TITLE PAGE FUND MOBILISATION, ALLOCATION AND UTILISATION AS PREDICTORS OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA, 2001 -2005 _________________________________________________________ ABAYOMI AMBALI ALAKA i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY FUND MOBILISATION, ALLOCATION AND UTILISATION AS PREDICTORS OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA, 2001 -2005 BY ABAYOMI AMBALI ALAKA B.Ed (Educational Management/Communication and Language Arts, M.Ed (Educational System Administration), PGD (Theology) A Thesis in the Department of Educational Management Submitted to the Faculty of Education In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN ii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ABSTRACT There have been low mobilisation and poor allocation of funds to education in Nigeria. Studies have shown over the years that, there have been fluctuations in the budgetary allocation to education. The attendant effects of this are late payment of salaries, inadequate staff and dilapidated infrastructure. This therefore, resulted in repeated poor students’ achievement in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Though studies have been conducted on fund allocation and utilisation, only few have been on fund mobilisation. This study, therefore, investigated the relationship among fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria from 2001-2005. The study adopted descriptive survey design of ex-post facto type. A total of 1,826 public secondary schools from Lagos, Enugu, Akwa-Ibom, Kano, Bauchi and Nasarawa states representing each of the six geo-political zones were sampled for the study using multi-stage sampling technique. Secondary data were used for the study. The Senior Certificate Examination results of 1,413,454 students from the sampled states were used for the analysis. Four research questions were answered and five hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analysed using Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Multiple Regression. There was an upward trend in fund allocation to education in Lagos state from 21.58% to 25%, Akwa Ibom state 6.6% to 13.1%, Nasarawa state 9.0% to 16.2%, Bauchi state 9.50% to 10.05% and Kano state 15.2% to 18%. There was a downward trend in fund allocation to education in Enugu state from 22.7% to 22.3%.There was an upward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Lagos state from 26.5% to 28.4%, Enugu state 14.2% to 24.7% , Bauchi state 8.0% to 9.8% and Nasarawa state 9.9% to 32.7%. However, there was a downward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Akwa Ibom state 7.5% to 3.5% and Kano state 72.1% to 46.8% states. Fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation jointly accounted for 46.9% variance in predicting students’ achievement in public secondary schools (R = 0.687; F(3,1822) = 46.27, p < 0.05). The contributions of each variable to students’ achievement was: fund allocation (β=0.287, t = 3.252, p <.05), fund mobilisation (β = 0.212, t = 3.494, p < 0.05), utilisation of financial resources (β = 0.301, t = 4.045, p < 0.05), student / teacher ratio (β= 0.156, t = 2.455, p < 0.05). iii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Mobilisation, allocation and utilisation of funds have improved students’ achievement. Government should, therefore, allocate more funds to secondary education so that all facilities that would improve the students’ achievement are made available. Ministries of education and principals of schools should broaden their revenue generation capacities and utilise the funds available to them properly to improve students’ achievement. Key words: Fund mobilisation, Fund allocation, Fund utilisation, Students’ achievement, Secondary school Word count: 460 iv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the Almighty God, the Giver of knowledge, wisdom and understanding. WITH HIM ALL THINGS ARE POSSIBLE. AND My beloved wife, Esther Olubunmi ALAKA-ABAYOMI and my precious children Ayomide Samuel, Oluwanifesimi David and Oluwadarasimi Modupeola for being the ideal people around me for their dedication and prayers towards the completion of this work. v UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by AMBALI ABAYOMI ALAKA (Matriculation Number 61482) in the Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan, under my supervision and guidance. ……………………………………………… Supervisor ‘SEGUN OLUGBENGA ADEDEJI B.Ed, M.Ed, Ph.D (Ibadan) Senior Lecturer and Acting Head of Department Department of Educational Management University of Ibadan, Nigeria ……………………………… Date vi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God for His guidance and also for sound health during the course of this work. I express my profound gratitude to my supervisor and the current acting Head of the Department, Dr. Segun Olugbenga Adedeji, for his advice, mentoring, coaching and reading through the work before the final draft of the thesis. I acknowledge my lecturers in the Departments of Educational Management and Economics, University of Ibadan: Professor Mobolaji Ogunsanya, Professor Joel Babalola, Dr. Femi Akinwumi, Dr (Mrs) Adebola Jaiyeoba, Dr. B.O. Emunemu, Dr Ismail Raji, Dr. David Olaniyan, Dr. Olaniyan Olanrewaju, Dr. Omo Aregbeyan, and Dr. Ademola Atanda for their individual and collective contributions to the success of this study. I am grateful to my fathers in the Lord, Pastor Gabriel Adesina Ojo, Evangelist Abiodun Azeez, Deacon Adebiyi Isaac, Afolayan Joseph, Pastor Segun Fatoye, Ministers and the entire workers of King of Glory Parish, Ebute Metta for their prayers throughout the duration of the programme. I also acknowledge the contributions of the Registrar/Chief Executive of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, Mr. Olutoyin Adeagbo Adepate and his wife, Mr. Benard Iwo, Mr. O.O. Akinyemi, Mrs. R. O. Arowolo, Prince S. Olajide Oyewo, Mr. E. O. Babatunde, Mrs Folake Olawuyi, Anifowose Isaac Abiodun, Abiola Olatunde, Akeem Olaniyan and Zebulum Temidayo Kowe, Bimpe Olugbile, Olaniyan Sunday, Anjorin Oluyemi Abosede, Registrar/Chief Executive of Chartered Institute of Local Government and Administration Mr. Uchechukwu Okeke, all the past and present students of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Lagos study centre for their encouragement and intellectual contributions. I register my boundless love and encouragement to my brother in-law, mentor, friends and academic fathers Mr. P.K. Adeyemi, Senator Tokunbo Afikuyomi, Tajudeen Amodu, Professor Kabiru Isa Dandago, Dr. Taiwo Asaolu, Dr. Rufus Akintoye, Dr. Ojo Lucas, Dr. Banji Obadara, Dr. Yisa Sunmonu, Moses Adeboye, and P.O. Akindele, The same goes to my younger brother, Olasunkanmi Mufutau Ayinde; my elder sister, Mrs. S.O. Adeyemi; Adekogbe Qudus, Wasiu Alaka, Mr. Sadiq Idowu, Mr. and Mrs. D.O. Fatunbi, Mrs.Stella Ekpene, Governments of Enugu, Akwa Ibom, Lagos, Bauchi, Kano and Nasarawa States, Ministries of Education, Education Districts and Principals of all the Secondary Schools in these States and all those that contributed to vii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY my education from primary school to this level who I could not acknowledge due to lack of space. I am grateful. My gratitude goes to my grandmother, Mrs. Raliat Ajoke Ayorinde (late) who forced me to swear at the age of nine that I would go through university education; my mother, Mrs. Modupeola Erinosho (late) who sold everything she had in order for me to get university education; Mr and Mrs. Emmanuel Banjo, who took me over during the turbulent period for 15years; Mr. and Mrs. Oladele Kadri, my mother-in-law, Mrs. Adebola Layiwola; sister in-law, Opeyemi Layiwola; Mr. and Mrs. Abimbola; Mr. and Mrs. Adewole and Toyin Layiwola for their persistent prayers. Lastly, I am indebted to my loving wife for her prayers and support at every stage of this study and more importantly for providing a peaceful and conducive home environment for hard work. My gratitude goes to my loving children: Ayomide Samuel, Oluwanifesimi David and Oluwadarasimi Modupeola for bearing with me during the busy times. I thank you all for your understanding and prayers. May God Almighty bless you all. ‘THANK YOU’ viii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF ABREVIATIONS NAEP: National Assessment of Education Progress SAP: Structural Adjustment Programme FEM: Foreign Exchange Market PTA: Parent Teacher Association PTF: Petroleum Trust Fund UNESCO: United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation MDGS: Millennium Development Goals EFA: Education For All UBE: Universal Basic Education UBEC: Universal Basic Education Commission GDP: Gross Domestic Product SANE: South Africa, Algerian, Nigeria and Egypt GPA: Grade Point Average EPF: Education Production Function ESC: Education Service Centre PPE: Per Pupil Expenditure PFE: Production Function Equation. ix UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………………i ABSTRACT……………………………… ………………………………………….iii DEDICATION……………………… ………………………………………………v CERTIFICATION…………………….…………………………………….............vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………….………………………………………..vii LIST OF ABBREVIATION………………………………………………………...ix TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………...vii LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….viii LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………..……………..ix CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………………………….....1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….1 Background to the study……………………………………………………………….1 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………….…...8 Research Questions …………………………………………………………………....9 Objectives of the study………………………………………………………………...9 Significance of the study………………………………………………………...........10 Scope of the study………………………………………………………………….... 10 Operational definition of terms…………...…………………………………………..11 CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………....13 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE …………………………………………...13 Studies on Fund Allocation in Education…………………………............................ 13 Studies on Fund Mobilisation ………………………………………………………. 20 Studies on Students’ Achievement…………………………………………………..23 Fund Allocation and Students’ Achievement………………………………………...39 Fund Utilisation and Students’ Achievement…………………………………….......43 Appraisal of Literature………………………………………………………………..48 Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………50 Research Hypotheses………………………………………………………………...55 x UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………...56 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………..56 Research Design……………………………………………………………………...56 Study Population……………………………………………………………………...57 Sample and Sampling Technique……………………………………………………..57 Research Instruments………………………………………………………………. ..58 Validation of Instruments………………………………………………………….....59 Method of Data Collection…………………………………………………………....59 Method of Data Analysis……………………………………………………………..59 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION………………………………………………….....60 Presentation of Results…………………………………………………………….....60 Discussion of findings……………………………………………………………….78 Budgetary Allocation to Education from 2001 to 2005…………………………… ..78 Fund Allocation, Mobilisation, Utilisation, and Students’ Achievement …………...80 Fund Allocation and Students’ Achievement………………………………………...81 Utilisation of financial resources and Students’ Achievement………………………81 Fund mobilisation and Students’ Achievement……………………………………...82 Student/Teacher ratio and Students’ Achievement…………………………………..83 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………84 Summary of findings…………………………………………………………………84 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………85 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………85 Contributions to knowledge…………………………………………………….........86 Limitation of the study……………………………………………………………….86 Suggestions for further Studies………………………………………………………86 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..87 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………..108 xi UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF TABLES Pages Table 3.1 Population Parameters of Geo-Political zones in Nigeria 58 Table 4.1 Lagos State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 60 Table 4.2 Enugu State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 61 Table 4.3 Bauchi State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 62 Table 4.4 Akwa Ibom State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 62 Table 4.5 Kano State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 63 Table 4.6 Nassarawa State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 63 Table 4.7 Percentage of students who scored five credits and above including English and Mathematics in WASSCE from 2001 to 2005 68 Table 4.8 Percentage of students with five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics in WASSCE in the geo-political zones between 2001 and 2005 70 Table 4.9 Percentage of students with less than five credits in WASSCE in the geo-political zones between 2001 and 2005 72 Table 4.10 Total number of students that sat for WASSCE in each state from 2001 to 2005 74 Table 4.11 Student/Teacher and Student/Class Ratios in the geo-political zones 74 Table 4.12 Multiple Regression Summary Table Showing Joint Contribution of the Variables 75 Table 4.13 Parameter Estimate of Fund Mobilisation, Allocation and utilization on students’ achievement. 76 xii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.14 Relationship between Financial Allocation and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria 76 Table 4.15 Relationship between Fund Mobilisation and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria 77 Table 4.16 Relationship between Utilisation of financial resources and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria 77 Table 4.17 Relationship between student/teacher ratio and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria 78 xiii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 A theoretical model showing the relationship between Fund Allocation, Mobilisation and Utilisation on Students Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria 54 Figure 4.2 Percentage allocated to education in the geo-political zones in Nigeria from 2001 to 2005 65 Figure 4.3 Percentage allocated to secondary education in the geo-political zones in Nigeria between 2001 and 2005 67 Figure 4. 4 Percentage of students who scored five credits and above including English and Mathematics in WASSCE from 2001 – 2005 69 Figure 4.5 Percentage of students with five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics in WASCE in the geo-political zones between 2001 and 2005 71 Figure 4. 6 Percentage of students with less than five credits in WASCE in the geo political zones between 2001 and 2005 73 xiv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Nigeria as a country is situated on the western coast of Africa and it lies between ° latitude 40 and 140° north and between longitude 30° and 150° east. The total surface 2 area of the country spans over 923, 764km with Cameroon to the east, Niger and Chad to the north as well as Benin to the west along the Coast of Guinea. The administration of the country is divided into three tiers of Government: federal, state and local but the democratic governance is divided into North-east, North-west, South-east, South-south, South-west and North-central zones. The zones consist of 36 states and Abuja, 774 local government areas (LGAs) with a population of 140,033,201Million, three recognised indigenous languages: Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo and more than 339 dialects. A country with these diverse nature and structure needs a well-planned educational system for her development. Education throughout the world is regarded as the pillar and builder of a nation. It is the pivot of development in all ramifications in all countries. It develops man from the cradle to the grave. Oribabor and Adesina (2007) and Federal Republic Nigeria (2004) contended that education is a tool for increasing the awareness of citizens and realising the national goal. Abdul-Kareem (2001) stresses that education has often been recognised as investment in human capital that increases the productive capacity of the people which later yield economic benefits and contributes to the future wealth of the nation. Education is regarded as an instrument per excellence for effecting national development (FRN, 2004). It is also the greatest investment that a nation can make for quick development of its economic, political, sociological and human resources. Aghenta (2001) in Ojo (2009) argued that education is the most powerful and dynamic instrument for social, political, economic, scientific and technological development of a nation. Hence, for a nation to develop, compete favourably and be recognised in the comity of nations, quality and functional education at all levels becomes necessary. 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The quality of Nigerian educational system has been a great concern to educationists and experts in the educational sector. The quality of education is a matter of global pursuit and in order to succeed in the attainment of this global standard, it is imperative that the Nigerian educational system sustains and improves its quality. To realise this lofty idea, Utomi (2008) called for total overhauling of the Nigerian educational system. Similarly, Utomi corroborated Obayan’s (2006) view that, there cannot be any meaningful socio-economic development without the right type and corresponding appreciable quality in education, and management of quality in the delivery of academic programmes. Omotoso (2007) affirmed that any nation that fails to get its educational system right may put its future at risk, while Kingibe (2008) was of the opinion that Nigeria’s educational system was dying and most of the reforms in the system were cosmetic. He advised that for our full potentials to be realised through re- invention of our educational system, Nigeria should give quality education to students at the secondary school level and failure to do this, our universities would be populated by cultists and those who would be unfit to face the rigours of university education while other social vices would thrive in universities across the nation. The dwindling quality of the Nigeria education has led to much discussions and debates. Apparently, much has been written and a lot of enlightenment programmes have been organised to determine whether the standard of education had fallen or not. Opinions on the subject differ widely. Afe (2006) traced factors contributing to the falling standards of education in Nigeria to the advent of the military in civil governance of the country. He pointed out that schools were deprived of adequate funding and this had resulted in non-replacement or non repair of old infrastructure and teachers who were previously well remunerated suddenly became overworked and underpaid. Other factors included lack of adequate personnel, low quality of students produced from secondary schools, strike actions embarked upon at all levels of education and indiscipline on the part of staff and students. Similarly, (Oloja, 1992; Agbese, 1994; Nweke, 1998; Akinyemi, 1998; Mamman, 1998; and Alkali, 1999) in Ojerinde, (2004) submitted that the standard of education had fallen and attributed their claims to poor academic performance of students in public examinations. Ogunsaye (1987) in Fabunmi (1997) pointed out that Nigeria experienced 70% failure rate in English language, 58% in Mathematics, 61% in Biology, 64% in Chemistry and 50% in Physics between 1985 and 1987, while in Art subjects, performance rose from 45.27% to 60.27%. May/June 2001 to 2007 West Africa Senior 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE) evaluation of students’ performance revealed that a significant number of students were unable to make five credits including English Language and Mathematics. The performance showed the following: 84% in 2001, 85% in 2002, 81% in 2003, 82% in 2004, 78% in 2005, 76% in 2006 and 77% in 2007 did not have five credits including English and Mathematics. One of the highlights of the address given by the former Minister of Education, Dr. Sam Egwu during a press briefing when he was taking stock of the activities of his ministry over the past one year in March 2010, was the poor performance of students in public examinations conducted by West Africa Examinations Council and National Examinations Council. He regretted that, of the 1.5 million candidates that sat for the 2009 May/June WASSCE, only 25% passed at credit level in five subjects including English and Mathematics while in NECO, of the 1.2million that sat for similar examination, only 10% passed. The National Examinations Council reported that in November/December 2009, 4,233 candidates (1.8%) passed with five credits and above including English and Mathematics out of a total of 234,682 that sat for the examination. Similarly, 12,197 candidates representing 5.2% passed with five credits and above irrespective of subjects, 245,157 candidates registered for the examination out of which 234,682 sat for the examination. Ojerinde (2004) declared that the standard has not fallen but the inputs into the system were defective and susceptible to manipulation. This was corroborated by Peleyeju (2008) who said that the quality of an output cannot supersede the quality of its inputs. Ogomudia (2008) was of the view that the standard of education has fallen to an unacceptable level while Ezekwesili (2006) described this as crisis situation. Awodiji (2006) submitted that the bad shape of the Nigerian educational system was part of the reasons why graduates cannot get jobs because many of them are unemployable. Educational institutions nowadays, irrespective of the level, are not only facing complex managerial problems, they have become complex themselves (Erwat, 2003). In a similar vein, Nwankwo (1985) reported that modern educational system like other modern social and economic systems have become increasingly complex. The complexity of educational system and particularly the institutions in Nigeria and other developing countries tend to be characterised by such phenomena as high students’ population, diversities in dimension and direction of programmes and procedures, human, material and financial resources. The core of the above list of complex variables could be linked to the way and manner our educational system is funded. This is a major challenge to good quality education in Nigeria. 