wall of dams. At the design stage, it is often necessary to obtain a reliable estimate of the dynamic response of a foundation which is supported by an elastic soil. The vibratory disturbance may be from a source within the machinery to be supported on the foundation or from adjacent plants, rail/road traffic and blasting of rocks with explosives, or due to an earthquake. • Forging machines, in particular, are vital to the manufacturing industries, ranging from toy-factories to giant automobile plants. However, forging machines constitute a notable source of intense vibration, which is of great concern to the engineers designing the foundations. The shock load produced by forging machines in their operational processes, generate powerful dynamic effects, that are quite short in duration and can be characterized as pulses. However, only a fraction of the shock energy is used in the forging process, while the rest is dissipated in the foundation causing intense vibration. Such intense vibration results in settlement and cracking of the foundation, and may be sufficient to cause structural damage to the factory building (17). In the case, of heavy-duty forging machines, the ensuing vibration may also be transmitted over surprisingly large distances, and may impair the efficiency of other machines in the vicinity, or even to produce workers discomfort, culminating in reduced productivity (1). The main components of a forging machine foundation system, are the hammer, anvil and foundation/inertia block, as can be seen in fig. 12. In 1991, Alabi (18), developed a dynamic analysis technique for determining the vibration transmitted to the soil by a forging machine foundation system. The underlying principle is that in order to absorb a force it must be allowed to move an inertia. I also showed that if vibration transmission is of primary concern in the design of the foundation for a drop forge, the best result is obtained, when the natural frequency of the foundation is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the anvil on its pad. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers a/Knowledge 37CJ " I ..•• ._... _- r,ctmif- h•.ill"l of '1IIIn", e r m, (j •• -Anvil "'1T '---.......---,rJ ~ 2 ...'... . '. ..... .•.. ," ~ •. • • : •••• ~ It ". • '. • • (t . ~. . foundnUOfI bloc k • ~ ',... '. ~ •• .", .t)' (J) : «. " ' " . mZ ' - ..•• ' ,. ~ '0'" " - •. • I .,. ', _. .'. ... '... ,'.~ . RIOld b05~ Fig. 12: Sketch of the forging m~chine foundation system ---'- An equally challenging problem is that of determining the dynamic behaviour of a machine accelerating through resonance. A widely accepted simple method of controlling vibration is to avoid resonance either by designing for low speeds well below resonance, or for high speeds well above twice the natural frequency of the system. Nowadays, the trend in engineering is for high speed machines, which is true of many reciprocating engines, turbines and a variety of machines with rotating parts. However, these machines will necessarily need to be started and shut down during their operation. hi which case, mounting system resonant frequencies will inevitably be excited, albeit momentarily, during this starting/stopping sequence. A problem of great interest to the engineers, in this connection, is the relationship between the magnitude of vibration and the rate at which the machine is accelerated or decelerated through UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 380 Babatunde Alabi resonance. Using an elegant analytical technique, Alabi (19) was able to obtain an estimate of the vibration amplitude and frequency as a function of the machine acceleration. A more formidable challenge arises when dealing with the dynamic behaviour of a rigid body on an elastic half-space. This is essentially an idealized model for studying the dynamic response of the foundations of high- integrity structures such as nuclear plants and dams. The analysis the soil- structure interaction system is beset with difficulties, in that the stress distribution at the free surface is different from that under the rigid body, and particularly the latter differs from the static stress distribution. Energy losses are due mainly to dispersion into the half-space and damping. The discontinuity at the edges of the rigid body gives rise to a set of dual integral equations, which are quite difficult to solve, even for a simple shape of the rigid body, such as circular, or an infinitely long rectangular cross-section, shown in fig. 13; most rectangular foundations with large length-to-width ratio are treated as being infinitely long, thus effectively reducing the problem to two-dimensions. Fig. 13: An infinite long rigid body on an elastic half-space In 1964, the mixed boundary-value problem was ingeniously formulated in terms of a set of dual-integral equations by Awojobi 1201. He had to take a recourse to numerical integration approximations in his search for a solution to the problem. Eventually, he was able to establish solutions for the vertical and rocking modes of vibration (21), although there was some controversy about the vertical mode for an infinitely long rectangular body (22). Thereafter, in 1979, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 381 . Alabi (10), developed a novel and elegant digital simulation method for solving the problem, by introducing a finite model based on coordinate transformation technique as a substitute for the elastic half-space. In this model, the semi-infinite physical domain of the problem is condensed by mapping into a fixed finite rectangular domain, by implementing an exponential-polar orthogonal coordinate transformation. I was able to show that my own model, avoided some of the simplifications and approximations of previous models, and readily satisfied radiation boundary conditions. Subsequently, I presented a mapping finite-difference method for investigating the dynamic response of foundations, with the capability of accommodating various configurations of embedded foundations (23). Railway Induced Vibrations The worldwide resurgence of trains as an econoniical, safe and convenient mode of transport for large number of people and goods, has created a renewed concern about trains, and their effects on our living and working environment. Consequently, a lot of attention is now being given to the ground vibrations, induced and transmitted by trains will) flanged wheels running on steel rails. A sketch of the physical system is shown in fig. 14. The current trend of increasing loads and speeds, particularly for freight trains, causes increasingly severe ground vibrations, which might often be sufficient to cause structural damage to buildings close to railway lines and even produce human discomfort. Fig. 14: Schematic diagram on the physical system UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 382 Babatunde Alabi The problem of predicting the ~ssociated ground motions is complicated by the variability and in-homogeneity of the soil. Even if uniform soil properties are assumed, the mathematical formulation of the problem is still quite complex and formidable. However, a simplified three-dimensional model of the earth as an elastic half-space, with the train as a moving load on the surface, may be employed to gain useful insight into the complex vibration problem (24). When a railway track has not yet been constructed, or when it is possible to re-align it, then the best solution is to vibration isolate the track. A basic rule in vibration isolation is that in order to absorb a force, it must be allowed to move a mass and, similarly, in order to absorb a couple, it must be allowed to move an inertia. In which case, the suspended mass under the railway track and above the resilient isolators should, therefore, be as large as practicable. An opportunity arose in 1986, to join in the search effort for a solution to the excessive ground vibrations being transmitted by a particular stretch of railway track in South East, England. Based on a parametric study of the physical problem, I developed a method of solution, using Lame's potentials and a systematic integral transformation approach; which led to a mapping of the complex inverse integral transformations, to give the spatial distribution of the ground displacements due to. forces transmitted to the ground from the wheels of a moving surface train through the track 125, 26,271. A representation of the forces acting on the physical system is shown in fig. 15. f}!!ffI ~9 Wogon I CarrIage -I--I-------f·- ·I-l ..-~-~-~-::-:·-.1··-. ... J .. -t-f----. -+.+ -I' + .14 t·····++ ++ ..- Pn ( Fig. 15: Representation of the forces acting on the physical system UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 383 Vibration of Bladed Disks Catastrophic theory is a relatively new branch of mathematics. It is closely related to bifurcation theory, and is sometimes known as singularity theory. It is very useful in the study of a physical system that exhibits unexpected and drastic changes when only small and smooth changes in excitation are impressed externally. Some of the underlying mathematical techniques have found applications in civil engineering and physics. A complex vibrating system, such as a bladed disc assembly, is often analysed in terms of its constituent sub-systems. Thus, one analysis is made for the disc only and another one for the uncoupled blade (28). Subsequent to the separate analyses, the dynamic behaviour of the complete system is predicted by accounting for the influence of coupling (29). Knowing fully well that modern engineering relics heavily on exploring the boundaries of ideas and expertise, in 1992 Afolabi and Alabi (30) used catastrophe theory for the first time to furnish a clear insight into the occurrence of unequal vibration amplitudes which has been observed in the past, in both theoretical and experimental studies of bladed disc assemblies in turbine engines (31). Engineering Applications of Fuzzy Logic The well-known binary logic is a two-dimensional scheme based on the assumption that for an event, there arc only two possible outcomes. In the binary logic scheme, an event occurs or it does not; current is either flowing or not flowing through an electric circuit; a switch is either on or off; a man is either dead or alive; a machine part is either defective or perfect; etc. In which case, the binary logic admits the step function as its base structure, and imposes explicit distinguishing factor between aperfect state (1) and a defect state (0), as illustrated in fig. 16. Whereas, fuzzy logic is a multi-valued logic, whereby the interval (0,1) of binary logic is sub-divided into many small segments to reflect the extent 10 which the independent variable ( e.g. time t) belongs to the dependent variable (e.g. event e(t», as shown in fig. 17. --------.---~---- o Time (I) Fig. 16: Schematic illustration of the binary logic scheme UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 384 Babatunde Alabi .-- .•.. - ....•...•...--- - -- - - -'...::::...:;:::...-.----- .. ·0. Time (1) Fig. 17: Schematic illustration of the fuzzy logic scheme Zadeh (32), introduced the concept of fuzzy logic about four decades ago. Since then. Fuzzy logic has developed immensely in theory and applications, thus earning recognition and acceptance by many researchers, and being put into practice by many engineers and managers. The fuzzy boom has generated many successful consumer products, ranging from cameras to tunnel-digging machines. In 1996, Alabi and Adedeji [33], developed and presented some aspects of fuzzy logic which could be applied advantageously in machine failure diagnosis. Unlike binary logic, fuzzy logic takes into account useful pieces of information, about the transitional stage between the perfect state and the defect state of a machine. Engineering Applications of Fractals and Chaos Theory Beams are used extensively in engineering structures, cranes, trucks, factories, etc. These beams are sometimes subjected to combined moving and oscillatory loads. Invariably, the response of such beams is complex and prone to exhibiting chaotic behaviour. The first stage of this research has been completed and a publication on-titled "Chaotic Response of Buckled Beams to Excitation", is being processed. Application of vibration-absorbers for the control of excessive machine vibrations is common in the manufacturing industries. I am presently investigating the possibility of adapting the vibration-absorber for the control of chaotic oscillations. . Fractal dimensions arc very useful as summaries of data. For instance, the tread of a tyre can be indexed on a scale ranging from smooth (long in service) to rugged (new). In general, as a tyre wears, the tread becomes smoother (i.e . .reduced ruggedness). Fractal dimension is essentially an index of the ruggedness UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From Vibrations to Fractals: Excitement at the Frontiers of Knowledge 385 of a boundary. Presently, I am supervising a Ph.D. student, who is investigating whether fractal dimension can be used advantageously for the characterization of various branded tyre tread patterns, tyre wear and tyre wear rate. REFERENCES Alabi, B. and Adedeji, W.O; (1996): "Fuzzy Logic and Plant Maintenance". Nigerian Journal of Science. Vol. 30, No.2,pp 171-178. Alabi, B. (1991): "Effects of vibration on people and job performance". Proc. 8th NIlE Conf Prod. & Indig. Tech., pp 17-24 Alabi, B. (1989): "On the problem of unbalanced rotating industrial machines". Proc. 6th NIlE Conf Prod. & Indust., pp lO2-104. Mandelbrot, B. B. (1977): Fractals: form, chance and dimension. Freeman, San Francisco Peitgen, H. and Saupe, D. (1988): The science of fractal images. Springer-Verlag, New York Kaye, B. H. (1994): A random walk through fractal dimensions. VCII, New York Barttsicy, IVI. (1988): Fractals everywhere. Academic Press, New York Peitgen, II., Jurgens, II and Saupe, 1). (1992): Introduction to fractals and chaos. Springer-Verlag, New York Alabi, B. (1984): "The effect of damper location on transmission line vibration". NSE, Journal ofthe Nigerian Society of Engineers, Vol. 19, No.1, 25-35. Alabi, B. (1989): "On the effectiveness of aeolian vibration dampers" West Indian Journal of Engineering, Vol. 14, No.2,pp 60-70. Alabi, B. (1979): A conformal mapping solution to elasto-dynamic boundary value problems. Ph.D Thesis, Imperial College, University of London. Berger, B. S. and Alabi, B. (1978): "Solution of Navier's equation in cylindrical curvilinear co-ordinates". ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vo1.45, No.4, 812- 816. Berger, B.S. and Alabi, B. (1980): "Steady-states solution of Navier's equation in cylindrical curvilinear co-ordinates". ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol.47, No.3, 682-684. Alabi, B. (1985): "A mapping finite-difference model for infinite elastic media". Applied Mathematical Modelling, Vol. 9,62-68. Alabi, B. (1987): "A digital simulation method for an infinite elastic medium with an embedded spherical source of dilatation". Nigerian Journal of Engineering, Vol.4, No. I, pp 47-51. Alabi, B. (1985): "The displacement Field generated by tractions applied to the surface of a cylindrical cavity in an elastic medium". West Indian Journal of Engineering, Vol. 10,No.2, pp 66-79. Alabi, B. (1994): "On the numerical solution of problems using co-ordinate transformation technique", Ife Journal of Technology. Vol. 4, No. I ,pp 29-36. Novak, M. and Hifnawy, L. E. (1983): "Vibration of hammer foundation ". Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering. Vol. 2, No. I, pp 43-53. Alabi, B. (1991): "Vibration of forging machine foundation system". Proc. 8th NIlE Con! Prod. & Indig. Tech., pp 59-69. Alabi, B. (1990): "'the dynamic behaviour of a heavy machine under uniform acceleration". Proc. 7th NIlE Con! Prod. & Stand., pp 86-88. Awojobi, A. O. (1964): Vibration of rigid bodies on clastic media. Ph.D Thesis, Imperial College, University of London UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 386 Babatunde Alabi Awojobi, A. O. and Grootenhuis, P. (1965): "Vibration of rigid bodies on semi-infinite elastic media". Proc. Royal Soc., Vol. 287, Series A, pp 27-43. Grootenhuis, P. (1970): "The dynamics of foundation blocks". Proc. IntI.. Conf. Dynamic Waves in Civil Engrg., Inst. Civil Engrg, Swansea, pp 77-82. Alabi, B. (1985): "Harmonic vertical motion of a rigid strip - a finite difference model for the elastic half-space". ANSTI, African Journal of Science and Technology, Vol.4, pp 82-99. Alabi, B. (1988): Ground vibration excited by surface trains". NSE, Journal of the Nigerian Society of Engineers, VoI.23,No.4,ppMO. Alabi, B. (1989): "A model for the problem of ground vibration induced by the wheels of a moving train". Applied Mathematical Modelling, Vol. 13, No.l2, pp 710-715. Alabi, B. (1992): "A Parametric Study on Some Aspects of Ground-borne Vibrations Due to Rail Traffic". Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 153, No. I, pp 77-87. Alabi, B. (1989): "Uniformly moving loads on a semi-infinite elastic medium". Proc. 12th ASME Cent. Mech. Vibr. and Noise, DE-Vol. 18-3, pp 197-200. Afolabi, D. and Alabi, B. (1990): "Resolution of Double Modes". Proc. 9th IMAC Inti. Modal Analy. Con! Italy. pp 78-83. Afolabi, D. and Alabi, B:(1992): "On Exponential Mapping for Modal Analysis", Proc. 10th IMAC Inti. Modal Analy. Conf., U.S.A. pp 1438-1444. Afolabi, D. and Alabi, B. (1992):"Catastrophe theory, curve veering and the vibration of bladed disks". Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science. Part C, Vol. 203, pp 143-144 Afolabi, D. and Alabi, B. (1993) : "Small denominators and the problem of eigenvector stability in structural dynamics". Nigerian Journal of Science. Vol. 28, pp 241 - 244. Zadeh, L. A. (1965) : "Fuzzy sets" Information and Control. Vol. 8, pp 338-353. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19 DEMOCRACY WITIDN AND OUTSIDE THE IVORY TOWER J. D. Ojo faculty of Law When the Faculty of Law finally came into being in 1984 August 1, it had existed 3 years before that time under the umbrella of the Faculty of the Social Sciences that first brought it into being. This is why it is necessary to pay special tribute to the founding fathers, many of whom are still here with us like Professor Tekena Tamuno, when he was Vice-Chancellor conceived the plan, and sold the idea to Prof. Reuben Udo, the Dean of the Faculty of the Socia} Sciences. The members of the Committee that was saddled with making a case for the establishment of a Department of Law under the Faculty of the Social Sciences, included the then Sub-Dean of the Faculty of the Social Sciences late Dr. William A. Ajibola, (people's Ajib) who sustained a fatal accident on the way to his home town after the last meeting, the very day the Committee completed its assignment on Friday, July 15, 1977, and died 5 days later on Wednesday, 20 July, 1977, Lastly, but not the least, the great colossus late Prof. S.O. Olayide, the Vice-Chancellor who steam rolled the plan to make law a reality in this University. But for the men of vision, may be "Law" would still be existing in the minds of many of us today. Before these activities the necessity to have a Law Faculty here at then University College, Ibadan (now University of Ibadan) was appreciated by the Colonial government of Nigeria. In 1959, Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the Nigerian Prime Minister offered Ibadan a Faculty of Law with the full support and weight of his government strangely, Ibadan rejected the offer on the ostensible ground that "Law was not its priority". May be, the then principal of the College, late Prof. Kenneth Dike, at the time, that lawyers "are trouble makers" and he did not want to compound his problems with having people who would see "white and call it black". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 388 J.D.Oja By the time, this University embarked on having the discipline of law within its fold in 1981, the Federal Government had lost all interest in the Premier University that refused to champion the teaching of law and the course of justice within the Nigerian University system. It had found new allies that were flexible and more amenable to the sound of the times. From inception until 1995, all we had as buildings were two residential quarters converted into offices and classrooms nd the Adeola Odutola Library which was meant to be a two storey building, but which due to lack of immediate use, ended up as a bungalow. What a tragedy!!! Late 1995, we had another residential quarter converted into a large lecture room and another boy's quarters converted into staff rooms. The threat of closure by the Council of Legal Education forced the University to start on a large Lecture theatre, under the tenure of Prof. Adewoye, as Vice-Chancellor. The work was still at the foundation level when he left. But with greater zeal and commitment by Prof. Olorunsogo as acting Vice-Chancellor, and the new dynamic group under Prof. Falase as Vice-Chancellor, the work has been completed. Today, we now have a good edifice in Law which is the pride of staff and students. We are indeed, ladies and gentlemen, grateful to the University for coming to the rescue at last. We hope that the Faculty would not be allowed to suffer any neglect again. With the new structures, the Faculty was emboldened to recruit more teachers and to embark on our postgraduate programme, which, by God's grace, will be starting in October, 2001. The Journey So Far In this lecture, Mr. Vice-Chancellor, I shall narrate my involvement with the Law Faculty at lbadan sharing with you. the highlights of the events at the various milestones reached in my journey so far in the Ivory Tower of the University of lbadan. When I was looking for a topic on Criminology for my Ph.D thesis, I had a chat with Prof. A. K. R. Kiralfy, of King's College, London, who advised that I should consider a topic on Constitutional Law which, he felt, would be more useful to us in Nigeria than one in Criminology. On further discussion, he was frank that Nigerians needed more research on Constitutional Law and Constitutionalism to find out why our Constitutions were breaking down. It was agreed that my research should focus on a comparative study and analysis of the Executive in a number of Countries. My first paper, after my Ph.D., was an examination of "The Future of Parliamentary Democracy in Nigeria" where I was able to say (in Ojo; 1975: 161) that "African rulers, unlike some of their opposite numbers in Europe, tend to hold on to the reins of power regardless of the climate of opinion. The average African still finds it difficult to accept a situation in which he should surrender power voluntarily and execute rather than give orders. For that reason, many governments in Africa have gone to extremes to maintain themselves in power. Many have suppressed the rule of law and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 389 inflicted severe infringements on the democratic system. They have, in so many cases, rigged elections, bribed voters and victimised political opponents for the sole purpose of staying in power. It is difficult to imagine that the European concept of the rule oflaw can ever take root in Africa". This article had the misfortune of being published in Germany when no Nigerian Journal was willing to consider it for publication for fear of government reprisals or the incarceration of its editors. What a tragedy that people were not prepared to fight injustice and bad government. All we were prepared to do was to grumble in beer parlours, and in the sheltered comers of our rooms. In quick succession, I made attempt in further papers to examine the tools that could make democracy realisable: freedom of the press (Ojo; 1976), the doctrine of the separation of powers (Ojo: 1977), the role of traditional rulers in the changing political set-up (Ojo 1976) and how trade and commerce could be harnessed to sustain a democratic culture (Ojo: 1981). With the promised return by the millitary government of General Murtala Muhammed in 1975 to return to a civilian set-up in 1979. I shifted my attention to the University system. Education and the Law where there was far less attention than Constitutional Law I discovered, most disappointingly, that there were very few reported decided cases in that virgin field. It was frightening that when the University of Ibadan Vice-Chancellorship became vacant in 1971, the oldest University in the country, there was a prolonged interregnum as the Premier University could not fill the vacuum for months. Personal and inter group rivalries dominated debates and when the Gowon government realised that lbadan would not produce a Vice-pressure or interference, decided to on impose the University of Ibadan (Amendment) Decree. 1972 which now prescribed among others the procedure for the appointment of the Institution's Vice- Chancellor. Thus, by inaction or a reckless disregard of its duties under the University of Ibadan Act, 1962, Council lost the power to appoint its own Vice- Chancellor to the government. All attempts by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) to wrest this power from government since then and reinvest it in the Universities has been a lost battle. With this and the way many members of staff in the Universities were subsequently sacked in 1975 by the Visitor without reference to the University Governing Councils or the contracts of appointment of the affected staff it became imperative to study the various University Acts and find out why the Nigerian Visitor has suddenly become a hydra-headed monster that could easily devour the men in the Ivory Tower without weighing the cosequences of such slaughter. Not only this, the way our students were killed or maimed during student demonstrations while students in other developed countries hardly sustained injuries, during their demonstrations, made it necessary to conduct research into student crises in the Universities. Early attempts to do meaningful research in this area ran into problems, as Nigerian journals were afraid to publish any incisive criticisms of government. Even editors who I felt should brave it chickened out on the pretext that they UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 390 J.D.Ojo would not like to be made scapegoats. An examination of the Criminal aspects of April 1978 students demonstration in Nigerian Universities was published in Germany (Ojo: 1980) while that on the Constitutional aspects of the 1978 April students Crisis was published in the Phillipine Political Science Journal (Ojo: 1980). These articles tried to show that, not minding the excesses and the nuisance value of these demonstrations, killing or maiming students was not the solution. Rather, a more acceptable and humane approach like using tear gas, water hose rather than live bullets, was better With the spate of removals and killing of students unabated, a comprehensive work became necessary and this resulted in a book entitled Law and University Administration in Nigeria (Ojo: 1990) It attempted a critical examination of the power of the Vice-Chancellor, the University Administrator, academic freedom, University autonomy, students and the law within the Nigerian University system, tuition, quota system, admission freedom of expression, right to private life, etc, personnel issues in administration and the role of the University Counsel. The work has also shown that there is a need to revisit the place of the visitor within the Nigerian University system. It showed that, rather than have Head of State as visitor to all the Federal Universities and the Governor as visitor to all the State Universities, it is now time to allow the Chancellors, whose roles -are purely honorific in the Universities to take over the functions of the visitor since the Chancellors are the nominees of the Head of State or the Governor as the case may be (Ojo, 1990; 79-87). Secondly, the visitor should be made to confine himself to the traditional role of the visitor in a British University. A situation where the Nigerian Visitor dabbles into every minor crisis in the University leaves much to be desived. Prof. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Yemi Akinseye George in a book which is being published by Spectrum on Kayode Eso: The Making of a Judge hold the tenacious views that "nothing has undermined the autonomy as much since the visitor in Nigeria was not a highly placed individual as in the United Kingdom" (Ajayi and akinseye-George, forthcoming, 2001:248) Harvey, for saw this in his Freedom. University and the Law: The Legal Status of Academic Freedom in the University of Black Africa that My concern, which possibly many will share, related to the creation of governance mechanisms allocating broad discretionary powers over the University to those who may not only be insensitive to its special ethos and needs, but also vulnerable to the temptation to deal with it as only one aspect of the general political and governmental matrix (Harvey: 1978 : 49). With the increased ferocity in institutional killing of students by fellow students, all in the dreaded name of cubism further work was embarked upon on institutional violence. With a small research grant by the Senate Research Grant's Committee of this University in 1990. I was able to visit most universities in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 391 Nigeria to find out their problems and the reason why students started to kill other students in the name of cults. The research became so fascinating that almost my whole salary went into it every month. When it became unbearable, Prof. and Chief (Mrs.) J. F. Ade Ajayi decided to assist with financial the work entitled "Students Unrest in Nigerian University: A Legal and Historical Approach published by Spectrum Books. At last in 1995, the work surfaced (Ojo: 1995). This showed that, not minding the serious criticisms of students, most students were well behaved and that only a microscopic minority was involved in frivolities that tended to damage the good name of the students' populace and the University in general. It was shown that, with more forbearance by students and staff, creating more avenues for sporting activities, more literary and debating activities and the involvement of Parents, Teachers and Students' Association, in the management, of students, this menace that was eating deep into the body politic of student unionism could be curbed and tamed if not completely eliminated. I also showed that, rather than an outright ban on students' secret societies, an attempt should be made to unban them and let all student cults, fraternities and confraternities register with University authorities. That was the situation in the seventies and eighties. By that time, the identities of the students in the various organisations were known and those who flouted University rules and/or regulations could easily be detected, and punished. The present system, which tends to drive secret societies underground is not the best for the country. After all, students are to be trained in both character an learning. How can we perform these creditably well when the identities of those to be trained are unknown? With the return of democratic government in 1979, one felt that one should count one's blessings and thank God for driving the Khaki men into the barracks and bringing back the agbada men. Unfortunately, we forgot to realise, in time, that having an old wine in an old bottle would eventually break the bottle. Most of the men who returned in ,1979 were those who brought about the fall of the first Republic. We forgot that :it was not the, Constitution that made good government but the calibre and jhe cOInmltrnerit ofthose' who were chosen to run the government. ,. " Dr. Ambedkar, the father ot.tne Indian-Constitution warned during the Indian Constituent Assembly Debates ip '194~that ,'. ,. However good Constitution .may be, it is sure to turn out bad because (sic) those who are called to work it happen to be a bad lot. However bad a constitution may be, it may turn out to be good if those who are called to work it happen to be good lot. The working of the Constitution does not wholly depend upon the nature of the Constitution" (Ambedkar: CADX-99.5-). Similarly, Wheare emphasised in his Federal Government the importance of leadership and he felt that a great deal would depend on the leadership or statesmanship at any given time - (Wheare: 963.39). Within two months of the take-off of the Second Republic, cracks were already appearing. The government UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 392 J.D.Oja had started to lose a sense of direction. They achieved a near miracle in that, within the space of four years, the people who showed such hatred of the military in 1979 began to yearn for them and danced for joy at their return on New Years Day January 1, 1984. In January 1980, Shugaba, the leader of the GNPP in the Borno State Assmebly was, one morning whisked off by security agents on the orders of the then Minister of Internal Affairs on the grounds that he was a State Security risk and that he was not a Nigerian. He was deposited at the Chadian border. The problem here was that neither his Governor nor his family was informed of this deportation. He managed to smuggle himself back into the country and in Shugaba v. Minister of Internal Affairs et al., 1981 the Court ruled that Shugaba was a Nigerian and that the deportation was illegal, null and void. The Court awarded damages against the Government but the Government refused to pay the damages. Just as the dust was settling on at case, the impeachment of Alhaji Balarabe Musa on trumped up charges by the Kaduna State House of Assembly (NPN controlled house) was hatched and executed with such venom that in comparison, Hitler's execution of the Jews at the gas chamber during the second world war could as well be regarded '!.s a friendly act. His absolute faith that the courts would save him fell hollow. Adenekan Ademola JCA delivering the judgement of the Court in Alhaji Abdulkadir Balarabe Musa V. Auta Hamza & Ors. On 16 July, 1981, about a month after his removal, held that S.170 (10) Nigerian Constitution, 1979 was inserted in order that "no court can entertain any proceeding or question the determination of the House of the Committee" (Ibid at p. 245). By this decision, the hope of Alhaji Balarabe Musa of ever getting justice in his case was dashed to pieces. With the political situation as it was, it then dawned on me to complete the work which I started in Philadelphia when I was a Visiting Fellow at Temple University School of Law on the Development of the Executive under the Nigerian Constitutions 1960-81. The work was completed in 1983 with this frustrating comment which is at the introduction of the work that Whether the 1979 Nigerian Constitution would provide a permanent cure to constitutional instability in Nigeria is too early to say. The discussion in this book shows that we are not out of the woods yet. Whether we begin to find our way out of the depth of disaster or sink deeper in the complicated labyrinth of government will be determined to a large extent by the conduct and consequences of the 1983 elections". (Ojo 1985: xiii) At the end, I came to the conclusion that, with the way our leaders were carrying on the functions of government, it was certain that Constitutional Government would certainly collapseand that the consequences of that catastrophe would be difficult to imagine. The work was accepted for publication with some trepidation by University Press Ltd. in August 1983 which warned me that there could be reprisals from the NPN Controlled Federal Government. By December UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 393 31, 1983, while the work was still in press, the Constitution had broken down and the prediction in this work came true. The publishers wanted me to write a postscript, but I turned down the request as unnecessary. From that time to now. I have been busy examining issues in local government as a third tier of government. I examined the provisions of the 1989 Local Government Decree, the various amendments and the impact on national development (Ojo; 1978 1-42). Legal Issues Promoting Conflict in our societies, (Ojo: 2000:58) and the role of the police under the various Constitutions. (Ojo: 1992: 13). One can see from the above that most of my work has dealt with the leadership role of those at the helm of affairs in both Government and the Universities and what effect such roles, have in steering the ship of state aright. This shows that the success or failure of any administration depends to a large extent on the way the executiveconducts the primary business of government. Definition of Democracy In 1986. Prof. FolarinShyllon gave the first inaugural lecture for the, Faculty of Law onFreedom. Justice and the Due Process. 15 years later I am now standing before you to give this as the second inaugural. This shows something our situation the Faculty of Law. For several years, the Faculty had only one Professor with the remaining staff as junior Lecturers, only one being Lecturer I. With such staffing, it was impossible to project into the future. Now the Faculty of Law has arrived. We have 3 Professors, one Reader with others in the pipeline. It is hoped that from now on the Faculty of Law would be able to maintain its slot in the schedule of inaugural lectures and keep its place in the comity of scholars in this university Community. What.then is democracy? The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English define democracy as: "(I) Government of the people, by the people and for the the people, (2) government by elected representatives of the people (3) a country governed by its people or their representatives (4) and the right to take part in decision making". But the most popular definition is that by President Lincoln in his Gettysburg address on November 19, 1863, during the American civil war, that "this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by the people for the people shall not perish from the earth" This shows that however popular or benevolent a military government may be, it is still a dictatorship and that democracy has gone by the board when a group of officers seizes the govern-ment, pushes, the constitution aside, and abolishes or suspends political parties and elections. Since the basic concept of democracy is rule by consent, where ever a government depends on popular support, it is by definition a democracy. (R. Emerson: 1962: 283) Rupert Emerson, criticizing this statement said that UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 394 J.D.Oja ,, •This is-a claim to be rejected. A government controlled by the military may be doing an admirable and necessary job, as in attacking corruption, undertaking land reform in West Pakistan, or cleaning up Rangoon, but it is debasing the currency of political terminology to call it a democracy even though it has the honest intention of creating conditions under which democratic. institutions can be restored" (Emerson 1962284). Therefore, for democracy to reign in any country or society, the following are the necessary concomitants as stated by Robert Dahl (1998:38) effective participation, equality in voting, gaining enlightened understanding (4) Exercising final control over the agenda and inclusion of adults and that such democracy is likely to produce the following desirable consequences (a) avoiding tyranny (b) up holding essential rights (c) sustaining a feeling of general freedom (d) self determination (e) and the moral autonomy of individual citizens. Can we boldly say that in Nigeria today there is a democracy? One may give a qualified affirmative answer. Our elected representatives came in through the ballot box. There is uninhibited freedom of expression. No one dictates to the members of the Houses what to do and how to go about their business. , Hiving said this, can one really say that a society which is largely illiterate, where most of the people cannot read and write can exercise the vote wisely and without hindrance? Can't such people be swayed by the extravagant promises of irresponsible charismatic leaders? Pylee, commenting on the situation in India, said that One of the most serious weaknesses of democracy in India is the widespread illiteracy and ignorance of the masses. The introduction of adult franchise at one stroke among a predominantly illiterate people has its own inherent dangers. So long as they are unable to exercise the franchise in an intelligent manner, after analysing the political issues in a rational way, democracy isnot safe (Pylee: 1965773). Of course, there is the argument that a visit to motor parks and markets in this country will several the level of political consciousness in our people and that with or without western education, they know their rights and how to demand ,for these when necessary. One cannot but agree with these. But with abit of education. Sqch.political consciousness will be heightened and the people would be able to make more intelligent contributions to political debates. de Smith was of a similar opinion'when he said that In recent years western commentator have probably tended to underestimate the importance of illiteracy and ignorance in the political process, particularly in unsophisti-cated rural societies. We have observed clear demonstrations in India and elsewhere that illiterate persons are quite capable of, exercising a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 395 reasonable choice at an election - at least a choice that may be as rational as the exercised by voters in western countries. Nevertheless, in between elections it becomes extremely difficult to explain a government immediate problems to people who can have no adequate conception of the larger context in which those problems have arisen. (de Smith, 1964 : 237) How can we honestly talk of democracy in Nigeria when most of the goodies of life are denied the general citizenry who lack the right to education, health facilities and even the right to work? If the resources are well harnessed, and all squandennania eliminated, this country has the wherewithal to fund free education up to the secondary school level. But the problem with us is that, most of our leaders, are living above their means and corruption has engulfed the fabric of the society. The money that should have been used to develop the people and make life better and easier for the masses is now being looted by some of these leaders and invested illegally in foreign banks. Today, some of our leaders are richer than the country while most of the citizens are wallowing in misery and abject poverty: What 3 paradox! '! Claude Ake believed that, for democracy-to be meaningful in Nigeria, the people have to Be transformed by a programme of upliftrnent, a programme which gives them access for health education, wealth, leisure and most importantly power" (Ake,: 1996; 10) This is what our Government should strive for and accomplish. We should shelve white elephant projects and grandiose schemes, which does not benefit the masses. The Executive As stated earlier on in this lecture, it was emphasized that the Executive must provide the leadership and perform the tasks that could weld the various units, within the country together. (Ojo, 1985: 9). A similar view was held by Lord Eustace in his Democracy on Trial (Eustace, 1951:29) that the focusing ftinction of government must be discharged not by a representative legislature but by the executive that can blend, with the strong light of national power, all the various colours of national life. This is why it is necessary to vote in leaders who would rise above partisan politics and give good leadership in government. Chief Afe Babalola, in his Work on Leadership and Good Governance was also of the view that "There is a consensus of opinion that it is only good leadership that can bring about good governance". (Afe Babalola (SAN.) 2000:8). He said further that a study of world leaders shows that good leadership is characterised by among others, wisdom, learning, charisma, vision, courage, integrity, honesty, probity of character, transparency and accountability (Afe Babalola Ibid: 9). All these help to show UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 396 J.D.Ojo that Nigeria now needs statesmen not politicians. The problem the country has been facing for some time, is to have several small mem in big or giant boots. Moreover, how can we make saints out of ill equipped representatives? Many of our representatives in the National Assembly and State Houses of Assembly are products of the era when "might was right". Many of them were born during the political crisis or the Nigerian civil war. Many of these people did not know peace and what makes for peace. The younger ones are now products of cults in the secondary schools and in the universities. How easy is it for anyone to tame such representatives? This is difficult. No wonder, during hot arguments in the Houses, "Honourable members" descend so low as to engage in physical combat to settle scores" What good can one expect of such gladiators? One strongly suggests that all representatives must be properly screened by the leaders of the political parties and anyone with a shady past must be disqualified. Similarly, anyone who misbehaves or does not live up to expectations should be disqualified, in addition to the disqualifications listed in ss.66 (1) and 107(1) of the Nigerian Constitution, 1999. It should also be enacted that any member of Parliament or a House of Assembly who misbehaves during the sitting of any House must be made to lose his seat iQ.the House and a bye-election immediately held to fill such a vacancy. Information Flow One of the ways by which democracy can be sustained is through a ready flow of information. The Nigerian Constitutions are written in English. Most Acts of Parliament and Laws are in English. In a society where most citizens are not literate in English but knowledgeable in their indigenous languages, efforts should be made to translate the constitution and many important Acts and Laws into the indigenous languages. Attempts should also be made to hold seminars and workshops to enlighten the people on these documents. Such seminars, workshops and the use of jingles may help to simplify difficult translations or ambiguities. In addition to the above, members of the National Assembly, Houses of Assembly and Local Governments must be made to disclose their salaries and remunerations, and other salient issues affecting their jobs as representatives of the people. A situation where salaries and allowances of representatives of the people are classified as "secret" does not augur well for democracy. How can we challenge a member of Parliament who recklessly exhibits his ill-gotteTi wealth to dazzle the less privileged ones when people do not know the source of such wealth? How can we accuse such a person of corruption under the Anti Corruption Act when his source of affluence is not laiown or is shielded from the people? In other developed countries; the Gazette would carry the salaries, allowances and other entitlements of public officers, why is this not so in Nigeria? We should insist on this as a right. We have a right to know. The Nigerian Government and the University Systems Just as there are National;' State and Local Governments with specified powers, under exclusive, legislative and concurrent legislative lists, are there powers UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 397 vested in the constituent authorities within the University system like Council, Senate, Faculties and in the various Committees and boards handling institutional governance at the lower levels. There is no over concentration of power in any person or body and the principle of separation of powers as enunciated by Monstesquieu that if there is too much concentration of power in a particular person or in the same body of magistrates there would be tyranny. (Montesquieu: 1748) This principle is greatly respected in the universities. But the impractical nature of full separation of powers has been vividly brought out by Woodrow Wilson, who maintained that "the trouble with the theory is that government is not a machine but a living thing. No living thing can have its organs offset against each other as checks and live. Government is not a body of blind forces. It is a body of men with highly differential functions. Their cooperation is indispensable, their warfare fatal". (Woodrow Wilson: 1909:56). It is clear from the above that this doctrine has substantial relevance to the University system as Ojo said elsewhere that no university ever concentrates too much power in any of its organs of government so that they can work in collaboration to foster the objective of the University (Ojo: 1999: 17) Just as there are representatives to run the affairs of government, so are there people elected or selected to run the university system, even though the idea of government by the people and for the people is alien to the culture of the University system. A University, is strictly speaking a meritocracy not a democracy. Prof. Idris Abdulkadir. a one time Executive Secretary of the N.U.C., examining the democratisation of student campus life which meant the full participation of students in all aspects of University administration, agreed that this-was a legitimate demand but felt that there were limits. He strongly believed that the representation of students in the University Senate or University Councils which consist mainly of government appointees charged with the formulation of policy for the administration of the campuses. could not be a legitimate request. (Abdulkadir: 1987) He however supported student representation on all other committees. 1. D. Ojo however disagreed with the views of Prof. Abdulkadir on this issue. He believed that efforts should be made to reform the University system so that all the bodies and units in the I 'niversity are full) represented and that there should not be u feeling of being left out. He strongly felt that students should be allowed representation on Council and Senate but when sensitive issues like examinations that affect students directly are being considered, they should be asked to withdraw temporarily until such issues are disposed of (Ojo: 1985; 94). The same view holds for the non-teaching staff that they too should be allowed representation on all boards and Committees of Council and senate where their interests are affected (Ojo: 1981;51). But to insist on having congregation split its representatives on council by conceding one out of the two representatives to the non-teaching may be difficult now that there seems an intense rivalry between the teaching and the non teaching staff. In fact. Prof. Babs Fafunwa once said that some senate members are of the view that the entire administrative function of a University should be brought under Senate control, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 398 JD.Oja "since, they argue that a University is an academic enterprise and not a trading or manufacturing company where top management (administration) reign supreme" (Babs Fafunwa: 1971 :216). . One is not surprised at the views of Prof. Babs Fafunwa. He was here expressing his views as a thorough bred academic. Some years later, when he became the Federal Minister for Education, most of his decisions were in favour of the academics, the sector he very much believes in and loves. Dr. Kenneth Mellanby, the first principal of the then University College, Ibadan had this to say on University administration, that "Administration is inevitable. It should try to be efficient; it should make sure it is unobtrusive. Its job should be to see that the academic work of the college goes on as smoothly as possible, remembering that the College cannot live without the academic members however much their habits may irritate the administration, whereas the academic staff at least imagine they will get on quite well with no administrators." (Mellanby: 1958: 130)' In similar vein, Charles Carter, one time Lancaster's Vice-Chancellor, in his comments on this issue says that "Many academic persons .... believe themselves to be wiser. more intelligent and more honest than their colleagues" (Carter: 1957:257-258). While one agrees that the universities are m6re oJ an academic enterprise, yet one cannot ignore the feelings of the other members in the group who help to make the venture a realistic one. Having seen both sides of the divide, I can bodly say that such a group deserves some say in the system. From the above discussion, it is clear that the idea of a democratic governance is difficult to apply in its totality in the Universities and that this should be applied with much greater care if it should be applied at all (Moodie and Eustace: 1974:224). May be, it is better to describe the university system rather as an oligarchy i.e. rule by a few who are mostly professors which shows that a few people are more politically active and hence more influential than the others and that such as identifiable small group exercises despotic power over a mass of people (Moodie and Eustace: 1974 : 224) This may be unfair to categorise all the professors as despots since we know that many of them assume their positions by virtue of their administrative positions ahd they do not exercise absolute powers but act after wide consultations. Is it not safe to say then that what applies in the universities is the principle of "meritocracy" Concise Oxford Dictionary; has defined "meritocracy" as government by persons selected competitively according to merit (2) a group of persons selected in this way" while Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines it as "a social system which gives the highest positions to those with the most ability (2) the people who rule in such a system" Even the two Dictionary definitions are defective for whatever merit you may have, if you do not belong to the class that rules, your views would only be taken as advisory. .Having said this, universities are nor as segmented as all that. Once a person can propagate his views convincingly, no matter the class he belongs to, people would consider them. As Eustace and Moodie (Eustace and Moodie, 1974:219) emphasize "To draw no governmental distinction between teacher and taught, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 399 between intellectual and non academic worker or between student and employees is, in turn, to assume either that the purposes of an organisation are irrelevant to its form or that the professional authority hitherto claimed by and for academics is irrelevant to the decision making process". The universities are not closed shops. They are open to new ideas and embrace new thinking. There have been members of the non-teaching staff like Mr. Olufemi Eperokun then of the University of Ibadan and Mr. Adegboro also of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, who had at one time or the other become members of their councils through being members of Congregation. This shows that dynamic and trusted members of the non teaching staff can still win election to Council without the imposition of a quota system. In the above cases, the people elected won their seats purely by merit. Their position as non-teaching members was not allowed to frustrate their ambitions. But democracy of one man one vote by adults cannot work in the Ivory Tower. What operates is meritocracy. Prof. 1. F. Ade Ajayi, in his First Foundation Day Lecture at the then Obafemi Awolowo University now University of Ado Ekiti on 25 March, 1983 said that for a good university to emerge "The principal officers of the University must be carefully selected, as people capable of understanding that sense of destiny and offering necessary leadership to fulfill it." (Ajayi. 1983:11 ) Unless the leadership forges this sense of unity through tact, understanding and diplomacy, where necessary, universities may be difficult to run. A situation where the non-teaching staff are regarded as under dogs may not be in the best interest of the University system. Prof. Ajayi in his concluding remarks in his lecture on "The University as an integrated system." quoted the prayer of an Indian Philosopher. Rabindranath Tagore (Ajayi in Ojo and Fadupin: 1983:22). "Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; Where knowledge is free: Where the world has not beeh broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls; Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection, Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit: Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever widening thought and action .. Into that haven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake!!" All I have said so far comes to this that there is no way we can talk of democracy within the larger society without examining what democracy is within the Ivory Tower. That our failure to inculcate decent behaviour into our students has led them to become thugs in the Houses of Parliament where free for all fight is the norm over minor disagreements. Let us inwards and reform our products. Let us deliver to the Nigerian society cultured and well behaved products that can redeem our battered image. Let the Government and the people embark on those UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 400 J.D.Oja programmes that make for a viable democratic system. Let me end this inaugural with what Cassius told Brutus in William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of Julius Caesar that "the fault. dear Brutus is not in our stars. But in ourselves, that are underlings. " REFERENCES Ake Claude, Is Africa Democratizing? Lagos. Malthouse Press Ltd. 1996. Ajayi 1. F. Ade, First Foundation Day Lecture, Obafemi Awolowo University. 1983. Ajayi , J. F. Ade and Yemi Akinseye-George, Kayode Eso: The Making of a Judge; Ibadan Spectrum Books, Forthcoming, 200l. Ambedkar, Dr. Indian Constituent Assembly Debates 1948 (CADX2). Babalola, Chief Afe, Leadership and Good Governance.Jbadan, The Social Sciences and Reproductive Health Research Network, (SSRHN) 2000. Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9"" (ed.) Della Thompson (ed.) Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995. de Smith, S. A. The New Commonwealth And Its Constitutions, London Stevens and Sons, 1964. Emerson, Rupert, From Empire to Nation. 1962. Fafunwa,Babs. A History of Nigerian Higher Education Lagos. Macmillan, 1971 Harvey, William Barnett Freedom; University and the Law: The Legal Status of Academic Freedom in the University of Black Africa, Lagos, University of Lagos Press, 1977. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Chief editor for Paul Procter Harlow, Essex, England, Longman, 1985. Mellanby, Kenneth, The Birth of Nigerian's University London, Metheun & Co. Ltd., 1958. Ojo J. D. Law and Universily Administration in Nigeria._Lagos. Malthouse Press Ltd., 1990. Ojo J. D. Students' Unrest in Nigerian Universities: A Legal and Historical Appraoch. lbadan. Owerri Kaduna, Lagos, Spectrum Books Ltd., and Ibadan, Ifra 1995. Ojo J.D, The Development of the Executive under the Nigerian Constitutions 1960-81, lbadan. University Press Ltd., 1985. Pylee, M. V.. Constitutional Government in India, 2nd (ed.) 1965. Shakespeare, William, The Tragedy qf Julius Caesar. Wilson, John Dover, (ed), The Syndics of the Cambridge Press, 1949. Wheare., K. C. Federal Government 4th ed., London, New York, Toronto, Oxford, University Press 1963. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS Ajayi , 1. F. Ade, "The University as an Integrated System. "Senior Staff Association Industrial Relations Lectures 1982-83 series, (ed.) J. D. Ojo and J.B. Fadupin, Ibadan. Senior Staff Association, University of Ibadan, 1983 at pp 1-22. Ojo J. D. "Division of Powers Among Congregation, Senate and Council of Universities" Essays on Law and the University Administration in Nigeria (eds.) M.V. Ogungbe and Olusesan Oliyide, Ago-Iwoye, Faculty of Law, Ogun State University, 1999 at pp 15-30. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Democracy within and outside the Ivory Tower 40 I JOURNALS Abdulkadir. Idiris A. "National Universities Crisis," A paper presented at the Postgraduate Institute of Medical Research and Training, Monthly Guest Lecture, College of Medicine, University of lbadan, Ibadan, Sept 16, 1967. Carter. Charles, "A Review of Sir Aitken's Administration of a University." University Quarterly. March 1967 at pp. 257-8. Ojo 1. D., "A Critical Analysis of the Criminal Aspects of April 1978 Students' demonstration in the Nigerian Universities" Viertel Jahren Berichte No. 80, 1980 at pp. 139-148. Ojo, 1. D. "A Critical Examination of the 1989 Local Government Decree; The Amendments and their impact on National Development" lbadan University Law Essays._Faculty of Law, University of Ibadan, 1998 at pp. 1-42. Ojo 1. D., "The Changing Role of Traditional Rulers in the Nigerian Politican Set-up" Indian Journal of Political Science vol. 37, No.4, 1976 at pp 11-26. Ojo1. D. "The Doctrine of Separation of Powers," The Bureaucrat 1977 at pp 10-14. Ojo, 1. D. "Freedom of the Press in Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis", Journal of the Indian Law Institute, 18 JILl, October to December, 1976 at pp. 529-550. Ojo 1. D. "The Constitutional Aspect of April 1978 Students Demonstration in the Nigerian Universities," Phillippine Political Science Journal; No. 12, December- 1980 at pp.8 to 21. • Ojo, J. D. "The Future of Parliamentary Democracy in Nigeria." Viertel Jahres Berichte; No. 60, June 1975 atpp 167-173. Ojo, 1. D. "Issues Promoting Contlct in Societies," Conflict Management Techniques and Alternative Strategies to Conflict Resolution; J. Ademola Yakubu (ed.) Demyaxs Nigeria Ltd .. 2000 at pp. 58 - 65. Ojo, 1. D. "Trade and Commerce within the Nigerian Constitution," Indian Socio-Legal Journal. Vol. VII Nos. 1 & 2, 1983 at pp. 10-27. Ojo,1. D. "The Police Under the Nigerian Constitution," African Notes vol xvn No. I and 2 at pp. 13 -31. CASES Alhaji Abdulkadir Balarable Musta V. Autex Hamzq & ors._(1982)NCLR229. Alhaii Abdulkadir Balarabe Musa V. Auta Hamza & ors.JI982) 3NCNNL 439. Shugaba V. Minister for Internal Affairs (1981) INCLR 25 & (1981) 2NCLR 459. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20 LEARNING IN TONGUES, EXPRESSING MYSTERIES: LESSONS FROM NIGERIAN LANGUAGE EDUCATION PRACTICES Ayorinde Dada Department of Teacher Education Introduction It is my honour and privilege to stand before this august arid very distinguished audience to deliver the 7th in the series of Inaugural Lectures for this academic year. I am doing this on behalf of the Faculty of Education, and the Institute of Education. I am from the department of Teacher Education, a singularly cosmopolitan department with its tentacles spreading to virtually all departments in the Faculties of Education, Arts, Science, the Social Sciences and very soon Agriculture. I belong to the language unit of that department, again a central unit in the whole University, because everyone needs language in order to learn, teach and conduct research. My journey into language education started in 1966 when I was admitted for a 3-year B.A. History degree course and on getting to the University I joined the French beginners class out of curiosity. My performance in French at the end of the session earned me a bonus trip to the Universite de Dakar for a 5-week cours d'ete. There were fifteen of us thus honoured out of a class of about 200 students. Coming back for the following session, I registered fully as French major - although it was to cost me one extra year abroad. I however passed out with 2nd class (Hons.) Upper Division in French. After teaching for 3 years I resigned my appointment to go to France for my Postgraduate studies. There I had a Diploma in language Education, my Masters and my Doctorat de 3e cycle (Ph.D). In 1982, I was in the Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania. There I did courses in The Teaching of English to Speakers of other Languages (TESOL). Educational Linguistics and Ethnography of speaking. I also taught a course on Language and Education in Africa. The biblical connotation of the title of my inaugural lecture is deliberate since it is inspired by the communication theory as expounded by St. Paul the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 404 Ayorinde Dada Apostle in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, Chapter 14 verses 2, 9, 10 and 11 as quoted below. 2. For anyone who speaks in a tongue does not speak to men, but to God. Indeed, no one understands him, he utters mysteries with his spirit. 9. So it is with you. Unless you speak intelligible words with your tongue, how will anyone know what you are saying? You will just be speaking into the air. 10. Undoubtedly, there are all sorts of languages in the world, yet none of them is without meaning. 11. Yet if I do not grasp the meaning of what someone is saying, I am a foreigner to the speaker and he is a foreigner to me. (Holy Bible: NIV) The principles enunciated above are true of any communicative event. The message that goes from the sender (encoder) to the receiver (decoder) must be put in a code (language) that is mutually intelligible to both interlocutors. Otherwise communication will be ineffective. In our day-to-day interactions as human beings we need this mutual intelligibility to get along meaningfully with one another. More importantly, however it is in the business of education that we need this effective communication most. The teacher has to impart knowledge in a manner that can easily help the learner to learn. In the same way the learner has to express himself in such a way as to provide an accurate feedback to help his growth. Good education depends on effective teaching and learning which in turn depend on the ability of both teacher and learner to share a common code. Krashen (1972) talks about the teacher providing a comprehensible input from which the learner obtains "a meaningful intake." During the military rule, it was widely reported once that a state Governor was asked: "What mineral resources do you have in your state?" To which he answered: We have many mineral resources like Coke, Fanta, Seven Up and Africola." Obviously there was a breakdown of communication in that situation because both interlocutors did not share the same meaning for the code "mineral resource". In the same way, when we were students in a French class, a series of questions accompanied some pictures and we were asked to read the questions and provide answers. This was what one of us produced. Qu 'est 'ce qu 'if y a dedans? II y a poissons beaucoup It took the lecturer sometime to realize that the student was trying to speak French. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 405 TheNigerian Language Situation Nigeria has been credited with having between 400-513 languages, depending on whether we use the classification by Greenberg-Hoffinan (1963) or that of the Ethnologue. In any case, the most conservative figure is 250 (Bamgbose 1976). Languages in these classifications imply mutually unintelligible linguistic systems and would not include what we popularly call dialects. These languages are unevenly distributed across the country and are classified either as major or minor following criteria which include numerical strength of their speakers and what socio-linguists would call the entrenchment of each language (Fig. 1). (Arabic language of religion) English: Official, administrative, instructional Pidgin: Contact Language Three Major Languages/national language (each with over IOm speakers) 10 inter-regional languages (more than Im speakers p Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba Edo, Efik, Fula, Hausa, Igbo, Ijo, Kanuri, Nupe, Tiv, Yoruba 51 language for school administration I J 8 Nigerian Languages codi fied 400-513 indigenous languages Fig. 1: Languages spoken in Nigeria Source: CM.B. Brann (1976) Each of the languages that exist in Nigeria is situated in a socio-linguistic context in which it is used as mother tongue and has a considerable number of monolingual users. Only Arabic and English are exolects (i.e. non-natives of Nigeria) although there is a local variety of Arabic spoken by the Shuwas as mother tongue. In addition to these, many of the indigenous languages (i.e. the endolects) are spoken as second languages by sizeable proportions of the other minority language groups. These would include the three major languages - Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, as well as others that are used inter-regionally such as Kanuri, Fula, Nupe etc. In Plateau State, for instance, there are a number of minority language groups that use Hausa as second language. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 406 Ayorinde Dada It is in addition to these endolects that English is spoken by those who have gone through the education system sufficiently to use it for communication, while Arabic is used extensively for religious purposes in the Muslim areas of the country. Language in the Education Policy \ Historically, the language question has often come up in discussions of the educational system in Nigeria and Africa during the colonial times. For instance, the Phelps-Stokes report (1922); the Policy statement by the British Government Advisory Committee for Education in Africa titled "The Place of Vernacular in African Education" (1927); the colonial office's "Memorandum on Language in Africa (1943), UNESCO meeting of specialists' report (1951) and the UNESCO conference on the Use in Education of African Languages in relation to English (1952). Each of these reports extols the use of mother tongue for initial school learning before switching over to English as language of instruction. It is on these various considerations that the language aspect of the National Policy on Education was built. Major Provisions of the Present Policy The highlights of the language aspect of the National Policy on Education are as follows: (1) Use of mother tongue in the early childhood education. (2) Use of mother tongue or language of immediate community for initial primary education while English is taught as subject (3) Switch-over to English as language of instruction later while the mother tongue is taught as a subject. (4) The learning of other major Nigerian languages by students at the secondary school level (5) Training of teachers to handle the languages (6) The production of adequate learning materials A critique of this document was published in Dada (1985) where among others the following points were highlighted: • The question of the heavy linguistic load to be carried by learners • The problem of which Nigerian language to teach to which group • The problem of proficiency level to which learners can go in each language before it is either used as language of instruction or abandoned for another language as language of instruction. • The problem of providing specialist teachers to teach the languages • The attitude of each ethnic group to the learning of the languages of other groups A major conclusion from that paper (following a research report on the last point) was this: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 407 English language, which has been highly favoured by subjects in this study, although not so favoured by many of the educated Nigerians who are behind a lot of cultural and linguistic revival, may eventually remain with us for a longer time as official language, than we envisage - not because' it might gain more admirers, but because it is probably the least of all practicable linguistic evils. Language Education Practice . . . It is important to consider how the policy is executed in the school system. Three major patterns can be identified: 1. The Straight-for-English programme whereby right from the first day in school, English is used as language of instructiori and taught as a subject. This is contrary to the recommendation of the National Policy. Schools involved include all private fee-paying schools and schools in urban centers as well as· those in areas where there is no dominant Nigerian language spoken by the people e.g. Rivers StatelBayelsa, Delta and Plateau etc. . 2. Use of the mother tongue as language of instruction in the first years while English is taught as a subject followed bya switchover to English as a language of instruction while the mother tongue is taught as a subject. This is what obtains in the South-West and South East of Nigeria as well as areas of Hausa dominance in the North: Kano, Sokoto, Kaduna, Bauchi (Omojuwa 1977). 3. Use of language of wider communication (LWC) as language for initial education followed by switchover to English. This occurs in areas where minority groups exist side by side with a dominant group e.g. Hausa served as second language to some minority groups in the North. Also children of parents working away from their homes learn in a language of wider communication. Eventually, in all these situations, learners end up at one stage or: the other using English for classroom communication both in English lessons and in other subjects. By and large therefore, learners within the education system are brought up as bilinguals (trilingual or polyglots). However, the degree of competence in each language will differ from person to person from school to school, or from region to region, according to the degree of exposure of learners to each language whether within the' school or within the community outside the school. The type of bilingualism developed is generally the compound bilingualism rather than the coordinate one. A compound bilingual is one who learns a target language through the medium of a source language and expresses himselfthrough the process of mental translation. On the other hand, a coordinate bilingual learns his two languages separately and keeps them apart in use. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 408 AyorindeDada My Major Research Interest Because of my experience' in two exolects, my research has been in two directions: (a) Language Learning (as a subject) (b) Language oflearning as a tool of communication) Language learning research in Nigeria has focused mainly on second language learning and/or the learning of other languages - apart from the mother tongue orfirst language. My research in this area has been in the aspect of the learning of French at ~th the prim~ and the secondary school levels. (Dada 1976. 1979, 1980, 1985, 1991, 1995). These studies have been able to isolate certain important variables pertinent to the effective learning of the language. In my Thesis titled;L' apprentissage du francais au Nigeria relation entre motivation, contexte Pedagogique et performance, it was discovered that both motivation and the learning environment are strongly related to achievement whereas attitude - especially positive attitude - mayor may not affect achievement. Other variables isolated in the other st..udies include: (a) . The necessity to provide good models in the areas of pronunciation, grammar; reading, writing styles etc.; (b) Exposure to the target language - The provision of what Krashen (1972) calls comprehensible input; "(c) Home processes i.e. the encouragement received from home by the' learner; (d) Aptitude: The "Knack" for language learning; (e) Peer encouragement. In the next phase of this lecture, I am going to present some findings that relate to some of the above variables mostly in a descriptive form in the areas of the use of English as language of instruction by teachers and as language of self expression" by learners. Hitherto a lot has been said on the poor performance of learners in the English language - which is their ultimate language of learning. It is the language in which they eventually receive lectures, do all their reading, express themselves orally in both the intellectual and social domains and do all their writings: formal and informal. Studies such as Ayodele's (1988, 2001), and WAEC yearly reports all show us that all is not well considering the very high number of failing candidates in English. My studies on the other hand tried to look at the nature of the learners' performance and the kind of input that the teacher gives that might have contributed to that kind of performance. The Input of Teachers Language(s) of Instruction .Between 1985 and 1990, I led a group of scholars to study classroom interaction in terms of the input of each participant to the communicative events. It was an ethrographic study whose center of interest was the language(s) of instruction UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 409 used by the teacher and the linguistic responses of learners. In Dada and Ogunyemi's (1988) study, the classes involved were primaries 4-6 where learners were supposed to be instructed in English according to the NaticSnal Policy on Education. In addition to recording the communicative events in the classroom we were there as participant observers and were able to interact with both teachers and learners. The major observation was that there were three languages used for instruction in every lesson, although the proportion varies from subject to subject and from class to class. The following graphs illustrate the point (see Figs.2a-c). r-- -, PRIMARY FOUR ENG. MATHS SOCIAL ELEM HEALTH SCIENCES SCIENCE EDU Fig. 2a. Primary four PRIMARY FIVE 8~------------------------------_, 7 C:3) 65 Z~ 4 ~ 3 fIfli. 21 ENG' MATHS SOCIAL ELEM HEALTH SCIENCES SCIENCE EDU Figure 2b: Primary five PRIMARY SIX 9~-------------------------------, 8 (I) 7 W sC) 65 Z 4 ~0:: 23 ~ 1 ENG. MATHS SOCIAL ELEM HEALTH SCIENCES SCIENCE EDU Figure 2c~Primary six UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 JO Ayorinde Dada These findings are supported by another study by Dada (1985) where teachers estimated the proportion of the languages used in various situations - both formal classroom teaching and the non-formal interaction with pupils and other teachers in out-of-class contexts. The following graph illustrates this interaction (see Fig. 3). 100 English 80 . - .. "CO 0" 60 ~.-.c s~ o - IcCo 40 ..,. -, 20 .. -,: .... Yoruba 0 5 10 15 20 25 . Activities Figure 3: Use or English and Yoruba in Primary Classes 4-6 Again this graph was supported by participant observation of classroom and out of class interaction as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Observation Ratio Percentage Lesson English Yoruba English Yoruba English Class III 7 4 63.6 36.4 Social Studies Class III 11 17 39.3 60.7 Oral English Class IV 12 5 70.6 29.4 Social Studies Class IV 5 8 38.5 61.5 Oral English Class V . 8 3 72.7 27.3 Social Studies Class V 4 7 36.4 63.6 Oral English Class VI 6 I 85.7 14.3 Social Studies Class VI 3 i4 42.9 57.1 From the examples shown, it is obvious that learners at this stage are learning in three codes namely English, Yoruba and the mixed code following the pattern of code-switching from English to Yoruba and back as well as mixing codes. One or two examples will be sufficient to illustrate how this is done: Another source of heat is one seed, omo ayo, ta /0 tun mo agbaarin? You know matches too is a source of heat. E 0 mention e o. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessonsfrorn Nigerian Language Education Practices 411 TEACHER: What is the work of carbohydrate. Kini ise carbohydrates? PUPIL I: They give energy TEACHER: What is the function of vitamins? PULPIL II: It deforms our body TEACHER: Se e ri omo yi pelu ki 0 ma se nkan lodilodi. Molara se vitamins maun deform ara wa ni? (meaning look at Molara behaving abnormally: Do vitamins deform our body?). Use of Substandard Variety of the English Language The errors made by some teachers are often so many that their own variety constitutes another language altogether. Again let us look at a few examples. Ogunyemi 1990 highlights the following errors. TEACHER: How many of you watch last night kini, em play, em ball TEACHER: You these children what are you doing at home? Anu e se mi o. You must not late tomorrow. TEACHER: Sadiq you haven't finish? Finish up in time we want to do another work. TEACHER: Some people when jhey got home in the afternoon, they will throw the bag for one side until tomorrow morning. TEACHER: You too have a sources of heat, your two hands is a sources of heat. All we are here demonstrating so far is that pupils do learn in tongues. In this case they learn in acceptable form of English, they learn in substandard English, they learn in Yoruba and mixed languages all at the same time. Pupils' Responses When learners are assailed on all fronts by a myriad of languages in the course of their learning, one is naturally tempted to ask, what is their response to this challenge? Naturally, just like the new Police slogan in Nigeria, they try hard to return "fire for fire"! The pupils' self-expressions exhibit all the features of the input they receive and sometimes in a worse form, if not in the same proportion. First of all, because the classrooms are essentially teacher-dominated pupils often act as the silent majority as illustrated by the ratio of Teacher talk to pupil talk presented below From Table 2, it is obvious that the teachers have usurped every right of the learner to self- expression. In the words of Stevick (1976), the teachers have occupied the learner space. They do not allow the learners to learn properly. Stevick has recommended that teachers should teach and teach and get out of the way for learners to learn. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 412 Ayorinde Dada Table 2: The ratio of teacher-talk to pupil-talk in primaries 4-6 TEACHER PUPIL PRIMARY 4 ENGLISH 9 2 MATHEMATI CS 8 1 SOCIAL STUDIES 9 1 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 4 1 HEALTH EDUCATION 7 1 PRIMARY 5 ENGLISH 9 2 MATHEMA TI CS 9 1 SOCIAL STUDIES 5 1 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 8 1 HEALTH EDUCATION 1 PRIMARY 6 ENGLISH 10 3 MATHEMA TI CS 6 1 SOCIAL STUDIES 4 1 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 9 2 HEALTH EDUCATION 7 1 Secondly, when learners have a chance to speak they also prefer to speak in tongues using as many codes as they have acquired from their teachers. However, their speeches are Yoruba-dominated. Examples: TEACHER: Awawu, do you know what Milton is? PUPIL (I): Ibiti nwon ti nse apejo ni ma (It's a meeting place) PUPIL II: Olomi ni ninu igo 10 ma nwa (It is a liquid and it is normally bottled) TEACHER: Ki ise mitini ni 0 ohun ti won ma nbu somi ni o. TEACHER: Do you know what bridge is ? PUPIL: Afara ni ma ti won fi nkoja lori odo (It's a bridge that is built over streams for passage). TEACHER: What kind of fish do you like best? PUPIL: Alaran (Makerel) TEACHER: Why do you like that particular fish? PUPIL: (laughs) Nitoripe oma ndun ma a si tun mafi nmu gaari ni ile. (It is palatable and we also use it in taking gaari at home) Their responses in English are usually full of errors. • I'm not come to school when you have do it. I'm not do the English. • My school have a good playing ground UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 413 • Electricity bulb is a sources of heat. • I saw many childrens in the zoo A glimpse at their written work reveals also the same problems. Here is a student's rendering of a dictated passage: You poor animar. I ill satingla and I gave you som teng to it side we were u was Very kind. And se gn jenrop and orepe orne in The teacher's version is this: "You poor animal, I'll certainly take you home and give you something to eat" said the hare, who was a very kind animal. And he picked ijenicher up and hurried home with him. This kind of communication is a common occurrence at the primary school level. It even easily extends to the secondary school where many learners find it difficult to express themselves in English. There was an occasion when pupils of an adjacent class were disturbing a teacher on teaching practice. I had to go there and I asked them to speak English. The effect was that they all became. quiet. It was a JSS II class. I was so thrilled by this result that any time I found pupils making a noise in the classroom, all I needed to say was "Speak English" and there would be peace. If this kind of language deficiency characterizes the foundation level of education, then one is not surprised when at regular intervals, one comes across a written text as the following example coming from a university student (Dada 2002): • We need to know what English is English is a language speak by wite men which speak in London area protich, spain, etc. English is original collonice by britich which means London area is a second language to any African pupils because is their second aquare of language • Environment problem can cause problem in a language learning to not develop the learner intelligent pycologically problem. He we behave like a villager because illiteracy we never be illtrate. This example is definitely the height of expressing mysteries after so many years of trying to learn in tongues. Observations A few observations are necessary concerning the pattern of language use/function in the classroom (Fig. 4). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 414 Ayorinde Dada REFERENTIAL POETIC EMOTIVE CONNATIVE PHATIC METALINGUAL Fig. 4: A model for functions of language. Source: Roman Jacobson (1960) There seems to be a functional distribution of the languages in use. What Roman Jacobson calls the referential function of language is usually performed in English. The Metalingual (ie. the glossing) function is presented in either Yoruba or a mixed language. The phatic and connative functions are usually performed in Yoruba. This is the aspect of maintaining contact with the addressees or affecting their bahaviour (rebuking, directing, instructing etc). The emotive function which reflects the speaker's attitude to the subject matter is usually done in Yoruba. Such a pattern is not very clear in language use by learners. This may be due to their lower competence in the English language. However, there is usually an attempt to answer the question asked in English in .that language. This pattern sort of lays the foundation for what sociolinguists call diglossia (or triglossia) namely the functional distribution of languages in society. Secondly, in the analysis of varieties of English in societies around the world, Richards (1982) identified certain varieties classified according to their distance from the standard variety. He talks of the Acrolect (the standard), the messolect and the basilect (the most distant). It is probably during the process of schooling that people acquire their own "lect" although the possible influence of societal language on individuals cannot be ruled out. Nemser talks of approximative systems in the process of language development between the source language and the target language and observes that fossilization can take place at any point when no new input is forthcoming from the target language and the language learner can satisfy his communicative needs without necessarily acquiring the acrolect. This is most likely responsible for the very many types of English that abound within Nigeria and in the English speaking communities around the world. In fact, John Pride (1982) talks about "New Englishes". Thirdly, the extent to which each language is learnt or acquired is much limited by the way English and the mother tongue are used together in the same situation whereas in some other education systems like in the United States of America (an equally multilingual nation like Nigeria) the languages are kept apart and each is learnt at a considerable depth. In the fourth place pupils' learning cannot but be affected if they cannot handle each language as an efficient tool of communication. Obemeata (1991) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 415 has tried to demonstrate this point. Furthermore it is a known fact that in our public primary schools each teacher handles all subjects whether he or she specializes or not. It is very important that in language teaching, specialist teachers be employed. In a survey on language teachers at the primary school (who are not specialists in language education) by Dada (1979), it was discovered that most of them were not conversant with most of the modern ideas and concepts on language teaching as illustrated in the table below. The habit of engaging non-specialist teachers in teaching English has even crept into the secondary schools and the inputs that learners receive from teachers in English as well as in other languages leave much to be desired. The bilingual education offered by the country needs to be re-examined and streamlined. A language education that leaves its products inefficient in any of the two languages being used is not good enough. Experimentally, it has been proved that learners perform very well in both languages when these languages are properly separated and each is learnt in a different context and long enough. The Ife project is a case in point (Afolayan 1976). The products of that experiment performed significantly better than their control group counterparts in both English language and the subjects taught in the mother tongue. In that project, English was handled by specialists while the other subjects wer~ taught entirely in Yoruba. Table 3: Mean Attitude Score on Concepts in TESL Quest. Item Regular Non- Teachers Teachers Participants participants with English with other at language at language as best subject courses courses subiect interest (55) (254) (121 ) (188) 1. 2.05 1.79 1.78 2.06 2. 3.74 3.14 3.52 3.36 3. 3.02 1.36 2.16 2.22 4. 1.38 0.70 1.07 1.02 5. 3.10 3.06 3.37 2.79 6. 2.33 1.21 2.29 2.25 7. 2.34 0.88 2.05 0.17 8. 1.22 1.1 1.14 1.05 9. 3.12 2.4 3.06 2.46 10. 2.10 1.78 3.32 1.56 11. 1.26 1.08 1.12 1.22 12. 2.22 2.16 2.31 2.06 13. 2.14 2.11 2.18 2.08 14. 3.12 0.66 1.81 1.97 15. 3.08 1.12 2.60 1.60 16. 3.09 3.11 3.14 3.06 17. 2.05 1.53 2.16 1.42 18. 1.66 0.62 1.19 1.09 19. 1.32 1.16 1.26 1.22 20. 2.05 1.95 2.21 1.79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 416 Ayorinde Dada The teaching/learning situation needs to be improved. Not enough is done by pupils in the classroom in form of practice activities. As I said earlier, teachers teach so much that they prevent their pupils from learning. Hyman sees the teaching/learning situation as one that brings together three major elements (Fig. 5). Teacher Leamer Material Fig. 5: Elements in a TeachinglLeaming Situation. A good teacher is one who is able to organize well the interaction between learners and the learning materials. Finally, Nigeria needs to pay more attention to language planning as part of social planning in order to come up with an efficient language policy of which language in education will be an integral part. This will involve a lot of socio-linguistic research. In ?- conference presentation (Dada 1985), I made a proposal for language planning and implementation activities as follows (Fig. 6): I Information from Socio- I I linguistic Research I Formulation of National Language Policy I ~Social Planning Norm) Code) Selection I Standardization Graphization ••• I Implementation 1 I I.EVALUATION I I~ Fig. 6: Proposed Scheme of Language Planning and Implementation Activities UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language Education Practices 417 I came up with the following conclusions: From the above analysis, it will be seen that language planning in any society (especially one like Nigeria in which hundreds of languages are involved) is probably more complex than any other issue, given the degree of emotion that usually accompanies decisions in this area. Language allocation for instance is not just a question of compartmentalizing languages into national languages, languages of wider communication, official languages, etc. It involves an intricate network of relationships. This fact underscores the need for a very careful consideration of the issues involved and the adoption of a long term approach to planning. We definitely need a lot of socio-linguistic information to start with - information that can be obtained through surveys, experimentation, consultations, etc. This requires government-sponsored team research and an adequate information, analysis, storage and retrieval system. Next, there is need to establish a global frame of reference within which individual issues in language planning will be discussed, because a comprehensive coherent language policy should be the ultimate aim - one that involves the whole society rather than deal with only certain aspects or isolated issues. In terms of participation, all the various sectors of the society should be involved: Government and its agencies, the media houses, various sectors of the economy, specialists and researchers and the people at large. Ritchel and Webber (1972) have described language problems as "wicked problems" that require solutions that progressively tend towards acceptability, workability and efficiency both internationally and intra-nationally. Language policy cannot be formulated in a hurry; it is not a once and for all exercise and cannot be undertaken in a sporadic fashion. We need time, we need information and we need massive participation. Recommendations The recommendations from this presentation therefore are the following: (1) Our bilingual education programme needs to be revisited. There is need to encourage learners to acquire a sound foundation in English before using it as a language of instruction. This means studying it as a subject for a longer period possibly throughout the primary level. In addition, teachers of English at this learning stage should be specialists in the teaching of English. By the same token, the Nigerian language used as language of instruction should be well mastered. If the foundation is well laid, then remedial courses at the secondary and university levels will yield better results. (2) More work may need to be done in the area of codification of the Nigerian languages, in order to avoid the code-mixing and/or code switching that is characteristic of the speeches of teachers and learners. The National Language Centre can harness available resources and coordinate research efforts in this direction. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 418 Ayorinde Dada (3) Development of language learning materials needs to be intensified. The quality of such materials should be very high, and should be available in abundance so that learners and teachers can have their choices according to needs and interests. (4) There is the need to monitor what goes on in schools especially at the primary level. One of the greatest defects in the National curriculum implementation is the lack of adequate monitoring. We have a formidable crop of specialists in the Faculty of Education in general and the department of Teacher Education in particular to assist Government in putting in place a monitoring outfit. (5) The University of Ibadan needs to organize its calendar in such a way that education students will have adequate time for their professional practice. The way the programme is organized at present whereby students go to their schools only during their period of teaching and rush back to attend lectures, or in case of clashes, miss either their practice or their lectures is very unsatisfactory. We need our full six to eight weeks of intensive practice, free from university lectures in other faculties. This will help us to produce teachers and not cheaters. (6) It is significant that the University Senate is getting more worried about the quality of language use by students and the apparent ineffectiveness of the GES 101 - Use of English - in providing the required remedy. If the foundation at the primary school be destroyed, what can the righteous people of the Ivory Tower do? Greater effort needs to be directed at the teacher training level in the grade II Colleges and Colleges of Education. Also, an interview system may be necessary to determine the genuiness of candidates' qualification at the entry level in order to provide a more teachable set of university undergraduates. (7) At the national level, greater attention should be paid to language planning and policy in order to render the nation more united and more efficient. Conclusion In concluding this lecture, I need to pay special tribute to the pupils of the public primary schools, for their fortitude in enduring attacks from all and sundry - the teachers, the languages, the poor learning materials and condition, the Government etc. They are the veritable P.LV's - the Poor Innocent Victims. In paying this tribute, I want to quote W'Elsschot (1961): II parle deja bien et il faut que ce soil un enfant courageux, sinon il serait passe depuis longtemps a la greve du silence, plutot que d'etre plonge chaque fois dans un autre bain. Car il UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Lessons from Nigerian Language E~ucation Practices 419 doit attaquer tour a tour Iefancais, Ie flamand, l'allemand et Ie polonais et je ne comprends pas comment if parvient ales maintenir separes et a empecher que tout ne se Jonde en une sorte de jazz, ou personne ne voit plus clair. (He already speaks very well and he must be a courageous child, otherwise he would have gone on silence strike a long time ago, rather than allow himself to be immersed each time in a new pool. For he has to attack in turns French, Flemish, German and Polish and I am yet to understand how he succeeds in keeping them apart and preventing them from getting mixed up in a kind of jazz that leaves everyone confused). REFERENCES Afolayan A. (1976). "The Six-Year Project". Mother Tongue Education: The West African Experience. Bamigbose A. (Ed.) UNESCO, London: Hodder and Stroughton. Brann, C.M.B. (1976). Languages for Education in Nigeria (mimeo). Institute of Education, Ibadan. Dada, A. (1976) L'apprentissage du francais an Nigeria: Relation entre motivation kontexte pe'dagogique et performance. Unpublished Thesis. Bordeaux, Universite' de Bordeaux. _--:=:-- (1985) "The National Language Policy Issue in Nigeria: "The Way Ahead." Conference Paper. International Congress of African Studies: Institute of African Studies, University ofIbadan. December, 16-21 1985. _~--=-=(l986). Language Preference among School Teachers in Bilingual Setting. In Unoh, S.O. (Ed.) Use of English in Communication. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 222-232. Dada, A. and Ogunyemi, O.A. (1988). Education at the Crossroads: Bilingualism at the Primary School in Nigeria. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics. University of Pennsylvania. Pp. 93-103. Elsschot, W (1961). De Leewintemmer in Verzamelde. Amsterdam, 1. Federal Ministry of Education. (1977,1981) National Policy on Education. Jacobson, R (1960). Linguistics and Politics in Style and Language Editor Thomas Sebeoh: MJT Press Omojuwa, RA. (1977). Problems of Language Planning for Bilingual Education at the Primary Level: The Case of Nigerian's Northern States. Language in Education in Nigeria, 1, pp.39-46. Phelps-Strokes (1922). Education in Africa. Phelps-Stroke Fund. Pride J. (ed). (1982) New English Rowdy Massachusetts. Newbury Publishers Inc. Rittel H.W.J and H.M., Webber (1973) "Dilemmas in General Theory of Planning". Policy Science 4: 155-169. Stevicle E. W. (1976). Memory, Meaning and Method Rowley, Massachusetts: Newsbury House Publishers. Unesco (1953). The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education. Monograph on Fundamental Education VII, Paris. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 21 RESTRUCTURING NIGERIA'S EQUINE AND RUMINANT LIVESTOCK FOR SUSTAINABLE POLO, FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION Lanrewaju A. Oladosu Department of Veterinary Medicine Introduction On the theme of my lecture today, and when reflecting upon what is currently happening in the world, it is impossible to ignore the fact that livestock, food security and poverty level of mankind are crucial issues. The attendant social crises of insecurity of lives and property, instability, famine and reduction in livestock population, are far behind the extraordinary scientific and technological achievements. The world population has already grown to beyond six billion people, two thirds of who live in unbearable backwardness and poverty. In fifty years from now, as predicted by Cuban President - Fidel Castro - no fewer than three billion more people will share an already overbloated planet. In the case of Nigeria, by whatever measurement, poverty is still widespread today. At least 66% of our estimated 120 million people were living below the national poverty line in 1996; while it was 43 per cent in 1992. This means that two out of every three Nigerians, survive on less than a dollar (or W132) per day. The scenario today, is definitely more serious. Only those unlucky enough to find themselves in this category, would understand what poverty means. It is certain that in the face of acute hunger, only a few people would not trade their integrity .. The increasing demand for food in sub-Saharan Africa, by continuously increasing population, cannot be over emphasized. The majority of people live in rural areas where they cultivate land and own large numbers of domestic livestock. Agricultural systems, which increase production of livestock and food from animal origin, will provide more economic security (monetary income upon sale), food resources at times of need and increase the nutritional status for rural populations. In' smallholder f~rming systems, farmers generally raise crops and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 422 L.A. Oladosu livestock under traditional management. More than 250 million herds of large domestic livestock are kept by small holders and by pastoralists in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nigeria has over 70% of its people engaged in agricultural activities. Such people derive their livelihood from agricultural production either directly or indirectly. In terms of personal and national revenue (apart from oil revenue) crop and livestock production is by far the most important economic activity in Nigeria, especially in the rural areas. Yet, Nigeria continues to experience acute food shortage both in quantitative as well as qualitative terms, despite the great potentials, available for both crop and livestock productions. It is in recognition of this worsening food supply situation, that renewed efforts are being made by all stake holders including governments, research scientists and clinicians, to restructure and correct the situation through research ,and developmental programmes. Over the last 27 years as a veterinary clinician and researcher of University of Ibadan, I had the total commitment to large livestock research as a tool for alleviating poverty in Nigeria and to promote food security. To achieve this, I have identified and restructured the usual clinical services and research and emphasized on those relatively obscure but needed areas. These include: experimental surgery for rumen fistulation (Oladosu 1972, Oladosu and Akpokodje 1975, Oladosu 1992); Equine Medicine and Clinics (Oladosu, Falade and Akpokodje 1986, Oladosu 1988, Oladosu and Olufemi 1991, 1992. Others . include Abattoir studies on carcass condemnation due to cattle tuberculosis (Wintope and Oladosu 1999);· ovine and caprine tuberculosis (Odebiyi and Oladosu 1999). Similarly, we studied parasitic problems of polo horses (Olaide and Oladosu 1994; Ajayi and Oladosu 1999; Desbordes and Oladosu 1988). I have also investigated on human and animal drug evaluation (Oladosu 1978, Oladosu and Gamer 1991) and studies on poisonous plants that are hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic to man and animals (Oladosu and Case, 1979). The bulk of my research initiatives in Nigeria and in many other countries of the world visited, with other collaborators, focused on equines and ruminants livestock in several aspects. These are mainly on Equine babesiosis (Oladosu 1981; Oladosu and Dipeolu 1981a, b; Oladosu 1987a, 0; Oladosu and Olufemi 1990; Oladosu and Aliyu 1993. The cardinal objective is to bring new science to bear on the constraints of health and production of these domestic livestock, for overall benefit of man. The control of major emerging diseases, the surgical modification of ruminants for various nutritional experiments and new drug evaluations especially on the antihypertensive diuretic-piretanide which is now being marketed in Britain and USA. In the course of this lecture, slides and transparencies are used to provide a broad overview of the presentation. Experiences on clinical services and research on equines (horses and donkeys in particular) and ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) are emphasized. The relevance, the importance and appropriateness of animal traction using cattle, horses and donkeys as successfully practised in most developing nations are given adequate attention. This is because animal traction provides cheap, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo. Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 423 alternatives to tractors, for rural farmers, and youths, being mobilized for employment under poverty alleviation schemes of Governments. The socio- economic implication of animal traction is also fully discussed. Restructuring with Animal Traction (Plates 1 - 3) Nigeria's position as a developing country has been very precarious since the world-wide recession period of the 1970s. The situation was further exacerbated by the unfavourable terms of trade and drastic devaluation of the Nigerian currency (Agwuma 1985). The unfavourable monetary and fiscal situation made most imported agricultural equipment out of the reach of the average "Nigerian farmer. The price of farm machinery and implements skyrocketed, making it increasingly difficult for most small-scale farmers to either own equipment or get them on hire. The continued high rate of foreign exchange made it difficult to maintain or replace old farm equipment. Farm operations that hitherto depended on use of tractors and other modem farm equipment suffered serious set-back. The drop in local food production became a national problem that needs immediate attention and possible reversal (Babatunde 1993, World Bank 1985). Plate l(a): Showing the use of cattle for farm operations in Animal traction UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 424 L.A. Oladosu Plate 1(b): Cow traction in Northern Nigeria. Note the simple and cheap Resource for extensive farm work. Plate l(c): Showing animal traction and ploughing with ruminant livestock (Cattle Farm works using the Bunaji and Sokoto Gudali breeds). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 425 Plate l(d): Showing Bull traction experiences for animal farming in some African countries. Plate 2(a): Showing the use of horses for animal traction and rural Agricultural Development. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 426 L.A. Oladosu Plate 2(b): Showing Equine Livestock village traction with horses for farm work in place of mechanized farming with tractors. The need arose therefore to "re-look inwards" for appropriate intermediate technology for increased food production. Animal traction, a not so new but neglected technology (Starkey and Faye 1988), became a readily available local resource with great potentials for increased food production (UTA 1977, 1999). Plate 3(a): Showing the use of donkeys for ridge making and farming by young adults and children in some Northern States of Nigeria especially in Bauchi, Katsina, Kano and Sokoto UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 427 Plate 3(b): Showing the use of donkeys for planting by young adults and children in some Northern States of Nigeria especially in Bauchi, Katsina, Kano and Sokoto. The importance of Nigeria's equines and ruminants: horses, donkeys, cattle (Plates 1 - 4) as animal traction for ploughing in raising the quantity and quality of food for consumption of Nigerians, must be recognized by the various governments. The Federal, state and local governments should involve their youths, women and farming communities in animal traction. The Federal Ministries of Agriculture, Science and Technology, Youth Development and sports should be properly integrated on this project (Plates la, b, c and d). Nigeria's Animal Power Usage (Tables 1 - 2 and Plates 1 - 6) Animal traction usage was introduced into Nigeria as far back as 1922. Its popularity dwindled during the era of the oil boom. The economic buoyancy during that period is no longer visible. Animal power usage, should once more, become popular throughout the country although it is being primarily utilized for ridging and remoulding of ridges in several countries in Africa and in some states in the Northern part of the country (Starkey et al. 1988.) Pronouncements should be made by governments to indicate official approvals for promotion of draught animal power usage (Plates 4 - 6) in agriculture. The high import content of motorized mechanized agriculture has continued to dent the country's slim foreign exchange reserves. The nation's food requirements can only be met by enhancing the productivity of millions of small-scale farmers. The use of animal power will increase local food and agricultural supplies by the farming population. It is readily available and affordable with low operational costs. It could also be an additional source of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 428 L.A. Oladosu family income as work animals can be hired out to other farming youths and full time farmers who do not own any. Table 1: Animal traction initiatives in Nigeria (Plates la, b, c and d) Will promote: Especially with: • Food Security • Economic depression • Poverty alleviation • SAP • Cheap rural farming • Naira devaluation • Increased Agricultural Production • Youth unemployment Table 2: Nigeria's Animal Traction Statistics • 1964 -1987: " Potential number of draft cattle = 900,000 Based on 7.5% of National herd. Animal traction users had doubled to 70,000 • Predominantly in: Bauchi, Katsina, Kano and Sokoto States • Limited in Kaduna and some Northern States • Animals worked 2-3 years then sold At the end of their work life, the animals would have been fattened, thereby providing the much-needed animal source of protein to Nigerians. In our quest for viable alternatives to poverty alleviation and food security schemes, animal transportation, traction and ploughing with cows, horses and donkeys will assist in meeting our food production needs (Tables 1 - 2, Plates 1 - 6). Constraints are: • Diseases • Inadequate technology • Ignorance of benefits • Development of traction equipment UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock/or Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 429 Because of the difficult terrains and power maintenance culture, most of the equipment including trailers and farm implements have short life span and are not supported with adequate spare parts, the frequent breakdown and irreplaceable parts of farm equipment are commonly seen in different parts of the country. The incredibly high costs (initial and running costs) of these farm machines and equipment make it impossible for the peasant farmer to own them. Where tractors and farm machinery hiring services are available they often come very late. This results in late preparation of the fields and subsequently, leads to poor crop yield. It is in the face of these and other difficulties that it has become necessary to look for another alternative means of enhancing agricultural production especially at the farm family level. The present administration's efforts to revamp agricultural production, alleviate poverty and promote food security, though commendable, it nevertheless must be redirected towards the use of animal traction at rural level as illustrated in Plates 1 - 5. Plate 4: Equine animal traction with Donkeys by rural poor in place of tractors. Plate 5: A closer view of the donkey being used for animal farming with traction attachments. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 430 L.A. Oladosu Plate 6: Showing equine livestock usage of donkeys for farm transportation in Northern Nigeria. POLO AS A FACTOR OF NIGERIA'S UNITY AND COHESION "Let other people play at ather things The king of games is still the game of kings: " Please permit me to say a little about Polo, its origin, horse breeds used for polo 'in Nigeria and notable Polo clubs and Polo enthusiasts in the country. What is Polo? Polo is a stick and ball game on horse-back for two teams of four players each and two umpires. A kind of mounted netball played with up to 12 balls which have to be got into a central goal. Persian paintings of the 16th century showed polo as an elegant aristocratic game played by Kings, their counterparts, and also by women being regarded as a co-educational sport. International polo started in 1886. Polo ball made of willow or bamboo toot has a diameter of not more than 7.5 em. The polo stick called mallet in U.S.A is a cone of varying degrees of whippings 48 inches to 54 inches long according to individuals needs. Ancient Polo Polo is probably the oldest organized sport in the world having been in existence for more than 2,500 years. The name "polo" comes from "pulu", the willow root from which polo balls were made in Tibet (even today the root of bamboo is used UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine am! Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 431 T Plate Dl: Two Teams of Polo Players during the 1998lbadan Polo Tournament 'of the Nigerian Polo Association (NPA) Plate D2: The two umpires and the NPA officials including Senator Idris Ibrahim Kuta wearing the white hat and backing the camera. Shehu Muazu (extreme right) was watching with interest during the 1999lbadan Polo Tournament. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 432 L.A. Oladosu to make polo balls). Although the origins of polo are obscure there is much evidence of the game's history in Asia. As mounted armies swept back and forth conquering and re-conquering kingdoms, polo was adopted as the most noble of pastimes by the Kings, and Emperors, Shahs, Sultans, Khans and Caliphates of the ancient Persians, Arabs, Mongols and Chinese. The great rulers of those times were expected to be brave warriors, skilful hunters and exceptional polo players. Modern Polo Polo was played in Lagos at the beginning of this century and the Lagos Polo Club was formed in 1904. The game was introduced into the North of Nigeria at Kano, Zaria and Kaduna about 1918 and in Katsina, the major Polo centre, in 1922; it spread rapidly throughout the country and was first played in Ibadan in the 1930s. Polo is now played in Nigeria at Daura, Ibadan, Kaduna, Abraka, Kano, Katsina, Kazaure, Lagos, Maiduguri, Jos, Sokoto, Yola, Guzau, Minna, Zaria and Port Harcourt; the Nigerian Army and the Nigeria Police also play it. It is expected that the polo will soon reach Abuja where it would be given national attention, which it richly deserves. In Ghana polo is played mainly in Accra. Fifteen polo clubs are affiliated to the Nigeria Polo Association, which is itself affiliated to the Hurlingham Polo Association. In order to maintain uniform standards, players are classified or 'handicapped' twice a year by a Nigerian Polo Association Committee. His Highness the Emir of Katsina was one of the original players when polo was introduced in Katsina in 1922. In 1953 the Emir retired from tournament polo, but he continued to be the main inspiration of polo, not only in the North but in Nigeria as a whole. For many years he was the President of the Nigerian Polo Association. After the Emir of Katsina, the descendant of the Emir- Late Major General Hassan Katsina for many years, became the national President of Nigerian Polo Association. The great polo enthusiast late Major General Hassan Katsina became the pillar of polo nationwide. Along with other prominent southern polo players like retired Brigadier General Oluwole Rotimi, retired Honourable Justice Akpara, retired Brigadier Mobolaji Johnson, former Governor of Lagos State, polo became a factor of national unity and cohesion. The Game of Polo The 2500 year-old game of polo is one of the fastest, roughest, and most dangerous sports played today. It is gaining increasing popularity as a premier spectator sport can be an easy game for the first-time spectator to enjoy. Imagine the excitement of seeing players on thoroughbred horses bumping and jostling with each other as hockey on horseback, racing at to speeds down the field while striking a small ball with the precision of an experienced golfer. Polo is played on a 10 acre grass field, 300 yards in length by 160 yards, which is the approximate area of ten football fields. Goal posts are set eight yards apart on either end of the field. The object of the game is to move the ball down- field, hitting the ball through the goal for a score. The team with the most scores UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Plate D3: Showi~g a crucial moment of Polo during the January 1999 Ibadan Polo Tournamen! Plate D4: Showing the Polo team in full action during the weeklong 1999 Nigerian Polo Association, Ibadan Polo Tournament UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 434 L.A. Oladosu at the end of the match is deemed the winner. Teams then change direction after each goal. Two team made up of four players each, are designated by shirt-color. The players wear high boots, knee guards, and a helmet of their own selection. By tradition, players wear white pants in tournaments. The mallet made of a bamboo shaft with a hardwood head is the instrument used hit the polo ball, formerly wood, now plastic, about 3 to 3~ inches in diameter and 3~ to 4~ ounces in weight. In fact, the English word POLO is derived from the Tibetan word, "pulu" meaning ball. Nigeria's Polo Activities, Polo Veterans and Nigeria's Polo Association Horses in Common Use for Nigeria's Polo Until about 1973 all the polo ponies played in Nigeria were of West or North African origin; recently however larger and heavier horses from Argentina have been introduced into polo mainly in Lagos, Kano Jos, and Kaduna; such horses confer an advantage by virtue of their greater speed and strength and it is of interest to see how polo is developing with the two different breeds of horses playing in opposing teams. Plate D5: Showing the Polo team raising up their sticks to salute the audience during 1999 NPA Ibadan Polo Tournament. Lt - Rt: the unempire: Mike Magid; Yenma Yusuff; Daule Baba and Baba Kiari (extreme right). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock for Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 435 Plate D6: A Sudanese Horse with the Polo Player in readiness for another 7'h minutes chukka. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 436 L.A. Oladosu Plate D7: Showing three Polo players on horses in readiness for another Polo Chukka. In the middle was Seantor Toks Okubanjo of Lagos Polo Club. All three players were using the imported Argentinian horses. The Ibadan Polo Club. The date when the Ibadan Polo Club was founded is not precisely known but polo has been played in Ibadan since 1930s. Since 1950, a Nigerian Polo Association tournament was in Ibadan each year, and attended by clubs from all over Nigeria and also from Ghana. Apart from the main Nigerian Polo Associ- ation tournaments, at least two friendly tournaments are played between Ibadan and Lagos each year. In addition, cups are competed for within the clubs at intervals during the season. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 437 Prominent players in Ibadan polo history were the late Robin Atkinson, John Honey, Jim Mackenzie and Abel Comben; each of these players served as polo captain at their various times. Others are Drs Asuni and Awolaja, the Hanni Safiedenes, Messrs Ojeniyi, Alakija, etc. The current Chairman of Ibadan Polo Club is Mr. Tunji Adepeju. The immediate Past Chairman was Mr. Bankole Oyeniyi. The Retired Hon. Justice Akin Apara was elected President of the club in 1978 with Mr. Mike Pratt as Vice President. Past Presidents include Brigadier- General Oluwole Rotimi (rtd.) and Chief Victor Allam. Both are now Polo veterans." The polo club became fully independent in 1975; the membership is continuously increasing and the activities are expanding to embrace not only various riding events but a range of social activities. I was as far back as 1979 appointed as an Honorary member and Chief Consultant, Equine Clinical Services of Ibadan Polo club and the Nigerian Polo Association in recognition of the useful equine clinical services offered to the club. As previously observed (by Anon 1962; Akinwumi and Ikpi 1985 and Anosa 1985) in ruminants, the major disease problems of Nigeria's polo horses are Trypanosomosis and Babesiosis. These diseases are however, put under control from time to time, by our prompt intervention. Cultural History of Nigeria's Horses and Polo as Symbols of National Unity Horses and horse raising in Nigeria, especially in the North, are phenomenal in the collective cultural history of the people. Mostly identified with Hausas, Fulanis, Kanuris and Hausa-Fulanis, the first set to be introduced into the semi- arid, Sudan and Sahel savannah regions are believed to have arrived during the Tran-Saharan trade era, although some experts speak of earlier accounts. With flourishing commerce and exchange of goods and services with North African Arabs, the Phoenicians and other early settlements, in major cities like Kano, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Bauchi, Kaduna, down to Ilorin became beneficiaries of trade network in return for this large, strong animal with mane, fluffy tail and hard feet. Over time, horses or stallions within the region have experienced major socio-economic changes. From beasts of burden and means of locomotion and 'objects' of war, their integration appeared to run full cycle when they became symbols of means and royalty. Today, these sturdy and gorgeous animals are status symbols and their values have appreciated even more considerably with the advent of polo games, horse raising, betting and advert status at global scale. Lately, prospecting for profitable horses and seeking large dividends from betting on the Internet have added to a legion of big-time businesses built around horses. Notable Nigeria's Polo Players Today, Nigeria parades a remarkable club of aristocrats who individually have dozens of horses tucked safely away in their stables. Some horses as a matter of fact, are provided with air conditioners and special lighting systems to provide an ideal climatic setting. Notable among these owners are late Major-General Hassan Katsina, Chief Hanni Saffiedene, Brigadier-General Oluwole Rotimi (Rtd.); Alhaji Sanni UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 438 L.A. Oladosu Dangote, Chief Albert Esiri, Ishyaku Rabiu, Alhaji Dan Kabo, Aminu Dantata, Kunle Tinubu (younger brother of Governor Bola Tinubu), Atedo Peterside, and Dapo Ojora. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Rumi~ant Livestock for Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 439 Plate D9: Showing Polo Veterans: Hanni Saffiedene (Right); and Secretary Lagos Polo Club Mr. Uzama (Left) during the Nigerian Polo Association Ibadan Polo Tournament. For so long, the game of soccer has occupied a prime position in the hearts of sports lovers in Nigeria. This is not unconnected with the country's landmark escapades on the African and global scenes. However, quite unlike soccer, Polo is relatively unknown to many, particularly to the masses as they consider it the game of the rich. Perhaps this is true. Even while polo is witnessing an obvious transformation from one generation to another, it is unthinkable to associate the game of the poor with this game of the rich. Polo now in Nigeria is witnessing an obvious transformation from one generation to another. New Generation of Polo Players A list consists of established aristocrats like Dawule Baba, fondly known as "Teacher, Mallam Ahmed Dasuki, Deputy Senate President Ibrahim Mantu, the Vice President Atiku Abubakar, who is also the President of Yola Polo Club to mention a few. Muhammed (Muha) Babangida, the scion of the Babaginda family is a leader in this generation of young polo players who would fly the flag of polo in Nigeria into the next generation. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 440 L.A. Oladosu r:-' -----------------------.------------"---,.,:.--;-". Plate DIO: Showing a notable Polo Player, Alhaji Ahmed Dasuki with his Argentinian Polo horse immediately after playing the Polo tournament (Top) Bottom picture shows one of the enthusiastic Polo Players Mr. Ade Alakija receiving the special trophy award from the Veteran, Retired Hon. Justice Akin Apara. The 1999 Vice-President of Ibadan Polo Club, Mr. Tunji Adepeju and others were watching with admiration. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine an.d Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 441 Plate D11: Showing New Generation of Polo Players whose team won the various valuable prizes during the 1999 NPA Ibadan Polo Tournament. Polo Aristocrat, Ibrahim Audu, Captain of the team is on the extreme right while Mumuni Dagazao held the gold award in the middle. Plate D12: Showing the Kaduna Polo Team led by Major Umar (Extreme Left) shortly before the Lagos Polo Tournament UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 442 L.A. Oladosu Muhammed Babangida is not alone in this enterprising sport. His contemporaries include Sulaiman Abubakar, a multi-millionaire with chain of business in Nigeria and South Africa. Others in the far north include youthful millionaire, Ibrahim Zakari, the proud owner of the Kaduna ICN, and emerging polo force in Africa. Royal Fathers are not left out at the most polo tournaments, among the regulars at tournaments are the president of Nigeria Polo Association (NPA) and Emir of Katsina His Royal Highness, Alhaji Muhammadu Kabir Usman, Emir of Kano Alhaji (Dr.) Ado Bayero, Alh Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso, Senator Idris Ibrahim Kuta, Alhaji Aminu Dantata, Alhaji Sani Dangote, Lagos Polo Club Chairman, Alhaji Hassan Hadeja, Kaduna Polo Club Chairman, Alhaji Tijani Hashim, Galadiman Kano, Major General MA GaIba (rtd), Alhaji Audu Usman Nagogo, Majidadi Katsina, Ambassador Zakari Ibrahim, amongst others. With the likes of Muhammed Babangida taking the future of polo in Nigeria, the country is yet to witness the beauty of the game. This list is by no means exhaustive as some names were left out. Evidently, however, some polo players have the largest collection of horses in the country with one individual having about 32 horses in stables scattered around Kano, Kaduna and other towns. The Argentinian horses are not only very strong and well groomed, they are relatively unbeatable. Cost of Some Polo Horses Argentinian horses are renowned worldwide for their pace, robust health and agility. A typical Argentinian horse may cost between N800,OOO and N2.5 million. "Argentinian horses are expensive to maintain," "But they are a better bet". They know the ball and they know the mallet," are some of the ways the horses are descnbed Chief Albert Esiri from Orie, Abraka near Eku in Delta State is said to own many Argentinian horses and he spends fortunes in maintaining them Predictably, Nigerians today keep horses for different reasons. Some raise them to sell; others for top-flight competitions, but with the royalty, it is purely for class distinction. Although, not all horse owners are necessarily polo players, most polo players are inevitably desirous of having elegant gallopers. CLINICAL SERVICES, DISEASES AND OTHER PROBLEMS OF NIGERIA'S HORSES I now want to reflect on my clinical services and research, which has helped to sustain the equine livestock and polo industry in Nigeria. In particular, I wish to . highlight those aspects, which have helped to promote the health of these animals. Equine Studies: Drug Evaluation Research In advanced countries of the world, it is mandatory for manufacturers of new drugs to subject them to scientific evaluations not only for efficacy but also for safety when used by humans and animals. The Food and Drug Administration UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 443 Department of the United States of America, has over the years, been the authority on behalf of the government of USA, empowered to perform and coordinate drug assessment and safety trials. Over the years, newly manufactured drugs are imported into Nigeria, without due regard to food and drugs mandatory trials. Although we have a similar regulatory arrangement in Nigeria, the enforcement of compliance to the regulation on Food and Drug Administration and Control has not been effective neither has it been. Judiciously monitored nor strictly adhered to by foreign and local new drug manufacturers. For example, some five years ago, precisely in 1996, there was an outbreak of cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM) in Kano. The pharmaceutical company, Pfizer Inc. New York in what was thought to be a humanitarian gesture, rushed in its new drug 'TROY AN'. Trovan has not been sufficiently subjected to clinical trials before finding the Nigerian children as guinea pigs for the drug. Recently, the Washington Post of USA in its Sunday December 17, 2000 edition published a report that the Pfizer's 1996 action was not altruistic. The newspaper claimed that the two hundred (200) Nigerian children on which TROYAN was administered were used as guinea pigs. Eleven of the children were said to have died while some of the survivors became deaf, blind, lame or suffered seizures. The newspaper said that since some of the children reacted negatively to the drugs, Pfizer should have discontinued administering the experimental drugs on them and reverted to the approved treatment of meningitis. In a follow-up report on BBC on Wednesday December 20, 2000, it was reported that by the time Pfizer brought TROYAN to Kano, the drug had been banned in Europe and that the United States of America which had banned its use for children had to impose a complete ban when adults on which it was administered developed complications like liver damage. Pfizer Nigeria Limited denied the report on behalf of its parent company in New York. The company claimed that Pfizer's action was a philanthropic gesture borne out of a genuine desire to save lives. This issue was fully documented in the Nigerian's Vanguard Newspaper of Wednesday December 27,2000. The new drug "Trovafloxacin" was not approved for the company's marketing to the public. By December 1996, Pfizer had tried oral and intravenous Trovan on 13,000 people in 27 nations. Towards the end of that year Pfizer sought approval for the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to market the drugs. For undisclosed reasons the FDA did not approve the use of Trovan on children. This incidence clearly showed the significance of adequate clinical evaluation of drugs before being distributed to the public. Diuretic and Tolerance Responses to Piretanide in Horses (Oladosu and Garner 1978, 1990, Plates 1 - 5) The diuretic properties of piretanide,: a new compound in the sulfamyl- aminobenzoic-acid derivatives was experimentally assessed for efficacy and tolerance in horses. The clinico-pharmacological and toxicological screenings of the drug in these animals were carried out using a 5 x 5 Latin square UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY experimental design. The results obtained showed that piretanide was capable of producing peak diuresis within the first 10-20 minutes post-medication with the effects of diuresis lasting for 45 minutes after intravenous administration. The drug also produced effective diuresis with minimal changes in haematological status and liver enzymes, signifying good tolerance and no apparent toxic effects. Piretanide (Hoe 118) is the international non-proprietary name (INN) for a new loop diuretic with the chemical name 4-phenoxy-3 - (1 - pyrolidinyl)-5 - sulfarny-benzonic acid and chemical structure which relates to both furosemide (Lasix) and bumetanide. The drug has been investigated in rats and found in a preliminary report to be more potent than either furosemide and bumetamide (Merkel, Bormann, Mania, Muschawech and Hropot, 1976). In rats, Markel et al. (1976) also observed that it is not likely to produce renal failure by provoking hypovolaemia - a clinical complication of furosemide therapy reported by Lucas, Zito Carter, Cortoz and Stebner (1977) in critically ill volunteers. Although piretanide has some clinical advantageous applications in human medicine (Merkel et al. 1976) very little work appears to have been carried out on its effectiveness and side effects in large domestic animals. In this investigation, we assessed the diuretic efficacy and tolerance of piretanide with horses as the large animal models. The aim was to: (1) observe the general response of the animals to piretanide levels, (2) observe the effect of altering the level of piretanide on some clinical variables of horses, (3) determine the effect of piretanide on urinary output and (4) monitor the side effect of piretanide on liver enzymes: SGOT, LDH and SAP. Plate 1: Tail bandaging prior to catheterization UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 445 Plate 2: Pereneal disinfection before urethral catheterization. Plate 3: Foley's Catheter Insertion into the Urethra of the experimental mare UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 446 L.A. Oladosu Plate 4: Exteriorization of the Inserted rod from the saline ballooned catheter Plate 5: Horses with urine collection into the polythene bags after injection with diuretic drugs UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 447 Results Dose effect on urinary output Urine volume was significantly increased (pO.05) change in urinary output compared to predrug volumes (Tables 3 and 4). The urinary output for the first 2 hours shows that the urinary excretion after intravenous administration of piretanide peaked before 10-12 minutes (Figure 1). The urinary output was largely increased within the first 90-120 minutes and returned close to control values shortly thereafter. ! I •-. =0. ~5mg/ k;~ I ...--. =D. : u:;;'kc;~ =J.2;r.;;i~S 2000 .r::J-.O: .::J: . 14·m q,l k 9 •.••.•.• =1.6mg/k,~ ~500 2CGC 1500 1000 500 :)-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-45 45-50 60-90 90-120 Fig. 1: Piretanide Dose Effect on Urine Output for first 2 hours Note: Time of urinary output in response to intravenous piretanide showing all doses' diuretic effect which peaked between 10-20 minutes. Points represented Means of5 horses with 5 x 5 Latin Square Design. Drug Effects on haematological variables Figures 2 and 3 show the histograms depicting the effect of all dosages of piretanide on a number of blood values. When compared with the controls all values were not significantly different (p>0.05). The mean WBC/ul, mean UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 448 L.A. Oladosu PCV%, the mean Hb grn/kg. were not significantly (p>0.05) different (Figs 2 and 3) using the methods described by Schalm (1967). Other evaluated haematologial variables i.e the differential white cell countlul and the platelet counts/ul were also not significantly (p>0.05) different compared with the controls. 30 pen Hb (gm/dl) 60 28 ~ ~=Control ~=Control .:.:.:.:. =4hr. Pas t ::::~=4hr. Pos t 50 24 ::; =24hr. Post ==24hr. Pas t tJ 40 20 :> .J «> • 30 > o Co. . 20 10 Drug Tolerance Evaluation Results of the liver enzyme analysed (Figs. 4 & 5) show no significant (P>0.05) changes between the controls and the post piretanide concentrations when the three major liver enzymes serum alkaline phosphatese (SAP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and serum glutamic oxaloacetic acid were evaluated photospectrometrically employing methods described in the Sigma Chemical Company Technical Bulletin No. 505 (1967). Clinically there were no signs of abnormal salivation, perspiration, defaecation, depression, dyspnoea, convulsion or any other manifestations of systemic intoxication. This drug investigation UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock/or Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 449 sponsored with over US$50,OOO,has now been approved for use in humans and is now being marketed in Britain, USA and others parts of the world. - I == 24hr. Post5.0 Control ~::~ 41lrol/3s t SAP (I.U./ml) SDH (I.U./ml) i: 80.0 ~I 4.0 w «z VI ur :E +1 ~ zc( .E w ..... 3.0 :E 60.0 ::> ~ . 40.0 c. ..: VI 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.6 PIRETANIDE DOSES (mg/kg) Fig. 4 and 5: Piretanide Dose Effect on Equine Haematological Parameters Studies on the Clinical Aspects and Chemotherapy of Trypanosoma Congolense Infection in Donkeys (Aliyu and Oladosu, 1993) As part of the studies on equine livestock and for the purpose Df confirming trypanosomoses as wasting in donkeys, experimental research was conducted on donkeys, which are subsequently treated with bereniL In this investigation donkeys were experimentally infected with T. congolense and the cause of infection was studied before and after chemotherapy with BereniL T.congolense produced disease in donkeys characterized by progressive macrocytic anaemia, anorexia and weight loss. The prevalent period observed in the infected donkeys was 4 days. Mouse inoculation was found to be the most sensitive in detecting infection followed by Buffy coat method while wet smear preparation was found to be least sensitive. Parasitemia was first detected on day 4 post infection with mouse inoculation and on day 6-post UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 450 L.A. Oladosu infection with Buffy coat method. There were four peaks of parasitemia observed during the course of infection with the highest log parasitemia of 6.7. All infected donkeys had a significant drop in PCV% with the lowest as 32.7 + 0.58% and 24.0 + 1% pre and post infection respectively. The differences in the mean values of Hb and RBC in infected donkeys pre and post infection were respectively statistically significant (p<0.01) and (p<0.05). There was increase in the WBC count with the highest pre and post infection values of 1.39 + 0.16 x 104/ul and 1.86 + 0.01 x 104/ul respectively. Leucocytosis observed was characterized by neutropenia, lymphocytosis and monocytosis. Negative unit weight change was observed as from day 12 post infection and this continued until the animals were treated 30 days post infection. Maximum weight loss of 4.5 kg was observed 2 days post treatment. Following treatment with Berenil at a therapeutic dose of 3.5mglkg intramuscularly a reversal of all the haematological and biochemical aberrations was observed. Ceremonial Uses of Horses In addition to Polo, the mounted units of the Nigerian Police, on ceremonial occasions, use the horses for crowd control and for military Parade. The horses and the police riders are gorgeously dressed on these occasions while being on guard for security purposes. A case in view was that of the last swearing-in ceremony of the President, Commander-in-chief, Nigeria Armed Forces - Chief Olusegun Obasanjo at Abuja. This occasion was recorded with colour slides and transparencies. Fig. Bl: Mounted Troop Police Officers with their Horses Ready for Security Patrols and Crowd Control UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 451 Fig. B2: Use of Valuable Mounted Troop Horses for Crowd Control at the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja Fig. B3: Mounted Troop Police Officers at Alert with their horses at Abuja Presidential Swearing in Ceremony in May 1999 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 452 L.A. O/adosu Fig. B4: Governmental Ceremonial Use of Mounted Troop Horses !~~;::;: ~ Fig. B5: Socially Important Ivory White Horses at Military Parade during the Presidential Inauguration at Abuja, May 29, 1999. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock/or Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 453 Fig. 86: Ceremonial Use of Horses for Military Parade at Abuja. Eagle Square, May, 1999. I i AlII , ,• • .. ""."" =- Fig. 87: Mounted Troop Police Officers in action with their Horses in full regalia guarding the Government Ceremonial Function UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 454 L.A. Oladosu •. -~---::---:-~-..".------ Fig. 8B: The Abuja Presidential Inauguration Ceremony Being guarded with the Horses of the Nigerian Police in Fig. B7 above. Fig. B9: Horse HeaJt:RMonitoring Veterinarian with some of the CeremonlaJiHl'ilr§e5. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 455 Fig. BI0: Showing the horse health monitoring in progress by the Inaugural Lecturer RUMINANT AND EQUINE SURGICAL RESTRUCTURING Collaboration with ILRI on Rumen Fistulations: (Oladosu and Akpokoje 1972, 1975, 1987 and 1990) With the expertise developed in the early 70s I was invited by ILRI for collaborative research on surgical modification of West African dwarf rams. (Plates ILRI 1-2). I also assisted in monitoring the postoperative health cares of these animals. From time to time, when experiments were in progress, clinical services were also requested by ILRI should the modified ruminants develop postoperativecomplications (Plate ILRI 3). Collaboration _ith Departments of Animal Science (IAR&T, OAU & U.I) (Oladosu and Akpokoje 1973 and 1975) My DVM Project (Oladosu 1972) on experimental surgery performed at the Universityof Ibadan Teaching and Research Farmwas a motivating factor. Even when I was a Veterinary Officer at Ogbomosho with the Western Region Government, I was requested by the Animal Science unit of the Institute of .Agricultural Research and Training (IAR &T) Animal Science unit, to assist on Ruminant Fistulation services. This needed consultancy continued with the Animal Science Department at the University of Ibadan when I joined the servicesof the University in 1973. Prior to 1975, Professor D.G. Armstrong of the University of Newcastle Upon-Tyne used to be flown from Britain to assist in performing the rumen UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 456 L.A. Oladosu cannulations for digestibility studies on Nigerian Ruminant Livestock. This was always at a high expense to the University whe.never Prof. Armstrong was invitedfor the surgery by Professor Mba of blessed memory . Plate 1: Fistulation Surgery on ILRI Rams Plate 2: Cannula Exteriorisation Procedure: West at lIT A, Ibadan. Note the stages of African Dwarf Ram Fistulation. ILRI, IITA surgical modifications. Collaborative Research Surgical Modifications of Rams meant for digestibility experiments. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock/or Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 457 Plate 3: Rumen Livestock Fistulation Research and Services: The West African Dwarf Rams were fitted with rumen cannulae by the inaugural lecturer at ILRI, lITA, Ibadan. The Inaugural Lecturer was monitoring the health of the fistulated rams post operatively while the ILRI Collaborator from Australia assisted in the restraint of the patients. On my initiative and desire to go and perfect the technique in the United Kingdom, a case was made for my sponsorship by the British Overseas Development Agency and the Inter University Council to enable me study the techniques. On my return, I continued to assist the Animal Science Department in the cannulations of their cattle (Plate ANSC 1-4), sheep, and goats (Plates ANSG 1-3) meant for use by their staff and postgraduate students. In this regard, I collaborated extensively with the Pro tcssors and postgraduate students in the Departments of Animal Science at the Universities of Ibadan and Ife. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 458 L.A. Oladosu Plate ANSC 1:Preoperative restraint of cattle within an adjustable metallic confinement. Plate ANSC 2: Paravertebral nerve blocks of thirteenth thoracic, first, second and third lumbar nerves performed by the Inaugural lecturer who is also the Consultant Surgeon in this surgical modification. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminani Livestock for Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 459 Plate ANSC 3: Paracostal incision technique Note the relative position from the vertebral column and the hook bone. \ Plate ANSC 4:The fistulated cattle showing the relative position of the sutured incision and the exteriorized cannula Cattle Surgical Modification For Digestibility Experiments UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 460 L.A. Oladosu Plate ANSG 1: An Adult Red PIMe ANSG 2: The Outpuched Sokoto (Maradi) Goat with left intact rumen with purse string side rumen cannula in position. suture in progress. Plate ANSG 3: Invagiantion of the lips of rumen incision after cannula implantation. RESEARCH ON EXCITING REFERRAL EQUINE CLINICAL CASES As the equine chief consultant, many referral cases were received from many horse stables and polo clubs from different parts of the country. This is because of the specialization, which we have developed at Ibadan equine unit of our Department of veterinary medicine in this University. I will here reflect on some exciting ones among those referral cases with a view to sharing with the audience some of our experiences and the excitements of the owners of these cases. Equine Referral Case 1 : A "Blue roan" Dongola Polo horse, owned by Ibadan Polo Club captain: Dr. Femi Oladele with Traumatic Torticolis. This 8 years old beautiful horse which has participated in several tournaments, is the favourite horse of Dr. Femi Oladele. Most unfortunately, the groom reported sudden swelling and an almost 90 degrees cervical twist (Plate 1) on the horse to the owner: The resident veterinarian was alerted on this case. In spite of the initial treatment efforts abnormal neck distortion persisted and the neck of the horse was deviated along with the head to the right side. Although the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 461 case was initially treated by the referring resident veterinarian who initially considered the case to' be that of "Equine encephalitis", there was no apparent progress or improvement. For this reason, the owner - Dr. Oladele obtained a referral letter from the resident veterinarian and opted to refer the case to the inaugural lecturer at the University of Ibadan for specialist attention. When the case was received at our department, radiography was taken and on detailed clinical examination, a case of deformed convexity about the middle of the neck (Plate2), was diagnosed and recorded as "neck torticolis". The right side sub-luxation of the cervical vertebrae was also noticed. (Plate 3). The neck was permanently twisted. (Plate 4). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 462 L.A. Oladosu Plate 2: Note: Deformed Convexity about Middle of the Neck Plate 3: Note: The right side subluxation of the cervical vertebrae UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 463 Plate 4: A closer view of the same patient with a twisted neck and head Successful Clinical Management of Neck Cervical Torticolis This includes general anaesthetic medication and hydraulic straightening of the neck's cervical vertebrae which had been dislocated. (Plate 5). Application of plaster cast strengthened with the wire mesh as neck splint under heavy sedation and deep anaesthesia. (Plate 6). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 464 L.A. Oladosu Plate 5: Head and Neck Being straightened with a mechanical pulley. This exercise was before POP Application under general anesthesia. Plate 6: Patient's neck manipulation under general anaesthesia Note: The cotton wool padded "Wire Mesh" neck splint applied along the neck of the horse. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 465 Finally, the plaster of Paris (POP) was applied and the horse allowed to recover from general anaesthesia (Plates 7 and S). The fully recovered horse after POP application was then allowed to recover with the POP on for about two weeks (Plates 9, 10 and 11). Recovery was attained after six weeks of corrective surgery and the horse went back to Polo fully recovered after six weeks (Plates 12 and 13). Plate 7: POP corrected sub luxated neck with horse under anaesthesia after surgery. Plate 8: Patient in lateral recumbency under general anaesthesia after POP application. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 466 L.A. Oladosu Plate 9: Dorsolateral View of the straightened neck immediately after correction Plate 10: Closer view of the same horse in standing position after anaesthetic recovery UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 467 Plate 11: Patient 72 hours after the corrective intervention with Plaster of Paris (POP) in place. Plate 12: Right and Left neck sides of the fully recovered horse after being used for a Polo game at Ibadan Polo Club. These pictures were taken two weeks after surgical correction. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY -'~ , Plate 13: A closer view of the patient after full recovery at six weeks post surgical intervention. The neck is now straightened up when compared with t~e deformed (bent) neck in Plates 1 and 2 o Equine Referral Case 2 An Ikeja Saddle Club's Thoroughbred Horse with rupture of sacrosciatic ligament and chronic lumbosacral haematoma This case was referred from Ikeja Saddle Club. It was a beautiful "Show jumping" horse which had been lame on the hind-legs for long, with marked pain on the back. It was reported of having loin swelling and unresolved back pain problem even when several veterinarians in Lagos had attempted treatment (Plates 1-3). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 469 Plate 1: Showing the referred horse with lumbosacral haematoma on arrival at the Uni versity of Ibadan Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Ibadan. On clinical examination, serosanguinous fluid was removed from the lumbo- . sacral region by the author who is the Referral Equine Chief Consultant (Plates 4-6). . Radiography was carried out by the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) Chief Radiographer, Mrs. O.T. Adene supported by the final year students in Equine Clinics. This case was surgically managed by the author (Plates 7 - 8). The latero medial radiography showed lumbosacral haematoma and rupture of the sacroschiatic ligament. The patient was put under general anaesthesia and the affected area opened up to remove the haematoma. The skin incision was resutured and dressed up for 9 days after which the patient was discharged to the owner in Lagos. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 470 L.A.Oladosu Plate 2: Showing the close up back view of same horse with painful lumbosacral haematoma Plate 3: Physical examination at a glance of the horse with lumbosacral problem. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 471 Plate 4: Showing the author and Equine Chief Consultant Surgeon performing the needle aspiration of the swollen lumbosacral haematoma. ;;. -.~ ": With patient mounted and examined in standing position to assess the lameness. dale _. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 472 L.A. Oladosu Plate: 6: On arrival at Ibadan the horse was mounted and trotted. The patient showed signs of severe pain and reluctance to move due to the lumbosacral haematoma. Plate 7: Showing lateromedial radiography performed by the author on arrival at Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock for Polo. Food Security and Poverty A /leviation 473 Plate 8: Showing the back view of the horse with lateromedial radiography in progress. Equine Referral Case 3: "Dourine" Trypanosoma equiperdum infection at Ibadan Polo This was a case of Dourine (Equine Trypanosomosis) caused by Trypanosoma ·equiperdum infection. The case was referred from Ibadan Polo club with a complaint of an unusual swelling of the belly and the external genitalia especially the scrotal sac. The oedematous swelling was prominent from the side and the hind quarters of the patient (Plates 1-3). Plate 1: Showing the disease dourine in a Nigerian stallion with the closeup view of the oedematous ventral abdomen and the scrotal area UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 474 L.A.Oladosu • Plate 2: Showing the right side view of the case of Dourine presented by the owner Mr. Umoru at lbadan Polo Club with the droopy head of the highly emaciated horse. Plate 3: Showing the swollen scrotal area of the case of Dourine seen at Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ---- Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 475 .•. On the examination of the oedema tissues from the scrotal sac, large trypanosomes with prominent undulating membranes were detected on the stained blood smears of the animal. (Plate 4). Dourine was confirmed on this case. The case was however successfully treated with Antrycide prosalt solution. The case was discharged to the owner with a warning not to breed the animal after successful clinical management Plate 4: Showing the back view of the same horse with marked oedema of the Scrotal sac Plate 5: Showing the Trypanosoma equiperdum organism between the red cells of the patient with swollen scrotal sack UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 476 L.A.Oladosu Equine Referral Case 4: Equine Trypanosomosis du•e to T. vivax infection. This case was encountered at a local stable in a village at Ibadan. The horse has shown evidence of severe weight loss in spite of good feeding regime (Plate 1). It showed prominent ribs, scapula, marked parlor of visible mucous membranes and extreme weakness. There was no jaundice and no haemoglobinuria. The Hb and PCV were very low. On examining, the blood smear showed Trapanosoma vivax infection (Plate 2). The case was treated with berenil-" (diminazene diaceturate) at a dose level of 7 mglkg body weight. The patient recovered fully some 3 months thereafter. Ruminant livestock clinical Referral : Case 5: Boran cattle intramedullary bone pinning for left foreleg fracture repair in Lusaka, Zambia with the inaugural lecturer as a Nigerian Federal Government's Technical Aid Professor of Large Animal Medicine and Surgery to the Government of Federal Republic of Zambia. This case was referred to the inaugural lecturer from the Government Livestock Farm on the outskirts of Lusaka, Zambia. The case was encountered when I was on a sabbatical leave at the Samora Machel School of Veterinary Medicine in Lusaka, Zambia. I was then a Federal Nigerian Government's Technical Aid Professor of Large Animal Medicine and Surgery in Zambia. The case involved a young Boran cattle which has forced it's leg in a stone pit and fractured the canon bone of the left foreleg. At the large animal hospital, the patient was reluctant to move but favoured the affected left limb (Plates RS 1- 3).The affected left leg has started to swell as seen on the 3rd day after injury when it was examined. Plate RS 1.: Boran Cattle Bone Fracture Repair: *Note favoured left fore Limb UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 477 Plate'...R....S.-wi2.: Patient is reluctant to move due to left fore complete --b: one fracture and pain ~ "./-:. ,. .~ '~ .•, .••. ) , Plate RS 3.: Ruminant (Boran Cattle) Restructuring Closer View: Fractured Left Fore. Note Swelling of the Carpus Radiography revealed complete transverse fracture of the metacarpal bone as seen on the latero-medial and antero-posterior views. (Plates RS 4 and 5). Using UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 478 L.A. Oladosu appropriate lengths of intra-medullary pins and plates, the patient was put under deep anaesthesia and heavy sedation while the corrective surgery was in progress (Plate RS 6). I Plate RS4: Boran cattle Plate RS 5: Ruminant diagnostic Plate RS6: Radiography of Boran fracture radiograpy: radiography: antero-posterior cattle corrective surgery *Note the over-riding view of cattle with complete *Re-aligned metacarpal bone of transverse fracture as seen transverse fracture. same case. *Note intramedullary from latero-rnedial view. pinnary and plating. After surgical repairs, the patient and the surgeon who is the inaugural lecturer of today posed for a friendly photograph. (Plate RS 7). The patient then "opted for a personal photo to bid good-bye" to the Veterinary hospital shortly before being discharged back to the farm some nine weeks after corrective surgery (Plate RS 8). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 479 Plate RS 7: Showing the surgeon (Inaugural Lecturer) and the patient after corrective surgery. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 480 L.A. Oladosu Plate RS 8: Showing ruminant (Boran Cattle) restructured. The patient was using affected limb after corrective orthopaedic surgery. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 481 Ruminant Tuberculosis Studies Organs Condemnajion in sheep and goats due to Tuberculosis at Bodija, Abattoir, Ibadan (Figures 1-4) Wintope and Oladosu (1998) As a fellow of the Royal Institute of Public .Health and Hygiene (FRIPHH) of the United Kingdom, food safety and related public Health issues are of paramount interest as part of my problem solving veterinary clinical research and services to Equine and Ruminant livestock. This was with particular reference to horses, cattle, sheep and goats. To this end, I initiated further updating of data in 1998 to appraise the factors that were complimentary to the apparent upsurge in the number of encountered human clinical tuberculosis observed in lbadan at that time. This thought was based on the hypothesis and proposition that possibly the level of clinical and inapparent Tuberculosis infection in the beef consumed from slaughter houses at Ibadan may be significantly responsible for the apparent increase in the cases of human tuberculosis ofthe time as shown in Figures 1-4. Fig. 1: Histogram showing organs condemnation , and causes for the month of July 1999 in cattle at '::0 Bodija Abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria. 100 I,; IOTot:lll~Onde~'lYI I im P!lrU~! COOd~~~8!~~1 I,···" th so o -e ~ II.·...]·•...-.I·.~.:I..~..'-~ev'o- :.= ~1l ; i i 01_ 11 c E 50 .1 ! (l) <:::l C "'- iI r tI40 I I I I ! i,. I ~ P111\ply Fetu. 11'1 9U< utero Causes· Fig. 1: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes for the month of July, 1999 in goats at Bodija Abatoir, Ibadan Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 487 B. OVINE 34. 100I Sl Partial organ condemnation 80 T t3Total organ condemna·ti.on i "0.•. 60 p 0'") -2; t 1') Bs ;;;;J "'" 40 - 20 ...... ... ............. . ... ... .•. . .............. . .... . .. ',. ·.It ••• ...... Pn~umonlfl Cyst PiG,ply Fetus in out ut"ero Causes Fig. 2: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes for the month of July, 1999 in sheep at Bodija Abbatoir, Ibadan, Nigeria The various conditions encountered at the time of this work included: _ oesophagostomiasis which accounted for 25 (2.1%) of all cases in sheep and 30(3.2%) in goats; pneumonia, 38.2% and 28.3% in sheep and goats, respectively. Mastitis, 37.5% and 36.2% in sheep and goats, respectively; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 488 L.A. Oladosu abscess, 17.1% and 19.8% in sheep and goats, respectively and cysts, 11.5% and 12.7% in sheep and goats respectively (Figs. 3 - 7). f TA. CAPRINE120 ~ Partial organ condemnation 100 I::l Total organ dondemnation 80 "0 Q.J E.'"•. ""0 8'" 60•... 1( ~ ~;;;J 40 .......................... ...... ...... 20 ............ .......... ................... :::::: :.!i.!!.'l.:i.! ~~~~~~ o +-~'-'~"~"4-~__ ~~ __ ~~~"~"~"~-+ __ ~~L-~ __ ~ Pnt!1Jlflonia nbace •• Cyst: Mll.tit!_ Pimply Causes Fig. 3: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes for the month of August, 1999 in goats, and Bodija Abattoir, lbadan, Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and.Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 489 B. OVINE 80 S!Partial organ condemnation !:!Total organ condemnation 60 ............ m......:::::: 20 ..~.......~.... ~~H 1 ::: ·mm m. ~. ~~ :::::: :. .:::::: ::::: o :.1./.1.1.1.1 I'.I..I.!:I.:.I.:.I !IIIIII~~4---~~~---+--~~~ __-4__-1:~:~:~::~_:_L~-~~:E:;~_:_~+:-~:~ Pne\;r.l<::nj,& Cyst Hllllti.th Pimply r~tua in gut utero Causes Fig. 4: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes for the month of August, 1999 in sheep at Bodija Abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 490 L.A. Oladosu y A. CAPRINE 120 ISP! artial organ condemnation 100 l!l Total organ. condemnation 80 ~,., c: ~ -0 <=: ~ 60 $'- ;E;;> ;z. ........... . ..... . .... . ...... ...... ................ ........... 40 ...••...••.......... ..•.. . ... ..c. ............ ......... . ..... .. .... .... . .... . .............. ...... ...... ....... .. ..... ... . ....... ~. .20 ....... ..... .................. .."'. ....... .......... . • .. .... ...... .••..-a •• .. .. ................ .. ........ . . ....... . . ...... ...... . .... .. . .. ...................... ...... . . . ........ ..................... .• ••• !...... ........... II o Pneuraonia Abuce:ss Cyst F.h.l. in c ee rc Causes Fig. 5: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and cause for the month of September, 1999 in goats at Bodija Abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 491 A. CAPRINE ISP! artial organ condemna"tion 100 I!lTotal organ condemnation 80 " <• 0•:•: ~ "0 '~" 60 h JsS ~;;;1 .........,.. 40 ................... . .... . 20 ... .'......... .."' .. .... ............. .c ••• ............. . .. .. • lIIa ••.. ... .. .. . ..... . ... . ... ...... .... ....... ... ......... . o .......... .... .. .......... Pneumonia Jl.bacasc Cyst· P1sply 'etu. in gut utero Causes Fig. 6: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes for the month of October 1999 in goats at Bodija Abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 492 L.A. Oladosu 100 ISP! artial organ condemnation 80 r:J Total organ condemnation ............ ....................... 20 ....... ... ....... ..... .... .... ..• .............. .... . .. •.•••.••......... ..-. .._.:.I. .. t ...... ••• .......... •.•••.. 11I. • ••••...... ...... ........... . ..o •••• 111.._1-__ <.:,,,,-_,,,>,,,'.:./11 __ +__ c.·:;';·"'·;;;"_:_.:L I---.l!~:':':'L_i-_f!:':':'::.:L_-+__J:J:':':'=_-lc--_ Cyst Mast.! tis P,imp.ly Fetus in gut Causes Fig. 7: Histogram showing number of organ condemnation and causes, for the month of October, 1999 in sheep at Bodija Abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 493 From the point of view of Zoonosis, this work unraveled the common causes of carcass and organs condemnation in sheep and goats, in a typical African City of a developing Nation relative to what obtains in the developed countries of the world. With these findings, attempts could be made to improve the prophylactic and therapeutic measures against most zootomic disease conditions in these animals, thereby improving the health of the populace through the consumption of wholesome and disease-free meat. In the course of my academic and clinical services pursuit over the last 27 years, I had been involved in the number of research investigations. These investigation were carried out while rendering clinical services through the veterinary teaching hospital and my department of veterinary medicine in the specialty of equine and ruminant livestock. Within the same period, the Almighty Allah Has given me the privilege of using my local and international experiences and exposure to restructure and improve the health and well-being of these large livestock. FURTHER STUDIES ON EQUINE LIVESTOCK For the improvement of health of horses a number of problem solving research investigations carried out, mainly to assist and sustain polo industry in Nigeria include the following. The incidence and economic significance of equine babesiosis in Lagos and lbadan., Nigeria! (Oladosu and Dipeolu 1981 a) Most of the literatures available on the incidence of babesiosis in Nigeria are concerned with species, which infect cattle, and they were mostly from Northern Nigeria (Folkers, Kuil and Pede 1967; Leefland and llemobade 1977; Akinboade, Dipeolu and Adetunji 1981). In this investigation, a report is highlighted on a 5-year survey of the incidence and economic significance of equine babesiosis in 8 horse herds in Lagos and lbadan involving a population of 2,627 horses (Tables 1 - 2). The study was carried out to assess the incidence and economic significance of equine babesiosis in Lagos and lbadan. These are the urban centres in southwestern Nigeria where horses are predominantly used for polo playing, patrols of the mounted units of the Nigerian Police and for individuals' pleasure rides (Tables 3 - 4). A high incidence of clinical babesiosis, some of which ended fatally was found. Many horses especially the imported Argentinian horses died as a result of acute infections caused by horse tick fever Equine Babesiosis - (Table 4). The most critical periods of deaths were shortly after the importation or when horses moved from the northern part of the country to the two areas covered. The field clinical data from the areas investigated showed that more and more horses were died as a result of this same disease. Stress of polo playing and those arising from other inter-current diseases were found to be the major predisposing factors. The incidence of the disease was highest during the rainy season when the population of the tick vectors ofthe disease was highest (Table 4). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 494 L.A. Oladosu Our investigation also showed that an average of 10 Argentinian horses were dying annually in Lagos and lbadan alone. These horses were the ones popularly used for polo playing in view of their size and body conformations. Plate 1: Blood Parasites of Horses Babesia caballi within the red blood cells Plate 2: Showing blood parasite of horses Babesia equi at different stages of multiplication with the stained red blood cells Considering the fact that each of the 10 imported Argentinian horses that died annually cost between N800,OOOand N2.5m, the financial loss suffered by polo enthusiasts due to Equine babesiosis alone becomes collosal. Between N8m. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 495 and N25m were thus lost annually from the country's foreign exchange reserve as a result of deaths of horses caused by this disease in Lagos and lbadan alone (Table 3). The clinico-pathological features and containment of equine babesiosis in Nigeria. (O/adosu and Dipeolu 1981b) In Nigeria, reports on the clinico-pathological aspects of Babesia infections of equines are not widely documented. Nevertheless, several field clinical experiences (Olotu 1978; Adejumobil979; ldris Alhaji 1981, and Dipeolu and Oduye 1976) showed the disease to the highly endemic and highly pathogenic in the country. This investigation attempts to put on record the major clinico- pathological features of the disease in Nigeria in relation to the various strategies that could be used for the control of the problem (Table 1). In our three-year clinico-pathological investigations on equine babesiosis in major horse areas of Nigeria, (Oladosu and Dipeolu 1981b) temperature elevation, anorexia ecchymosis of the third eyelids, depression, thirst, lacrimation, incoordination, rapid pulse, dyspnoea, rapid respiration, injected mucous membranes were recorded. Turbulent colic and tetanic spasms of the locomotory muscles, and "blood stained" tears were the fairly constant clinical manifestations of acute cases. There were also, icterus of the mucous membranes, sluggishness, severe weight loss, swelling of the supraoribtal areas, severe anaemia, reddish brown urine, oedema of the limbs and lower abdomen. Weak and irregular pulse and dehydration, blanched mucous membranes were some of the signs observed in chronic infections. Necropsy findings were generalised haemorrhage, watery blood with prolonged clotting time, icterus of all tissues, excessive serous fluid in the pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities, subcutaneous oedema and oedema of the lungs hepatomegaly spenomegaly, pale and swollen kidneys. Most fatal cases were characterised by coronary and epicardial haemorrhages, petechiae and ecchymoses along most vessels of the heart enlarge and oedematous lungs with subpleural deposits of yellow-coloured fluid or gelatinous materials. Others manifested congested blood vessels of the abdominal viscera, petechiae and ecchymoses of the serosal surface and serious enteritis. The predominant parasitologic findings included the presence of organisms morphologically typical of B. equi and B. caballi within the erythrocytes. The histopathologic observations were degenerative changes of the liver with increased amount of haematogenous pigments, congestion and haemosiderosis of the spleen pulmonary oedema, generalised depletion of the lymphoid germinal centres and cerebral oedema. Results Among the 1564 horses investigated in the 3-year period (1977 - 1979), 506 (32.4%) manifested clinico-pathological features of equine babesiosis. Of the 506 babesiosis cases, 67 (13.2%) were fatal (Table 1) out of which 43 (67.2%) cases were confirmed to have died of B. equi infections, 12 (17.9%) of B. caballi, and 10 (14.9%) mixed infections. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 496 L.A. Oladosu Table 1: Clinico-pathological Features and Containment of Equine Babesiosis (a) Summary of horses investigated and anal sis (1977-1979) Locations Total Number Number Mortality B. equi B. Mixed surveyed with of rate (%) Deaths caballi deaths clinical deaths deaths babesiosis Lagos 1024 312 49 15.7 34( 69.4) 9(18.4 ) 6(12.2 Ibadan 540 194 18 9.3 11 6.1) 3(16.7) 4(22.2 Total 1564 506 67 13.2 45( 67.2) 12(17.9) 10(14.9) ( ) Figures in parenthesis are in % (b) Equine babesiosis incidence and infection rates with B. equi and B. caballi and both atlbadan and Lagos, Nigeria (1976-1980) Origin Total Total B. equi B. caballi Mixed Cases and Examined Babesiosis Cases Cases Years Cases No. % No. % No. % No. % Ibadan* 1976 173 63 36.4 42 66.7 18 28.6 3 4.8 1977 181 54 29.8 28 51.9 21 39.6 5 9.3 1978 188 72 38.3 48 66.7 18 25.0 6 8.3 1979 171 , 68 39.8 38 55.9 23 33.8 7 10.3 1980 193 82 42.5 55 67.1 21 25.6 6 7.3 Total 906 339 37.4 211 62.2 101 29.8 27 8.0 Table 1(b) (Contd.) Origin Total Total B.equi B. caballi Mixed Cases and Examined Babesiosis Cases Cases Years Cases No. % No. % No. % No. % Lagos** 1976 317 98 30.9 70 71.4 22 22.4 6 6.1 1977 342 102 29.8 64 62.7 31 30.4 7 6.9 1978 331 93 28.1 74 79.6 10 10.8 9 9.7 1979 352 117 33.2 82 70.1 31 26.5 4 3.4 1980 379 121 31.9 75 62.0 39 32.2 7 5.8 Total 1721 531 30.9 365 68.7 133 25.1 33Q 6.2 *includes cases at Ibadan Polo Club, Ibadan saddle club, Ibadan race course stables and Ibadan mounted units of the Nigerian Police stables **includes cases at Lagos Polo Club, Ikeja saddle club, Obalende and Ikeja mounted units of the Nigerian Police stables. Table 2: A 5-year equine babesiosis incidence and rates of infection with B. equi, B. cab alii and mixed infections at Ibadan and Lagos, Nigeria (1976-1980) Total Total Clinical B. Equi B. caballi Mixed Examined Babesiosis Cases Cases Cases Cases No. % No. % No. % No. % Ibadan 906 339 37.4 211 62.2 101 29.8 27 8.0 Lagos 1721 531 30.9 365 68.7 133 25.1 33 6.2 Grand 2,627 970 36.9 576 59.4 234 24.1 69 7.1 Total .~,. •... , \,- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 497 Table 3: A 5-year incidence, morbidity and mortality rates of equine babesiosis in Lagos and Ibadan (1976-1980) Clinical Parameters 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Total horses examined 490 523 519 523 572 Total babesiosis cases 161 156 165 185 203 Morbidity rates (%) 32.9 29.8 31.8 35.4 35.5 Deaths due to babesiosis 19 23 17 27 31 Death as % of babesiosis cases 11.8 14.7 10.3 14.6 15.3 Mortality (%) 3.9 4.4 3.3 5.2 5.4 Table 4: Seasonal distribution of enquine babesiosis cases in Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria (1976-1980) Seasons 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Rainy season (April-Sept) No. 120 98 125 112 139 % 74.5 62.8 75.8 60.5 68.5 Dry season No. 41 58 40 73 64 (Oct-March) % 25.5 • 37.2 24.2 39.5 31.5 Total 161 156 165 185 203 Clinical illness and demonstrable parasitaemia (Plates 1 and 2) caused by Babesia infection lasted a few days to a few weeks. Clinically recovered horses were found to often join the ranks of infected, asymptomatic horses that become carriers of Babesia organisms. When horses were stressed with Polo tournament, this asymptomatic status was exacerbated into clinical illness. Generally, the Babesia infected horses were dull, listless, jaundiced and in- appetent with elevated rectal temperatures and heart rate. In acute cases staggering gait, abdominal pain mimicking acute abdominal disease (violent colic and Gastrointestinal tract disturbances), paleness and petechiation of the conjuctival, buccal and vulval membranes, marked jugular pulsations, dyspnoea and discoloured urine were conspicuously featured. Fever and anaemia were consistent findings in both B. caballi and B. equi infections. Rectal temperatures range from 39.5 - 4 1.8°C. B. equi infection often result in intermittent fevers whereas the fever of B. caballi infections was more constant. Affected horses become depressed with laboured respiration but often continue to eat. Gait may be unsteady and head were often held down with neck forwardly distended. Hypereamia of mucous membranes, ecchymosis of the third eyelid, constipation, colic and ventral oedema were common signs. As the disease progressed, anaemia become more severe, icterus develops along with signs of dehydration. Sometimes constipation often progress into diarrhoea. Haemoglobinuria were common in horses with B. equi infections but was rare in horses with B. caballi. Concurrent pneumonia was a common diagnosis in natural B: caballi infections. Only after a thorough physical examination could primary disease be rightly diagnosed. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 498 L.A. Oladosu Clinical and haematological features of stress induced babesiosis in Babesia - equi infected indigenous horses (Oladosu and Olufemi 1988) Introduction Some studies on the haematological parameters of local horses in Nigeria and those horses that were plagued with naturally occurring equine babesiosis (Oladosu and Dipeolu, 1981 a, b) had been previously reported. However, the clinical features and problems of stress induced relapses of babesiosis in premune Polo horses appear to have been ignored. In this investigation involving 123 local polo horses, an appraisal of the clinical and haematological features of stress induced relapses of babesiosis in B. equi and B. caballi premune indigenous Polo horses, is reported. The horses The stressed indigenous horses were brought from different polo clubs to lbadan and were exposed to long distance transportation stress, heat stress (due to over exposure to hot weather). They were kept in temporary stables during the tournament periods with lack of sufficient drinking water and gastrointestinal parasitism. The Results Actively stressed B. equi infected premuned indigenous polo horses, manifested severe clinical syndromes characterised by partial anorexia, hyperthermia, lethergy, extreme weakness, marked dehydration, ecchymotic third eyelid, pale mucous membranes, sternal recumbency and coma. Some horses showed complete anorexia, obvious colicy symptoms, watery blood, and haemoglobinuria. The haematologic changes in the affected horses included highly significantly (P.13 ±1.I2 ±O.87 ±1.82 ±0.72 ±O.88 Mono. 2.32 1.64 2.14 1.92 2.04 1.59 1.48 2.12 % ±O.92 ±O.gS ±O.72 ±1.21 +0.77 ±1.31 ±1.02 ±O.47 Baso 0.33 0.52 0.48 0.48 0.55 0.15 0.42 0.27 % ±O.12 ±O.22 ±O.1l ±O.32 ±0.l8 ±0.36 ±O.l7 ±O.15 Non-Infected (38) (38) (37) (32) (25) (13) (33) (38) S/Neutro. 58.43 57.52 57.62 57.72 56.45 58.54 57.62 56.82 % ±6.82 t6.12 ±5.23 ±6.33 ±8.42 ±7.38 ±7.38 ±8.44 Lympho. 27.42 26.22 27.41 26.48 25.88 27.92 27.43 26.22 % +7.89 ±7.18 ±5.62 ±!t.87 ±9.22 ±8.14 ±7.88 ±6.87 Eosino. 1.04 1.67 1.47 1.84 1.21 1.15 1.03 1.64 % +1.14 ±1.I2 ±1.02 ±1.I2 ±0.86 ±1.41 ±1.24 ±1.32 Mono. 2.66 1.58 1.92 2.85 1.26 2.62 2.41 2.22 % +1.03 tl.ll! ±O.88 ±1.22 +0.72 ±1.45 ±1.26 ±1.34 Baso 0.26 0.46 0.44 0.51 0.42 0.23 0.28 0.12 % ±0.47 ±0.13 ±O.21 ±O.34 ±0.22 ±0.59 ±O.25 ±O.15 • = Figure in parentheses indicate the number of infected and non-infected ARgentinian Polo horses •• = Day of Berenil (R) treatment ±= Standard Deviation Two (5%) of the forty (40) Argentinian horses showed relapsed Babesia parasitaemia with clinical symptoms of acute babesiosis two days before the onset of polo tournament, following their arrival at lbadan. On days 2, 4 and 6 however, the number of horses with acute babesiosis rose to 8 and 15 respectively. At this time, all horses were treated with Berenil® at a dose of 3.5mglkg body weight for two consecutive days in the early hours of the mornings. On days 8 and 9 post-treatment the number of horses with Babesia parasitaemia dropped to 7 and 2 respectively. The parasitaemia in most horses at this stage were lower. No mortality was recorded among the Babesia positive Argentinian horses although paramasitaemia were high in some of the positive cases before and during the polo tournament. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 502 L.A. Oladosu Table 3: Haematological Parameters in Argentinian Polo Horses with Acute Babesiosis Haemic Comparative n x S.D. S.E. F-Value Prob F. Values Sources Horses Grouns PCV(%) B. equi Negatives 13 32.82 3.45 0.96 vs B. equi Positives 27 20.48 4.77 0.91 8.39 ... 0.0001 HB B. equi Negatives (BN) 13 10.80 1.24 0.34 vs (zn. 100m1) B. eoui Positives (BP) 27 5.93 1.67 0.32 0.29 ... 0.0001 RBC B. equi Negatives (BN) 13 7.44 2.42 0.67 vs (x106/mrn3) B. equi Positives (BP) 27 4.51 1.25 0.24 5.22 ... 0.001 WBC B. equi Negatives (BN) 13 8.05 2.86 0.79 (x103/mrn3) vs B. equi Positives (BP) 27 4.51 1.25 0.24 5.22 ... 0.0004 N Total Horse Examined X Mean S.D. Standard Deviation S.E. Standard Error of Mean Highly Statistically Significant (P< 0.0001) n No. for each category of Argentinian horses UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestock for Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 503 Table 4: Leukocyte Differential Counts in Argentinian Polo Horses with Acute Babesiosis Haematologic Comparative -. Parameters Sources (horses Groups) n x S.D. s.E. F-Values ProbF SlNeutro. B. equi Negative 13 58.54 ±1.38 ±2.05 7;63*** OJ)OOI vs % B. equi Positive 27 39.89 ±6_94 ±i.33 Lympho. B. equi Negative 13 21-92 ±8.14 ±2.26 5.19*** 0.0004 vs % B. equi Postive 27 19.93 ±3.57 ±O.69 Eosino. B. equi Negative 13 1.15 ±L41 ±O.39 L69- 03445 vs % B. equi Positive 27 L41 ±L82 ±O35 Mono. B. equi Negative 13 2.61 ±1.45 ±O.40 L22- 0_6428 vs % . B. equi Positive 27 1.59 ±UI ±O.25 . Baso. B. equi Negative 13 0.23 ±O.59 ±O.16 2.74* 0.0306 vs % B. equi Positive 27 0.15 ±O.36 ±O.07 N Total No. of horses examined X Means ofhaemic values SD. Standard Deviation S.E. Standard Error ns Not significult (p > .05) . Statistically significant (P< 0.05) Highly significant (P<. 000 I) n No. in each category of horses. NIGERIA'S POVERTY SITUATION How much poverty one finds in Nigeria will depend on one's definition of poverty, especially since so much controversy surrounds the whole question as to what constitutes poverty. So, I must precede my assessment of the poverty situation in Nigeria with some conceptual clarifications. Poverty Concepts The most widely used approach for defining poverty and for identifying the poor is the poverty-line approach. By this approach, a certain level of income is identified as the minimum income, which an individual or an ordinary household UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 504 L.A. Oladosu in the given society requires, daily or monthly, for their most basic or most essential needs. Anyone in the given society, whose income falls below that minimum, is then identified below the poverty-line. For example, the World Development Report 2000/2001 gives the percentage of the population falling below the US$1.0/day poverty-line as 18.5 as at 1998, for China, and 70.2 for Nigeria. Indeed, the poverty-line approach makes a lot of sense. For example: (i) It is true that poverty is, primarily, economic even though its manifestations are, essentially, cultural, since they refer to the totality of the living conditions and life-style of the poor. (ii) The poor in any society are differentiate from the non-poor by their economic disabilities and by living conditions and life-styles, which are largely determined by those disabilities. (iii) Thus, income-poverty is central to the whole poverty experience at individual and household levels and the poverty-line could, therefore, be a useful predictor of many of the cultural, life-style and attitudinal attributes commonly associated with poverty. Having said that, however, I must qualify this endorsement of the poverty- line methodology in three ways, namely: i. The notorious problem of income measurement in Nigeria poses a serious limitation to the suitability and application of the approach in this setting and justifies serious reservations concerning summary evaluations based on it. 11. In view of the limitations of personal/household income data obtainable in most developing countries, including Nigeria, it is hazardous to rely on such data alone in assessing the poverty situation in such countries. (Indeed, in such countries, the poverty-line approach must always be used in combination with a more independent observation and assessment of certain concrete aspects of the actual living conditions and life-style of the populations. For example, housing conditions and environment; child-rearing practices and capacities (nutrition, clothing, education); morbidity patterns; healthcare culture and health-seeking behaviour; economic adjustment behaviour, spiritual life. 111. Indeed, the prevalence of poverty in a society can be established through a careful assessment of the actual living conditions of the people, whether or not such an assessment ends up in any single index of poverty. (This is to say that neither an assessment based on the poverty-line methodology nor the construction of a sophisticated single index of poverty is a necessary condition for tackling the poverty problem). There is one conceptual issue on which I must comment in order to complete this clarification. The issue concerns relativist notions of poverty, notions, which UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 505 suggest that poverty i~ a relative thing. Let me quickly consider four examples of the relativist notion: (i) Poverty as Inequality According to this notion, poverty simply means that some people have less resources than others, which is natural (all fingers are not equal). Of course, poverty refers too much more than inequality; it refers to a life- situation characterized by want, frustration, human suffering and disgrace. Poverty must be seen as a social problem in its own right, even if inequality is one of its major causes. (ii) Poverty as a function of prevailing standard of living According to this notion, persons defined as poor in one society may have a standard of living, which would place them among the non-poor in some other less affluent society.· This is very true. But it only means that one must be careful in making international or even inter-temporal comparisons. It does not mean that the poor in the more affluent society are not poor, since the relevant reference point and yardstick in their case is the higher standard of living prevailing in their own country. (iii) Poverty as an elastic concept According to this notion, 'the poor', as identified in most cases are not homogeneous categories, in terms of their levels of poverty. This observation is true but even those who are less poor among the poor are poor, nevertheless, as long as their life-situation and living conditions manifest the income problem and other disabilities associated with poverty. But then, it should be possible to differentiate meaningfully, between 'the poor' and 'the very poor' or the desperately poor, so that the latter can receive more urgent attention than the former, especially, relief measures. (iv) Poverty as subjective feeling , According to this notion, a person is only as poor as he/she feels; that is, poverty is all in the mind. This is, perhaps, the most pernicious of relativist notions, especially when one considers its possible implications for policy: that we can 'solve' the poverty problem by doing everything to make the poor 'feel' and 'believe' that they are not poor; by conditioning their mind to see the objective state of poverty in which they live as something else. Thus, we find that these relativist notions are, in general, plausible, at least in the sense that they do not assert anything that is false. However, we also find that they add little, if anything at all, to our understanding of the poverty phenomenon. Unfortunately, relativist motions also have a tendency to trivialise poverty and divert attention away from the concrete social problem that poverty is,; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY \:-.~. ': .:~o'~i># -L.A. Oladosu indeed to encourage the illusion that poverty is something that is neither here not there, and not a definite problem to which society must find a solution. How much Poverty From whichever angle one views the situation, one finds that there is a lot of poverty in Nigeria and that Nigeria's poverty problem is quite serious. I will illustrate the point with respect to the following four (4) aspects of the poverty situation: 1. Aggregate national poverty; u. Income-poverty at household/individual level; ui. Poverty-driven social problems (The social costs of poverty). Aggregate National Poverty We need not belabour the point that Nigeria is now one ofthe poorest nations on earth, when poverty ismeasured in terms of Gross National Product (GNP), per capita. According to the World Development Report 2000/2001, Nigeria's GNP/Capital (1999) was US$310.00, which put the country in the 179th position among the 206 countries surveyed and ranked in the exercise. What this depressing per-capita-income statistic (US$31 O/year) means is that the average Nigerian had an income of much less than one US dollar per day during 1999. But the situation on the ground was much worse than that, since most Nigerians in fact had incomes that were below the average, and this shows that we must pay even more attention to the prevailing structure of income distribution. On that point, Nigeria also had a bad reputation, since most of the nation's income (and wealth) is, in fact, in the hands of the privilege few. In that pernicious group of the few who practically own the rest of us are a few successful entrepreneurs in productive, manufacturing, construction, commercial and service activities, a large number of retired military officers, many serving military officers, some retired and some serving police officers, many retired and many incumbent top bureaucrats (permanent secretaries, directors-general, directors, etc), both the retired and the incumbent board members and top executives of the oil companies, the major companies in the private sector, professional politicians, the various categories of 'contractors' whose "business" activities, oil and drive the wheels of corruption at all levels of public administration, etc. The activities, insensitive greed and callousness of all these people have created the structure of wealth-distribution and income-distribution which now . exists in Nigeria and which is not only inegalitarian but also inequitable, even by capitalist standards. Of course, such activities and their cumulative outcome have also been facilitated by a macro-policy environment in which the control of inequalities in interpersonal incomes was not considered an important objective. Writing in 1981, Diejomaoh and Anusionwu noted: " ... a very substantial increase in personal income inequalities in the Nigerian economy from 1960- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 507 1979, and currently the levels of inequalities are quite high by the standard of developing countries and about twice the level in developed countries". As one would expect, given the continuous insensitivity of government in Nigeria to the inequality problem, the situation has remained quite bad. The Gini Index (of income concentration) in Nigeria (as at 1996/97) has been estimated at 50.6. In comparison, the Gini Index for Ghana (1997) was 32.7 for Cote d'lvoire (1995) was 36.7, for the United States of America (1997) was 40.8, for France (1995) was 32.7 and for each of Belgium (1992), Denmark (1992), Japan (1993), Norway (1995) and Sweden (1992), about 25.0. In terms of how much of the national income is concentrated in the hands of the top 10 per cent of the population, the situation is roughly as follows: Nigeria, 1997,40.8%; Ghana, 1997,26.1%; Cote d'lvoire, 1995,28.8%; United States of America, 1997 30.5; France, 1995 25.1%; Belgium, 1992, 20.2%; Denmark, 1992 20.5%; Japan, 1993 21.7%; Norway, 1995, 21.8%; and Sweden, 1992, 20.1%. (Source: World Development Report 2000/2001,). Nigeria's Poverty Statistics The statistics on poverty in Nigeria is appalling. Poverty has been on the increasing trend. The standard of living and the quality of life of most Nigerians. today are worse than they were at Independence. In particular, the last 15 years has witnessed a steady decline in living standard. Nigeria remains the only low- income country in OPEC. The standard of living in Nigeria is lower than the average for low-income countries and slightly higher for the sub-Sahara Africa. Today, Over 72 per cent survive on less than US$2.00 per day. US$1 Alongside the deep poverty is the problem of income inequality. About 10 per cent of the population controls over 40 per cent of nation's income. These grim statistics imply that only the upper 10 per cent of the population live above poverty. The middle-class that is so critical to any country's development has disappeared. The incidence of poverty in the country falls hardest on farmers, the rural and old people, women, children, the informal sector operators, the disabled, the unemployed and under-employed. The worsening state of poverty in Nigeria is a threat to national security, political security as well as constraint to economic growth. Poverty has been linked with the increasing scourging of HIV/AIDS and social problems such as prostitution, child labour, diverse and religious intolerance. Poverty is a serious problem for both the poor and non- poor alike. The army of unemployed and poor youths in the country today is a threat to security of lives and property. Although, the poverty problem predates the present civilian government, the fact is that little has been done to relieve Nigerians from the scourge of the problem. Situations in the country have degenerated to that level that people have not much room for choice. It is either they are waiting for the inevitable slow death through hunger or they take the risk of living for one more day by engaging in whatever criminal or risky activities they find. The' corruption, incompetence and unaccountability of past regimes, both civilians and military, have been the causal factors for poverty. The manner with which politicians flaunt their ill-gotten wealth is obscene. The amount of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 508 L.A. Oladosu stealing going on at all levels of government today and the huge allocation that political office holders award to themselves as salaries, allowances. and perquisites of office given the extensiveness and depth of poverty in the land are, to say the least, provocative, a reflection of insensitivity to the massive poverty in the land and a threat to the democratic stability of the country. Unless the poverty issue is effectively tackled, the groundswell of opposition and resentments that will develop would provide a breeding ground for the enemies of democracy. The cynicism and hopelessness that are creeping over the national polity and that are so evident in the faces of many Nigerians in recent times are an indictment of the current political process. Therefore, addressing the deep poverty and inequality in the land is the only guarantee for the sustenance of the present democratic experiment. Therefore, taking a decisive step against the growth of poverty is the only way for democracy and development to thrive. Refocusing Governments Poverty Alleviation Scheme To solve the poverty question, a reorientation of government policies to focus on improving the welfare of the youth, the aged and the weak in the society, boost the supply of social and economic infrastructure and show a gr,:eater fiscal commitment to human capital development. First, the easy money culture, which penalizes those who are hardworking, should be discouraged. Second, political offices should not be seen as avenues for accumulation of wealth but for service to the nation. Poverty alleviation also requires effective partnership among major stakeholders, the government, the private sector, non-profit organization, international donors and the civil society. Nationwide Agro-Livestock Pilot Farm Project The Federal Government of Nigeria proposed 109 Pilot Farm Centres nationwide as part of government's Special Programme on Food Security (SPFS) and Poverty Alleviation. This is a right step in the right direction and a welcome development in the implementation of measures against Poverty. The farm pilot projects are designed to be established by and supervised on behalf of the Federal Government by the Projects Coordinating Unit (PCU) of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. This proposal as disclosed by the Ministry at the opening address of the 14th Annual Southwest Zonal Workshop on Research Extension Farmers Input Linkage System (REFILS) at the IAR&T, Ibadan on Tuesday February 20,2001. Military Rulership and Poverty Perpetration The agony of the majority of the Nigerians is a direct indictment of the greed and cruelty of the ruling class. The rulers at the Federal, State and local government levels must strive earnestly to fmd urgent and enduring solutions to the general insecurity of life and property, hunger, homeless and unemployment. The governed should also imbibe the spirit of industry, forgiveness, cooperation and magnanimity. Nigerians in academics and research institutes should in particular UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine an~ Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 509 design programmes that will effectively eradicate the menace of poverty and food insecurity in all its ramifications. Poverty Alleviation with Prayer and Determination Furthermore, giving lip service to poverty eradication will not soive the problem. It demands reaching a state of mind where you believe that poverty is not, yours and you are able to act and feel like that in your day to day activities. You must know that Allah is God of Abundance. He has plenty to give and if He gives you abundantly, this does not reduce His bounteous blessing at all. He said in the Holy Quran: "To him belong the keys of the heavens and the earth. He enlarges the provision for whomsoever He pleases and straitens it for whomsoever He pleases. Surely He knows all things fully well. " Quran 42 vs 12. With the proper knowledge and spiritual prayer you will ask God and you shall surely receive abundantly. Pray over your problems, throw it in the hands of God and believe you shall receive. God said: " ... I answer the prayer of supplicant when he prays to Me ... " Quran 2 vs 186 Have a clear focus on life attainment and make honest demand for riches: Never believe that hardwork alone can bring riches. It is not true. Riches come in response to definite demands and not by chance or luck. You must know what you want in life and work towards that goal. Be honest in your business, profession, trade or vocation and believe that you will surely succeed. Then you will make it at last. REFERENCES Agwuna, E.N.(1985): An overview of the livestock industry in Nigeria. In NUTU,S. and Ryan, J.G. (eds). Proceedings of Nigeria - Australia Seminar on collaborative Agricultural Research. Shika, Nigeria. 14-15 November, 1983 pp.55-60. ACIAR Proceedings Series No.4, Canberra, Australia. Akinboade, O.A., Dipeolu, 0.0. and Adetunji, A. (1981): Observations on experimental transmission of Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale to calves with Boophilus decoloratus. Zentralblatfur veterinamedizin, B. 28: 329-332. Akinwumi,J.A. and Ikpi,A.E. (1985): Trypanotolerant cattle population in southern Nigeria. Report submitted to ILCA, /badan, Nigeria. March, /985. Anosa,V.O. (1987): Trypanosomes, man, animal protein and disease. An Inaugural Lecture, Published by University ofIbadan Publishing House .pp 7 -9. Aliyu M.M and Oladosu L.A (1993): Studies on the clinical aspects and chemotherapy of Trypanosoma congolense infection in donkeys. An MSc. dissertation, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of /badan. (J69 pages). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 510 L.A. Oladosu I Anon (1962): British Veterinary Association Handbook of Tropical Diseases pp.l28-150. Anosa, V.O.; Isoun, T.T. and Oladosu, L.A. (1979): Splenectomy in sheep, technique. haematological changes and the haematology of the precipitated anaplasmosis and babesiosis. Zentrallatt fur Venterinar Medizin Series. A.26: 327-336. Babatunde, G.M. (1993): The Tottering Nigerian Livestock Sector: Its Problems and possibilities. Inaugural lecture, University of Ibadan.pp.l-e Z. Desbordes C.K. and Oladosu L.A. (1988): Investigations on the immunosuppresive efficacy of some corticosteroids on Babesia infections of non-splenectomised donkeys and horses. An MSc. Dissertation, Faculty Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan (98 pages). Dipeolu, 0.0. and Oduye, 0.0. (1976). Survey of blood parasites of horses in Ibadan Western Nigeria. Wiadomosci Parazytologiczne T. XIlI Nr. 2: 155-159 Folkers, C.,Kuil, H. and Perie, N.M. (1967): Prevalence of Babesia bovis (B. argentina) in brains of slaughtered cattle in Northern Nigeria. Bull Epiz. Dis. Afr. 15: 359-361. Idris, Alhaji (1981). Incidence of equine babesiosis in Zaria area of Northern Nigeria, Personal Communication. UTA (1977): Optimising crop rotation sustains productivity in moist savannah. In: Annual Report.pp.l O-l L. lITA. (1999): Director General's introductory remark Annual Report. Pp 43-45. Lawrence P.R., Lawrence K. Dijkman, J.J. And Starkey, P.H., (1990): Research for Development of Animal Traction in West Africa. The Proceedings of the Fourth Workshops of the West African Animal Traction Network, Kano, Nigeria, pp3-49. Leeflang, P. and Ilemobade, A.A. (1977): Tick-borne diseases of domestic animals in Northern Nigeria. II. Research Summary, 1966-1976. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 9: 211-218 . . Lucas,C.E, Zito, J.G.; Carter,K.M.; Cortez,A.and Stebner, F.C.(1977): Questionable value of furosemide in preventing renal failure. Surgery Vol.82 Nos.3:314-320. Merkel, W.; Bormann,: Mania, D; Muschaweck, R, and Hropot, M. (1976: Piretanide (Hoe 118), a new high ceiling salidiuretic. Eur. J. Med. Chem. Chimica. Therapeutical. 11:339-606. Odebiyi T. and Oladosu L.A. (1999): A clinical appraisal of carcass and organs condemnation in sheep and goats slaughtered at Bodija, Ibadan. D. V.M dissertation of the Faculty of Vet. Medicine, University of Ibadan. Oladosu, L.A. (1972): Some experimental surgical procedures performed on animals at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm. D. V.M Veterinary Medicine dissertation, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (J 18 pages) Oladosu, L.A.and Akpokodje, J.U. (1975): Rumen cannulation of the Red Sokoto (Maradi) goats for nutritional studies in Nigeria. Nig. J. Anim. Prod. Vol.2,(2):227- 233. Oladosu, L.A. and Case A.A (1978): Large animal hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic plants. Vet. And Hum. Toxicol Vol. 21,(5):363-365. . Oladosu, L.A. (1978): Effects of Piretanic on some equine clinical variables. Master of Science (M.s) Thesis. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A. (147 pages). Oladosu, L.A. and Dipeolu, 0.0.(1981 a): The incidence and economic significance of equine babesiosis in Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria. Proc. First International Con! on ticks and tick borne disease of domestic animals in Nigeria. Vol.1:16-24 Oladosu,L.A. and Dipeolu (1981 b): The clinico-pathological features and containment of equine babesiosis in Nigeria. Proc. of the First International Conference on ticks and tick borne diseases of domestic animals in Nigeria. Vol. 1:35-39. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nigeria's Equine and Ruminant Livestockfor Polo, Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 511 Oladosu, L.A.; Falade,S. and Akpokodje, J.U. (1986): Equine brucellosis in Nigeria. Zariya Veterinarian, Vol.l. No.2, 129-132. Oladosu, L.A. and Olufemi, RE. (1987a): Clinical and haematological features of stress induced Babesiosis in Babesia equi infected indigenous horse. Nig.J. of Anim. Prod. 14 (12):113-119. Oladosu, L.A.(1987b): Studies on some clinical aspects of equine Babesiosis. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. (315 pages). Oladosu,L.A. (1988): Effect of intravenous corticosteroid on the pathogenicity of Babesia equi infection of donkeys (Equus asinus). J. Vet. Med.B. 35:509-514. Oladosu, L.A. and H.E. Gamer (1990): Diuretic and tolerance responses to piretanide in horses. Tropical Veterinarian 8: 3 & 4, 176 - 189. Oladosu,L.A.; Olufemi,RE. (1990): Haematological parameters of Argentinian polo horses with acute Babesiosis. Tropical Veterinarian 8, Nos. (3&4) 163-169. Oladosu,L.A. and Gamer, H.E.(1991): A New technique for urine output determination in mares. Trop. Veterinarian Vol.9 Nos. (1 & 2) 86-92. Oladosu,L.A. and Olufemi, RE. (1991): Chemotherapeutic trials on equine Babesia infections. Trop. Vet. Vol .9, 30-33. . Oladosu, L.A. and Akpokodje,J.U. (1992): Rumen fistulation of the west African dwarf rams for digestibility studies. Trop. Veterinarian Vol.JO, 30-33. Olaide, A.M and Oladosu L.A (1994): A survey of gastrointestinal helminth parasites of polo horses in Ibadan. DVM dissertation of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan. Starkey, P. and Faye,A., (1988): Animal traction for agricultural development. Proceedings of the third workshop of the West African animal traction network. eTA Publication. pp 78-431. Swendsen (1986): The Professional Handbook of the donkey. First edition published by the donkey sanctuary. Sovereign Printing Group England, U'K. pp.85-90. ~ Wintope O.A and Oladosu L.A (1999): Prevalence and causes of carcass and ~rg~ condemnation at Bodija Abattoir, DVM dissertation, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan (66 pages). World Bank (1985): Poverty in the developing Nations. Development Report. International Economics Department, Washington D.C. ppI75-177. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 22 COMPOSITIONAL CHARACTER: VERITABLE TOOL IN THE APPRAISAL OF GEOMATERIALS A. Ai Elueze Department of Geology Introduction Description and Constitution of Geomaterials For effective commencement of this scientific expedition from the obvious to the normally unseen, it is appropriate to appreciate that geomaterials are naturally occurring substances or matter of the earth, and essentially include rocks, and their derivatives, notably regoliths and sediments. The geological cycle (Fig. 1) provides a schematic illustration of the paths of transformation of these materials: Specifically, rocks which are products of magmatism, sedimentation and metamorphism, are invariably converted into regoliths and sediments by superficial processes. -==-'--,/ ?£DlMENTS T Sur'tce. .nvironm.rrt ., (IO'N prt'fiSIM'.'"'''~''~' and 1wmpercrtur. J t:..\nUol.Uh.,.." . • ",IIO"'UD. T SubSurfOa' .nvi ronm.nt (:!~\~::~r.' , ~f'-;-I.!."'!".t~:-'t-'!.-;-!,'------- .-.C Fig. 1: The geological cycle - transformation paths of geomaterials (modified after Strahler, 1981) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 514 A.A. Elueze A rock is commonly regarded as an aggre;sate of one or more minerals. The texture is invariably determined by the variations in size, shape, habit and aggregation nature of the constituent grains or crystals. Regoliths and sediments are generally composed of loose grains of minerals and rock fragments. On the other hand, a mineral is mostly considered to be a naturally existing substance, usually inorganic, and with a definite chemical constitution and an ordered atomic arrangement. Consequently, the compositional attributes of geomaterials are normally defined from the mineralogical or geological (the obvious) and the elemental or chemical (the usually unseen) perspectives. In essence, mineralogical and chemical compositions are inherent qualities of any substance. Compositional Indices and Variations In Geomaterials Characterization and Distinction OfMinerals Features ofminerals Firstly, it is pertinent to remark that there is hardly any precise definition of a mineral, which is generally acceptable. For instance, there are disagreements on the form of occurrence, since some also rate natural fluids like water and hydrocarbons.as minerals. Besides, from the genetic viewpoint, several minerals have synthesized equivalents, while some, particularly the fossil fuels are essentially of organic origin. Again, minerals generally lack fixed chemical compositions, arising from differences in the extent of substitution. However, the variations are commonly within definite limits. On the other hand, due to envirofunental factors, they seldom assume regular crystal forms, to reflect their ordered atomic arrangements. Classification of minerals Several schemes have been proposed for the separation of minerals. Over 2,500 species have been described and identified, especially through recent advances in mineral analytical techniques. Therefore, it is virtually impossible to achieve a comprehensive division. Generalized grouping Minerals usually exhibit stronger resemblances in physical attributes and rock affinity, due to similarity in anion, rather than cation types; and hence, have often been distinguished on the basis of the former. There are several adaptations of the system originally designed by Berzilius (Berry and Mason 1959), and mostly include native elements, sulfides, sulfosalts, oxides, carbonates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, vanadates, tungstates and silicates. Rock-forming minerals These largely comprise the silicates which are the largest and commonest class of minerals, and actually make up ca. 95% of the outermost shell of rocks, or the crust of the earth (Table 1). In any case, several are considerably rare. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 515 Tabl';.1: Common Rock-forming Minerals (Silicates) Name Chemical formula Crystal system Silica Group" Quartz varieties Si02 Trigonal Feldspar Group * Orthoclase KAIShOg Monoclinic Albite NaAI Si30g Triclinic Anorthite Ca AhSi208 Triclinic Feldspathoid Group * Leucite KAI Sh06 Isometric Nepheline NaAI Si04 Hexagonal Mica Group Muscovite* K Ah (AI Si30lO) (OH)2) Monoclinic Lepidolite * KLi2 Al Si4 01O(OH)2 Monoclinic Biotite** K (Mg, Fe)3 (AISi3 01O)(OH)2 Monoclinic Amphibole Group** Anthopyllite series (Mg, Fe)? Sig 022 (OH)2 Orthorhombic Tremolite-Actinolite series (Ca2) (Mg, Fe)5 s., 022 (OH)2 Monolinic Hornblende series NaCa2 (Mg, Fe, AI)5 (Si, AI)g 022 Monoclinic (OH)2 Pvroxene Group** Enstatite-Hypersthene series (Mg, Fe) Si03 Orthorhombic Diopside-Hedenbergite series Ca (Mg, Fe) Si2 06 Monoclinic Augite Ca (Mg, Fe, AI) (AI, Si)2 06 Monoclinic Olivine series** (Mg, Fe)2 Si04 Orthorhom- .. bic *Felslc - rich m silicon (SI), aluminium (AI), sodium (Na), potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) **Mafic - rich in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg) or ferromagnesian Petrological discrimination With regards to rocks, minerals present in substantial quantities, are classed as essential constituents, and are mostly the silicates (Table 1). Those that occur in small amounts, are referred to as accessory minerals, and are mainly oxides, sulfides and phosphates. The light and dark-coloured are generally termed felsic and mafic minerals, which invariably reflect the chemical distinctions as specified in Table 1. In any case, the qualifications leucocratic and melanocratic appropriately refer to rocks of corresponding tone, and hence mineralogy. For a rock, the modal and normative compositions are given as the weight percents, respectively of the actual minerals and the hypothetical ones derived from its chemical analysis. Economic categorization The grouping of minerals has similarly been based on the modes of utilization; for example, as outlined in Table 2. An ore mineral is that from which one or UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 516 A.A. Elueze more valuable metals can be profitably extracted. Gangues are usually the waste constituents found with ore minerals in deposits. Industrial or non-metallic minerals are those consumed as raw materials in' construction, processing and production. They have different functional uses, notably as abrasives, absorbents, aggregates, ceramics, chemicals, cosmetics, fertilizers, fillers, filters, fluxes, gems, insulators, lubricants, refractories and stones. Ore and industrial minerals are collectively termed economic minerals. Energy resources include substances which are utilized as fuels or harnessed to generate power. Table 2: Economic classification of minerals Class Uses Mineral composition 1. Ore Minerals Precious metals Ornamental, Gold (Au), Silver (Az) Iron and steel alloy Platinum (Pt) Non-ferrous Ore of copper, ornamental Cuprite (CU20) Ore of copper, ornamental Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) Ore of lead, accumulator Galena (PbS) Ore of zinc, galvanizing Sphalerite (ZnS) Ore of tin, canning, steel Cassiterite (Sn02) Ore of manganese, steel Pyrolusite (Mn02) Ore of nickel, steel alloy Pentlandite (NiS) Ore of titanium, steel Rutile (Ti02) alloy Ferrous Iron and steel Magnetite (Fe304) Iron and steel Haematite (Fez03) Iron and steel Goethite (Fe203, H2O) Iron and steel Siderite (FeC02) 2. Industrial minerals Electronics Mica, selenite, silica (SiO,) Chemicals Phosphorite,barytes Chemicals Flourspar (CaF2) Insulators Asbestos, magnesite Refractories Sillimanite, graphite Gemstones Diamond, garnets, beryls Abrasives Silica sands 3. Energy Resources Nuclear/radioactive Uraninite (V02) Minerals Thorite (Th Si04) Thorianitc f---- Fossil fuels (Th02 U3OS) Coal, petroleum and natural gas UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal of Geomaterials 517 Formation of Minerals From the geological cycle (Fig. 1), it is obvious that minerals originate during the activities of the evolution and transformation of rocks. Consequently, the formation of minerals is dependent on the bulk chemical composition and the physical conditions of the specific environment. The two major mineral-forming processes of the subsurface or primary environment are largely intrusive magmatism and metamorphism. According to Bowen (Krauskopf 1985), the crystallization of minerals from magma with fall in temperature, essentially involves two main paths of reaction, as depicted in Table 3. Magma is a molten mass usually composed mainly of 0, Si, AI, K, Na, Ca, Fe and Mg, and low amounts of most other elements. Also, it always contains fluids, substantially H20 and C02. The reactions usually result in the partitioning of these major elements into the mineral crystals, and the preferential retention in the residual volatile- and H20-rich fractions, of several of the minor or incompatible elements. Metamorphism largely entails the transformation of solid rocks, due to considerable variations in the physico-chemical conditions. In essence, the mineral assemblages are changed to those that are in equilibrium, and likewise may assume textural styles or fabrics as determined by the prevailing interplay of heat, pressure and fluids activity. Processes in the secondary environment, are commonly characterized by atmospheric conditions of low temperature and pressure. Hence, primary silicates are unstable, and presumably decay at rates in the reserve orders of the Bowen's reaction series (Table 3). Inter-element relations are also significantly influenced by environmental setting. Weathering and sedimentary reactions mostly involve hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation and dissolution. However, their mechanisms are rather intricate, due to the complex structures of rock-forming minerals. On the other hand, some constituents such as oxides and low- temperature silicates virtually withstand decomposition, and are retained as resistates in the residues and soils. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 518 A.A. Elueze Table 3: The Bowen's Reaction Series High temperature • -I, II(Temperature fall)Olivine Anorthite Ortho-soxene .BzytoL.ite, Monoc inic pyroxene I HO~lende Andesine \. I Biotite ,oclase \ Albite,/ Potash Feldspar Muscovite Quartz Low temperature I Discontinuous (ferromagnesian) series II Continuous (plagioclase) series Nature and Classification of Elements Elements are the ultimate constituents of minerals, as they are substances which normally cannot be split into simple or smaller components. However, the periodic table which is essentially a structural categorization of the about 100 known ones, cannot fully account for their behaviours, due to the complexities of geological environments. Consequently, the geochemcial discrimination of elements based on parameters that are also related to their natural distribution, have been found more tenable in investigating geomaterials. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 519 Abundance character of elements In terms of the natural' occurrences, elements can be said to have preferences for different minerals, some of which are relatively rare, but are sometimes concentrated in deposits. The most abundant elements are ultimately the main components of magmas and the common silicate minerals (Table 1). Besides, some less common metals like Cr, Ni, Y, Ti and Mn are often found as substitutes for related elements in the silicates. Consequently, from mean concentrations in crustal rocks, elements maybe distinguished as major (%), minor (1/10%), trace (ppm) and rare (Ppb). Geochemical classification of elements On the basis of geochemical associations or affinities, elements can be grouped as shown in Table 4. Similarly, they may be broadly separated into petrogenic and metallogenic classes. The former largely tallies with the lithophile group (Table 4), which constitute the bulk of rock-forming minerals, and are again the major elements and their common substitutes. Metallogenic elements like Cu, Pb and Zn are those found in ore minerals, particularly sulfides and sulfosalts, in which they commonly make-up relatively high percentages, and are readily extractable. These are invariably the chalcophile members (Table 4). Table 4: Goldschmidt's 1954 Geochemical Classification of the Elements Siderophile Chalcophile Lithophile Atmophile Fe Co Ni Cu Ag (Au)* Li NaKRbCs HN (C) (0) RuRhPd ZnCdHg BeMgCaSrBa (F) (CI) (Br) (I) Re Os IrPtAu GaIn TI B Al Sc Y REE++ Inert gases MoGeSnCP (Ge) (Sn) Pb (C) Si TI Zr HfTh (Pb)(As)(W) As Sb Bi (P)VNbTa S SeTe OCrWU (Fe) (Mo) (Re) (Fe) Mn F Cl BrI (H) (T) (Ga) (Ge) (N) Source:l(rauskop~ 1985 + Parentheses around a symbol indicate that the element belongs primarily in another group, but has some characteristics that relate it to this group. For example, gold is dominantly siderophile, but (Au) appears in the chalcophile group because gold is often found in sulfide veins. + + REE = rare-earth elements. Development and Experience in the Compositional Disciplines Historical Perspectives Understanding the nature and distribution of geomaterials significantly demonstrates the intimate linkage between geology and chemistry. The ranking UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 520 A.A. Elueze between these subjects, essentially corresponds to that of a mineral and an element, which may be comparable to that of a chicken and an egg. In any case, historical records largely indicate that the jsolation and study of elements emanated substantially from attempts to exploit and understand the character of minerals and geomaterials. The earliest known techniques mostly involved smelting. Therefore, the practice of chemistry can be regarded to have commenced much later than geology, whose records actually date back to prehistory. For instance, one of the earliest documentation on minerals (Berry and Mason 1959) was by Theophrastus (ca. 372-282BC). Also, as shown in Table 5, elements were generally discovered much later in human history. Even the earliest known, namely gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, mercury, antimony, carbon and sulfur are essentially those minerals in the native or elemental form. It is also remarkable that the first 6 metals are those mentioned in the Bible. Similarly in Nigeria, projects on geomaterials are amongst the earliest indigenous trades (Elueze and Onuoha 1995). Perhaps, it would be interesting to know if there are native names for the following minerals and elements. The former are kaolinite, galena, halite, lignite and trona, while the latter comprise silicon, aluminum, lead, sodium and oxygen. The expected responses may be variable; however, there is seemingly no name in one's mother tongue for any of the elements, especially if oxygen is not confused for air or breeze. As for the minerals, the names "nzu", "otangele", "nnu ", "ako" and "akanwu" could be applicable. The practice of geology has likewise maintained invaluable relationships with some applied disciplines, including mining/mining engineering, petroleum engineering, metallurgy, mineral processing and materials science. These close professional connections were clearly recognized by the pioneer Nigerian earth scientists, with the founding of the Nigerian Mining, Geological and Metallurgical Society in 1961, currently the Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society (NMGS). Introductory Exposure The study of chemistry commenced at the secondary level, in St Pius Grammar School (SPGS), Onitsha-Ugbo, and was continued in the 2-years advanced level (AIL) course of the part-time programme in Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos. The absolute drive and visionary stance of the Principal, Chief J.1. Izah (B.A., London), a pre-eminent 1950 alumnus of the University of Ibadan, and the exceptional dedication of other staff members ensured that the SPGS training, notably in the sciences, was excellent. It is particularly noteworthy that in inorganic chemistry, even at the. AlL course, mentions were made of the substances from which metallic elements can be obtained. However, the fact that these are minerals, and constituents of rocks, some of which occur in Nigeria, was then virtually unimportant. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 521 Training and Skill A~quisition With the NL qualification in mathematics, physics and chemistry, the admission in 1971, was into the 3-year degree programme of the Department of Geology, University of Ibadan. In the first year, all the 3 one-series 100-level courses of inorganic, organic and physical chemistry were taken. Of the 3 corresponding 200-level courses, those in inorganic and physical chemistry, were offered in the second year. As regards geology, the first year was expectedly the initiation to the subject, and the 3 years afforded the progressive exposure to the theoretical and practical aspects of relevant courses. It was quite challenging to study the unique suite comprising charnockites, syenites and pegmatites around Osuntedo, as the final year research project. Besides, the recognition (with A.A. Akinyemi, one's project partner) of the unusual rock composed dominantly of intergrown quartz and tourmaline crystals, was equally symbolic, though was then classified as tourmalized quartzite (Elueze, 1974). . Research Activities In terms of scholarship, the Department under the dynamic headship •o.f Professor M.O. Oyawoye, FAS, FNMGS, OON, had by 1975, when I returned as a postgraduate student, acquired a formidable complement of research facilities, support personnel and experts, and been internationally designated a centre of academic excellence. It enjoyed linkage relationships with institutions in Holland, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, British Columbia, Japan, the USA and several African countries. The Department had also designed major research projects, especially in the exploration and evaluation of mineral occurrences of national significance, and particularly under the supervision of Professor M.A. Olade, FNMGS, an exceedingly versatile scholar and motivator. My initial work entailed stream sediments geochemical survey, and studies of the compositional and genetic characteristics of the rocks, in relation to elucidating the nature and distribution of the Ilesha gold mineralization. Having highlighted the intriguing geodynamic significance of the association of mafic, ultramafic and metasedimentary rocks in the Ilesha area or schist belt, research interest was subsequently extended to other similar belts. Further, the recognition of various compositional trends with economic implications, afforded the expansion in work extent and locations. Apart from the facilities in Ibadan, opportunities were afforded through different awards, notably by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Bonn, the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology and the UNESCO, for the execution of specialized research studies, particularly in the Universities of Munich and Braunschweig, Germany and the Ecole des Mines, Paris, France. Sample analyses were likewise undertaken in other institutions in Nigeria and abroad, especially by my research students. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 522 A.A. Elueze Applications and Implications of Compositional Data Concepts, Objectives and Scope of Work The fundamental essence of any geological research is the provision of data and/or information thar contribute to elucidating the nature and value of geomaterials, and hence understanding the evolution of the earth. In similar light, the focus of one's research is basically the utilization of compositional characterization as means of achieving this ultimate goal. Efforts have largely been directed into ascertaining the petrogenetic and geotectonic nature of basement rocks, exploration and evaluation of mineral resources and assessment of water quality and environmental dispersion patterns. Compositional data and indices have likewise been applied extensively in geochronology, geotechnical site investigations, medical and health surveys, geobotanical and geobiological indexing, agrogeological/agronomical characteri- zation and petroleum: exploration and production. Table 5: Abundances and discovery years of some common elements Elements Symbol Crustal abundance Discovery year (oom) Aluminium Al 81000 1825 Antimony Sb 1 BC Arsenic As 5 1649 Barium Ba 250 1808 Beryllium Be 6 1797 Boron B 3 1808 Cadmium Cd 0.15 1817 Calcium Ca 36300 1808 Carbon C 320 BC Chlorine CI 314 1774 Cobalt Co 23 1742 Copper Cu 70 BC Fluorine F 900 1771 Gallium Ga 15 1875 Gold Au 0.005 BC Hydrogen H 1300 1765 Iron Fe 50000 BC Lead Pb 16 BC Magnesium Mg 20000 1755 Manganese Mn 1000 1774 Mercury Hg 0.5 BC Molybdenum Mo 15 1782 Nickel Ni 80 1751 Nitrogen N 46:3 1772 Oxygen 0 466000 1772. Phosphorus P 1180 1669 Platinum Pt 0.005 1735 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 523 Potassium K 25900 1807 Rubidium Rb 310 1861 Silicon Si 277200 1823 Silver Ag 0.10 Be Sodium Na 28300 1807 Strontium Sr 300 1787 Sulphur S 520 Be Tin Sn 40 Be Titanium Ti 4400 1791 Vanadium V 150 1830 Zinc Zn 132 <1400 Source: Dineley, et al. 1976. The execution of each project was generally designed as to duly incorporate the main components of field geology involving mapping, examination and collection of representative samples, and laboratory activities which included appropriate analytical procedures and techniques. Petrogenetic and Geotectonic Characterization of Basement Rocks Outline geology of the precambrian basement complex of Nigeria Igneous and metamorphic rocks essentially constitute the Precambrian basement complex of Nigeria (Fig. 2). Though the assemblages have been variedly classified, they may be broadly subdivided into the ancient gneiss-migmatite complex, the schist belts and the Pan-African (ca. 0.6 Ga) intrusive series or the Older Granites plus minor rocks. Radiometric ages obtained from the ancient migmatitic gneisses, are notably between ca. 2.8 and 2.0 Ga (Rahaman, 1988). Older dates ~3.0 Ga) have more recently been derived from some (Dada et al. 1998). The schist belts occur prominently within the western half of the country (Fig. 3), though a few have more recently been highlighted in the central and southeastern parts (Elueze 2000). They generally show distinctive petrological, structural and metallogenetic features, and are mostly regarded to be Proterozoic age ~ 0.6-2.5 Ga). Notwithstanding the lack of agreement on the geographic delimitation, geological nomenclature, geochronological characterization and geodynamic setting, the schist belts are composed dominantly of metasediments, particularly pelitic schists and quartzites. The secondary lithologies are often variedly distributed, and include banded iron formations, marble bodies, amphibolites and meta- ultramafi tes. The Pan-African intrusive suite comprises mainly granites and granodiorites, with subordinate pegmatites and aplites. Minor, presumably affiliated rocks include charnockites, syenites and bauchites (Olarewaju, 1999), plus extrusive and hypabyssal bodies, notably dolerite dikes believed to belong to the terminal stage of the Pan-African event (ca. 0.45Ga). One of the greatest challenges in the study of this obviously intricate basement, has been to decipher and reconcile the modes of origin or petrogenetic affinities and petrotectonic settings of the different units. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 524 A.A. Elueze NIGER •. ~... o .'".••• q,. ~ 0,,-:,. .§N_-'< '"••".".•"•""P•'"•• 1§""'-~r~J 0C]]-o.r.t.,ri.. .I"Cl.M.tri.ff>-S-cN-JI1 J.£ Fig. 2: Generalized geological map of Nigeria (Geological Survey of Nigeria, GSN). oWut African CratonVoltclion .~ Birtirrlioo Oreen,:1one ~It.· {~ Gneiss. Migmol!l., or .•..it, Fig. 3: Location of the schist belts in the Nigerian sector of the Pan-African Province (after Turner, 1983) (unsymboled - Phanerozoic depositional sites) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 525 Petrochemistry in petrogenetic and geodynamic studies As already implied, chemical results and indices provide the best clues to the nature of the precursors of rocks, especially basic/ultrabasic types such as amphibolites and meta-ultramafites, which are more restricted in compositions, compared to siliceousmigmatitic, metasedimentary and granitic units. Besides, petrochemical variations when related to geological environments, are signficantly dependable in ascertaining the regimes of crustal evolution (Elueze 1980; Shoji and Kaneda 1980). Migmatitic gneisses As shown by Elueze (1982a), rocks of the gneiss-migmatite complex largely display chemical variations indicative of having been. derived from heterogeneous progenitors, which may have been partly volcanogenic. Some likewise exhibit traits believed to be signatures of the Pan-African remobilization (Oyawoye 1972), notably the enhancements in K20, Ba and Rb (Elueze 1982b). The overall crustal character is further subtly portrayed in the innovative CaO- P205 plot (Fig. 4) and the Zr content (ca. 300ppm), which invariably correspond to the presence and significance of apatite and zircon, that are merely minor constituents. On the other hand, the tectonized or cataclastic varieties developed along fault zones, are substantially differentiated in petrographic and compositional properties. (Elueze 1982a). 1.00r---:------- --. •• • 0.50 • • ••• ~ -.! .• • •••• ~ 0.10 • • : .. . a~..f'4 •• 0.05 • • •• • • 1 23 •• 6 CaO(wt ••,.) Fig. 4: CaO - P,O, variation diagram for the Ilesha granite gneiss (Elueze, 1982b) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 526 A.A. Elueze Amphibolites and meta-ultramafites The amphibolites are also variable in textural and mineralogical characteristics (Fig. 5), while the meta-ultramafites are mostly various talc-bearing rocks (Elueze 1981c, 1982c). Some of the latter may be composed dominantly of any or more of other minerals, with insignificant talc abundance (Wright and Ogezi 1977; Elueze 1982c). Fig. 5: Photomicrographs of the Alawa amphibolites showing variation in style of deformation (a) plicated fabric with aggregated hornblende in micro-fold closure; (b) mortar structure with abraded and fractured aggregates in granulated matrix) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 527 Geochemical studies have shown that these rocks are commonly of igneous parentage (Elueze and Olade 1980). The amphibolites are largely derivatives of tholeiitic basalts, as particularly depicted on discriminant plots (e.g. Fig. 6), employing relatively immobile minor and trace elements Ti, Ga, Y and Ni (Elueze 1993a; Elueze and Okunlola 1998). However, the petrographic subgroups are distinctive in certain petrochemical indices and trends. These variations, especially in the cases of upgrading in K, Rb, and Ba values, presumably are imprints of crustal inputs, and tend to constrain the geotectonic setting, as being essentially intracontinental (Olade and Elueze 1979). Fig 6: Characterization of Alawa amphibolites on a Tiv - Ga - Y ternary plot for basaltic suites (Elueze, 1985). As for the meta-ultramafites, major and trace element abundances, and petrochemical patterns suggest they are mainly similar to ultramafic magmatic rocks (Elueze 1982c). Cr and Ni are substantially high, and the latter generally correlates positively with MgO content (Elueze 1982c). Metasedimentary rocks The pelitic schists or metapelites are mainly micaceous units, with essential and minor proportions of other constituents (Elueze 1981a; Rahaman 1988). Quartz is dominant in the quartzites which also pass into schistose varieties with increasing contents of aligned flakes of muscovite/sericite. On the basis of abundances and ratios of major and trace elements (Table 6), and discriminant diagrams, the metapelites are believed to have been derived from protoliths of shale to greywacke affinity (Elueze 1981a; Elueze and Okunlola 2001a). As for the marbles, Elueze and Okunlola (2001a) have incorporated stable isotope geochemical indices, in constraining the geotectonic UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 528 A.A. Elueze setting of the Okene-Lokoja area as being rift-like, which amplifies the assertions on the schist belts (Elueze 1985; Okonkwo ant! Winchester 2000). Table 6: Average contents of major and trace elements of meta- sedlrmen tary rocks Major a B c D e f g h i % Si02 95.12 81.16 80.72 75.19 69.1 72.97 61.41 66.35 60.67 0 Ti02 0.09 0.36 0.58 0.51 0.77 0.81 0.94 \.15 \.84 AI203 3.98 9.47 8.79 9.83 12.5 11.76 16.13 13.47 13.26 7 *F~03 0.25 2.20 2.79 3.10 4.64 5.15 8.08 8.28 15.75 MnO 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.36 0.11 0.11 0.17 0.39 MgO 0.10 0.85 1.24 0.86 3.98 \.76 4.26 2.63 4.17 Cao 0.01 0.85 1.68 2.87 3.55 2.44 2.99 1.70 0.60 Na20 0.31 0.58 \.16 2.97 1.11 \.89 \.81 2.05 0.59 K20 0.60 2.53 \.61 \.75 2.62 \.84 3.06 2.16 \.00 P20 0.01 ,5 0.08 0.14 0.14 0.37 0.19 0.25 0.13 0.12' Trace a b c d e f g h i Ppm Ba \060 960 970 1250 2270 6\0 1030 940 820 Co 4 9 \0 II II 13 17 21 28 Cr 180 130 170 245 \00 245 185 105 540 Cu 19 22 35 29 33 48 55 86 79 Ni 55 75 88 110 98 70 105 120 140 Rb 35 78 67 96 145 105 99 120 42 Sr 29 82 160 105 205 160 195 90 37 V 5 25 38 35 100 65 145 195 250 Zn 5 26 27 4 5 39 43 29 7 Zr 390 340 420 245 210 235 150 185 115 KlRb 137 259 192 146 144 140 247 170 190 Rb/Sr \.21 0.95 0.42 0.91 0.71 0.66 0.51 1.22 \.14 SrlBa 0.03 0.09 0.16 0.08 0.09 0.26 0.19 0.10 0.05 (a) Quartzites/quartz schists (4 samples) (b) Quartz-sericite schists ( 5 samples) (c) Quartz-muscovite (chorite) schists (8 samples) (d) Quartz-muscovite biotite-feldpar schists (3 samples) (e) Quartz-plagioclase-biotite-garnet schists (8 samples) (I) Quartz-plagioclase-biotite-garnet schists (5 samples) (g) Biotite-plagioclase-garnet schists (\ 0 samples) (h) Biotite-garnet-staurolite schists (5 samples) (i) Mafic schists (5 samples) * Total Feas F~ 03 Sourr.Elueze,198Ia UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 529 Granites and pegmatites Petrographic types of the intrusives include porphyritic, even-textured and muscovite-biotite or 2-mica granites (Elueze 1987, 1993b). Petrochemical data and patterns generally indicate that the even-textured is considerably basic in nature, whereas the porphyritic bodies evolved from relatively less fractionated magmas, compared to the 2-rnica variety which consolidated from water-rich melt, possibly of sedimentary affiliation. Pegmatites, such as the body adjacent to the 2-mica granite in Ilesha area (Elueze, 1987), developed from silica and volatile - richer fractions. In any case, the Rb-Sr diagram (Fig. 7) suggests that the rocks were emplaced within a fairly thickened Pan-African crustal setting (Elueze, 1987). 20 - 30km 50 ------ ..... ..... ..... ...•. <20km <, • 50 100 500 1000 Sr ppm Fig. 7: Granite rocks in the Rb againstSr crustal thickness grid of Condie (1976). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 530 A.A. Elueze Cataclasites and mylonites The mylonitic and cataclastic gneisses notably exhibit distinctive deformational features and transposive fabrics (Fig. 8). Compared to the undeformed units, they are usually characterized by enrichments in Ti02, Fe203, and considerable Ba and Zr contents (Elueze 1982a, 1982b). Fig. 8: Photomicrograph of mylonitic gneisis displaying abraded quartz and feldspar in 1'111\ ni/L'd lll:lIri, Again, Elueze (1981 b, 1984, 1985) has aptly advanced that the cataclastic amphibolites are subtly differentiated by relatively higher oxidation ratios and volatile contents. Comparative data also show that the tectonized rocks have increments in Fe203, CaO, Ba, Cr and Ni, plus depletions in Ti02, FeO, Na20, Cu and V (Elueze 1984). Minerals transformation is strikingly imprinted in the essential and accessory constituents (Fig. 9), which likewise reflects the effects of fluid activity associated with dynamic metamorphism (Spry 1979). Further, mineralogical and chemical styles imposed by intense deformation, have been extracted from the rather previously unknown Imelu banded ferruginous rock. The latter include the relatively elevated Ba and volatile contents and oxidation ratio, coupled with the diverse trends depicted in the Fe203 - Si02 and FeO +MgO vs. Si02 +Al203 plots (Elueze, 2000). Search and Evaluation of Mineral Occurrences Distribution of mineral resources in Nigeria Besides the Jurassic (ca. 0.16 Ga) intrusives of the Jos plateau and the Tertiary to Recent igneous rocks, the basement complex accommodates important Phanerozoic «ca.O.4 Ga) sedimentary basins (Figs. 2 and 3). Therefore, the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 531 geology of Nigeria is characterized by widely variable lithological and structural features, and hence several mineral occurrences (Elueze 1993c). The latter include ore minerals, industrial and energy resources and even water sources. Fig. 9: Photomicrograph of polished section of the Tegina cataclastic amphibolite showing abraded amphibole lenticules, ore of white chalcopyrite rimmed by shells of oxidation products tapering along lamination. Exploration for ore minerals In search of ore minerals, dispersion patterns in geomaterials, have commonly been found workable tools (Hawkes and Webb 1962). Elueze and Olade (1985) have particularly applied the factor scores map for the element association P-Fe- As-Au extracted from stream sediments geochemical data, in defining a target area. This also on geological grounds, has the highest potentials for mineralization (Elueze 1986), and subsequently became a major location for the development of the Ilesha gold project. Elueze and Kehinde-Phillips (1993a, 1993b) have further utilized mineralogical characteristics and chemical trends in assessing the ore prospects of lateritic profiles (cf Schellmann, 1989; Elueze, 1994). They have shown that the saprolite horizons over the Ibodi amphibolite and the Itan-Osan meta- ultramafite, hold good promise for accumulation of Ni, Co, Cr, V and Mn ores. Metallographic and geochemical investigation of ores The earliest investigation of the ore potentials of the metabasites and the meta- ultramafites, notably included those of Elueze (1980, 1981c, 1982d) and Bafor (1981). The rocks are found to contain sulfides, mostly pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite; while the principal oxides comprise ilmenite, pyrophanite and magnetite. Chromite is also present in some meta-ultramafites. Though the mineralization is largely dispersed, the overall metallographic character is consistent with the petrogenetic affinity of the rocks (Elueze 1981c). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 532 A.A. Elueze Iron ores are found within the Precambrian domain and some Phanerozoic sedimentary basins. Majority of the Precambrian ores bear magnetite and hematite in varying proportions and paragenetic relations (Elueze 1999). The iron (Fe203) concentrations or grades are considerably different (Table 7). In any case, the Kakun ore contains mainly magnetite, ferromagnesians and plagioclase (Elueze and Okolo 1990; Annor and Mucke 1991). Therefore, the high Fe203 - (ca. 46%) does not connote an equivalent tenor (ore mineral content), considering the significance of Fe-rich silicates in the ore type. On the other hand, the enriched Agbaja ironstone (Table 7) is dominantly oolitic (Fig. 10), and mostly contain goethite, hematite, kaolinite and phosphates (Elueze 1999). However, the relatively elevated P205 concentration (ca. 2.4%) is deleterious in steel production, hence rather diminishes the commercial worth of this most extensive deposit in Nigeria. The principal P-phase has been identified as goyazite- crandallite (Abimbola et al. 1999). Table 7: Average abundances (%) of major elements of some iron ore bodies Itakpe Tajimi Kakun Agbaja Si02 59.27 • 64.50 35.59 29.08 Ti02 0.03 0.01 0.55 0.11 Ah03 0.33 0.30 7.91 5.72 Fez03 (t) 39.20 34.77 45.76 62.63 MnO 0.02 0.01 0.10 0.03 MgO 0.04 0.02 2.11 0.19 CaO 0.29 0.05 7.51 0.05 Na20 0.02 0.03 0.34 0.Ql K20 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 P20S 0.38 0.15 0.42 2.38 C 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.19 S 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.07 Source: Elueze, 1999 Economic potentials of industrial minerals The talc-bearing bodies mainly display physical attributes which largely reflect compositional characteristics, and are consumable in several industries, as appraised by Elueze and Akin-Ojo (1993). However, treatment of the samples is necessary, especially the elimination of Fe-rich constituents, to achieve the specifications for each application. The utility of blending and bleaching has also been recommended for the processing of some (Elueze and Ogunniyi 1985; Elueze and Awonaiya 1989). In addition, Elueze and Dosumu (1987) have shown that the magnesite-rich variety, with beneficiation, can yield adequate raw materials for making refractory and sorel cement. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 533. Fig. 10: Photomicrography of Agbaja ironstone in transmitted light, showing different shapes of goethitic ooids As for the gypsum bodies in the Sokoto basin, Elueze et al. (1997) have asserted that the CaO-rich samples like those of Ewekoro, hold better promise for chalk and pharmaceutical production, while all the varieties are adequate for utilization in portland cement and .fertilizer manufacture. Screening and bleaching are appropriate for processing. Various investigations (Elueze et al.1994; Elueze and Bolarinwa 1995,2001; Elueze et al. 1999) show that most of the clay occurrences are essentially kaolinitic, though the residual types commonly have higher mineralogical inhomogeneity. The sedimentary bodies are mostly finer and more plastic, hence of higher commercial values (Table 8). On the whole, the samples, with appropriate processing, particularly screening, are exploitable as ingredients for fillers, extenders, paints, fertilizers, pesticides and coatings. They likewise are suitable raw materials for ceramics, bricks, refractories and structural wares. Elueze (1993c) had advanced that these readily won deposits have attractive prospects to support organized artisanal projects in sun and simple oven-dried bricks (Fig. 11). Incidentally, a very recent television news coverage highlighted the thriving status of such undertakings. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 534 A.A. Elueze Table 8: Comparative chemical characteristics of some residual and sedimentary clays Residual clays . Sedimentary clays Oxide RAB ISAN HERO K 1M SAB SITU Si02 60.00 55.49 60.70 56.00 54.12 52.50 70.60 Ti02 0.78 - - - - 0.91 - Ah03 18.21 18.63 17.75 23.29 21.11 28.73 15.03 F~03 7.58 9.67 6.04 2.55 8.92 3.31 1.93 III MoO 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.06 1.45 - MgO 0.59 1.25 1.22 0.01 0.10 0.41 0.14 Cao 0.80 0.77 0.83 0.03 0.38 0.2.8 0.62 Na20 0.94 0.46 0.23 0.94 0.77 0.33 0.07 K20 1.55 1.84 1.40 1.13 0.16 0.40 0.35 P203 0.31 - - 1.15 0.61 0.38 - H2O 8.70 10.18 10.71 12.13 9.83 11.12 9.05 H2O - - - 2.47 2.67 - - Total 99.52 98.33 98.91 99.71 98.73 99.62 97.79 RAB Residual clay of Abeokuta area ISAM Residual clay of lsan-Ekiti IJERO Residual clay ofIjero-Ekiti K Residual clay of Kitibi-Ayedade. Iwo district 1M Residual clay ofImope, Ijebu district SAB Sedimentary clay of Abeokuta area SITU Sedimentary clay of ltu area, S.E. Nigeria Source: Elueze, 1995 Elueze and Okunlola (200 1b) have also shown that the Burum dolomitic and Jakura calcitic marble bodies meet the specifications for use as steel fluxes, fillers and extenders, and in production of glass, hypochlorites, road bases, ·ornamental stones and lime-based chemicals. Only the Jakura is consumable in calcium carbide and ordinary portland cement (OPC) manufacture. Besides, agronomic characterization supports their usefulness as soil acidity ameliorants. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 535 Fig. 11: Exploitation oflateritic clay for simple sun-dried bricks in building of low-cost accommodation The crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks of the basement complex, often collectively called 'granites', are commonly being quarried indiscriminately, without adequate precaution for conservation and environmental protection. Even the laminated quartzites are being exploited as natural building slabs (Fig. 12). In any case, Elueze (1995) has commercially characterized the rocks, based on compositional and physical properties (Table 9). It is particularly. interesting, as the "nero icheku" products are derived from charnockitic rocks. Elueze (1988, 1995) has also recognized the requirements and options for viable investments in decorative and ornamental stones. However, it is striking that in the recent discourse on "resource control", a new forum named UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 536 A.A. Elueze "Granite-rich States" of Nigeria emerged, presumably from political, rather than geological considerations. a b c Fig. 12: Potential projects in high grade geomaterials (a and b artisanal working oflaminated quartzite for building slabs; c - varieties of polished products of different basement rocks). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 537 Table 9: Comm~rcial characterization of crystalline rocks for ornamental stones Rock types Potential commercial Application and functional products uses Gneisses and multi colour, diadema, Interior and exterior migmatites tiles nylandia, african juparans, decorations, orienta, vibro and others verde, spriana. Quartzites and oakley schiefer, favang, Interior and exterior, tiles. schists verde Fundrels, verde vermion, schiefer brands etc. Amphibolltes and verde shades, nero tones Interior and exterior, mafic schists monumentals Marbles and calc bianco brands" zebrino, Interior and exterior, gneisses maharani and so on monumentals. pupilt and altar slabs Granites, grigio, star flash, serizzo, Interior and exterior, tiles, granodiorites verde lights, nero tijuca stone items and diorites Syenitic and nero "icheku", verde Interior and exterior, charnockitic rocks coloured, monumentals, counter, altar tijucas tops etc. Gabbros, dolerites nero oriental, verde, nero Monumentals, tiles, stone and assoluto, grunporphyr items lamprophyres and decoratives Source: (Elueze, 1995) Compositional determinations have likewise been invaluable components of most of the major consultancy projects executed in the Department. These include the investigation of the Ibese limestone and clay deposits for OPC-type manufacture; the Ifon ceramic clay project; the evaluation of the Ubo marble, and the appraisal of brick clay bodies in Ire-Ekiti. Several other projects also entailed the compositional evaluation of geomaterials, such as granites for quarrying and crushing, rocks and soils in engineering foundations and pavements, and minerals for gems (Olade et al. 1981; Elueze et al. 1990). Water Quality and Environmental Assessments Further, in the appraisal of the nature and value of water sources, compositional results and indices have been found to be decisive (Levin 1981; World Health Organization WHO, 1984). Even the relevant physical properties like taste, colour and smell depend largely on the dissolved and suspended constituents. Therefore, evaluation of the usability should entail isolating appropriate . treatment measures, especially for the-readily polluted, but much easily available and accessible surface supplies. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 538 A.A. Elueze On the other hand, anthropogenic activities especially industrialization, directly or indirectly lead to myriads of environmental hazards ranging from noise to toxic waste pollution. Notably, heavy metals contamination of waters, soils and plants can subsequently be acquired by man, through the food chain (Holum 1977). Hydrochemical characterization Elueze et al. (2001a) have demonstrated that sodium and bicarbonate ions predominate as the solute components of the slightly acidic surface water samples from southeastern Nigeria (Fig. 13). Surface and groundwater sources around Ibokun in the southwestern part, were however found to be weakly alkaline, but also with low sodium hazard, and essentially meet the WHO standards for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses requiring notably filtration and disinfection (Elueze et al. 2001 b). ~Na' eCa2• BMg2t ~K· ;HCO; mel' mC~2' ISO/" " 28%.1 Fig. 13: Relative illustration of the dissolved constitutes of the waters from southeastern Nigeria. Geoenvironmental evaluation As shown by Elueze et al. (1997), the products of the corrosion of repro graphic machines in Lagos, particularly portray the inputs from the steel appliances, their exhaust emissions, the processing pigments and the local hydro-system. Elueze et at. (2001c) have likewise illustrated that organic matter and Fe203 contents have UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 539 posmve controls on Pb, Zn,Cu and Cd absorption capacities of soils and sediments around the Ibadan Exide Battery Factory. The overall compositional patterns in water bodies, soils and sediments, largely imply the dispersion and deposition of heavy metals laden wind-borne dusts from the plant chimneys, plus direct discharge into the ecosystem. Conclusions Previewing Observation Several pertinent issues have emanated from, or been highlighted in the conception, execution, outcomes and effects of the different assignments. Some are considered to merit further elaboration, specifically with respect to recognizing the remedies to the problems inherent in the research on geomaterials, prescribing options for optimizing the development and exploitation of the geo-resources, and then extending and reconciling the necessary aspects to the human perspectives. Derivatives from the Major Areas of Contribution Water supply and environmental monitoring In the rural areas where industrialization levels are still relatively low, water sources commonly meet the compositional qualities of domestic supplies demanding minor treatments. On the other hand, human activities have been found to influence the compositional variations of water, soils and sediments. Therefore, there is need for continuous environmental checks, including geomaterials-based project sites which readily emit wastes and pollutants (Elueze 1989). Precambrian crustal evolution in Nigeria There are still disagreements as to the regimes of crustal formation in Nigeria. However, the riftogenic model, particularly for the schist belts (Olade and Elueze 1979; Turner 1983; Elueze 1985; Elueze 1992; Elueze and Okunlola 2001) is rated most dependable in accommodating their compositional variations, petrogenetic affinities and petrotectonic styles. Undoubtedly, enlargement of the relevant data-base would afford more acceptable geodynamic model (Ajibade and Wright 1989; Elueze 1992, 2000). For example, isotope variations and abundance ratios plus radiometric data are still relatively scanty for the Precambrian suites of Nigeria. In any case, the compositional recognition of the cataclastic and mylonitic units, along some major fault zones, is particularly remarkable. Such dislocations are probably linked to the tremors experienced around Ibadan, in 1984 and 2000 (Elueze 1990, 2001). It is pertinent to add that in place where the crust is relatively thin and subjected to high heat flow (hot spotism), major fractures could provide channelways for eruption of magmas to the surface, or create volcanos. Volcanic activities are often catastrophic, as experienced lately around Gorna in the Congo Democratic Republic. However, the extent of crustal thickness (Fig. 10) and stability do not suggest proneness to extreme seismicity in Nigeria. Nevertheless, as emphasized by Elueze (2001), the National UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 540 A.A. Elueze Technical Committee on Earthquake Phenomena (NTCEP) should urgently establish the long proposed monitoring seismograph network with a station allocated to this University. It is also necessary to evaluate and remedy major slopes, whose failures could propel destructive earthflows and mudflows which are at times confused as volcanic eruptions, like the case in Isan-Ekiti (Elueze and Olorunniwo 1997). Geomaterials wealth of Nigeria Mineral resources, notably gold, iron ores, clays, talc, magnesite, gypsum, marble, limestones, gemstones and rock stones have been shown to occur in Nigeria. Despite their enormous demand (Table 10), not much concerted effort is made in evolving appropriate strategies of harnessing, and hence monetizing these valuable geomaterials. In any case, the prevailing unfavourable socio- economic situation clearly echoes the necessity of adopting appropriate strategies, especially on the industrial minerals, which likewise have high export potentials (Elueze 1998). Table 10: NIMAMOP preliminary market assessment of economic minerals 'in Nigeria Commodity Annual demand Local value Internatioaal (tonnes) value (Naira/tonne) (US$/tonne) Barytes 100,000 - 225,000 16,000 39-80 Gypsum 150,000 - 300,000 6,000 9-18 Kaolin 150,000 3,000 55-92 Bentonite 60,000 - 80,000 5,000 30-40 Feldspar 60,000 - 100,000 2,400 N/A Diatomite - N/A 250-500 Tale 50,000 - 100,000 9,000 ~0-250 Rutile 60,000 - 80,000 N/A 85-700 Phosphates 200,000 - 300,000 4,400 25-24 Salt 300,000 - 500,000 N/A 6-37 Soda ash 50,000 - 60,000 7,000 105-115 Glass sand 180,000 - 2000,000 N/A N/A Iron ore 300,000 3,000 30-50 Source: Elueze 1998 Firstly, there is need to isolate the prevailing limitations to ·the effective operation of the economic minerals sector in Nigeria. These notably include the following. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool ill the Appraisal of Geomaterials 541 • Substantial reliance on imported mineral raw materials, derivatives and products plus operational machines; consequently draining the meagre foreign exchange reserves. • Haphazard execution of exploitation activities, without due consideration of the environment, vividly depicted by the unwholesome mining of gemstones and precious metals in many parts of Nigeria. The ills are likewise seriously sociological, as the areas are commonly transformed into enclaves of immense lawlessness. • Inadequacy of financial facilities for the minerals industry, which commonly has long gestation period and high risk factor. • Instability of the socio-political conditions, and the prevailing economic recession. Elueze (1998) has also prescribed some priority actions required in addressing and resolving the prevailing constraints. Though, there are also overlaps, some are outlined below. • Ensuring that the relevant government establishments are well funded and encouraged, notably the GSN and the Mines Department, for efficient and effective execution of mapping and evaluation programmes, and their outputs being readily accessible to all stakeholders. • Providing for easy access to the required financial, management and technical facilities of the minerals industry, through the establishment and functioning of appropriate institutions. • Recognizing and organizing artisanal miners including the illegal ones, into cooperative bodies in which the landowners and local authorities are "shareholders", for proper operational monitoring and control, and governments being involved in buying and marketing of such winnings. • Streamlining and easing of the procedures of the regulatory aspects of the minerals industry. Besides, ensuring that the roles of the three tiers of government are appropriately reconciled, such that artisanal to small-scale projects in geomaterials, are under the exclusive administration of state and local governments, thereby allowing for the regulation of unofficial workings. Their localized markets and job opportunities would significantly boost the economies of these levels of government, and reduce the dependence on the declining "zero" federal allocations. Similarly, making the Council of Nigeria Mining Engineers and Geoscientists (COMEG) to be fully operational, to enforce professional ethics, and ultimately guaranteeing improved performance of the minerals sector. • Adopting allocation formula, whereby revenues from minerals-based projects are duly made beneficial to all stakeholders; namely, the investors, landowners, local authorities and state and federal governments. • On the whole, the processes and requirements of optimizing the benefits of the exploitation of geomaterials would demand positive efforts, ethics and commitment of all stakeholders. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 542 A.A. Elueze Problems and Remedies in Curricula and Research The prevailing conditions, particularly with regards to facilities and personnel, are generally deplorable in the Department of Geology. While some recommendations have been advanced in addressing the prevailing lapses, it is considered desirable to further enumerate some, suggest remedies, and then outline the current and future thrusts in research. Limitations and shortcomings Most of the inhibiting factors are definitely not peculiar to the University of Ibadan Geology Department, and have also been highlighted by Elueze and Onuoha (1995). Some notable ones are itemized below. • Inadequacy in field and industrial exposures, and logistics. • Prevalence of non-available or non-functioning and obsolete laboratory facilities, instruments, machines, items of equipment and workshops. • Insufficient funding, low motivation and morale and poor provisions for staff development and specialized skills acquisition. Recommendations and priorities Obviously, for improvement and enhancement in performance and productivity, there is need to make some expedient suggestions. • Efforts should be made to ensure proper collaboration with related Departments, and then the industry and relevant establishments. • The provision of working facilities is of priority, though there should be availability of competent operational and maintenance personnel, and avoidance of undue duplication and under-utilization, within the context of the University. • The priority national projects of the envisaged revitalized GSN should include integrated geochemical and subsurface mapping; in which it must mobilize and utilize available expertise in the academia. The expected outputs should comprise data bank on compositional characterization of rocks, minerals, soils, waters, air and vegetation, plus information on noise, seismicity and radioactivity levels. • The Departments of Geology and Chemistry should urgently establish the postgraduate programme in environmental geochemistry. Similarly, in cooperation with the Department of Geography, concerted effort should be made to develop the expertise, facilities and training in geological information system (GIS). • External resources generation should be vigorously pursued by the University, to ensure adequate augmentation, since underfunding is presumably a worldwide phenomenon. Incidentally, most of the earlier research projects and facilities were funded through external grants obtained by Professor Oyawoye, while Professor Olade notably utilized consultancy projects and revenues for acquiring and sustaining items and activities. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal of Geomaterials 543 During one's tenure of headship, significant support was achieved, particularly through former students, including the donation of items, prizes, substantial funds and two field Jeeps (Fig. 14). It is however imperative that the financing by government, should be realistic and regular. Fig. 14: The field jeeps donated by NAOC, being "launched" by members of staff. Current and Future Research Inclinations The contributions outlined in this treatise, have generally served as worthwhile references, and the earlier ones were particularly stimulants to other researchers on the reality of compositional characterization, in evaluating geomaterials in Nigeria. However, it is of pertinence that the relevant investigations largely entailed analyses of whole samples. Therefore, the current and future lines of research considerably integrate determinations in the realms of mineral chemistry, stable isotopes and organic geochemistry. In particular, these thrusts are substantially incorporated in the works of Bolarinwa (2001), Okunlola (2001) and Nton (2001). Compositional Characterization of Geomaterials: Implications for Humanity In conformity with the posture of launching from the visible, the hidden theme of this discourse is on the bearings of compositional qualification to humans. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 544 A.A. Elueze These aspects are obviously only realizable at the arrival station, being not the essence which belongs to the starting block. A sizable proportion of humanity inhabit Nigeria which is part of the earth's landmass. The foundation or basement of the country is shown to be composed of Precambrian rocks that also accommodate various younger suites. The assemblages are widely variable in compositional nature, and hence have different genetic affinities, geotectonic significance and economic values. Similarly, the inhabitants of the country show disparities in origin, inclinations and endowments. Otherwise, the collective strength relates positively to the extent of diversity. On the other hand, the prevailing crustal situation, except for some minor shocks, has favoured much tranquility and accommodation, between and among the rocks and their components. It is therefore imperative that Nigerians must sincerely accept that no meaningful peace and growth, least of all, the optimal exploitation of the geomaterials can be achieved in conditions of ethnic bigotry, religious antagonism, violence, corruption, cultism and other negative tendencies. Again, no two crystals of a mineral, or whole-specimens of the same rock are found to have identical compositions. As a matter of fact, not even the assumed mono-elemental mineral or native metal that has a fixed.composition. It is also unnatural to find a single-plant colony, since even in a plantation, there are bound to be weeds or parasites in the botanical population. Further, there is no single-tongued settlement, in which all the indigenes can be proved to belong to the same stock or lineage. Besides, each individual is at least an offspring oftwo different and normally distinctive persons. Consequently, inhomogeneity in composition, is an inherent attribute of all physical and biological entities. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that the minor and trace components, which are comparable to human minorities, have significant roles in appraising the nature of geomaterials. Environmental factors are known to exert influences in the cycle of geomaterials, and invariably also on humans. Hence, Nigerian kids exposed to the same situaton, do definitely have comparable traits, and their categorization should be based on locations of birth and/or abode, rather than that of the ancestry. The reconstruction of the latter, like for geomateials, could be problematic, especially after considerable span or intensity of transformation. In addition, the semblances of minerals have been shown to be related to the similarities in anions, which for example are silicates, hydrated oxides and sulfides, respectively in magmatic, surface and reducing environments. Invariably, the metallic or positive cations, otherwise the male components get united with the available negative anions or the female partners, in proportions determined by their oxidation states or charges. It is hence not surprising that men whose wives are compatible, readily relate closely. In essence, for this country, and particularly the University, the acceptance of the diverse ethnic composition is the only realistic and honest option. Else, there would be the destruction of fairness, merit and excellence, with the breeding of mediocrity, subservience, sycophancy, indiscipline and blackmailing. Therefore, conscious and appropriate measures have to be in place, to forestall the thriving UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 545 of undue favouritism and abuses in admissions, examinations, appointments, promotions, selections, elections, and even in the informal situations. It is likewise explicit from this presentation, that thorough grounding in geology and chemistry, is pre-requisite to the understanding of the transformation and inter-relations of geomaterials. Correspondingly, adequate exposure to the tenets of citizenship and morality, is sine qua non, for proper appreciation of the development and norms of human societies. Nowadays, the need for formal training in positive orientation and values, has largely been taken for granted. The prevailing situation of immense religiousness, with seemingly low upright inclinations, is rather worrisome. At one's early stages, moral instructions were major components of the upbringing at home, and in the primary and secondary schools. In particular, the SPGS (Piusian) motto (Virtus Sola Nobilitat) and culture duly stressed that only virtuous values and attitudes readily secure success and nobility. Consequently, the UI should as matter of priority, introduce an entry year compulsory course in citizenship and behavioural science. Similarly, all categories of staff should benefit from training in work ethics, management and social norms. The University should take the lead, in conformity with the pace-setting philosophy of its State of location. A major component of the, work of the "compositionist", which has considerable human angle, is field geology. For one, the cumulative temporal and spatial coverages are exceedingly substantial. There were countless opportunities for very close and informal interactions with persons that can be appropriately labelled as the "grassroots". The experiences have also been very memorable; mostly unbiased and devoid of ethnic, political or religious prejudice. It is delightful to highlight the continued link with the Osuntedo people (fig. 15), since the first visit in 1974, and the 1975 conferment of the title of "Omo Owa of Ijeshaland" by the host family in Ilesha. Some candid scenes are likewise worth recollecting, like also in 1974, of the boy Sule, Ile Asati, Ogbagba, who had meticulously whispered "baba mi ti ko 0" to communicate the absence of his mother that had been separated from the fondly father, and the donkey riding Mallam Yahaya at Alawa, who in his undisguised goodwill, was very emphatic in the parting statement of "aboki na, tsa-uni wan cham bayi dechaw sam-sam", to forestall contact with a presumed unsafe rock hill. In general, the sociological dividends of geologists investigating the compositional nature of geomaterials, are unquantifiable. Therefore, such experts have complete and unpolluted understanding of the people, their environments and the exploitable resources, and are best suited to head all programmes on rural development, job creation and poverty alleviation. Actually, their comprehensive knowledge of the human and physical aspects of the country, distinctively qualify them to all positions of trust and responsibility. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 546 A.A. Elueze a b c Fig. 15: Scenes at Osuntedo village (a) the cocoa store field accommodation and (b) close interaction with the host's child in 1974 (c) re-union posture with hosts in 1992). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal of Geomaterials 547 Synthesis of Research Philosophy, Approach and Conviction This exercise has largely enunciated contributions to the knowledge on the compositional nature of geomaterials. Despite the alternative views obtainable in some cases, the prevalent style has been the scrutiny, recognition and consideration of even the subtle components of the compositional variations and indices. This posture can be said to have been cultivated early in one's development. Hence, the unusual rock encountered at the initiation stage, was from the obvious compositional qualities, excitedly tagged tourmalinized quartzite. Of course, it is part of the mineralized pegmatites currently attracting enormous commercial, rather than scientific interest. In essence, the fundamental research attitude has been to generate, process and interpret compositional data, through scientific reasoning, coupled with sound judgement, and thereby upholding the vision of this citadel of excellence, the University of Ibadan (Recte Sapere Fons) Altogether, efforts have been made to adorn the fact that compositional characterization is a realistic and dependable instrument in understanding natural things. Further, all physical and life entities are no exception to what may be referred to as the "principle of natural heterogeneity". Consequently, it is conclusively convincing that there is no degree or form of religious or ethnic cleansing or genocide which can effectively confer homogeneity to any nation, and such acts are not only crimes to humanity, but gross violation of the ordinance of God. REFERENCES Abimbola, AF., Badejoko, T.A, Elueze, A.A and Akande, S.O., 1999. The Agbaja ironstone formation, Nupe Basin, Nigeria - a product of replacement of a kaolinite precursor. Global J. Pure Appl. Sci., Vol. 5 No.3, pp. 375-384. Ajibade, AC. and Wright, J.B., 1989. The Togo - Benin - Nigeria shield: evidence of crustal aggregation in the Pan-African belt, Tectonophysics, 165 pp.125-129. Annor, AE. and Mucke, A, 1991. The Kakun igneous cumulate magnetite deposit, southwestern Nigeria. Mineral Petrol. 45, pp. 131-144. Bafor, B.E. 1981. The occurrence of sulphide mineralization in the Egbe area of south western Nigeria, J. Min. Geol., 18, pp. 175-179. Berry, L.G. and Mason, B., 1959. Mineralogy, W.H. Freeman and Co., SanFrancisco, 630p. Bolarinwa, AT. 2001. Compositional characteristics and economic potentials of lateritic profiles over basement and sedimentary rocks in Ibadan - Abeokuta area southwestern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 255p. Condie, K.D., 1976. Trace element geochemistry of Archean granitic rocks from the Barbertons Region; South Africa, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 29, pp. 389- 400. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 548 A.A. Elueze Dada, S.S.; Briqueu, I and Birck, LL. 1998. Primordial crustal growth in northern Nigeria: preliminary R6-Sr and Sm-Nd constraint from Kaduna migmatite gneiss complex. J. Min. Geol. 34( 1), pp. 1-6. Dineley, D., Hawkes, D., Hancock, P. and Williams, B., 1976. Earth Resources- a dictionary of terms and concepts, Arrow Books Limited, London, 205p. Elueze, A.A., 1974. Geology of part of Iwo east. Unpubl. B.Sc. research project, Department Geology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, 46p. Elueze, A.A., 1980. Geochemical studies of Proterozoic amphibolites and meta- ultramafites in Nigerian schist belts: Implications for Precambrian crustal evolution. Unpubl. P.hD Thesis, Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, 288p. Elueze, A.A., 1981a. Geochemistry and petrotectonic setting of metasedimentary rocks of the schist belt of Ilesha area S.W. Nigeria, J. Min. Geol. 18(1), pp. 194-197. Elueze, A.A., 1981b. Dynamic metamorphism and oxidation of amphibolites of Tegina area, north-west Nigeria, Precambrian Res.; 14, pp. 379-388. Elueze, A.A., 1981c. Petrographic studies of metabasic rocks and meta- ultramafites in relation to mineralization in Nigerian schist belts, i, 18(1), pp. 31-36. Elueze, A.A., 1982a. Petrochemistry of Precambrian gneisses and migmatites in the western part of Nigeria. Rev. Bras. Geosci., ·12,pp. 301-306. Elueze, A.A., 1982b. Geochemistry of the Ilesha granite gneiss in the basement complex of southwestern Nigeria, Precambrian Res. 19, pp. 167-177. Elueze, A.A. , 1982c. Mineralogy and chemical nature of meta-ultramafites in Nigerian schist belts, J. Min. Geol., 19(2), pp. 21-29. Elueze, A.A., 1982d. Metallographic studies of ore-minerals in the amphibolites of Ilesha schist belt, southwestern Nigeria, J. Min. Geol., 18(2), pp. 53-58. Elueze, A.A. , 1984. Mineralogical and chemical variations in ore-minerals- bearing metabasites in the Precambrian basement complex of Nigeria, in relation to cataclasis. Nat. Resources Dev. 19, pp. 73-70. Elueze, A.A. , 1985. Petrochemical and petrogenetic characteristics of Precambrian amphibolites of the Alawa district, northwest Nigeria, Chern. Geol. 48, pp. 29-41. Elueze, A.A., 1986. Petrology and gold mineralization of the amphibolite belt Ilesha area, southwestern Nigeria. Geol. Mijinbouw. 65, pp. 189-195. Elueze, A.A., 1987. Compositional characteristics in relation to the evolution of granite rock units in the Ilesha area, SW Nigeria. Geol. Mijinbouw. 65, pp. 345-355. Elueze, A.A., 1988. Mineral-based investment opportunities in Nigeria. National Workshop on Small Scale Enterprises in Nigeria, Nigeria Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) and Friedrick Ebert Foundation (FEF), Gennany, 28p. . Elueze, A.A. , 1990. Geological setting of Proterozoic schist belts and relationship to crustal movements in Nigeria, Proceeding of 5th Earthquake prognostics, Publ. National Technical Committee on Earthquake Phenomena, pp. 108-114. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool in the Appraisal of Geomaterials 549 Elueze, A.A. , 1992. Rift system for Proterozoic schist belt in Nigeria. Tectonophysics. 209: pp. 167-169. Elueze, A.A., 1993a. Geochemical variation and geotectonic implication of mafic assemblages in the Proterozoic domain, Ode-Ere area, Nigeria, Publ, occas. CIFEG, 23, pp. 90-93. Elueze, A.A. , 1993b. Petrochemical and petrogenetic trends in Pan-African granites, Ode-Ere district, Nigeria, Publ. occas. CIFEG, 23, pp. l30-l34. Elueze, A.A., 1993c. Indication from Nigeria on the industrialization and employment potentials of non-metallic mineral resources, AGID News, 74/75: pp. 23-27. Elueze, A.A., 1994. Economic importance of laterites, Proceedings Int. Laterite Workshop, Ogun State University/University of Hamburg, Germany Cooperation in Geosciences, 20p. Elueze, A.A. 1995. Prospects for sourcing rock polishing ventures from rocks in the basement complex of Nigeria, J Min. Geol., 31, pp.73-77. Elueze, A.A. , 1998. Promoting the development and exploitation of mineral resources in Nigeria. Proceedings First Min. Nigeria Conf. Workshop, Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, Federal Republic of Nigeria, NIMAMOP, Global Minerals Limited, Publ., pp. 9-22. , Elueze, A.A. , 1999. Petrochemical variations and petrogenetic trends of some iron ores in southwestern Nigeria. Mineral Weath. 110, pp. 59-68. Elueze, A.A., 2000. Compositional appraisal and petrotectonic significance of the Imelu banded ferruginous rock in the Ilesha schist belt, southwestern Nigeria, J Min. Geol., 36(1) pp. 8-18. Elueze, A.A. , 2001. Nature, effects and implications of the March 2000 earth tremor in southwestern Nigeria, 12th GSA Conference, Yaounde, Cameroon, 4p. Elueze, A.A. and Akin-Oj 0, O.A., 1993. Functional characterization of talc bodies in southwestern Nigeria, Mineral Wealth. 85, pp. 7-14. Elueze, A.A. , Anyanwu, A.J and Bolarinwa, A.T., 2001c. Geoenvironmental evaluation of a battery factory site in Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria. Jour. of Mining and Geol. Vol 37 (1) pp. 99-100. Elueze A.A and Awonaiya, F.A., 1989. Investigation of talc bodies in Iseyin area, southwestern Nigeria, in relation to their application as industrial raw materials J Min. Geol., 25(2), pp. 217-225. Elueze, A.A. , Badejoko, T.A., Olade, M.A., Sonuga, M.S., Olayinka, A.I., Unomah, G.I., Bassey, C.E. and Abimbola, A.F., 1990. Geological, geophysical and geotechnical investigations of proposed water reservoir site, University of Ibadan (Konsadem Associates, Ibadan, Engineers and Consultants) Geology Consultancy Unit, University oflbadan, 16p. Elueze, A.A. , Bakare, C.A. and Bolarinwa, A.T., 1994. Compositional and economic evaluation of residual bodies in .Iwo and Ijebu districts, southwestern Nigeria, Proceedings Int. laterite workshop, Ogun State University/University of Hamburg, Germany Cooperation in Geosciences, 18p. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 550 A.A. Elueze Elueze, AA and Bolarinwa, AT., 1995. Assessment of functional applications of lateritic clay bodies in Ekiti environ, southwestern Nigeria. J Min. Geol., 31, pp. 79-87. ' Elueze, AA and Bolarinwa, AT., 2001. Appraisal of the residual and sedimentary clays in parts of Abeokuta area, southwestern Nigeria,. JMin.Geol., Vol. 37 (1), pp. 7-14. Elueze, AA, Bolarinwa, AT. and Nton, M.E., 1997. Report on mineralogical investigations of corrosion products in processing machines, Research and Development (R&D) Department, the Nigerian Security Printing and Minting Company (NSPMC) Limited, Lagos. Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, 9p. Elueze, AA and Dosunmu, P.O., 1987. Preliminary investigation on industrial properties of magnesite - bearing rocks in Tugan Bako district, Tegina area, northwest Nigerian. Nigeria J Sci .. 21 (1 & 2), pp. 133-139. Elueze, AA, Ephraim, B.E. and Nton, M.E., 2001a. Hydrochemical assessment of surface water in part of southeastern Nigeria. Mineral Wealth. 119, pp. 45- 58. Elueze, AA and Kehinde-Phillips, 0.0.1993a. Mineralogical and geochemical features of lateritic profiles above anthophylite schist, Ita-Osun, southwestern Nigeria, J Min. Geol., 29(2), pp.l-1 O. ' Elueze, AA and Kehinde-Phillips, 0.0., 1993b. Geochemical trends in weathering profiles above melanocratic amphibolite at Ibodi area, southwestern Nigeria, J Min. Geol., 29(2), pp. 137-146. Elueze, AA; Ntekin, E.E. and Ekwere, S.l, 1999. Compositional and industrial assessment of clay bodies in Itu area, southwestern Nigeria, J Min. Geol. 35(2), pp. 117-124. Elueze, A.A, Odunfa, M.A and Bolarinwa AT., 1997. Compositional trends and industrial properties of gypsum bodies in the Dange Formation of Sokoto Basin, northwestern Nigeria, Mineral Wealth, 103, pp. 39-46. Elueze, A.A and Ogunniyi, S.O., 1985. Appraisal of talc bodies of the IIesha district, southwestern Nigeria, and their potentials for industrial application, Nat. Resources Dev. 21, pp. 26-34. Elueze, AA and Okolo, E.C., 1990. Metallographic and chemical appraisal of the iron-ore body associated with Precambrian basement units in Kakun district, southwestern Nigeria, Ancient Banded Iron Formational Regional Presentations Theophratus Publ. pp. 119-134. Elueze, AA and Okunlola, O.A, 1998. Petrochemical and petrogenetic features of Precambrian metabasilts of Burum area, central Nigeria. 34 Annual Inter. Conference ofN.M.G.S., IIe-Ife, Book of Abstract, pp. 2-3. Elueze, AA and Okunlola, O.A, 2001a. Petrochemical and petrogenetic characteristics of metasedimentary rocks of Lokoja - Jakura schist belt, central Nigeria, 36th Annual Inter. Conf. of N.M.G.S. Abuja, Book of Abstract, 35p. Elueze, AA and Okunlola, O.A, 2001b. Compositional characteristics and industrial appraisal of Precamb rian marble bodies of Burum and Jakura, central Nigeria, 12th GSA Conference, Yaounde, Cameroun, 2p. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Veritable Tool ill the Appraisal ofGeomaterials 551 Elueze, AA and Olade, M.A., 1980. Petrotectonic setting and metallogeny of mafic-ultramafic bodies in Proterozoic schist belts, Nigeria, UNESCO Metallogeny of Mafic - aultramafic complexes, Vol. 2, pp. 103-114. Elueze, A.A and Olade, M.A, 1985. Interpretation through factor analysis stream- sediment reconnaissance data for gold exploration in Ilesha greenstone belt, southwest Nigeria. Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., (Sect. B: Appl. earth Sci.). 94: B155 - B160. Elueze, AA, Omidiran, J.O. and Nton, M.E., 2001b. Hydrogeochemical investigation of surface and groundwater around Ibokun in southwestern Nigeria, 36th Annual Intern. Conference, N.M.G.S. Abuja, Book of Abstract pT 20-21. Elueze, AA and Olorunniwo, M., 1997. A report on the investigation of the alleged "volcanic eruption in Esan-Ekiti, Ekiti State, NTCEP, NASENI Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, Lagos, lOp. Elueze, AA and Onuoha, K.M., 1995. Earth Sciences. In: A Maduemezia, S.N.C. Okonkwo and E.E. Okon (Eds.), Science Today in Nigeria, The Nigerian Academy of Science, Lagos, pp. 185-224. Hawkes, H.E. and Webb, J.S., 1962. Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration, Harper Row Publishrs, New York, 415p. Krauskof, K.B., 1985. Introduction to Geochemistry. Mcgraw-Hill, Singapore 617p. Nton, M.E., 2001. Sedimentological and geochemical studies of rock units in the eastern Dahomey Basin, southwestern Nigeria, Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, 315p. Okonkwo, C.T. and Winchester, J.A, 2000. Petrochemistry and petrogenesis of migmatitic gneisses and metagreywackes in Jebba area, southwestern Nigeria, J. Min. Geol., Vol. 36(1), pp. 1-8. Okunlola, O.A, 2001. Geological and compositional investigation of Precambrian marble bodies and associated rocks in the Bururn and Jakura areas, Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University oflbadan, 251p. Olade, M.A and Elueze, AA, 1979. Petrochemistry of the Ilesha amphibolites and Precambrian crustal evolution in the Pan-African domain of southwest Nigeria, Precambrian Res. 8, pp. 303-318. Olade, M.A, Agagu, O.K., Ofrey, 0., Odeyemi, LB.; Elueze, AA and Ajayi, J.O., 1981. Raw materials investigations for cement manufacture, Ibese Ogun State (Ogun State Ministry of Industry), University Consultancy Service (Geology Division), University of Ibadan, 75p. Olarewaju, V.O., 1999. Fluid inclusion studies of coarse-grained charnockitic and the hybrid rocks in Ukpilla area, southwestern Nigeria, J. Min. Geol., 35(1), pp. 1-8. Oyawoye, M.O. 1972. The basement complex of Nigeria, African Geology, Ibadan Univ. Press, 1: pp. 67-99. Rahaman, M.A. 1988. Recent advances in the study of the basement complex of Nigerian, Precambrian Geology of Nigeria, Publ, of the Geological Survey of Nigeria, Kaduna, p. 11-41. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 552 A.A.Elueze Schellmann, W., 1989. Composition and origin of lateritic nickel ore on the Taguang Taung, Burma. Mineral. Deposita 24: pp. 161-168. Shoji, T. and Kaneda, H., 1980. Classification of igneous rocks on the relationship among nickel, cobalt and silica content, Min. Geol. 30(5) pp. 289-297. Spry,A, 1979.Metamorphic textures, Pengamon Press, Oxford 350p. Strahler, AW., 1981.Physical Geology, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 612p. Turner, D.C., 1983. Upper Proterozoic schist belt in Nigerian sector of the Pan- African Provinces of West Africa. Precambrian Res. 21 pp.55-79. Wright, J.B. and Ogezi E.A, 1977. Serpentinite in the basement of northern Nigeria,.!. Min. Geol. 19(2)pp. 21-29. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 23 LEAVING CERTAINTY FOR UNCERTAINTY: FROM THE STOMACH TO THE WOMB Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa Department ofPhysiology Introduction My journey into the world of the Sciences began when I was offered the University Scholarship to enroll as a Ph.D student in the Department of Physiology. In my last year as an undergraduate I was fascinated by the stories my mentor, Professor B.O. Amure, used to tell us about the discovery, extraction and purification of Gastrin. I therefore decided to do some studies on Gastrin, one of the hormones in the stomach. Earlier research has shown that the acid gastric responses of the male rats do not vary appreciably from one animal to the other; while in the female, significantly varying responses have become obvious. These differences in the responses of the male and female rats are influenced by the estrous cycle of the female animals. This cycle is of very short duration. The existence of a typical estrous cycle in the guinea pig and the associated changes in vaginal cytology were first reported by Stockard and Papanicoloau in 1917. Shortly thereafter, similar phenomena were reported in the rat and the mouse. The estrous cycle is similar to the menstrual cycle in humans. It lasts for 4-5 days and is made up of the pro-estrous, diestrous and the estrous, which is the period generally known as "coming on heat". Unlike what occurs in humans, the estrous phase, which is similar to ovulation phase in humans, is the only time at which the female animal is receptive to the male (Fig. 1 a-c ). The level of circulating estrogen also varies with the estrous cycle. Thus Presl et at. (1969) reported that the level of circulating estrogen is highest during pro-estrous and lowest during di-estrous. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 554 Adeyombo F. Bo/arinwa A B c Fig. 1: Estrous Cycle: (A) Pros-estrus (B) Estrous (C) Diestrous UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY lseaving Certainly for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 555 How then does this translate to "the journey from the stomach to the womb"? The stomach is the major seat of power for the processing of food, which eventually becomes the fuel for energy production. It also produces hormones, which are vital to the well-being of the animal. One of such hormones is Gastrin (fig 2). Fig. 2. The Stomach Gastrin is a major physiological regulator of gastric acid secretion. It also has an important trophic influence on the gastric mucosa. Gastrin is synthesized in the G cells, which are located in the gastric pits, primarily in the antrum of the stomach, and it binds receptors found predominantly on the parietal and enterochromaffn-like cells. Structure of Gastrin and Gastrin Receptor Gastrin is a linear peptide that is synthesized as a preprohormone and is post- translationally cleaved to form a family of peptides with identical carboxytermini. The predominantly circulating form is Gastrin - 34 ("big Gastrin") but full biologic activity is present in the smallest peptide (Gastrin-14 or mini Gastrin). Further, full bioactivity is preserved in the five C-terminal amino acids of Gastrin, which is known as Pentagastrin. Importantly, five C- terminal amino acids of Gastrin and Cholecystokinin, another gastrointestinal hormone, are identical which explains their overlapping biological effects ( Fig. 3). The Gastrin receptor is also one of the receptors that bind Cholecystokinin and is known as the CCK-B receptor. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY :~ 556 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa oral It'Wwg ~~(it~ ~ p(!f~ JJfl:bil~ I I Plt}!IUljdllill C=:J~~gPhIgi11hrr ~iii Gdlhll·j.( Ij.unlllll Gstress is an important factor in causing ulcer. Stress is difficult to measure, because people react UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 558 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa differently to similar circumstances. A situation that may cause stress in one person may have no effect on someone else. So far, there is no convincing proof that people who have high pressure jobs or who experience a great deal of tension in their lives are more likely to develop ulcers. However, some ulcer patients may be less able to tolerate large amounts of stress or tension. Regardless of the level of effect that stress may have on a patient's ulcer, it is a good idea for the patient and his physician to work together to identify and then try to reduce or remove stressful factors in the patient's life .. Doll in 1952 established that duodenal ulcer prevalence was higher in males than in females. A marked increase in gastric hospitalizations for women over 65 years old has however been reported (Jurata et al. 1985). This could be due to the fact that the risk of developing ulcer disease increases with age (Bonnevie 1980) and as women appear to now live longer than ever, more women can expect to develop ulcer in their lifetime (National Health Interview survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics 1978). On the other hand it has been suggested that the female sex hormones confer some protection against peptic ulceration (Crean, 1963). Earlier researchers have shown that pregnancy affects the gastric acid secretory response in different species. Diminished secretions of pepsin and hydrochloric acid occur during pregnancy in women (Murray, Erskine and Fielding 1957) in the rat (Lozzio, Gagliardi and others 1961) although in the experimental dog, no consistent changes in gastric acid secretion were found (McCarthy, Evans and Dragestedt 1954). These have led many workers to seek a relationship between female sex hormones, chorionic gonadotrophins and gastric acid secretion. It was therefore in a bid to unravel this jigsaw puzzle that I embarked on the studies on the gastric acid secretion, estrous cycle, pregnancy and parturition. In 1975, we studied the pattern of gastrin content of the rat mucosa during the estrous cycle using the modified method of Gregory and Tracy (1964) and reported as follows: The female rats in di-estrous showed a remarkably high gastrin concentration in the mucosa, which significantly exceeded the concentration in the estrous and pro-estrous. We then concluded that estrous cycle appears to exert an inhibitory effect on secretion in the female rat stomach (Amure and Bolarinwa 1975) (Fig 4). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 559 35001 ~ 3000 i E 250~F0----.-4 :~;:iE 200t-0------I"'.fj----::--------lCo ~ ~ 15001------ ~ ~ 1000 'Ii (II ~ 500 o Cyde Fig. 4: Gastrin Concentration Equivalent in ngSHG/gm weight during the Estrous Cycle Next, we studied the pattern of antral gastrin content in pregnant rats. Rats have a gestation period of21 days. They were divided into early (2-3 days), mid (12-14 days) and late (18-20days) pregnancy. We reported that the antral gastrin content was highest in early pregnancy and lowest in late pregnancy (Bolarinwa and Amure 1978) (Tab 1). Table 1: Antral Gastrin Content in Pregnancy Stage of Pregnancy Gastrin content (ngiSHG/ml of test solution Early (2-3 days) n = 40 1.33 +0.02 Mid (4-14) n=40 1.13 +0.01 Late (18-20) n = 40 0.86 +0.06 Non-pregnant (Control n=20) 1.42 + 0.09 We also studied the plasma gastrin levelin rats during the estrous cycle by radioimmuno assay using gastrin labeled withl25I. We reported that plasma gastrin level is lower in diestrus than in estrous and proestrous. This agrees with the pattern of gastric acid secretion in these phases (Bolarinwa 1981). From the data provided by Presl et al. (1967) on the level of circulating estrogen in rats during the estrous cycle, the level of estrogen is highest in proestrous and lowest in diestrous. (Fig. 5). This corresponds to the level of gastrin as observed in this work. The same pattern was observed in gastric acid secretions (Table 2). Claims that estrogen hastens the healing of peptic ulcers or lowers the amount of acid secreted have therefore been challenged. Kaufinan and Spiro (1968) did not note any improvement in peptic ulcer as a result of estrogen treatment that could not UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 560 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa be attributed to antacids, frequent visits to physicians or the natural course of the disease. On the other hand, the quiescence of subjective as well as objective symptoms of peptic ulcer disease during pregnancy may be due to the lowering of the pain threshold as a result of increased circulating estrogens as well as increased mucus production. Diestrus, ----.-6:-9------.--- Ovariectomi ,--_~.s::::d (Control), Male, 0.1 Fig. 5. Estrogen Levels (ug/l OOml) During the Estrous Cycle Table 2: Plasma Gastrin Level and Induced Gastric Acid Secretion during the Estrous Cycle Animal Group No. of Plasma Acid secretion Animals Gastrin (pg/ml) III response to IOOng/100g Pro-estrus 60 64.0 + 3.0 0.018+ 0.002 Estrus 50 58.0 + 3.0 0.014+ 0.001 Diestrus 50 48.0 + 1.0 0.01 + 0.00 Ovariectomised 20 40 + 2.0 0.013 + 0.03 "- Source: Bolarinwa, 1981 As drug trials have not provided the desired complete relief in peptic ulcer, attempts were made to investigate the effects of various food materials on the healing and incidence of ulcer. The idea of therapeutic diet was first suggested by Sippy (1915) as a means of alleviating ulcers. He advocated a repeated milk drink as part of his programme designed to neutralize completely the gastric acid. Levy and Siler (1966) proposed milk cream purees and protein hydroxylsate respectively. Tovey in 1974 investigated the buffering action of rice bran, which was used on patients in India for the treatment of ulcers. In Nigeria, Elegbe and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 561 Bamgbose (1976) provided an explanation as to whether some Nigerian local food substances experimentally induced ulceration in rats or not. In 1986 Oluwole and Bolarinwa studied the buffering capacity of some Nigerian food substances. We reported that the buffering capacity of red beans is greater than that of the white beans. Generally speaking, the grains (beans, rice and maize) buffer more acid than the tubers (yam and cassava) (Fig. 6). It has been shown that the incidence of peptic ulceration is lower in the Northern part of the country where the diet is rich in the grains compared with the Southern part of the country. From the results it is pertinent to suggest that while habitual intake of some relatively weak buffer food substances like cassava products and yam should be discouraged in ulcer patients the idea of gastro duodenal buffering effects of proteins must not be ruled out. Fig. 6. Buffering capacity expressed as the number of millimeters ofO.1N Hel neutralized to get pH 1.9 Our next line of action was to study the effects of various factors on induced ulceration. Fasting as well as drugs e.g. indomethacin can induce ulcer. Variations in the incidence rates and severity of duodenal ulcers in patients in different parts of the world, most especially in India and Africa have been reported by various workers (Tovey 1974). Thus Oluwole and Bolarinwa (1990) studied the effects of gonadectomy on indomethacin-induced ulceration and reported that castrated male rats with low ulcer scores exhibited significantly higher peptic activities. Also the low ulcer scores in the intact female rats are associated with the very low peptic activity in the same group of rats (Table 3). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 562 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa Table 3: Peptic activity and ulcer scores in gonadectomised rats Peptic Activity .Ulcer Score Intact male 9.05 + 0.03 18.42 + 0.22 Castrated male 15.84+ 0.06 9.58 + 0.17 Intact female 11.00 + 0.07 8.67 + 0.20 Ovariectomised 17.42+0.14 7.67+0.16 Source: Oluwole and Bolarinwa, 1990. Attempts were made to bring together the various aspects, which were reported. Thus in 1990, Evbuomwan and Bolarinwa studied the effects of diet on indomethacin-induced peptic ulceration in pregnant rats. We used local diet like grated and fried manioc (gari) and sucrose solution. The various results showed that the presence of food in the stomach decreases the incidence of peptic ulceration. This is a warning to those who go on long periods of fasting or ,slimming through appetite suppression. , Effects of commercial diets on pregnancy and parturition were also studied using the rat as a model. It has long been realized that the functional integrity of the reproductive system depends upon adequate nutrition; thus chronic and acute starvation, caloric restriction and vitamin as well as mineral deficiencies have been known to have adverse effects on the functions of the reproductive organs. The result showed that there was a significant reduction in the maternal, foetal and placental weights (Table 4). Table 4: Percentage weight gain or loss, litter size and mean weights of fetuses and placenta on the 18th day of pregnancy Average Mean % Mean Wt.Of Placental original final Decrease no. of litters wt. (g) wt(gm) weight (-) or litters (±S.D) (gm) increase (+) in wt Control 175 218 +24.6 5.0 4.54± 0.51 (Normal 0.6 ±O.02 feed) Pure 184 180 -2.2 3.8 3.02± 0.18 Olive oil 0.02 +0.02 Dried 195 202 +3.1 4.2 2.75± Q.30± milk 0.02 0.06 30% 200 254 +27.0 5.6 4.96± 0.46 Casein 0.10 +0.08 3% 195 191 -2.1 1.02 1.08± 0.13 Casein 0.02 +0.01 Bolarinwa and Edemeka, 1991 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 563 This work has therefore suggested that the foetuses of women on commercial diets stand the risk of being adversely affected physically and intellectually (Bolarinwa and Edemeka 1991). This is in agreement with the findings of Simic (1971). Women should therefore avoid continuing their slimming effort during pregnancy. Caloric restriction adversely affects the placenta, which may result in placenta insufficiency during pregnancy. This may lead to abortion or death in utero. Majority of this work was done on laboratory animals (mainly the rat) and this was at a time when, as a researcher, one had access to as many rats as were needed. I remember the Physiology Department had a well-run animal house with the late Papa Orenuga in charge. Papa Orenuga was an encyclopedia on various laboratory animals. I remember that as a B.Sc student I was able to use up to 100 rats in a day for my project. Today the story is regrettably different. Physiology Department can no longer financially run an animal house. The situation now is that one rat sells for NI50.00. It is very difficult to keep a well- stocked animal house, because the very low funding of Nigerian universities has adversely affected many research activities. The Other Side of Life , In 1982 I had the privilege of spending a sabbatical leave in the Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, North Carolina in U.S.A. At Duke, I was able to appreciate what it truly means to be a scientist. There, I worked in the hospital with two Residents and a Nigerian G.I.T. Surgeon Dr Onye Akwari. We worked on the pattern of interdigestive biliary flow in fasted dogs. We also studied the effect of motilin in cholecystectomized and intact animals. The beauty of this work is that mongrel dogs were prepared by ligation of the lesser pancreatic duct and insertion of a duodenal canulla in a surgery that lasted for three hours. After recovery the fasted awake dogs had biliary catheter inserted through the duodenal fistula to enable us study the pattern of cyclical biliary flow. The studies showed that bile flow in the canine common bile duct is cyclical and reflects the activity of the gall bladder during fasting. Exogenously infused motilin has little effect on canalicular flow and composition but alters common bile duct flow and composition indirectly through its effects on the gall bladder (Bolarinwa et al. 1984). A few points were obvious from my research work in Duke. You can keep your research animals for as long as you wish to study them. Sometimes this can be up to four to six years. Frank, one of the dogs in our laboratory, had been an experimental candidate for three years before I got to the laboratory in 1982. A system that makes this possible requires proper funding. The experimental animals in Duke include chim-panzee apart from dogs. These animals were all given a VIP treatment as each had its own quarters and people were paid to take care of them. These quarters were kept better than what some rooms in our halls of residence in this university used to be. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 564 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa The Alternative At this period in the life of Nigeria when medical care is beyond the reach of the average Nigerian, attention has turned to the use of local herbs as medication. Many of these local herbs, while being useful in specific ailments, also have adverse effects particularly in pregnancy. One of such herbs studied is Morinda Lucida, which has been shown to have suppressive effect on rodent plasmodium berghei malaria (Makinde and Obih 1985). Extracts of this medicinal plant are taken by both male and female and also by pregnant women. Our work has shown that this extract might be a herbal remedy for malaria when used for a short period of about five days even in pregnancy (Adewoye, Bolarinwa and Makinde 1991). Quassia amara is reputed in traditional medicine to have good stomachic, antianaemic, antibiotic, antiamoebic and antimalarial properties (Polonslay 1985). Many antimalarial agents have been reported to have anti-fertility actions (Meisel and Winterhoff 1993). Our work on this herb has shown that the crude methanol extract of the stem inhibited both the basal and LH-stimulated testosterone secretion in the rat leydig cells in a dose-dependent fashion (Raji and Bolarinwa 1997) . . Summary (i) The likelihood of peptic ulcer disease is increased in persons of black ancestry, which reflects an increased risk ofH pylori infection. (ii) Cigarette smoking not only doubles a person's chances of getting an ulcer, but it also tends to slow the healing process of an existing ulcer. People who smoke have a lower rate of recurrent ulcer regardless of what medication they may take. This has been further confirmed by recent research which has shown that the chances of an ulcer healing and staying healed are better if a patient quits smoking and takes no medication than if the patient continues to smoke and receives drug treatment. (iii) Persons who use aspirin regularly over long periods of time, such as some arthritis patients, have an increased chance of developing a gastric ulcer. (iv) Increased circulating estrogens as observed in pregnancy lowers the pain threshold and this may be responsible for the quiescence of subjective as well as objective symptoms of peptic ulcer disease during pregnancy. (v) The buffering capacity of red beans is greater than that of white beans. The grains (beans, rice and maize) buffer more acid than the tubers (yams and cassava), which should be discouraged in ulcer patients. (vi) The foetuses of pregnant women on commercial diets stand the risk of being adversely affected as caloric restriction adversely affects the placenta. Women should therefore avoid continuing their slimming UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 565 effort during pregnancy. They should however resist the temptation to eat for two during this period. (vii) Bile flow in the canine common bile duct is cyclical and reflects the activity of the gall bladder during fasting. Exogenously infused motilin however has little effect on canalicular flow and composition Recommendations (i) There is need for our educational system, at the secondary school level to expose all children to the study of the sciences with particular emphasis on information technology. This will ensure that they are properly educated to know the various options available to them, not only at the tertiary level but also after graduation, in order to avoidmoving blindly from "certainty to uncertainty". (ii) The government should promptly make up her mind if she wants to run a University system or glorified High Schools. The government should stop biting more than she can chew. I believe that there are enough resources to properly and adequately fund the University Education in this country. Our problem over the years had been bad management of resources. (iii) The Universities should begin to bridge the gaps between various disciplines. Interdisciplinary researches are the order of the day all over the world. There is no reason why a Physiologist, a Biochemist, a Nutritionist and a Pharmacologist and various Clinicians cannot work together to isolate and characterize local herbs which can be used for various ailments and which will be safe particularly in pregnancy. (iv) There is no reason why a Physicist should not be a member of faculty in the College of Medicine or a Clinician on the Faculty of the Social Sciences. An engineer should be able to work in the hospital in a team without feeling inferior or superior to others. Things seem to have degenerated to a bad state in our university system so much so that there is a polarization even within the same department, faculty or college. People who are supposed to be scientists now talk of "medically qualified" or "non-medically qualified" staff even in our Colleges of Medicine; to the extent that those who are disillusioned by this unfortunate trend have opted to leave the Colleges of Medicine and move into other colleges of Health Sciences. Things have, in some cases, gone to the extent that they have degenerated into unhealthy rivalry, partisanship, animosity, ill-feeling, ostracization and so on and so forth. (v) There is need for us to respect one another as we work together. We need one another in a collective fight against illiteracy, disease and poverty. University of lbadan is the first and the best. Let us take a lead in things that are good. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 566 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa (vi) Our medical curriculum needs to be reviewed all over the country. Our medical graduates should be exposed to research methodology in basic medical and clinical sciences during their training, as is the case in most parts of the world except, regrettably, in this part of the continent. This will ensure that our doctors in the teaching hospitals would have access to laboratories where Basic Medical researches as well as Clinical researches are available. The medical students, basic medical postgraduate students and Residents will therefore form part of the team working in such laboratories. (vii) Individual Nigerians should be encouraged to fund researches in the Universities. The government alone obviously can no longer be the principal provider of research grants. Very wealthy individuals should begin to support research initiatives by providing the needed grant. We can borrow a leaf from people like Rockefeller, Macarthur and recently Bill and Melinda Gates. There is enough money I believe to go round. There are lots of potentials in our Universities waiting to be tapped. Unfortunately the money appears to be in the hands of many who apparently also do not know what to do with it positively. , (viii) The government needs to seriously sanitize the money market. Most of the chemicals and laboratory equipment we use come from outside this country and we have to purchase them with hard currency. A situation where in 1987 at the height of the "SAP" one dollar was equivalent to only seven naira but which now has become one hundred and thirty naira, is bad for our Nation. Government should go to the root of the problem and find a solution. We still sell millions of barrels of oil daily, which means we earn loads offoreign exchange. A situation where people illegally and desperately want to take money out of this Nation for untenable reasons will continue to push the value of our naira lower and lower. The government should also put more money into the hands of Nigerians and stop trusting our economy into the hands of foreign consultants and contractors. (ix) Nigerians should rally round the government to address the decay in our tertiary institutions. We are all sitting on a gold mine, but if we do not know what to do, it will simply rot away. I dare to submit that we cannot and should not allow this to happen. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Leaving Certainty for Uncertainty: From the Stomach to the Womb 567 REFERENCES Adewoye, O.E; Bolarinwa, A.F. and Makinde, M.J. (1991): Effect of Morinda lucida in pregnancy in the mice. J Pharm & Pharm. Pract 2: 6 -8. Amure, B.O. and Y. Bolarinwa (1975): Estrous cycle and Gastrin Content of Mucosa in rat. J Interdisciple. Cycle Res., 6: 317-321. Bolarinwa, A.F. and Edemaka, D.P. (1991): Effects of commercial diets on pregnancy and parturition in the rat. Nig. J Physiol. Sci. 7(2): 159-162. Bolarinwa, A.F., Schirmer, B.J., Kortz, W.J. and Akwari, O.E. (1982): Pattern of interdigestive biliary flow in fasted dogs: the effect of motilin in cholecystectomized and intact animals. Gastroenterology 84(5): part 2 : 1110. Bolarinwa, Y. (1981): Plasma gastrin level in rats during the estrous cycle. Isr J Med. Sci. 17: 1073 - 1075. Bolarinwa, Y. and Amure, B.O. (1978): Pregnant rats and antral gastrin content. J pharm. Pharmac., 30: 400. Bonnevie, O. (1980): Peptic ulcer in Denmark. In olckronborged symposium on duodenal ulcer. Scand. J Gastroenterology 15: 163 -174. Crean, G.P. (1963): The endocrine system and the stomach. Vitam. And Hormones 215: 280. Doll, R. Endemiology of peptic ulcer. In: Avery Jones F.ed. Modem Trends in Gastroenterology. London: Butterworth, 1952: 361 - 379. Elegbe, R.A. and Bamgbose, S.O.A. (1976): The antihistamine properties of l-methyl-3- pyrrotidy &-phenyl cyclohexane glycolate methabromide (AHR 483). Biochem Exp Bioi 12: 329 - 332. Evbuomwan, M.l. and Bolarinwa, A.F. (1990): Effect of diet on indomethacin induced peptic ulceration in pregnant rats. Nig. J Physiol. Sciences 6(2): 187 - 1991. Kaufmann H.J. and Spiro HM (1968): Estrogen and gastric secretion. Gastroenterology 54:913-917. Kurata, J.H., Haile, B.M. and Elashoff, J.G. (1985): Sex differences in peptic ulcer disease. Gastroenterology 88: 96- 100. Lozzio, B.B., Gagliardi, O. Po., Biempica, L. and Royer, M. (1961). Effects of pregnancy on gastric secretion in rats. Gastroenterology, 41: 126-128. Makinde, J.M. and Obih, P.O. (1985): Investigations of various extracts of Morinda lucida for antimalarial actions on Plasmodium berghei in mice. Afric. J Med. Med. Sci. 14: 59 - 63. McCarthy, J.D., Evans, S.O. and Dragstedt. L.R. (1954). Ibid., 27, 275-280. Meisel, M.L., Winterhoff, H. and Jekat, F.W. (1993): Tylosin inhibits the steroidogenesis in mouse Leydig cells in vitro. Life Sciences 53: 77 - 84. Murray, F.A. Erskine, J.P. and Fielding J. (1957). Gastric secretion in pregnancy. J Obstet. Gynaec. Br. Common W. 64: 373 - 381. Njar, YCO, Alao T.O., Okogun, J.l., Raji, Y., A.F. Bolarinwa and E.U. Nduka, (1995. Antifertility activity of 'Quassia amara', Quassin inhibits the steroidogenessis in rat Leydig cells in vitro. Planta Med 61: 180-182. Oluwole, F.S. and Bolarinwa, A.F. (1986); Buffering capacity of some Nigerian food substances. Scand. J Gastroentenal. 21(suppl. 124): 113-120. Oluwole, F.S. and Bolarinwa, A.F. (1990): Effects of gonadectomy on indomethacin - induced ulceration and peptic activity in rats. Afr. J Med. Med. Sci. 19: 139 - 143. Polonsky, J. (1985): Fortschritte der cherne organischer Naturstoffe. Yol. 47 (Herzw, Grisebach, H. Kirby, G.W. Tamm. Ch. Eds) pp 22 - 264 Springer Yerlag. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 568 Adeyombo F. Bolarinwa Presl, J., Herzmann, J., Horsky, J., Mikulas, I. And Henzi, M. (1967): Fluctrimetric estimation of oestrogen in the blood of-infant rats. J. Endocr., 381201- 202. Raji, Y. and Bolarinwa, A.F. (1997). Antifertility activity of Quassia amara: in vivo study. Life Sciences 61 (II): 1067 -1074. Simic, B.S. (1971): Nutritional aspects of diabetes mellitus in developing countries. Food and Nutrition 9: 19-31 Sippy, W.L. (1915): J. Am. Med. Assoc 68: 1625. Stockard C.R and Pappanicoloua G.N (1917): Staining technique in oestrous cycle. Anatomical Records. Tovey, F.I. (1974). Geographical distribution of peptic ulcer. Trop. Doctor 4: 17-21.0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 24 SUPPORT THROUGH THE RAGING STORMS OF PAIN Olaitan. A. Soyanwo Department of Anaesthesia Introduction This is'the third inaugural lecture from the Department of Anaesthesia, one of the 15 Departments in the Faculty of Clinical Sciences and Dentistry, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan. The first inaugural lecture from the Department was given by Professor J.A.O. Magbagbeola in 1976 and the second by Late Professor C.E. Famewo in 1993. The Department of Anaesthesia was created from the Department of Surgery in 1967 and this illustrates the age-long relationship between Anaesthesia and Surgery. Although the relationship between Surgery and Anaesthesia is often likened to that of husband and wife, this is not a monogamous arrangement. The department works in close collaboration with several other departments including medical, paediatrics and laboratory specialties to promote professional medical education and safety of lives especially during dangerous and critical situations. . . The topic of my inaugural lecture is "Support through the Raging Storms of Pain" and this afternoon, I do not intend to make you view anaesthetists as those mere mortals trying to play the role of the Almighty, the Creator as may be implied from the title of this lecture. Rather, I would like to talk on some interrelated subjects, which have continued to be of special interest to me as an anaesthetist. These are the areas of the storms encountered during the multidimensional practice of anaesthesia and pain management, what the anaesthetist has to offer now and in the future. I shall start by giving a brief history of the specialty of Anaesthesia. The Birth of Anaesthesia The word 'Anaesthesia' was derived from the Greek words "a" meaning without and "aesthesis" meaning perception. Anaesthesia thus involves the production of a state of reversible insensibility to pain locally or through loss of consciousness. Methods commonly employed in the 18th Century were hypnosis, alcohol and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 570 Olaitan A. Soyanwo opium by inhalation of its vapour and by ~pplication of the powder to wounds. The latter method still finds some use in modem times during wars when the euphoric effect of opium is still found to be beneficial. Some extreme methods were also employed such as compression of carotid arteries to cut off blood supply to the brain. Phlebotomy or blood letting when carried out aggressively enough also caused loss of consciousness and was utilized as a pain-killer! But such methods can also promptly kill (Macht 1915). Nitrous oxide was first prepared by Priestley in 1772 but it was Humphry Davy who discovered that it relieved pain while suffering from a toothache. Because nitrous oxide was later associated with asphyxia, its use was temporarily forgotten and overshadowed by ether for over 40 years. Dr. Crawford Long, a practising physician in need of safe anaesthetic, realized that those who participated at "ether parties" discovered bruises and other injuries acquired while under the influence of ether but had no recollection of pain. We probably will come across such interesting findings and produce extracts for anaesthesia and pain relief if we study the traditional herbs used by our. people during initiation ceremonies and tribal clashes! Ether, although prepared originally in 1540 by Valerius Cordus and used privately for several years was not introduced into clinical practice until 1846. W. T. G. Morton, a dentist on October 16th 1846, performed the first successful demonstration of its clinical use and brought about the turning point in the history of Anaesthesia. Within a few months, chloroform superseded ether as the most popular anaesthetic agent especially as the famous John Snow, the first full time anaesthetist gave over 4000 chloroform anaesthetics without a death. He succeeded in popularizing chloroform by administering it to Queen Victoria during the delivery of her eighth child (Prince Leopold) in 1857. This action also set down the seal of respectability on the relief of pain during childbirth and deliverance of women from the theological injunction of Genesis Chapter 3, verse 16. Cocaine was introduced for local anaesthesia in 1884 and by 1889 spinal anaesthesia was used widely and opened the doors to development and use of local and regional anaesthetic techniques. The concept of "Balanced Anaesthesia" was embraced from 1926 when John S. Lundy of the Mayo Clinic introduced the term. He suggested that a combination of agents be used, so that general anaesthesia and pain relief were obtained by a nice balance of agents and techniques such as: (i) intravenous agent to produce loss of consciousness quickly; (ii) muscle relaxant for muscle relaxation; (iii) analgesic drugs for pain relief; (iv) other drugs to prevent unwanted reflexes like slowing ofthe heart. With this concept, it is now possible to avoid deep levels of anaesthesia and depression of vital centers in the brain. The pace of development has been sustained in all aspects from inhalation agents, drugs, general and regional techniques and equipment. Thus the Schimmelbusch mask and ether drop method of the early days is now replaced with computerized anaesthetic and monitoring UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of Pain 571 equipment while information management systems are utilized for effective service, teaching and research. The pioneers of anaesthesia in the West African subregion - Waters, Flemming, Beckam, Oduntan, Oduro, Magbagbeola, ffoulkes-Crabbe, Obiaya, Akinyemi, Famewo, Odugbesan also made several contributions. Anaesthesia as a Medical Specialty Before World War I, there were few anaesthesia specialists, thus untrained inexperienced care providers including surgeons were assigned to anaesthesia. It soon became clear that this was a big mistake bordering on criminal negligence as those soldiers with massive trauma faired better with the skilled care provided by trained anaesthetists. Thus began the era of specialists in anaesthesia and for us, this is one good result from a world war (Davis 1968). During the World War II, massive trauma care, triage in emergency situations, delivery of anaesthesia outside the operating room, transfusion medicine and treatment of hypothermia all fell into the courts of anaesthetists. In the decade after World War II, several changes occurred in the scope and complexity of surgery. These could not have been possible without matching developments and refinements in anaesthetic practice. Nowadays, many surgical patients are very ill and caring for the patient before, during and after the surgical assault is a major role for the anaesthetist. The Raging Storm . In the attempt to heal or cure, the surgeon's knife produces tissue damage resulting in pain and an outpouring of stress hormones. This situation is also similar to what a person encounters during major trauma, such as road traffic accident and severe bums. Pain is the most demanding of all symptoms of disease and most people who seek medical treatment actually have pain as a complaint. Historically, for many centuries, philosophers and psychologists followed Aristotle who thought pain to be a purely emotional problem (Dallenback, 1939). Even the Latin word "poena" from which "Pain", was derived means a penalty or punishment. But after the discovery of "Pain nerves" and "Pain Tracts", it is now known that pain is a complex experience having a sensory component and an emotional component. By 1979, the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defined pain as an unpleasant, sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage (IASP 1979). To the ordinary individual, pain is unpleasant, a combination of agony and suffering and it is like being caught up in a raging storm. During surgery, the surgeon requires his patient to be still without moving or complaining while he has a good view of his operating field. Occasionally, he asks the anaesthetist: "Is the patient OK"? The patient simply wants to be unaware of the operation and to be alive at the end. The anaesthetist on the other hand actually has to support the patient's various body organs through the surgical ordeal, which in some instances can even terminate in death. A lot of people say that the anaesthetist only "puts people to sleep". But we know that it is more important and more difficult to be able to wake them up! The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 572 Olaitan A. Soyanwo requirements of each individual that is rendered unconscious and the anaesthetic considerations are diverse and I hereby invite you all to join me in looking at some of the case scenarios often requiring the anaethetist's support. Let us start our journey with The Pregnant Patient who is expected to bring forth the new generation. She may be presented to the anaesthetist for surgery unrelated to the pregnancy, for provision of pain relief during labour or anaesthesia for operative delivery and management of complications related to childbirth. It is well known that pregnancy and labour produce remarkable physiological, anatomical and psychological changes in the mother. Although many of these complications are beneficial and help women survive childbirth, others place the women at increased risk of death. Even the layman is aware of some of these problems, hence prayers are often offered for safe delivery while culturally, several taboos are levied to protect pregnant women against harm. The choice of anaesthesia in the obstetric patient is influenced by the training and experience of the anaesthetist, the facilities available, the clinical condition of the patient and whether the procedure is elective, urgent or an emergency. The fact that two or more lives (the mother and babies) are under the care of the anaesthetist simultaneously makes obstetric anaesthesia unique with additional challenges. Special. considerations when general anaesthesia is employed include the less efficient gastric emptying and risk of regurgitation and aspiration of gastric content, intubation problems and the fact that in the supine position, the uterus presses on the inferior vena cava, leading to severe hypotension - the supine hypotension syndrome. During general anaesthesia, the mother is paralyzed while low concentrations of anaesthetic agents and sedative drugs are administered until delivery of the baby. The use of such "light anaesthesia" is aimed at producing an awake baby with the expectant loud cries. This technique could however lead to the problem of awareness during surgery when the mother would be able to hear and even feel pain. As our own research contribution to this aspect of anaesthesia, Soyannwo, Elegbe and Odugbesan studied three groups of women undergoing Caesarian Section in 1988. We found that administration of a small dose of narcotic analgesic (pethidine 25mg) with a benzodiazepine (flunitrazepam 0.03mglkg) was associated with a low incidence (4%) of awareness. Twenty-eight percent of the women in the control group were aware and five of them could repeat some of the statements made while under anaesthesia such as "this knife is not sharp", "the baby is a little elephant". Over the last decade, regional anaesthetic techniques especially spinal and epidural have become more popular in obstetric practice and this has minimized the risks associated with obstetric anaesthesia. Thus, in developed countries, maternal deaths attributed to anaesthesia has fallen steadily in the last 30 years (Fig. 2). In the Report on Confidential Enquiries into .Maternal Deaths (CEMD) in the UK for 1994-1996, there were no deaths from general anaesthesia (Levy 2001). However, the story is different in our environment where preventable causes, ignorance, late referrals and inadequate facilities even when the women get to the hospital still lead thousands of mothers to their graves. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of Pain 573 The Paediatric Patient .' A happy and healthy child is a joy to behold and wheri children have to receive anaesthetic care, the dexterity, knowledge and competence of the anaesthetist are always maximally utilized. One may notice that a two-month old baby is listed on the operation schedule for a minor surgical procedure under anaesthesia but on preoperative visit, discover a tiny baby weighing lessjhan 2 kilograms, who was born three months prematurely at a gestational age of 28 weeks. One also discovers that the baby had severe respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) at birth and was on ventilator support for one week in the neonatal Intensive Care Unit. On the same list may be a fit 10-year-old child for minor surgery. The anaesthetic management thus becomes a much more major event in the former infant who . manifests the highest anatomical and physiological variance from an adult. In 1986, I reported several problems of accessibility to the airway which were encountered in our paediatric anaesthetic practice as exemplified by the six day old baby with a large neck multinodular swelling, six month old baby with adherent upper and lower lips and 5 month old baby with frontoparietal mass (Soyannwo 1987). The latter being fat also posed the problem of venous access and she in fact developed mediastinal emphysema with pneumome-diastinum , following traumatic intubation (Soyannwo and Ogunsehinde 1987). In major surgery, on the 4-year-old for excision of Wilm's tumour as reported by Soyanwo (1989); blood loss that has to be replaced accurately by the anaesthetist may be more than the total blood volume of the child. Blood transfusiori in the perioperative period including the protection of self and others against the risks of deadly infectious diseases like the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HN) and Hepatitis are part of the schedule of the anaesthetist. Problems are also magnified when the children presenting for surgery come as emergency or are on treatment for other concurrent medical problems like sickle cell disease and congenital heart diseases as we reported. The anaesthetist must be knowledgeable on these issues and guard against complications throughout the operation and' in the immediate postoperative period. Patients with Medical Problems and Critical Care Surgical patients who have intercurrent medical diseases pose a great challenge. to the anaesthetist and the challenges are more in the elderly who manifest physiological changes' and' disease states due to the ageing process. My colleagues and I studied surgical patients in Ibadan in 1996 and found that 9.21, % out of a total of 2, 106 consecutive patients had intercurrent medical diseases as listed in table 1. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 574 Olaitan A. Soyanwo Table 1: Incidence (%) of Intercurrent Medical Diseases in Surgical Patient in Ibadan (1996) Type of disease Percentage Hypertension 42.27% Diabetes Mellitus 13.4% Anaemia 9.7% Asthma 6.7% Malnutrition 4.64% Septicaemia 3.61% Heart Disease 3.6% Others include haemoglobinopathy, neurological and respiratory diseases, typhoid fever, thyroid and liver diseases (Soyannwo, Bamgbade and Odutola 1996). Although the physician may be consulted on the management of such diseases pre-operatively when time allows, the anaesthetist has the responsibility of intra-operative management and ensuring that the patient recovers fully from anaesthesia. This area of the work sometimes results in major conflicts between the cautious anaesthetist and the surgeon who is eager to operate ev~n when the patient's disease state is uncontrolled. We reported' our experience on surgery of toxic goitre in non-euthyroid patients whose economic situation led to non- compliance with prescribed medication and poor control of their disease. (Ajao, et al, 1997). Because of the expertise in airway control, respiratory care and support of failing vital organs during surgery, the anaesthetist now plays a frontline role in critical care medicine. They are pillars in teams for the A, B, C (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) principles of Basic and Advanced Life Support, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, Trauma, Accident and Emergency and Intensive Care. These are areas where the knowledge of Basic Sciences and Clinical Skills of the physician anaesthetist are fully utilized. The area of Respiratory support has moved from the realms of oxygen administration via nasal catheter or oxygen masks to various modes of mechanical ventilation, and nonventilatory components of therapy. The latter include position changes (supine to prone) for improved ventilation perfusion (VIQ) matching, nitric oxide inhalation in the treatment of severe Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary hypertension and ventilation with a liquid perfluorocarbon to allow substantial improvement of gas exchange. The University College Hospital, Ibadan has one of the very few Intensive Care Units in Nigeria and this is under the Department of Anaesthesia. Pain Management Pain is a common feature in all the situations described above and Anaesthesia prevents the immense suffering it generates. Major surgery provokes prolonged release of cathecolamines, which contribute to cardiac morbidity in the postoperative period. Pain can cause significant reduction in the respiratory efforts, heightened stress response and depressed immune function. Poorly UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of Pain 575 relieved pain has a' negative psychological effect, causing sleeplessness and depression. Acute pain as in these cases results from tissue damage, cut nerve endings and maneuvers associated with anaesthesia and surgery. Acute pain usually has a short duration of hours or days of less than three months and improves with healing. Chronic pain on the other hand e.g. backache or arthritis is long standing (over six months) and a cause may not be found readily. Chronic disabling pain, widespread throughout the body is often thought to be a manifestation of psychological distress. The Pain Message Through a complex pathway, sensation of pain is transmitted by a variety of nerve fibres with different conduction rates to cells in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These cells act as "gate" as was first postulated by Melzack and Wall in 1965. When 'open', pain impulses pass.through and pain is felt and if 'closed', no pain or little pain is felt. Descending pain pathway from the brain and several substances such as bradykinin, substance P, prostaglandins modify the pain message (nocciceptive input). The message passes through relay stations in the spinal cord, medulla and midbrain to the brain where it is perceived as pain. Involvement of spinal pharmacological mechanisms and various transmitter substances such as peptides, excitatory amino acids, endorphins cause amplification (central hypersensitivity) or alteration in pain states. Knowledge in this area has enhanced various sites for pain treatment from peripherally acting to central measures acting on the brain. Pain Assessment > > >.;' You may want to ask, "How does the anaesthetist know that an unconscious patient such as the one under anaesthesia feel pain"? As earlier mentioned, pain is a combination of events, which include metabolic and endocrine changes. Thus, observations like increased heart rate, and respiratory rate, blood pressure, sweating and lacrimation may be pointers towards inadequate intra-operative analgesia. That is why the anaesthetist stays closely and monitors each patient carefully throughout surgery, using his clinical skills to decipher the cause of various changes occurring in the patient. Several monitoring equipment are also available now to assist with monitoring various parameters in the patient, the anaesthetic equipment and even the environment - a similar situation to the cockpit of an aircraft. The anaesthetist deciphers that an unconscious patient under his/her care has pain but in the awake patient like postoperative, the patient complains of pain. Sound approaches to treatment of any pain must include appropriate assessment in terms of: Self report- what the patient says Behaviour- what the patient does Biological methods how the body reacts. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 576 Olaitan A. Soyanwo The patient is usually able to indicate where it hurts e.g. site of operation or distant sites. Specific descriptive terms are used to describe the type of pain e.g. sharp, aching or throbbing may imply likely organic cause related to tissue damage while numb, tingling are suggestive of nerve compression or injury and words like "buzzing", "funny" when used may point to anxiety or fear. Pain assessment is now considered to be the fifth vital sign that should be recorded regularly in any patient whether medical or surgical and furthermore, the years 2000 to 2010 have been declared the decade of Pain control and research. It is better to grade pain as objectively as possible before and after treatment while the commonly used English words have to be translated to relevant languages for ease of comprehension by patients. Our multidisciplinary group had to translate the universally employed Verbal Rating Scale (VRS), a part of the McGill Pain Questionnaire to Yoruba (Soyannwo et al. 2000) 0= No pain Ko si irora 1= Mild Pain frora die 2= Discomforting frora ti 0 nini lara 3= Distressing Irora ti 0 ba ni lokanje 4= Horrible frora ti 0 ga 5= Excruciating frora ti 0 koja ifarada We are currently working on the translation of a 101 - instrument, the Multidimensional Affect Pain Score (MAPS) for use in Nigerian patients. Pain assessment in neonates and small children (age < 4yrs) represents a major challenge due to the lack of the language skills and changing psychology. Although the pain rating scales used in adult can be used for older children, other scales are specifically designed for use in children. These scales make use of behavioural and physiologic parameters such as: restlessness, grimacing, vocalization, sweating, lacrimation, pupil dilatation, skin blood flow, tachycardia, hypertension, dyscoordinate respiration. Pictorial scales e.g. Faces scale, are useful for 3-6 years and the child can indicate which face represents the amount of pain being experienced. Pain Control The goals of pain management in this millennium emphasize the "process" rather than specific treatment modalities. There should be a collaborative, multidisciplinary approach while patients should be involved in developing the pain management plan. Use of combination of systemic analgesics, topical analgesics, wound infiltration, nerve blocks with safer and longer acting local anesthetics and non-drug therapies including acupuncture, Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS), psychotherapy, peer support and pastoral counselling are now commonly employed. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of Pain 577 Over the past two decades, opioids especially morphine and shorter acting preparations have come to the forefront among the drugs used for pain relief. The methods of dispensing have evolved from intramuscular six, eight hourly or as and when required dosing to intravenous, neuraxial, trans dermal, and transmucosal as alternative routes. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents including the new COX-II inhibitors and recently a2 adrenergic agonists are now effective adjuvants to opioid use. During the last decade, the use of epidural and spinal opioids for acute pain control has increased due to excellent analgesia produced and ease of administration. It is now possible for patients to self- administer small doses of Opioids by Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA) when they experience pain. This is achieved through computer-programmed pumps with a lockout interval to prevent overdose. A background infusion of the analgesic can be delivered to achieve a constant blood level of drug and ensure complete pain relief even during movement, coughing or straining. Where such facilities are available, acute pain teams consisting of a consultant anaesthetist, a nurse, and pharmacist supervise treatment and ensure safety and standard of care. Many of the above methods can be used safely in children too since it is now proven scientifically that even the smallest neonate responds to pain. For physiological, moral, ethical and humanitarian reasons, pain should be anticipated and effectively controlled in all age groups. We have promoted this philosophy in our department and our research study has shown that even the customary male infant circumcision in Africans need not be accompanied by screams and yelling. Our use of eutetic mixture of local anaesthetics (EMLA) cream applied to the prepuce 45 to 90 minutes before circumcision significantly reduced the pain and discomfort associated with circumcision in infants (Shittu, Soyannwo and Sodipo 1997). Some of you in the audience who have had major surgery in Nigeria will probably never like to go through the experience again mainly because of the pain experienced. Many studies worldwide including contributions from our department have shown that pain is undertreated. In a recent study, Faponle, Soyannwo and Ajayi (2001) showed that almost 70% of our patients indicate moderate to severe pain following surgery. Such a situation would have resulted in surgeons and anaesthetist being dragged to the law courts in developed countries. But despite the archaic pain management methods, 90% of our Nigerian patients still reported that they were satisfied with their pain reliefl It is possible they expect that pain must be part of any surgical procedure or we are able to handle pain better culturally! The situation for the Nigerian woman in labour is no better and even in this millennium most women still go through the agonizing pains of childbirth. It is now well established that pain relief during labour accomplishes more than just providing comfort because labour is both painful and stressful to the mother. Every effective uterine contraction increases the parturient's cardiac output, and the work of the heart. Her oxygen consumption, carbohydrate metabolism and secretion of stress hormones (adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and cortisone) rise steadily. This taxes the mother's reserves and may deprive the foetus of oxygen and nutrients. Hence, several methods of pain relief are now offered to women during prenatal education. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 578 Olaitan A. Soyanwo In 1985, I introduced and confirmed the effectiveness of inhalation of a fixed concentration of 50% nitrous oxide in oxygen (Entonox) for pain relief during labour in Nigerian women (Soyannwo 1995). Pain relief was reported to be satisfactory in 86% of the patients. However, epidural analgesia is currently the most widely used technique to provide pain free labour in many parts of the world. This involves the delivery of weak solutions of local anaesthetics with or without opioid analgesics into the epidural space through an inserted catheter. Drug delivery may be achieved by continuous infusion, by intermittent top-up or by patient controlled administration (PCA), which offers the parturient the additional psychological benefit of being in control. She can even walk around, pain free during labour. The technique provides flexibility to meet the needs of each patient despite varied obstetric courses (spontaneous vaginal delivery, forceps delivery, caesarian delivery). Unfortunately, inadequate manpower and equipment prevent provision of such service on a routine basis in Nigeria. The province of Anesthesiology also extends to the areas of chronic pain, cancer pain management and terminal care as part of the multidisciplinary team approach to patient care. The long hours spent in.the theatre co-coordinating the activities of surgeons, nurses and other theatre personnel and communicating with anxious, distressed and sometimes difficult patients (and surgeons) are great assets. In order to be a pain sp'~~ialist, the anaesthetist must appreciate and understand the pathophysiology of pain syndromes, be familiar with current psychophysiology, psychotherapy and use his knowledge of nerve blockade techniques. Patients with difficult pain states including cancer patients are referred to anaesthetists for management. Majority of these cancer patients in developing countries are incurable by the time the diagnosis is.made and pain occurs in about 70% of those with advanced disease especially caneer of the breast and prostate in Nigerians. Management of pain and other symptoms are therefore crucial to the quality of their remaining life. It is disheartening to know that this is a neglected aspect of medical care in Africa and Nigeria in particular ..Therefore, there is an urgent need for formal education and research in pain and symptom control in terminal illness and establishment of Pain Clinics. After all, death is a price that everyone has to pay but it does not have to be painful. The idea of formal pain management was initiated by John Bonica, a senior anaesthesiologist with: the Madigan Anny Hospital, United States of America who startedthe first Pain Clinic in 1944. He later became the founder of the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Akinyemi and Famewo (1984) established the first Pain Clinic in Ibadan in 1978 while we pioneered the formation of a Cancer Pain Palliative Care Group in 1995. The activities of this group resulted in the inauguration of the Society for the Study of Pain, Nigeria, in 1998. For the first time, doctors, scientists, physiotherapists, psychologist, nurses and non-medical individuals who are interested in pain treatment and research could collaborate while the society has become a chapter of the international body. Ajayi et al. (2000) have identified impediments to the availability of opioids in Nigeria and made concerted efforts for four years to get the Federal Ministry UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of Pain 579 of Health and its agency National Agency for Food and Drug Administration (NAFDAC) to make opioids available for medical use. These potent painkillers are now available and hopefully, Nigerian patients with cancer can obtain deserved relief using the WHO Guidelines for Cancer Pain Management (WHO 1986). This method stipulates that analgesics should be given "by mouth", "by the clock", "by the ladder", "for the individual", with "attention to detail" while non-opioid, opioid analgesics are employed with adjutants as required. Regional neurolytic blocks, ablative neurosurgery, chemo-therapy, physical therapy, radiation therapy and other non-pharmacological interventions may also be indicated. The Making of an Anaesthetist Even where anaesthetic facilities are optimal like in the United Kingdom, Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths (CEPOD) revealed, that overall death after anaesthesia and surgery was 0.7% (Buck, Devlin and Lunn 1987). Anaesthesia alone was responsible for death in approximately 1 in 100,000 operations but contributed to 14% of all deaths. Thus like all aspects of life, anesthesia is associated with risks but these can be kept to an absolute minimum. The training and knowledge of the anaesthetist must therefore be top class while he/she must be of sound mind at all times. Otherwise, he may not be capable of waking those put to sleep! In the developed world, anaesthetists are respected and highly paid and it is now commonplace for doctors who have acquired postgraduate qualifications in Basic sciences, surgery, medicine, paediatrics and other specialties to retrain as anasesthetists or anaesthesiologists .. In 1980, our study (Akinyemi and Soyannwo 1980) revealed how unpopular the specialty of anaesthesia was in a class of graduating medical students at the University of Ibadan, Anaesthesia as "a choice of future career" ranked sixth out of eight specialties presented. This situation has not changed and it is even worse at postgraduate level, which takes six years or more to complete. The senate of the University of Ibadan in its wisdom and based on the need to train postgraduate specialist medical teachers within the country, approved regulations for the Master of Medicine programme in 1964. Anaesthesia was one of the specialties and training took off in 1970. I became the only product of this training in Anaesthesia because a National programme under the Nigerian Medical Council replaced the M.Med. A West African programme under the West African Postgraduate Medical College was also commenced soon after. A University-based Diploma Programme, which was first available in London in 1935,was not commenced in Nigeria until 1967. Elegbe and Soyannwo have shown in their study that by 1996, only 1 anaesthetist was produced per 49 surgeons trained on the West African programme (Soyannwo and ElegbeI999). Anaesthesia manpower in Nigeria is therefore still in the lowest range of 1: 300,000 population (compared to 1:10,000 in USA). Hence, like in other countries with shortage especially developing countries, middle" level manpower - nurses and technicians are trained to administer anaesthesia. I was privileged to train nurses to administer anaesthesia in The Gambia and install them in 7 newly established secondary referral centres UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 580 Olaitan A. Soyanwo as parr of the country's efforts to improve obstetrics services, thereby reducing maternal mortality (Soyannwo 1992; Soyannwo -and George 1995). Such personnel are trained to work under supervision of physician anaesthetists but we found that 29% of those in Nigel'iia work alone under surgeons who sometimes know less than they do about anaesthetic issues - a very dangerous situation (Soyannwo, Oduntan and Faponle 1997). What does Anaesthesia have to offer in the new millennium? In the issue of Anaesthesia 200], :volume 56, pages 272-296, A. Vohra .of the Manchester Royal Infirmary U.K., asked: "So what is the role of the anaesthetist in theatre?" And I agree with his answer: "We are the patients' replacement brain. We induce a reversible chemical coma and then take over the functions that the brain would normally perform". Successful surgery requires the coordinated activities of employees with different skills (doctors, nurses, administrators, physiotherapists, pharmacists, technicians, porters etc.) and application of costly supplies and equipment in order to produce the finished product - a patient discharged with successful outcome. The breakdown in any step in this "assembly line" leads to frustration and dissatisfaction to all concerned. When such breakdown occurs on a regular basis as happens in our nation's health sector, .dedication is sacrificed for self-gains and the number of colourful obituaries. in our newspapers and television screens increase! An extension "of !be surgical role of the anaesthetist is carried outside the operating theatJ;e-sudi.~~Jhe new area of office day surgery, monitored sedation, resuscitation especiallyii; "sudden death" situations, intensive care unit, obstetric unit and' chronic pain management. These are areas of great challenge to all clinical ~n9-esthesia··providers but the onus is especially on Government and academic centers including our great University of Ibadan to provide required facilities-for these clinical activities, research and education since all three are inseparable. I am proud to have received most of my education and professional training in Nigeria but those were:r"'lhedays when our naira was stronger than the dollar and at par with the pound sterling. Hence, 50% of my annual salary in Nigeria in 1978 was enough to fully support my one-year study leave in Britain. Our country is still a consumer country and all equipment, consumable items and drugs required --for _teaching, research and service concerning anaesthesia, life support and pairr'management are imported. The government must therefore note the priority areas and take into consideration the value of the naira when allocating funds to tertiary institutions. A situation where strong opioid analgesics were not imported into the country for several years is unacceptable and government regulatory policies must be streamlined to prevent the suffering brought about through the unavailability of such essential and controlled medications. Nigerian parents, organizations and philanthropists also have a role to play in supporting tertiary institutions. It is pertinent to note that the funds spent on overseas medical bills and emergency air ambulance for a few can make meaningful impact if ploughed into improving educational and health facilities in Nigeria. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Support through the Raging Storms of,Pain 581 In conclusion, anaesthesia has changed from just "putting patients to sleep" to an area of perioperative. and emergency medical care. As a team player, the anaesthetist is an indispensable member of trauma emergency response and-life support teams, essential obstetric services, safe motherhood, appropriate clinical use of blood and palliative care. Ally effort put into developing the specialty of anaesthesia will therefore reap dividends 'in all these areas where support is - . required' through the raging storms of pain and death. I believe that when anaesthetists receive enough support to evolve into subspecialty and multidisciplinary groups in Nigeria, the specialty will surely attract more practitioners who will not only provide safety in sleep but will ensure freedom from the raging storms of pain. ' REFERENCES Ajao, O.G., Soyannwo, O.A., Adebamowo, C./\.., Okeke, L.I., Ladipo, J.K. and Sotunmbi, P.T. Surgery of Toxic Goitre in Non-euthyroid Patients: A Preliminary Report. Afr. J Med. Sci. 1997; 26: 59-62. A.jay'i,1.0., Soyannwo, O.A., Adebamowo, C.A. and Amanor-Boadu, S.D. Availability of Opioids for Cancer Pain in Nigeria. Nig. J 'Surg. 2000; 7(1) 25-28 . Akinyemi. 0.0. and Soyannwo, b:A .. .The Choice of Anaesthesia as a Career by Undergraduates in a Developing Country. Anaesthesia 1980; 35: 712-715. Akinyemi, 0.0. and Famewo, C.E:'Pioneering a·Pain Clinic in a Developing-Country: The Pain Clinic 1984; J, 109~114. .' . Buck, N., Devlin, H.B. and Lunn, J.N. 1987..The Report of a Confidential Enquiry into Peri operative Deaths. Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, London. Cancer Pain Relief, WHO, Geneva 1986. Dallenback, K.M. Pain: History and Present Status. Am. J Psychol. 1939, 52, 331. Davis, D.A, Anaesthesia in the World Wars. In: Davis, D,A. ed. Historical Vignettes of Modem Anaesthesia. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company; 1968: 19-29. Faponle, A.F., Soyannwo, O.A. and Ajayi, 1.0. Postoperative Pain Therapy: A Survey of Prescribing Patterns and Adequacy of Analgesia in Ibadan, Nigeria. Centr Afr. J Med. 2001 47(3), 70-74. IASP 1979. Subcommittee on Taxonomy. Pain Terms: A List with Definitions and Notes on Usage. Pain 6: 249-52. Levy, D.M. Anaesthesia for Caesarian Section. BJA CEPD Reviews 2001, (6) 171-176. Macht, D.I. The History of Opium and Some of its Preparations and Alkaloids. JAMA 1915; 64:477-81. Melzack, R. and Wall, P.O. Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory Science 1965; 150,971. Shittu, O.B., Soyannwo, O.A. and Sodipo, A.A. EMLA cream anesthesia for circumcision in infants. Nig. J surg. 1997; 4 (2) 63-65 Soyannwo, O.A. Self-administered Entonox (50% Nitrous Oxide in Oxygen) in Labour: A Preliminary Report of the Experience in Ibadan. Afr. J Med. med. Sc. 1985; 14, 95-98. Soyannwo, O.A. Some Problems with Tracheal Intubation in Nigerian Children. WAJM 1987; 6:2; 137-142. Soyannwo, O.A. Wilm's Tumour - Review of Anaesthetic Experience. Afr. .LAnaes. And Int. Care 1989; 1(1) 30-33. Soyannwo, O.A. Nurse Anaesthetists in the Gambia. World Health Forum 1992; 13: 208- 210. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 582 OlaitanA. Soyanwo Soyannwo, O.A. and Ogunsehinde, O. Subcutaneous Emphysema and Pneumomediastinum Complicating Endotracheal Intubation. Afr. J. Med. med. Sc. 1987; 16:119-121. Soyannwo, O.A, Elegbe, E.O. and Odugbesan, C.O. Effect of Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) on Awareness during Anaesthesia for Caesarian Section. Afr. J. Med. Med. Sci. 1988; 17,23-26. Soyannwo, O.A. and Melville, O. George. Anaesthesia in the Gambia. W. Afr. J. med. 1995; 14: (3) 169-173. Soyannwo, O.A, Bamgbade, O.A. and Odutola, 0.0. Medical Diseases and Anaesthesia. Afr. J. Anaes. And Int. Care 1996; 2(2), 5 I -56. Soyannwo, O.A., Oduntan, S.A. and Faponle, A.F. Anaesthetic Manpower and Facilities in Nigeria. Afr. J. Anaes. Int. Care 1997; 3: (I) 11-15. Soyannwo, O.A. and Elegbe, E.O. Anaesthetic Manpower Development in West Africa. Afr. J. Med. med. Sci. 1999; 28: 163-165. Soyannwo, O.A., Amanor-Boadu, S.D., Sanya, A.O. and Gureje, O. Pain Assessment in Nigerians - Visual Analogue Scale and Verbal Rating Scale Compared. WAJM 2000; 19(4) 242-245. Vohra,. A. The role of the Anaesthetist: Replacement Brain. Anaesthesia 2000; 56: 272- 273 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 25 GIVING A VOICE TO THE RURAL POPULATION Janice E. Olawoye Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Introduction It is a privilege to represent the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry that has so many distinguished and senior professors. At the same time, however, it is overdue that the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development be given this opportunity. In the 25 years of existence as a distinct department, this is the first inaugural lecture to be given from my Department. Although Professor AU. Patel presented a valedictory lecture and Professor J.A Ekpere gave a series of University Lectures, no one in the Department has previously been given this opportunity. It is, therefore, a challenge for me personally, but it is also an honour shared collectively by every member of staff of the Department. Background When I was a young girl growing up on a small farm in Iowa, U.S.A, I would dream, like any other child, about the future. Like many rural children, I guess my dream was to leave the farm and to have adventure. Never in my wildest dreams, however, did I consider that one day I would be living, teaching, doing research, preaching and raising a family in Africa. But my humble background provided a good training ground for relating with rural people, wherever they may be. I learned the dignity of labouring with one's hands and producing not only for oneself, but also for the household, community and even the nation. I saw the importance of the social support network. I found that there was wisdom in many of the ways of the rural community and in the vast knowledge of rural people, like my father and grandfather, about the land that they farmed. In America, policy makers and researchers listen to the voice of the farmers, because the 'experts' recognize that the farmers know what they are talking about. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 584 Janice E. Olawoye . In Nigeria, we in the academia, research institutes and government often ignore the ideas, aspirations, talents and difficulties faced by rural people who form a large proportion of our population. When the concerns of agricultural development and the needs of the rural population "are addressed, the interventions are usually planned and implemented by outsiders with virtually no input from the people most affected by the programmes. Iii countless cases, our development projects and innovations have failed to achieve their objectives because the local population has not been given the opportunity to voice its views. < This evening, by the help of God, I will try to provide the voice of many wonderful people living in the rural communities across this country and Ghana, that I have had the privilege of meeting and with whom I have interacted. They have taught me much and this is the opportunity I have to 'present their views, as I have understood them, in a venue of such distinguished personalities. I do not take this responsibility lightly, for to misrepresent their views would be a bigger sin than to ignore them. As I attempt to give a voice to the rural population, you will also see the faces of many of my informants over the past years of my field work. The Importance of Listening One of the main reasons why the rural people have not been given a voice in matters that affect their lives is largely because most researchers, development practitioners and policy makers do not listen to them. Communication is not just about talking - it is also about listening. When we failto listen to the people most directly affected by our actions, problems will result. I will support this assertion with an example from the Bible. In the wisdom given to him by God, King Solomon made the following statement as recorded in Proverbs 18 vs. 13: "He that answers a matter before he hears it, it is folly and shame to him." This wisdom, however, was not passed down to his son, Rehoboam, who became king after his father. When he w~s setting his own plan of action for his tenure, -Rehoboam consulted the elders and then his friends and mates. Rather than heed the caution of the elders, he decided to do what he and his friends wanted, rather than consider the wishes of the people over whom he was to reign. I Kings 12 vs. 13-14 records the action of the king: The king answered the people harshly. He disregarded the advice that the older men had given him and spoke to them according to the advice of the young men. Verse 16 of the same chapter tells us the reaction of the people: ~When all Israel saw that the king would not listen to them, the people answered the king, "What share. do we have in David? We have no inheritance in the son of Jesse. To your tents, 0 .: /' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 585 Israel! Look now to your own house, 0 David". So, Israel went away-to theirtents," The situation is riot so different' today. Many politicians, policy makers, academicians, and development practitioners take the role of deciding what they want or what they think the people should want, disregarding the views of the very people who should benefit from their actions. In many cases, the rural population becomes alienated, disillusioned, sceptical and even resentful. I was greatly affected by a book that I stumbled upon in the 1980's. The title was Fatal Remedies by Seiber (1981). The title intrigued me because it seemed to be a contradiction of terms - how can a remedy which implies an improvement in a condition - be considered fatal? Yet, the premise upon which the title rested was that very often our development interventions leave people worse off than if we had left them alone in the first place. Unfortunately, experience has shown that this is a reality in some development projects. While it may be impossible to foresee all of the consequences of our interventions, I believe that we have a moral obligation to try to ensure that our projects do result in an improvement in the lives of the intended beneficiaries. One of the ways to facilitate this goal is to obtairrthe views of the local people and use their ideas as an input into the development of interventions and innovations. Let me also sound a word of caution. Analysis of the impact of an intervention many times depends on who is doing the assessment. Since the evaluation requires a subjective assessment as to what is an improvement, there may be quite a difference in the views on the impact of a project between the rural population who feel the impact directly and the outside experts who may want to justify their actions. Need for Academic Humility There has been significant support in theory for the 'bottom-up' or 'farmer first' approach as opposed to the conventional 'top-down' or 'technology transfer' approach in programme development and implementation, including extension delivery systems (Chambers' 1988). Unfortunately, the communication flow from the rural dwellers 'up' to the policy makers and researchers, in reality, has seldom been encouraged, nor have the messages usually been taken very seriously. Very often, we feel that due to our higher formal education, we know better and should make the decisions for the 'uneducated'. For development workers, this often manifests itself in a feeling of superiority or paternalism on the part of the 'expert'. Allow me to illustrate this with a little story that I often tell my students: A young graduate of agriculture went to a village as an extension agent to pass across information on innovations to improve productivity. He had a sense of pride with his achievement of an honours degree in agriculture from the premier university in Nigeria. As he went to the village in his UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 586 Janice E. Olawoye shirt and tie, he met an elderly fanner. The extension agent proceeded to explain to the fanner why the way he was spacing the plants and his combination of crops would not give a good yield. Wherever possible, he added some scientific terms which of course could not be translated into the vernacular. The elderly fanner listened patiently, as is the custom of the elders, - and then asked the young man to show him his hand. Though puzzled by this request, the agent held out his hand. The fanner said, "Ah, I can see that this hand has not held a hoe for a long time, if ever. Now look at my hand. This is the hand of experience (Fig. 1). I will now tell you why I farm as I do and you will see that your advice cannot work in this area ", In research, this type of academic arrogance is sometimes expressed in objective questions with all of the possible answers provided. The fanner gives a response according to the categories provided, even if the possible answers do not reflect his position. We must admit that there are reasons and conditions that we may not be aware of, issues of importance that are outside our experience and views that had simply not occurred to us (Richards 1979). Rhoades (1987: 1-2) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 587 presents a very descriptive picture of the limitations of many of our modes of research: " Agricultural scientists have developed and redeveloped methods on how to extract information and data from farmers to fit preconceived ideas about farming: e.g. questionnaires, farm trials, budgeting, cost-benefit calculations and even informal surveys. Yet, in all these methods, something is missing; they remain a one-way process. The questions are still ours and the farmer must struggle to fill in the blariks. Some experienced farmers have even become astute in giving us the answers we expect. The Great Diversity of Rural People and Rural Places There is a common saying: "You've seen one, you've seen them all". This is inaccurate when referring to rural people or rural places. I have visited well over a hundred rural communities throughout Nigeria and Ghana and I am yet to find two that are the same. Yes, they may look the same in physical terms, but none is a perfect match to another in social terms. This led me to write an article in 1984 entitled, "Degree of Rurality: Questioning the Empirical Existence of the 'Typical' Village". Consideration of these differences also formed the basis for my Ph.D research topic (Olawoye 1986). There are several dimensions in which significant locality-specific differences can be found. • In many localities, the socio-cultural picture of a community may be very diverse, having several ethnic and religious groups within, such as in many areas of the Middle Belt and the South-South geo-political zones of Nigeria, while other communities may be relatively homogeneous. • The gender division of labour may also vary greatly from one group to another, even within a community. • Ecological variations from one area to another affect the type of crops and other activities of the local population. • The level of infrastructural development will affect the extent to which rural dwellers can take advantage of economic and other opportunities. • Within a community, socio-economic status differences will determine the level to which individuals are able to engage in various productive activities as well as their standard of living (Olawoye 2001). The tendency to over-generalize from the example of one or two cases must be checked. It is this tendency that leads one to believe that there is one master plan for rural development that will work everywhere, but that is simply not the case. In various studies using gender analysis, for example, I have seen such diversity in the income-generating activities, levels of social participation, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 588 Janice E. Olawoye involvement in agricultural productivity and attitudes of rural women. Any strategy to enhance female participation in development programmes or to improve their household food security might be very successful in one locality, but be a dismal failure in another. Linkages to other Villages, Towns and Cities The conditions and activities in rural communities cannot fully be understood when viewed in isolation from other settlements, towns or even urban centres. Trager (2000: 2) states this position as follows: "In order to understand what is happening in rural communities today, and to find ways to improve the situation of rural people, we need to look at a wider social field." A study by Okali et al (2001) looked at the interactions and linkages between the urban centre of Aba in Abia State and five peri-urban and rural towns and villages in the same state. The basic proposition of the study was that "rural and urban areas are interdependent localities characterized by exchanges of people, ideas, goods and services, to support livelihoods, rather than two separate and isolated socio-economic entities". [The theoretical framework for this study is shown in fig. 2] This assumption was supported by the findings of the study showing that the livelihoods of both rural and urban dwellers were to some extent dependent upon remittances, long or short-term migration, activities that spanned the rural-urban divide, social support and trading. In another study in Southwest Nigeria, Akinwumi and Olawoye (1994) found that one of the coping mechanisms employed by some poor urban residents was to send their children back to the relatives in the village for schooling to reduce their expenses in the city. The rural-rural and rural-urban linkages are of fundamental importance for people resident in either type of community. SpaCial nO,","5 betw'een rural aDd urban Arens . - "People - • 000.> • •. lrlt'onnarion . •. Mou Fig. 2: Conceptual Framework for Rural-l 'rh,111lntcraction- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 589 Rural Livelihood Strategies: How Do Rural People 'Make a Living'? To understand how the standard of living of rural people can be improved, we must first know how they 'make a living'. The western concept of 'occupation' in terms of one activity by which all needs are met is not relevant to the experience of most rural dwellers in developing countries. The most realistic conceptualization of how rural people meet their needs is by noting the variety of activities engaged in to secure the goods and services required by their households. Loubser (1995) refers to the combining of such activities as 'livelihood', defining it as "the totality of means by which people secure a living, have or acquire the requirements for survival and satisfaction of needs as defined by the people themselves in all aspects of their lives. In studies with males and females in different rural areas across Nigeria and Ghana, a common finding has been that they engage in multiple income- generating activities. The major activities that result in necessary produce or income include crop farming, livestock rearing, trading, fishing or hunting, gathering non timber forest products, working as a hired labourer, selling cooked foods or snacks, carpentry or bricklaying, blacksmithing, working as a civil servant, tailoring or hair dressing and craft-making. In a recent study covering the six geo-political zones of the country, it was found that the overall average of activities per person, whether male or female, was 3.5. There were variations by locality, but in all areas, people engaged in more than one activity to 'make a living', even including the sampled women in purdah in the Northwest zone (Olawoye et al., 2002). The variations by zone and gender can be seen in Table 1. Similar results were found in a study of rural women in different states in Nigeria. The average number of activities for sampled rural woman in Imo State was 3.6, for Oyo State - 3.2, in Niger State - 2.8 and in Bauchi State - 3.1 (Olawoye et al. 1994). Table 1: Average Number of Income-Generating Activities per Rural Respondent by Gender and Geo-Political Region in Nigeria. Geo-political Region Average number of Average number activities per male of activities respondent per female respondent Northeast 4.3 4.1 Northwest 2.3 1.7 Middle Belt 3.2 3.7 Southeast 3.1 4.7 South-South 3.2 2.1 Southwest 4.9 4.7 Total Sample 3.5 3.5 Adapted from Olawoye et al. (2002) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 590 Janice E. Olawoye There is a significant reason for understanding the fact that rural people, and indeed most people wherever they reside, combine numerous activities to meet their needs. Development workers tend to be myopic, viewing only the activity that they are directly concerned with, such as crop production. Consequently, they may not understand why the rural dwellers do not jump at suggestions to enhance their yields if the recommendations will require greater time input. For the rural women that are already overworked and need that additional time for their processing activities, gathering of non timber forest products (NTFPs) or tending their small livestock, such a suggestion would endanger their ability to earn extra income or ensure household food security. As,my people used to say, "It is risky to put all your eggs in one basket. " One must also note that the sustainability of many of these activities is often not assured with conditions of insecure access to productive and natural resources, environmental degradation and economic instability. The implications for poverty alleviation with these uncertainties are very serious. In line with the livelihood strategies of rural people, one must ask the question: Is the rural household really the smallest unit of production? Agricultural economists argue that it is, but evidence from studies looking at the groupings within the household, particularly separated by gender and generation would suggest otherwise. Females are more likely to have different activities and often separate income streams from males to meet their own specific responsibilities. The idea that all members of the household form a cohesive unit all working toward the same goal(s) and contributing their labour and other resources for shared activities with proceeds distributed for all is not commonly found. This is supported by findings that women are less likely to contribute as much time and resources in a joint venture if they are not likely·to share out of the proceeds. In a comparison of the seasonal calendars prepared by separate groups of rural males and females in a rural community in Southwest Nigeria, the difference in activities is apparent. It can be seen in Table 2 that some crops are planted by both males and females, but activities such as cocoa production, drying and marketing are done only by men while women are in charge of processing other crops such as cassava and palm fruits. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 591 Table 2: Seasonal calendar comparing activities of rural males and females in Southwest Nigeria Month Male Activities Female Activities January Land clearing Processing and marketing of farm produce February Land clearing; Bush burning Processing and marketing of farm produce; Land preparation for early crops. March Land preparations; Ridge Processing palm oil and making palm kernels April .Spraying cocoa; Planting Processing palm oil and maize and melon palm kernels; Planting early crops May Planting yam; Tending cocoa Weeding; Processing and kolanut trees June , Weeding; Spraying; Planting Weeding; Processing cassava July Weeding; Planting late Harvesting early crops; maize; Harvesting and drying Marketing; Land cocoa preparation for late crops August Harvesting dry maize Planting late maize September Weeding Planting cassava and yam October Harvesting early maize Weeding and tending late crops; cassava processing November Cocoa marketing; Harvesting Processing; Harvesting dry maize maize December Cocoa marketing; Harvesting Processing, Harvesting; dry maize Marketing. Source: Olawoye et al. (2002) Gender Studies for Rural Development I cannot leave this section without making a few comments about gender studies. Gender has been an important topic since the early to mid-80's and remains a significant research theme. Many writers have wrongly considered gender studies to be synonymous with studies only on women. In reality, gender looks at the relationships between males and females, recognizing that the roles and responsibilities, privileges and rights, constraints and potentials of males affect and are affected by those of females. From observing numerous studies using gender analysis and interacting with many self-acclaimed gender specialists, however, I feel it is important to make the following observations: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 592 Janice E. Olawoye • Many researchers have tried to 'cash in' on the gender theme, recognizing that much of the support for research requires a gender component. I have seen persons that have openly expressed contempt for the current emphasis upon gender studies, yet have added 'gender analysis' to the title of their proposed research. Ultimately, they fail to capture the gender dynamics that affect nearly all aspects of our lives. • Not all women are gender-sensitive and not all men are insensitive to gender issues. I do not agree that only women can study women. Sometimes, men can show even greater objectivity in gender studies than some female researchers. A Special Note on Rural Women Imust take a few minutes to put special emphasis upon the case of rural women. As Ihave often seen the hard life endured by so many rural women - carrying firewood on the head, a baby on the back and maybe a basket of produce in their hands, or spending endless hours pounding grains and frying gari or walking several kilometres to fetch a bucket of water, the thought always comes: "There, but for the grace of God, go [".(Fig. 3). ' Fig. 3: 'There, but for the grace of God, go 1." .•. ./"-- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 593 The average rural woman is controlled or limited by so many social, physical, environmental and perception factors. There are often socially imposed restrictions on participation or movement from norms, values or religious beliefs. In such cases, even programmes designed specifically to provide economic, health or educational opportunities for women may not have the desired impact because the women cannot take full advantage of them. In the areas where young women are in purdah, the restrictions from going to the market, from involvement in women's groups and from participation in communal activities seriously limits their ability to benefit from many interventions. At the same time, however, one should understand the views of the women living in this social setting. One secluded woman from a village in Northern Nigeria told me, "We are the lucky ones. Our husband can afford to keep us. Poor women have to go out in the hot sun to farm." While I do not advocate maintaining the status quo when women's productivity, health and level of education can be improved, yet one should recognize the effect of the local perspective as a force limiting empowerment. Social change has sometimes resulted in greater responsibility for the rural women in meeting the needs of the household. In the Southeast part of Nigeria, for example, there has been-increased population pressure upon arable lands, which have also suffered from soil erosion. For many rural households, the productive resources available are not sufficient to meet the livelihood needs. The male head may then be constrained to migrate in search of salaried employment to supplement whatever the wife and children can produce on the farm. This has greatly increased the work load particularly upon the women. In a study we conducted in Plateau State on women in tin-mining areas, the era of industrial mining resulted in changes in the traditional gender division of labour. According to our respondents: Men from this area were once known to be great farmers, but with the advent of industrial mining activities, most of the men were employed by companies like the Amalgamated Tin Mining Company of Nigeria (ATMN). In order to keep their farmlands allocated to their households by the families, the women now started farming. If they did not farm, their in-laws would confiscate the land for lack of use. When the husbands occasionally came home, they were very happy to see how well their wives were maintaining the farms. By the time the industrial mining ended, the husbands came home finally. The men, however, felt that since the women had done so well during their absence, they should continue to handle the farming activities. Both the male and the female respondents agreed that this had now become a social norm, one that the men seem to be quite happy about and that the women seem powerless to change. (Pamma et al. 2000). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 594 Janice E. Olawoye From the degradation resulting from decades of tin wrung, productive activities are far more energy demanding than in the past. Because of this, many of the women have also taken to small-scale mining activities with men. In another example of social change, women are now involved in aspects of mining that were previously only carried out by men. Formerly, men were responsible for digging the wells and going down to extract the ore and the washing was done by women, but now women even go down into the pits to extract the ore. While this is very hazardous and tedious work, the women feel the potential earnings are worth the risk and effort and note that in some cases, they have no alternative. The physical demands upon rural women with long hours and hard work required to meet their livelihood needs are often greater than they should carry. Research studies have noted that there are health hazards to the types and strains of the work activities taken on by rural women. One rural woman made a remark that I could never forget. In a study looking at how to improve women's productivity in Ghana, I saw that in one village, the women sold their cassava tubers unprocessed for a very low price. The women themselves had recognized that they could make a lot more money if they sold the cassava as flour or in other processed forms. Their constraint was lack of processing equipment. I asked them if they would be ready to process their cassava if they had the proper equipment. They eagerly answered in the affirmative. Ihad earlier asked them about their daily activities and found that they hardly ever had time to rest I then reminded them that they were already overworked. One woman looked at me seriously and said, "It isn't hard work that kills, it is poverty. Ifwe can make money from it, we will do it" (Fig. 4) (Olawoye and Canocoo 1995). Fig. 4: "It isn't hard work that kills, it is poverty." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY GivingA Voiceto the Rural Population 595 Rural women are very dependent upon environmental conditions for meeting their responsibilities. Declining environmental quality evidenced by defore- station, erosion, desertification and pollution have increased the time required and the hardships encountered in trying to fetch water, gather non timber forest products (NTFPs) such as firewood, snails, locust beans, shea nuts, vegetables and leaves, or produce their crops. Another important factor affecting the conditions of rural women is their own perceptions of their capabilities and their self-worth. Very often, if one asks a rural woman what is your •occupation' or what do you produce, she will respond, "Oh, I am just a housewife". Upon probing, however, one will find that she is probably engaged in several different income-generating and productive activities. She no doubt provides much of what the family consumes and spends, yet she has a very low view of her own contribution. Similarly, due to lack of formal education and social beliefs, she has probably also concluded that it is not possible for her to learn certain skills and thereby does not take advantage of some opportunities to enhance her productivity. For example, one women's group in Niger State was dependent upon a young man to operate their rice mill. From a few questions about the price charged for using the mill and the 'frequency of its use, it was apparent that the operator was cheating the women. He always reported that the profits were only enough to pay his salary. I suggested to the women that they could easily learn to operate the mill by themselves and keep their own records with a little training. I even showed them that I could start the engine. Their response was one of doubt, noting that it is only white or educated women who would be able to handle the equipment and the records. Their lack of confidence in their own abilities or feeling of low self- worth has been a limiting factor (Olawoye, Personal Field Notes, 1994). Do Not Underestimate the Local Potential It is common for most people both within and outside the rural areas to concentrate attention upon the local constraints and problems impeding their progress. There is no doubt that the obstacles to progress are many and serious; including low level of productivity, limited access to infrastructural facilities, lack of appropriate technology, high levels of poverty with increasing demand upon available resources, non-literacy of a large proportion of the population and inaccessibility of information sources as well as the poor state of the environment. In our concentration upon the problems, however, I believe we often overlook the positive aspects within the rural areas that can contribute to solutions to these problems. This is captured in the following quotation: That people continue to function at all under extreme adversity and deprivation is an indication of their fortitude and adapt- ability, not of their weakness .. , Catterson 1988:32) .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 596 Janice E. Olawoye Fig. 5: Environmental degradation increases rural women's burdens I have often been amazed at the ability of people to survive and produce in areas with such harsh environments and social restrictions. As I noted elsewhere, The social support networks, available human and physical resources including labour, the willingness to participate as well as indigenous knowledge and practices are among the important inputs available in the rural communities that can enhance the develop- ment process in areas where it might seem on the surface that there is nothing that can be locally contributed (Olawoye 2001: 17). The use of local community leaders - whether an Oba or Eze or District Head - can result in effective mobilization of the local population for self-help projects or for involvement in an externally-initiated project. Failure to gain the approval and support of the representatives of the people, however, will usually lead to opposition and unsustainable gains. Developing Programmes Acceptable from the View of the Intended Beneficiaries: Responding to the Felt Needs of the Rural Population There is no doubt that in most cases, development planners desire to improve the productivity and standard of living of the target population. Without taking the time to listen to them, however, they often miss the target. I will illustrate this point with the following example. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 597 In the town of Savelugu in the Northern Region of Ghana, women's groups had been assisted by IFAD to obtain a com mill (valued at c2.27 million) and groundnut oil extracting mill. The groundnut oil extractor is not being used because no one comes to patronize them. The women stated that people don't like the way the equipment processes the groundnut oil, leaving very little paste left over to make kuli-kuli, from which the women make a bigger profit than from the oil. In the case of the com mill, the women complained that the machine is always breaking down and so they spend all their profit on its repairs with nothing left over to pay back the loan for the equipment. The women asked me to pass on their appreciation to the IFAD officials, but requested that they should come for their com mill and oil extracting mill and provide them with a shea nut crusher instead (Olawoye and Canacoo 1996). Even within the community, there is often a lack of consensus on which needs are greatest. In a recently concluded study on Gender and Rural Transport carried out for the Federal Department of Rural Development, we found that transport and transportation was the commonly stated priority need overall, yet there was variance from region to region, community to community and males to females, as shown in Table 3. Some Voices are Louder than Others One of the social realities that is often overlooked in studies of rural people is .the fact that there are differences in socio-economic status and social power. These differences are often not easily apparent because it usually appears as if everyone is essentially at the same level of poverty. In reality, however, there are cases where so-called 'poor' farmers may, in fact, be quite wealthy. Cases have been found of 'disguised wealth' in the form of houses and vehicles in town owned by cash crop farmers who otherwise appear to have a low status in their farm residences (Akinwumi and Olawoye 1994). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 598 Janice E. Olawoye Table 3: Rankings by Perceived Importance of Communal Needs by Paired Needs Comparison among Men and Women's groups in Selected Rural Communities of the Six Geo-political Zones Type of Need South-South: Southeast: Northwest: Middle Belt: Northeast: Southwest: Average (Ogoloma, (Okwu, (Ungogo: (Jarawan-Kogi, (Yawi, (Ikereku, (rank) Rivers State) Imo State) Kano State) Plateau State) Bomo State) Oyo State) M F ·M F M F M F M F M F Transport - related I I 2 1 -- 3 4 3 1 3 I I 1.9 IS Education / schools 2 6 5 6 2 3 5 1 2 6 -- -- 3.8 4'" Water 3 2 I 3 1 1 3 4 , 1 2 3 2 2.2 2na Medical / hospital/ health 4 7 4 2 2 2 5 5 3 4 -- -- 3.8 4'" Market 8 4 6 4 -- -- 3 2 4 7 -- -- 4.7 6'" Electricity 5 5 7 8 -- -- 2 4 1 5 2 3 4.2 5'" Agricultural inputs -- -- 3 -- 2 2 1 5 5 1 , 3 3 2.8 3ra Note: (a) The highest rank is 1, meaning that it is the highest priority among the needs identified by the local population. (b) In some cases, there is more than one type of need that has the same ranking. This occurred where the need received the same number of responses. Source: Olawoye et at. (2002) 1>:. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 599 Within the rural community, as in any social unit, there are some people who are economically and/or socially more powerful and more likely to have opportunities not open to others. While the majority of rural women are resource-poor, there are women who are able to take advantage of marketing or other economic opportunities on their own. In a study on women's involvement in the forestry sector, it was found that the 'timber converters' in Edo State, that is, those who purchased the logs from the timber contractors and hired sawmillers to 'convert' them to sawn wood for sale to carpenters were mostly women (Olawoye 1997). According to these women, lack of money was not their problem. There are also cases of women entrepreneurs who buy up the produce of other women farmers at a lower price and arrange transport to carry the goods to markets in the peri-urban or urban areas where they make a substantial profit (Olawoye et al, 2002). Such rural dwellers should not be the target population for poverty alleviation programmes. It is important to make a point here. One of the defining differences between the poorer and richer rural women has been found to be the individual's ability to take advantage of economic or social opportunities. For poorer women, their only mode of access to productive resources, information or markets is through their groups while richer women can participate fully as individuals (Olawoye 1994). It is true that poorer women often suffer exploitation from men who may take over their resources or income-generating activities once the tasks become less tedious and more profitable. At the same time, however, poorer women often suffer from the exploitative activities of other women who pay them very little as hired labour or buy their produce very cheaply to sell at exorbitant prices in the urban markets. Many of the harmful traditional practices that are against women, such as rituals that widows must endure, are actually perpetuated more by other women than by the men (Olawoye 1998). It is important to fully comprehend the factors that affect the conditions hindering the development of our people. Social stratification is a reality in the rural areas. There are several groups of rural dwellers that are not only poorer than others, but the social barriers to their advancement often leave them out of development benefits. In such cases, targeting of intended beneficiaries may be necessary to ensure that the gains of the interventions are not 'hijacked'. Idachaba (2000) notes how many of the past agricultural development schemes stated that the intended beneficiaries would be the small-scale farmers, but in reality, those that benefited were merchants, contractors, middle-men, government officials and transporters. Among the socially marginalized groups are: • rural poor, • majority of rural women, • tenant or landless farmers, • ethnic minorities or ethnic groups not having political positions, and • pastoralists. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 600 Janice E. Olawoye To ensure that development projects do not further impoverish these people who are often the intended beneficiaries of such interventions, targeting mechanisms for participation in the project are sometimes needed. Among the means for targeting the socially marginalized members of the community are criteria for qualification that may include owning no more than a small area of land,never before benefiting from any formal credit scheme and willing to contribute one's own labour - not hired labour - for the project. Yet, involving the less privileged members of the society in development programmes is not enough to ensure that they are able to retain the benefits. In Katsina State, I was involved in a supervisory study for a community development project which included land reclamation of severely degraded farmlands that had been abandoned. The landless poor farmers, including women, were given a small portion of land to rehabilitate using time-consuming and tedious methods that were yielding favourable results over a period of years. My major concern, however, was that having improved the land, the long lost owner would come back to claim his land, thereby depriving the poorer farmers from reaping the fruits of their labours. I recommended at that time that the participating farmers should be issued certificate of occupancy or other form of recognized ownership to the lands they had rehabilitated (Olawoye, Personal Field Notes, 1996). How Can We Hear Their Voices? Participatory Methods The use of a number of qualitative methods has gained prominence as a means of securing information from the rural population. One of the most commonly used methods is Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Fig. 6. In a group situation, people will usually offer information that they might withhold during an individual interview. Recognizing that discussions might be affected with gender, generational or socially mixed groups, males and females, old or young, better- off and poorer and different ethnic groups are often put into separate groups for the discussions. What women or younger people may not be able to voice out in the presence of older males can be said in a group of social equals. In-depth Interviews with Key Informants is another important means of securing information on general characteristics of the community or group. Key Informants may be community or religious leaders, leaders of farmers', women's or youth groups or opinion leaders. Development workers from governmental or non governmental organisations can also provide important insights. The significance of Key Informants is that they can provide background information on social norms or beliefs, history of the community, level of infrastructural development and past interventions or self-help efforts. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 601 Fig. 6: FGD with men's group in Northern Nigeria. Participatory tools including community mapping, seasonal calendars, daily activities charts and ranking of paired needs are increasingly being used as a means of securing information while at the same time providing a medium for interaction between planners and the local population. In developing a diagrammatic illustration of their community, activities and needs, the rural people and the researchers or planners are able to better diagnose the problems and find a more suitable solution. In a recent study conducted in two forest reserves in Southwest Nigeria, community maps were drawn by the local inhabitants of enclave villages to delineate the spatial relationships between the residential buildings, roads, farmlands and the natural and plantation forests. The study was designed to determine the likely impact of the proposed logging of the surrounding forest. Figure 7 illustrates the potential for conflict between fanners and loggers if care was not taken to protect the cocoa and kolanut trees during the extraction of timber trees from the plantation. The location of the road relative to the forest areas shows that the most direct route to extract the logs would be through the fanners' tree crops. The fanners noted that there would be no trouble as long as their crops were not disturbed. From past experience, however, they were aware that loggers have not usually been very considerate of the fanners' rights (Olawoye et al. 2000). Seasonal calendars and daily activity charts help to understand the time constraints of rural dwellers, as well as the complex allocation of time on a daily or monthly basis for the numerous household and communal activities. This can UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 602 Janice E. Olawoye be very useful when trying to determine the best time of the day or the year for scheduling a meeting or project that will not disrupt the usual activities of the people. In one village that I visited, I was surprised to find out that the literacy classes were being conducted from 6-8 pm. When I asked why it was so late, they responded that in order for the women to participate, the classes had to be scheduled for a time when they would be free. Until 6 or 6.30 pm the women were still busy preparing food and other household duties. Although the men were free from 4 pm., they agreed to this later time, even though some of the lessons were conducted with lantern (Olawoye, Personal Field Notes, 1995). p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p ppp.ppppp p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p pppppppp @ @@ ® ®®@®ppp © ©®®© ® ®®®®ppp @ ® @®@®ppp • •• o. . 0 0 o oLr!.:l o lEI 0 (BJO O~ !Jo ~ H IIe_UClUSl N N NN N NN NO~HOO -COWIt.C •• "_N N N N N N· • N __ ,OIIUJ !o":oIoLJiOUIIo, I:L!slII~-:..J Fig. 7: Community Mapping of Adejori Camp (Plantation and Natural) in Ondo State Importance of Extension and Rural Sociology for Giving the Rural Population a Voice: The Past, Present and Potential Role of the Department oClAgricuitural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan There is currently national and international interest in developing better methods for agricultural extension and rural development. The Federal Govern- ment has stated its commitment to improving extension delivery and alleviating rural poverty. It is important that this process is undertaken in a way that is acceptable to the rural population and sustainable for their long-term development. Their voices must be heard. The Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development can play an important role in capacity-building and institution-strengthening to meet national man-power needs to achieve this purpose. Yet, there are constraints to turning our potential into reality. In the 1970s, the Department was well-known for the Integrated Rural Development Project at Badeku. The project site was not only a means of providing services to the society, but it was also a practical' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 603 classroom for students and a research 'laboratory' for staff. At one time, the project involved not only staff from the Department, but also from other departments in the Faculty and other faculties as well, including the Department of Community Health and Preventive Medicine from the College of Medicine (Olawoye 1991). When the funding ended, the project also ended. It is unfortunate that due to lack of transportation, we are unable to even take our students to the rural areas, which is a necessary 'extension' of our classroom. Our Vision The University is moving forward, to the glory of God. We have seen the commendable efforts of the authorities to give the institution a new look and the 'vision' to restore the enviable position once held as a centre of academic excellence. To have a vision of where one is going is crucial to getting there. Even the Bible says: "Where there is no vision, the people perish" [Proverbs 29 vs. 18]. The Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development has also developed a vision to be an integral part of this new era. When I became Acting Head of Department on 11th August, 1998, we considered how the Department could become more relevant to the national and local needs for capacity-building and institution-strengthening and to facilitate rural development. On the 21 st of August, we submitted a "Plan of Action for the Development of the Department of Agricultural Extension Services." After reading our proposal, the then Vice Chancellor, Professor Adewoye, commented, "It seems you want to change your image." I answered in the affirmative. He then suggested, "Why don't you change your name." That suggestion became the push to change the name of the Department to give it a broader coverage which was more in line with the expanded view of our potential. One of the needs I expressed at that time was the shortage of specialized teaching staff. Having four areas of specialization - agricultural extension, rural sociology, rural communications and home economics, we were suffering from inadequate human resources. As an example, from 1978 until 1998, I was the only rural sociologist in the University of Ibadan. Staff deficiencies were also found in the areas of home economics and rural communications. I am happy to state that five new teaching positions were created and filled the following year. In terms of human resources, the Department is well endowed. The academic programme at the undergraduate level has evolved over the years, but an unwelcome intrusion came several years ago with the imposition of the NUC Minimum Academic Standards Programme. At the University of Ibadan, we were already operating above that standard, yet we were constrained to adopt an academically inferior programme. For the Departments of Agricultural Economics and Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, it became even more threatening as one degree programme replaced the previously existing separate and better specialized programmes. In the present dispensation of academic autonomy, the Departments are putting together their proposal for UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 604 Janice E. Olawoye reviving their distinct and more appropriate undergraduate degree programmes. This will soon come before the Senate. Curriculum Committee and later the Senate At the postgraduate level, we have good academic degree programmes for the M.Sc., M.Phil. and Ph.D degrees. We have recognized the need to provide training of trainers for strengthening the capacity of organizations providing extension services and facilitating rural development. To achieve that goal, the Department has already developed programmes for a professional postgraduate diploma in Agricultural Extension for serving extension personnel, a professional postgraduate diploma in Rural Development for rural development workers who might not need specific training in agriculture and a professional Master of Extension and Rural Development. From our survey of training needs, we believe these programmes will not only perform an important function for the nation, but also generate income for the University. These programmes have been approved by the Faculty Postgraduate Committee and we are now carrying out the market surveys. The proposals will then be forwarded to the Postgraduate School. It is our plan to introduce the new programmes progressively, beginning • with the PGD for Agricultural Extension. Already we have had several enquiries about when it will commence. The members of staff of the Department are eager to fulfil the vision of providing qualitative education to meet the needs of the Nation, but we are constrained by the lack of adequate facilities. The Department of Agricultural Extension Services was established as a separate department in 1976, yet we have never had a separate building. In the budget for 1980, The Department was placed on "Priority A" for a building along with Faculty of Technology, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Plans were drawn and the ground was pegged, but our own building never materialized. At the present time, the Department is housed in two locations on campus which is not efficient for proper coordination. The space for offices and classroom is also inadequate. We have not given up, however. As a step of faith, we have erected a signboard on our land (Fig. 8). By the grace of God, the building will become a reality. I use this opportunity to remind the University authorities of this important need. Please, don't pass us by again. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Giving A Voice to the Rural Population 605 Fig. 8: Proposed Building Site for the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural DL'\ clopment Conclusion and Recommendations 1. Too much of our attention to participatory development interventions has been in rhetoric alone rather than action. We speak of the importance of local participation, but then fall into the old ways of deciding and doing for the people, rather than with or by them. There is a need not only to give the rural dwellers a voice, but actually use their ideas as an input to policy formation and implementation as well as later giving them 'ownership' with its attendant responsibilities. This is not only the right thing to do, it is also the wise thing to do. 2. Rural development interventions must be locality-specific, taking into account the unique social and ecological conditions and designed on the basis of information obtained at the local level. Collecting data from the rural population should be achieved through participatory and innovative methods. The felt needs of the rural dwellers should be identified and set as a priority for programmes. 3. Socially disadvantaged groups need to be targeted for assistance. Social mechanisms to ensure that intended beneficiaries are able to obtain and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 606 Janice E. Olawoye retain the gains of development programmes must be put in place as well as mitigation measures to handle any conflicts that may result. 4. Poorer rural women should continue to receive special attention in development efforts. Their local groups can provide a channel for members to have access to opportunities that could not be secured as individuals. These groups may, however, require capacity-building (Fig. 9). 5. Many rural development workers and extension agents need innovative training programmes that the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development can provide with the appropriate enabling environment. 6. The University of Ibadan should retake its position as the academic leader for other institutions to follow. Our programmes should be the product of our expertise and not imposed by administrators who find it more convenient for all programmes to be cut in the same pattern. This means we need to encourage the present striving for excellence and actively use the promised autonomy of universities to maximize our potential. Fig. 9: I pray that one day they will not have to 'move out to move up.' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY GivingA Voice to the Rural Population 607 REFERENCES Akinwumi, J.A. and Olawoye, 1.E. (1994) Initiatives of the Poor and Informal Safety Nets in Osun State Report for the World Bank sponsored Research Studies on Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria. 47 pp. Catterson, T.M. (1988) "Mechanisms to Enhance Effective Popular Participation in Desertification Control and Renewable Resource Management in the Sahelian and Sudanian Zones of West Africa by F. Falloux and A. Mukendi (eds.) Wash.D.C.; The World Bank. Chambers, R. (J 988) "Farmer First" International Agricultural Development 8 (6): 10- 12. Idachaba, F.S. (2000) Desirable and Workable Agricultural Policies for Nigeria in the First Decade of the zr' Century Lecture given in the Departmental Series of Topical Issues in Nigerian Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan. Loubster, J. (1995) Sustainable Livelihoods: A Conceptual Exploration Paper presented at the Workshop on Civil Society, Sustainable Livelihoods and Women in Development, held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Okali, D.U.U.; Okpara, E. and Olawoye, J.E. (2001) The Case of Aba and Its Region, . Southeastern Nigeria: Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies Working Paper 4. London, International Institute for Environment and Development. 60 pp. Olawoye, J.E. (1984) "Degree of Rurality: Questioning the Empirical Existence of the 'Typical' Village" The Rural Sociologist VolA (4): 299-308. Olawoye, J.E. (1986) Degree of Rurality: An Empirical Examination of Selected Villages in Oyo State Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis in the Department of Sociology, University ofIbadan. Olawoye, J.E. (1991) Constraints to Increased Production of Selected Food Crops in 00 State: A Review of the Rural Development Programmes in Two Areas in Oyo State. The Ibadan Extension Monograph Series No.1; University ofIbadan. 28 pp. Olawoye, J.E. (1994) Women and Forestry in Nigeria. Report for the Tropical Forest Action Plan; Ibadan. 80 pp. Olawoye, J.E. (1997) Forest Resources Study: Private Sector Involvement and Socio- Economic Assessment. Report for Geornatics, Nig. Ltd. and Beak Consultants, Canada. 104 pp. Olawoye, J.E. (1998) Widow's Rights in Nigeria: Findings on the Survey of Widows in Ibadan City. Report on the Research Component of the Pilot Project on Widows' Rights in Nigeria for the MacArthur Foundation on behalf of LOTO Production, Ibadan, 37 pp. Olawoye, J.E. (200 I) Contemporary Research Interests and Problem Areas in Agricultural Extension and Rural Development. The Ibadan Extension Monograph Series No.2. University ofIbadan. 45 pp. Olawoye, J.E.; Agumagu, A.C.; Gbadegesin, A.; Akande, S.O.; and Yahaya, M.K. (1994) Situation Analysis of Nigerian Women and Girls: Agricultural Production and Rural Productivity Draft Final Report for WORDOC Coordinated Research Project for Unicef 73 pp. Olawoye, J.E.; and Canocoo, V. (1996) Ghana: Strategic Framework and Priority Action Plan for Raising the Productivity and Income of Women in Agriculture. Report submitted to The World Bank, Wash.D.C. 28 pp. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 608 Janice E. Olawoye Olawoye, J.E.; Olujide, M.G. and Oyesola, O.B. (2000) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of Logging in Natural and Plantation Forests of Ogun and Ondo Forest Reserves: Task Area - Rural Sociology. Draft Report submitted to Cedar Grove Management Consultants. 46 pp. Olawoye, 1.E.; Odebode, S.O.; Akinbile, L.A.; Oladeji, 1.0.; Oyesola, O.B. and Olujide, M.G. (2002) Gender and Rural Transport Initiative: Analytical Study of Gender Specific Problems Affecting Nigerian Women in Rural Travel and Transportation and the Identification of Pragmatic Solutions to the Problems Draft Report submitted to the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Abuja. 107 pp. Pamma, T.; Olawoye, J.E.; Garba, S. and Ujor, G. (2000) Women and Natural Resource Management: Two Case Studies in Northeast Nigeria - Tin-Mining and Pottery- Making. Report submitted to the Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST), Ibadan. 38 pp. Rhoades, R.E. (1987) Farmers and Experimentation Discussion Paper 21, London, Overseas Development Institute. Richards, P. (1979) "Community environmental knowledge in African rural development". Rural Development: Whose Knowledge Counts? IDS Bulletin 10 (2): 28-36. Sieber, S.D. (1981) Fatal Remedies: The Ironies of Social Intervention New York, Plenum Press. Trager, L. (2000) Migration and Rural-Urban Linkages: Implications for Rural Development, Poverty Alleviation and Gender Relations. Distinguished Lecture Series, No. I, Centre for Gender, Governance and Development, Ibadan. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 26 NUTRITIONAL ENGINEERING IN MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION: OBSTETRIC AND GYNAECOLOGICCONCERNS A.LA. Osuagwuh Department of Veterinary Surgery and Reproduction Introduction From the esoteric point of view, reproduction is the gateway to mortality and immortality. But from a scientific point of view, reproduction is more than just two individuals of opposite sexes simply mating or breeding. It is a complex scientific enterprise and a highly well synchronized and timed biological process through the activities of several hormones produced by the endocrine system. Cohen (1977) describes the complete process as the replacement of parents by their progeny. According to his description, the first stage includes the production of haploid gametes by germ cells within the gonads of the first generation; union of gametes to create a diploid conceptus; development of the conceptus through the embryonic and fetal stages; parturition, lactation and various degrees of postnatal care. The off-spring must subsequently grow, reach sexual maturity, mate and produce their own progeny. It must be observed here that the description of Cohen obviously indicates that the complexity of. the science of reproduction is appreciated with a good knowledge of endocrinology, physiology, anatomy embryology, histology, cytology, microbiology and nutrition. Evolution of the Process of Reproduction The inauguration, by God, of the process of reproduction in all organisms, including man and animal, is when God is quoted as saying to its creatures "be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth" (Genesis 1:21-28). This indicates clearly that in the beginning there was reproduction in all living organisms and that without reproduction all living organisms could have become extinct. There are, however, variations in the different methods of reproduction among living organisms. A large number of lower organisms propagate mainly by vegetative UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 610 A.l.A.Osuagwuh or asexual means. With this method endless clones are produced and each clone is identical to the single parent. Such lower organisms like amoeba and paramecium reproduce asexually through a simple division of the parent into two as the protoplasm increases in bulk. Another asexual method of proliferation is by budding as seen in the yeast and in simple animals like the hydra. These methods of propagation do not require specialized reproductive organs for the production of gametes, and there is no involvement of different sexes. . All forms of asexual reproduction can be highly prolific for they allow quick exploitation of suitable environment and nutrient supplies, but do not allow for genetic variation or adaptation in the same manner that sexual reproduction does. However, combination of genetic materials is accomplished periodically by bacteria or protozoa through the act of conjugation which involves a temporary fusion and exchange of DNA material. In this case once conjugation is completed the partners separate and continue asexual propagation. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, involves the combination of genetic materials as contained in the male gamete (spermatozoa), and the female gamete (usually referred to as ovum or egg). This act constitutes fertilization which is the essential element i~ sexual reproduction. , Many diverse mechanisms for sexual reproduction have evolved in individual organisms. There are few species that are truly bisexual (hermaphrodite), with individual components of the same organism producing male and female gametes. In this case self-fertilization can occur even though this is not the usual practice. We have several thousand mammalian species but it is only in about 25 species that extensive study of their reproductive biology has been carried out. These include rodents, rabbits, primates (including man) and farm animals. Reproductive Roles of the Male and Female in Domesticated Mammalian Species The male gonads produce spermatozoa and male sex hormones. The production can be continuous throughout the year or during the mating season. In Nigeria, as in most tropical countries, all the male domesticated animals and men all over the world produce spermatozoa and sex hormones throughout the year. The spermatozoa are produced within the seminiferous tubules in the testes, and are stored in the epididymis. All males with normal libido should always be willing and able to copulate with a willing or receptive female. The male must be physically capable of mounting the female and have properly functioning genitalia to effect intromission and ejaculation. In'some species the male may contribute to post-hatching or postpartum care, protection and education of the progeny. This is true of some non-domesticated mammalian species, as well as man. However, the role of the male in a particular reproductive enterprise in domesticated animals is finished immediately after copulation and ejaculation. Post-partum care, protection and education of the young become the sole responsibility of the female. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nutritional Engineering in Mammalian Reproduction 611 On the part of the female, she must produce ova or eggs and sex hormones. Unlike the male, this is done in a cyclic rather than a continuous manner. Again the mature female gametes or ova are not stored as in the mature male. Rather, as the ova approach maturity, the behaviour of the female changes. She becomes more sexually active and receptive and can willingly allow the male to mount her. This is the period of ovulation in most mammalian species. Following successful mounting, ejaculation and fertilization, the mammalian mother must then provide the proper uterine environment for the normal development of the conceptus and eventually give birth. However, it is not all matings or copulations that result to the birth of a new baby. Reproductive wastages or losses occur in mammalian reproduction due to fertilization failure, early embryonic death, intrauterine fetal death, abortion, fetal death resulting from dystocia, or difficult birth and neonatal death. Some of these wastages can also occur due to bacterial infection such as brucellosis, viral infection, protozoa infection, poor housing and poor nutritional management or manipulation during pregnancy. With very good obedience to the laws of hygiene and strict application of prophylactic principles in any mammalian reproductive activity, poor nutrition becomes a limiting factor. Nutritional Needs During Pregnancy Nutrition aims at providing all essential nutrients in adequate amounts and in optimum proportions. Based on their chemical structure and functions in the body, nutrients can easily fall into a six-fold classification: • Carbohydrates • Fats • .Proteins • Vitamins • Minerals, and • Water. Nutrition is basic in all mammalian physical, physiological and spiritual activities. From conception to birth, from birth to sexual maturity, the mammalian species are nutrition dependent. No wonder then, it has been stated that "a hungry people listen not to reason nor are its demands turned aside by prayers" (Seneca 4BC-65AD). Aristotle was correct in asserting that procreation and feeding are the main pre-occupations of living animals. The nutritionist may go further in suggesting that of these two pre-occupations, feeding is of overriding importance, for without the urge and ability to seek and consume their food, animals would not reach sexual maturity and could not reproduce themselves. In fact in some species the first signs of an inadequate level of nutrition is a failure in reproduction. From conception to birth, all parts of the fetus are made of nutrients from the maternal store and diet. The quality and quantity of milk produced by the mother UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 612 A.f.A.Osuagwuh post-partum for the feeding of the young is a function of the quality and quantity of the diet provided to the mother during pregnancy and after (Osuagwuh and Akpokodje 1992). Placental Development and Nutrition Following fertilization in mammalian species, a new temporary organ develops within the uterus. This temporary organ is called the placenta and will be discharged from the uterus soon after birth. It performs respiratory, absorptive and excretory functions for the developing fetus. It also functions like an endocrine gland producing array of hormones that not only help in the maintenance of the pregnancy but also in the expulsion of the fetus at birth. The placenta sets the physical framework that allows fetal growth. It grows more rapidly than the fetus in the first two-thirds of pregnancy and then ceases growth over the remaining one-third. Based on the fact that the placenta is a versatile and metabolically active organ, one is tempted to conclude that poor nutrition in early pregnancy might restrict the size of the placenta and therefore reduce the ability of the fetus to grow normally later in pregnancy, even under good nutrition. For example, it has been shown that severe under-feeding in early pregnancy will reduce placental size (Everitt 1964,1968; Alexander and Williams 1971). Fetal Growth and Nutrition Fetal growth is known to be affected by several factors such as heredity, dam size, parity, nutrition, placental size, sex and ambient temperature. Of all these, it is considered easier to manipulate the nutritional factor in order to avoid pregnancy losses than the other factors (Osuagwuh and Aire 1990). Even though the fetus is generally believed to be privileged nutritionally studies have shown that the level of maternal nutrition during the last stages of pregnancy has marked effect on the birth weight. For example, Chow and Lee (1964) have shown that restricting the feed allowance of female rats during pregnancy and lactation by 25 to 50 percent, caused permanent stunting of the young from which they did not recover. Thompson and Thomson (1953) report that pregnant sheep on low level nutrition produced small and weak lambs, most of which died at birth or soon after. This was in contrast to vigorous lambs and few deaths recorded for sheep on a high level nutrition. However, a pregnant animal under nutritional stress will abort the fetus (Osuagwuh, Akpokodje, Akusu, 1986). Overfeeding in late pregnancy, particularly of animals in relatively poor condition, increases the size of the fetus when compared with that in control animals. Unfortunately, this kind of increased feeding during late pregnancy usually leads to increase in fetal size and can cause and do cause reproductive losses due to difficult birth (Curll et al. 1975; Osuagwuh 1992). Because of the high reproductive losses resulting from both underfeeding and overfeeding, there is considerable controversy about the most appropriate way to manage the feeding of pregnant domestic animals to minimize these losses. As a veterinary obstetrician and gynaecologist, I find myself professionally competent to attempt to settle this controversy. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Nutritional Engineering in Mammalian Reproduction 613 In my academic sojourn in this University, I have spent most of my time studying the reproductive constraints of the West African Dwarf (WAD) goats with special reference to its nutrition during pregnancy. Goats, generally, were for long, neglected in research activities especially in the area of reproductive nutrition. This, no doubt, may be related to the relative unimportance of the goat in temperate regions of the world. And, more importantly, there was this common assumption that the findings in nutritional studies in the dairy goats and cows can be extrapolated or used for the non-dairy tropical goats. My research interest in reproductive nutrition in West African Dwarf goats was based on the results or the investigations I carried out at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm in 1981. The study involved the analysis of 176 kidding, involving 320 kids from an original population of 85 female adult goats. The study was an attempt to evaluate the reproductive performance of the WAD goats and to assess their reproductive potentials (Table 1). Table 1: Reproductive Performance of the West African Dwarf Goat Trait Value Age at first kidding (months) 19.82 + 4.60 Kidding interval, (d) , 242.33 + 50.63 Annual kidding rate 1.68 +0.25 Birth weight (kg) 1.20 + 0.24 Prolificacy (5) 181.30 Mortality % (first three months) 38.60 Stillbirth (%) 7.39 Abortions (%) 25.70 ± Standard deviation Source: Osuagwuh and Akpokodje 1984 The results obtained in that study indicated that the WAD goats are early maturing, prolific and non-seasonal breeders. However, a high level of reproductive wastage due to abortions, stillbirths, low birth weights and neonatal mortality was recorded (Osuagwuh and Akpokodje 1981, 1984). Because most of these pathologies occurred during the dry season when fresh forage and grass were in short supply, nutrition was therefore queried. To evaluate this nutritional problem during pregnancy, which is considered a controversial subject, two questions were asked: • What are the dynamics of fetal growth and development including some organs and endocrine glands? • How can one manipulate the nutritional needs of the pregnant animal based on the dynamics of fetal growth in order to minimize reproductive losses due to prenatal mortality? To attempt to answer these questions, the intrauterine growth rate of the WAD goats and their fetal brain, heart, liver, thyroid, pituitary and adrenal glands were UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 614 A./.A.Osuagwuh studied. The work involved 25 pregnant goats and 58 fetuses from them. The animals were maintained on a standard farm ration and the fetuses harvested by caesarean section at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 140 days of pregnancy. An exponential growth model was used in the analysis of the data obtained which were subjected to multiple linear regression to obtain the daily growth rate and maximal rate of increase of the variables studied. The results showed that fetal body weights and those of the brain, hearts, liver and the glands were significantly (P 9°N. where nIN is the relative sunshine and C is the cloud amount in oktas. Thus, with availability of reliable cloud data, sunshine duration can be obtained from this work for any part of the country. In an effort to provide a quick design guide for solar systems designers, Fagbenle [45] employed all the known correlations on total solar radiation in Nigeria to produce twelve isoline charts, one for each month of the year. Thus, through the charts, it is possible to rapidly estimate the expected average radiation at any site in the country and for an average day of any month of the year. • Harmonic or Fourier Series Analysis of solar radiation. The use of harmonic or Fourier series analysis to study solar irradiation has several advantages. Firstly, the solar irradiation data itself is in a time series form ab initio, making it immediately amenable to the method. Secondly, it enables data consolidation, reducing digital data by orders of thousands without significant loss of information content on the observed phenomena. It also allows the possibility of data rehabilitation, whereby incomplete data sets may be selectively filtered for noise to obtain relatively clean signals. Finally, the harmonics and their phases contain detailed information which give insight into its spatial and temporal distribution patterns. The Fourier series tool had been applied in hydrology and water resources for much longer, Thomann [46] for example. The earliest applications to solar climatology were in 1983 by Balling [47] and by Baldasano et al. [48], both dealing, not unexpectedly, with data from USA and Europe. Applications to data from the tropics was lacking, particularly to confirm or otherwise, the various findings from the temperate northern latitude solar harmonics. Thus, in a harmonic analysis of a lO-year dataset for Ibadan (1980-1989 lITA daily global solar radiation data), Fagbenle [49] found out that the first harmonic was not a dominant factor as was the case in the northern latitudes of Europe and the USA The values for Nigeria in seven out of the ten years is about 30%, the other years yielding 13%, 60% and 70%. Balling [47] found a remarkable coherent spatial pattern with values ranging between 92 and 99.9% for the 221 US stations studied. Similar results were given for Spain by Baldasano [48] and Herrero [50]. Thus it appears that the relative importance and dominance of the first harmonic diminishes near the equator. Nevertheless, global solar irradiation estimates from the parameters of the first harmonic given in the work by Fagbenle are accurate to within 10% of the data for any year. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 664 R.O. Fagbenle Fagbenle and Karayiannis [51] also carried out a harmonic analysis of the solar radiation data from 28 stations of the Department of Meteorological Services, providing the pertinent amplitudes, phase angles, and harmonic angles at each station. The study revealed that the first harmonic is only marginally more dominant than the second one and that between them both, they account for over 80% of the variance at most stations. In the design, simulation and testing of solar energy systems, considerable use is made of computer programs and design packages which have the Test Reference Year (TRY) as a key input. Fagbenle [52] generated a TRY for Ibadan from a lO-year global solar radiation UTA data set using the selection method of Finkelstein-Schafer statistics. The representative year was thus identified for each month and the corresponding solar radiation tabulated in a ready-to-use form in the relevant solar design packages. Solar PV-clad buildings and electrical power generation Within the past decade or so, solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity has been undergoing pioneering applications particularly in Europe, where roofs and walls of both public and private buildings are being clad with solar cells and the balance of electricity generated is connected to the national grid. Perhaps the best known is Germany's 100,000 Roofs National Programme (revised in 2000) whereby generous subsidies are given to homeowners to purchase solar PV roof cladding interconnected to the national grid. Similar programmes are the 1995/96 (revised 1998) Japanese Solar 1.2 to 1.4 million Roofs Programme and the US 1 million Solar Roofs Programme of the early 1990's. On its own, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) in California has over 8 MW of grid- connected solar PV clad roofs on residential and commercial rooftops, car parking lots, church and school rooftops, and stand-alone solar PV substations. Fagbenle et al. [53] undertook a study of the potential of PV-clad residential and commercial buildings in Nigeria and came out with some startling findings. The study found that some selected solar PV-clad buildings in Ibadan and Lagos alone could easily have met the 1997 total national installed and generating capacity of about 6GW and 15 TWh respectively. Gross estimates for PV-clad buildings in 5 to 10 largest cities give a range of 7.5 to 15 GW for the installed capacity and 35. to 75 TWh for the generating capacity, enough to meet the projected national installed and generating capacity for the year 2020, Fagbenle et al. [60]. The pricing structure for electricity however is stacked up against such new technologies, particularly in developing countries. It was found that PV-clad electricity from buildings would cost about 83 times more than the then (1997) electricity price. But then conventional electricity generation does not pay for the damage to the human and environmental health - the so-called externalities - it inevitably causes through fossil fuels combustion. There are other contributions of note in solar energy research and development which space and time will not permit us to consider in this lecture include the use of salt gradient solar pond for power generation (Fagbenle [54]). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 665 Contribution to Wind Energy Research Wind energy is a renewable energy of great importance to many countries in Europe, the Americas and Asia, contributing significantly to economic activity traditionally in milling and water pumping and lately in decentralized and grid- connected electrical power generation. According to Renewable World Review Issue for 2000-2001, by 2000, nearly 14 GW of wind power capacity was installed worldwide with the global wind turbine market worth US$ 4 billion at end of 1999. The cumulative installed wind power capacity by 2000 in various countries were as follows: 5600 MW in Germany; 3400 MW in Spain; 2800 MW in the US; 2100 MW in Denmark; 400 MW in Britain; and 260 MW in China. Africa had no significant wind power generation even as Japan and several Asian countries made some progress towards wind power generation. Considerable effort is now being devoted to off-shore wind farms to complement the coastal and on-shore wind farms that constitute the bulk of the generation noted above. The use of wind machines in Nigeria dates back to the last stages of colonial administration in the 1950's when multi-blade windmills were installed in selected villages of the then northern region. Invariably, these windmills were directly coupled to reciprocating pumps by long shafts and used to pump potable water from deep wells for the villages and their environs. Propeller-type two-or three-bladed wind ndbines were also being used for electricity generation in the ' tin mines of the Jos area of Plateau State. That the colonial powers did not site any wind machines outside of the north suggests that the wind energy resource of the southern Nigeria was relatively small. Thus, there was a need to undertake a systematic study of the wind energy potentials of Nigeria in order that this resource can be optimally used. Of the considerable excellent work on the weather in Nigeria by the Meteorological Services Department, that of Adejokun [55] provides a firm base for the understanding of the Nigerian weather system. In one of the earliest studies of the wind power potentials of Nigeria, Fagbenle et al. [56] found that a modal class speed of about 3 mls characterized the 1951-1960 wind data from twelve meteorological stations, and that the Weibull power density could be estimated by a third degree polynomial of the mean wind speed: PIA (W/m2) = - 47.8 + 74.2 Y - 34.5 v' + 5.1 y3 Other previous studies include those of Ojosu and Salawu [57] who studied the wind data from 22 stations for the period 1951-1975 and of Adekoya and Adewale [58] whose studies of the wind data from 30 stations covered various periods ranging from 8 to 22 years. The mean wind speeds found in these studies have been found to be consistent with those of Fagbenle et al. [56]. Fagbenle and Karayiannis [59] in 1994 made a detailed study of the 1979- 1988 wind data of the Meteorological Services Department which included (i) the hourly surface wind data for 18 stations, (ii) highest gusts data for 13 stations, and (iii) upper winds data at 1200 hours for two stations, at elevations 610m, 1220m, and 2440m. It should be noted that these stations are usually airport or aerodrome stations established primarily to aid air navigation. Instrument height UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 666 R.O. Fagbenle at the stations is not standardized - about a third have 5m anemometer height while the rest have 10m heights. Only Lagos had a 15m height anemometer. A deliberate program to map the wind regime in the country would ideally locate the data sites rather differently, as well as the anemometer heights. For example, the data sites would be located at the windiest sites across the nation and data at 10m, 25m and 50m would be standard at each site. Fagbenle and Karayiannis also gave the Weibull parameters c and k as well as the power densities for each of the 18 stations of the study. The wind speed is distributed as the Weibull distribution function if its probability density function f(V) fits the equation: f(V) = (k/C)(V/C)k-iexp[-(V/c)k] The mean wind speed V rn and the average power density PIA are respectively given by: Vm = CG (1 + 11k),and PIA = 1/2(I-F 3o) P c G (1 + 31k) where G is the gamma function, F0 is the probability of observing zero wind speed at the location and p is the wind density, Generally, the mean wind speed increases with latitude across the country, although the lowest mean wind speeds occur at the mid-latitude station of Bida with a mere 1.3 mls. Power densities vary over a wide range, from 29.1 W/m2 at Sokoto to 0.76 W/m2 at Bida. Sokoto was found to have a good possibility of24- hour useful energy extraction from the winds whose mean speed rarely fall below 3m1s and which exhibits less than 10% calms throughout the day. Gusts of 20 to 50 mls occur annually, usually accompanying the first few rains of the year. Adequate designs must therefore be made for the structures of wind power machines - windmills and wind turbines - to withstand these gusts_ An upper winds analysis of Maiduguri showed a power law fit of the mean speed - height variation, with exponent n ranging from 0.08 to 0.15. Incidentally, this is a boundary layer type velocity distribution with the no-slip condition at the surface of the earth! !! The study recommended a deliberate and well-coordinated wind energy resource mapping programme for Nigeria at 10m, 25m, 50m and at both wind turbine hub-height and upper winds, with particular emphasis on the following possible wind farm sites: (i) Adamawa and Bamenda highlands in Adamawa and Taraba states; (ii) Biu plateau and the Mandara mountain areas of the northeast; (iii) Flatlands of Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger and Oyo states; (iv) Mountain ranges of the southwest merging into Kwara through Osun State; (v) Coastal and offshore sites of the Atlantic coastline UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 667 Contribution to National and Regional Energy Policy Development and Implementation National Energy Issues In a 1997 case study of Nigeria's power sector, Fagbenle et al. [60] in a paper in the International Journal of Global Energy Issues projected that the electricity demand of 5.881 GW (installed) and 14.79 TWh (generating) would double by the year 2020. The technically and economically feasible hydro potential of Nigeria is about 9.85 GW installed capacity and 45 TWh generating capacity, about a third of which has already been developed. Thus continued development of all the remaining hydro resources would just be barely sufficient to meet the 2020 demand. Although the petroleum resources are able to meet this projected demand, there are serious financial and environmental constraints associated with their use. Petroleum resources are part of the conventional, exhaustible, finite fossil energy resources that any nation so endowed has the onerous responsibility to plan carefully to optimize its benefits to its people and their future generations as well as the environment. The energy sector has been characterized by the World Energy Commission as a large consumer of national resources which demands large expenditures, skilled manpower and steady foreign exchange outflows [6.1]. It could not be any more true than in Nigeria, where in 2001 alone, US$446.9 million appropriation to NEPA to ensure steady electricity nationwide by December 2001 failed to produce the expected change. Even with the LNG exports, Nigeria still has about 22 billion cubic meters of natural gas proven reserves remaining. This much gas could provide approximately 230 TWh electricity annually, dwarfing the 30 TWh projected demand for the year 2020. Translating this much resource into the needed product implies long-range planning, dedication, commitment, fiscal discipline, well-trained personnel, and a lot of foreign exchange. In particular, attention needs be paid to downstream chemicals industry that could supply value-added input to the upstream oil and natural gas which now is mostly exported and the balance used internally as fuel energy. There is need to develop our capacity in production and utilization of LPG and CNG in the domestic and transportation sectors. The deadline on flaring should be strictly observed; it is only wise to leave the resource untapped until industry finds it economic to invest in any of the well-known gas recovery technologies. A case was also made in the work for two nuclear power plants each of 1000 MW capacity to take care of half of the additional 15 TWh that would be required in 2020, while gas/oil fired stations could provide the remaining 7.5 TWh. On the African continent, only South Africa has nuclear power stations, with its two units of 11.76 TWh generating capacity and 1.842 GW installed capacity. It is noted that about 30% of the world's uranium oxide reserves are in Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Niger, Gabon, Central Africa Republic, Algeria and Zaire). Africa ought to benefit more from nuclear technology than just the economic gains from nuclear fuel export with no value-added. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 668 R.D. Fagbenle Energy efficiency and conservation (Demand Side Management), energy- conscious building design, solar passive and active building systems, all have their place in limiting or reducing the energy demand. Indeed, about 30% of the energy generated by NEPA was unaccounted for through its billing system in the study of 1980-1996 generation by Fagbenle et al. [60] and count as losses. Measures to reduce inefficiencies in electrical energy production, transmission, and distribution in Nigeria, coupled with reduction in end-use inefficiencies could reduce the projected 30 TWh demand in 2020 by 30% to 50%. Equipment and appliance energy efficiency rating now exists in many European and American countries, stimulating equipment manufacturers to strive for more energy-efficient products. The down side of course is that the old energy- guzzling equipment will eventually find their way to the developing countries most of which are mere consumers, unless they have knowledgeable law makers and public administrators. Public education and awareness training are essential for a successful demand side management programme. A look at Nigeria's current market in "Tokunbo" electrical appliances and vehicles is enough confirmation of the worst of my fears for developing countries! Other measures include the mandatory use of solar water heaters for all institutional and commercia! (hotels, hospitals, etc.) sectors, and industrial processes requiring less than boiling temperature water, and the encouragement of the domestic sector to install solar water heaters if water heaters are needed. Large central solar PV systems are suggested to assist in meeting peak load demand which generally coincide with maximum solar radiation period, typically 1200 - 1500 hours. With such design in mind, the capital outlay on storage will be minimal and the overall cost reduced accordingly. Building integrated solar photovoltaic (PV) grid-connected systems are also now advocated in the light of recent developments worldwide. It is to be noted that from environmental considerations, hydro, solar PV, and the other renewables are much preferred means of generating electrical energy but the conventional fossil (oil-, gas-, or coal) - fuelled thermal power stations have tradition, the industry might and muscle, and economics of scale in their favour. For example, within the last decade and on a per kilowatt (electrical) installed basis, fossil-fuel plants burning natural gas have the least installed cost at $200-300, followed by oil-burning plants at $250-350, coal-burning plants also at $250-350, nuclear plants at $300- 1200, while solar PV costs are in the range $400-70,000 (Fagbenle et al. [60]), a reflection of the absence of externalities in the cost structure of fossil-fuelled power plants. The above notwithstanding, the average annual world market for solar photovoltaics (PV) over the past five years is about 200MW per year, and it is a rapidly growing market. Renewable Energy World Review Issue 2000-2001 forecasts 650 MW for 2005 and 1700 MW in 2010 for solar PV. The corresponding dollar value of this world solar PV at a conservative 8 US$/Watt, (from Fagbenle [62]) is about US$ 1.6 billion annually over the past five years. The trend and forecast in grid-connected residential/commercial solar PV worldwide was also given (in MW installed capacity) as: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 669 Year 1990 1993 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2005 2010 MW 1 2 7 27 36 60 110 300 800 The estimated market value of this grid-connected solar PV trade is about US$1 billion annually. Can Nigeria truly afford to be shut out of this market with all the energy and environmental benefit clearly seen by the rest of the world except Nigeria? Is the President of Nigeria aware of the huge renewable energy deployment in Europe, America, Japan, Asia, and even in oil-soaked Arab and gulf states over the past decade? It is a matter for regret that Nigeria which sorely needs solar PV and other renewables in both decentralized and grid-connected system modes is, as usual, the ever sleeping giant, only to awake someday when everyone else has acquired and got used to later generations of the technology, a la Nigeria's first generation GSM and the internet!!! On liberalization and privatization, Fagbenle et al. [60] argued for a break up of NEP A into three autonomous organizations - one each for generation, transmission and distribution, respectively. Liberalization and privatization could then proceed in the distribution and marketing sub-sectors, while for security reasons, generation and transmission would have to remain largely state- controlled for quite some time. The first step towards the liberalization stage is full commercialization. NEPA must be made to run as a successful commercial organization making profits and paying dividends to stakeholders (government in this case). The on-going "subsidy" dispute between the Federal government, NEPA and the Lagos State government over the 270 MW Independent Power Project (IPP) at Egbin is a lesson to us all. That gas turbine cycles, on their own without combined cycles, are highly unlikely to be viable base-load power stations has been taught to all my thermodynamics students from the 1970's. They are very efficient topping cycles, and when planned into an effective maximum demand tariff structure that has in-built peak-load control mechanisms could be an attractive economic solution. The whole structure of IPP's and EPP's (Emergency Power Projects) needs to be undertaken within a reviewed and holistic National Energy Policy as will be discussed later. Sub-regional and regional energy issues As the first Director of Energy Affairs in the Republic of Botswana and later the Energy Advisor to the government, I was opportuned to make some contributions to the development of the energy sector not only of Botswana, but also of the Southern Mica sub-region (SADC) and of the Africa region. Through membership of several high-level regional committees, as Director of Energy Affairs, I had the good fortune to be called upon to contribute meaningfully to the development of the SADC energy sector. The SADC regional energy regulatory reform process had its maiden meeting in March 2000 in Botswana at which I was invited to present the welcome address outlining the issues of energy sector regulatory reform worldwide, and the subsequent approval by the SADC Energy Ministers Meeting of the Regional Energy Regulatory Association (RERA) in Luanda, Angola in June 2000 had notable input from the Botswana delegation. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 670 R.O Fagbenle The Director of Energy Affairs has the responsibility for the overall management of the nation's four major national energy programmes, viz.: the National Photovoltaic Rural Electrification Programme (US$lm), the National Rural Power Supplies Programme (US$32.2m), the 70 Villages Accelerated Rural Electrification Project (US$48m) and the National Coal Development Programme (US$3.6m). The Energy Affairs Division itself has an average annual development budget of about US$6.lm and an average annual recurrent budget of about US$5.4m in a nation of only 1.5 million people! The Botswana Power Corporation (BPC), internationally ranked alongside South Africa's Eskom as the two most efficient power utilities in Africa, reports through the Director of Energy Affairs to the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs. The following projects were developed during my term as Director and prepared in co-operation with other agencies: 1. Global Environmental Facility (GEF-UNDP) Proposal identifying and overcoming barriers to widespread adoption of photovoltaic electrification in Botswana. PDF Request: US$245,OOOwas approved by the GEF early in 2001. Project was developed in cooperation with the Botswana Technology Centre (BOTEC) and the Rural Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC) of Botswana. 2. Wind Energy Resource Mapping in Botswana Proposal to the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In co-operation with the AEA Technology Environment, Harwell, UK, BoTeC and RIle. FCO Contribution UK £82,000; First Phase Report approved and Second Phase Funding approved in July 2000. 3. Developing Energy Efficiency and Conservation Standards for the Building Sector in Botswana - Project approved for funding by DANCED to the tune ofPula2.0m (approx. US$400,000), in September 2000. 4. The Development of an education and training needs analysis tool for projects within the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol- Proposal submitted to the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office for funding to the tune UK £58,900 by the Centre for Energy Studies of South Bank University in cooperation with the Energy Affairs Division of the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs, Gaborone, Botswana. Status of linkage severed at end of my term. 5. Economic and Environmental Benefits of Energy Efficiency and Conservation at the Bamangwato Concession Ltd. (BCL) Copper Mines - Project funded by the African Energy .Policy Research Network (AFREPREN), Nairobi, Kenya. Final Report submitted and accepted in June, 2000. A PDF-B GEF Project Proposal arising from the study report was submitted to the UNDP in May 2000. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 671 6. Coal beneficiation plant cooperation agreement discussions and negotiations with the Chinese government through the Chinese Embassy in Gaborone, Botswana. By May 2001, indications were that the Chinese government had agreed to set up a coal beneficiation plant in . Botswana to the tune of about US$2.5m within the anticipated agreement. 7. Initiation and concluding a co-operation agreement on energy between the United States Department of Energy and the Botswana Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs, an agreement signed by the US Secretary of Energy and the Botswana Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs in Durban, South Africa in December 2000. Exergy and the Environment The use of energy, particularly conventional fossil energy resources especially in the industrialized nations has continually grown since the industrial revolution age. Developing countries have also witnessed relatively substantial growth in their own conventional energy resource use over the past thirty to fifty years of their nationhood. Nigeria, for example, has witnessed an increase in its electricity generating capacity from under 2 TWh to about 15 TWh in the thirty year period of 1970-2000, only about a third of which is from renewable hydro resources, Fagbenle et al. [60]. Thus two-thirds of this generation is from the finite, exhaustible primary or conventional fossil resources - mainly petroleum and natural gas. Similar large increases in the use of primary energy resources are found in the domestic, commercial, industrial and transportation sectors. These conventional or primary natural energy resources of the world have taken several centuries to form in the earth's crust, and we all know the expected result of a spending rate that is greater than wealth accumulation rate. In the case of fossil energy use, the result is even more serious than going bust: the natural environment and its habitat are left worsened by the associated land degradation, environmental pollution; human, animal and fauna health effects; global warming effects, etc. - the so-called externalities. The technical fix solution aims at identifying and focusing on the more important energy resource conversion processes and technologies that can produce the optimum resource use for the desired effect. Thus, we resort to the science of thermodynamics and particularly its first and second laws to study the use of energy resources in such processes in terms of first- and second-law efficiencies. It is in the use of the second law efficiency that the word exergy has been coined. Through the exergy analysis of sectoral energy resource use, aspects of processes and systems where more efficient technologies can produce large improvements are readily identified as in Reistad [63]. The first law of thermodynamics is basically an energy accounting law, which observes the principle of energy conservation. Thus the energy contained in all the input streams to a process or system must be accounted for somewhere in the output streams or accumulated within the system in which the process takes place, there is no room for any ghost or missing energies. The second law of thermo- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 672 R.o. Fagbenle dynamics, on the other hand, evaluates the inherent capability of energy and matter streams to cause change, that is the quality of energy or matter streams and it affirms that the quality of such streams is degraded or even destroyed due to irreversibilities in practical processes. It is conserved only in ideal reversible processes. As an example, Fagbenle and Karayiannis [65] have developed useful thermodynamic expressions to evaluate the exergetic efficiency of a solar absorption refrigeration regenerator. To get an idea of irreversible and reversible processes, consider the electric heater - the electric coil or kettle or bathroom geyser. Now the heater coil element is at temperatures of the order of several hundred degrees or even a couple of thousand degrees and yet the desired water temperature is only about 80°C for tea or coffee brewing and 30°C for bathing. Transferring heat across large temperature differences is an irreversible process whose inefficiency can only be uncovered with the second law exergy efficiency analysis, yielding an exergy efficiencyof e < 10%. The first law would give a false picture of an efficient heater at about II == 60 - 70% efficiency. In this example very high quality electric energy is being used wastefully, degraded so to speak, in low-heat applications. Heat can be transferred reversibly only across an infinitesimally small temperature difference, .Iike stairway steps, until we get to the desired end point. Table 1 below indicates the first and second law efficiencies for several processes (from Rosen and Dincer [65]). It is noticed that the exergy efficiencies in the table are lower than the corresponding energy efficiencies, a result of the irreversibilities of the process destroying some of the input exergy to the process. Table 1 Comparison of energy (first law) efficiency and exergy (second law) efficiency for selected processes. (from Rosen and Dincer [65]). Efficiencv. % Process I'Law 2na Law Residential heater (fuel) 60 9 Domestic water heater (fuel) 40 2-3 High-pressure steam boiler . - i}() : 50 Tobacco dryer (fuel) . AO 4 Coal gasification (high heat) 55 46 Petroleum refining -90, 10 Steam-heated reboiler -1M 40 Blast furnace 76 46 The energy utilization efficiency of a country can be studied using exergy analysis in order to achieve energy and hence financial savings. After its pioneering application by Reistad in 1975 to the US, several other countries have been similarly studied, e.g. for Canada by Rosen [66], for Finland, Japan and Sweden by Wall [67], and for Turkey by Rosen and Dincer [65] as earlier noted. Such studies of the major sectors of the Nigerian economy constitute part of the directions my current energy research. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 673 Another direction of my current energy research, not too deviational, is the externalization of the environmental and social effects of energy utilization. This highly multidisciplinary research area came to prominence with the important work of Hohmeyer [68] in 1988 and his later publications [69-71]. The effects of interest are wide and cover such areas as economic, health, emissions to the air of NOx, SOx, CO, particulates, etc. and their impact on human and animal health, flora, fauna, buildings; emission of greenhouse gases CO2, N20, CFCs, methane CH4, tropospheric ozone 03, and water vapour H20, all of which impede the transmission oflong wavelength radiation away from the earth; etc. An aspect of the energy-exergy-environment interrelationships was considered by Fagbenle et aJ. [72] in their study of the technical implications for developing countries of the 1987 Montreal Protocol which restricted the production and consumption of chlorinated and brominated substances - the ozone-depleting substances - such as the fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and the halon compounds. The study, published in the International Journal of Environment and Pollution, advocated the introduction of, and education on, appliance efficiency indexing in developing countries in step with the developed countries, otherwise inefficient and discarded domestic and commercial appliances from the developed countries will be dumped in the developing countries, worsening their energy and environment problems. This warning has largely gone unheeded. Energy and the Future In the abstract to a 1975 paper on a survey of world energy resources, that great research geophysicist, M. King Hubbert [73] succinctly focused the world's attention to the exhaustibility time frame of fossil fuels - principally coal, crude oil and natural gas thus: "The present large-scale use of energy and power by human species represents a unique event in the billions of years of geologic history. Furthermore, in magnitude, most of the development has occurred during the present century. In the Unites States, the peak in the rate of petroleum production occurred in 1970 and that for natural gas is imminent. The peak in the world production of crude oil is expected to occur at about the year 2000 and that for coal production at about 2150 or 2200. For other sources of energy and power, waterpower, geothermal power and tidal power are inadequate to replace power from fossil fuels. Nuclear power, based on the breeder reactor and utilizing low-grade deposits of uranium and thorium, has a larger potential than the fossil fuels, but it also constitutes a large perpetual hazard The largest source of energy available to the earth is solar radiation. This source has a life- expectancy of a geologic time scale, is non-polluting and is larger in magnitude than any likely requirements by the human species .... " Hubbert's assertion came from an application of the fundamental principle of exploitation of any exhaustible resource, namely that its exploitation rate must begin at zero, undergo a period of more or less continuous increase, reach a culmination or peak, and then decline, eventually to a zero rate of production, as shown in figure 6 below. On a cumulative production curve, this would be the logistic distribution. Thus, if from geological or other data the producible UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 674 R.o. Fagbenle magnitude of the resource initially present can be estimated, then, any curve drawn to represent the complete cycle of production must be consistent with that estimate. This implies that the area under the curve must equal the estimated magnitude of that resource. The principle therefore affords a powerful method to estimate the time scale for the complete production cycle of an exhaustible resource in any given region or for the whole world. In the case of the world estimates, Hubbert used "the absolute magnitude of the world's original supply fossil fuels recoverable under present technological and economic conditions" to conclude that for coal and petroleum, the time required for the exhaustion of the middle 80% of the ultimate cumulative production is of the order of one or two centuries. o~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~ 1900I~S 197~ 2000 Z02$ 201~ 2100 YEARS Fig. 6 Alternative complete cycles of world crude oil production. (From Energy: For ourselves and our posterity [74], P ..88.) Hubbert also dramatically presented the brevity of the "epoch of fossil fuels" in terms of the longer span of human history. In the graph, shown in figure 7, the historical epoch of the exploitation. of fossil fuels is plotted on a time scale extending from 5000 years in the past to 5000 years in the future. It is seen therefore that on such a time scale, the epoch of fossil fuels "can be only a transitory or ephemeral event" as Hubert put it, although it is a momentous event in the terms of the drastic influence it has had on the human species and civilization during its entire biological history. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 675 \ •• !,~ ~_. _~~~__J_'_ ~_IL_~. ~JTJ----"~--.~'---~~--~.' r•••••••••••••••.•••••. CJO'_ Fig. 7. Epoch of fossil fuels in a longer span of human history. (From Energy: For ourselves and our posterity [74], p. 90). A possible future for mankind has been suggested to rest on what is termed the Hydrogen Economy. This is the future of exhausted finite fossil energy resources of the world and yet with the lifestyle that the developed world is used to and to which the developing world aspires. The hydrogen economy rests on the huge water resource of the world wherein two-thirds of the earth's surface is covered by water. Thus electrolysis of this water with solar electricity will . produce hydrogen fuel and oxygen with little or no negative environmental effects. Hydrogen is the fuel of the future, it is easily stored and can be used in either the gaseous or liquid form. The storage factor is the main reason solar electricity would need to be used for electrolyzing water rather than using electrical transmission lines. Hydrogen can be distributed on a large scale through gas pipelines. In the domestic, commercial and industrial sectors, hydrogen can be recombined with oxygen in what is known as the fuel cell to produce electricity. In the transportation sector, hydrogen can be used as fuel in an internal combustion engines (ICE) as has been demonstrated in government sponsored research in the USA, Germany and Japan over the past two decades. Hydrogen vehicles have very dose to zero tailpipe emissions, emitting only trace amounts of CO and HC originating from the lubricating oil and of nitrogen oxides resulting from burning any fuel in air. Alternatively, the electricity required by an electric vehicle can come from either a fuel cell (FCEV) or the conventional electric vehicle batteries (EV). For the fuel cell vehicle, the platinum-catalyzed polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell is the prime candidate. In the hydrogen economy, the hydrogen, could also be obtained in any number of processes and from several sources - steam and plasma reforming as well as pyrolysis of natural gas, partial oxidation of heavy petroleum oils at refineries, coal gasification, etc., but the renewable source would be the vast water resource of the earth. Thus, the Biblical beginnings of the world in Genesis 1:2 would have contained the end point also, wherein the waters covering the earth would become its prime source of primary energy. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 676 R.O. Fagbenle Energy, Exergy and the Environment: The Unifying Thread from Boundary Layer Theory through Nuclear Reactor Research to Renewable Energy Research. It is clear now that energy, exergy and the environment constitute the unifying thread for all the research contributions outlined above. The boundary layer theory and analysis aims to establish contours of flows, steam and gas turhne blades, airfoils, nacelles, ship hulls, automobile and train shapes, channels, diffusers, nozzles, < etc; .that would minimize detrimental but unavoidable frictional effects (form and skin friction drag) so as to reduce energy wastage either in propelling bodies through fluids or in moving fluids through channel; - resulting in higher exergetic efficiencies. The economy and the environmen; are beneficiaries of this class of research effort spanning centuries and still expanding in horizon, particularly in the class of turbulent boundary layer flows. Nuclear reactor accident analysis research surely has the environment as its main focus, the. prevention of coolant flow loss resulting in choking conditions and reactor meltdown. Energy is of course the fundamental raison d'etre of nuclear reactors, the controlled release of the enormous energy locked up by nature in the. nucleus for power generation. Nuclear reactor coolant flow dynamics benefits from the exergy gains of boundary layer ~research through optimized pump impeller and turbine blades design, etc. Finally, the energy-environment relationship of the renewable energy research contributions discussed in this lecture is patently clear. Renewable energy resources, unlike the primary fossil energy resources, are generally far more environmentally benign than any primary fossil energy source. Of all the various renewable energy resources, only solar energy has the potential to meet the world's energy needs within any conceivable time spectrum of human habitation on this planet earth. Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future To ensure that the energy future, indeed the future, of Nigeria is not compromised, I humbly put forward the following recommendations emanating from the various issues covered in this lecture: 1. An urgent stakeholder-wide review of the National Energy Policy of the early 1980's, revisiting its objectives and priorities in the light of national, regional and international developments in energy and its interaction with the environment, particularly the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process. 2. Establishment of a separate Ministry of Energy and constitution of a National Advisory Committee on Energy, reporting to The President through the Minister, and consisting of all the main stakeholders of the energy sector, to reflect the crucial importance of energy to national development through the accepted linkage of economic growth to energy and energy intensity. The Steel sub-sector of the present Ministry of Power and Steel actually fits in very well into the Ministry l' of Mines upon creation of a Ministry of Energy. Neither, the Energy UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy. Exergy, the Environment and the Future 677 sector nor the Steel sector is well under the present set up. Energy deserves a hundred percent attention to be able to drive the nation's economy positively. No one is happy with the status quo of the energy sector in Nigeria of today. Indeed the name "Power" given to it is too limiting of the broad range of energy options available and may tend to narrow our collective vision on wider energy issues. The importance of energy as a separate sector is underscored by the establishment of both sub-regional and regional energy commissions. The Energy Commission of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) is in Luanda, Angola, coordinating all the energy issues of SADC, including the Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) which interconnects most Member States' electricity utilities. A SADC Energy Activity Plan for 2000-2005 was completed as my tour of duty in Botswana ended in 2001. The African Energy Commission (AEC) has also been agreed by the OAU to be established and sited at Algiers, Algeria and should commence operation hopefully this year. Nigeria should be interested in the top management of that Commission. Indeed, all talk of e-learning and long-distance education, amounts to no more than a pipe dream and throwing good money, down the drain given the unreliable energy base that currently plagues Nigeria. Information Technology with such unreliable energy base is mere frustration and it is next to worthless. We must get the energy base right first, for energy -is the foundation of Information Technology. It must be a solid, diversified, reliable and futuristic energy base that can only come out of a purposefully restructured public energy sector. 3. Establishment of a National Centre for Clean Energy Technologies for the demonstration of all energy technologies that promote a sustainable environment, proven and prototype, new, renewable or conventional. In this regard, mention could be made of such technologies as the fuel cells, hydrogen technology, large-scale solar photovoltaic and solar thermal power generation technologies, clean coal technologies such as fluidized and air-circulating fluidized combustion technology, biomass integrated gasification/steam-injected gas turbine (BIG/STIG cycle) technology, etc. The Centre will also disseminate and diffuse these technologies and would therefore have a strong Extension Division. 4. Instituting clear rural electrification policies that incorporate both off- grid and grid-connected electrification systems through renewable energy technologies into the overall national energy strategy, but particularly into the mainstream poverty alleviation/eradication and rural development programmes. 5. According very high priority to Energy Research and Development in the annual budget and national rolling plans by creating an Energy Research and Development Agency (ERDA). That energy and economic development are strongly linked has been established through UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 678 R.O.Fagbenle the energy intensity, economic growth and degree of industrialization interrelationships. Many developed and some developing countries have long-established National Energy Programmes that are indispensable to their economic and social well-being. The following programmes for the ERDA, are a necessity for 21st century Nigeria in my considered opinion: (a) National New and Renewable Energy Programme on solar, on- and off-shore wind, biomass, energy crops, municipal and industrial wastes digesters, bio-fuels, landfill gas, sewage gas, mini- and micro-hydro, pumped hydro, wave, tidal, hydrogen, fuel cells, energy efficiency and conservation - Demand Side Management (DSM) of energy, etc. All developed and many developing countries have had such programmes in place for decades. If we have to live with NEPA unreliability, then at least measures should be put in place for affordable and easy access to environmentally friendly decentralized renewable energy systems such as solar PV panels instead of those noisy fume-laden generators in every other Nigerian urban dwelling. (b) National Programme on Clean Coal. Technology to seek environmentally benign ways of utilizing this significant national resource and to benefit from useful international research on clean coal technologies. (c) National Programme on Nuclear Reactors for power generation to seek the safest options among the several nuclear technologies for the long term energy needs of the nation, particularly when the fossil energy resources get depleted as they are sure to be at current rates of exploitation. A second's thought of Nigeria of the end of even this century - 2100 - is enough to get anyone 'to , "begin -to give this vast energy source a serious consideration. Successful nuclear technologies include the boiling water reactor (BWR), pressurized water reactors (PWR), the advanced gas reactor (AGR), or the modular pebble-bed reactor technology under consideration by South Africa. (d) National Programme on Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources to include tar sands and oil shale. The research programmes here would also include the optimal use of these energy resources in appliances and equipment.in the domestic, commercial, industrial and transportation sectors. 6. Improvement of the national capacity for energy research by adequate funding of Research and Development under the ERDA. The process must be open, transparent, result-oriented, well-monitored and accountable. ERDA must ensure sustained public education and awareness in energy-environment-economy inter-relationships. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Energy, Exergy, the Environment and the Future 679 7. Encouragement of collaboration of Nigerian energy researchers with their international counterparts through government bilateral agreements with other governments and regional and international energy bodies. In particular, facilitation of the full use of environmental funding mechanisms for energy projects, such as the GEFIUNDP and the CDMlJI arising from the UNFCCC. 8. According high premium to the fulfillment of fiscal obligations of national institutions to regional and international bodies through which collaborative research work and academic exchanges are facilitated. 9. Facilitation by government of access by local researchers to Information Technology gains through agreement, on behalf of Nigerian universities, with international libraries online such as the US Library of Congress, the British Library, the various other national and international libraries on line; Only such a level of support can give the Nigerian researcher any hope of surmounting the financial hurdle in the way of access to online research facilities. 10. Encouragement of the development of local capacity to manufacture renewable energy technologies through special incentives. For example, the capacity for local manufacture of solar water heaters, solar cookers, solar PV modules, panels and cells, inverters, wind turbines, gasifiers, etc. should be developed sufficiently to enable international competitiveness in this multi-billion dollar world renewable energy market. This can happen only by government enunciating clear policies encouraging the large-scale use of renewable energy thereby creating a renewable energy market in which private sector funds can be invested. REFERENCES Adejokun, I.A. (1966). The three-dimensional structure of the inter-tropical discontinuity over Nigeria. Nigerian Meteor. ServoTech. Note 39. Adekoya, L.O. and Adewale, A.A. (1992). Wind energy potential of Nigeria. Renewable Energy, 2, 1,35-39. Baldasano, J.M. and Coronas, A. (1983). Applicacion del analisis de Fourier a datas metereologicos irradiacion solor, temperatura del aire y tension de vapor. International Solar Energy Symposium Solar 83, Palma de Mallorca. Balling Jr., R.C. (1983). Harmonic analysis of monthly insolation levels in the US. Solar Energy, 31, 3, 293-298. Benson, R.B., Paris, M.Y., Sherry, I.E. and Justus, C.G. (1984). Estimation of daily and monthly direct, diffuse and global solar radiation from sunshine duration measurements. 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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Index Abdul, (Prof.) Musa. 115 cancer (and woman), 292-3, 295.-9 abortion389-90 : 'prevention and treatment', 298 - 300 Aboyade,O.(eited), 102, 104 'cassava nutrition', 184 - 5 Abumere, Sylvester, 81 - 105 cervix.291-2 abuse(s): 'water', 305 : 'andcancer(in woman), 292, 293 academia, v, 29, 387 : 'cytology',300 achiever(s): 'science and engineering' ,361 : risk factors, 294 Adeniyi, (Prof.) F.A.A., 347 - 59 'chaos', 371-4, 384-5 Adewole, (Prof.) l.F.. 287 - 302 chemical pathology (academic dept.), 347 adolescence, see chemistry (definition), 263; 'diet(s): adolescent' 'Christ', 5, II, 14-6,22; Africa, north, see 'North Africa ' seep/so 'Jesus' Agbedana, (Prof.) Oluyemi, 347 'cen;als',108-9.114 ageing(manlwoman),161-2 christianity, 5, 7, II, 18 agriculture (sustainability), 140, 171 / : 'inAfrica',6,20-2,23-4 agronomy (academic department), 169 'the church' ,11-2,24 Ajayi, (Prof.) Funke, 153-67 /r 'classical hydrodynamic', 649 Ajayi, (Prof.) S.S., 303 'classics', 253 Akinyelc, (Prof.) Isaac Olaolu, 153 clay(s),533-4 Akinycmi, (Prof.) Bolaji, 640 'theclaymatball',204; Alabi, (Prof.) Babatundc, 361 - 86 'clinical sciences' (faculty), 287 'alley farming'. 140, 144-6; constitutionalism, 388, 391- 3; see also 'fanning: system' see a/so 'governance' Alonge, (Prof.) DavidO., 193-209 continuous assessment, 32, 52; Amure, (Prof.) B.O., 553 see a/so 'educational evaluation' 'animal traction'.423-7,429; 'copper' (and human body), 349 see a/so' equine and ruminant' cropping, see' alley farming' livestock: research activities' antiquity historian(s), 254 - 5 aquaculture: aims, 59 : commercial, 341-2 ,economic development', 81 : definition, 57 - 8 : 'in Nigeria', 82 - \04 :development, 61,340 - 3 : states (Nigeria), 84-5, 87; :Nigeria, 324-6, 334, 341; seea/so 'UNDPresults'(\ 996) see a/so' fish' economy, 81 - 105 Arabic (and history), \l8, 123 : 'and recession', 235-6 : 'and ether foreign languages', 125-7 education, 29, 231 : 'language', 115, 116, 117-20, 125.127 : 'antonomy', 249 : literacy, 120-5; : benefits, 232 - 3 see also 'literacy: Islamic' : funding, 620 : purpose, 122 : governance, 245 - 9 Aristotle (a philosopher), 170, 171,214,611 : 'Islamic', 124 : 'nutrition', 164 : 'Nigerian', 240, 250 : 'professional practice', 418 : 'qualityissues',241-5 : relevance, 238 -40 Bagshawe, (Prof.) K.D., 290 : 'standards ofperfonnance', 241, 242-3 the bible, 1,4,5, 14-5; 'educational evaluation', 30-2 'bilingual reduction', 415, 417 : 'as gate-keeper', 33-5, 'bio-mass technology', 660; see a/so see a/so 'solar energy: research and development' 'measurement and evaluation' Bocke,l.H.,(cited),82,104 educational management (academic dept.), 231 - 2 Bolarinwa, (Prof.) Adeyombo F., 553 - 68 Egunjobi,(Prof.) Layi,211-29 botany, 139-52 'clastic vibration ',376-8,380 : as a career, 150 clectrieity ('photovoltaic (PY)', 664, 668 -9; : concept, 139-40 see a/so .solar-energy' : contribution to agricul ture, 140 - 3 'clements': 'iron ore bodies', 532 'boundary layer analysis', 649, 650, 656, 657 : 'nature; classification', 518 - 20.522 : 'Prandtl equations', 650, 651 - 3 : 'traee',348-55,356-7 : 'similar/non-similar', 653 -4; Elucze, (Prof.)A.A., 513-52 energy : 'Botswana experience' ,669 - 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , : and the environment. 671 - 3. 676: ; : 'plant". 154 : 'thefuture',673-9 : pricing (effect), 157 : importance, 677 : supplements, 163: : 'national and regional'. 667 - 71 .food exchange', 207 : 'wind', 665 - 6; 'foundation (vibration)', 378 - 81 see also' liquid natural gas' 'fractals', 367 - 71 engineering (spatial), see fruit(s): 'as foods", 164 'spatial engineering' 'fuzzy logic', 383-4 : 'superstars', 361 'the environment', 649, 671- 3, 676 : 'aquatic', 302 :'urban',220-1; 'gastrin', 553, 555 -60 see also 'fishery(ies)'; geography (as a discipline), 623 - 5 see also 'unnatural products' : academic department, 81 'equine studies': 'and babesiosis', 493 -502 geology (and the environment), 538 - 9 : 'drug evaluation research', 442- 50 : interdisciplinary nature, 513, 519- 20 : 'economic significance', 493 :Nigeria's situation, 524 : 'clinical cases', 460- 80, 493 - 503 : research, 522 - 3,542 - 3 : 'surgical restructuring', 455 -60,480; geomaterial(s): 'and humanity', 543-6 see also 'horses: polo' : 'composition; dcfini tion " 519 - 20 : 'national integration', 101 - 4 : research, 547 : 'policies'l'programmes', (Nigeria), 88. 95 - 104 : 'wealthofNigeria',540-I, : promotion (equity), 102; 'gerrymandering', 626. 640 see also 'Federal Regional Commission' see a/so 'spatial engineering' .eroded sediments' , 308 - 9; .gospel studies', 1,2,3,6- 13. 18 see also 'water pollution: pollutants' : 'forms/criticisms',8-13 'estrous cycle (animals)", 553 -4, 560 : 'synoptic', 8 evaluation (educational), 30 - 2 : variations, II : 'nutritional problem during pregnancy' .613 - 4 governance (and leadership), 395 - 6 examination: 'bodies' (Nigeria), 33 -6, 53-4 :Nigeria's situation, 392-4 :malpractices, 51 - 2 : 'oligachy', 398 : 'representatives', 397, 399 : 'rural population', 583 : 'universities', 387 -40 I; Fagbenle, (Prof.) Olayiwola, 649 - 83 see also 'university administration' faith,4,5, 7, II, 16; grassroot (people), 583 see also 'christianity' 'growth', 165-6,218,612-4 see also' Islam' gynaecology (concept/purpose), 287; Falayajo, (Prof.) Wale, 29 - 56 see also 'obstetrics' Falusi,A.O.(cited), 157, 190 Famewo, (Prof.)C.E., 569 Fang, Wen,60; see also 'agriculture: history' health (and city people), 218, 220-1 farming (fish), 58, 59, 60,61-2 'the hydrogen economy', 676; Faturoti, (Prof.) E.O., 303 -45 see also 'energy: the furure' Federal Regional Commission (Nigeria), 103 'high lysine maizc ', no-t see a/so 'Nigeria: integration' history (andcIassics), 253 'fertilizer(s)', 169-91, 175, 186,189 .Human Development Index' (HDI), 84 - 5 : history, 172 human nutrition, 153, 155, 194, 6ll :modern, 172, 173 : 'and placenta development' ,612 :production, 174-5, 177, 189,190 : 'engineering', 615 - 7 : research, 173 -4, 178 : 'maternal', 156-7, 158 : 'role in cropping', 182 - 3 : 'needs' (in pregnancy), 611 : 'use development', 171- 4, 176; : security (in infancy), 158-9; see a/so 'Pace-setter Company' see a/so 'malnutrition' fish (benefits), 59, 60 : cultivation, 60 species, 60, 61 : 'demandandsupply',311-2 'Igbo rcligion', 10 : feeds, 327 - 30, 334-40 Ikporukpo, (Prof.) C.O:, 623-47 food(s)(and,man), 153, 155, 170, 193 Ilevbare, (Prof.)J.A., 253 -62 : 'anduIcer',564 incarnation, 16,22, 23 : 'animal supply', 618 - 9 'industrial effluents', 308; : 'forti fieation', 163 see a/so 'water pollution: pollutants' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . industrialized country' 154.d 62 myth (history). 254, 256 -60 "infcctitions diseases agents'. 307 nation(s): 'two-nation concept', 82 information (and governance). 396 national assessment (education), 33'-6, 54 Institute of Education (Univ. oflbadan), 29 'National Universities Commission' (NUC), V. . integration' .see:Nigeria (a nation r 'natural product(s)', 264; investment(s). 233, 234-5, 237. 238 see also 'plants' ,see also Islam (a religion), 115,117.122: .unnatural products' see a/so 'muslim(s)' 'the Navier- Stokes' (N-S) equations, 650-1 natural resources (aquatic), 304, 305 'neural tubcdcvclopment', 614- 5; see also 'pregnancy: nutritional needs' .Jesus'. I -25 Niger Delta region (Nigeria), 627, 628, 632 : 'historical', 9, 13-4, 20 : agitation for justice, 641 : 'life',6. 7-8 : solution to crisis, 644 - 5 :see also 'gospel studies' : under development, 640, 643 :message, 25 Nigeria (a nation), 81,82 : prophethood; teaching, 11, 12 : energy (power sector), 667 - 9,676-9 : ·thereal',23 : a federation, 627,638 : history, 97 - 101 : industries, 91, 102, 104 : integration, 81, 101 Ladipo, (Prof) O.A., 284 :medical facilities, 90- I language (and Nigeria), 405, 417 : per capita income. 89.92 : 'in the education policy', 406- 7 : 'oil producing areas", 640 : learning,408,411,414,418 : political regions (schema), 631 : 'of instruction ',408 - 17; : school enrolment, 89 - 90, 94 see a/so 'bilingual education' : space and economic development, 82 - 104 : 'qualityofuse',418 : states, 628 - 34 'language education' , 407 :weather, 665 law (academic units), 387 - 8 'noise control', 362 - 3; see also 'vibration(s)' 'law rnaker v'brcaker ', 225-6 North Africa, 254, 256 'lead' (a toxic trace element), 352-5 nourishment, 194,206 'learning environment' (education), 49 - 51 nutrient(s), 169, 170,171-2,611 'life expectancy', 153, 154-5, 161 'nutritional engineering' 615- 7 : infants, 157 - 8 : 'longevity', 163 'life style' (effect), 163, 167 'Iiquified natural gas' (LNG), 667 Obigbesan, (Prof) G.O., 169-91 livestock (and research), 616-20 Obstetrics (history), 287,288 Longe, (Prof.) Remi, 231- 52 : 'academic department', 287 'Odulfa',13; see a/so' Yoruba religion' 'Ogi': 107-14 Magbagbeola, (Prof.) JAO., 569 : advantages (a food), III - 2 magnesium (and human body), 352-4 : definition, 107, 108 Malik,(Prof)SayedH.A., 115-'38 : nutritional quality (contents), 108, 110, III malnutrition, 614 :processing, 110 man (and development), 304, 305 : products, 107, 114 marriage (mythical), 260 Ohikhena, (Dr.)T.0.,23 I meat, 193, 197 'oil spillage' ,641 medical education (training), 566 Ojo, (Prof.) J.D., 387 -401 menstural cycle (human), see Okorie, (Prof.)DA, 264-85 'estrous cycle' (animals) Oladosu, (Prof.) LanrewajuA., 421 - 511 Meritocracy, 398; Olatunbosun, (Prof) David, 347 see a/so 'governance: university' Olawoye, (Prof) Janice A., 584 - 608 mineral(s): economic use, 515-6 Olorunda, (Prof)A.O., 107 : 'economic potentials", 532 - 7; 540 Olufemi, (Prof.) B.£., 57, 77-8 : feature/classification, 514-6 Omololu, (Prof.) Adewale, 153 : formation, 517 - 8 'ore(s)',531-2 : resources, 530; organic chemistry, 263, 265 see a/so 'clay'; see a/so 'ore(s)' Osonubi, (Prof) 0., \39-52 'the mineral nutrient concept', 171 - 3 Osotimehin, (Prof.) Babatunde, 34 7 'rnycorrhiza', 140-3, 145; Osuagwuh (Prof)A.I.A., 609-n see a/so 'soil microorganism(s)' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY soil microorganismts), 140 'Pacesetter company', 186 solar energy ('phtovoltaic (PV) electricity'), 664 'pcntatcuch'{thc bible), 8 : reduction, 662-4 pestieidc(s), 273 -4, 307-8 : ' research and devclopmcn t' , 657 - 61 , 664 'petroleum products', 309 - 10 Soyanwo, (Prof.) Olaitan 0., 569- 82 see also 'water-pollution: pollutants' Soyinka, (Prof.) Wale, 133, 138 'pharmaccuucals', 275 - 6 space(s): 'economic', 634-43 'physical planning', 211- 2 : of':a nation', 82 Planning (concept), 211. : 'political',627-34; : 'and indiscipline', 224 see a/so 'spatial engineering : challenges, 227 - 8 'Spatial engineering', 625 - 32 : 'educational', 232 : accessibility, 626 - 7 planus): agro-chcmicals, 272 : concept, 626 : 'anti-cancer', 272-3 'state creation' (Nigeria), 628-34; : 'anti-malaria',266-7 see a/so "Willink 's Commission' : 'lcgininosac', 271 - 2 'stochastic models ... ', 661-2; : 'medical', 264-74 see a/so 'solar energy: research and development : nutrients, 307 Stress (and ulcer), 557 - 8 plant nutrition, 169, 170-1, 189 'students' /teachers' quality', 243 -4, 252 pollution (and environment), 649 'student unionism', 391 : 'noise', 221,363 polyscyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), 203 - 4 polymcr(s), 277-9 theology, 21 - 2 poultry production, 207 tilapia (fish specie), 60, 61- 2, 69 poverty, 42 I 'torah' (Judaism), 13 : 'aggregate', 506-7 transportation, 221 - 2 : alleviation, 206 - 8 Tyler, R.W. (cited), 31,56 : concept, 505 - 6 : statistics, 507 'power transmission line vibration', 374 - 6 'ulcer' (causes/factors), 557, 564 Pregnancy (and ulcer), 564 : 'duodenal', 556,558 : 'and overfeeding' , 612 : 'gastric', 556,seea/so 'gastrin' : 'as a disease', 351,356 : 'induced',561-2 : 'childdelivery',572,579 : 'peptic', 556- 7,562 : 'nutritional needs', 611- 6; 'unnatural products', 275 - 9 see also 'nutritional engineering' 'Uncsco Technical Team'(1976), 231 product(s): 'natural'; 'unnatural', 263,275-9 'UNDPreports'(1996),83-5,88,105 proteinis), 108-9,195, 197 university(ies), v, 242,357 -9,398 -400 urbanization, 211,214,217 'utopia cities', 214 - 5 raw material(s), 175, 186, 189 'real fluids' 650,656 Vcgctarian(s), 154 Reproduction (and nutrition), 613-4 'vesicular arbuscular mycorhiza' (VAM), 141-3, 147 Research, 566, 616- 20 -9 revenue allocation (Nigeria), 636-40 Vetcrinary (a discipline): 'and thc economy', 421 'ripples', 304,305,343-4 : departments, 193 rock(s), 514, 517, 525 - 6, 535 : 'medicine', 609 : 'basement' 523 Vibration(s): 'and engineering', 362 : 'cataclassics', 530 : 'and human body' ,364 - 5 : 'granites', 536 : 'and loss of reliability' ,365 - 7 : 'metasedimentary', 527 - 8 : 'bladed disks', 383 'ruminant',455-60,481-93 : 'control', 379 : 'railway induced',381-2 : 'superstars',361 'Safe Motherhood Initiative' (SMI), 289 : types, 374-6, 376-8 'school development board' (SBD), 248; see also 'education: governance' waste disposal, 220 science(s), 263,303,361 'water pollution', 305, 306- 10 'sea trip(s)', 303-4 'WestAfrican dwarf(WAD) goat', 613-4 'self-determination', 629; see also 'Willink's Commission (and Nigeria), 627, 629, 630 'state creation' 'the womb', 288, 291 Sheth, Sherish S. (President FIGO), 288 smoking, 20 1-2, 203, 205, 564 sociology, 81 'Yoruba rcligion', 10-1, 13 'soil fertility', 173-4, 176, 178, 179-82 youth(s), 150 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY