Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 Exploring the Trip Chaining Behaviour of Women using Public Transportation in Ibadan, Nigeria. Olusiyi Ipingbemi* and Adepoju Rukayat Funmilayo Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Abstract Women multi-tasking activities impose a powerful influence on their trip pattern. The study examined the trip sequencing and challenges faced by women using public transport in Ibadan Metropolis. Two hundred and three (203) women were served with structured questionnaire in 10 selected bus stops, using purposive sampling. Only 190 correctly filled questionnaires were subsequently analyzed. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Findings indicated that over 40% of women made more than four trips per day. More than 50% of the first trip from home ended in children school. 36.5% and 51.2% of the second and third trips ended up at the place of work respectively. Both fifth and six trips were home bound trips as they accounted for 47.9% and 97.5% respectively. Regression analysis indicated that income and marital status had a significant influence on the number of trips made as both explained 57% of all trips made. Long waiting time at bus stops and misbehavior from conductors and operators were the main challenges faced by women. The paper advocates for improved public transport and enforcement of laws to curb crime and insecurity in public transport. Keywords: Trip chaining, women, public transportation, Ibadan *Corresponding author Tel.: +234703170927 E-mail: odoile2002@yahoo.com Copyright ( c) Department of Geography, O. A.U. Ile Ife, Nigeria . All rights reserved. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 Introduction: The role of women inevitably has a powerful influence on their trip patterns. The productive and reproductive roles of women to a large extent determine their trip patterns and travel behavior. Compared to men, women in urban areas tend to make shorter trips, travel mostly during off-peak and are likely to make trips at varied time (GTZ, 2007). Since women are more likely to be employed as informal workers, their destinations are not necessarily concentrated in the Central Business District (CBD). Similarly, their domestic -related transport activities can be much earlier or later than the typical work trip around which most transportation planning is concentrated. It implies therefore that women’s domestic responsibilities and employment activities impinge on their trip characteristics and travel behaviour. The fact that women engage in multi-tasking activities implies that they will have multiple and varied trips to accomplish. In other word, women are more likely to ‘trip chain’, meaning that when they travel, they tend to have multiple purposes and multiple destinations within a trip. For example, they might be going to work, but on their way stop at day care, visit a clinic then go on to their work place. This type of combined trip making is not considered in most urban transportation planning. Anvita and Geetam (2006) noted that transportation planning and policy interventions often fail to recognize gender difference in travel needs and access requirements. While research on gender and transportation in developed countries already receive substantial discussion on women trip chaining (Golob, 1986; Hensher and Reyes, 2000; McGuckin et al, 2005; Noland and Thomas, 2007) there are few such parallel work emanating from research in developing countries particularly in Nigeria. Similarly, in Nigeria, studies on women and transport have focused more on transport burden of rural women and the psychological stress associated with women travelling in public transport (Ipingbemi and Aloba, 2005; Asiyanbola, 2007) with little attention paid to the connection between the multitasking role of women and their travel behaviour. Therefore, this paper seeks to provide baseline information on dimensions of women trip chaining (varied and multipurpose nature of women trips) in Ibadan as this will help to draw the attention of policy makers to the distinct and peculiarity of women’s travel pattern; and at the same time add to literature on women trip chaining in developing countries. Literature Review A trip chain is a travel involving multiple purposes to single or multiple destinations and begins and ends at home or a similar origin (Strathman and Dueker, 1995; Shiftman, 1998). Trip chaining is an important aspect of travel which has significant impact on changing travel patterns. The study of trip chaining has a long history in the transportation literature. Early studies were based on understanding the geography of urban areas and the linkages between trips (Hanson 1980; Takahashi 1986), and especially how shopping trips are linked. Much of 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 the literature on trip chaining has focused on how to better model and forecast travel. For example, Kitamura (1985) investigated the possible treatment of interdependent destination choices in a trip chain and found that if the interdependency is not accounted for, estimation results may be biased. Hensher and Reyes (2000) estimated the relationship between mode choice, especially the use of public transport, and trip chaining. They found that as individuals move from a simple tour (such as, home–work–home) to an increasingly more complex tour (e.g., home–school–work–home) the likelihood of using public transport decreases with the increasing number of links in the chain. The result is consistent with Cirillo and Axhausen (2002) and Ye et al. (2006), who found that complex patterns (involving several stops) are preferably performed by car. Furthermore, studies have also linked life cycle of household with the frequency and complexity of trip made. Household structure as embodied in nine lifecycle stages has been shown to impact on trip chaining behaviour and the demand for travel (Strathman et al. 1994). For example, as a household moves from “adults with no children” to “adults with children”, children’s needs have to be met (for example school,sporting activities) resulting in additional chains added onto a previously simple (say home-work-home) trip. Golob (1986) found that the life cycle of a household is the most important variable for determining the sequences of activities in trip chains, followed by age and income. McGuckin et al. (2005) found that gender and life cycle (based on the number of adults and the age of children) most affected trip-chaining behavior. Noland and Thomas (2007), however, find in their multi-variate analysis that estimated coefficient values of age groups and their association with trip complexity (i.e., the number of stops), varies little for those older than 26, but has a slight drop in complexity for those older than 76 years. They also confirm that higher income households have more complex trips and that the presence of young children increases trip complexity. Trip chaining research has more recently focused on specific population segments, especially on gender differences. Using the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (US), McGuckin and Murakami (1999) found that women, especially with children in the household, are more likely to chain household sustaining trips in tours to and from work. Handy (1996) investigated the non-work travel of women, who generally face greater constraints on travel than men, due to greater time pressures and greater concerns about personal safety. For example, women are expected to take more responsibilities for looking after children and doing household maintenance trips such as grocery shopping, which puts them under greater time pressure. Also, women travel less distance and engage in series of trips than men. Lyons and Chatterjee (2008) found that in the United Kingdom men substantially commute longer than women because women’s domestic responsibilities have to be organized around commuting. Moriarty and Honnery (2005) studied urban travel in all Australian state capital cities and found that women on average travel less often and for shorter distances than 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 men. In addition to having shorter commutes, women also more often link other trips to their work commutes, for example, to drop off or pick up children at school, day care or recreational activities or to conduct household duties such as shopping (McGuckin and Nakamoto 2005; McGuckin et al. 2005). Women were almost twice as likely to trip chain for shopping, chauffeuring or social activities. A number of longitudinal studies suggest that trip chains are becoming increasingly complex. McGuckin et al. (2005) found a 9% increase in chained work trips between 1995 and 2001. Levinson and Kumar (1995) found a significant increase in trip chaining during journeys to and from work between 1968 and 1988. Other reports, however, find little or no increase in trip complexity in recent years (Transport Data Centre, 2008). A broad range of household characteristics influencing the complexity of trip chains include age, income, gender, marital status and household structure. Like household characteristics, travel patterns such as origin, destination, purpose, characteristics of public transport use and the number of vehicles per household also influence trip chaining behaviour (Strathman et al., 1994 Strathman and Dueker, 1995; Shiftman, 1998; Krizek, 2003; O’Fallon and Sullivan, 2005; Primerano et al., 2008). While most of these studies were undertaken in developed countries, little is known about the trip chaining activities of women in developing countries, particularly in Nigeria. This study, therefore, explores the various dimensions of trip chain among women in Ibadan, Nigeria because of the effects it has on their travel behavior and its implications for future transportation planning. Study Area and Methodology The study area consists of the five inner local government areas in Ibadan. These include Ibadan North, Ibadan North-East, Ibadan North-West, Ibadan South-East and Ibadan South-West. Secondary and commercial activities are the dominant means of livelihoods in the study area. In terms of transportation, the public transport infrastructure is in dire need of improvement. Most roads are in deplorable condition. The carriageway is dotted with potholes while the shoulders of some roads have been worn away by erosion, making it difficult for vehicles, especially taxi and buses, to pick or drop passengers conveniently. Road furniture such as road markings and traffic signs are lacking on most roads. Where they are available, they are in poor condition due to poor maintenance. Also, most of the sheltered bus stops are in deplorable condition. Some of them have no seats and without roofs. In fact, some of these sheltered bus stops have been taken over by commercial activities and destitute. The spacing and appalling condition of the sheltered bus stops have forced commuters to use unsheltered bus stops where public transport stop to pick and drop them. This type of bus stop is usually located close to major activity area such as schools, junctions, shopping mall, vulganizing and under big tree (probably for shade when it is sunny) among others. It is in the open space without any facility. The unsheltered bus stop is so widespread that it is preferred to sheltered bus stop. 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 The commonest modes of public transportation in Ibadan are motorcycle, bus and taxis. Motorcycle is by far the fastest and also the most flexible, but also the most dangerous means of getting around the city. Motorcycle is preferred to other modes because of its ability to weave in and out of traffic during grid locks. Tricycle which made its debut in urban passenger transportation in the city recently is gradually gaining prominence. A large percentage of the mini buses popularly called ‘danfos’ is extremely old and dilapidated. Substantial part of the interior and external facilities of the vehicles is not functional. A mini bus operation usually consists of a driver whose sole responsibility is to move the vehicle from one terminus to the other and a conductor, who gathers passengers and collects fares. Boarding mini buses in Ibadan is very uncomfortable. Passengers alternate between leaning forward and backward, as there is not enough space for everyone to sit in a line. Passengers may need to lap themselves before getting to their destinations. Taxis (and kabukabu)1 are not different from mini bus in terms of operations and quality. They rarely start the vehicle by ignition. It is done by push and start; or worse still by sparking naked wires. The brake system, radio appliances, air conditioning, padding on seats and door handles are in most cases either not functioning or do not exist at all. Data were collected by exploring both primary and secondary sources of data collection. Structured questionnaire were used to obtain primary data from the respondents. A total of 203 women, representing 0.025% of the total population of women in the study area were sampled, using purposive sampling. However, only 190 were correctly filled and subsequently analyzed. The questionnaire was administered on women in 10 selected major bus stops simultaneously. The two biggest bus stops in each local government area were identified and selected for the study. The selected bus stops comprises of both sheltered and unsheltered ones. The questionnaire was administered on women commuters at the bus stops. The questionnaire elicited information on their socio-economic characteristics, trip sequence (chain), journey purpose and the challenges faced by women using public transport. This was complemented with interviews to further explore the travel behaviour of women in the city. Secondary data were collected from National Population Commission and Local Government Planning Department. Descriptive analysis such as tables of percentages and graphs were used to present socio-economic characteristics of the respondents while regression analysis showed the relationship between socio-economic parameters of respondents and their trip sequence. Results and Discussion The results are presented under three headings; the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of women; their trip pattern and sequence as well as the challenges they faced while using public transport system. 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents The age distribution of women as shown in table 1 indicated that 13.7% of the women were ages between 21-30 years, 32.1% were between 31-40 years, 37.4% were between 41-50 years and 13.7% were between 51-60 years. Women who were age between 61-70 years accounted for 2.6% while those above 70 years constituted 0.5%. With respect to marital status, more than three -quarter of the women were married, 3.7% of them were single while 8.5% were single mothers. Furthermore, occupational status of the respondents indicated that 60.5% of them were engaged in private business most especially trading and 30% worked in the public service. The monthly income distribution indicated that about 40% of the women were living below $2 dollars per day. Similarly, only one -fifth of the women earned $6 (1000) per day. Table 1: Socioeconomic Characteristics of Respondents Age of Respondents No % 18-30 26 13.7 31-40 61 32.1 41-50 71 37.4 51-60 26 13.7 61-70 5 2.6 >70 1 0.5 Marital status Single 7 3.7 Married 143 75.3 Separated 6 3.1 Widow 9 4.7 Divorced 9 4.7 Single mother 16 8.5 Occupational status Unemployed 10 5.3 Civil servant 57 30 Students 8 4.2 Private business 115 60.5 Monthly income (#) below 10,000 75 39.5 10,000-20,000 40 21 21,000-30,000 35 18.4 31,000-40,000 18 9.5 41,000 and above 22 11.6 Source: Author’s Field Survey; 2012. 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 Women Trip Pattern and Sequence The trip pattern of women indicated that 39.4% of them made four trips per day while 34.5% made five trips on daily basis. Those with two trips per day accounted for 12.3% and only 7.4% made six trips per day as shown in table 2. The typical pattern of such movement is again shown below (see table 2). For instance, those with two trips leave home for work then back home. Women, who engaged in six trips, leave home for children school, from where they go to work then to market. From market they pick up their children in the school. Visit a friend before returning home. Table 2: Trip Sequence No. of trips make daily No % 2 25 12.3 4 80 39.4 5 70 34.5 6 15 7.4 No response 13 6.4 Pattern of Trip Sequence A typical pattern of trip made by women 2 H------------W-----------H 4 H-------S--------W--------S--------H 5 H--------S--------W---------M-------------S---------H 6 H----------S----------W---------M------S---------F-----------H Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2012. Note: H (Home), W (Work), S (School), M (Market), F (Friend’s place). Furthermore, trip sequence showed that more than 50% of the 1st trip from home ended up in the schools as shown in figure 1. 17% went to their place of work, 8% to place of worship, 7% to bank and 5% of the women went to their friend’s place. Those that went to the hospital accounted for 5% while party and saloon constituted 2.0% each, and 1.0% went to the market. This indicates that women do make varied trips. About 65% of women made use of commercial motorcycle (popularly called Okada) for their first trip. The use of taxi accounted for 19.4% while bus carried 15.6% of the women in their first trip. The use of motorcycle in this trip is very high because of the ability of this mode of transport to access nooks and crannies of the city, and thereby meets up with early morning appointments especially school appointment. Furthermore, 36.5% of the second trip ended at work compared to 51.2% for third trip as shown in table 3. The main mode of public transport for second and third trips was bus accounting for 51.4% and 57.3% respectively. 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 The use of taxi became more prominent in the third trip constituting 24.4%. It can be deduced from the foregoing that if women had choice they will prefer the use of bus to commercial motorcycle because of its poor safety records. Fig 1: Trip from Home to Point A Source: Author’s Field Work; 2012. Table 3: Composition of Second and Third Trips Second Freq % Mode Freq % Third Freq % Mode Freq % Trip Trip Work 54 36.5 Bus 76 51.4 Work 42 51.2 Bus 47 57.3 Friend 20 13.5 Taxi 27 18.2 Friend 4 4.8 Taxi 20 24.4 Worship 32 21.6 M/C 45 30.4 House 12 14.6 M/C 15 18.3 Market 12 8.1 Total 148 100 Market 4 4.8 Total 82 100 Hospital 4 2.7 School 4 4.8 Bank 18 12.1 Party 4 4.8 Saloon 8 5.4 Saloon 12 14.6 Total 148 100 Total 82 100 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2012. Note- M/C: Motorcycle 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 The fourth trip is more dispersed than both the second and third trips with 16% of the trip ended up in the market and at home respectively, 12% in place of worship and 11% went to pick their children in the school (see fig 2). This is a return trip back home because none of this trip ended in the place of work. Those that went to saloon and party accounted for 8% each, 7.0% went to visit their friend and 5.0% of the women went to their shop. While those who went to the bank and hospital constituted 4.0% and 2.0% respectively. Figure 2: Composition of fourth Trip. Source: Author’s Field Work; 2012. The fifth and sixth trips are home bound as shown in table 4. For instance, 47.9% and 97.5% of the fifth and six trips ended up at home respectively. For the fifth trip, 16.2% of the women went to the market, 11.5% to saloon and 8.1% to place of worship. The use of bus as a mode of public transport increased from 57% in the third trip to 22.8% in the sixth trip while the use of motorcycle increased from 48.6% in the fifth trip to 58.2% in the sixth trip. One thing is obvious from the foregoing; women make use of motorcycle more in their first and last trips. 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 Table 4: Composition of Fifth and sixth Trips Fifth Freq % Mode Freq % Sixth Freq % Mode Freq % Trip Trip Home 71 47.9 Bus 33 22.3 Home 77 97.5 Bus 18 22.8 Market 24 16.2 Taxi 43 29.0 market 2 2.5 Taxi 15 18.9 Worship 12 8.1 M/C 72 48.6 79 100 M/C 46 58.2 School 7 4.7 148 100 Bank 2 1.3 Party 4 2.7 Shop 6 4.0 Saloon 17 11.5 Friend 5 3.4 Total 148 100 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2012. Note- M/C: Motorcycle Table 5 shows cross tabulation between trip sequence and age, marital status as well as monthly income. Regarding the age of the respondents, 65% of women in age bracket 20-30 years made two sequence of trip compared to 32.8% in age bracket 31-40 years and 39.3% of women aged between 41-50 years. Women between ages of 31-60 years made more trips than any other age group. For instance, these women made 6 trips per day. Also, the number of trips made increases with age at initial stage but later decrease as women are becoming advance in age. For example, the number of women who made 4 trips increased from 15% for those in age bracket 20-30 years to 34.5% for 31-40 years old women and then to 52.6% for women in the age bracket 41-50 years. The percentage dropped to 42.9% for those in age group of 51-60 years and none for 61-70 years old women. This is consistent with previous findings in developed countries where age has been found to have significant influence on trip chaining (Mckuckin et al, 2005; Noland and Thomas, 2007). Furthermore, the status of women has implications on the sequence of trips made. About 86% of singles made two trips per day compared with 41.9% of married, 83.3% of the separated and 50% of single mothers who made four sequence of trips per day. Only single mothers, married and divorced made six trips in a day. For married women who made six trips per day this may not be unconnected with their domestic and productive roles. The large percentage of divorced and single mother women involved in six trips per day is not clear but may result from the need to associate with other people due to loneliness. Some of them may need to visit friends and 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 family members as well as place of worship in search of comfort and succor. Similarly, high income women made more trips. In other words, the higher the income, all things being equal, the higher the sequence of trips made. For instance, only 20% women with monthly income bracket of less than N10,000 made four trips per day compared with 29.4% for those in income group of between N10,000-20,000, 41.9% for those between N20,000-30,000 and 57.1% for those with monthly income of more than N40,000. In addition, no woman earning N20,000 or less per month made more than four sequence of trips in a day compared with their counterparts with higher monthly income who made five or six sequence of trips per day. This was rightly observed by Noland and Thomas (2007) as they found that higher income increased trip generation and complexity. Table 5: Trip Sequence by Age, marital status and monthly income Characteristics Trip Sequence 2 4 5 6 Age of respondents 20-30 yrs 13 (65) 3 (15) 4 (20) - 31-40 yrs 21 (32.8) 24 (34.5) 14 (21.9) 5 (7.8) 41-50 yrs 24 (31.6) 40 (52.6) 4 (5.3) 8 (10.5) 51-60 yrs 11 (39.3) 12 (42.9) 3 (10.7) 2 (7.1) 61-70 yrs 1 (100) - - - Marital status Single 6 (85.7) 1 (14.3) - - Married 54 (37.8) 60 (41.9) 22 (15.4) 7 (4.9) Separated 1 (16.7) 5 (83.3) - - Widowed 3 (33.3) 6 (66.7) - - Divorced - - 2 (22.2) 7 (77.8) Single mother 6 (37.4) 8 (50.0) 1 (6.3) 1 (6.3) Monthly income < N10,000 10 (66.7) 3(20) 2 (13.3) - 10,000-20,000 11 (64.7) 5 (29.4) 1 (5.9) - 20,000-30,000 13 (30.2) 18 (41.9) 5 (11.6) 7 (16.3) 30,000-40,000 24 (33.8) 29 (40.8) 12 (16.9) 6 (8.5) >40,000 12 (28.6) 24 (57.1) 4 (9.5) 2 (4.8) Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2012. Note: all figures in bracket are in percentages The trip sequence and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents were further investigated through the use of regression analysis as depicted in table 6. There is a positive and significant relationship between sequence of trips made and socio-economic characteristics of women especially income and marital status. As 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 more income is received, more trips are made. Similarly, when a woman moves from being a spinster to motherhood, more trips are also made. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents explained about 57% of the trips made. Table 6: Regression Analysis Model Summary Change Statistics Adjusted Std. Error of the R Square F Sig. F Model R R Square R Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change 1 .752a 0.56 0.43 .887 0.56 3.831 3 184 .011 a. Predictors: (Constant), Monthly income, Marital status, Age of Respondents a Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. 1 (Constant) 1.255 .280 4.491 .000 Age of Respondents -.030 .076 -.029 -.402 .688 Marital status .133 .050 .193 2.672 .008 Monthly income .112 .056 .146 1.995 .047 a. Dependent Variable: trip sequence Women’s Barrier to the Use of Public Transport The challenges faced by women using public transport are multi-faceted due to the diverse nature of their trips. Long waiting time at the bus stop was considered as the most important constraint to the use of public transport as it accounted for about 34% of the problems (see table 7). 31.1% of the women claimed that insult from both operators and conductors constituted another problem confronting them when they use public transport. This issue was further investigated through personal interviews with some women. They noted that because women in 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 most cases carry luggage (loads), or are sometime pregnant, or have children with them, they are slow in boarding or alighting from public transport which draws indignation from either the conductor or operator. Women (18.9%) also complained about the insecurity associated with boarding public transport. This ranges from stealing, pick-pocketing, bag snatching, to outright kidnapping which have been documented elsewhere (Lynch and Atkins, 1998; Smith, 2008). Women, compared to men, are more vulnerable to crime because of distractions from other issues such as the loads they carry or their children either on board or at the bus stops. Furthermore, the boarding floor of most of the buses is very high which makes women to struggle while boarding and alighting. Similarly, for those of them who make use of motorcycles, they sometimes find it difficult to climb because of the nature of their dresses (tight, local attires). Table 7 : Challenges Faced by Women in using Public Transport Challenges of Public Transport No % Boarding height 26 13.7 Insecurity 36 18.9 Insult from conductors / operators 59 31.1 Long waiting time 64 33.7 Male supremacy 5 2.6 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2012. Recommendations and Conclusion It is obvious from the foregoing that women make sequence of trips in order to meet their daily needs. These trips cut across different endeavors; work, school, bank, saloon among others. Their main modes of transport were bus and commercial motorcycles. Socio-economic characteristics of women had influence of the sequence of trips made. In view of this, there is need to improve the quality of public transport in the city, particularly the bus system and operation of commercial motorcycles in order to ameliorate the transport challenges faced by women in their daily commuting. Government should provide enabling environment through reduction of taxes and levies on public transport. Similarly, government must adhere strictly to, and enforce operational standards for public transport in the metropolis. Government must also liaise with all the unions of commercial transport operators to inform their members to comply with rules and regulations guiding commercial transport operations in the metropolis in order to ensure the safety of passengers, particularly women. Government can also introduce female- only bus system as being practiced in India to ease the transport difficulty faced by women. The buses would be meant specifically for women and this is expected to reduce 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Ipingbemi / Ife Research Publications in Geography 12 (2013) 15 - 28 waiting time at the bus stops. Unions’ leaders should mete out sanctions against drivers and/or conductors reported to have insulted women off or on board. Government must ensure adequate security measures for public transport in the metropolis. Women on their own part should be very careful in boarding public transport, especially in the night. For example, commercial motorcycles should be avoided in the night because of the high level of association between this mode and crime. Similarly, women should steer clear of male- only or male- dominated passenger bus and taxi. If these suggestions are taken seriously, it will ease the transport difficulties faced by women in the discharge of their responsibilities. Endnote: 1. 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