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Among the levels of education in Nigeria, the uniqueness of secondary education enables it to occupy a privileged position both in content and structure in the Nigerian educational system. At this level, the present and future students of higher education are selected and taught essential foundational skills. Students are admitted as children and developed into adults before they leave and whatever experience gained and skills inculcated in them by their teachers usually influence the rest of their lives. It is at this level too that students consolidate whatever basic knowledge they were exposed to in primary school and at the same time acquire a common culture that would enable them be useful citizens in the society. It is on this premise that secondary education is regarded as fundamental and far more important than any other tier in the Nigerian educational system. This assertion was upheld during the Organisation of African Unity Conference of Ministers of Education held in Harare in March 1999 as well as the consortium on secondary education organised by UNESCO in June of the same year. It was agreed that since this level of education plays a vital role in regulating the educational system, the need to overhaul and re-organise the system becomes necessary. Similarly, the World Bank declared in December 2001 that, secondary education had been re-designed to have a global focus by integrating environment, human rights, drug addiction, poverty, unemployment and HIV into its curriculum. David, Abdurrahman, Sarah and Kayode (2007) reported that there were over 10,349 public secondary schools with students’ enrolment of over 6.4million in Nigeria. Over the years, the proportion of financial resources committed to education by different tiers of government was far below the UNESCO recommendation of 26% of the annual budget. Afe (2006) argued that funding of education has been in response to conditionalities imposed by world financial institutions; whereas statistics have shown that the federal government expenditure on education between 1997 and 2000 was below 10% of overall expenditure. Figures from the Federal Government budget from 1958 revealed fluctuation in the percentage of the total budget devoted to education. It was 5.91% in 1958, 4.88% in 1967; it increased to 8.71% in 1976, 11.44% in 1978, and subsequently declined to 10.28% in 1998, 8.36% in 2000 and 8.09% in 2007 (Obadara and Alaka, 2010). Asaolu (2010) observed that the budgetary allocation to education had always been viewed as meagre, which, between 1999 and 2007, fluctuated from 5.09% to 11.83% of the national budget and it was late President Yar’adua who succeeded in raising the budget to 13% in 2008, a percentage which was sustained in the 2009 budget. Fagbamigbe (2006) and Akinnosa (2008) contended that less than 8% of the annual 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY budget is allocated to education while Fabunmi (1997) reported that the proportion of recurrent expenditure that was spent on education fluctuated and dropped over the years and range from 10% to 30%. Obemeata (1995) pointed out that the Federal Government of Nigeria expended a high proportion of its resources on education and this was done to sustain the standard and build human capital for the present and future benefits of the nation at large Babangida (1989) and Obasanjo (2006) identified poor funding as the major cause of failure of community education and Universal Primary Education in Nigeria. Eliezer (2004) examined the capabilities of the Nigerian Government to deliver Universal Basic Education (UBE) and observed that state governments have been expending money without reference to the budget and to ensure that fund released for education gets to its destination, a very good financial mechanism for controlling expenditure should be put in place at all levels of government. The researcher reported that the same mechanisms were not being properly used and actual control of expenditure had been very weak. Funding of education has become a major concern to the entire stakeholders in the educational sector. Omole (1995) called for a national conference to discuss the problems of education in Nigeria and recommend sustainable ways to funding it. He stressed that the conference delegates should comprise representatives of the students, stakeholders in education institutions, parents, employers, professional bodies, government and trade unions. Abdu (2003) efforts be made to find appropriate modalities for financing of education gave rise to many commissions such as: Sidney Phillipson commission of 1942 on the funding of primary and secondary education in Nigeria; Ashby report of 1960; Ogundeko report of 1978 on university finance; Cookey report of 1981; Eke commission report of 1983, Fafunwa report of 1984 on the funding of education; World Bank reports of 1980 and 1981 on higher education; and ETSU Nupe report of 1996. There were workshops such as 1992 national workshops on funding of education; 2001 higher education summit; 2006 private-public partnership workshop on funding of education; and 2007 northern forum workshop on funding of education. The Nigeria educational system has suffered untold hardship as a result of underfunding of the system. There are identical problems of inadequate infrastructure, demoralisation of teachers, lack of discipline in schools, dilapidated classrooms, dearth of books and equipment, unqualified teachers, high student/teacher ratio, overpopulation, inadequate staffing, agitation for special salary scale by teachers, delay in payment of 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY salary, decay of infrastructure, poor management in terms of supervision and inspection, brain drain, population explosion, lack of motivation on the part of instructional and non instructional staff, crowded classrooms, lack of instructional aids, lack of recreational facilities, under nourishment, inadequate training and development for staff and dearth of statistics. All these inherent problems caused by underfunding of the education system have undesirable effects on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Fafunwa (2008) noted that the Nigerian students have suffered under the burden of dilapidated infrastructure, ill-motivated teaching staff, retrogressive academic curriculum and total absence of technology resources at all levels of the Nigerian academic institutions. The yearly budgetary allocations from the state governments had proved to be inadequate to cater for the survival of the system. The educational system has been politicised and free education remains the central focus of political campaigns and manifestoes; political agitations and personal ambitions have beclouded attempts to source funds through school fees and other levies. Hence, there is the need for mobilisation of funds to supplement the available budgetary allocations. It is incumbent on the headships of various schools to design strategies such as educational levies, sales of farm produce, inter-house competition levy and donations from old students’ association to generate funds both internally and externally. Notably, their capacity to mobilise funds is limited by the internal control, accountability and political factors in the sense that many state governments have instructed heads of various schools not to charge student extra fee for political gain. Despite these instructions, the principals of many secondary schools still design revenue generation strategies to pay for instance, part-time teachers’ salaries, general maintenance and repair, provision of infrastructure and other basic needs of the schools. Adetoye (1998), in his study of 50 secondary schools on the sources of revenue besides the state government grants, found that other sources of school income include: Parents Teachers Association contributions, school fees, sales of school handicraft, proceeds from school farms, school harvest and bazaar. He further submitted that 90% of the respondents contended that schools have realised substantial amount of money from above sources but financial support from the Alumni association, staging of plays, philanthropic organizations, religious organizations and influential community members have provided very little. Many people believe that the fundamental reason for repeated poor students’ achievement in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY was the improper mobilisation, allocation, utilisation of funds and failure to curb wastages. If the funds allocated were well-utilised, they would improve students’ performance. Nowadays, there is gross mismanagement and diversion of available resources while management and administration remain inefficient. Ojo, Bamidele and Odunlami (1997) observed that educational financing is affected by inefficient resource use. Without adequate fund mobilisation and efficient allocation, other resources cannot be made available. The provision of human and material resources is a function of financial availability. FRN (2004) averred that secondary education is recognised as the third level of Nigerian educational system. It has its broad objectives spelt out within the overall national objective. This level of education has been programmed to achieve the following objectives in Nigeria as contained in the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004): i) Provide an increasing number of primary school pupils with the opportunity for education of a higher quality, irrespective of sex, social, religious and ethnic background; ii) Diversify its curriculum to cater for the differences in talent, opportunities and roles possessed by or open to students after their secondary school course; iii) Equip students to live appropriately in our modern age of science and technology; iv) Develop and protect Nigerian culture, art and languages as well as the world's cultural heritage; v) Raise a generation of pupils who can think for themselves, respect the views of others; and vi) Inspire students with a desire for achievement and self-improvement both at school and in later life However, as important as this level of education is in the Nigerian education system, the performance can only be measured by the success of graduates produced. The poor performance of students at this level in their school subjects over the years could be attributed to inability to inject and mobilise enough funds into the system to sustain the needs of secondary education. The problem of inadequate funding of secondary education had attracted attention of stakeholders in the educational sector prior to Nigeria’s independence in 1960. This 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY has created more problems that can only be solved by prioritising education during the yearly budgetary allocation to the various sectors of economy. It is against this backdrop that this study focused on fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools Statement of the Problem It is a general belief among scholars that school inputs are fundamental key measures of their outputs. These school inputs can be measured monetarily and non- monetarily. The monetary inputs are the budgetary allocations to education by the governments and funds generated to supplement the available budgetary provision, whereas, non-monetary inputs include students’ socio-economic status, family background and attitude towards education. Both monetary and non-monetary inputs have an impact on students’ achievement (Betts, 1996; Hanushek,1997; Levin and Kelly, 1994). The level of students’ achievement becomes the criterion by which money and other resources are allocated to schools. Nevertheless, the distribution of educational resources could lead to different levels of achievement. Xinyi (2006) stated that improper allocation of educational resources may negatively influence the efficiency of the system, insufficient information from which to derive policies could lead to improper allocation of resources, while inaccurate measuring of educational inputs could lead to a waste of investment. Also, the restriction placed by state governments is a great limitation to the revenue generation ability of the school principals. A visit to secondary schools in Nigeria revealed their regrettable, devastating and disheartening state. The buildings are going through different stages of dilapidation; members of staff are ill-motivated due to late payment of salaries or sometimes non- availability of salaries, dearth of instructional staff due to brain drain, disproportionate student/teacher ratio and lack of instructional materials among other factors. All these problems are due largely to underfunding of the system. This without doubt has tremendous effects on the overall achievement of students in public examinations. Students’ achievement is the only yardstick that could be used to measure the standard of education and ascertain whether the funds allocated and mobilised are well utilised or not. Eliezer (2004) and Obasanjo (2006) claimed that inadequate funding and lack of appropriate audit mechanism are some of the major factors leading to poor students’ achievement and failure of educational programmes. There have been 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY differences in students’ achievement across secondary schools in Nigeria. Dahar, Iqbal, Dahar and Fayyaz, (2010) submitted that the effect of expenditure on students’ achievement depends on how the money is spent, not on how much money is spent. In the same vein, Rao, Naidu and Rohana (2008) posited that it is not the size of the budgetary allocation that is pertinent but how the fund allocated is managed and utilised in order to bring about desired result. Corroborating Adedeji (1998) and Rao et al (2008) assertions Dahar et al (2010) submitted that some principals have achieved impressive success level with limited resources at their disposal while others have recorded low levels of success in schools with abundant financial resources. It was against this background that this study investigated the relationship among fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria between 2001 and 2005. Research Questions In view of the highlighted problems, this study provided answers to the following research questions: 1) What was the trend in yearly financial allocation to education from 2001 to 2005 in Nigeria? 2) What was the trend in yearly financial allocation to secondary education from 2001 to 2005 in Nigeria? 3) What was the percentage of students’ achievement in public secondary schools at WASSCE in the six geo-political zones in Nigeria? 4) What was the student/teacher ratio in public secondary schools in Nigeria from 2001 to 2005? Objectives of the Study The broad objective of the research is to analyse the relationship among fund mobilisation, allocation and utilization as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools.The specific objectives of this study are to investigate: 1. The budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria from 2001-2005; 2. The budgetary allocation to public secondary education in Nigeria from 2001- 2005; 3. The relationship between student/teacher-ratio and students’ achievement in secondary schools; 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. If financial allocation to secondary schools in Nigeria and fund utilisation have influence on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria; 5. If mobilisation of funds influences students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Significance of the Study The results of this study would be a useful guide to local, state and federal governments in giving priority to the educational sector during the yearly budgetary allocation to various sectors of the economy. It would also enable governments see the necessity of allocating enough funds to education and its agencies. This study would broaden the ideas of educational planners and policymakers in the educational sector on the need to allocate more funds to improve students’ achievement. The study output would equally serve as an eye-opener for the principals of secondary schools on various ways to generate funds internally and externally to improve students’ achievement in their respective schools Further, the study would enable the three levels of governments to be better informed and appreciate the need to allocate enough funds to all levels of education and its agencies. The findings should be a veritable guide to government on the need to put in place good audit mechanism to prevent misuse and diversion of financial resources allocated to the sector. The principals of secondary schools and headships of other educational agencies would be well-informed on the efficient use of available resources to realise students’ achievement premised on the expected discourse from the study. It would guide all levels of government on the need to empower all principals to explore necessary avenues available to them to generate funds. Scope of the Study The study investigated fund mobiliation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. The study covered six states in the six geo-political zones in Nigeria (Lagos, Enugu, Bauchi, Nazarawa, Akwa- Ibom and Kano) and students’ results of West Africa Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) conducted by West African Examinations Council (WAEC) for the period of five years, 2001-2005. The WASSCE and National Examination Council’s 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Examination results are the acceptable qualifications that could be used by secondary school graduates to gain admission into higher institutions and for the purpose of employment in Nigeria. Operational Definition of Terms For the purpose of clarity, the terms and concepts used in this study were operationally defined as follows: Fund Allocation Fund allocation is the yearly budgetary financial allocation to education by the state government. It comprises current and capital expenditure. Fund Mobilisation Fund mobilisation is the additional fund generated by the Principals of secondary schools to augment government allocation and the availability and the size depends on the revenue generation capacity of the school principals. The different areas from which this could be derived include: government educational grants, subventions, philanthropists’ gifts, donations, school fees, levies, gifts and other sources available to the school for the realisation of good students’ achievement. Fund Utilisation For the purpose of this study, fund utilisation entails the level of use of available fund for the purpose of improving students’ achievement in public secondary schools Students’ achievement This is the level of achievement by the students in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) conducted by West African Examination Council. Teacher – Student Ratio This is the total number of students in the sampled schools divided by the total number of teachers. Student – Class Ratio This is the total number of students in the sampled schools divided by the total number of classes. Budget Budget is the detailed estimate of recurrent and capital expenditure devoted by state governments to secondary education for a period of time, usually a year. 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Capital Expenditure This constitutes funds set aside or spent for the acquisition of machinery, equipment and structures like office accommodation. Capital expenditure, for the purpose of this study, constitutes expenditure on building, pipe-borne water and accommodation for both teaching and non-teaching staff, provision of chairs and desks for students and teachers. Recurrent Expenditure This constitutes government spending on wages and salaries of civil servants and the general maintenance of public service and property. For the purpose of this study, recurrent expenditure constitutes the amount state governments pays as salaries to teaching and non teaching staff in secondary schools. Secondary Education Secondary education is that which education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary stage. For the purpose of this research work, secondary education excludes teachers training and technical colleges. Public Secondary Schools These are secondary Schools under the control of state governments in Nigeria. It excludes private secondary schools, Federal government colleges, Command schools, Air-force and Police secondary Schools under the control of the Federal Government of Nigeria. 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Educational resources are indispensable to the survival and growth of educational institutions. These resources in whatever form they are determine the success or otherwise of every school and student. This chapter presents a review of existing literature related to this present study. The review focuses on the following: (1) Studies on Fund Allocation in Education (2) Studies on Fund Mobilisation (3) Studies on Students’ Achievement (4) Fund Allocation and Students’ Achievement (5) Fund Utilisation and Students’ Achievement (6) Appraisal of Literature (7) Theoretical Framework Studies on Fund Allocation in Education Financial resource is regarded as an important input in the development of any educational system. It is a global word that embraces the totality of everything that produces all that goes into the system as inputs to facilitate educational system objectives and enhance students’ achievement. FRN (2004) recognised the fact that education is an expensive social service that requires adequate financial provision from all tiers of government for a successful implementation of educational programmes. Onwiodokit and Tule (2003) reported that financing of education was among the emerging issues in current educational policy in Nigeria. This was so because many of the problems of schools today are related to financing. There has been no agreement on where the financing of education should lie. Some believe education should be the responsibility of the beneficiaries. 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY However, poor financing has been identified as the bane of education in Nigeria. Like any other African country, government is the major provider of education at all levels. Isma’ll (2001) observed that the quality and quantity of the educational system largely depend on the availability and management of the financial resources. Hans (1961) linked the quality and structure of educational systems to the percentage of national revenue spent on education. According to him, the percentage of national revenue spent on education and the system of grants adopted by the government are all reflected in the quality of educational system. The federal allocation to education often appears staggering though always a far cry from the 26% of the budget suggested by United Nation Education Scientific Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) for education. It has been argued that there has to be a change in attitude of governments towards the funding of education generally, and secondary education in particular. The Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) contended that while an average of 11% had been reserved for education by past military regimes, the Obasanjo civilian government had allocated only 7% to education in 2001 annual budget. Regular and prolonged strikes of teaching and non-teaching staff in all segments and levels of the education system, most especially the higher education sector are clear manifestations of inadequate financial provisions for education (The Academic Staff Union of Universities, 2000) while Nwagwu (1982) attributed inadequate provision of funds to lack of political will and ill-advised determination of priorities by governments, rather than shortage of national funds. Nwagwu (2003) declared that one impressive feature of educational institutions in Nigeria since independence has been the unusual increase in the number of the students and students’ population. He advised that for this magnitude of expansion and development to be effective, there must be massive investment of resources in form of funds allocation. However, all indicators pointed to a consistent gross underfunding of the school system. The researcher further reported that this serious shortfall and inadequacies in educational funding manifest in over-crowded classrooms, ill-equipped workshops, libraries and laboratories where they exist at all. We also have a lot of indiscipline, frequent strike actions, decline productivity due to low morale and lack of job satisfaction among school personnel as well as non-conducive learning environment for students. Adeogun and Osifila (2006) examined the adequacy of educational resources for quality assurance in public Colleges of Education in Nigeria using Pearson Product 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Moment Correlation Co-efficient to test the hypotheses postulated for the study. The study found that there was adequacy of funds in Colleges of Education and revealed further that there was a significant relationship between educational resources and quality assurance in Colleges of Education. A Panel data from African countries from 1998-2002 were used to study the relationship between government expenditure on education enrolments with illustration from SANE countries which comprise South Africa, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt at the primary and secondary school levels (John and Andrew, 2007). The results showed that government expenditure on education has a positive and significant direct impact on primary and secondary education enrolment rates. Oguntoye (1983) conducted a study on performance predictor in 46 secondary schools that participated in WAEC examinations in 1977 in Ogun State. He used Stepwise regression analysis to analyse the hypothesis, which stated that finance was positively related to the quality of education in the Nigerian secondary school system. The researcher found that recurrent expenditure on maintenance and repairs correlates positively with the quality of secondary education in Ogun state. He concluded that the major variables that determine the rate of educational development include students, curriculum, personnel, physical facilities and finance. Omoregie (1993), Oni (1995), and Fabunmi (1997) in their different studies showed that resources are indispensable to daily running of the educational system. Oni (1995) was of the opinion that resources constitute a very important factor in the functioning of the educational system. This is because, the success or otherwise of the system depends solely on manpower and material made available to it. Omoregie (1981) and Fabunmi (1997) agreed that resources used in school were made up of what is invested in the schooling process and these are the pupils, facilities, the finance and curriculum. Many parents/guardians who can afford the fees in private primary and secondary schools prefer them to public schools. This is due to the poor quality of instruction in these schools. Many public schools have grossly inadequate physical, material and human resources needed to give quality service. This problem he asserts arose from the age-long neglect of the public schools system through inadequate funding of education (Alani, 2005). Similarly, Ukeje (1991) is of the opinion that most of our educational institutions are sub-standard largely because of poor financing. He concluded that education is the key that unlocks the door to modernization. But the quality and efficiency of the key depends largely on its design and fabrication, both functions of 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY financial provision. There cannot be any worthwhile quality education without adequate funding Longe (1985) investigated the factors influencing current cost of secondary education in Oyo state of Nigeria. The researcher established functional relationship between unit cost and factors which influence cost of education like student-teacher ratio, average teacher salary, enrolment and school size. The study showed that student- teacher ratio contributed the highest to unit cost, followed by average teacher salary and enrolment while school size had no significant effect on unit cost. Fuller (1986) pointed out that expenditure per student is of little effect compared to that of the total school expenditure because the total school expenditure indicates the level of allocation to books, instructional materials and other inputs directly linked to instructional process such as teacher quality. The International Monetary Fund (2006) reported on transfer of fund of real resource to developing countries as part of its action plan on Education for All (EFA), that a country’s financial efforts for education has major implications for system’s coverage, equity and quality. Uzoka (1998) carried out a study on Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of secondary education system in Lagos state using stratified random sampling technique to select seven out of fifteen educational districts in the State. The researcher discovered that there was no marked difference in fund allocation to secondary schools from year to year. Secondary schools in the rural areas were more cost-effective than those in urban areas. There was no significant difference in the academic performance of schools in the states. There were variations in educational expenditure in secondary schools and adequacy of resource was strongly related to the academic performance of students in Senior School Certificate Examination. Hincheliffe (2002), Benniell (2006), D’souza (2006) in their various studies analysed public spending on education. They commented on the difficulty in obtaining accurate data on finance due largely to poor record keeping, concern over the possible use of the information and complexity of financing with allocations and expenditure at the Federal, State and Local Government levels. David et al (2007) in his study estimated that between 1998 and 2001 the total government expenditure rose from 14.2% to 17.5% of total Federal Government expenditure. Data were not available to examine overall public expenditure since 2001. However, D’souza (2006) claimed there had been significant increase in federal funding of Universal Basic Education and that 2% of the Consolidated Revenue Fund had been 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY committed to supporting the implementation of UBE at state level and in 2005 N27.8billion was appropriated. Allocation under the UBEC intervention fund was divided among Early Childhood Care Education (5%), Primary Education (60%) and Junior School (30%), Infrastructure (70%), Textbooks (15%) and Teacher Development (15%). Okebukola (1995) claimed during the convocation lecture at the Federal College of Education Abeokuta, that the Gross National Product (GNP) per capita for Pre- primary Schools and the first Level of education (Primary School) was 0.14 in Nigeria, whereas in countries such as Mali, the GNP was 0.39, Ethiopia 0.29 and Denmark 0.41. Victor (2005) buttressed this claimed in his submission that the percentage of Gross National Product devoted to education in Nigeria was 0.76% whereas in Angola it was 4.9%, Cote d’ivoire 5%, Ghana 5.5%, Malawi 5.4%, Mozambique 4.1%, Kenya 6.5%, South Africa 7.8% and Tanzania 3.4% Similarly, Mary and Nina (2001) in their studies investigated the use of public expenditure as a percentage of GNP and public expenditure as indicators to show the extent to which government gave priorities to education using Russia, China and other countries of the world between 1985 and 1997. The researchers found that public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP in China was 2.3% and this was considered too low, whereas in Russia the proportion of GNP consumed by Education in 1995 was 3.5% It was pointed out at Ahmadu Bello University convocation lecture that the Federal Government of Nigeria attached importance to education and this was demonstrated by according the educational sector the largest share of the budget among the Ministries, Departments and Agencies in year 2006 budgetary allocation (Okonjo- Iweala, 2006). She claimed, government has since 2003 increased spending on education and in 2006 education attracted N166 billion representing 11% of the total budget while federal expenditure on education increased by 300% since 1990. This huge increase facilitated increased spending on infrastructure for education, delivering new schools and improving facilities such as classrooms, libraries, toilets for female students and about N5 billion was allocated to building and equipping of schools in the same year. Ekezie (1997) in his study confirmed that in the former Western and Eastern regions, funding of education accounted for 82.2% and 78.0% respectively of the total expenditure between 1955 and 1962. He stressed that as a result of inadequacy of educational funding in most states of the federation, the federal government promulgated 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY National Primary Education Decree 31 of 1988. The decree established the National Primary Education Fund which should be deducted directly from the Federal Government share of the Federation Accounts. The allocation of the fund was based on the following percentage: Federal Government 65% as cost of primary education teachers and non-teachers’ salaries while the balance of 35% was to be distributed on the basis of student/teacher ratio and year of establishment. Edukugbo (2004) expressed dissatisfaction with the allocation to education and claimed that the vote cannot adequately tackle the decay and rot in the system. Bassey (2003) investigated certain social and economic factors which influence the cost of education in funding of Universal Basic Education Schooling System. He found that boarding system in government secondary schools in Nigeria imposed financial burden on government. Similarly, Ajetomobi and Ayanwale (2005) investigated education allocation, unemployment and economy growth in Nigeria from 1970-2004. They pointed out that one of the approaches the government adopts in financing education in Nigeria is through the annual budgetary allocation to the sector which was distributed as subvention or grants to the different levels of education. The researchers found that education allocation as a percentage of the total budget ranged from 3.3% in 1986 to 9.88% in 1999 and a close look at the distribution shows that the pattern of government budgetary allocation to education as a percentage of total budget was not consistent. Instead of maintaining an increasing proportion of the yearly budget, it has been largely fluctuating since the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986. The researchers submitted that government funding is unstable and unpredictable. Capital and recurrent funding since 1970 were only a very small fraction of the nation’s budget while total enrolment contrasts sharply with the level of employment because government could not limit enrolment to a level which fund made available could adequately cater for and the proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) that went to education was very low. They recommended among others, that diversification of funding by governments should be based on actual needs of the educational sector. The Central Bank of Nigeria (2000) was of the opinion that poor financial investment has been very low compared to others and the federal government allocation to education has declined steadily since 1990 and was much lower than the average in the last five years of military rule. Similarly, Keiichi (2004) who investigated the Influence of public expenditure, resource management on Education and discovered that in many sub-Saharan African countries a large proportion of government expenditure 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY was used for recurrent items and among the recurrent expenditure about 90% was used for teachers and non-teachers salaries and 10% is allocated to quality improvement measure such as teaching and learning materials. In the same vein, Idumange (2009) at the lecture delivered to mark the International literacy day on Empowerment Support Initiative informed that Nigerian educational System had been rubbished with the children sitting on bare floor with the teacher teaching without chalkboard. He attributed the cause of this problem to failure of the government to invest in education. He pointed out that the Nigerian government had not invested up to 13% of its yearly budget on education. Onuka (2007) believed that providing quality education for the citizenry is a must, yet there cannot be quality education for the citizenry without adequate funding. He stated that, it seems impossible to determine the pattern of funding allocation, thus, confirming the finding of Onuka (2004) that even government officials are unable to ascertain the actual amount of funds they allocate to universities. In the same vein, Ojo, Odunlami and Bamidele (1997) observed that education financing is affected by inefficient resource use and factors such as over-invoicing of equipment and materials, proliferation of education support services, agencies as well as educational institutions and courses of study at the tertiary level have affected education financing. In the case of education parastatal/agencies, undue multiplicity of these agencies has taken up sizeable portion of the resources available to the system, therefore, little is left for educating the people. Fabunmi (1997) confirmed that a great proportion of what is allocated to education is spent on things that were not directly related to actual teaching and learning in schools. Chuta (1995) during his presentation on funding of education in a recession argued that government could be relieved of the burden of funding by adopting a market- oriented approach in delivering essential services. This aim at improving the overall efficiency of the educational system. Adesina (1985) was of the opinion that finance causes the biggest headache for every university administrator in Nigeria. Funds are needed for salaries of academic staff to build and maintain infrastructure, conduct research and sponsor fellowship. Odekunle (2001) observed that financing of Nigerian education system has reached a crisis point. Governments do not seem to be able to make adequate provisions for capital development in the various educational institutions. Classrooms accommodation, students’ hostels and staff quarters do not seem to be adequate. All these were as a result 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of biting effects of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and Foreign Exchange Market (FEM). Odekunle (2001) reported that the deficiency in infrastructural development in Nigerian Universities is due largely to low financial allocation which has created problems in the area of accommodation, reduction in space per student, dilapidated classrooms laboratories, and library facilities. Ekpo (1991) concluded in his investigation that, in Nigeria the massive set-back in social expenditure including the support for education had been drastically reduced. Ipaye (1995) buttressed this assertion that there was widespread cry that funding of education was poor, financial allocation to education was low and education was a consumption item and capital intensive. In any capital intensive venture, if the entrepreneur fails to put in enough capital, no matter how much he had earlier put in, it would not show and it would be as if he had not started at all. Famade (1999) claimed that financial resource to allocation in terms of percentage share to education fluctuated over the years. The President of on-Academic Staff Union of Universities and Associated Institutions at a Trade group meeting held in Yobe State, Nigeria, described education sector as a key factor in the development of Vision 2020 agenda and called on the Federal Government to urgently improve on the level of funding of education sector. He stressed that the previous administration starved public institutions with necessary fund in order to kill them for their private institutions to boom (Khirim, 2009). Studies on Fund Mobilisation In order for a school to effectively realise its objective, there is need to provide combination of trained and talented personnel, adequate, attractive and conducive learning environment and state-of-the-earth learning equipment in the right proportion. To realise this, there is need to adequately support and augment the limited financial resources made available to education by the tiers of government. Article (9) of 1990 on World Declaration on Education For All by 2015 emphasised that if the basic learning needs are to be met through a much broader scope of action than in the past, it would be essential to mobilise existing and new financial, human , physical, material resources, public, private and voluntary agencies. Jaiyeoba (1999) carried out a study on the impact of National Policy on Education on secondary school administration in Oyo State. She observed that administrators should find ways of acquiring physical facilities and also 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY maintain them so that teachers and students would stay in adequately furnished, well- ventilated and spacious classrooms so that they could perform to their maximum. She concluded that inadequate finance would affect the purchase of equipment necessary for instructional materials hence, the school administrators may not likely perform to their maximum. Education has been regarded as a spender rather than a collector of fund. A great administrative efforts are needed to ensure that spending is wisely spread out toward students’ achievement of stated educational goal. There are various ways financial resources could be mobilized. These are in form of fees and taxes by parents which include tuitions, boarding fees, local government grants to schools, equipment fees, caution fees, library and laboratory fees, sales of school farm products, sale of handicraft, donations and endowments and contributions by local companies and industries. Education is considered as investment and efforts must be made to ascertain that those managing the education enterprise especially secondary schools can reasonably ensure that educational outcomes justify that huge financial investment (Adesina, 1980). Oguntoye and Alani (1998) asserted that fund came from home mission of the churches, donations by individuals, sales of farm products. They explained that state secondary schools were equally financed by state government with little or no assistance from the Federal government especially before the establishment of Petroleum Trust Fund. Secondary schools were supported by parents and other private contributions (PTA), old students’ association, philanthropists and other activities embarked upon by the school. In the same vein, Adesina (1985) summarised various sources of funding open to secondary education as community efforts, property tax, flat school tax, fund raising, business tax and sales tax. Various types of loans which could be used as innovations for removing financial burden from government have been identified by Chuta (1995) which he referred to as students’ loan, loan for teachers, loans for book publishing, interest charge on educational loan, project finance, equipment and leasing. Large number of students now pay high fees for various market-driven degree programmes like banking, marketing, accounting and personnel management. However, the sudden explosion in the intake of students has had serious consequences. But universities have also contributed to the crises in a number of ways. In the first place, the universities responded to the dearth of funds by devising various ingenious means of mobilising funds. Many Universities have launched numerous mouth watering degree programmes in order to attract students who 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY are charged outrageous fees. Programmes in labour and industrial relations, banking and finance, counselling, personnel, including managerial psychology, secretarial studies that are ostensibly dubbed professional courses have been launched in various universities. Ayeni (2007) informed that Universities have devised means of collecting fees/levies from their students to serve as additional fund. He explained further that the fees charged on postgraduate students have increased astronomically while non-degree programmes have also attracted high fees. Aina (2007) recorded that the fees collected under different guises at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife between 1990 and 1995 was N1.4 million while the University of Ibadan realised N7.86 million from 1990-1996. The University of Lagos boasted a very buoyant revenue base, generated especially from non–degree and postgraduate programmes and other investments. In 1995/96 academic sessions University of Lagos recorded about N49.6 million, University of Ibadan and Obafemi Awolowo University introduced N8,000.00 as fees/levies for fresh students which was met with stiff opposition. Erinosho (2009) observed in his paper on the quality of Nigeria private Universities that available reports contain suggestions on how to generate funds for university education. Perhaps, the most articulate paper on financing options is by Ukeje (2002) which outlines the following as important sources of funds for running universities: education tax fund, fees, loans to students, transfer of municipal services to government, private sector contributions, funds from alumni association and rationalisation of programmes including scholarships for brilliant and/or poor students. Obikoya (2002) also outlined the effects of under-funding of university education. The response of the authorities of the institutions to the funding crises has been to massif university education through the introduction of wide-raging off-campus and/or extramural diploma and degree programmes. Lawal (2007) conducted a study on Managerial Efficiency and Fund Generation Capacity as correlates of Resources Utilisation in Public Secondary Schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area of Oyo State. The researcher used chi-square to analyse and test the hypotheses. The results of the investigation showed significant relationship between managerial efficiency and resource utilisation level. It also revealed significant relationship between fund generation capacity of the principal and resource utilisation. Murname and Levy (1996) in their study on the effect of school resources on students’ achievement and adult success in 15 schools in Texas, found that availability of extra resources does not equal greater students’ achievement. The effects of school funding on 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY students’ achievement of California School Districts using regression analysis was examined by Charlene (2006). The researcher found that increase in the revenue limit actually led to slight decrease in students’ achievement as measured by academic performance indicator score. Also, increase in federal revenue is more effective in improving students’ achievement while money earmarked by the state government result in a negative effect on students’ achievement. Jefferson (2005) examined the impact of school districts revenues and expenditure on student performance. The researcher clarified that not all spending on instruction was of equal worth in promoting high students’ achievement. The researcher found that funding affects students’ achievement and sources of funding are more effective in producing desired outcomes. Studies on Students’ achievement Students’ achievement has been of great concern to educationist throughout the world. It has been the subject of discussion among scholars. It is the most vital policy and educational indicator stakeholders are interested in. Xinyi (2006) informed that students’ achievement has been a subject of national case studies and comparative studies between countries since the beginning of educational theory. Adedeji (1998) stated in his study that students’ achievement is very important because it appears to be the major criterion by which the effectiveness and success of any educational institution could be judged. Aremu (2001), while stressing the importance of academic performance in the educational system, stated that academic performance is the fundamental criterion by which all teaching–learning activities are measured, using some standards of excellence and the acquisition of particular grades in examinations measures candidate’s ability, mastery of the content, skills in applying knowledge acquired to a particular situation. Several factors have highlighted the need to investigate the relationship between organisational behaviour and students’ achievement. Braxton and Brier (1989) suggested this approach as a way to make improvement through institutional changes. Kuth, Schuh and associates (1991) investigated the relationship between organisational behaviour and students’ achievement. They examined how organisational behavior could create effective out- of-classroom learning environments for students. They analysed the college environment of 14 institutions known for developing strategies within their institution and suggested how these strategies could be implemented at colleges and 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY universities. Bean (1983) surveyed 1,711 first year students and found a relationship between students’ perception of involvement and satisfaction. He found that students were satisfied with their college experience if they felt they could get involved in the academic and social life of the institution. An institution’s environmental variables have been found to affect students’ outcomes. Chapman and Pascarella (1983) explored the relationship between institutional type, size, academic and social integration in 11 institutions. They found that students enrolled in residential institutions were more likely to be involved academically and socially than their peers who attended commuter institutions. Students in large institutions were more involved socially in their institutions but had less contact with faculty than students in smaller institutions. Although it is difficult for institutions to change their size or shift from commuter to residential, this study suggests that institutional environment and behaviour do not impact student’s achievement Berger (1997) examined the relationship between organizational, community service and humanistic values, he verified that organisational behaviour is a critical framework in which to study students’ outcomes. Anderson, Benjamin and Fuss (1994), in their investigation of the determinants of success in University Introductory Economics course, concluded that students who had better scores in high schools also performed better in college, and men had better scores than women. Students’ achievement also depends on different socio-economic, psychological, environmental factors. It observed that student performance is affected by different factors such as learning abilities because new paradigm about learning assumes that all students can and should learn at higher levels but it should not be considered a constraint because there are other factors like race, gender, sex that can affect student’s performance (Hansen, 2000). Some of the researchers even tried to explain the link between students’ achievements, economic circumstances and the risk of becoming a drop-out that proved to be positive. Goldman, Haney, and Koffler (1988), Pallas, Natriello, McDill (1989) and Levin (1986) explained the effects of age, qualification and distance from learning place on student performance. The performance of students on the module is not affected by such factors as age, sex and place of residence but is associated with qualification in quantitative subjects. It was also found that those who lived near the university performed better than other students. Yvonne and Soyibo (1998) further stress that student achievement is very much dependent on socio economic background and high school students’ level of 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY performance had statistically significant differences if linked to their gender, grade level, school location, school type, student type and socio-economic background. In the same vein, Betts, Reuben and Danenberg (2000) posited that differences in students’ socio-economic background explained much of the variation in student achievement. Kirby et al. (2002) focused on student’s impatience that influences his own academic performance. George (2001) found that weak students do better when grouped with other weak students. While Zimmerman (2000) findings were somewhat contradictory to George (2001) results but should that students’ performance depends on number of different factors and that weak peers might reduce the grades of students. Zajonc’s (1976) analysis of older siblings showed that students’ performance improved if they were with the students of their own kind, Sacerdote (2001) found that grades are higher when students have unusually academically strong room-mates. Lane and Porch (2002) studied the factors affecting students’ performance on an introductory undergraduate financial accounting course and found that age and students attitude toward accounting have significant effect on students’ performance. While Karemera (2003) found that students’ performance is significantly correlated with academic environment and service received and found that the existence of professional development programmes and internship opportunities are associated with better academic achievement. Students’ previous schooling and the efforts they put into this schooling are taken into account to measure achievement. Carbonaro (2005) found that students in higher tracks put substantial more efforts into their studies than students in lower tracks and the differences in educational investment may be due to the students’ history of efforts and achievement as well as students’ experiences in their classes. A survey of 577 business students who had preferences for academic achievement at a major Australian university was carried out by (Guest, 2005). The finding showed that flexible learning, especially student-centre learning had impact on student achievement. Similarly, Nasri and Ahmed (2006) examined the factors that affected students’ performance at the College of Business and Economics at United Arab Emirate University. The result showed that the most important factor with positive effect on students’ performance was student’s competence in English and class participation. The result also showed that the most important factors that had negative effect on students’ performance were missing too many classes and credit hours achieved (progression of the students in his /her study plan). Finally, the analysis of the researchers shows that 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY non-national students outperformed national students and female students outperformed male students. Also, Olaleye (2003) carried out a study on some psycho-social determinants of secondary school female students’ performance in Mathematics. The researcher found that study habits were a fundamental psycho-social variable after class size that influenced performance in Mathematics. The study adopted ex-post-facto design with 1,146 female secondary school students in Oyo and Osun states respectively. The study concluded that study habit was an important variable contributing significantly to the prediction of performance in Mathematics with β = -0.052. Alabi (2008) examined school size and facility as correlates of Junior Secondary School students’ performance in Oyo State, Nigeria, with a sample size of 53 Junior secondary schools using standardised regression co-efficient to determine the relative contribution of the independent variables. The finding revealed that the provision and utilisation of certain facilities contributed greatly to junior secondary school students performance than some other facilities. The finding equally revealed that the provision of adequate staff room/office was an important factor towards teacher’s maximum performance which directly and positively influenced students’ performance. It was realised that the provision of facilities such as sitting and writing furniture go a long way in ensuring student’s high academic performance. Sitting arrangements of students in classrooms was found to be an important factor that could affect the performance of students. Tropping (1994) found that sitting at the back in the classroom and absence from classes negatively affects the performance of students. According to Tropping, an increase of 1% in absences would reduce the scores of the final examination by 0.034%. Habte (1988) observed that if a student develops negative attitude towards a course and/or towards the instructor from the beginning or before the beginning of the class, his/her performance in the course would be lowered. Tsige (2001) in her study on the performance of the freshman entrants 1998/99, to Addis Ababa commercial college found financial and personal problems such as lack of self- confidence, feeling of loneliness and adjustment to the situation in the college as factors affecting students’ performance. Fentaw (2001) investigated the comparative performance of the regular and quota entrants to higher education, indicated that the survival rate on the first year of the regular admission and quota admission students were 64% and 50% respectively. He also showed that the graduation rates of regular admission and quota admission of female students are 50% and 40% respectively. 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Several studies have also been carried out to address the differences in students’ achievement as it relates to gender. Pomerantz, Altermatt, and Saxon (2002) noted that one of the factors that may contribute to girls outperforming boys is the tendency for girls to try to please adults, such as parents and teachers. Boys do not share the same desire. Gentry, Gable and Rizza (2002) found that girls were typically more motivated to do well academically than boys. The authors also found that girls usually found classes to be more interesting than boys and boys have been known to dislike school in general. Akinyele (2007) investigated the effects of gender and school type factors on Nigerian Junior secondary school students’ performance in a science general aptitude test using a sample of 116 boys and 105 girls from federal, state and privately owned schools. Three null hypotheses were tested using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis statistical tools. The researcher found that the superiority of the students on aptitude measures were based on both the school type and gender factor. The researcher concluded that information about the school type membership and gender differences enhance their prediction of science performance of students and gender of the students was a significant factor in the overall performance. Thomas (2005) carried out a study on Teachers and Gender Gaps on Students’ achievement in United States of America. The results indicated that:-  Gender interactions between the teachers and students have statistical effects on diverse set of educational outcomes: test scores, teachers’ perception of students’ performance in academic engagement subjects;  Gender dynamics between teachers and middle school students have a substantial influence on several important educational outcomes;  Gender interactions between students and teachers constitute important environmental influence on educational outcomes;  Girls outperform boys in reading students’ achievement while generally boys underperform in science and mathematics; and In a 50-State survey, Darling-Hammond (2000) found that students’ demographic characteristics (poverty, minority status, and language background) are strongly related to their academic outcomes in reading and mathematics at the state level. In predicting students’ achievement levels, however, demographic features appeared less influential than teacher quality variables, namely, holding full certification and a major degree in the field. 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Foong (1992) in the study of factors influencing science learning outcomes for 14-years old Singaporean students’, attitude towards science, perception of science teachers, the classroom environment, the home environment, student motivation and peer influence, revealed that students’ attitudes towards science, peer influence, students’ motivation and classroom environment had more significance on students’ achievement. Similar study on performance predictor in science was conducted by Onocha (1995). The study involved 60 primary schools, 120 teachers, 1,400 pupils, 120 teachers and 60 headmasters in the former Bendel State using descriptive statistics, multiple regression and path analyses. The findings revealed that combination of all home and school variables when taken together effectively predicted pupils’ attitudes toward science and science students’ achievement. Hamilton (2000) reported that research on increasing overall spending, increasing technology, increasing hours and days of schooling, increasing testing, and reducing class size have yielded mixed results. The availability of strong school library media programme would lead to higher students achievement, regardless of social and economic factors in a community. A strong school library media was also found and confirmed to have strong link with students achievement as measured by scores on standardised tests. Lance, Maria and Hamilton (2000) found a positive and statistically significant correlation between the size of a school library staff, its collection, and test scores. Also Massachusetts study by Baughman (2000) demonstrated that schools with library programmes had higher scores on the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment Systems (MCAS) than schools without library programmes. This study listed the library variables that distinquished schools with higher and lower MCAS scores as hours of operation, book- per- student, periodicals, newspaper resources, presence of full time library, presence of support staff, availability of volunteers, students visit to the library per week and alignment with state curriculum resource. Uduh (2010), at a seminar presented on how to overcome candidates’ poor performance in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination in Nigeria which has been constantly poor and worrisome in recent years, identified the factors that were responsible for poor performance as students’ inadequate preparation, poor coverage of syllabuses, failure to adhere to instructions, lack of understanding of the demands of the questions due to poor reading culture, illegible handwriting, poor spelling and examination practice. The speaker expatiated that from various studies conducted by WAEC between 1999 and 2005, a number of factors were identified for 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY poor performance in examination as lack of preparation right from SS1, shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate facilities, lack of good school environment and students inability to understand questions and their absolute reliance on short notes. Adewunmi (2000), in his study on the relationship between supervisory climate and teacher – student performance in secondary schools in Oyo State, using Pearson Product Moment Correlation in his analysis established a significant positive relationship between supervisory climate and students’ performance. Park and Kerr (1990) found that attendance was a determinant of student performance in a money and banking course, although it was not as important as student’s Grade Point Average (GPA) and percentile rank on college entrance examinations. In contrast, Romer (1993) found that attendance did not contribute significantly to the academic performance of students enrolled in agricultural economics and agric-business course. Devadoss and Foltz (1995) investigated the issue of students’ attendance as it influences students’ academic performance and observed that the more classes attended by the students, the better their grades. While Durden and Ellis (1995) also buttressed the fact that, students’ absences had a significant, negative effect on their performance. Similarly, class factors are very important in the teaching and learning activities when students’ scholastic performance is considered. There is a consensus among the scholars, researchers and educationists that the lower the class size or teacher/pupil ratio, the better the performance of the students in the school. Many studies have pointed out the significance of teacher/student ratio (Ojoawo, 1989; Bolton, 1998; Johnson, 2000; Fabunmi, 2000; Fabunmi, Peter and Isaiah, 2007; Mantle and Marcus, 2008) Johnson (2000) used data from National Assessment of Education Progress reading test to establish the impact of small classes on students’ academic achievement. He found that being in a small class does not affect reading students’ achievement in any significant way. While Fabunmi and Okorie (2000) investigated the relationship between average class size and secondary school performance in Epe Local Government Area of Lagos State. The researchers used both Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Spearman Rank Correlation to test the only hypothesis formulated. When Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to test the hypothesis, the findings revealed a negative and low relationship while Spearman Rank Correlation revealed significant and positive relationship between average class size and students’ academic performance. 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The contradictory findings are likely to be as a result of two different methods of analysis used to test the hypothesis. Fabunmi, Peter and Isaiah (2007) examined class factor as a determinant of secondary school students’ academic performance in Oyo State between 1997 and 2002. The researcher used multiple regression and One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to test the two hypotheses at 0.05% level of significance. The findings revealed that the three class factors (class size, students classroom, class utilisation rate) when taken together, contributed significantly to secondary school students’ academic performance. These factors when taken separately, determined significantly secondary school students’ academic performance. According to Hanushek (1997), schools with small number of students per classroom performed poorer than those with large number of students per classroom. Stogdill (1959) and Kolawole (1982) agreed that the larger the class size, the lower the academic performance of students would tend to be. Some studies (Kruegger, 1999; Angrist and Lavy, 1999; Hanushek, Kain and Rivkin, 1998) found a positive link between smaller classes and students’ achievement. Wright, Hom and Sander (1997) investigated teacher and classroom context effect on students’ achievement and found that small class sizes in themselves do not lead to higher students’ achievement but the interaction effects are important. In the same vein, Hoxby (1998) used two quasi- experimental techniques in a panel framework to examine the influence of class size on test scores in Connecticut District Schools. The researcher found no significant impact of class size on students’ achievement. Wright et al (1997) used Tennessee Value Added Assessment System Database to conclude that class size in itself does not matter but the interaction of class size with other input factors have a significant effect on student outcome. It has been argued by Matile and Marcus (2008) that reduction of class size might improve academic achievement because they might benefit the interaction between the students and teachers while large class might be more prone to disruption and sharing of ideas among students because of the presence of many students who were ready to answer questions. It should be noted that reduction of class size can encourage individual attention from the teachers while large class due to population may discourage individual attention from the teacher, truancy among the students and peer group influence. A result of the test of relationship between teacher/student ratio and productivity in secondary schools in Ogun state showed a positive relationship and a co-efficient of 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 0.658 was obtained as the index of relationship (Famade, 1999). Adeogun (2001) examined the resource provision and utilisation in Lagos State Public secondary schools. All the 355 public secondary schools in the 20 Local Governments formed the population of the study. One hundred school principals were interviewed on the provision and utilisation of available resources in their schools. It was found that classrooms were inadequate in Lagos State public secondary schools. Class size was found to be 6 to a class; 24.8% of the teachers were qualified to teach the senior secondary school class; 75.2% of the teachers were not qualified; 55.8% were N.C.E. holders and were qualified to teach junior secondary school; teacher/student ratio was calculated to be 1:35; and classrooms, libraries, laboratories and teachers were perceived to be maximally utilised. Akinola (1999) investigated the impact of institutional resources, students’ characteristics on students’ performance in Secretarial studies in Nigerian Polytechnics using questionnaires and interview to elicit responses from 24 heads of department of secretarial studies, 120 lecturers and 720 Higher National Diploma students. The data were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics to determine the degree of relationships. The result obtained indicated positive relationship among institutional resources, students’ characteristics and their performance in secretarial subjects. It was also found that all the variables tested had significant impact on students’ performance in secretarial studies. Shodimu (1999) conducted a study on the relationship between resources (teacher quality, availability of classrooms, well equipped laboratories, libraries, workshops and academic learning time) and students’ academic performance in the secondary school examination in 1995 in both private and public schools in Lagos State. The researcher used stratified random sampling to select 35 public schools and 3 private secondary schools. He found that public secondary schools’ resources were over-utilised while private secondary schools under-utilised the resources. He found a significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and school’s productivity in term of students’ academic performance. He further found a statistically significant relationship between the quality of teachers, laboratories, workshops and academic learning time provided in the schools and school’s productivity. In the same vein, Famade (1999) found a significant relationship between personnel utilisation rate and productivity in secondary schools in Ogun state with a co- efficient of 0.864 obtained as index of the relationship. A comparison of the official 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY workload of teachers of core subjects such as English Language, Mathematics, Biology and Yoruba were in short supply, hence, the available ones were concentrated in the urban schools. Similarly, Fabiyi (2000) investigated the relationship between teaching resources and teaching effectiveness in selected Colleges of Education using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson Moment Product Correlation to test and analyse the hypotheses using expost facto research design. The researcher found that the Six-Colleges of Education varied in the level of adequacy of available physical and material resources. No significant relationship was found between adequacy and utilisation of available physical and material resources. The relationship between student achievement and teaching effectiveness was significant for Integrated Science and social studies, whereas in Mathematics, English language and technical education no such relationships were found. Cash (1993) developed a model to examine the relationship between building condition, students’ achievement and behaviour. The study identified identified the antecedents as the school leadership, financial ability, maintenance and custodial staff. These four antecedents provided a context for understanding the influences on overall building condition. Through their decisions and personal beliefs, school leaders influence multiple factors in school facilities and expenditures. Leaders who value facilities would give them a high priority. In the same vein, Hines’ (1996) study of large urban high schools in Virginia, USA also observed a relationship between building condition and students’ achievement. He explained that students’ achievement was as much as 11% points lower in sub-standard buildings. The importance of teacher’s quality has been recognised by most researchers. Leadership decisions are also affected by the availability of fund. The continuing pressure to control governmental spending while meeting rising costs influences all areas of school spending, including facilities. Leadership and financial ability in turn influence the work of personnel in charge of maintenance in school. Maintenance and custodial staff must work with the resources they are given and carry out the priorities set by school leaders. Their work in turn influences building conditions as well, based on the quality of work and tasks they are able to accomplish with the resources at their disposal. The resulting building condition flow from the interplay of these factors. The study explained that, the resulting building condition in turn influences students’ achievement both directly and indirectly. Indirect influence includes building 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY conditions on both faculty and parental attitudes which in turn influence student attitude. Student attitudes then influence students achievement and behaviour. Cash (1993) used regression analysis to compare students’ achievement score means to behaviour rating mean and achievement score mean to building age. He found that students’ scores on students’ achievement tests, adjusted for socio-economic status, were found to be up to five per-cent points lower in building with lower quality ratings. Poor students’ achievement was associated with specific building condition factors such as substandard science facilities, air conditioning, locker conditions, and classroom furniture. Education is the main access to national development and teachers constitute a very vital component of the system. Teachers occupy significant position in the school system. Though, learners are the central figure in the process but without teachers, teaching and learning activities cannot take place. Mkpa (2002) is of the opinion that teachers are the heart and soul of the educational enterprise while Molagun (2007) identifies teachers as the life wire of the school system. Otu (2006) considers teachers as the prime mover in the development of optimum condition for learning, A recent study by Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain (2005) estimated the variability of teacher’s quality within a school using the variability in students’ achievement for grade 4 through 7 in Texas. The study found that the variability of teachers’ quality within a school differed with the teachers’ experience but had little to do with their academic credentials. In the same vein, the Ministry of Education, New Zealand commissioned a group of researchers in 2007 to examine the impact of additional teaching staff on the improvement of students’ performance. The group found that the impact of students’ achievement on additional teaching resources of the magnitude provided through staffing is likely to be small. Mayer, Mullens and Moore (2000) in their research confirmed that capable teachers are the essential link between public aspirations for high quality schooling and students’ academic performance. According to a poll conducted in 1998, 90% of Americans believed the most important factor in improving students’ achievement is having well qualified teachers in every classroom (Sparks, 2000). Johnson and Immerwhar (1994) informed that America ranked ‘good teacher’ as the most important thing schools need in order to do a good job. Also, University of Minnesota in 1996, conducted a consensus process with over 200 Minnesotans who identified quality teaching as the most salient predictive indicator of success of their educational system (Bruininks, Bielinski, Danielson, 1996). According to Sanders (1999) the single biggest 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY factor affecting academic growth of any population of youngsters is the effectiveness of the individual classroom teacher. Ejiwe (1998) carried out a study on the impact of organisational quality on students’ academic performance in Delta state. The focus of his attention was on the quality of science and introductory technology infrastructures, facilities, and equipment available. The frequency of utilisation and the effect of the usage on student’s performance were looked into. The researcher used 27 secondary schools in the rural and urban areas of the state. There was a significant difference between the academic performance of students taught in schools where there were clear majority of professionally qualified teachers and in schools with clear majority of non graduates and non professional teachers. There was a positive relationship between frequency of utilisation of equipment in each subject and overall academic performance of the students. The number of physical structure such as laboratories, workshops and classrooms was far below the expected and required number. Some of the schools lacked laboratory facilities and equipment and most schools had no workshops. The number of qualified graduates professional teachers and instructors in the subjects was very few. Gbadamosi (2000) in his study found significant relationship between resource availability, utilisation and students’ academic performance. Ojoawo (1989), Oni (1992) and Fabunmi (1997) were able to show in their various studies that there was correlation between resource allocation, utilisation and secondary schools’ academic performance. Oni (1992) observed that resource utilisation and student academic performance were significantly related, while Fabunmi indicated that resource input quality and quantity if taken together contributed to secondary school academic performance. But if taken separately, only resource input quantity contributed significantly to secondary school academic performance, while resource input quality made no significant contribution to secondary school academic performance. Ojoawo, on the other hand, reported a positive relationship between students’ intake quality and school performance and also found that differential distribution of educational resources had positive effect on academic performance of students. Benjamin (1998) conducted a research on school mapping and resource supply as related to students’ achievement in Kwara State secondary schools. The study involved 3,614 students, 505 teachers and 50 principals. The researcher used t-test and Chi-square statistics to test the hypotheses. The researcher found that students’ academic achievement in English Language and Mathematics was significantly related to 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY geographical location of the schools. Factors such as community influence, journey to school, physical facilities, instructional materials and teacher manpower significantly influenced students’ academic achievement in English Language and Mathematics except physical facilities, which was not significantly related to students’ academic achievement in English Language. Studies were conducted over the past 25 years to investigate the relationship between student achievement, behaviour and building condition. Weinstein (1979), Cash (1993), Hines (1996), Lanham (1999) and Crook (2006) studied how building condition is related to students’ achievement with large samples of elementary and high schools. The study showed a significant relationship between building condition and students’ success elementary and high schools. Students performed better in newer schools or recently renovated building than they did in older buildings. The study further discovered that the percentage of students passing the Commonwealth of Virginia Standards of Learning Examination at the middle school level was higher in English, Mathematics and Science in standard buildings than it was in substandard buildings. One of the largest differences in percentage of students passing was in English Language at 6.10%. This difference was significant at .05 level of significance. This is noteworthy because student’s ability to read affects all other academic areas. Building age, windows in the instructional areas, and overall building condition are positively related to students’ achievement. McGuffey (1982) examined research related to the role facilities played in student learning, performance and self-concept. He examined studies within three categories - those dealing with the physical environment, those dealing with the configuration of the actual school building and those dealing with programming and physical aspects of the structure. Specific variables were then analysed within each category. He warned that the results of his analysis must be viewed with caution due to the shortage of data for some identified variables as well as the different methodologies employed in each study. McGuffey used a combination approach to analyse the data. A counting approach was used to simply tally the number of studies where a variable was found to be significant. He also used his own judgment to identify significant findings. Building age, thermal conditions, lighting, color and interior painting, acoustics, building maintenance, presence of laboratory facilities, and school size were identified as having effect on students’ achievement, while open space, lack of windows, underground location, site size, building utilisation, and support facilities were found to be 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY insignificant factors. An important point made by McGuffey was that while the amount of variance in students’ achievement influenced by facilities might be small, the amount of variance in students achievement controlled by any combination of school factors as compared to outside influence was also small. In this light, the contribution of facilities or any other identifiable factor within the schools’ locus of control to improve students’ achievement may be magnified and cannot be ignored. Branham (2002) studied the relationship between inadequate school infrastructure and school performance using 226 schools in Houston Independent School District for the 1995/1996 school year. The focus of the study was on the relationship between problematic school infrastructure and student achievement. The Houston Independent School District was represented by schools with groups of students from various ethnic backgrounds. Some schools had high number of students with limited proficiency in English while others had very few of them. The researcher found that the results of the study provided important evidence that school infrastructure has a critical impact on students’ achievement. Schools with leaking roofs, temporary building and under-staffed custodial services provided an environment where students were less likely to attend school and more likely to drop out as well as an environment of scholastic under-students’ achievement. The researcher concluded that a high quality building brings an atmosphere of high quality students’ achievement. O’Neil (2000) investigated the possible impact of school facilities on students’ achievement, behaviour, attendance and teacher turnover rates in selected Central Texas Middle school in Region X111 Educational Services Centre (ESC) area. The researcher used principals of 76 middle schools for the survey. Out of the 76 questionnaires sent out, 70% principals’ response was received which represented 92% participation rate. Apart from the survey, personal interviews were conducted with 10% of the principals collecting first hand qualitative data concerning the impact of school facilities on students’ achievement, behaviour, attendance and teacher turnover rate. The researcher found a positive relationship between academic achievement and school building condition. The relationship between school facilities and students’ achievement was explored as measured by Texas Assessment of Academic Skill in high performing, high Poverty School District in Texas (Lair, 2003). This study investigated whether the condition of school facilities improved students’ achievement over an eight year period. This report supported previous research findings that improvement of facilities could be 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY positively related to students’ achievement. It was also found that renovated buildings sent positive messages to students and which are related to their performance. Similarly, Lewis (2001) examined the association of building condition with student test scores compared to other influences such as family background, socio- economic status, attendance, race/ethnicity, and student discipline using 139 Milwaukee public schools. The study analysed the performance of the Wisconsin Student Assessment System in Mathematics, Science, Language, and Social Studies tests of fourth, eighth, and tenth grades of each school in 1996, 1997 and 1998. The researcher noted that reading scores are the most accurate indicators of the ability to do academic work. The finding showed statistical by significant relationship between the measures of school facilities and the percentage of students in the school that scored above the proficient level on the four other tests. The researcher found that students’ achievement was significantly related to school facility condition. The influence of instructional staff, class size and school facilities on students’ achievement were also stressed by researchers (Stogdill, 1959; Kolawole, 1982; Oni, 1992; Hanushek, 1997; Ejiwe, 1998; Adedeji, 1998; Akinola, 1999; Shodimu, 1999; Owoeye, 2000 and Adedeji et al 2001). Oni found high significant relationship between resource utilisation and academic performance in Introductory Technology, Business Studies and Home Economics subjects, though class size was not related to school academic performance. Hanushek (1997) discovered that performance of students does not depend on the number of students per class. However, Stogdill (1959) and Kolawole (1982) agreed that, the larger the class, the lower the academic performance of students would tend to be. The finding of Hanushek was faulty in the sense that, in a large class there would be lack of concentration and individual attention for the students. Class-size ratio was not related to school academic performance in pre-vocational subjects. Owoeye (2000) in his study on the effect of interaction of location, facilities and class size on academic performance in secondary schools in Ekiti State reported that there was no significant difference between urban large/urban small class size and academic performance of students in senior secondary school certificate examination. The study further found no significant difference between students’ achievement in urban schools with high adequate facilities and those without adequate facilities. Adedeji, Olaniyan and Owoeye (2001) examined the extent to which management of school resources could be used as a catalyst for better learning outcome in secondary schools using probability proportional to size sampling method in selected 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY secondary schools in Osun State. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested using Pearson Product Correlation, t-test statistics and percentage rating at 0.05%. The study found that the better the allocation and utilisation of school resources, the higher the academic performance of students and that by doubling the resource level, academic performance would improve by as much as 31.8%. Similarly, Famade (1999) investigated the relationship between resource-use efficiency and productivity in secondary schools in Ogun stae. Out of 245 secondary schools in the state, proportionate stratified technique was used to select 50 senior secondary schools from the 19 local government areas of the state. Six hypotheses were set and tested using spearman’s rank order correlation method. The researcher found a high and significant relationship between resource allocation and productivity with co- efficient of 0.988 as index of relationship in secondary schools in Ogun State. He submitted that the variation in productivity could be accounted for by resource allocation. The impact of school climate and culture on students’ achievement has been the subject of extensive research. (Cletus and James, 2001). Bulach, Malone and Caslemen (1994) in their study of 20 schools found a significant difference in student achievement between schools with good school climate and those with a poor school climate. Similarly, Hirase (2000) and Erpelding (1999) found that schools with a positive climate had higher academic achievement. Akanle (2007) studied socio-economic factors influencing students’ academic performance in Nigeria using some explanations from a local survey. The major instrument used in the collection of data for the study was the self-developed instrument tagged ‘social-economic and academic performance rating scale of the students’. The data collected were analysed using t-test. A total of 120 questionnaires were administered to participants. The study revealed that insufficient parental income, family type and lack of funding by governments are factors influencing students' academic performance. Jing-Lin (2009) studied the determinants of international students' academic performance comparing Chinese and other international students using a multiple regression analysis. The results suggested that the perceived importance of learning success to family, English writing ability and social communication with their compatriots are significant predictors for all international students. As the predominant group, Chinese students displayed some distinctive characteristics. A less active learning 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY strategy was observed among Chinese students relative to others, but no evidence was found that this negatively affected their academic achievement. Garikai (2010) empirically examined the causes of poor academic performance of students in the native area that enrolled at Gokomere high school, Matova secondary school, St Stanslous secondary school and Chidzikwe secondary school using Ordinary Least Squares approach for a sample of 200 native students. The study addressed the achievement of Millennium Development Goals by effectively addressing the hindering factors underpinning the native children's academic performance. The determinants of academic performance were found to include the walking distance to school, sex of child, education status of parent/guardian, nutrition levels, late entrance and repetition at school and language spoken at home. The study did not show that late entrance and repetition of students indicate poor academic performance. Fund Allocation and Students’ achievement It has been rightly established that the problems confronting all levels of education throughout the world stem from finance. Expectations are high from the societies for students and teachers to perform better and schools to guarantee the scholastic success of all students. The question of how best to achieve this goal through effective fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation becomes critical. Hanusheks (1997) used meta-analysis technique to evaluate the relationship between education inputs and students outcomes. The result provided strong support for a robustly positive relationship between students’ achievement and various inputs in educational process. The researcher found expenditure per student to be a robustly significant factor and mean co-efficient was significantly large of practical importance. Farombi (1998) carried out a study to investigate the influence of resource concentration, utilisation and management on student learning outcomes in Oyo state secondary schools. He observed that the availability of resources in schools was very low especially the financial resources and very few proportions of the financial resources were devoted to capital and recurrent expenditures. Some researchers have proven a strong relationship between financial resources and academic performance (Anyaogu 2004; Cooper and Cohn, 1997; and Mayston and Jessen, (1999). Anyaogu (2004) investigated resource availability and utilisation as correlates of students’ performance in Ibadan North Local Government area of Oyo state 39 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and found a significant relationship between financial resources and academic performance. While Cooper and Cohn (1997), and Mayton and Jesson (1999) used regression analysis to ascertain whether schools with high resource level also have high performance. Dewey, Husted and Kenny (2000) used instrumental variables techniques to infer a causal relationship between expenditure per pupil and SAT scores and obtained positive relationship results. Gupta, Verhoaeven and Tiongoon (1999) examined the determinants of enrolment rate in a cross-country framework using instrumental variables. They found that countries that invest a great proportion of national income in education have higher enrolment rates. Cooper and Cohn (1997) used quantitative research statistical analysis to carry an empirical assessment of the learning and other impacts of schools capital investment of building on better performance and found a positive and statistical of significant relationship between capital investment and pupil performance. Two models were developed to address the influence of education expenditure on outcomes. The first model served as determinants of per capita education expenditure in primary and secondary schools. The models’ expenditure on grades four, eight and ten were based on reading, writing and mathematics test outcomes. It was discovered that high expenditure does not lead to better students’ achievement, and in fact many of the results suggested a statistical relationship between expenditure and outcomes. The study also discovered that educational spending per capita was high in countries with fewer schools (Marlow, 2000) These findings were consistent with the argument that higher expenditure does not lead to better outcomes because higher expenditure tends to flow to school districts, administration and teachers for reasons not related to performance. Sebold (1981) studied 100 largest school districts in California and used the average student test score to measure students’ achievement. The study used expenditure per student to measure school funding. However, the model only used few independent variables to control for socio-economic factors, entering students’ achievement level and the percentage of minority student. The model yielded a small but statistically significant effect of school funding on students’ achievement. The researcher failed to control for other variables such as teacher characteristics and class size thus leading to omitted variable bias. In the same vein, Nyhan and Alkadry (1999) examined the impact of school resources on students’ achievement test scores to answer question on whether school funding affects students’ achievement. The study averaged Mathematics, reading 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and writing standardised test scores to create one dependent variable which was regressed on expenditure per student, the percentage of student in poverty and the percentage of minority of students and no conclusive results were reported. Ann, Kevin, John, and Mack (2004) investigated how spending related to students’ engagement and found that more money did not necessarily improve students learning; rather, institutions should try to spend their resources effectively to impact students’ engagement and learning effectively. Fabunmi and Okorie (2001), in their study on financial efficiency as a correlate of secondary school academic performance, found a high positive relationship between financial efficiency and academic performance. This study agreed with Pitt (1977) and Okorie (1998) whose findings found a significant relationship between financial efficiency and academic performance. It was equally observed that there was a significant different in the perception of the principal’s financial efficiency by the respondents.Conners (1982) examined educational funding and pupil achievement in Virgina. The researcher studied 30 districts and found that significant relationship existed between educational funding and pupil students’ achievement in the areas of mathematics, reading, language arts, social studies and science in grade four, eight and eleven. Gallagher (1993) in his study on public choice theory and budgets found that public spending had a positive impact on education attainment. A similar study was carried out in India at the state level by Kaur and Mistra (2003) on 15 non-special category states. Their empirical findings from a panel data analysis of social sector expenditure and attainment indicated that public expenditure on education had been more productive as compared to health, and this relationship was stronger for relatively poor states. In the same vein, a number of studies have found insignificant or very weak linkages between public education outlays and education indicators (Noss, 1991; Mingat and Tan, 1992; Mingat and Tan 1998. They concluded that variables such as per capita income, urbanisation, demographic profile as well as income inequality also turned out to be statistically significant in cross country regressions. Anand and Ravallion (1993) investigated the role of public services on human development in poor countries. Their empirical results indicated that there was no significant relationship between education outcomes and public spending on education. While Mcmahon (1999) in his study found a negative and significant relationship between per pupil expenditure and primary gross enrolment. Hanushek (1996) in his study, interpreted recent research on schooling in developing countries and found that 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY there was likely to be a strong link between resources and students’ achievement in developing countries. Education systems in developing countries tend to be so severely under-resourced compared to developed countries, that marginally increase in resources are likely to have much larger impacts on educational outcomes than in developed countries. However, greater proportion of studies in developing countries reported a positive impact of educational resources on students’ academic achievement than in developed countries. Baldacci (2004) reported that African countries tend to achieve lower education outcomes for given levels of spending measured by expenditure on education as a ratio of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Farombi (1998) investigated the influence of resource concentration, utilisation and management on students’ achievement in Oyo state secondary schools and found that financial resources explained the largest proportion of the variance in students’ achievement in SSCE. Diane, Zena and Cynthia (2001) in their study on the examination of resource allocation in education examined the differences in fiscal and human resources allocation over five years between low and high-performing district groups by comparing the mean of the two groups using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The fiscal variables considered in the analysis were expenditure for instruction, core expenditure which involves a combination of instructional staff, support, students’ support and general administration. They found that high student performance was associated with high level of resource allocation in adjusted and unadjusted groups’ performances. The researcher claimed further that, in unadjusted performance group, high student performance was associated with spending on instruction, core expenditure and high number of teachers per 1,000 students while in adjusted group, higher student performance was associated with higher level of resource allocation. Heneyman and Loxley (1983) cited in Farombi (1998) investigated the effect of primary school quality on students’ achievement across 29 high and low income countries. It was discovered that students from highly industrialised countries performed better than students from middle or lower income countries. They concluded that students from industrialised nations did well because of the wealth of their nations. This is because, wealthy nations are likely to make all resources available for their educational systems whereas performance of students in both middle and low income countries was poor because all the resources needed to run the educational systems were not available Faparunsi (1993) observed that the low level of students’ performance was related to the decline in the level of capital investment in terms of provision and maintenance of 42 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY teaching and learning facilities in schools. Farombi (1998) found that financial resources explained 4.27% of the variance in students’ attitude to education, 15.79% in students’ achievement in physics and 25.82% in students’ achievement in Senior School Certificate Examination. It was observed that financial resources explained the largest proportion of the variance in students’ achievement in SSCE than other two dependent variables (students’ attitude to education and students’ achievement in physics). Adepoju (2002) equally investigated the degree of relationship between locational factors and students’ academic performance. The researcher found correlation between locational factors especially the unit cost factors and academic performance in English and Mathematics was very low, but the composite effect of the locational factors on academic performance was found to be statistically significant. Similarly, Pitt (1977) investigated the relationship between financial efficiency and academic performance in selected schools in Texas District. The researcher reported significant relationship between financial efficiency and students’ achievement in mathematics and reading and observed that financial efficiency and class size of school district had a significant relationship with students’ achievement in reading and mathematics. Fund Utilisation and Students’ achievement Utilisation of available educational fund has been the major concern of educationists and stakeholders in the education sector. There have been strong arguments from every quarter that availability of fund does not matter but efficient utilisation of these and other resources to improve students’ achievement should be the concern of all. The first research on educational financing in Nigeria was carried out by Callaway and Mussone (1968). They investigated the trend of resource allocation at the institutional level in relation to national income and government budget in all the regions. They found that unit cost of education per student in secondary school in 1962 varied from 74 pounds grant-in-aided to 173 in government aided schools. The researchers concluded that there were variations in the patterns of expenditure of the region on the various components of institutional current costs. The links between specific financial inputs which included school construction, maintenance expenses, and educational output would be extensively examined. Hanushek (1981) reviewed multiple studies utilising 130 different statistical analyses. He utilised a production function equation designed for measuring inputs and outputs in an 43 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY industrial setting to assess the impact of school spending on students’ achievement. The researcher acknowledged the fact that per pupil expenditure varied widely and found no conclusive evidence tying higher expenditure to improvements in students’ achievement. He stated that additional spending on education would not produce desired result because of the system’s inability to make effective use of the available resources. He failed to look at specific indicators common to most studies as measure of inputs into the educational process. Among those indicators examined were student/teacher ratio, teacher education, teacher experience, teacher salary, total expenditure per pupil, quality of facility and quality of administrator. In the same vein, Greenwald, Hedges and Laine (1994) reviewed the same data as Hanushek and found links between expenditures and students’ achievement when specific expenditure categories were isolated. They were very critical of statistical analyses of vote-counting technique used by Hanushek. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis study using the same data and found a much larger number of educational input factors to be significant at P=0.5 in the re-analysis, resource inputs of teacher education, teacher salary, and student/teacher ratio would increase students’ achievement. This result changes the accepted conventional wisdom that money did not matter in improving students’ achievement. Wenglinsky (1997) in his study examined how educational expenditures improve student performance. He faulted the meta-analysis studies carried out by Hanushek as not being nationally representative. He did not distinguish among different types of spending, other influences and studies did not control variation in cost between regions. The researcher gathered data from the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), Teacher Cost Index and produced flow charts of funding and resource allocation as related to students’ achievement. The data collected consisted of 203 forth grade districts and 182 eighth grade districts. He found that funding low student/teacher ratio did not directly affect student gains, but improved student/teacher ratio that first affected school environments, which in turn directly raised student performance levels. Funding allocation creates/preserves a lower student/teacher ratio and was found to affect student performance. He found differences in how the funds flow and the impact on student performance (mathematics scores) between 4th and 8th graders. He found that spending on facilities and maintenance; school-level administration and teacher education levels were found not to be related to students’ achievement. Spending at the 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY district or central administration level was most successful in increasing student/teacher ratio, thus impacting students’ achievement at both grades Onatade (2000) carried out correlational and stepwise multiple regression analysis on equity in the financing of primary education in Ogun State. The researcher reported substantial substantial variation in per pupil allocation of financial resources in some local governments in the state, Ijebu: Ode N1173, N1165 in Sagamu, N807.26, in Ifo, N724.34 in Ogun water-side. The researcher further found that inequalities in finance were closely related to regional differences in wealth, ecological location and size of district in need and fiscal ability. Samuel (2002) in his study showed that households in Nigeria paid more for education than what the government expended per child. He indicated that the World Bank study on Public expenditure on Education in Lagos State revealed that the household unit cost for primary and secondary education was N33,000 and N42,000 respectively while public unit cost was below N3,000 for primary and N2,000 for secondary education. Okebukola (2002) also indicated in his findings that the average unit cost per student per discipline in a Nigerian University ranged from a minimum of N141,532 for Social Sciences, N302,096 for Medicine, while government and the university contributed 58.2% and the student contributed 44.8%. A meta-analysis studies of EPF equations concluded that a broad range of resource inputs were positively related to students’ achievement and moderate increases in expenditure might be associated with significant increase in students’ achievement (Greenwald, Larry and Laine, 1996). However, Hanushek (1996) objected to the methodology used by the researcher especially the sample selection procedures but admitted that resource inputs were used effectively only in certain circumstances when coefficients were positive and significant. Eide and Showalter (1998), in their study on the effect of school quality on student performance using quintile regressions, observed that per pupil expenditure had more effect on mathematics scores for the math score distribution than for the rest of the distribution. Therefore, the study showed that school resource inputs had heterogeneous effects on students’ achievement. In like manner, Krueger (1999) examined estimates of education production function in some experimental research he carried out and suggested that a type of expenditure in the form of small class size had a significant effect on students’ achievement. Similarly, Guryan (2000) examined whether money matters in a Regression Discountinuity Estimate from Education Finance reform in Massachusetts using quasi experimental research design. He found that increase in 45 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY school funding had increased the performance of students in the elementary schools of Massachusetts, while Kang (2007), examined the effect of private educational expenditures on students’ achievement. The study used the causal estimates based on four methods and implied that a ten percent increase in expenditure on private tutoring led to a 0.56% point improvement but mean value was 1.1% increase in test score. Lips, Watkins and Fleming (2008) examined whether spending more on education improve students’ academic achievement or not. He observed that what is important is how the money is spent, not how much money is spent. Dahar, Iqbal, and Dahar, (2009) carried out a study on the impact of per pupil expenditure on students achievement at secondary stage at Punjab in Pakistan. The study concluded that it was the misallocation, mismanagement and the misuse or the exploitation of funds and resource inputs that were responsible for low students’ academic achievement. The present study also found that per pupil expenditure mostly had a negative impact on students’ achievement at the secondary stage. The teachers salary was the major portion of the funds (90%) allocated to schools in Punjab in India. Edwin, Hessel and Basvander (2008) conducted an experimental research to examine the effect of financial rewards on students’ achievement using quasi experimental research design. The result showed significant heterogeneity in the behaviour response of the financial incentives; high ability students had higher pass rate and significantly get more credit points when assigned to large reward groups while the low ability students appeared to achieve less when assigned to larger reward groups. Angrist and Lavy (2005) analysed the effect of financial reward on students. They found that the intervention led to a substantial increase in matriculation rates among girls. Similarly, Angrist, Lang and Oreopoulous (2006) evaluated how merit scholarship and services affected students’ achievement at a large Cannadian University. The study found no effects for boys while girls had higher grades which faded out after one year and the treatment that combined the merit-scholarship with peer advising and group services were more effective. Krumer, Miguel and Thornton (2004) conducted study on incentives to learn between two districts in the rural Kenya. The researchers found that large positive effect on both students’ achievement and school attendance in one of those districts and both boys and girls with low initial students’ achievement experienced higher scores and school attendance. Celeste, Heather, Amanda, and Catherine (2000) examined the resource allocation practices and students’ achievement using MANCOVA, statistical tool. The study 46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY yielded consistent findings regarding how Texas Districts allocated resources with respect to the amount spent for expenditure functions, programme areas and District budget processes. The researcher found that districts with high student academic performance spent more expenditure per-pupil on instruction and regular education programmes. Expenditure on instruction accounted for almost 60% of operation expenditure state-wide. There was direct and positive relationship between resource allocation and district performance. Districts with highest students’ academic performance spent more on per-pupil expenditure than districts with lower students’ performance. The finding concluded that open and collaborative decision making processes can be used to improve students’ performance. Jung and Thorbecke (2001) found that increase in public expenditure on education contributed to economic growth and poverty alleviation in Zambia and Tanzania. In the same vein, Castrol – Leal, Dayton, Demery, and Mehra (1999), Kelly (1998), and Gupa and Verhoeven (1999) suggested that during the correction of inefficiencies of government spending towards education, the quality of educational attainment might be improved considerably. While Samoff (1999) discovered that in Africa’s education sector, public resources are often misallocated while management and administration remain inefficient. Sharp (1993) examined the relationship between Illinois school expenditure per pupil and students’ state assessment examination score. The researcher used Pearson Product Moment correlation to determine if there was any significant relationship between school spending and students’ achievement scores. The finding showed that there was a small negative correlation between per pupil expenditure and the students’ achievement in every subject grade level. Similarly, there was a small negative correlation between per pupil expenditure in Mathematics and Language Arts scores of third graders. Oni (1992) in his study on resource and resource utilisation as correlates of school performance in secondary Pre-vocational education in Oyo State found high and significant relationship between resource utilisation and academic performance in Introductory Technology, Business Studies and Home Economics subjects respectively. Fabunmi and Okorie (2001) sought to establish the magnitude of relationship between financial efficiency of secondary schools and students’ performance in selected secondary schools in Epe Local Government Area of Lagos State. The researchers used Chi-Square and Spearman rank correlation to test the hypotheses postulated. The finding 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of the study revealed a significant relationship between financial efficiency and secondary school academic performance. Appraisal of the Literature The appraisal of the literature involved an exercise in which the researcher tried to do the critique of the relevant literature reviewed related to this study. The critique of the related studies reviewed would enable the researcher identify gaps, omissions, opinions, comments and the way forward. It would afford the researcher the opportunity of knowing what has been covered, what is left to be covered and techniques to adopt in his investigation. Review of the literature pointed out that funding of education by all tiers of government in Nigeria has been so poor (Ipaye, 1995; Odekunle, 2001). The financial allocation to the system has been below expected statutory requirement of 26% stipulated by UNESCO. FRN (2004) stated that education is an expensive venture and government alone cannot afford to shoulder the financial responsibility, hence, there is clarion call on private individual and major stakeholders to take active part in financing the system. Omoregie (1993), Oni (1995), Fabunmi (1997), and Famade (1999) in their different studies affirmed that, financial resource is indispensable to the smooth running of any educational system. Oni explained further that the success of any educational system depends on the availability of manpower and material resources. The findings of this researcher can be seen to lack depth because he failed to stress the availability of other resources hinged on the provision and availability of finance. However, Longe (1981) and Oguntoye (1983) confirmed that the greatest percentage of financial resource in education is spent on recurrent expenditure such as teachers’ salaries and general administration. Hincheliffe (2002) and Benniel (2006) commented on the difficulty in obtaining accurate data due largely to poor record keeping system. Onuka (2007) confirmed that it was impossible to determine the pattern of fund allocation which was in line with Onuka (2004) that government officials were unable to ascertain the actual amount of fund allocated to Universities. In view of the fact that, there were no records to ascertain the actual amount committed to education, there had been an increase in the financial allocation to education since 2001 by the Federal government from 14.2% to 17.5% whereas Okonjo-Iweala (2006) claimed that 300% had been allocated to education since 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1990 and 2% of the consolidated revenue fund had been committed to the implementation of Universal Basic Education at the state level. All these claims could be considered as political and window-dressing statements for political advantage. However, CBN (2000) pointed out that Federal Government allocation to education has declined steadily since 1990. There seems to be clear contradiction between Okonjo- Iweala’s view and the report of Central Bank of Nigeria. It has also been discovered that financing of education is affected by over- invoicing of equipment and materials, proliferation of educational support services as well as educational institutions (Ojo, Odunlami and Bamidele, 2007). Fabunmi (1997) confirmed that a great proportion of what is allocated to education is spent on things that are not directly related to actual teaching and learning. These researchers failed to understand that Nigeria is a peculiar country where corruption is the order of the day. These researchers failed to recommend sophisticated audit system to ascertain that allocations to education are judiciously spent. Several factors have been found to have relationship with students’ achievement. Such factors are: organisational behaviour, institutional qualities and institutional type, institutional size, academic institution and social integration. Pitt (1977), Okorie (1998), Fabunmi and Okorie (2001) and Ayanogu (2004) in their various studies reported a high positive relationship between financial efficiency and students’ achievement. Hanushek (1986) in his study of schools in developing countries found that there were likely to be strong link between resources and students’ achievement in developing countries because educational system in developing countries tends to be so severely under-funded compared to developed countries where marginal increase in resources are likely to have much larger impacts on educational outcomes. Similarly, Baldacci (2004) pointed out that African countries tend to achieve lower educational outcomes for given levels of spending measured by expenditure on education as a ratio of Gross Domestic Product. These researchers did not consider the population explosion most developing countries of the world are currently experiencing which may lead to increase in enrolment and result in high student/teacher ratio, high class size and school size. However, all these factors may not likely result in strong link between resources and students’ achievement. Production Function Equation (PFE) was developed and designed by Hanushek (1981) for measuring inputs and output in an industrial setting to assess the impact of school spending on students’ achievement. He considered student/teacher ratio, teacher education, teacher experience, quality experience, quality of facility, quality of 49 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY administrator and expenditure per pupil as indicators. The researcher in his analysis could not tie higher expenditure to improvement in students’ achievement. From his presentation, Hanushek used data that had been generated for other purposes and did not report the specific components of various expenditures. The production function model presented by Hanushek is usually used in business sector which equates the value of output of a process to the value of outputs used for production. In an educational setting, Hanushek theorised that increasing expenditure for teachers’ salaries and instructional materials should produce a corresponding increase in students’ achievement. Applying this model to non-industrial activity like learning would not be appropriate because of lack of definition of variables being used. Often, educational performance is the result of cumulative effect of a variety of experiences that cannot be captured in this type of equation (Alexander and Salmon, 1995). They concluded that each school situation would require a separate production function equation that fits its particular community. Theoretical Framework Every research study cannot exist in isolation but should be hinged or based on a particular theory in order to make the findings valid. The identification of relevant theory is an important step in educational research. It shows where a study can be located in the body of knowledge. It forms the architectural design from where all other things are built (Obadara, 2007). Nwankwo (1983) stated that: Theoretical framework forms the hub on which findings of the study and discussions of such findings revolved. Without adequate frame of reference, the results of an investigation sound shallow and highly intangible. But when the results of a study find solace in existing or created sound theory, or when such findings tend to disapprove some theoretical assumptions, they tend to generate greater concern and more attention. The present study could be located in the systems theory. Literature search had shown vividly that the evolution of the concept of systems theory could be traced to Aristotle between 384 and 322 BC. Aristotle propounded that the whole of a system is greater than the sum of its parts. Since then, the term has been applied for effective functioning of every animate and inanimate object. The term is used extensively in all endeavours such as business, biological, computer, solar, engineering and educational 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY systems. Systems comprise parts that interact to achieve a purpose or results. It can therefore be seen as interaction of interrelated and interdependent elements to achieve a desired result (Ihemeje, 2006). Adebayo (2007) strongly believed that a system is an organised unitary whole composed of two or more independent parts, components, or sub-systems and delineated by identifiable boundaries for its environmental supra system. Fabunmi (2006) was of the opinion that systems theory rests on the fact that each of the component parts perform specific functions for the survival of the whole. Each part interacts with and is interdependent of the other parts and other systems around it. Thus, what affects one part affects the other in the system and its environment. Every system has boundary within which it lies and outside its environment. A system can be open or closed (Fabunmi, 1997; Famade, 1999), while Ihemeje (2006) presented five additional types of systems as conceptual, mechanical, social, deterministic and probabilistic. A system is deterministic when it operates according to a predetermined set of rules, its future behaviour can be predicted if its present state and operating characteristics are accurately known, for example, computer programming. while Probabilistic systems occur when the system is controlled by chance events and so its future behaviour is a matter of probability rather than certainty, for example, social system. A system is conceptual when it contains abstract that are linked to communicate ideas. Example is English Language which contains words and how they are articulated to communicate ideas. The elements of conceptual system are words. A system is mechanical when it consists of many parts working together to do a work such as typewriter or computer which contains many parts working together to type words and symbols. A system is social when it comprises policies, instructions and people. Closed systems are completely self-regulating, self-supporting and do not interact with the environment. They are self-sufficient, autonomous, enclosed and sealed-off from outside world. The systems have the wherewithal to sustain themselves and can survive and function without the consumption of external resources. Closed systems are mostly restricted to mechanical and physical systems such as electrical iron, computers, cars and radio set. Open systems, on the other hand, are completely insufficient and cannot sustain themselves. They interact and depend on the environment for supply of inputs and discharge of their outputs. There is free flow of energy from the environment through the system itself and back to the environment. The flow of energy into input, 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY transformation, output and feedback is cyclical in nature. From the explanation above, it is clear that open systems theory is suitable for this study. The Theoretical Model Showing the Relationships among Fund Mobilisation, Allocation and Utilisation on Students’ Achievement The systems theory is suitable for this study since education as a sub-systems of the entire national systems has its sub-system as pre-primary, primary, post-primary and tertiary, which the concept of interrelationship and interdependence with one another are applicable. The sub-systems of educational system have such identified properties as input, transformation and output. The principal input into secondary education is finance. This is sought through efficient allocation by the state governments and effective mobilisation of additional funds to supplement whatever is available. The availability of these would influence the provision of other resource input such as teachers, pupils, administrative staff, building and other materials. The transformation process takes place when the resource inputs are ready, organised and subjected to various forms of processes such as teaching, learning, effective utilisation strategies and administration in order to convert the inputs into product, services and other outputs such as the intended changes in students behaviour. The inefficient transformation of resource inputs may likely result in wastage may be in form of drop-out or repetition. All the processing activities described make the system yield outputs which can fulfill the system’s aspirations and expectations. These outputs consist of changes that the school system produced which are observable from the products of the system. The output of the system flows across the boundary into the society. Those who successfully complete the stream of the system may decide to flow into higher level of educational system to constitute new resource inputs. Some may enter into the labour market, some may be self employed while the remaining beneficiaries of the system may not utilise it because of lack of opportunities and assistance or non-suitability for further training. The system is expected to be self-regulating on the basis of feedback information to disclose areas of strength and weakness in performance against standard set and indicating corrective measures for adjustment and improvement. The secondary education being an open system is expected to take resource inputs both in number and quality from the environment, process these inputs and release 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY whatever is processed as output to the society. The system is self-regulating through effective feedback information by comparing standard set against the performance to determine areas that need attention. The secondary school system maintains close relationship with the environment by continuously and adequately allocating and mobilising financial input, which will help in bringing together human, material, physical and other resources. The availability, efficient utilisation or transformation of the resources would result in good students’ achievement. However, if the resource inputs into the system are inadequate but the transformation or utilisation is effective, students’ achievement is likely to be good. Where the resource inputs are adequately provided but the utilisation or transformation is poor, the outputs are likely to be poor. However, if the input is available, relevant, adequate and efficiently used, the output in terms of students’ achievement will be of high standard. 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY A THEORETICAL MODEL SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG FUND MOBILISATION, ALLOCATION AND UTILISATION, AND STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT INPUT TRANSFORMATION OUTPUT FUND ALLOCATION  Teaching G (State Governments) Entry into Human R higher level Resources FUND MOBILISATION  Learning of education  Corporate A Organisation Material  Administration Resources D Self  Individual U Employed  Co-curricula Activities A  Philanthropists Financial Resources T Entry into the labour market  School farm E WASTAGE  Repetition S  Rentage of school  Dropout property Non FEEDBACKS Utilisation of training Figure 2.1: Developed by the researcher: Alaka Abayomi A. 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Research Hypotheses Ho1: There is no significant composite influence of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Ho2: There is no significant relationship between fund allocation and students achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Ho3: There is no significant relationship between utilisation of financial resource and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Ho4: There is no significant relationship between fund mobilisation and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Ho5: There is no significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. - 55 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the procedures adopted in carrying out the study. They are discussed as follows:  Research Design  Study Population  Sample and Sampling Technique  Research Instrument  Validation of Instrument  Method of Data Collection  Method of Data Analysis Research Design This study adopted descriptive survey design and was carried out ex-post facto. Kerlinger (1992) described research design as the plan and structure of investigating so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. The descriptive survey design is useful in revealing current condition that exists between specific events, through orderly collection, analysis, interpretation and reports of pertinent facts and information situation or an enterprise as long as conditions and circumstances permit. Nwana (1982) declared that descriptive survey design is of immense value to researchers that study the respondents in their natural environment. Osuala (1993) described survey methods to be useful particularly to administrators who are interested in identifying present conditions through orderly collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Descriptive research design according to Cohen and Manion (1980), is concerned with conditions that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs, point of view or attitudes that are developing. In view of the numerous benefits in this type of design as found by numerous authors as highlighted above, it was adopted because of its appropriateness and 56 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY relevance to the study as it will enable the researcher to systematically describe and explained the data generated and used in the study. This study was also correlational in approach. Correlational study examined the relationship between variables at a point in time. Necessary data are collected on both the independent and dependent variables over the same period of time in order to determine if a relationship exists between them. This type of study is useful in trying to establish relationship between certain individual characteristics. The relationship that exists can be moderate, strong, weak, positive or negative. Study Population The geographical area for this study is the six-geopolitical zones in Nigeria. As at the time of this study, there were 36 states, as well as the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja), 774 local governments, and 11,000 secondary schools in Nigeria. The target population comprised the 6,700 public secondary schools in Nigeria as at the time of this study. Sample and Sampling Technique The sampling technique adopted in this study was multistage. The entire country was stratified into six geo-political zones and further stratified into states. Purposive sampling method based on the availability of data was used to select the states used. A total of 1,826 public secondary schools from Lagos, Enugu, Akwa-Ibom, Kano, Bauchi and Nasarawa states representing each of the six geo-political zones made up of 145 local governments in Nigeria were sampled for the study. The results of 1,413,454 students in the SSCE conducted by WAEC from 2001 to 2005 were collected from WAEC National Headquarters, Lagos. 57 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 3.1 Population Parameters of Geo-Political Zones in Nigeria. 2006 Population Representative 2006 Population No. of Geo-political Census Figure States Census Figure Local Govts No. of Zones in Geo-political zones for the selected in the selected Schools states states South West 27,511,992 Lagos 9,013,534 20 617 North Central 18,841,056 Nazarawa 1,863,275 13 205 South South 21,014,655 Akwa – Ibom 3,920,208 31 245 South East 16,381,729 Enugu 3,934,899 17 241 North East 18,971965 Bauchi 4,676,465 20 125 North West 35,786,944 Kano 9,303,682 44 393 Total 138,508,341 6 32,712,063 145 1,826 Source: Ministries of education, Nigeria/Africa Masterweb special feature http:/www.nigeriamasterweb.com The diagram showed the six geo-political zones in Nigeria and representative states: South- west was represented by Lagos State, North-central was represented by Nassarawa State, South-south represented by Akwa-Ibom State, North-east represented by Bauchi State, North-West represented by Kano State and South-east was represented by Enugu state. The 2006 population census showed that, the total population from all the geo-political zones except the Federal Capital Territory was 138,508,341 while total population for all the six states represented were 32,712,063 with 145 Local Governments as well as 1,826 Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Research Instruments The data utilised for this work is mainly secondary due to the nature of the research. All the data except WASSCE results were sourced from ministries of education, or Teaching Service Commission and Ministries of finance of each of the sample states. A data collection format was designed covering all the required data needed over the reviewed period. A student achievement analysis Format was designed to collect required data on students’ results from the West African Examination Council, Yaba for the period under review. 58 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Validation of Instruments To ensure the instrument for this study properly captured the desired inputs, the data allocation template was given to experts in the field of Educational Management for necessary corrections and modifications. The corrected version of the instruments was used to collect data used for the study. Method of Data Collection In the process of collecting data, the researcher engaged six research assistants, one in each of the states representing the geo-political zone and paid personal visits to all these states. An interval of two months was given for the completion of the instrument. This deadline was not met until after the fourth month. The students’ results for five years were collected from WAEC which took three months before it was made available. The information collected included the number of students that sat for the examination, those students that had five credits and above, including English and mathematics, five credits without English and Mathematics, and those that had less than five credits excluding English and Mathematics. Method of Data Analysis The data collected for this study were arranged and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). There researcher used Multiple Regression Analysis, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Descriptive Statistics such as Percentage Distribution and Charts and the hypotheses developed for the study were tested at 0.05 level of significance. 59 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Presentation of Results The chapter presents the analyses of the various data generated for the study. It also contains discussions of findings and the conclusion drawn from the analyses. Four research questions were answered using descriptive statistics such as percentage distribution and charts. Five hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The results of the analysis are presented here according to the stated research questions and tested null hypotheses for the study. Research question 1 What was the trend in yearly financial allocation to education between 2001 and 2005 in the six selected states in Nigeria? Research question 2 What was the trend in yearly financial allocation to secondary education between 2001- 2005 in the six selected states in Nigeria. Table 4.1: Lagos State Budgetary Allocation to Education from 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total Educ. % Secondary % of the budget Budget allocated to Educ. Budget Secondary (in billion) (in billion) Education (in billion) education (N) (N) (N) Budget 2001 48.915 10.556 21.58 2.763 26.2 2002 58.235 13.305 22.83 3.776 28.4 2003 62.653 14.456 23.07 4.432 30.7 2004 77.407 16.987 21.94 5.990 35.3 2005 112.729 28.183 25.00 7.976 28.4 Source: Lagos State Ministry of Finance 60 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The tables on budgetary allocation to education in all the representative states from each of the geo-political zones answered research questions 1 and 2. The budgetary allocation to education in Lagos State revealed that 21.58% of the state budget was allocated to education in the year 2001. In year 2002, it increased to 22.83% and 23.07% in 2003. The result however showed that, there was a decrease in the percentage of state allocation to education in 2004 to 21.94%. In 2005, the percentage allocated to education increased to 25%. The budgetary allocation to secondary education in Lagos State showed that 26.2% was allocated in year 2001, 28.4% in 2002, 30.7% in 2003, 35.3% in 2004; but the percentage dropped to 28.4% in the 2005. Table 4.2: Enugu State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total % Secondary % of the budget Educ. allocated Educ. Budget Secondary (in billion) Budget to (in billion) education (N) Education (in billion) (N) Budget (N) 2001 12.781 2.896 22.7 410,559 14.2 2002 17.781 3.908 22.0 642,315 16.4 2003 19.071 4.457 23.4 954,440 21.4 2004 22.292 4.298 19.3 1,377 32.0 2005 26.297 5.875 22.3 1,451 24.7 Source: State Budget Department, Enugu The result on budgetary allocation to education in Enugu State between 2001 and 2005 were 22.7%, 22.0%, 23.4%, 19.3% and 22.3% for 2001,2002,2003,2004 and 2005 respectively. The budgetary allocation to secondary education was 14.2% in year 2001, 16.4% in 2002, 21.4% in 2003, 32.0% in 2004 and 24.7% in 2005. This showed there was no improvement in the trend in yearly budgetary allocation to education in the state. There was fluctuation in the percentage allocation to secondary education. 61 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.3 : Bauchi State Budgetary Allocation to Education from 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total Educ. % allocated Secondary % of the budget Budget to Education Education Secondary (in billion) (in billion) Budget education (N) (N) (in billion) Budget (N) 2001 17.811 1.692 9.50 135 8 2002 19.957 1.680 8.60 96 57.1 2003 23.342 1.138 8.60 202 17.8 2004 32.836 1.965 6.00 180 9.2 2005 57.870 5.776 10.05 409 9.8 Source: Bauchi State Ministry of Finance The results on budgetary allocation to education in Bauchi State between 2001 and 2005 were 9.5%, 8.6%, 8.6%, 6.0% and 10.05% for 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively. From these allocations, the state earmarked 8.0% to secondary education in 2001, 57.1% in 2002, 17.8% in 2003, 9.2% in 2004 and 9.8% in 2005. Table 4.4: A/Ibom State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total Educ. % Secondary % of the budget Budget allocated Education Secondary (in billion) (in billion) to Budget education (N) (in billion) Budget (N) Education (N) 2001 46.879 3.071 6.6 2,298 7.5 2002 59.891 7.278 12.2 3,092 4.2 2003 42.529 1.042 2.5 3,287 31.5 2004 44.918 7.580 16.9 3,623 4.8 2005 83.280 10.870 13.1 3,763 3.5 Source: Akwa-Ibom State Ministry of Finance The result on budgetary allocation to education in Akwa-Ibom State between 2001 and 2005 was 6.6%, 12.2%, 2.5%, 16.9% and 13.1% for 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively. The budgetary allocation to secondary education in the Akwa- 62 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ibom State was, 7.5% in 2001, 4.2% in 2002, 31.5% in 2003, 4.8% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005. Table 4.5 : Kano State Budgetary Allocation to Education From 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total Educ. % Secondary % of the budget Budget allocated Education Secondary (in billion) (in billion) to Budget education (N) (N) Education (in billion) Budget (N) 2001 18.757 2.848 15.2 2.052 72.1 2002 20.846 2.471 11.9 1.235 38.0 2003 18.884 3.270 17.4 1.542 47.2 2004 23.861 3.421 14.3 1.722 50.3 2005 38.375 6.904 18.0 3.233 46.8 Source: Ministry of Finance and Kano Teaching Service Board The findings on budgetary allocation to education in Kano State between 2001 and 2005 were 15.2%, 11.9%, 17.4%, 14.3% and 18.0% for 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively. The budgetary allocation to secondary education in 2001 was 72.1%, 38.0% in 2002, 47.2% in 2003, 50.3% in 2004 and 46.8% in 2005. Table 4.6: Nassarawa State Budgetary Allocation to Education from 2001 to 2005 Year Total state Total Educ. % Secondary % of the budget Budget allocated Education Secondary (in billion) (in billion) to Budget education (N) (N) Education (in billion) Budget (N) 2001 9.784 880 9.0 87 9.9 2002 11.954 957 8.0 102 10.7 2003 14.067 1.286 9.1 236 18.4 2004 23.069 2.875 12.5 578 20.1 2005 25.417 4.115 16.2 1.345 32.7 Source: Nassarawa State Ministry of Finance, Keffi The budgetary allocation to education in Nassarawa State between 2001 to 2005 was 9.0%, 8.0%, 9.1%, 12.5% and 16.2% for 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively whereas, the budgetary allocation to secondary education was 9.9% in 2001, 10.7% in 2002, 18.4% in 2003, 20.1% in 2004 and 32.7% in 2005. There was a 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY slight improvement in the trend of yearly budgetary allocation to secondary education in Nassarawa State. Findings There was an upward trend in fund allocation to education in Lagos state from 21.58% to 25%, Akwa Ibom state 6.6% to 13.1%, Nasarawa state 9.0 to 16.2%, Bauchi state 9.50% to 10.05% and Kano state 15.2% to 18%. There was a downward trend in fund allocation to education in Enugu state from 22.7% to 22.3%.There was an upward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Lagos state from 26.5% to 28.4%, Enugu state 14.2% to 24.7%, Bauchi state 8.0% to 9.8% and Nasarawa state 9.9% to 32.7%. However, there was a downward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Akwa Ibom state 7.5% to 3.5% and Kano state 72.1% to 46.8% states. Fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation jointly accounted for 46.9% variance in predicting students’ achievement in public secondary schools (R = 0.687; F(3,1822) = 46.27, p < 0.05). The contributions of each variable to students’ achievement was: fund allocation (β = 0.287, t = 3.252, p <.05), fund mobilisation (β = 0.212, t = 3.494, p < 0.05), utilisation of financial resources (β = 0.301, t = 4.045, p < 0.05), student / teacher ratio (β = 0.156, t = 2.455, p < 0.05). 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.2: Percentage allocated to education in the geo-political zones in Nigeria from 2001- 2005. 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.1 showed the trend in financial allocation to education in Nigeria from 2001-2005.There have been fluctuations in the financial allocation to education. In 2005 for instance, Lagos State allocated 25%, Enugu 22.3%, Bauchi 10.05%, Akwa Ibom 13.1%, Kano 18.0% and Nassarawa 16.2%. There was fluctuation in financial allocation to education generally in all the geo-political zones in Nigeria which showed a non adherence to stipulated 26% budgetary allocation recommended by United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation to education (UNESCO). The non adherence was as a result of government ministries, parastatals and agencies competing for available financial resources at the disposal of government and misplacement of priorities in financial allocation by the government. Education sector is therefore denied necessary priority in budgetary allocation. 66 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.3: Percentage allocated to secondary education in the geo-political zones in Nigeria from 2001 to 2005 67 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The chart showed a continuous fluctuation in financial allocation to secondary education from the overall education budget virtually in all the geo-political zones in Nigeria from 2001 to 2005. The downward trend in the financial allocation to secondary education has resulted in unavailability of infrastructure, inadequate staff, delay in the payment of salary and continuous agitation for special salary scale which has led to series of strike actions. Research Question 3 What was the percentage of students’ achievement in public secondary schools at WASCE in the selected states in Nigeria? Table 4.7: Percentage of students who scored five credits and above including English and Mathematics in WASSCE from 2001 – 2005 Geo- 2001 % 2002 % 2003 % 2004 % 2005 % political zones Lagos 39408 25.5 42653 25.6 44902 30.0 43479 30.2 52141 34.2 Enugu 5773 15.5 5824 14.8 5733 15.6 7775 22.0 8199 22.6 Bauchi 2237 24.5 2453 25.0 4241 46.7 3556 37.0 2778 33.9 A/Ibom 8619 19.1 11900 24.2 5733 14.1 14030 30.4 11039 26.1 Kano 2253 20.7 3138 16.5 3271 18.8 3124 14.9 4088 17.0 Nassarawa 778 4.5 935 4.9 924 5.1 1255 5.8 1137 4.7 Av. % 18.3 18.5 21.8 23.4 23.1 Source: West African Examinations Council, Yaba, Lagos 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.4: Percentage of students with five credits and above including English and Mathematics at WASCE in the 3geo-political zones from 2001 to 2005 69 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The results showed that in each of the selected states in the geo-political zone, in 2001, Lagos State recorded 25.5%, Enugu 15.5%, Bauchi 24.5%, Akwa-Ibom 19.1%, Kano 20.7%, Nassarawa 4.5% whereas, 25.6% from Lagos, Enugu 14.8% , Bauchi 25%, Akwa Ibom 24.2%, Kano 16.5% and Nassarawa 4.9% in 2002. The result also showed that in 2003, Lagos had 30%, Enugu 15.6%, Bauchi 46.7%, Akwa Ibom 14.1%, Kano 18.8% and Nasarawa 5.1%. The 2004 results showed that Lagos recorded 30.2%, Enugu 22.0%, Bauchi 37.0%, Akwa Ibom 30.4%, Kano 14.9 and Nasarawa 5.8%. In 2005 Lagos recorded 34.2%, Enugu 22.6%, Bauchi 33.9%, Akwa Ibom 26.1%, Kano 17% and Nasarawa 4.7%. Table 4.8: Percentage of students with five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics in WASCE in the geo-political zones between2001 and 2005 Geo- 2001 % 2002 % 2003 % 2004 % 2005 % political Zones Lagos 2509 1.6 2326 1.5 3052 2.0 1955 1.4 1957 1.3 Enugu 1391 3.7 1946 5.0 3699 10.1 1442 4.1 1582 4.4 Bauchi 380 4.2 397 4.1 356 3.9 251 2.5 259 3.2 A/Ibom 1152 2.5 1386 2.8 1867 4.6 1185 2.6 1011 2.4 Kano 621 5.7 564 3.0 681 3.9 508 2.4 779 3.2 Nassarawa 779 4.5 1038 5.4 1341 7.4 382 1.8 916 2.8 Average 3.7 3.6 5.3 2.5 2.9 % Source: West African Examination Council, Yaba, Lagos Table 4.8 showed the performance of students who had five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics from 2001-2005 in the senior school certificate examination in Nigeria. Kano State had highest percentage of 5.7% in 2001, Nassarawa state had 5.4% and 7.4% in 2002 and 2003 respectively, Enugu State had 4.1% and 4.4% in 2004 and 2005 respectively. 70 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.5: Percentage of students with five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics at WASCE in the geo-political zones from 2001 to 2005 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.9 : Percentage of students with less than five credits in WASCE in the geo- political zones between 2001 and 2005 Geo-pol. 2001 % 2002 % 2003 % 2004 % 2005 % Zones Lagos 67,898 43.9 72,517 43.5 63,827 42.7 60,972 42.4 55,542 36.5 Enugu 18,550 49.9 19,040 48.5 15,282 41.6 14,439 40.8 12,542 34.5 Bauchi 2,562 28.0 2,318 23.7 1,392 15.3 1,774 18.5 972 11.9 A/Ibom 16,898 37.3 16,598 33.7 7,072 17.3 11,649 25.3 12,362 29.2 Kano 4,988 45.9 11,963 62.9 10,372 59.5 13,046 62.1 13,834 57.4 Nassarawa 11,933 68.5 13,353 70.1 10,688 58.9 15,450 71.9 17,079 70.9 Av % 45.5 47.0 39.2 43.5 49.1 Source: West African Examinations Council, Yaba, Lagos Table 4:9 showed percentage of students’ performance with less than five credits in the sampled geo-political states in Nigeria. The poorest performances were from Nasarawa 68.5% in 2001, 70.1% in 2002, 58.9% in 2003, 71.9% in 2005 while Kano State had 59.5% in 2003. The average performance in 2001 was 45.5%, 47.0% in 2002, 39.2% in 2003, 43.5% in 2004 and 49.1% in 2005. Findings The findings revealed that the average percentage of students that scored five credits and above including English and Mathematics in the six geo-political zones were 18.3% in 2001, 18.5% in 2002, 21.8% in 2003, 23.4% in 2004 and 23.1% in 2005.The overall performance of students who had five credits and above excluding English and Mathematics in 2001 was 3.7%, 3.6% in 2002, 5.3% in 2003, 5.3% and 2.9% in 2004 and 2005 respectively. The average performance of students was poor in all the geo- political zones. The performance of students’ in this category showed that 45.5% had less than five credit in 2001, 47% in 2002, 39.2% in 2003, 43.5% in 2004 and 49.1% in 2005 to The average performance of students with less than five credits from 2001-2005 in the selected states was very poor. 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Figure 4.6:Percentage of students with less than five credits without English and Mathematics in WASCE in the geo-political zones from 2001 to 2005 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.10:Total number of students that sat for WASCE in each state from 2001– 2005 S Geo- political 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total zones Lagos 154724 166882 149622 143901 152346 767475 Enugu 37195 39262 36709 35353 36350 184869 Bauchi 9135 9795 9073 9609 8189 45801 Akwa-Ibom 45244 49195 40801 46099 42364 223703 Kano 10869 19026 17430 20994 23113 91432 Nassarawa 17409 19047 18149 21493 24076 100174 Total 274576 303207 271784 277449 286458 1,413,474 Source: West African Examination Council, Yaba, Lagos The total number of students that sat for WASCE in all the geo-political zones from 2001-2005 was 1,413,474. The number of candidates that sat for the examination were 274576, 303207, 271784, 277449, 286458 in Lagos, Enugu, Bauchi, Akwa Ibom, Kano and Nassarawa States respectively. Research question 4 What was the average class size in public secondary schools in Nigeria from 2001 to 2005? Table 4.11: Student/teacher and Student/Class Ratios in the geo-political zones ZONES No. of No of No of Student/ Student/ students teachers classes Teacher Class Ratio Ratio Lagos 727,477 9545 16,497 76:1 44:1 Enugu 230,543 3271 5,234 70:1 44:1 Kano 292,300 4350 5,557 67:1 46:1 A/Ibom 342,570 4445 6,620 77:1 51:1 Bauchi 120,561 1785 2,260 68:1 53:1 Nassarawa 124,122 1985 2,367 63:1 52:1 Total 1,345,273 25,381 28,578 Sources: State Ministries of Education, Post Primary Education Boards, Teaching Service Commission and Education Districts. 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.11 showed student/teacher and student/class ratios: Lagos had 1:76, Enugu 1:70, Bauchi 1:68, Akwa Ibom 1:77, Kano 1:67 and Nassarawa1:63. The highest student/teacher ratio was in Akwa Ibom and Lagos states with 1:77 and 1:76 respectively. The lowest student/teacher ratio was in Nassarawa 1:63, Kano 1:67 and Bauchi 1: 68. Bauchi State had the highest student/class ratio of 1:53 while Nazarawa had 1:52. The lowest were from Lagos 1:44 and Enugu 1:44. Ho1: There is no significant composite influence of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools Nigeria Table 4.12: Multiple Regression Summary Table Showing Joint Contribution of the Variables R = 0.687 2 R = 0.469 2 Adj R = 0.445 Std Error = 6.835 ANOVA Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig P Remark squares Square Regression 8980.80 3 1718.70 46.27 0.000 <.05 Sig Residual 9097.74 1822 174.15 Total 12027.020 1825 Table 4.12 revealed that there was joint contribution of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria (R = 0.687, P<.05). The findings revealed that 46.9% variance in predicting students’ achievement was due to linear combinations of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation. This result showed that the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant composite influence of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools was rejected. 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.13: Parameter Estimate of Fund Mobilisation, Allocation and Utilisation on Students’ achievement Model B Std.Error β t-Value Sig P Fund Mobilisation 0.311 0.089 0.212 3.494 0.001 <.05 Fund Allocation 0.296 0.091 0.287 3.252 0.000 <.05 Fund Utilisation 0.356 0.088 0.301 4.045 0.012 <.05 Student/teacher ratio 0.167 0.068 0.156 2.455 0.015 <.05 Table 4.13 showed the relative contribution of each variable to the prediction of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Specifically, fund mobilisation, allocation, utilisation and students/ teacher ratio contributed significantly to the observed variance in students’ achievement. The relative contributions of the variables showed that fund utilisation made the highest contribution to students’ achievement (β = 0.301; p<.05 ), followed by fund allocation (β = 0.287; p< .05) while fund mobilisation made the third in magnitude of contributions to dependent variable (β = 0.212; p< .05) and students’/teacher ratio (β = 0.156; p< .05). Ho2: There is no significant relationship between fund allocation and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Table 4.14 : Relationship between Fund Allocation and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Variables N Mean SD r Df Sig P Students’ 1826 59.45 10.21 0.487 1824 .000 <.05 achievement Fund allocation 1826 68.67 11.58 The table indicated that there was significant relationship between fund allocation and students’ achievement; r (1824) = 0.487, P <.05. Fund allocation significantly related to students’ achievement in public secondary schools in selected states in Nigeria. The null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between fund allocation and students’ achievement was therefore rejected. 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ho3:There is no significant relationship between Fund mobilisation and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Table 4.15 Relationship between Fund Mobilisation and Students’ achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria Variables N Mean SD r Df Sig P Students’ achievement 1826 59.45 10.21 0.412 1824 0.000 <.05 Fund mobilisation 1826 45.22 10.98 Table 4.15 indicated that there was significant relationship between fund mobilisation and students’ achievement; r (1824) = 0.412, P <.05. Fund mobilisation significantly related to students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. The null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between the fund mobilisation and students’ achievement was rejected. Ho4: There is no significant relationship between utilisation of financial resource and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Table 4.16 : Relationship between Utilisation of financial Resource and Students’ Achievement in Public Secondary Schools Variables N Mean SD r Df Sig P Students’ achievement 1826 59.45 10.21 0.401 1824 .000 <.05 Financial resource 1826 38.83 9.09 utilisation Table 4.16 revealed there was significant relationship between utilisation of financial resource and students’ achievement; r (1824) = 0.401, P <.05. utilisation of financial resource significantly related to students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. The hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between utilisation of financial resource and students’ achievement is rejected. 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ho5: There is no significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Table 4.17: Relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement in secondary schools Variables N Mean SD r Df Sig P Students’ achievement 1826 59.45 10.21 0.456 1824 .000 <.05 Student/teacher ratio 1826 21.98 6.32 The table indicated that there was significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement; r (1824) = 0.456, P<.05. In other words, student/teacher ratio significantly related to students’ achievement in public secondary school students in Nigeria. The null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement was rejected. Discussion of Findings The discussion of the findings is presented under the following subheadings: Budgetary Allocation to Education from 2001 to 2005 by the State Governments. Tables on budgetary allocation to education from 2001 to 2005 were produced in the selected states representing the geo-political zones in Nigeria. It was revealed in Table 4.1 that Lagos State allocated the highest percentage (25%) of its budget to education in 2005 which was higher than any other state. The State allocated highest proportion of its budgetary allocation to public secondary schools also in year 2004 with 35.3% but this dropped to 28.4% in 2005. Enugu State allocated 23.4% to education in 2003 and dropped to 22.3% in 2005 whereas, the state allocated 14.2% to secondary education in 2001 which increased to 32.0% in 2004 but dropped to 24.7% in 2005 (Table 4.2). In Kano State, 15.2% was allocated to education in 2001 which dropped to 11.9% in 2002, increased to 17.4% in 2003, dropped again to 14.3% in 2004 and increased to 18.0% in 2005. The allocation to secondary education dropped from 72.1% in 2001 to 46.8% in 2005 (Table 4.5). Akwa Ibom State allocated 6.6% to education in 2001, 12.2% in 2002, 2.5% in 2003, 16.9% in 2004 and 13.1% in 2005. While the percentage allocated to secondary 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY education by the state was 7.5% in 2001, 4.2% in 2002, 31.5% in 2003, 4.8% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005(Table 4.4). Similarly, Nassarawa State allocation to education in year 2001 was 9.0%, 8.0% in 2002, 9.1% in 2003, 12.5% in 2004, and 16.2% in 2005. The state government allocated 9.9% to secondary education in 2001, 10.7% in 2002, 18.4% in 2003, 20.1% in 2004 and 32.7% in 2005 (Table 4.6). Bauchi State government allocated 9.50% to education in 2001, 8.60% in 2002 and 2003, 6.0% in 2004 and 10.05% in 2005 whereas, the state allocated 8.0% in 2001, 57.1% in 2002, 17.8% 0n 2003, 9.2% in 2004 and 9.8% in 2005 (Table 4.3).. The percentage budgetary allocation to education in particular and secondary education in general in the selected states in the six geo-political zones in Nigeria was very poor and below 26% UNESCO recommendation. There was an upward trend in fund allocation to education in Lagos State from 21.58 to 25%, Akwa Ibom State 6.6% to13.1%, Nassarawa State 9.0% to 16.2%, Bauchi State 9.50% to 10.05% and Kano State 15.2% to 18%. There was a downward trend in fund allocation to education in Enugu State from 22.7 to 22.3%.There was an upward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Lagos State from 26.2% to 28.4%, Enugu State 14.2 to 24.7% , Bauchi State 8.0 to 9.8% and Nasarawa State 9.9 to 32.7% states. Whereas, there was a downward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Akwa Ibom State 7.5 to 3.5% and Kano state 72.1 to 46.8%. This however accounted for variation in academic performance of students in the West African Senior School Certificate Examinations generally in all the geo-political zones in Nigeria From 2001 to 2005, the overall performance of students in the West Senior Secondary Certificate Examination in all geo-political zones was very poor. The highest performance of the students in the examination was recorded by Lagos and Enugu States in 2005 with 34.2% and 22.6% respectively. Similarly, Bauchi State recorded 46.7% in 2003, Nassarawa State 5.8% in 2004 while Kano State recorded 20.7% in 2001. However, the percentage of students with less than five credits from 2001 to 2005 revealed that Lagos State recorded 43.9%, Enugu State 49.9%, Bauchi State 28.0% and Akwa Ibom State 37.3%. The poorest performance was recorded by Kano State with 45.9 in 2001 and 71.9 in 2004 by Nassarawa State respectively. The highest percentage of students with five credits and above excluding English Language and Mathematics in the same examination indicated that Lagos State recorded 1.6% in 2001, Enugu State 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10.1% in 2003, Bauchi State 4.2% in 2001, Akwa Ibom State 4.6% in 2003, Kano State 5.7% in 2001 and Nassarawa State 7.4% in 2003 The above performance was an indication that state governments as a matter of necessity need to allocate substantial amount of their annual budgets to secondary education so that more classrooms can be built, more qualified teachers can be employed and long time agitation for special salary scale by the teachers can be attended to. This would motivate teachers to discharge their duties as expected of them and impact positively on students’ achievement. The findings further revealed that the average percentages of students that scored five credits and above including English Language and Mathematics in the six geo-political zones were: 18.3% in 2001, 18.5% in 2002, 21.8% in 2003, 23.4% and 23.1% in 2004 and 2005 respectively. Fund Allocation, Mobilisation and Utilisation and students’ achievement In the first hypothesis, it was stated that there was no significant composite influence of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. The findings revealed that there was a joint contribution of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation on students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. The finding showed variance in the students’ achievement due to linear combination of fund mobilization, allocation and utilisation. The result of this current study is in agreement with the findings of Hanusheks (1989, 1991 and 1997) which provided strong support for a robust positive relationship between students’ achievement and various inputs in educational process and expenditure per student is equally a significant factor and the mean coefficient factor is sufficiently large to be of practical importance. This study also supported Farombi (1998) who observed that financial resources explained the largest proportion of the variance in students’ achievement in Senior Secondary Certificate examination. Hincheliffe (2002) and Benniell (2006) analysed public spending on education and commented on the difficulty in obtaining accurate data on finance due largely to poor record keeping, concern over the possible use of the information and complexity of financing with allocations and expenditure at the federal, state and local government levels. The principals of schools should therefore be given opportunity to generate revenue and fund generated should be closely monitored to ensure they are well utilised. Abasilim (1984) in Famade (1999) 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY argued that it was not the magnitude of resources needed that created problem but losses due to wastage, fraud and absence of internal control. Fund allocation and students’ achievement The second null hypothesis proposed that there was no significant relationship between financial allocation and students’ achievement. The result of this hypothesis showed that, there was significant relationship between financial allocation and students’ achievement. This finding supported Anyaogu (2004), Cooper and Cohn (1997) and Mayston and Jessen (1999) who contended that there was a significant relationship between financial allocation and students’ academic performance. This finding also corroborates the findings of Dewey, Husted and Kenny (2000) that causal relationship exists between expenditure per pupil and SAT result. Gupa, Verhoeven and Tiongoon (1999) found that countries that invest a great proportion of national income in education have higher enrolment rate. Also, Copper (2003) found a positive and statistically significant relationship between capital investment and pupil performance. Fabunmi and Okorie (2001) also found a high positive relationship between financial efficiency and academic performance, Onatade’s (2000) finding revealed a significant positive relationship between public spending on education and academic performance of students Utilisation of financial resources and students’ achievement The null hypothesis three stated that there is no significant relationship between utilisation of financial resource and students’ achievement. The more efficient the utilisation of financial resource, the better the students’ achievement. This study supported the finding of Fabunmi and Okorie (1997) which established relationship between financial efficiency and secondary school academic performance. In the same vein, Lawal (2007) also showed significant relationship between managerial efficiency and resource utilisation level. This study was also in consonance with the Anyaogu (2004) and Farombi (1998) noted significant relationship between financial resource utilisation and academic performance of secondary schools. The finding of this study is also in consonance with that of Celeste, Heather, Amanda, and Catherine, (2000) that found that districts with higher students’ academic performance spent more on per pupil expenditure than districts with lower students’ performance. Eide and Showalter (1998) 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY found that Per Pupil Expenditure have larger effects on mathematics scores. The result of this study negated the finding of Dahar, Arshad, Iqbal, Zafar and Dahar, Rashida (2009) which observed that per pupil expenditure, mostly, had a negative impact on students achievement at secondary level but submitted that it was the misallocation, mismanagement and the misuse or the exploitation of funds and resource inputs that were responsible for low students’ academic achievement Fund mobilisation and students’ achievement The null hypothesis four stated that there is no significant relationship between fund mobilisation and students’ achievement. The test revealed a significant relationship between fund mobilisation and students’ achievement. This study supported the finding of Jaiyeoba (1999). This study is in contrast with the findings of Hanushek (1981) on the ground that additional spending on education would not produce desired result. This study supported the finding of Charlene (2006) who noted that increase in federal revenue would be more effective in improving students’ achievement. The finding of Jefferson (2005) supported the viewpoint that mobilization of funds is more effective in producing desired outcome.. This finding is also in line with Article 9 of 1990 on World Declaration on Education For All (EFA) by 2015 which emphasised that to effectively realize good educational outcomes, there is the need to provide combination of trained and talented personnel, adequate and attractive learning environment, state of the earth learning equipment and would also be essential to mobilize existing and new financial resource through private, public and voluntary agencies. The finding of this study negated the finding of Murnane and Levy (1996) who observed that the availability of extra resources does not equal greater students’ achievement.The finding was not also in consonance with the finding of Charlene (2006) that increasing the general purpose funding through revenue limit would lower students’ achievement, on the average. Taylor (2001) examined the relationship between students’ performance and school expenditure and found that schools have a positive statistically significant effect on students’ achievement. Lawal (2007) also noted that the fund generation capacity of the principal and resource utilisation are significantly related. 82 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement Hypothesis five states that, there is no significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement in public secondary school. The result of this study revealed significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and students’ achievement. The result affirmed the findings of researchers (Ojoawo, 1989; Bolton, 1998; Johnson, 2000; Fabunmi, 2000; Fabunmi, Peter and Isaiah, 2007; Mantle and Marcus, 2008) that there exists a significant relationship between student/teacher ratio and academic performance. On the contrary, Johnson (2000) examined the impact of small classes on academic students’ achievement. He observed that small classes do not have significant relationship with students’ achievement. This study confirmed the finding of Fabunmi and Okorie (2001) that posited a significant positive correlation between class size and students’ achievement. The student/teacher ratio is the number of students given to a teacher at a particular time for the purpose of education and training. The National Policy on Education (2004) stipulated student/teacher ratio of 40:1 for secondary school. It is interesting to note that some states such as Lagos State had 76:1, Enugu State 70:1, Bauchi State 60:1, A/bom State 77:1, Kano State 67:1 and Nassarawa State 63:1. The highest student/teacher ratio was in Akwa Ibom State and Lagos states which has 77:1 and 76:1 respectively. The lowest student/teacher ratio was in Nassarawa State 63:1, Kano 67:1 and Bauchi State 68:1. Bauchi State had the highest ratio of student/class ratio of 53:1, while Nassarawa State had 52:1. The lowest were from Lagos State 44:1 and Enugu State 44:1. The average student/teacher ratio was 70:1, while the average class size in the geo-political zones was 46:1 83 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Findings This chapter presented the summary of the findings of the study. Conclusions were made based on the summary and appropriate recommendations and contributions of the study to knowledge were stated. Limitations to the study and suggestions for further research were equally stated. The major findings were the following There was an upward trend in fund allocation to education in Lagos State from 21.58% to 25%, Akwa Ibom State, 6.6% to13.1%, Nassarawa State, 9.0% to16.2%, Bauchi State, 9.50% to 10.05% and Kano State 15.2% to 18%. There was a downward trend in fund allocation to education in Enugu State from 22.7% to 22.3%. There was an upward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Lagos State from 26.2 to 28.4%, Enugu State, 14.2% to 24.7%, Bauchi State, 8.0% to 9.8% and Nassarawa State, 9.9% to 32.7% states whereas there was a downward trend in fund allocation to secondary education in Akwa Ibom State 7.5% to 3.5% and Kano 72.1% to 46.8%. The percentage budgetary allocation to education in the selected states in the six geo-political zones in Nigeria was very poor and below 26% recommended by United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation. There was significant joint contribution of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilization jointly contributed 46.9 variance in predicting students’ achievement in public secondary school in Nigeria. Fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation jointly accounted for 46.9% variance in predicting students’ achievement in public secondary schools (R = 0.687; F(3,1822) = 46.27, p < 0.05). The contributions of each variable to students’ achievement was: fund allocation (β = 0.287, t = 3.252, p <.05), fund mobilisation (β = 0.212, t = 3.494, p < 0.05), utilisation of financial resources (β = 0.301, t = 4.045, p < 0.05), student / teacher ratio (β = 0.156, t = 2.455, p < 0.05). 84 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Conclusion From the study, it is apparent that much is needed to be done in the way and manner the Nigerian education system is funded. Mobilisation, allocation and utilisation of funds have improved students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. Government should, therefore, allocate more funds to secondary education so that all facilities that would improve the students’ achievement are made available. Ministries of education and principals of schools should broaden their revenue generation capacities to augment whatever amount government allocated to the system and efforts should be made to ensure that the available funds are utilised properly to improve students’ achievement. Eliezer (2004) advised that to make sure that the funds released for education serve the desired purpose very good financial mechanism of controlling expenditure at all levels of government need to be put in place. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study it is recommended that:  Government should allocate more funds to secondary education so that all facilities that could lead to all round development of the students are made available.  Ministries of education are encouraged to utilise resources (financial, human, materials etc) allocated to them properly in order to improve students’ achievement.  Principals of secondary schools are encouraged to utilise resources (financial, human, material etc) allocated to them efficiently with a view to inculcating the right skills in the students.  Education ministries and school authorities should employ more teachers and build more classrooms in order to maintain recommended student/teacher ratio of 1:40 in secondary schools.  Education sector should be given preference in the budgetary allocation to improve students’ achievement. More importantly, budgetary allocation to secondary schools should be based on specific formula such as students’ enrolment, years of establishment as well as staff strength in each school. 85 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Contributions to Knowledge The essence of carrying out any research work is to extend the frontier of knowledge. This study was carried out with the same objective especially in the area of funding of education. This research work has contributed to the frontier of knowledge in the following areas:  The study, through empirical evidence, showed the predictive power of the selected variables that determining students’ achievement.  The study affirmed the need to generate funds by the principals of public secondary schools so as to augment government allocation  The study emphasised that adequate finance of education is an essential factor in improving students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria.  The study has been able to produce a new model to explain the relationship among fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation and students’ achievement. Limitation of the Study The study was carried out in the sampled states in each of the geo-political zones of Nigeria. There was lack of initial cooperation from some states’ ministries of education, Teaching Service Commission and ministries of finance to release the main and actual budget on time. The WASSCE results requested for were not made available on time because of the special computer programme needed to be developed before the data could be generated. here was also initial problem of getting trusted research assistants from each of the states. Consequently, repeated visits were made to these states. The study would have covered more years but data were not available. Suggestions for Further Studies  The study investigated fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. This could be replicated in other geo-political zones in Nigeria.  The study concentrated on the influence of fund mobilisation, allocation and utilisation as predictors of students’ achievement in public secondary schools in Nigeria. 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In M. Boekaerts, Pintrich P. R., and Zeidne M. (Eds.), Handbook of self- regulation. San Diego: Academic Press. 107 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 1 SECONDARY EDUCATION FUND ALLOCATION AND MOBILISATION DATA COLLECTION FORMAT For: Directors of ministries of education This Data-collection format is meant to help collect information on areas of fund allocation and mobilisation in the six geo-political zones in Nigeria within the last five years, 2001 to 2005. Please, help complete the questionnaire Thanks. Alaka, Abayomi SECTION A 1. What is the composition of your geo-political zone in terms of the following? S/N ITEMS COMPOSITION 1. Name of your geo-political zone 2. Name of your state 3. Number of local government councils in your state 2. What is the total number of the following educational institutions representing the geo-political zone? S/N INSTITUTIONS COMPOSITION 1. Number of public secondary schools in your state 2. vNvufmffsbteart sotfa tceo lleges of education in your state 3. Number of Polytechnics in your state 4. Number of universities in your state 108 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION B 3. What is the composition of the following items in your geo-political zone in your state? S/N ITEMS Composition 1. Name of your geo-political zone 2. Name of your state 3. Population of your state 4. Number of public secondary schools in your state 5. . T So itnal y nouumr bsteart eo f teachers in public secondary schools in your 6. sTtoatteal number of students in public secondary school 4. What is the share of education in the total approved budgets of your state from 2001 to 2005? Year Total State Budget Education Budget 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 5. What is the share of secondary school budget in the total approved vote for education from 2001 to 2005? Year Education Budget Public Secondary Budget 2001 2002 2003 2004 2 005 Total 109 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. Kindly indicate the amount generated internally by the school in the following areas for stated years Principal internally generated revenue from 2001-2005 S/N ITEMS 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 1 Parent /teacher Association 2 Sales of farm produce 3 Handiwork 4 Sales of magazine 5 Local handicraft 6 Inter-house competition 7 School fees Total 7. Kindly indicate the amount generated externally by the school in the following areas for stated years Principal external generated revenue from 2001-2005 S/N ITEMS 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 1 Donations from old students’ association 2 Monthly imprest from government 3 Immediate community 4 Rich philanthropic individual 5 Founder’s day celebration 6 Religious organisation 7 International organisation Total Total current cost………………… Current cost per student ……………………. 110 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 11 SECONDARY EDUCATION FUND UTILISATION DATA COLLECTION FORMAT For : principals or Vice Principals Dear Sir/Ma This data collection Template is meant to collect information on areas of fund utilisation in respect of students and staff. This information would be used solely for academic purposes. The information shall be treated with highest level of confidentiality. Thank you. Alaka, Abayomi Please, help complete the questionnaire SECTION A 1. Name of the school………………………………………… 2. Location of school…………………………………………… 3. Local government area……………………………………… 4. Number of public secondary schools in your local government ... 5. Type of school system……………………………………………  Day system………………………………………  Boarding system…………………………………………  Both systems……………………………………………. 6. Sex served  Co-education…………………………………..  Boys’ only…………………………………………………  Girls’ only…………………………………………………. 111 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION B AREAS OF FUND UTILISATION BY THE PRINCIPALS OF SECONDARYSCHOOLS 7 .Please indicate areas of fund utilisation by your school S/N ITEMS 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 1. Payment of hired teacher’s salary 2. Payment of hired non teaching staff salary 3. Entertainment 4 Repairs of students’ lockers 5 Renovation of buildings 6 Construction of boreholes 7 Maintenance of hostel 8 Purchase of drugs and first aid box 9 Purchase of computers and generator 10 Repair of school bus 11 Consumables 10 Purchase of books for the library 11 Purchase of mower for cutting grasses 12 Miscellaneous Total 8. Please indicate total recurrent expenditure on staff salary and allowances TEACHING STAFF NON TEACHING STAFF 2001 Number Salary Allowances Number Salary Allowance 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 112 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 9. Please indicate the total students’ enrolment from 2001 to 2005 Years JSS 1 JSS 11 JSS 111 SSS 1 SSS 11 SSS 111 M F M F M F M F M F M F 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 10. What is the total number of teachers in your school by their qualifications? Years Graduates HND NCE/OND Others Total 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 113 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX 11I STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT ANALYSIS FORMAT STUDENTS’ RESULTS IN WEST AFRICAN SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION (WASSCE) FROM 2001 TO 2005 Year Total No. 5 Credits and 5 Credits and above Less than five credits of students above plus English Minus English and excluding English and and Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 114 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY