UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
VOLUME Nineteen ISSN 1117-1421
NUMBER One lVlARCI-i, 2011·
CONTENTS
NAME OF AUTHORS PAGE TITLE OF ARTICLES
EDlTOIUAL
CONTENTS viii
. ADEJU'VON, G. A & Emotional Well-being or Orphans and
OK1,S. Vulnerable Children in Ogun State
Orphanages Nigeria: Predictors and
Implications for Policy.
EGHAREYBA, lVl.E 19 Restructuring the Nigerian State for
Sustainable Development: The Value
Challenge.
GESINDE, A: lVl 40 Dimensions of Emotional Maltreatment
of School Adolescents at home:
Implications for Counselling Practice.
OJUMOQGUNJE,O.O., 56 Population Growth: Implications for
ADEGBOYEGA, S. A., Environmental Sustainability.
BANJO, O. 0.& FUNMILA YO,
O.A
ADEJUlVlO, A. Q & 70 Relationship between Psycho-
QGBEWE, C. Demographic Factors and perception of
Corruption by Local Government Civil
Servants in Osun State, Nigeria.
~ .
ADESlNA,O. J Influence of Persoualiry Types and
Academic Procasrination on the
Academic Achievements or Senior
Secondary School Adolescents in
vm
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Ibadan Metropolis.
AREMU, A.O., WfLLlA1VIS, 93 Influence of Academic Procrastination
T. M. &ADESINA, F. T and Personality Types on Academic
Achievement and Efficacy of In-School
Adolescents in Ibadan.
AYf:Nf, O. B., AYENIB10WO, t 1'I Religiosity as Correlates of Some
1<.0& AYENI, E:. A Selected Psychological Disorders
among Psychiatric Outpatients in
Lagos State.
FAN IRAN, A. 0& OLATUNJT, 129 The Place of Interest in Pre-Service
S.O English Teachers' Choice of
Occupation: A Study of Selected
Nigerian College of Education
Students
LAWAL,A. M 145 Mental Health Variables and Sexual
Risk Behaviour among Young People
in Nigeria.
OLASUPO, IV1.0 159 Relationship between Organizational
Culture, Leadership Style and Job
Satisfaction in a Nigerian
Manufacturing organization.
NWANKWO, O. C, In Role of Effort in Stimulating Luck: Its
UGOlf(WE-OSSAL f & Parapsychology Implications for
N\VEKE. C C Achievment,
EZENW A. IVI. tR7 Symptorns ofPs ychopatho logy among
Street Hawkers in Enugu Metropolis
Nigeria
IGBOKWE, 0.0 195 Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the
Enugu Somatization Scale.
ACKAR, F. R& APP1AH. J. 226 Early Intervention as a Catalyst for
Effective Early Childhood Education
in Ghana - How can this Work?
ix
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
, ~-~-. -;--- .
ADEKEYE, 0.8 & 240 Impact of Locus of Control, Religiosity
OLISAH; V. 0 and Exercise on Depression in
Northern Nigerian Teaching Hospital. .
Leaders in Lagos State, Nigeria.
ADEKEYE. O. A & ADEUSI, 255 Atribution Patterns, Attitude and
S.O Knowledge of HI V IAIDS on Sexual
Behavioural Change among Students
of Covenant University Ota, Nigeria.
SALMAN, M. F., ESERE, 270 Effects of Two Psychological
M. 0., OMOTOSHO, J. A., Techniques in Improving Academic
AllDULLAJ-Il, O. E & Performance of Secondary School
ONlY ANGl, S.O Students in Mathematics.
I' ~
~'. , UWASOMBA,C no A Socro-Psychological Exploration of' .. Dosioyevsky's Crime and Punishment.
fiALA, H. 298 Influence of Small and Medium
Building Engineering Entrepreneurship
on the Actualization of Vision 20:2020
in Kebbi State, Nigeria.
ALHASSAN, A. B 309 An Evaluation of Instructional
Strategies Used in HIV /AIDS
Preventive Education in Lagos Island
Schools.
AD ISA, A; L 328 Current State ofthe Economy and
Obaferni Awolowo University
Stuclents' Assessment of the Image of
the Nigerian Civil Service.
AHIATROGAH, P. 0 & 342 High Sd100l Students' Perception of
ADANE, M. Computer Laboratory Learning
Environments in Ghana.
ADEBOWALE, T. A 360 Perceived Availability of Guidance and
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Counselling Services among Tertiary
Institutions Students in Selected South-
West Universities in Nigeria.
AKINBODE, C.A 375 Demographic and Dispositional
Characteristics as Predictors of
Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.
ADEBOWALE, A 405 Micro-Credit: An Amelioration of
Poverty for Small Scale Entrepreneurs
in Nigeria.
TELLA, A. 430 An Assessment of Mathematics Self-
Efficacy of Secondary School Students
in Osun State, Nigeria.
OLAYI"rOLA, 1. 0 441 Self-Efficacy as Predictor of Job
Performance of Public Secondary
School Teachers in Osun State .
ADEDINI, S. A. & 45-6 . Assessing Knowledge, Attitude. and
ODIMECWU, C. 0 Practice of Vital Registration System in
South-West Nigeria. .
OLUJIDE, M. C & 472 Assessment of Rural Children in
OJO,O.I) Agricultural Production Activities in
Ogbornosho Zone ofOyo State.
Nigeria A Vocational Concept.
FAREO, D._0 495 A Study of Self Perception and
Academic Performance of Students
with Special Needs into Mainstreamed
Public Secondary Schools in Nigeria.
!BORO, F. A 507 Perceived Psycho-emotional influence
of Aesthetics, Affluence and
Environmental Sophistication on
Employees' Theft Behaviours in the
Workplace,
AIl3INUOMO,.F. A 529 Primary Health Care as the Bedrock of
The MDGs: Community Sensitization,
Mobilization, and Education on
X I
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Communication for Positive Health
Change.
OKEI)IJJl, A; A., ETUK; A. S 543 Influence of Perceived Co-worker
Involvement arid Supervisory
Support on Job Satisfaction.
AZUKA,M.O 558 Utilization of Information and
Communication Technologies in
Teaching in Polytechnics.
Accolades 566
A Sample of Review Notes 569
Ulrich International Directory 571
Reach Us 572
Sabinet Online 573
Proquest 574
Invitation to Subscribe 575
Ife Psychologia (RC LAZO 11934) 576
lfe Psychologia: 577
African Journal Online 578
:-'11
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RELATIONSHIP BET\IlEEN PSYCH07DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
AND PEI}CEPTION OF CORRUPTION BY LOCAL GOVEfiU'fMENJ,
"I ".;' I. CIVIL SERVANTS IN OSLJ.\[STATE, NIGERIA· ,
i • ~ ! i ,.I I
Ad ej um o ; A. 0.: RN Ph.D F\v/\CN & Ogbewe, C
Department of PsvcIFJlogy, l.ln ive rs ity of Ibnrlan. Ibada n, Nigeria
Abstract
Even t houuh :;loh:d. (urrtlpLiun is assuming a
worrtsorne dinu-usion in Nigeria. This study
investig,lIccl l lu fclz,lilJllShip between psycholcgtcal
and clcmCi~r;I))ll ic factors in predicting lhe
percepuon of cor ropucn. The cross-secuonal
correlationnl st del) included I)()O Civil servants: 320
males an d 230 ft:malt:s ["Ilowing multi-stage
sampling . .'\ t~,-ikll1 qucst ionnairc was used for
data collection Dut a analysis included Pearson
Product f\lomelll Correlation and regression.
Results showed that there was significant positive
relationslup between fraudulent intent (r = 0.671.
P<.05), personality (I' = 0.031. P<.05), fear of crime
(r ::::0.491. P<.05), need for achievement (r = 0.486,
P<.05), and perception of corru ption. There was
Significant rela tionshtp iJetween! age of the
respondents (I' =0.385, P...:.05)and perception of
corruption. There was 110 Significant relationship
between level of educruiou [r = 0.049, P>.OEi). socio-
economic slaws (r = 0.041, P>.05), length of
service (r = 0.020, P>.05), and perception of
corruption. This highlights the importance of
fraud ulcnt intent. personality and age as factors
critical to the understanding of an individ ual's
perception of corruption .. suggesting the need for
national re-orientation and mobiiizationto re-
awaken posttive cognitive appraisal and response
to corruption.
Key words: Psycho-demographic. factors.
perception, corruption, Nigeria
Background
The issue or corruption over the last few years has
attracted renewed interest. both among academics and
poucymakers (Mauro, 1995. Kaufman & Shang-Jin. 1999).
'Corruption has become one of the most widely debated and
contenttous Tssues in local and international contexts. It is a
phenomenon in which ethical. cultural. and regulatory issues
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(
ljl' P'):Il'llrdugl.i. {".dll.llll' Jl) Nlllllh.',.· I, 1\lol"cll ]011
\nt~f;~~~t(fylau:o .. i,9VC!: ~aYI1101,~q'.'~.' G~~ti. 20~2). Despite' the
glqq~ll: ))'Grr>, ~IJOL~t corruptton, VC,JY. little: scienitflc fllquiJ~ has
!~e~n focused on, hp\{ conceruecl grollps perceive: corn: pti6ri.ltl
alone the psycho-rlcmographt« factors related La il.
There are ,1 number or reasons why t his topic h~IS cornc
under fresh scrutiny: Corruption impacts the lire or common men
negatively than elites in many societies. Additionally. gooel
governance is incrcasingly desired by most societies. The quality
of any gover nmcru is ofu-n rated with respect LO corru ption levels:
and corruption scandals have toppled governlllents ill but.h major
industrial countries and c1evelqping countries (Mauro. 1996).
Since the end or the colel war, c1onor countries now place
less emphasis on political considerations in allocaung foreign aid
among developing countries with greater attentlon toward
assuring thai aiel Iu nds have not only reached the poor but
efricielltly uu lised. However. with the persistence ofslow ecoriornic :
growth. malfunctioning institutions, and \\,orsening poverty in
many countries, there is heightened wony that ava llable
reso. rccs arc cIIvcrtcd in Iavou r of the eli t es and advan tagcd few
in many societies (M<111ro. 1996).
A study has characterized some main [0I111S or
manifestations of corruption (Amundsen. 1999). They are;
bribery, embezzlement. and fraud. Eskeland and Thiele (1999)
and Fjeldstad (1999) also identified extortion. and favouritism as
variants of corruption. All forms or these corrupt practices may be
found' in Nigeria with varying degree of severity (Transparency
International,2002).
University of Massachusetts researchers estimated that
from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries
totaled $187bn, exceeding· those nations' external debts
JTreisman, 2000a). In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion
was stolen from the treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960
and 1999 (Transparency International, 2002). Until now, Nigeria
ranked l O'!' of the world's most corrupt nations. In 2006, of the
163 countries surveyed. Nigeria ranked 142 on the list of
countries WiU1 least records of corruption (Larnbsdorff. 2007). A
2008 survey involving 180 of the world's 193 countries ranked
Nigeria 121 on the list of world's least corrupt nations
(Transparency International. 2008). Despite Nigeria's enormous
oil wealth, Nigerla's socio-economlc indicators are alarmingly low,
with more than half of the population living on less than USS 1 a
dayKr-Nexid 2009).
The problem of corruption arid ftna nclal crime in
Nigeria is gradually becoming cancerous. pervasive and toxic.
Th is could beexpllcated in a study report recently released by the
Intergovernmental Action Group Against Money Laundering in
West Africa (CL\ .B. A). an agency of ECO\VAS. The report said
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.-I.h'illlHo. ,-I () & Ugh ..'.\.'..!. (. P3.1·th.J.d~·lIIvgn//?/'/I.~_ Fnctor» .nut f',,·n~t.'f)/icl/' ofCorn.ption
Nigl~ria, by t he acunns of ten Iorme-r governors scored 87.3 per
cent: the Ji tghcs! IIlAr,;, :1 on the scale of bribery to government
offlctuls. TItOliSil, till' IXIl-!ycllti not name tile guvernors, It noted,
however, t.h.u (lie SIlIII \I'd."; ;1110,101(:11 in t h rr:c: years, A breakdown
of the report showed (11.1[: in Cor ruption-Moucy Laundering
Nl'XlIS, Nigeria scored 87.3 Jlt'\' cent ln Bribery or government.
officials, followed 1)\' Chnua (56.7 per ce nt] COLC' d ivo irc (.S5 per
cent), Liberia (·14.4 per cent) and Brrun Rcp ubl!c (40 per cent).
Also, Nig(:ria scored 2:}.G PCI cent in bribing foreign olhclals.
followed by Gu ineu Bissau (16.7 per cent, Cotedvo ire (14 per
. cent) and Ghana IG.7 per u'IIL). Nigeri:~ maintained its leading
postuo.i. scoring 86.6 per l":'lll ill cmbczz k-rncru. 'misappropriation
or other divers ions of prO[krty by government officials. trailed by
Sierra-Leone (82.4 pCI' ce ut). Guinea Bissau (66.7 per cent),
Ghana (56.7 per ecru) and Benin Republic (52.0 percenti
(Ajibade, 20 to).
Under illegal Lransfcr ur lLIkillg of ruoriey abroad. Nigeria scored
57·9 per cent) Liberia (-l55 per cent) , Guinea Bissau (36.1 per
CPIl), and Sierra Leone 135.3 per ceuu.In contracts inflation.
Nigeria has 86.1 per cent. Sierra-Leone (82.4 per cent) Guinea
Bissau (55.56 per cent). Ghana (56.7 per cent)' Liberia (45.5 per
cent) and Benin Republic (28.0 per cent) (Ajibacle, 2010).
Osun state in Nigeria. is the focus of this study because of
persistent allegaLions ofcolTupt practices by the government.
ranging. fro III election fraud. bribery of judicial offlctals to
monumental Iinanclal scandals. for example, lawmakers in Os u n
state were shocked in ~\)08 when they were individually credited
through their respective banks to the tune of 5 million naira. i.e.
about USD$35,000 from the executive amI' of the state
government without soliciLing for it. These are part of funds
meant for capital projects for the citizenry (Osun Defender. 2008).
The perception of corruption by government officials at the grass-
root is unclear.
The state government. has done well between 2003 and
2010 by adhering to the campaign slogan of zero- tolerance for
burrowing: In public administration. borrowing may not be a
crime provided that the fund borrowed is used for concrete
projects that will be of benefit to the people. To buttress this, the
government in power before 2003 bequeathed about N6bn
surplus cash in the treasury without a single loan facility.
However, with less than a year to the end of the eight-year tenure.
the outgoing government wrote to the stale legislature for
perrnisston to sed. an N 18.3bn loan. This has been described as a
criminal contempt of the people of the state by the opposition
party: while tile press secretary to the state government was
quoted as saying "[he Listnuation that the govertl1l1ent is planning
11
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lfo l'svchotoglA: /·'"II//l/t' 19 Numbrr I.Mnrch. HI! I
to leave a debt . profile is wrong because governm:. l( is a
continu urn" (Odcso!a. 20 I0). Tile government's decision tn access
foreign loans has been perceived diffcre ntly by different office
holders and. Civil servants. .
An indivirlua l's perception of something is his or her
impression or understanding. of the concept, based on
observation, knowledge or thought (Encarta Dictionary. 2008).
Wilen offtclals entrusted with stale resources deliberately or
inadvertently turn blind eye to corrupt practices in their domain.
iL raises the et h ico-Iega l questions (Transparency internalional,
2002). Because of variations in dispositional and situational
differences in individuals. perception of what is considered to be
corrupt would likely be different. Knack and Keefer (1997)
postulated that individuals perceive corruption to be very high if
they found ecorior.iic gain on their work activities most especially
in government. Knowledge of such differences is important
because they can have an impact on the perpetuation of corrupt
practices. If people do not recognise an activity being witnessed,
or in which they are participating as "corrupt", they are not likely
to' react to it negatively, nor would they perceive tl f' need [or
behavio ural change (Independent Commission Against
Corruption, 1994).
Although Warr, (1994). Swamy, Stephen. Younc, & Omar ,
(2001) and Treisman. (2000b) earlier revealed the possibility of a
variety of factors to predict perception of corruption. Most
previous research efforts have focused on the legal, political and
economic aspects of crime in many parts of the world. As a result,
knowledge of the psychological and demographiC factors
predicting perception of corruption from the perspectives of
stakeholders remains poorly- understood.
The purpose of this study is therefore to investigate' civil
servantaperception of corruptlon in the conduct of govemment
business, and the relationship between personality factors,.
fraudulent intent, need for achievement, and fear of crime
[psychological factors);' as well as length of service, gender, age
and socio-economic status (demographic factors) in predicting the
perception of corruption from the perspective of local government
officials.
Design
This cross-sectional correlational study took place in Osun state,
one of. the 36 states in Nigeria. Osun State is located in the
South-Western part of Nigeria. It covers an area of approximately
14,875 square kilometers, and lies between longitude 04 OOE and
latitude 05 558". Nigeria Is Africa's most populous country with
an estimated population of 145 million. It Is the world's 11 III
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· .
"'d~..i/lm(l. >J. 'Ul'\: ()gh.'lIl', ( )"'l";' .l, 11/"._~.'cllJ//n i«. torsiu«! l', 'd/'Ir, , .IJ l \)""11/.111011
Ihrgesl producer Ill' oil. wh nh ;Il'collnted for the 981!" of Nigeria's
total export for 2007. .
Part ictpant s and sarn plc
Local go\'ernIlIClll otlici;tis ill all t hc :~ scnruorta lzones in OSLIn
state, NigtTia p;lrtii.'ipalccl. This iX'CHIl1t' ncC'cs::;ary because most
corrupt prac: ices in pul.ilic sr-rvice arc: dlre ctly or indirectly
Iacilitnt cd by civil servants' and govul1ll1t'n[ agents (Rose-
Ackerman. 1978, ami Myrd.il. 19G8).
SL\: hundred participants were selected following multi-stage
sampling. Tile 3 se narort.ij zoncss of tile slate were clustered. Tile
list of local guvcrnllll:nl .ueus in each local gOyerrllllCnt was
obtained. from which :2 local governments \1'<:1'''' randomly selected
through balloting, yielding G local governments, One hundred and
twenty civil servants in the local goverruuent were selected
accidentally, Iollowing on autonomous desire li) participate in the
study.
One hundred and 'tweuty questionnutres were c\istributed in -
each zone mak ing a touu number of 720 questionnaires.
Participanls' ages ranged between 18 ancl 60 years with mean of
38.21 years (SD=G.87j. Tilt' sample comp: ised :320 males (53.3%)
ancl 280 females HG.7l~l;. 140 (23.3%) paructp.mts had secondary
.schqol ccrttllcate. while 326 (54.3%)) p.uuctpa nts had National
Certificate of Educauon or Ordinary National Diploma: 112
(18.7%) parttcipants lwei Bachelor of Science degree/Higher
Nalional Dlploma. and 22 (3.7%) p.utlclpants had various
postgrad uate degrees.
Instrument
A 67 -itemslructurecl questionnatre was used to gather
information for this study. The questionnatre was divided into 6
sections: Section A with 7 items tapped information about
demographic data of the participants including: age. sex. marital
status. length of service. and educational background.
The 21-item Section B, tapped Information regarding respondents'
percepttorrof corruption. This instrument' was developed by the
',1' 'rese~rcher following a focus group discussion added to items
gathered from literature on the subject. The instrument had a
Likert-type response format ranging between strongly agree (5) to
strongly disagree (}) with higher scores indicating higher
perception or awarer.ess of corruption. Items gathered were
I
, subj!~9t~,(~' ,to face and content ~/ali~it:(j' psy~!~o,~lWT~iI7iW' <H~;~.fo~f
I" ~llel,ih~lW\ i~Whf?~~,:I(~ljj,teAl?arL.\~\l,W{)'i~s, (iJ] \=Ol:!lrl~1ft~r?fYP~r:<f~p~lr l I~Qn1Ro.Wrm 3p.<;t.lY"iFi>Il,!;Gl\.),. (y) Ipt,(:'n~:l1cnn~l?t~~wy /iVNl-I-Yr1s
., Illsipg .Y,I;Qhb,iYih's<\lph,q ...-i\, lllitli{1~urp, cprr~!~l ic~!l'IO[;.~,9IWPr~~e,Vor
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" ,
(Ie: P.\J("ul{J~I.·l: I'ulid"t' tv N,I/Hhl'" I. ,\/(lldl ~liJll
inclusion in rile scale. An cxanunuuou or the inter-item
correlation showed no redundant lurns. Corrclauo ns .rungcd from
.03 to .06. Tile sta n da rd tscd Cro ub.rc hs a lphu f(Ji' lilt: scale was
,.,82.AJSIJ.' a Guttma n Split. hall' C(Jei'(icicIlL of 0.73. equal lellgl II
Spearman Brown of 0.73 and IIn.qual kllglll of 0.73 were
recorded. The 21 items wert' SLlbjc! [(:(1 La pei\ will! iterntlons.
mean sulistit utiou of missing values vuruuax rotation. and I(aiser
rrormalrsauon. Application of Kalsers criterion of using all 1111-
rotated factors with eig'C:lI values> J ,0 resulted in 3 components
accounting for 42 % of variance. Tile: norms established wert
N=600. X=72.24. SD= 12.03. The hu her the score on the scale.
the greater' the understanding,' kl~:)wledge, or thought about
corruption,
Section C was destgucc: to assess personality. It contained the lO-
item abridged Big-5 Personality Inventory developed by Gosling.
Rentfrow. & Swann (2003). The re-sponse format ranged from
strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (IJ. The scale developers
reported internal consistency alpha [)I' 0.86, however,a coefficient
of 0.80 was established during this su.dy.
Section D yielded information on respondentsTear of crime. The
scale was developed by Duch .md Roberts (1982) with 4 items. It
also has a 5-poinl response: fUl'III~lLl'cJlgillg from strongly disagree
(1) to strongly dgree(5). High !OL'lJIL:::; "II t hc scalcInd.catcd a high
level of fear of crime. anc\ vicc-vcr.;». Tile author reported an
alpha-coefficient of 0.72whik ill this study a reliability of 0.68
was obtained.
Section E measured respondents fraudulent intent. The scale was
developed by Alarape (2004). It consisted of 16 items with a
~esponse format ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (5). High scores on the scale indicated a high level of
fraudulent intent and vice-versa. The author reported an alpha-
coefficient of 0.88. A revalidation of the instrument yielded a
reliability of 0.86. Section F wasthe 9-item Need for achievement
Scale. The instrument was developed by Edward (1958). The
response format was Likert-type. ranging [rom strongly disagree
(1) to strongly agree (5). High scores on the scale indicated a high
level of need for achievement ancl vice-versa. The author reported
an alpha-coefficient of 0.78, while a reliabilityo[ 0.83 was
obtained in this study.
,:,Proc,edure.:I!:: ".. I' ,Iii ,.,j, ,,j, !.I, I
l.i'li11ei'stud)~ was preceded.rby.sr-plloi study il1"j). s,~'pa,r,~\~~)p.cal
i!.government in ' a, neighbouring stare (Akinyele. liin( i r:i),y.o~..t;;tILe).
Following the submission and revie« of protocol. pcnnission to
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~.-1tii.;'jlliIlO, A, (J. ~~"(}g/;l~I,I"i.". C,' . J '.\'.i •.hu-d~·l/i~Jgrfl/JI/I;. 'r,Il'lur.)· 'alfd Per, 'l'/l/fUII 'orCurnnnion, ,-."
conduct the. study was obtained from the Department of
Psychorogy, University of Ibadan. Ibadan. Nigeria. Letters at
introduction were dis pa.chcd LO rite secretaries of the selected .
. local government area. WiLh the help of two research assistants.
each of the selected local governments were visited one after the
other during which members of staff were accidentally
approached and intimated with t lie purpose of the survey and
request for their permission La panicipate. Only literate employees
who gave informed and autonomous consent to participate were
selected. Completion or tile questionnaire took an average of 30
minutes. or the total 720 qucstionnatres distributeci, only 600
were correctly filled and fit. for analysis. representing 86%
response rate. Returned questionnaires were coded. entered into
excel software ancllater transferred into the SPSS computer
software for. statistical analysis. Data gathered from this study
were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation
[PPMC), regression analysis, and t-tcst for independent samples.
Results
Data gathered from this study were analyzed using Pearson
Product Moment Cor re lutlon [pprv!C). regression analysis. and t-
testIorIndependcnt samples. All calculations 'were clone at 0.05
level of confidence. The results are presented in Tables below:
Table .1: Mean, .Starrd ard deviation and Inter-correlations
among the variables and perception of corruption
Mean SD 1 2 3 <1 5
.
Perception or 72.24 12.03 1.000
corruption
Personality , 34.48 7.29 .63!' 1.000
Fraudulent 56.46 11.31 .671" .127 1.00
intent
Need: for 31.08 7.31 .486" .230 .204 1.000
achievement
Fear of crime 14.91 3.41 .491" .168 .288 .223 1.000
~ means Significant, and N.S. means not Significant
Tablel shows that there was significant positive
relationship between fraudulent Intent (r 0.671, P<.05),
personality (1' = 0.631, P<.05), fear of crime(r := OA9I. P<.05)
76
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iJ.: I'svchologlA, VOIIIIII<' 19 NUll/her I. Marc]: :l()11
need foracl1ieverneiH (r = 0.486, P<.05J. and percepuo n of
corruptton .
. Table 2: Multiple regre saio n summary table showing
independent and joint effect· of psychological factors on
perception of corruption
Joint Effect Indencndent cnec rs .
k-R. IF Adj..R'
,7'2~j .526 .. 52:3
Table 2 shows that there was joint effect of the
psychological factors on perception of COffU ption: R = 0.725,
P<.05. The variables.jointly accounted for 52.3% (Adj. R2 = 0.523)
variance in the perception of corruption. In te rms of the
independent effect of the psychological factors. fraudulent intent
was the most potent contributor to perception of corruption (~ =
0.416, t = 9.921, P <.05) while fear of crime was the least (~ ==
0.046,· t =: 1.225, P <,05). However, (here was no significant
independent effect of need for achievement [J) '" .046, t = 1.255, P
>.05], and fear of crime (~ = .045, t =' 1.226, P >.05) on percept ion
of corruption.
Table 3: Showing .rneans, standard deviation and inter-
correlations among demographic variab le s and perception of
corruption
Mean SO 2 3 ·5
pcrccptton or COT1UptiOIl 72.2~ 12.03 1.000
Length of service 8.97 3,64 .02011.5 1.000
Age of uie reSpOlld~llts 40.13 7.34 .385- .OOG 1.000
Level of education :2.03 0.75 ,049n.5 .044 .ono 1.000
Socto-econonuc 'stc tus 5.67 1.45 .04111.5 .050 -.lIS0 ·.001 1.000
* means significant, and n.s. means not significant
Table 3 shows that there was signifkant relationship between age
of the respondents (r = 0.385, P<.05) and perception of
corruption. There "vas no signtftcant relationship between level of
education (r = 0.049, P>.05). socio-economic status (r = 0.041,
P>.05). length of service (r = 0.020, P>.05). and perception of
corruption.
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Table 4
Multiple regression summary table showing independent and
joint effect of demographic factors on perception of
corruption
Joint E(fect ~~~~!nt cfl'=cL::i
R R' AdJ.R' v ar labtr s B Std. Bcta T P
Error
.3~1 .J57 .H'J Sex 01 the n::-p"IItit'IlIS . 1. I t)~J 911 -.Oold . L:.!hi >.I)r}
U
~-'l: ..••·1\'1.:'· .('-It);.} I..!:'"J 014 ~70 >.OG
,'\1!""flllt' ,.on,,'1 '.'\01..:< .G~J-I .•j. ~.) .3H7 IU.~:31 <.O:i
I Iight'SI h-vcl of .78~ ciuJ .o~a 1.-109 >.OG
t',III,':,I\.'!l ;
. S'1I"101 ,'\'\")111111111: !'o1•• ltl"; .-tLiU Jl!i .tl:IG 1.46~J >.05 I
Table 4 shows lh a t t h c rr was joinl elfect or the demographic
factors on perception 01 corruption; R = 0.396. P<.05. The
variables jointly accounted for 14.9%> (Adj. R2 = 0.149) variance in
the perception of corruptton by local government staff. lri terms of
the independent effect or each of the variables on perception of
corruption among Lilt:' local government starr. age of tile
participants W;1S the most potent contributor to perception of
corruption (~ = 0.387. l = 10.251. P <.05). Other demographic
factors did not have independent effect on perception·; of
corruption.
Discussion
.Thls study revealed thu. there was significant positive relationship
.between fraudulent intent. personality. fear of crime, need for
:achievement. and perception of corruption. Psychological factors
-jointly accounted for 52.3% variance in the perception of
corruption. but fraudulent intent was the most potent contributor
to perception of corruption while fear of crime was the least. This
is in agreement with the position of Ware (1994), Swamy et al ..
(I999) and Treisman. (2000b). It implies that for instance when
an individual's fraudulent intent and need for achievement are
high, there is a higher likelihood that the individual's perception
of crime will be high. However, there was no significant
independent effect of need for achievement. and fear of crime on
perception of corruption.
Concerning the relationship between fraudulent intent and
perception of corruptioruif individuals are exposed to high level of
fraudulent practices, they tend to perceive corruption negatively.
However. individuals have negative attitudes towards corruption if
they are not exposed to fraudulent activities. Empirical studies
tend to confirm this view Mauro (1995. 1998) finds that higher
levels of corruption are associated with fraudulent intent and that
more corrupted govcrlU11CJ1t$tend to spend more in sectors where
7S
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
-._---------,,--- ----:--.._---.-.
it is easier to practice Fraudulent activities. Also in line with this
finding, Knack and Keefer (1997) postulated that individuals
perceive corruption to 1)(' V('IYhigh if they Iou nd economic gain on
their work activities mOSL cspec.ally in government.
Age was also Ionnd to have a SigllilkdJl( pos itive
rclauorish lp willI perception of ccrrupuon. AJl increasing age is
therefore expected to tra nsuue into higher perception of
corruptioll. This could be as a result of the Impact of
development. maturation and learning experiences which are
expected to cnbrgc all individual's horizon and complexity.
equipping him with greater information and abilities t.o maneuver
through complex [asks, includillg. in this case, immoral practices
such as oorrupuon. This mighl have accounted for the ino'easing
number ofcklerty statesmen currently facing corruption Charges
iri Nigeria; because they failed to perceive corruption as
pathological and anlisocial for reasons known to them despite
their old age.
Evidences from this study found no significant relationship
between level of ed ucatton, socio-economic status, length of
service, and perception of corruption. Despite this, when
demographic factors are considered in combination, such factors
could yield signLfico.nt jolrit influence on the perception of
corruption among groups, such as the population considered in
this study.
Contrary to the results in t h is study, LI. cas u al observer would
expect that individuals with dulcrcnces in socio-economic status
and levels of education would perceive cor rupuon differently
based on differences in knowledge, values and needs. Considering
the context, this might have been-clue to the erosion of the middle
class, worsened by the global economic recession and endemic
poverty in the study setting. Additionally, there could be other
socio-demographic factors that are more closely related to
perception of corruption apart from the factors investigated in this
study. This implies that irrespective of demographic differences in
individual perception of corruption, participants in this study
showed very little variation, providing the reason for the
insignificance of the demographic variables investigated,
The finding in this study that demographic variables including;
gender, length of service, and socio-economic status had no
relationship with perception of corruption suggest that
irrespective of an individual's ranking 011 these variables, it may
not predict his/her perception of corruption. This could be why
Nigeria ranks 180 of the world's 193 least corrupt nations in 2007
. (Transparency International. 2008) without any public outcry.
79
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Sorncruay entirely drny it. e.\:jJlail1ing wily Indtvtduals with high
fra ud u lcru iut eut a rid llul'clt"tlr achievement also recordccl high
scores in perccptiou 01' corr upt ion. raisingclollbts about [he
perception of corru priou a nd pcr pet uatio n of corrupt practices in
various SL'glllCllls 01' the society. Thus. in a society like Nigeria
corrupt public olTiciais could st.ill be treated as celebr it ies even
when anti- corruption ,tgenck',; have established prima facie cases
against them.
Conclusion
In SLIm, the findings from this study highlight the imparlance of
Irrud ulent intem. personality and age as factors critical to the
understanding of an individual's perception of corruption. This
sheds some light in the knowledge quest for factors underlying
corruption and other criminal beliaviours in public governance. It
is therefore imperative to empower both the private and public
sectors and security service agencies to screen members of the
society for the psycho-demographic variables found Significant in
this study before permitting them for enlistment in legitimate'
services. Both governmental and civil societies need to educate
the. entire populace in perceiving corruption as a potential.
national lime I.JOI1lb.Renewed. sincere, and sustainable efforts in
national re-orteru auon and mobilization are suggested to re-
awaken positive cognitivt' appraisal and response to corruption to
discourage corruption among government offlcials and the general
public.
An iridivid LIars percept ion at a couce pt could Infl uence Ius
attitude, behaviour, and pracuccs. Therefore. any deliberate effort
to test public office holders and civil servants for fraudulent
intent, personality and age would be a' major mechanism towards
understanding people's perception of corruption and a possible
predictor of their attitude towards corruption. Without this,
certain fallouts should be expected in the entire sphere of the
Nigerian society: lack of transparency, endemic poverty, and
worsening of the corruption index.
1"
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IF I'sy,"olugl.·I. 1011111IIf") !~IIIII"el'l. ,\1,,1','" lOll
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