UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
THIS THESIS SUBMITTED BY
«•.. ABOPOWRIN, Gabriel Qforogtfa
WAS ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT 
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE INSTITUTE OP EDUCATION 
OF THIS UNIVERSITY 
THE EFFECTIVE DATE OF THE AWARD IS
2oth '5'e'br.iary, 19 3 o
DATE '
POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
EFFECTS OF NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES, ATTITUDINAL 
DIFFERENCES AND SOME PERSONALITY TRAITS 
ON STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN SOCIAL STUDIES
BY
v. v
GABRIEL OYEROGBA ABODUNRIN 
B.Ed. (Ibadan)
M.Ed. (Ibadan)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF 
EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF 
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF 
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF 
THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
1995
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
A B S T R A C T
EFFECTS OF NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES, ATTITUDINAL DIFFERENCES 
AND SOME PERSONALITY TRAITS ON STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN
SOCIAL STUDIES
This study employed a 3x2x2 pretest-post test control 
group factorial design to investigate the effects of note­
taking strategies, attitudinal differences and some
personality traits on students' achievement in Social Studies.
The subj• ects of th^e stud^ ‘were 96 first year Social Studies 
students of three Colleges of Education in Oyo and Osun States 
of Nigeria.
Two experimental and one control groups were used. The 
first experimental group listened to taped lecture and wrote 
their own notes. The second listened to the taped lecture and 
followed lecturer's prepared notes while the control group 
listened only to audio-taped lectures on populatio n studies. 
The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and the Students' 
Attitude to Social Studies Questionnaire (SASSQ) were utilised
to categorize the subjects into extroverts and introverts, and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Ill
to those with positive or negative attitude to social studies. 
Without any opportunity to review notes, subjects were made to 
take two post-tests - Social Studies Immediate Recall Test 
(SSIRT) and Social Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT).
Three dependent measures which were obtained for each 
subject
were the pretest score, the immediate post-test score and the
delayed post-testV  score. Data obtained were analyzed using 
Analysis of Covariance while Tukey Honestly Significant 
Difference
tests were used for post hoc tests.
The highlights of the results include the following:
(1) There were statistically significant differences in the 
students'achievement on the basis of the different note­
taking strategies adopted at both the immediate and 
delayed recall tests. Both the note-takers and note 
followers had significantly higher scores than the 
control group.
(2) There were no statistically significant interactive
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
IV
effects of note-taking strategies and attitudinal 
differences on the students immediate recall test but 
there were statistically significant differences at the 
delayed recall test.
(3) There were no statistically significant interactive
effects of note-taking strategies and personality traits 
on the students' achievement at both the immediate and 
delayed recall test.
(4) There were no statistically significant interactive
effects of note-taking strategies, attitudinal difference 
and personality traits on students' achievement at both 
the immediate and delayed recall tests.
The results are consistent with the idea that note-taking 
can be a generative activity that encourages students to build 
connections between lecture information and what they already 
know. This is one of the implications of the findings. Other 
implications were:
that, rather than indulging in writing notes on the 
blackboard or in handouts for our students, they 
should be taught how to encode accurately lecture 
information during lecture;
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
V
that sufficient practice in note-taking should be 
given to our students right from the lower levels 
of education;
that whether a student is extrovertic or introvertic 
in his personality disposition, his achievement in 
social studies depends more on the type of note- 
taking strategy he adopts during class lectures; 
that positive attitude to learning enhances better 
remembering and recall.
Suggestions were also made for further studies in the
area of the research.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
VI
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God who is the author of all
things, to my parents who diligently catered for me, to my
wife who bore the brunt of my constant absence from home, and
my children whose lights and privileges to paternal cares were 
VwM-sg o-roSS <=>V VWs
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Vll
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely express my profound gratitude to God Almighty 
for his bountiful blessing and mercies, for the grace he 
bestowed on me and for His unshaken guard, guide and 
protection throughout the period of this study. The 
completion of this study would not have been possible if not 
for His assured grace and succor in the very difficult period. 
To God be glory and adoration. s
My sincere gratitude also goes to my supervisor, Doctor 
Tolulope W. Yoloye who saw me through the whole exercise. It 
is through his brotherly love, genuine advice and 
encouragement that this project reached the present stage. He 
was the moving spirit behind the onerous task and it was his 
continual broad smile and reassuring encouragement that gave 
me the impetus to continue this work. He was definitely more 
than a supervisor to me.
I also wish to say a big thank you to Dr. Bolaji 
Ogunsanya Dr. N.P. Okpala and Dr. 0. Onocha for their 
assistance and encouragement. Their indispensable assistance 
was contributory to the completion of this study. May the
Lord continue to bless them.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
viii
In no small measure, I wish to acknowledge the assistance 
and the words of encouragement I received from my colleagues 
and co-workers in the School of Education, St. Andrew's 
College of Education, Oyo. The names of Messrs Iyiola, 
Oluokun, Ladipo,
Oyewobi and Doctors, Omideyi, Adelodun, Adeyanju and Teju Ojo 
deserve special mentioning. Their constant prompting, advice 
and moral and financial assistance probed me in my hours of 
need.
I really appreciate the contribution of Mr. Akin 
Adetunji, who read through the project several times to advise 
on the language of writing; Mrs. Medinat Oyedeji and Mr. 
Tijani who did all the typing aspects throughout the 
programme.
I am particularly grateful to all the members of my 
family. They bore the burden of my depriving them of my 
fatherly care and assistance during the long period I spent on 
this project. My old mother, Omonike Ajinhun, my wife 
Funmilayo Adenihun, my sons Olufemi, Abimbola, Babatunde, 
Oluwasayo, Olugbenga and Abiodun, and my daughters Folasade,
Funmilola, Foluke and Odunayo, all deserve my thankfulness.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
IX
My darling daughter late Omolara Oluwakemi Oyeboade can never 
be forgotten. Her short but memorable life would ever be 
remembered. May her soul rest in perfect peace.
Lastly, the authorities of St. Andrew's College of 
Education, Oyo deserve my gratitude for giving me the study 
leave during which the course work of this programme was 
undertaken. I am indeed very appreciative of the opportunity 
given me to undertake the study.
May the Lord repay everybody in manifolds.
Oyerogba Abodunrin
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
X
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work was carried out by ABODUNRIN, 
Gabriel Oyerogba in the Institute of Education, University of 
Ibadan, Ibadan.
DR. T. W. YOLOYE 
Senior Research Fellow 
Institute of Education, 
University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
*
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
XI
T A B L E  OF C O N T E N T S
PAGE
TITLE P A G E ............................. ... i.
A B S T R A C T ..................................... 1 1  ’ ■
D E D ICATION..................................  vi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...   vii.
CERTIFICATION ... . ......................... x-
TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................  :xi.
LIST OF F I G U R E S ............................. xiv.
LIST OF T A B L E S .............................. xv.
C H A P T E R  O N E : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the S t u d y ......................... 1
1.2 The Problem ..................................... 6
1.3 Purpose of Study..................................  12
1.4 Research H y p otheses..............................  13
1.5 Significance of the S t u d y .......................  14
1.6 Definition of T e r m s ..............................  16
C H A P T E R  TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction ..................................... 19
2.1 Nature and Philosophy of Social Studies ....... 20
2.2 Concept of Note-taking .........................  27
2.3 Functions of Note-taking........................  28
2.4 Theories of Note-taking Activity .............. 32
2.5 Empirical Studies on Note-taking .............. 35
2.6 Attitudinal Differences .........................  46
2.7 Nature of A t t i t u d e ...............................  49
2.8 Relationship Between Attitude and Academic
Achievement ..................................... 52
2.9 Students' Attitude Towards Social Studies. ... 53
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
x i i
2.10 Personality Differences . ......................  56
2.11 Theories of Introversion-Extraversion .......  57
2.12 Measurement of Introversion and Extraversion .. 62
2.13 Empirical Studies on Introversion-Extraversion.
and Academic Performance .........................  63
2.14 Learning and Retention of Facts................... 68
2.15 Immediate and Delayed Recall .....................  70
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction.............................. 76
3.1 Research Design ................................  7̂
3.2 The Variables............................. 77
3.3 Control of Experimental Biases ................. 81
3.4 Sampling of Subjects for the Pilot Study. ... 83
3.5 Research Instruments......................  86
3.6 Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)......  87
3.7 Students' Attitude to Social Studies Question­
naire (SASSQ).............................. 89
3.8 Prepared Lecture Notes ........................... 93
3.9 Social Studies Pretest (SSPT).................
3.10 Social Studies Immediate Recall Test (SSIRT).. 99
3.11 Social Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT) ... 100
3.12 Differences Between the SSIRTa nd SSDRT . ... 100
3.13 The Pilot Study ................................ 101
3.14 The Main S t u d y ............................ 106
3.15 Treatment Implementation ........................  108
3.16 Analysis of the Result of the Main Study. ... HO
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF THE RESULT
4.0 Introduction............................  Ill
4.1 Hypothesis One (Hoi) ...........................  Ill
4.2 Hypothesis Two (Ho2)   116
4.3 Hypothesis Three (Ho3)..........................  120
4.4 Hypothesis Four (Ho4)...........................  124
4.5 Hypothesis Five (H05)...........................  13°
4.6 Hypothesis Six (H0 6)   135
4.7 Hypothesis Seven (Ho7)..........................  139
4.8 Hypothesis Eight (H0 8 ) ..........................  -*-̂3
4.9 Summary of the R e s u l t ............................ 147
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Xlll
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, IMPLICATIONS AND 
SUGGESTIONS
5.0 Introduction ............ ................... . 149
5.1 Effect of Note-taking Strategies on Students' 
Achievement in the Immediate Recall Test ... 149
5.2 Effect of Note-taking Strategies on Students' 
Achievement in the Delayed Recall Test . ... 151
5.3 Effect of Note-taking Strategies and Attitud- 
inal Difference on Students Achievement in the
Immediate Recall Test .......................... 156
5.4 Effect of Note-taking Strategies Attitudinal 
Differences on Students' Achievement at the
Delayed Recall Test .......................... 159
5.5. Effect of Note-taking Strategies and Persona­
lity Differences on Students' Achievement ... 161
5.6 The Interactive effect of Note-taking 
Strategies, Attitudinal and Personality
Differences on Students' Achievement ........ 166
5.7 Implication of the Findings for Teacher 
Education System 167
5.8 Suggestions for Further Research ............. 172
5.9 Limitation of the Study ........................ 174
LIST OF REFERENCES 176
Appendix I: Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) . 191
Appendix II: Students' Attitude to Social Studies
Questionnaire (SASSQ)..................
Appendix III: SASSQ: Contribution of Each Item to
the Total C o n s t r u c t ...................  197
Appendix IV: Facility Indices of the SSIRT .......  200
Appendix V: Table of Specification for the SSIRT . 201
Appendix VI: Prepared Lecture Notes: ..............  202
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
XIV
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
. 1 Research D e s i g n ................................. 78
.2 Analysis of Factor and Cell Layout ........  80
4
IaJ U>
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
XV
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
TABLE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Distribution of sample for Pilot Study. ... 8̂
3.2 Distribution of Sample for the Main Study .. 86
4.1 Descriptive statistics of students Immediate
Postest Scores Under the Three Note-taking 
Strategies..............................  112
4.2 Analysis of Covariance of Immediate Post test
Scores for the Three Note-taking groups ... 113
4.3 Multiple Classification Analysis of Covariance
on the Immediate Post-test Scores of the Three 
groups ...... ............................. ^
4.4 Multiple Comparison of Mean Scores for the
Immediate Post-test Scores of the Different 
Strategies Groups .......................... 115
4.5 Descriptive Statistics of Subjects' Delayed
Post-test Scores under the Three Note-taking 
Strategies............    116
4.6 Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed Post-test
Scores for the Three Note-taking Strategies. 117
4.7 Multiple Classification Analysis of the Analysis 
of Covariance on the Delayed Post-test Scores. 118
4.8 Multiple Comparison of Mean Scores for the 
Delayed Post-test Scores for the Three Strategy
Groups . . . . .........................  ... 1 1 Qy
4.9 Descriptive Statistics of Students' Immediate 
Post-test Scores of the Different Note-taking
Groups Under their Attitudinal Groups . ... 120
4.10 Two-way Analysis of Covariance of the Immediate 
Post-test Scores of the Different Attitudinal 
Groups Under the Three Note-taking Strategies. 121
4.11 Multiple Classification of the 3 x 2  Analysis
of Covarianc.e on Students' Immediate Post-test 
Scores . . ........  ....................... 123
4.12 Descriptive Statistics of Students' Delayed 
Post-test Scores According to the Different 
Attitudinal Groups Under Their Note-Taking
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
XVI
Strategies................................. 125
4.13 Two-way Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed
Post-test Scores of the Different Attitudinal 
Groups Under Different Note-taking Strategies 126
4.14 Multiple Classification Analysis of the 3 x 2  
Analysis of Covariance of the Interaction of 
Strategy and Attitude on Students Achievement
at the Delayed Post-test .................  128
4.15 Multiple Comparison of Mean Scores for the 
Different Attitudinal and Strategy Groups ..
4.16 Descriptive statistics of the Students 
Achievement According to the Note-taking 
Strategies and the Personality Groups at the
Immediate Post-test ..*   131
4.17 Two-way Analysis of Covariance of the
Immediate Post-test Scores of the Different 
Personality Groups Under their Note-taking 
Strategies . . *     132
4.18 Multiple Classification Analysis of the 3 x 2
Analysis of Covariance of the Interaction of 
Strategy and Personality at the Immediate 
Post-test ...   134
4.19 Descriptive Statistics of the Students' o
Achievement According to the Note-taking 
Strategies and the Personality Groups at the 
Delayed Post-test .......................... 135
4.20 Two-Way Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed
Post-test Scores of the Different Personality 
Groups Under Their Note-taking Strategies .. 136
4.21 Multiple Classification Analysis of the Delayed 
Post-test Scores of the Different Personality 
Groups Under the Different Note-taking Strategies 138
4.22 Summary of the 3 x 2 x 2  Analysis of Covariance 
of the Immediate Post-test Scores of the 
Different Attitudinal and Personality Groups
Under the Different Note-taking Strategies . 140
4.23 Multiple Classification Analysis of the 3x2x2
Analysis of Covariance on the Immediate Post- 
test Scores of the Different Groups ....... 142
4.24 Summary of the 3 x 2 x 2  Analysis of Covariance 
on the Delayed Post-test Scores of the Diffe-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
XVII
rences Attitudinal and Personality Groups
Under their Note-taking Strategies .......
4.25 Multiple Classification Analysis of the 3x2x2 
Analysis of Covariance of the Subject Achieve­
ment in the Delayed Post-test .............
*
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1
EFFECTS OF NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES, ATTITUDINAL 
DIFFERENCES AND SOME PERSONALITY TRAITS ON STUDENTS' 
ACHIEVEMENT IN SOCIAL STUDIES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The wave of curriculum changes which started at the turn 
of the 20th century in the United States of America rapidly 
engulfed all the western world. The idea of integration of 
knowledge which became a popular movement in the western 
hemisphere spread * to Nigeria and Africa in general. The 
resultant effect of this, in Nigeria, was the introduction of 
new integrated subjects such as Social Studies and Integrated 
Science.
Shortly after independence, precisely in 1963, the staff 
of the social sciences department at Comprehensive High 
School, Ayetoro, in the old Western Region of Nigeria, 
introduced and taught Social Studies as a subject, (Makinde, 
1979; Ogunsanya, 1984; Adeyemi, 1986; and Ogunsola, 1991). 
This was the first time when social studies was taught in 
Nigeria as integrated and synthetic form at the secondary
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
2
school level. From this school, the subject spread to other 
levels of education and other parts of the country.
The Western Regional Government in collaboration with the 
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and 
the Ford Foundation of the United Kingdom, sponsored the 
programme which eventually led to the design and development 
of the first ever Social Studies curriculum for the secondary 
schools. The same syllabus transformed into the first 
textbook in Social Studies for the Nigerian Secondary Schools. 
The subject Social Studies was later introduced to the primary 
school and the teacher training programmes by the Nigerian 
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) in 
conjunction with the Comparative Education Studies and 
Adaptation Centre (CESAC) and the Social Studies Association 
of Nigeria (SOSAN).
Paradoxically, little agreement or unanimity existed asJjf
to the definition, scope, and philosophy of Social Studies 
during this time when those 'patchy' and 'scrappy' efforts 
were being made to accommodate the subject on the Nigerian 
school curriculum.
A more concerted move to fully incorporate the subject
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
3
into the Nigerian curriculum, only came as result of the first 
Oxford Conference of African Educators in 1967 and later the 
Mombasa Conference of the same association in 1968. Thte 
Mombasa Conference^discussed and unanimously adopted a Social 
Studies programme known as the African Social Studies 
Programme (ASSP), - (Obameata, 1981). This, in effect, was 
later developed by the various participating countries, 
including Nigeria, to the Social Studies programme of the 
respective countries using their local environmental 
conditions, needs, and resources. Nigeria fashioned her own 
Nigerian Social Studies Programme (NNSP) from the continental 
one (Makinde, 1979; Ogunsanya, 1984; and Olaogun, 1984).
Another important landmark in the introduction of Social 
Studies in Nigerra was the epoch-making curriculum conference 
which took place in Nigeria in September, 1969. This 
conference came up with what is now known and regarded as the 
first indigenous national policy and philosophy of education. 
An offshoot of the decision at the conference was also the 
adoption of Social Studies as one of the core subjects to be 
studied until the end of the junior secondary school.
The Nigerian philosophy of education emphasized the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
4
development of the individual into sound and effective citizen 
and the provision of equal educational opportunity to all 
citizens of the country. It also emphasized the need for 
Social Studies as a tool for national unity and citizenship 
education, Adaralegbe (1982). Rather than leaving the 
development of social awareness, responsibility an«J
citizenship to be inculcated through other school subjects,
*
Social Studies was adopted to teach these awareness, 
responsibility, and citizenship in an integrated form.
This wholesale adoption of Social Studies has been 
advocated by a number of educationists and researchers. 
Adaralegbe (1980)
criticized the teaching of the cognate social sciences, 
history, geography, government and economics at the junior 
secondary school and teacher training colleges. He suggested 
that the integrated subjects should predominate the curriculum 
at these levels qf education.
In the same vein, Mansaray (1985) was emphatic when he 
said that Social Studies should be seen as an "attempt to 
correct the atomization and compartmentalization" of knowledge 
that was believed to have attended the separate school
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
5
subjects. For this purpose, he advocated that the integrated 
approach whereby facts, concepts, and generalization from a 
number of subjects or related disciplines are brought together 
in studying the issues pertaining to man's interactions with 
his environment should be adopted.
Similarly, Balogun (1986) stressed the importance of
/
inclusion of Social Studies and other integrated subjects in 
the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) teacher training 
programmes. He observed as follows:
the major problem of the Nigerian Certificate 
in Education level is one of misplacement of 
priority. Many of the NCE institutions are 
not paying enough attention, if any at all, to 
the integrated fields of study which are supposed 
to be their fields of specialization. (Balogun, 
1986)Balogun (1986) further emphasized that in 
studying separate subjects, the students could not 
acquire enough competence in the
is
subject to be able to teach them well at the Senior Secondary 
level. He therefore advocated that integrated Social Studies
V
and Integrated Science should be the foci of the trainees at
UNIVERSITY OF IBADA
 LIBRARY
6
the NCE level.
Now that Social Studies has become fully adopted at the 
different levels of education, primary, junior secondary, and 
teacher training, some pertinent questions that could be asked 
are: In what ways could the teaching of the subject be
facilitated? How could the would-be teachers fully imbibe the 
contents and methodologies of the subject? How could the 
learning of the subject content be enhanced for improved 
achievement by the learners? These are some of the questions 
that stimulated the interest of this researcher in probing 
into the effect of students' note-taking strategies which are 
presumed to influence the students learning in Social 
Studies.
1.2 The Problem
James (1972) asserted that ever since Pythagoras there 
has been a Mathematics tradition; in geography, ever since 
Anaximander there has been a cartographical tradition; and 
ever since Itecatacus there has been a literary tradition. 
From available literature, little or no such tradition exists 
for Social Studies as a distinct field of study especially in 
its present form and content on the Nigerian educational
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
7
curriculum. In this connection, many problems, paradoxes and 
contradictions came to be associated with Social Studies as an 
rrcegrated subject.
Educators continually suggest'that emphasis on learning 
any school subject should shift from "what to learn" to "how 
to learn". A logical deduction from this is that the extent 
of learning which occurs in any classroom situation depends 
not only on what is taught but also on how the students haye 
learned. This, in fact, calls for improvement not only in the 
methods teachers use to impart knowledge, skills and attitude 
but also in the various learners' activities and devices which 
facilitate effective learning. These are what have been 
referred to as mathemagenic activities by Rothkopf (1963) or 
as generative activities by Wittrock (1974) or as 
manifestation of learning by O'Neil (1978). An important 
aspect of these activities which has great relevance to 
learning from lecture situation is note-taking.
The present study attempted to investigate the effects of 
note-taking strategies of students on the effective learning 
of Social Studies. It investigated how the activities which 
the learners engage in during the period of learning affect
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
8
how much they learn, retain, and recall jfft. rom Social Studies
lectures.
Though Social Studies educators such as Dubey (1980); 
Adaralegbe (1980); Olawepo (1984); Ogunsola (1991) and others 
have emphasized the importance of appropriate teaching 
strategies for Social Studies, most Social Studies teachers 
adopt the traditional lecture method. They engage the 
students in long narration without bordering on the 
effectiveness of their lectures. The student therefore 
struggle to absorb what the teacher has taught through 
different strategies. The concern of the present study is to 
find out how much one of the students’ activities facilitates 
learning during lectures. Specifically, it was also to 
investigate which strand of note-taking strategies produces 
better learning ‘ gains from lectures and to see this in 
relation to students' personalities and attitudes to the 
subject Social Studies.
In the Western world note-taking as a device for learning 
from lecture, has been extensively investigated by researchers 
such as Aiken, Thomas and Shennum, (1975); Carter and Matre,
(1975); Peper
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
9
and Mayer, (1978); Barnett, Divesta, and Rogozinski, (1981); 
Einstain, Morris and Smith, (1985). **Each of these
investigations addressed different aspects of note-taking and 
produced seemingly inconclusive and sometimes contradictory 
findings (Kiewra, 1985).
Some investigators have found that note-taking
activities, interfere with learning in some situations 
Aiken, Thomas, and Shennum (1975). Others have found that 
note-taking has no effect on performance - (Carter and Van 
Matr.e, 1975; Fisher and Harris, 1974) and still others have 
found that note-taking improves memory for lecture material. 
(Peper and Mayer, 1978, 1986; Kiewra, DuBois 
and others 1991).
In Nigeria, however, there is a dearth of research work 
on note-taking. Most studies are based on other classroom 
activities. For example Ibeghulam‘s (1980) study was on 
instructional objectives while Egbugara (1986) addressed the 
use of advance organisers. Similarly, Balogun (1983) 
investigated the use of adjunct questions in programmed 
Instruction and Ogunsola (1991) probed into the effectiveness 
of the combination of instructional objectives and meaningful
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
10
adjunct questions. None of these few works mentioned 
investigated note-taking activities of students per se. Thus, 
much is still left to be investigated in the effects of note­
taking especially when it is linked up with some personality 
traits and attitudinal differences of students at NCE teacher 
training level of education.
The present study, therefore attempted to investigate the 
effects of note-taking strategies, on students' achievement in 
Social Studies at the college of education level.
Furthermore, students' note-taking strategies were 
investigated in conjunction with the effects of students' 
attitudinal differences and some personality traits since it 
had been established that students achievement in the various 
school subjects involves complex determinants - (Olaogun, 1984 
and Osho, 1985). For example Bakare (1969) suggested that if 
a student perceives that he is unable to do Mathematics and 
Reading, this perception of his ability becomes the 
functionally limiting factor of his achievement in these areas 
of study. Similarly, the studi^J. of Norwich Duncan (1976) 
and Aiyelagbe (1989), have profoundly established that 
attitude and personality differences of learners tend to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
11
influence very greatly the levels at which the learners
perform,
College of Education students are assumed to possess and 
re able to exhibit different attitudes to their various 
subjects and that they possess different personality 
dispositions. If this is so, one would then expect these
differences to reflect in their achievements in Social 
Studies. An attempt was therefore made to examine the effects 
of attitudinal and personality variables on the immediate and 
delayed recalls which students make after lectures in Social 
Studies when particular note-taking strategy or the other is 
adopted.
In this study, three strategies of note-taking; (a) 
taking note concurrently with listening to lecture; {b) 
following already prepared note along with listening to 
lecture, and (c) simply listening to lecture without 
instruction to write any note, were adopted when students 
undertook listening to already audio-taped lecture. Similarly 
in each of these note-taking groups, there were equal numbers 
of students with positive attitude as well as those with
negative attitude to Social Studies. Also two personality
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
12
rraits, extraversion and intraversion were observed as 
irsringuishing variable among the students of each note-taking
group.
1.3 Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate in a quasi 
experimental setting, the effect which note-taking activity 
would have on students with different attitudinal and 
personality disposition in their learning of Social Studies at 
che college of education level. Specifically the study probed 
into the effects of:
(1) note-taking strategies on students academic achievement 
in Social Studies;
(2) Some attitudinal variables (positive and negative 
attitudes toward Social Studies) on the students' 
achievement in Social Studies;
(3) Some personality variables (extraversion versus 
introversion) on the student achievement in Social 
Studies;
(4) The interaction of the different note-taking
strategies, attitudinal and personality differences
on the student*s' achievement in Social Studies.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
13
1.4 Research Hypotheses
Based on the above stated purposes, the following major 
Null hypotheses were tested at P < 0.05 level of significance. 
Hypothesis One (Hoi)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies on the students' achievement in the immediate" 
recall test.
Hypothesis Two (Ho2)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies on the students' achievement in the delayed 
recall test.
Hypothesis Three (Ho3)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies and the attitudinal differences on the
students' achievement in the immediate recall test. 
Hypothesis Four (Ho4)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies and the attitudinal differences on the
students' achievement in the delayed recall test. 
Hypothesis Five (Ho5)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
14
strategies and the personality differences on the students'
;:i:evement in the immediate recall test.
Hypothesis Six (Ho6)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies and the personality differences on the students' 
achievement in the delayed recall test.
Hypothesis Seven (Ho7)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies, attitudinal and personality differences on the 
students achievement in the immediate recall test.
Hypothesis Eight (Ho8)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies, attitudinal and personality differences on the 
students' achievement in the delayed recall test.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study is concerned with the effects of various note-taking 
. strategies undertaken by students during Social Studies 
lectures.
Earlier researchers in note-taking, have been mostly of 
science based disciplines. Science subjects are less verbal 
in content. The present study which addressed learning in a
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
15
-ore verbal subject, Social Studies, appears unique in a 
sense. It could be that results from the previous studies are 
influenced by the nature of their subject disciplines. That 
is, they might be subject-dependant. It could be surmised 
that the use of different note-taking strategies in Social 
Studies might yield results different from those obtained from 
the sciences. The findings of the present study would 
therefore contribute an insight into the value of note-taking 
activities in the learning of a rather verbal subject such as 
Social Studies.
Secondly, the previous research findings on note-taking 
appear inconclusive and sometimes contradictory (Faw and 
Walker, 1976); Peper, 1979; and Kiewra, 1985). The present 
investigation, hopefully, would throw more light on the role 
of note-taking and thus resolve some of the earlier 
contradictions.
Hitherto, researchers in note-taking have been carried
is
out at the primary and secondary levels of education. The 
teacher education level has been virtually neglected. 
Ironically, students at this level undertake longer periods of
classroom lectures and as a corollary, do more of note-taking
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 6
than the lower levels. This research which was conducted at 
the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) level would 
therefore afford the teacher trainers and their trainees the 
ccportunity of ascertaining and determining which note-taking 
strategy to encourage their students to employ.
Generally, there have been claims (Northcraft & Jemsted, 
19~5; Hartley, 1976; Collinswood & Hughes, 1978) and counter
claims (Thomas, 1978; Anderson, 1979), regarding the
*
superiority of using teachers' prepared notes (handouts) over 
the practice of students taking their own notes and just 
listening to lecture. Hopefully, this study would assess 
empirically these different note-taking strategies and suggest 
which of the note-taking strategies has greater effectiveness 
in maximising learning.
Lastly, this study aims at examining the contribution of 
two constructs, personality and attitude on the note-taking 
activity, and the effect on students' learning. It would thus 
enable teachers and evaluators of academic achievement to 
appreciate the role of the constructs in learning.
1.6 Definition of Terms
The operational definitions of some of the terms used in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
17
che study are as follows:
Tcce-taking: is the act of writing down in ones language or
style the information received from a lecture. Through note­
taking, learners process and record information from lecture. 
Tote-following; refers to making use of lecturer's prepared 
notes by underlining, or noting in any other form the salient 
points in a lecture.
Personality Differences: are those differences observed in 
students as a consequence of those relatively consistent and 
enduring patterns of perceiving, thinking, feeling and 
behaving that appear to give people separate identities. 
Extraversion: is the turning outward of the mind into people
and objects in the external world. In extravert psychic 
energy is channelled into presentation of objectives in 
external world.
Introversion: is orienting one's mind towards one's objective 
world. In introverts the psychic energy flows and processes 
are related to the inner and private world.
Attitudinal Differences: refer to the differences in
students' positive or negative evaluative feelings, beliefs, 
values and interests towards people, objects, things, places
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
18
events and even subjects e.g. Social Studies as a subject of 
study in an educational programme.
Positive Attitude: is the favourable evaluative feeling 
towards particular objects> people or situation. In this 
project, it indicates having positive feelings, beliefs, 
values and interest towards Social Studies as a school 
discipline.
Negative Attitude: is the evaluative feeling which is
unfavourable to particular object, people and situation. In 
this study, it is taken as students' negative feeling, belief, 
value and interest towards Social Studies.
Immediate Recall: is the response given to tasks or question 
items presented to learners immediately after undergoing a 
period of receiving lecture information.
Delayed Recall: is the response made to tasks given or
question items at a time remote from the period when the
lecture information was received by the student.
In this study, a period of one (week) lapsed between the 
last day of lecture and the administration of the delayed
test.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
19
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 
2.0 Introduction
This chapter attempts to provide a background upon which 
the empirical study was based. It reviews previous studies 
ar.d researches which are found to be related to the present
research.
Since the primary concern of this investigation is to 
remonstrate the facilitative effect, or otherwise, of 
different note-taking strategies on students' achievement in 
Social Studies and in relation to learners' differences in 
attitude towards Social Studies, and some of their personality 
traits, the review covers such related study areas or sub- 
topics as:
(i) Nature and philosophy of Social Studies
(ii) Concept of note-taking
(iii) Functions of note-taking
(iv) Theories of note-taking activities
(v) Empirical studies on note-taking
(vi) Attitudinal differences
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
20
vii) Relationship between attitude and academic
achievement
-riii) Students' attitudes to Social Studies
(ix) Personality traits
(x) Theories of introversion and extraversion
(xi) Measurement of introversion and extraversion
(xii) Relationship between personality differences and 
academic achievement
(xiii) Learning and retention in Social Studies
(xiv) Immediate and delayed recall
(xv) Conclusion
2.1 Nature and Philosophy of Social 
Studies
There are ma%ny paradoxes and contradictions about the 
nature, philosophy, and introduction of Social Studies as a 
distinct field of study in the Nigerian educational 
curriculum. As early as the period when the school curriculum 
was being initially expanded beyond the 3'R's by the Christian 
Missions, Social Studies was taught as history, geography, and 
economics. Later it included civics, psychology, and
anthropology. However, the teaching of Social Studies as
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
21
_rregrated and synthetic subject in Nigeria is partly a 
product of the American educational influence on Nigeria, - 
Makinde, 1979; Ogunsanya, 1984) and partly the result of the 
rest independence efforts in curriculum development by the 
independent African States. African States, at this time, 
-ade serious attempts to indigenise the contents of social 
education for the African child, (Adaralegbe, 1980; Balyejusa, 
1981; and Ogunsola 1991).
The Nigerian Social Studies programme, (NSSP) in its
present form and like those of other countries, was a victim
*
of multifarious definitions. It connotes different meanings 
to different people.
Before reaching its present form, it had undergone many 
conceptual definitions. Social Studies educators such as 
Wesley (1950) and Venable (1958); have described Social 
Studies as an offshoot of the social sciences and as "the 
social sciences simplified for pedagogical purpose." This 
traditional definition of Social Studies pre-supposes that the 
criteria for Social Studies curriculum selection and 
development should come from the social sciences. This stand 
has been severely criticised by other Social Studies educators
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
22
especially Engle (1960) and Shaver (1967) who were convinced 
chat the primary concern of Social Studies is citizenship 
education.
Beard and Steveson (1969) contended that although social 
sciences do offer essentially substantiative concept for 
describing a societal problem, they argued, like Engle (1960) 
Shaver (1967) that social sciences are powerless when 
faced with a choice between different courses of action. One 
cf the negative results of this inadequate definitions of 
Social Studies is that it has stifled creative curriculum work 
in the field and the content derived from the social sciences 
cannot lead to the realization of Social Studies objectives.
Expressing similar view, Iyewarun (1981) says the concept 
and scope of Social Studies are still not clearly understood. 
It is taken variously as "cultural studies," "oriental 
studies" and "social sciences". His idea is supported by 
Ogunsanya (1984).
Still revealing the same uncertainty is the definition of 
Social Studies given by the 1968 Mombasa conference of African 
educators. This conference, which is believed to be the 
genesis of the present integrated and multi-disciplinary
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
23
Social Studies gave a definition that was not concise enough. 
It defined Social Studies as "the learning of man and his 
interaction with his environment." This definition as well as 
chat of the 1976 National Curriculum Workshop, Ibadan, see 
Social Studies as having man as the content for study. The 
Ibadan Workshop defined Social Studies as:
"the study of man and his interaction 
with his social and physical environment." *
res the two definitions which differ only in term of 
=i~antics, connote similar meaning and are all part of the 
numerous definitions of Social Studies-.
The series of changes and developments in the Nigerian 
educational systems have also caused changes in the definition 
and nature of Social Studies. Quartey (1983) stated that the 
sub-committee of the Joint Consultative Committee on 
Education, in Benin City, in 1982 agreed that Social Studies 
be defined as a "study of the outcomes of the interactions 
between man and his environment."
The Nigerian Educational Research and Development 
Council, (NERDC) in 1982 gave a more specific definition of
Social Studies. It sees Social Studies as "those common
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
24
learning of man's interaction with his social and physical 
environment." It further stated that the grand objectives of 
Social Studies should be "socializing" and "humanizing" the 
individual child and helping him/her to develop basic 
concepts, understanding, values, attitudes and skills
necessary to survive." (p.8).
*
In another publication, Social Studies was defined by 
NERDC (1982) as:
"a way of life, a way of seeing, viewing, 
conceptualizing and appreciating things and 
issues, with special regard to their proper 
places and functions in the ordering and 
management of man's total natural, social, 
and technological environment." (p.12). •
The two definitions relate Social Studies to both physical and 
social environment and also to technological and scientific 
environment. The NERDC further elucidated that Social Studies 
is different from other school subjects in its nature, 
content, and approach and it is a unified and integrated 
course of study which utilizes the "systems approach" in
viewing and tackling social problems.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
25
Udoh (1983) reiterated the definition given by the 
authorities in Zambia, Uganda and Kenya which said that Social 
Studies is:
"a subject that presents knowledge as a whole 
and attempts to study man in his physical, 
social, cultural, psychological and economic 
environments as they relate and interact with 
each other both as they have done in the past 
and as they do now in the present time." (p.8.) .
It was in this same vein that Comparative Education Study 
and Adaptation Centre (CESAC) (1985) describes Social Studies. 
It conceptualises Social Studies as "the study of man in 
society with all the interplay between him, his environment 
and the effect of sciences and technology." In this 
definition and those of NERDC, it is not only the social and 
physical environment that are considered as being inclusive in 
the realm of man's interaction but also the impact of science 
and technology. The impact which these new developments are 
making to man's life is also to be studied.
In all these definitions one thing that stands out
clearly is that man is the major actor in Social Studies. How
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
26
re interacts and how his environment reciprocally interacts 
.'irh him, forms the basis of the study.
In an attempt to formulate a philosophical basis for the 
development and nature of Social Studies Adeyoyin (1990) 
postulated three theories. These are the Knowledge of Self 
Theory (KOS) Relevance theory and Dynamism theory. The 
crowledge of self theory 'KOS' holds that man who is made in 
rhe image of God and endowed with all the capabilities that 
_ake him a little lower than the angels but higher than the 
lower animals, must pursue knowledge for man's sake. The 
relevance theory refers to matter or issue our hand considered 
as practical and socially applicable. It connotes pertinence 
i.e. the quality of being useful and of considerable interest. 
Adeyoyin suggested that the continued existence of Social 
Studies can be justified only as it is considered relevant in 
the education system. Lastly, the third theory - dynamism 
theory, holds for changes in the subject and the context in 
which it is studied. Within it is process of growth,
•H
expansion of knowledge and a network of facts which also is 
subject to modification, acceptance and rejection.
Similarly, Osho (1985) quoting Barr et al (1978)
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
27
identified three traditions of Social Studies. He specified 
them as Social Studies taught as citizenship transmission, as 
social sciences and as reflective inquiry. He sees these 
traditions as mutually exclusive, antagonistic, and 
competitive philosophical systems with each striving to emerge 
the true Social Studies.
1.2 Concept of Note-taking
In most instructional situations, what is learned depends 
largely on the activities of the learners during the period of 
learning - Rothkopf (1970) * It is therefore imperative for 
those interested in the scientific study of instruction to 
examine critically those activities of the learners which 
affect learning and which include such activities as answering 
meaningful adjunct questions, summarizing, note-taking etc.
The study of note-takihg is an area of instructional 
investigation which emerged in the 1960s. It falls within the 
category of learner's activities which Rothkopf (1962) 
referred to as mathemagenic activities - that is those 
"activities that are relevant to the achievement of specified 
instructional objectives in specified situation or places."
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
28
Specifically note-taking refers to the specific activity of . 
encoding, in a written form, the information obtained from 
lecture by the learner. It is regarded
as one of the 'learning sets' for attempting to enhance one's 
recall of the content of a lecture by taking a written 
transcription of the material presented.
According to Maddox (1963) note-taking involves visual, 
auditory and kinesthetic senses through which it facilitates 
learning. During the note-taking activities of the learners, 
the learners actively process information, paraphrase 
information, organise learning material and at the same time 
elaborate on the material. These various activities of the 
learners aid them in assimilating the information obtained 
from the lecture. These notion is consistent with the view of 
Wittrock (1974) which states that learning results from the 
generation of meaning by the learner.
2.3 Functions of note-taking
Researchers in note-taking have all identified two basic 
functions of note-taking as a normal classroom activity of 
learners. These are the encoding and the external storage 
functions. As early as 1972 Divesta and Gray had demonstrated,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
29
in clear terms, the differences between these two functions of 
note-taking. It is upon the distinction made that other 
investigators in note-taking based their frame of references.
2.3.1 Note-taking as encoding activity
Note-taking refers to the specific activity or activities 
of taking a written transcription of the information obtained 
from lecture or verbal discourse by the learner. It also 
takes the form of underlining, marking or noting in other ways 
the important points or aspects in an already prepared note .
Divesta and Gray (1972) stated that one of the most 
important 'learning set' for attempting to enhance one's 
recall of the contents of a lecture is to take a written 
transcription of the material presented. It is a learning 
activity which, according to Maddox (1963), involves visual, 
auditory and Kinesthetic senses through which it facilitates 
learning. Researchers like Craik and Lockhart (1972) and 
Mayer (1975, 1978 and 1984), have argued that note-taking 
functions more perfectly as an encoding mechanism. They 
asserted that the encoding function of note-taking is usually 
signalled by the demands of the learning task. Learners will 
then attend actively to the information that they understand.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
30
They will paraphrase, select and summarize whatever 
information is relevant to their learning goals.
This view is consistent with the view that learning 
results from the generation of meaning by the learners 
(Wittrock, 1974) and with metacognitions about how and what to 
learn (Clavel and Wellman, 1977) . Ausubel (1968) had earlier 
made a distinction between two types of encoding processes, 
that of assimilating new information to a set of meaningful 
structures and that of adding new information as arbitrary 
association. Mayer (1975) referred to the two forms of 
encoding as the additive and the assimilative encoding. He 
further went on to suggest that the additive encoding process 
requires only one major condition to be met - the material 
must be received by the learner.
Mayer (1975) also emphasised that the assimilating 
encoding requires that three conditions be met; one, the 
material must be Received, two, a meaningful set of prior 
experiences must be available to the learner; and three, the 
learner must actively process that set of experience during 
lecture. He then concluded that the two different types of 
learning result in different outcome as measured by retention
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
31
ar.d transfer.
2.3.2 Note-taking as an External Storage Mechanism
A second function of note-taking suggested by Di Vesta 
and Gray (1972) is that notes are a form of external storage 
available for review or reference at a later time. Consistent 
with this view is the result of the study of Carter and Van 
Matre (1975) which found that subjects who were provided an 
opportunity for review performed significantly better than 
subjects who were given no such opportunity, even though both 
groups had taken notes.
Craik and Tulving (1975) also argued that in creating 
their own notes, students generate a transportable and 
permanent storage of important information that is available 
for review. The review which is later undertaken enlivens the 
stored up information and makes retrieval easier.
Similarly, Friedman (1978) and Uwakwe (1984) suggested 
that note-taking functions more efficiently as storage 
mechanism. Friedman (1978) found that subjects who reviewed 
their notes, performed better than those who were not allowed 
to review, in a test of retention and recall of factual 
information. Uwakwe (1984) came to this same conclusion.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
32
2.4 Theories of Note-taking Activity
There are many theories about note-taking activity in 
learning. The theories include, the attention, the 
distraction and the generative theories.
2.4.1 The Attention Theory
Frase (1970) states that note-taking forces the learner 
-O pay more attention to the presented material while Craik 
and Lockhart (1972) say note-taking forces the learner to 
process the presented materials more deeply. According to 
this theory, on the average, note-taking subjects would encode 
more of the information or the materials presented in the 
lecture and as well select the most important points raised in 
the lecture because of their increased attention. The theory, 
therefore, asserts that note-takers would perform better than 
non-note-takers on all relevant dependent measures in a note­
taking study. Thus the theory suggests a facilitative effects 
of note-taking as a strategy of learning in a lecture 
situation.
2.4.2 The Distraction Theory
The distraction theory hypothesises that taking note 
concurrently with lecture forces the learner to concentrate on
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
33
the motor act of writing instead of more fully listening to 
the lecture. It adds that when the lecture information is 
presented at a rapid rate, note-taking can prevent the learner 
from paying the required adequate attention to the material 
Peters 1972). According to this theory, note-taking subjects 
in a lecture, would, on the average perform worse than non­
note takers on all relevant dependent measures when lecture 
information was rapidly presented. However, this theory fails 
to specify whether or not there would be any consolidation of 
memory stock of .lecture information sometimes after the 
lecture presentation and when the note-taking has ended. That 
is, whether the note-takers would still perform worse during 
a delayed retention test or when transfer of knowledge was 
required. 4
2.4.3 The Generative Theory j
Gives a different dimension of learning which takes place 
during lecture. While the attention and distraction theories 
are concerned with a quantitative question, "How much is 
learned?", and assume that there is only one major step in 
cognitive processing from lecture, the generative theory, on 
the other hand, is based on the idea that additional cognitive
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
34
processes are undertaken during note-taking. For example, the 
note-taking learner is able to actively relate the material 
from the lecture to existing stock of knowledge - (Wittrock, 
1974, and Mayer, 1976; 1984).
The generative theory tnakes three related assumptions. 
First, that there is usually a pattern of treatment - post 
test interaction in which note-takers perform better than non­
note-takers on delayed recall test but worse on the near 
transfer or immediate recall test. This assumption or 
prediction is based on the idea that note-takers can relate 
presented information to existing knowledge and thus build a 
more integrated or broader learning outcome. This broader 
learning outcome facilitates inferences required in delayed 
retention test or transfer of learning. However, because the 
material has been re-organised, performance may be hindered 
for near transfer or immediate recall of specific facts.
Secondly, the theory assumes that the pattern of 
treatment - post interaction was expected to be stronger for 
subjects who were unfamiliar with the lecture material but not 
for those who were familiar with- it. Thirdly, the same
pattern of treatment-post test interaction was expected to be
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
35
displayed for other types of generative activities such as 
raking summary notes or answering meaningful adjunct questions 
after each segment of lecture.
In summary the generative theory therefore, predicts that 
r.ote-takers should learn more because more 'cognitive anchors' 
exist to which new knowledge is attached.
To test these predictions of the note-taking theories 
especially the generative theory, the present study includes:
(a) concurrent note-taking for a moderately paced 
lecture with no opportunity for review;
(b) dependent measures that include both immediate 
recall and delayed recall of lecture information.
These have been included specifically to test the predictions 
of the generative theory of note-taking on the academic 
achievement of some Social Studies students at the College of 
Education level.
2.5 Empirical Studies on Note-taking
The literatures on the effect of note-taking on learning 
has not yielded consistent results. In fact, the critical 
implicit assumption that by encouraging students to take 
notes, make summaries, underline salient points in prepared
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
36
lecture notes or be otherwise active during instruction aid 
learning, has been challenged (Fisher and Harris, 1973, Carter 
and Van Matre, 1975). Nevertheless, many researchers still 
believe that one of the most reliable strategies for enhancing 
one's recall ability of the content of an instruction is to 
take a written transcription of the information presented, 
Khulvavy, Dyer and Silver, 1975).
Some investigators have found that note-taking interferes 
with learning (Peters, .1972; Fisher and Harris, 1974), others 
have found that note-taking has no effect on performance 
(Fisher and Harris, 1975; Carter and Van Matre, 1975); and 
still, some others have found that note-taking improves memory 
for lecture materials (Divesta and Gray, 1972; Peper and 
Mayer, 1978; 198&).
A set of studies which have illustrated the effect of 
different types of note-taking strategies include those of 
(Todd and Kasaler, 1971; Fisher and Harris, 1973 and Aiken, 
Thomas and Shennum, 1975). Todd and Kessler (1971) used a 
very brief passage and had three different note-taking 
strategies adopted by their subjects. The first group took 
notes, the second group underlined salient points in prepared
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
37
lecture notes, while the third only listened without taking 
notes. Comparing students' achievement on
dependent measures such as transfer of learning or 
application, the note-takers excelled the other two groups.
Also supporting the value of note-taking is the study of 
Divesta and Gray (1972) . using a series of three 500-words 
taped passages, the researcher found that subjects who took 
notes performed better on both free recall and multiple choice 
retention measures. The same result was obtained in a later 
but similar study, Divesta and Gray (1983). In the study a 
set of six 500-word segments was presented and was later 
followed by a true-false delayed retention test. 
Confirmatorily, the note-takers still performed better, thein
the non-note-taker*s. A i k e n ,
Thomas and Shennum (1975) obtained yet another result which 
illustrates the facilitative effect of note-taking despite the 
marked differences in the procedure they adopted. The authors 
presented subjects with a 2000-word taped lecture in four 
sections of approximately equal length, with brief intervals 
in which no material was presented after each section. 
Students either took notes during lecture, during the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
38
intervals or did not take note at all. From a post-test, the 
authors observed that students who took notes during these 
intervals recalled significantly more of the lecture contents 
than students who took notes while the material was being
presented or took no note at any time. The study does
demonstrate that no%te-taking in between lectures or at lecture 
intervals proves more facilitative to learning than taking 
notes in concurrence with listening to lecture.
Information gleaned from these studies and some earlier 
ones support the value of note-taking as an essential activity 
for students during lecture. However, within the same period 
other studies came to different conclusions. Some suggested 
that note-taking practice may not be helpful or may even be 
detrimental to learning. Among such studies are those of 
Fisher and HarrisV  (1974); Peters (1972) and Weener (1974).
Peters (1972) reached a negative conclusion on note­
taking practice. After presenting a 1600-word passage on 
steel at either normal (146 words per minute) or fast (202 
words per minutes) rates, he studied the effects of note­
taking on recall. Peters discovered that note-taking 
significantly reduced scores on a 25-item multiple choice
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
39
rest. The detrimental effect was particularly marked for low- 
efficiency learners. Thus, it illustrates that note-taking 
associates positively with high academic efficiency only. 
Low-efficiency students do not benefit enough from note­
taking .
Fisher and Harris (1974), found no significant difference 
between subjects who took notes and those who did not. 
Comparing several groups on retention of materials-presented 
in a 20-minutes lecture on personality testing, by using free 
recall and multiple choice measure, he concluded that note­
taking gave no advantage over non-note-taking.
In a similar vein, Weener (1974) conjectured that a good 
memory may be needed in order to take advantage of note-taking 
especially when the speed of lecture is high or the 
information density is high. This finding is consistent with 
Peter's (1972) result that note-taking has effect on high- 
efficiency subject than on the low-efficiency learners. Note­
taking thus had a negative effect on the low-efficiency 
learners.
Similarly, the result illustrated the distinction between 
the encoding and the storage functions of note-taking.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
40
.-.llowing subjects to review thei. ri  own notes produced a 
substantial difference in the achievement of note-takers and 
non-note-taking subjects.
The same study, showed that the rate of presentation of 
material also contributed significantly to the effectiveness 
or otherwise of note-taking. The study demonstrated a clear 
superior retention ability for note-taking groups involved, 
that is whether note was taken concurrently or at the 
intervals. •
One would, in the light of the foregoing information, 
agree with Faw and Waller (1976) that note-taking may 
interfere with the ongoing reception of materials when
presentation rateV s are more rapid and no pauses are inserted 
for notes to be taken. However, slower rates of information 
presentation would definitely permit time for taking note with 
no significant reduction in attention to other cognitive 
activities.
The period between 1975 and 1980 witnessed few reported 
experiments on note-taking. However, the early eighties 
recorded a resurgence of interest in note-taking studies. 
Barnett, Divesta and Rogozinki (1981); Mayer (1984); Uwake
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
41
1984); Einstein, Morris and Smith (1985); Peper and Mayer 
1986) ; Cook and Mayer (1988) and Walko 1989) are but a few of 
such published works.
Peper and Mayer's (1978) study investigated the effects 
cf note-taking on 'what is learned' from video taped lectures. 
Three separate experiments were performed. Sixty students of 
z h e  University of California participated in the experiment. 
Achievement measures were obtained for near transfer tests as 
well as far transfer objectives. In the first two 
experiments, the authors obtained results indicating that 
note-takers excelled on far transfer test items while non­
takers excelled on near transfer tests.
As in Peters' (1972) study, the low-ability subjects had 
marked detrimental effects of note-taking. This experiment 
further confirms the link between note-taking effects and 
students' individual differences.
In the same report, experiment three, produced a result 
where the recall protocols of note-takers were significantly 
higher than those of non-note-takers. Similarly, note-takers 
recorded more idea units concerning underlying concepts and 
more intrusions concerning other relevant concepts. Non-note-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
42
cakers did better at recalling technical symbols and examples 
and produced more vague summaries and connectives. The 
anchors therefore posited that note-taking can result in a 
rroader learning outcome, rather than just more learning 
recause a assimilative encoding process is encouraged in note­
taking .
In two separate experiments which examined (a) the 
encoding functions of note-taking and (b) the processing 
differences between successful and less successful subjects, 
Einstein, Morris and Smith (1985) concluded that note-taking 
enhances the organisational processing of lecture information. 
When the notes and the recall abilities of the successful and 
less successful subjects were compared, it was discovered that 
successful subjects recalled more of the important proposition 
and recorded more protocols. Also, it was observed that ttye
two groups were similar in their note-taking styles and the
%
degree to which they benefitted from reviewing their notes. 
The memory difference between the two groups was therefore 
interpretable in terms of factors occurring during note-taking 
with successful students engaging in greater integrative 
processing of information presented.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
43
Consistent with Wittrock's (1974) idea that note-taking 
is a generative activity that encourages the building of 
connections between what is presented and what is already 
known was the study of Peper and Mayer (1986) . This 
experiment demonstrates that note-taking has facilitatiVfe 
effects in learning science. Subjects viewed a video-taped 
lecture on automobile and either took notes or listened only. 
As in their 1978 study, note-takers performed better than non- 
note-takers on far transfer tasks but worse on near transfer 
tasks.
Particular importance is attached to the results of this 
study because it amplified the assumptions earlier made on the 
treatment versus post-test interaction pattern obtainable from
is
note-taking experiments. The predictions of the attention, 
distraction and generative theories were fully confirmed. 
Peper and Mayer ‘(1986) concluded, that note-taking encourages 
learner to build external connections between what is 
presented and what learners already know. The study report 
went further to suggest that other activities such as 
answering adjunct questions, summarising and paraphrasing 
tests could effectively as well build or generate external
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
44
connections. Similar conclusions were reached by Balogun 
.1983) , Mayer, (1984) and Ogunsola (1990) .
Walko's (1989) study had a slightly different pattern 
from many earlier experiments. Using 140 high school 
subjects, Walko examined the instructional effects of the 
additive structure imposed by different levels of interactions 
on visual materials. The instructional effect was measured by 
four-part post-tests (Drawing, terminology, identification and 
comprehension) performance of students.
Walko's subjects were randomly assigned to one of four 
conditions of note-taking:
(i) instructional booklet only (as control);
(ii) instructional booklet plus instruction to ta!ke" 
note;
(iii) instructional booklet plus a simple formal outline
1
type of study guide;
(iv) instructional booklet plus a complex study guide
*
consisting of formal outline and interactive type 
of activities.
Using the analysis of variance on the dependent 
variables, Walko retained the null hypothesis for the mean
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
45
values on the overall post-test and concluded that additive 
structure imposed by different levels of note-taking on visual 
materials are not effective in improving students' achievement 
of different types of instructional objectives.
From the few studies reviewed the inconclusiveness of 
findings on note-taking activity becomes more apparent. While 
a number of studies assert the facilitative effects of note- 
taking strategies, others suggest that note-taking "has either 
no tangible effects or at worse a detrimental one.
Could these inconsistent findings, be partly attributable 
to the subject-matter, to the personality and attitude of the 
subjects involved in the studies or the nature of the tasks 
the students were exposed to? Could the facilitation or 
otherwise of students' performance by each note-taking
' • ,* ' V - -  '
strategy be dependent on the > nature of the lecture 
information, the familiarity or non-familiarity with the 
lecture material p r  the period of testing, whether immediate 
or a delayed interval between the teaching and the post­
testing of the subjects? There is need, therefore, to make 
further attempt to look closely and more critically at the
literature on all the variable under consideration in this
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
46
present study and their relationship to note-taking as a 
classroom activity that aid academic performance of college 
students in Social Studies.
2.6 Attitudinal Differences
For a very long time, students' academic performance had 
been taken to be completely hinged on intelligence. But in 
recent times, the emphasis on intelligence as the single
predictor of scholastic ability is not only outdated but 
grossly misleading, (Vabaza, 1974). A large number of 
researches (Davidoff, 1980; Durojaiye, 1984; Gardiner, 1983; 
and Boyinbode, 1989 inclusive) have repeatedly demonstrated 
that intelligence is only a facet of the whole dynamic
personality whose other non-cognitive factors should not be 
neglected in b a y  attempt to unravel the correlation of
academic performance.
rv
One non-cognitive factor which has been established to 
correlate highly with academic achievement is attitude 
(Norwich and Duncan, 1970; Baureti-Fuchs, 1975; and Odufuye
(1985) . The examination of attitude is based on the theory of 
psychologists who believe that attitude is a reasonably 
enduring factor and can be distinguished from sets and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
47
expectations. It is also established that attitudes may be 
held not because of any characteristics of the subject in 
question, but because they help to resolve certain 
inner conflicts.
The importance of the study of attitude is better 
appreciated if one considers the words of Shaw and Wright 
(1969) that:
"if the attitudes of a person towards a 
given object or class of objects is known, 
it can be used in conjunction with situa­
tional and other dispositional variables 
to predict and explain reactions of the 
person to the class of objects", (p.10).
In the present study, attitude was viewed in conjunction 
with personality to interact with the different note-taking 
strategies in determining students performance in Social 
Studies.
Attitude has been defined in a plethora of ways in the 
educational literature. To define attitude, Oskamp (197̂ 7) 
cited a comprehensive definition previously ascribed to
Allport, as:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
48
"a mental or neutral state of readiness 
organised through experience, exerting 
a directive or dynamic influence upon the 
individual's responses to all objects and 
situations with which it is related", (p.70). 
From the definition, it can be inferred that mental 
predisposition and experience of individuals count very much 
in the individual's response. Also that object, event and 
situation are pertinently linked up in the determination of 
the individual's attitude. In essence, the object, event or 
situation play significant role in making any attitude either 
positive or negative.
To Peter (1972) attitude is "a member of a crowded class 
of concepts invoked in some form to explain the apparent 
directiveness of behaviour." The problem then is, why is any 
particular response what it is, rather than any one of other 
numerous possibilities.
The psychologists' concept of attitude is that they are 
latent variables in that they cannot be directly observed, but 
can be inferred from observable responses to a class of 
stimuli and they are assumed to mediate consistency and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
49
covariation among responses. Little 1wonder why Bolwar (1973) 
equates attitudes with unconscious irrational tendencies and 
opinions. He further distinguishes them from conscious 
rational activities. A more popular belief refers to 
attitudes as "matters of taste and opinion rather than the 
question of facts."
2.7 Nature of Attitude
Attitudes are the end products of the socialization 
process and they significantly influence man's responses to 
cultural products, to other persons or groups of persons and 
to subjects of study. If the attitude of a particular person 
towards a given object or a group of objects is known it can 
be used to predict and explain the person's usual reactions to 
the object, person or school subject.
Attitudes are construed as varying in quality and 
intensity (or strength) on a continuum from positive through 
neutral to negative which reflects the evaluation of the 
objects in relation to goal attainment (Krech et al, 1967) . 
The strength of the attitude is represented by the extremity 
of the position occupied on the continuum, becoming stronger 
as one goes outward from the neutral position. This intensity
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
50
which reflects the strength motive is expected to correspond 
to the strength of this reaction.
Attitude, on one side of such continuum indicate negative 
effective reactions which arouse responses of negative
approach and avoidance such as attack and repulsion
respectively. But, on the other side of the continuum,
attitudes indicate positive affective reactions which result 
in responses of positive approach.
According to Sherif and Sherif (1956) attitudes are 
learned, rather than being completely innate or as a result of 
constitutional development and maturation. Attitudes are 
learnt through interactions with social objects and in social 
events or situations. Since they are learned, attitudes 
demonstrate the same properties as other learned reactions 
such as latency and threshold. They are subject to further 
changes through thinking, inhibition, extinction, fatigue etc. 
(Gallenbech and Smith (1950) in Oskamp (1977) . Thus, 
attitudes are subject to alteration)^ maintenance and breakdown 
through manipulation of the same order of variable as those 
producing their original acquisition. All forms of learning, 
classical and instrumental, conceivable provide bases for the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
51
acquisition of attitude.
Furthermore, attitude possess varying degrees of 
mterrela-tedness to one another, (Krech et al, 1962, MaGrath, 
1964; Eysenck, 1972). Attitude are interrelated to the extent 
that they possess similar reference or similar valences (by 
virtue of application of common evaluative concepts).
Attitudes which are highly correlated or interrelated
form clusters or sub-systems. These sub-systems are
interrelated with one .another to fform the total attitudinal 
system of the individual. The interrelatedness occurs because 
of similarity in* the evaluative conception applied, for 
example all the things which the person loves or hates.
In conclusion attitude can be described as the 
individuals evaluative feelings, beliefs, values and interests 
towards people, objects, things, places, events and subjects. 
It is a frame of reference which saves time , organises 
knowledge, has implications
for the real world of learning and can change in the face of 
acquired knowledge.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
52
2.8 Relationship Between Attitude and 
Academic Achievement
A learner's attitude has been found to affect both his 
scholastic achievement and his education. For example 
attitude towards a school subject which is a measure of the 
degree of the learner's attraction to or repulsion from the 
subject-matter, influencesevery other things connected with the 
subject. It influences the students attendance at lesson, 
his behaviour toward all the learning activities in the 
subject and incidentally the person teaching him the subject- 
matter. Attitude towards a school subject will therefore 
affect the students achievement in the particular subject 
(Bauret-Fuch, 1975) .
In support of the above suggestion, researchers like 
(Norwich and Duhcan, 1970; Bauret-Fuch, 1976; Gardinar, 1985; 
Durojaiye, 1984) Roettger, Szymosnk and Millard, 1979; 
Odufuye, 1985 and Aiyelagbe, 1989), have all consistently 
asserted that learners'
attitudes and interest always influence school achievement. 
From their empirical studies, they have confirmed that there 
exists a significant and positive relationship between,.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
53
students' attitude toward school subjects and their 
achievement in the subjects.
Ahierakwen (1981) and Hamilton (1982) in their respective 
studies came to the conclusion that attitude towards science 
subjects are related to achievement in science. Similarly 
Aiyelagbe (1989) discovered that College of Education 
Students' attitude to Yoruba functionally relate to their 
achievement in the subject. He also found no significant 
difference between the attitude of students in one college 
and those in another.
Similarly, Ramsett, Johnson and Adams, (1974); Takima, 
(1971) ; Webb (1972); Schibeci (1984) Gardiner (1985) ; and Igwe
• V  . k
(1979) also found positive correlation between students'
attitude and their academic achievement. However, some5 of
these studies qbtained low indices of correlation between
attitude and academic achievement.
2.9 Students' Attitude Towards 
Social Studies
Social Studies, as a school subject is relatively new on 
the Nigerian School Curriculum - Ogunsanya (1982) . By 
implication, relatively few works exist in the literature to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
54
attest to the relationship of students' attitude to the 
subject and their performance in it.. Nevertheless, the
results of the few available studies are consistent with the 
findings made in respect of other subjects. That is subjects 
with positive attitude to particular school subjects usually 
perform well in the subject.
Week's (1972) study inquired into the attitude of infant 
pupil-teachers towards curriculum package in Social Studies. 
Using the Likert type scale for the measurement, he obtained 
a result which ' revealed that the teachers had positive 
attitude to the curriculum package.
Machart (1977), in another study sought to determine 
whether there were any significant differences between the 
attitudes of the 6th grade students towards Social Studies and 
science, spelling, mathematics and reading and came to the 
conclusion that there were no significant differences. 
Machart however, found that the attitudes of boys towards 
Social Studies were significantly more positive than those of 
girls.
In Nigeria, Olawepo (1978) measured and described the 
attitude of student-teachers to Social Studies and correlated
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
55
their attitudes with their performances in Social Studies. 
Employing the Libert type attitude scale on 109 students- 
teachers, Olawepo discovered that:
(a) All student-teachers had positive attitude to Social 
Studies with most of them having very positive 
attitude. But there was no significant differences 
between male and female student-teachers in their 
attitude towards the subject. None also existed 
between the brilliant and the weak student-teachers.
(b) All the 5 correlation coefficient indicating the 
association between attitude and performance in * 
Social Studies, for all treatment groups, were low,
■Si
but positive.
(c) Sex and achievement differences affect the 
association between attitude and performance. 
Female showed more positive attitude to Social 
Studies than males, while
those with higher achievement had more positive attitudes 
as well. Adalumo's (1986) study was much of a replica of 
Olawepo's (1978) study. In the same way, he ’ (Adalumo) 
discovered that students had positive attitude towards Social
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
4
56 V
Studies as an area of school curriculum. But unlike Olawepo 
1978), Adalumo discovered that positive attitude did not 
correlate with academic performance in the subject.
The inconclusive nature of findings in this area of 
research further underscores the need to further investigate 
into students achievement in the subject and what factors 
influence such achievement, The present study sought to 
probe, in part, into the relationship between the attitude to 
Social Studies and students achievement in the subject.
2.10 Personality Differences
Personalityvaccording to Allport, (1963) is:
"the dynamic organisation within the 
individual of those psychophysical 
systems that determine his charac­
teristics behaviour and thought" (p.28).
Similarly Davidoff (1980) sees personality as:
"those relatively consistent and enduring 
patterns of perceiving, thinking, feeling 
and behaving that appear to give people 
separate identities .)J
The two psychologists, thus, see personality as a basic
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
57
and important factor which determines what human beings are 
and what they are capable of doing. To them, also personality 
is not a unitary or singular factor but one that is multi­
faceted.
Eysenck (1968) suggested that personality is expressed in
four dimensions which are virtually independent of one
*
another. Those are, introversion-extroversion dimension, 
neuroticism, psychotism and general intelligence. Of these 
dimensions, the present study considers the introversion- 
extraversion dimension as quite related to students' 
activities during lecture.
Apart from the findings that the introversion- 
extroversion dimension showS itself as a major determinant of 
differences in classroom activities of pre-primary..and primary 
students, it is also known to affect the responses of older 
students to teachers instructions. The need therefore, arises 
to examine what the personality of extroversion and 
introversion is, and to what extent it affects the students' 
note-taking activities and achievement in Social Studies.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
58
2.11 Theories of Introversion- 
Extroversion
Jung (1923) who is universally acknowledged as the author 
of extroversion-introversion personality dimension, defines 
extroversion as:
"an outward or observable behaviour which is 
a product of constitutional differences, as 
they interact with the environment, giving 
rise to descriptive behaviour differences."
(p.10)
Hall (1970) quoting Jung related extroversion and 
introversion dispositions to the different direction of the 
libido (psychic energy). However, other see the disposition 
as being determined by the degree of excitation and inhibition 
in the central nervous system.
In extroversion, the libido is channelled into 
representation of the objectives external world and concerns 
itself with perception, thought and feeling about objects,
people, animals,* customs, conventions, political and economic
institutions. In the introversion, the libido flows towards 
subjective psychic structure and processes relating with the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
59
inner and private world of the psychic.
Introversion and extroversion? sometimes appear to be
dynamic for a person may be extroverted at one time and
introverted at some other time. However, he cannot be both at 
*
the same time or occasion (Boyinbode, 1989) . Thus, both 
personality differences are said to be mutually exclusive and 
one only predominates in an individual during his lifetime.
Jung (1923) posited that there is a temporary 
changeability of personality differences and asserted that "a 
person is more or less extroverted and introverted, but he is 
not totally the one or totally the other". He further 
stressed that neither the trait of introversionnor that of 
extroversion is abnormal in itself and that each is related to 
a neurosis and a psychosis. Introversion is associated with 
psychosteria and schizophrenia while extroversion is 
associated to hysteria and manic depressive reaction.
Eysenck (1967, 1969, 1970) postulated and reaffirmed the 
biological differences between extroversion and introversion. 
He suggested that while the extrovert has a lower level of 
non-specific cortical arousal, the introvert has a higher 
level and hence the extrovert requires a higher level of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
60
external stimulation to reach the threshold. The brain 
monitors incoming neutral impulses resulting from
environmental stimulation and either excites or inhibits 
responses of higher brain centres to the stimulation. Thus 
the extrovert and introvert differ in the relative level of 
excitation and inhibition. Introverts develop conditioned 
responses more easily than extrovert.
In learning the extrovert is known to perform better when 
the task is below the optimal level while the introvert shows 
better learning performance as soon as the level of task 
difficulty is above the optimal level.
According to Eysenck (1976) an extrovert is typically 
sociable, lively and emotionally expressive. He likes parties 
and has many friends. He is active, aggressive, quick to make 
decision, craves excitement and takes chances. Furthermore, 
an extrovert is fond of practical jokes, inclined to be 
adventurous, impulsive, optimistic, loses his temper quickly 
and is happiest when surrounded by people.
A typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet and 
retiring person who is fond of his own company. He is
reserved and tends to be distant except with intimate friends.
M ■
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
61
An introvert is introspective, intellectual, well ordered, 
emotionally expressive, value oriented and plans quite ahead 
of actions. He is shy, secretive, contemplative, slow in 
decision making and taking, enjoys solitude and given to day 
dreaming. Furthermore, an introvert is found of books, rather 
than people, reserved, 'always looks before he leaps', keeps 
his feeling under close control, does not lose his temper 
easily, reliable, somewhat pessimistic of life but takes 
responsibilities rather seriously - (Eysenck, 1963, 1967, 1970 
and 1976; Vabaza, 1974; and Boyinbode, 1989) .
Eysenck and Cookson (1969) posited that introverts are 
late developers and that some of the differences in scholastic 
performance shown by different personality groups may be 
reflective of differing responses to social motivation and 
maturity. This notion is favoured and supported by Entwistle 
and Welsh (1969). They used the same explanation in terms of 
the social behaviour patterns which they discovered among 
college students.
It should be noted, however, that the above description 
of these two personality disposition are idealised end-points 
of a continuum to which normal individuals approach with
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
62
lesser or greater degree.
2.12 Measurement of Introversion 
and Extroversion
Much of the definition and description of personality 
variables stems from factor analytic research. Eysenck (1947) 
made a factor analysis rating of neurotic symptoms and came 
out with a bi-polar factor of dysthymic-hysteric symptoms. He 
further concluded that this dichotomy was related to Jung's 
(1923) conceptv of extroversion.
Furthermore, Eysenck (1953) found that several scale of 
the Guilford-Martin (1940) personality questionnaire were 
related to the dysthmic-hysteric dichotomy. One scale, 
Rhathymis loaded most highly on an extroversion factor. In a 
factor analysis that contained 24 rhathymia items, Eysenck 
(1956) derived ft factor which became the extroversion scale of 
his (1959) Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI).
The Maudsley Personality Inventory was later refactored 
and revised to become the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) 
- Eysenck and Eysenck (1963). For this, the author had become 
very popular and the scale had gained universal acceptability.
Other researchers (Braun, 1972; Cattell, et al, 1970),
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
63
have worked on and factor analyzed personality dispositions.
However, Eysenck and Eysenck (1963) personality inventory has
remained the most popular. For this reason as well as for the
suitability of the scale, the present investigator adopted the
'Extroversion component' of the Eysenck Personality Inventory
(EPI), and used it to measure subjects personality.
2.13 Empirical Studies on Extroversion 
Introversion and Academic 
Performance
v
There are many studies on the correlates of extroversion, 
introversion, learning and academic performance. Franks 
(1957) had reported that introverts condition faster and 
perform better than extrovert on vigilance task.
Walker (1958) postulated the 'Action decrement' 
hypothesis in which he specified that extrovert with low 
arousal and weaker consolidation show better recall soon after 
learning, while the introvert with high arousal and stronger
consolidation would recall better later on, when consolidation
0
has ceased. This implies a cross-over effect, with extrovert 
demonstrating forgetting and introverts improved reminiscence. 
Studies of Jensen, Howath and Eysenck (1968) and Howarth
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
64
1968) have confirmed Walker's assertion.
Leith (1973) had an experiment on personality, Mode of 
Assessment and Students' Achievement. He came to a conclusion 
zhat extrovert achieved significan' itly higher scores than their
-ore introverted peers. The subject-matter of Leith '5?
experiment was Educational Sociology. Leith opined that his
*
result had been influenced by other factors. In providing an 
explanation for his result, Leith (1973) attributed it to an 
interactive relationship between method of instruction and the 
introversion-extroversion dimension of personality.
According to Leith (1973) extrovert have a greater 
tolerance for ambiguity and lack of structure in the teaching 
situation whereas introverts are more inclined to be 
responsive to unambiguous and clearly structured situations. 
In a way, one therefore sees the reason why Leith's (1979) 
result run counter to a large number of other results which 
considered the relationship between academic success and 
extroversion (Furneaux, 1962; Warbuton, 1962; Rushton, 1966; 
Levin, 1967; and even Leith 1969 and Leith and David, 1969) . 
At the lower educational level, Jones (1960) Rushton
(1966) and Savage (1966) reported that extroverted children
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
65
tend to perform better in later primary and early secondary 
levels. This result was later confirmed by Eysenck and 
Cookson (1969) when they analyzed test scores of 4,000 primary 
school pupils and discovered that extroverted pupils had 
higher mean scores than their introverted counterparts.
Other studies (Elliot, 1972; Wisdom, 1973) reported 
gender differences. The extroverted girls and the introverted 
boys were found to be more successful. Though these works 
found the differences to be small, it, at the same time 
indicates the need to analyse such results based on the gender 
differences.
Also at the higher institutional level, Savage (1962) in
(t
Australia, Furneaux (1962) in England, Bending (1960) in the 
United States of America and Kline (1966) in Ghana have all 
reported the introverts as being academically superior to the 
extrovert.
Rowell and Renner (1975) administered the Eysenck 
Personality Inventory (EPI) to 136 full-time postgraduate 
diploma students in Education and investigated the 
relationship between personality, choice of method of
assessment and achievement in four theory courses. The
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
$
66
researchers found, that P<.05 level of significance that the 
extroverted students achieved significantly higher scores than 
their introverted pears.
This finding, again runs counter to Rushton (1966) ; Leith
1969) and Leith and David (1969) mentioned above, but it 
confirms the findings of Leith (1973) and Wisdom (1973).
Using three types of tests and three different groups of 
subjects, Elliot (1972) investigated personality factors and
scholastic attainment in students. He concluded that there is
o
a high correlation between extroversion and reading ability 
(R.A) but a negligible one between extroversion and 
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q) when Mental Age (M.A) and Reading 
Ability (R.A) respectively are held relatively constant.
Exploring another dimension of the relationship between 
personality and academic attainment, are the studies of 
Smithers and Batcock (1970) and Wilson (1971) . In these 
studies the relationship between personality and students' 
performance in? different academic discipline were 
investigated. Wilson (1971) reported that extroversion was 
found to be significantly related to failure for all the 
students in the Arts Faculty. Neurotic introverts performed
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
67
better in Engineering and Language while the stable introverts 
excelled in Pure Science and History. However, in the social 
sciences, he found that the correlation between either of 
these two personality variable and attainment was negligible. 
These findings were supported by Kline and Gale's (1971) 
study.
On the African scene, studies investigating the 
personality correlates with academic performance have been few 
and the few ones .available have reported very low 
correlations. Durojaiye, (1974), used the Gibeon's spiral
Maze as a measure of stability-instability in students. He
: , : \ ;■
came up with correlation ranging from .08 to 0.16 between this 
personality measure and school performance among a group of 
Uganda secondary school pupils.
From all the studies reviewed, it became apparent that 
the extrovert and introvert personality dimension has effect 
on students activities and academic achievement. However, the 
magnitude and direction of the effect is not conclusive. Thus 
this present study attempted to find out the magnitude and 
effect of these personality variable on the achievement of 
students in social studies at the College of Education level.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
68
2.14 Learning and Retention of Facts
The essence of the learning process is the systematic 
assessment of the ability to recall learned information, as 
well as the capability to transfer the acquired knowledge when 
the need arises, (Uwakwe, 1984) . However, this ultimate goal 
may never be attained unless the three sequential stages of 
learning processes acquisition, retention and recall are 
effectively stimulated. It is only a systematic process of 
learning that can ensure the attainment of this ideal. The 
need therefore, arises that educational systems should seek 
ways of ensuring the attainment of meaningful and effective 
fact retention for the purpose of recall at both the immediate 
and remote future.
Researchers in psychology and education, like Siemick 
(1967); Neisser (1967); Adams (1967); Tallend (1968); Postman 
and Keppel (1969) have expressed concern over the fallibility 
of the human memory. Tallend (1968) and Postman and Kepple 
(1969) have come up with diverse factors contributing to 
learning and retention of factual materials in various 
learning environments.
The psychoanalytic theory postulates that pleasurable
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
69
materials when learnt are less prone to forgetfulness than 
painful experiences. Similarly, Fay and Smith (1941) posited 
that materials learnt under cool temperature are more easily 
retained and recalled than those learnt under hot environment. 
Materials learnt at a temperature higher than 69° Farenheit 
are less remembered. This, they tagged the climatic 
temperature or Temporal theory. It follows therefore, that 
learning undertaken under cool environmental condition is 
likely to make more permanent impression than that learnt 
under humid or hot environment.
Robinson (1970) asserts that forgetting is not a simple 
fading away of once known materials or impression, but is 
dependent on time and space as well as individual's 
constitution. This view further buttressed the view of Gray 
and Rogers (1959) who had earlier postulated that people tend 
to forget the content of an article in a controversial issue 
more rapidly if thet)disagree tha* if they agree with it.
However, Robinson and Udoh (1979) outlined four methods 
of attacking forgetfulness in order to accelerate remembering. 
These are: stimulating interest and maintaining the intent to 
remember; selecting the key words and phrases in a study task
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
70
or lecture; repetition; and distributed learning. The second 
method underscores the study of note-taking activity in 
learning a Social Studies content which is known to be more 
often than not taught through the expository method 
(Okunrotifa, 1972 and Robert Voth 1975.)
The role of immediate and delayed recall was examined in 
this present study.
2.15 Immediate and Delayed Recall
Recall is the self expressive process of relaying
i
information item which an individual has been previously
Jf
exposed to. In order to facilitate the recall process, the 
materials must be* well learned and the learner should be 
encouraged to express himself in his own words rather than 
repeating the instructors own words.
Facts and ideas expresses! in the learner's own words are 
often much more remembered. In this way the ideas the writer 
writes become meaningful and make a deeper impression on the 
learner. ;
Kintsch (1968) provides a careful review of the strength
%V
theory of recall and recognition. This theoretical framework
has it that recall and recognition involve basically the same
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
71
process except that recognition of an item requires a lower 
threshold of strength than recall. This theory is supported 
by the fact that several experimental variables affect recall 
and recognition in the same way. For instance temporal 
variables such as time and retention interval as well as 
massing and spacing of presentation impinge similar effect on 
recall and recognition, Skotko and Rourke (1980) .
One theory of recall in psychological literature was 
propounded by Eichs (1982). His composite Holographic 
Associative Recall Model otherwise known as CHARM has a fairly 
elegant theoretical framework. The main assumption of the 
model is that items are represented as pattern of features 
rather than as discrete indivisible units. The items may vary 
in their similarity to each other. Two such items are 
associated relatively by means of the operation of 
convolution. The result of the association is stored in a 
composite memory trace that consists of the superimpo-sition 
of other association as well. Retrieval occurs by means of 
operational correlation. And finally the retrieved item is 
identified as a particular response by being matched to every 
item in a taxicon representing the semantic memory.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
72
The relevance of these theoretical viewpoint of recall to 
"he present study is significant. Learners sometimes tend to
V
forget what they have been exposed to due to ineffective or
deficient mode of learning or of presentation.
As Divesta and Gray, (1972) Khulvary, Dyer and Silver,
1975); Locke (1971), have individual posited, the most
reliable learning strategies for enhancing retention and
recall of the content of a lecture is to take a written
transcription of the material presented. This shows the
relevance of note-taking as aiding recall of facts. As an
encoding mechanism, note-taking allows the learners to
transcribe whatever subjective association, inferences and
interpretations that occurred to them while they listened to
the text material. The function of note-taking aids recall of
facts or information stored in the semantic memory.
Crawford (1925); Howe (1970) studies lent their own
credence to the efficiency of note-taking as a facilitator of
effective immediate and long term retention and recall. In 
thi, s empi, ri, cal stud*y, Crawford came to a conclusion that note- 
takers had significantly higher immediate and long-term recall 
scores than non-note-takers. However, he did not specify the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
73
note-taking strategy that was adopted by the note-takers in 
his study. Equally, Hows (1970) demonstrated that the 
probability of recalling items that occurred in the subjects 
own notes was about seven times that of items not in the 
notes. He also revealed that subjects who were allowed to 
review their notes had significantly higher mean recall test 
scores than their non-note-taking counterparts who attended to
an interfering task. This, in a wa>y, brings in the,
essence of rehearsal immediately after listening or
immediately prior to taking a test on the lecture content.
*
Divesta and Gray (1972) showed that note-taking leads to 
an increase in the number of ideas recalled from prose 
passages. He further concluded that the increased attention 
given to the concepts while taking notes increases the 
probability that the concepts will be retrieved even though 
there is little or no chance to review the notes before taking 
the test.
From another perspective, Hunkin's (1968) experiment 
brought in the idea of higher order questions prompting more 
thorough study and re-organisation of the material learnt. He 
also claimed that more important propositions from the notes
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
74
are recalled if questions asked are of higher order than lower 
order.
In many reported studies, learning was tested with 
immediate retention test only. But Patrick (1968)
1‘ '■ i
administered multiple choice tests immediately after lecture 
and one week later, to test delayed retention. His data 
showed that retention and recall were lower on the delayed 
test than the immediate test. However, the effect of note­
taking remained conspicuous in that note-takers recalled more 
facts than non-note-takers.
In a similar investigation Einstein, Morris and Smith 
(1985) revealed that in i ’b oth t. heimmediate and delayed tests. ' ; "• '*1 fy . ■ ■ 1 ■
of retention and recall of factual knowledge, the mpre
successful students recorded more high importance propositions
*
in their notes than the less successful students. The memory 
difference between the two groups of learners was interpreted 
to be the result of factors occurring during note-taking, with 
the more successful engaging in greater integrative processing 
of information during note-taking.
In general terms, it would be observed that the 
literature, on note-taking, like other educational and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
75
psychological concepts, is not conclusive. Every study either 
supports or opposes other findings. The present study will 
definitely add its own dimension. ■'However, one thing stands 
out clear, from most of the research works cited in this 
review, the study on note-taking has tended to shift scholars 
emphasis from investment of resources in the development of 
instructional materials to investment in instructional 
environment. More attention is now drawn at or directed to
promoting those activities in the student that would induce
■ k, • i
and maximize his achievement of instructional goals with 
available materials and thus making instruction learner- 
centred. *
Also from the literature, it would be observed that 
personality factors and psychological constructs like 
introversion-extroversion, and attitude have effects on 
learning outcome. All these variables were examined along 
with the note-taking strategies in this present study.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the research methodology, 
including the research design, selection of subjects, the 
instruments, the data collection and the statistical procedure 
for data analysis. The study was carried out in two phases - 
the pilot phase and the main phase.
3.1 Research Design
Basically, the study adopted a quasi-experimental 
procedure in the two phases of the investigation. The design 
format is a 3 x 2 x 2 factorial.
The choice of this research design is guided by the 
possibilities it. offers. First, more than one hypothesis 
about the main effects could be tested effectively in one 
experiment. This saves the time and energy that would 
otherwise be expended in carrying out several single factor 
experiments for the factors involved.
Secondly, the design provides an opportunity to study how
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
77
the factors interact to influence the dependent variable 
thereby allowing for greater generalization than would be 
possible in one-factor designs.
Furthermore, since the design permits the random 
assignment of the experimental units to the factor level 
combinations, it.makes matching of such experimental units 
unnecessary.
Finally, sampling error in the estimation of main and 
interacting effects can be reduced thereby increasing the 
power of the significant test by simply increasing the size of 
the sample in the major experiment (Glass and Stanley, 1970) .
3.2 The Variables
Three types of variables, the independent, the
.
intervening and the dependent variables were involved in the 
experiment. The independent variable was the note-taking 
strategies which subjects adopted during lecture. They were:
1. Concurrent note-taking with lecture.
2. Following lecturer's prepared note along with 
lecture.
3. Listening to audio taped lecture only (control
group).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
78
Two intervening variables, at two levels each, were also 
involved in the study. These are attitudinal differences 
positive and negative) and personality differences 
; introversion and extroversion). *
The dependent variable was the students' cognitive 
achievement as measured by two post-tests in Social Studies 
based on population studies. The first was the Social Studies 
Immediate Recall Test (SSIRT) while the second was the Social 
Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT). The two tests were 
designed by the researcher based on the learning material of 
the study.
From all the variables examined, the research design is 
illustrated as in figure"^ 3.1 and the setting of the 
experiment, based on the research design, is represented in 
figure 3.2 »
Figure 3.1
Research .Design
Experimental Group 1 X XI X2 X3
Experimental Group 2 Y Y1 Y2 Y3
Control Group 3 Z Z1 Z2 Z3
Where X is experimental treatment 1 = concurrent note-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
79
taking with lecture.
Y is experimental treatment 2 = following the lecturer's 
prepared notes.
Z is the control group 3 = Listening only strategy.
XI Y1 Z1 = pre-treatment tests
X2 Y2 Z2 = immediate recall tests
X3 Y3 Z3 = delayed recall tests
The pre-test served as a measure of the prior familiarity 
of the subjects with the learning material (population 
studies) on which the treatment was based.
Figure 3.2 depicts the setting of the experiment based on 
the design.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
80
Figure 3.2
Analysis . o£, Factors—and_Ce 11. Layout
*IMM Immediate Posttest
*DEL Delayed Posttest
where X Y Z Pretest for the different groups
i l l U*
X, Ŷ _ Z x = Immediate Recall Test for the 
different
» groups
X j Y, Z3 = Delayed Recall Test for the
different
groups
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
81
3.3 Control of Experimental Biases
Control of experimental biases rebates to establishing 
internal and external validity of the design of the 
experiment. Internal validity in an experimental study deals 
with the degree* of accuracy of the design while external 
validity refers to the generalizability of its results. 
Several factors which usually pose a threat to both validities 
were controlled for by the design. According to Campbell and 
Stanley, (1963) Kerlinger (1973) and Tuckman (1975) sources of 
internal validity reside in factors such as history, 
maturation and instrumentation, especially if- there are 
changes in the calibration of the measuring instrument or in 
the observer. Other factors include test sensitization, 
statistical regression, selection bias, experimental mortality 
and interaction between selection and mortality.
Similarly, external validity can be jeopardized by 
factors such as reactive or interactive effect of testing, 
selection bias and experimental variable interactions, 
reactive effects of experimental arrangement and multiple 
treatment interference. *
Essentially, *a pre-test control, such as the present one,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
82
ensures the control of such extraneous factors as history, 
saturation and test sensitization. All these factors, if 
present, would equally affect the control group as much as the 
experimental groups. Instruments need in the pre-post test 
■-ere not recalibrated and thus this source of invalidation 
could not have effected any damages. Also the pattern of 
casting used in this experiment is in consonance with that in 
vogue for testing achievement in the Nigerian educational 
system.
The researcher controlled for likely interaction between 
subjects by collecting the students' own notes (experimental 
group one) and the ̂ Lecturer's prepared notes given to subjects 
experimental group two), immediately after each lecture 
period. Also, lectures on each topic were delivered to the 
different groups, with each group having equal chance of being 
taught first or last. That is, the period when each group 
listened to the audio-taped lecture was randomized.
Also, the use of Analysis of covariance statistics took 
adequate care of possible initial differences among subjects. 
Pre-test scores were used as covariates in the analysis.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
83
3.4 Sampling of Subjects for ♦'
Pilot Study
In the pilot study, all the first year Social Studies 
’majors" in the Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun, 
••ere requested to respond to the Eysenck Personality Inventory 
EPI) and the Students' Attitude to Social Studies 
Questionnaire (SASSQ) Their responses were scored
accordingly.
Based on the scores of each subject, he or she was 
classified as either extrovert or introvert and as having 
positive or negative attitude to Social Studies. Thus, there 
were four categories of subjects - Extrovert with positive 
attitude, extroverts with negative attitude, introverts with 
positive attitude and introverts with negative attitude.
On the next visit, that is three days later, the selected 
subjects were given a pre-test (SSPT). The pre-test scores 
were recorded for all the subjects selected for the pilot 
study.
On the whole 60 subjects were selected to take part in 
the pilot study. They were grouped in 20 subjects each under 
the three note-taking strategies, of concurrent note-taking,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
84
note following and listening only (control group). In each of
the 20 members, 5 were extroverts with positive attitude, 5
extroverts with negative attitude, 5 introverts with positive
«
attitude and 5 introverts with negative attitude.
The overall sample of 6 0 subjects was made up of 3 0 
extroverts (15 with positive and 15 with negative attitude) as 
well as 30 introverts (15 with positive and 15 with negative 
attitude) towards Social Studies. Table 3.1 illustrates the 
distribution of sample for the pilot study.
Table 3.1:
DigtributiQn_.Q.f_,sample..fo;r. Pilot Study
PERSONALITY GROUP
TREATMENT GROUP ATTITUDINAL GROUP TOTAL
EXTRAVERT INTROVERTS
POSITIVE 5 5 10 ..
NOTE-TAKING
20 NEGATIVE 5 5 10
POSITIVE 5 5 10
NOTE FOLLOWING
20 NEGATIVE 5 5 10
LISTENING POSITIVE 5 5 10
(CONTROL)
20 NEGATIVE 5 5 10
TOTAL 30 30 60
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
85
3.4.1 Samples for the Main Study
The subjects for the main study were sampled from the 
first year students, offering Social Studies as one of their 
major subjects in three Colleges of Education, with two in Oyo 
State and one in Osun State. The subjects were selected in 
line with the same procedure adopted in the pilot study.
Subjects were taken as intact groups and were assigned to 
experimental and control groups randomly. Through the 
process, the subjects in St. Andrew's College of Education, 
Oyo, became the experimental group one while those in Osun 
State College of Education, Ilesa, became experimental group 
two and Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo served as 
the control group.
There was a total number of ninety-six (96) subjects in 
all the three groups, that is thirty-two subjects served in 
each of the three groups. The 96 subjects, selected for the 
three groups were made up of 48 extroverts (24 with positive 
attitude and 24 with negative attitude) as well as 48 
introverts (24 with positive attitude and 24 with negative 
attitude) Table 3.4 shows the distribution of subjects for the
main study.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
86
Table 3.2
Distribution of Sample for the Main Study
PERSONALITY GROUP
TREATMENT GROUP ATTITUDINAL GROUP TOTA]
EXTRAVERT INTROVERTS
NOTE-TAKING POSITIVE 8 8 16
32
NEGATIVE 8 8 16
NOTE FOLLOWING POSITIVE 8 8 16
32
NEGATIVE 8 8 16
LISTENING POSITIVE 8 8 16
(CONTROL)
32 NEGATIVE 8 8 16
TOTAL 48 48 96
3.5 Research Instruments
Six major research instruments were used in the study. 
They are as follows:
(a) Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
(b) Students' Attitude to Social Studies Questionnaire
(SASSQ).
(c) Prepared Lecture Notes
(d) Social Studies Pretest (SSPT)
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
87
(e) Social Studies Immediate Recall Test (SSIRT)
(f) Social Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT)
3.6 Eysenck Personality Inventory
Subjects' tendency to be extroverted was measured using 
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). The Eysenck Personality 
Inventory has gained universal acceptability. It has been 
investigated for its factorial structure and had several times 
been updated in England (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1968) where it 
had originally been standardised. Different other cultures 
such as Japan (Twawaki et al .1977, 1990), New Zealand
(Saklofske and Eysenck, 1978); Australia (Eysenck et al, 1980) 
have also found it relevant and useful. In Africa, evidence 
concerning its appropria-teness and validity have been given 
for Egypt (Ibrahim, 1982) and Nigeria (Eysenck et al 1977); 
Boyinbode, 1988) among others. These
studies yielded positive loading on most of the items. It was 
therefore, adopted for use in this study.
The 24 items in the inventory were statements to which 
respondents answered 'Yes', 'No', or 'Undecided'. These 
responses were scored in the order of 1 for 'Yes', 0 for 'No' 
and 1/2 for 'Undecided'. With this scoring procedure, it is
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
88
stipulated that the maximum score obtainable is twenty-four 
(24) while the minimum is zero (0). A score of twelve and a 
half (12 1/2) marks the boundary between introversion and 
extroversion.
3.6.1 Validity of Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
Despite the fact that this scale has been attested to as 
valid and relevant to the Nigerian culture, an attempt was 
still made to re-establish the validity of the instrument. *
Two psychologists, in the University of Ibadan and two 
lecturers in Education at the Federal College of Education 
(Special) Oyo were requested to rate each item on a 3-point 
scale 'Low', 'Medium' and 'High' as to its relevance to 
students tendency to extroversion. This exercise produced 
high inter-rater correlation. Sixteen of the items were rated 
as high by all the raters, 6 as medium and it was only in two 
items where two of the raters, disagreed with the others. 
Thus, the scale was accepted as highly relevant and usable for 
this experiment. To be further assured of the validity of the 
EPI, the scale was administered simultaneously with the self­
esteem scale of Adolescent Personality Data Inventory (APDI) 
by Akinboye. The results obtained from the two inventions
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
89
were correlated, using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation 
Method. The exercise yielded a coefficient of .62 which is a 
sufficiently high index of validity of the scale for the 
construct measured.
V
3.6.2 Reliability of Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
The 24 item inventory was presented to sixty (60)
students of Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun, on
two occasions with an interval of two weeks. A test-retest
method was made to obtain its reliability coefficient. By
applying the Product Moment Correlation formula, a reliability
coefficient of .76 was obtained.
This high correlation coefficient obtained, further
assured of the high reliability of the scale.
3.7 Student1 Attitude to Social Studies 
Questionnaire (SASSQ)
The Students' Attitude to Social Studies Questionnaire 
was constructed and validated by the investigator. The
evaluative instrument consists of thirty-two (32) statements
$ :
presented on a 4-point Likert Scale with responses consisting 
of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly 
Disagree (SD). Positive and Negative statements within the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
90
scale were interposed in the arrangement in order to test for 
acquiescence bias (Tuckman, 1975) .
Acquiescence bias occurs when a testeepredetermines to respond 
in a particular way to whatever question is asked.
The attitude scale consists of items measuring students' 
attitude to Social Studies in the following subscales.
1. Attitude to Social Studies as a subject.
2. Attitude to Social Studies objectives and content.
3. Attitude to Social Studied teacher and methodology.
4. Attitude to Social Studies resources. *
5. Attitude *to career in Social Studies.
6. Attitude to outcomes of Social Studies.
The scoring procedure took the form of scoring positive 
items differently from the negative ones. The positive items 
(3,5,6,7,8,10,11,14,15,17,18,19,20,21,24,25,27,29,30 and 32) 
were scored as follows! Strongly Agree = 4; Agree = 3;
Disagree =2; Strongly Disagree = 1. The negative statement 
(1,2,4,9,12,13,16,22,23,26,28 and 31) were scored in the 
reversed order - Strongly Disagree = 4; Disagree = 3; Agree = 
2; and Strongly Agree = 1 .  On this basis, a score of 80 and 
above on the 32 items indicates positive attitude while any
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
91
score below eighty (80) is taken as indicating a negative 
attitude towards Social Studies.
3.7.1 Validity of the Students' Attitude to Social Studies 
Questionnaire (SASSQ)
The Students' Attitude to Social Studies Questionnaire 
(SASSQ) was given both facial and content validation. The 
draft of the questionnaire was first given to two lecturers in 
Social Studies in a College of Education, a University 
lecturer in Social Studies education and an expert in 
construction of questionnaire and rating scales. They were 
requested to criticise the items and make suggestions. The 
necessary amendments were effected as suggested by these 
experts.
The final draft of the questionnaire consisting of 40 
items was tried on a sample of sixty (60) year one students, 
majoring in Social Studies, at Federal College of Education 
(Special) Oyo. They were asked to respond to the 
questionnaire. Their responses were scored and analyzed. 
Items which might have proved ambiguous for students to 
understand were further modified while ensuring that the 
meanings of the statements were not altered.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
92
To test for the internal consistency of the scale, the 
Cronbach Coefficient Alpha formula was applied to the result 
of the trial testing. The test yielded a coefficient alpha of 
0.71. According to Cronbach, the coefficient alpha is an 
index which shows, the extent to which items on a scale hang 
together or measure the same construct. The item-total item 
correlation was calculated to indicate what each item 
contributes to the construct measured.
Based on this computation, 8 items were found to possess 
negative Y1 (y-1) correlation, that is, they had negative 
loadings. They were thus deleted from the forty items, leaving 
a total of 32 items on the final scale. The 32 items were 
finally selected for use (see appendix II) . Also the 
contributions of each item to the construct measured ife
illustrated in Appe*ndix II).
3.7.2 Reliability of the Students' Attitude to Social Studies 
Questionnaire (SASSQ)
After validation, the attitude scale was processed for 
reliability. Ato and Wilkson's (1979) advice that if further 
reliability test is to be carried out on a scale by the split- 
half method, the number of positive and negative statements in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
93
each half of the scale must be equal, was heeded. The items 
were so arranged such that equal number of negative items and 
positive items were contained in each half. The students 
scale was then subjected to split-half reliability test and 
this test yielded a coefficient of 0.79 which is considered 
high enough for a teacher-made test.
3.8 Prepared Lecture Notes
A set of six simple structured notes covering all the 
topics discussed during the whole treatment period was 
prepared. Each note contains the main points for discussion 
sequentially arranged with only brief explanation where 
necessary.
To validate the lecture notes, three copies of each were 
prepared and distributed to three Social Studies lecturers in 
St. Andrew's College of Education, Oyo. These were lecturers 
who had taught the course "Population Studies" at least once 
or twice at the level of the target population of this 
research. The lecturers were requested to:
(i) read through and comment on the factual accuracy of
the notes;
(ii) criticize the language and comment on its
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
94
appropriateness
for the target population;
(iii) suggest additional information that could make the 
lecture more understandable to the subjects, if any. 
The copies of the draft were collected from the lecturers 
and a synthesis of the lecturers' corrections and/or 
suggestions culminated in the final draft of the lecture note 
(see Appendix 5).
3.9 Social Studies Pretest (SSPT)
The Social Studies Pre-test (SSPT) in a 50-item test 
covering the important concepts in the six topics of the 
course - Population studies. The test contained basically the 
same test items as those that were later used as the Social 
Studies Delayed Recall Test. \
3.9.1 Construction of (SSPT) $
The Social St*udies Pre-test consists of multiple choice
objective items with four options. They are based on the 
contents of the learning material for the study and they cover 
the following topics:
(a) The concept of population, growth and structure.
(b) Factors of population distribution and movement.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
95
(c) Sources of population data.
(d) Population policy in Nigeria.
(e) Advantages and disadvantages of large population
(f) The Malthusian population theory and resources.
The topics are the contents of a one unit Social Studies
course on population studies at 100 level of the Nigeria 
Certificate in Education (NCE) programme. According to Nwana 
(1979) an achievement test based on the whole contents that 
were taught may be assumed to have curricular or content 
validity.
The researcher reviewed the contents and the objectives 
to be tested and then generated one hundred (100) multiple 
choice objective test items on the learning material. After 
a period of two weeks, these items were subjected to self- 
editing as a prelude to editing by other experts. During the 
self-editing the researcher discarded with (203 twenty of the 
items. The remaining eighty (80) items were typed out for 
validation exercise.
3.9.2 Validity of the SSPT
As Thorndike and Elizabeth (1977) have stressed content 
validity is important for measures of achievement. Therefore,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
96
the 80 multiple choice items and the learning material were 
sent to three Social Studies lecturers in the Federal College 
of Education (Special), Oyo and two experts in test 
construction in the Institute of Education, University of
p
Ibadan, Ibadan. They were requested to:
(i) point out factual error (if any) based on the item 
stem and the options provided;
(ii) indicate whether the complete item, an option or 
some of the options should be deleted or modified;
(iii) indicate the type of modification necessary, if 
any;
(iv) indicate the items found suitable for the level of 
students under study;
(v) state whether the items relate to the course 
content submitted along with the test items.
This non-empirical validation reduced the items to sixty- 
based on the suggestion made by the experts in Social Studies 
and test construction to whom the test was circulated.
Nwana (1979) Abodunrin (1988) have both suggested that 
questions should be selected from all sections of the learning 
material, test tke desired objectives and the number of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
97
questions set on each topic should reflect the relative 
'weight' attached to the topic - (Gronlund, 1976). Both 
suggestions were found pertinent and were followed. With this 
in mind, 60 items were finally selected.
The sixty (60) 'qualified' items were found to be well 
distributed among the topics and objectives desired to be 
measured by the test. This is shown on the table of 
specification in Table IV in the Appendix. This simplified 
objective scheme devised by the Educational Testing Service 
(ETS) in the United States of America, was used for the test 
item to be further assured of the content validity of the 
test. The scheme which has three categories of objectives—  
Remembering, Understanding and Thinking - has been 
successfully adopted by Bello (1979); Teibo (1981) and 
Ogunsola (1990) .
To ensure that the items were appropriately distributed 
on the table of specification, the investigator sent copies of 
the table to two test construction experts for their comments. 
Both experts endorsed the placements or distribution of the 
items as made by the investigator.
For empirical validation of the items, a sample of sixty
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
98
(60) students of Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun 
was used for trial-testing the items. The students were 
instructed to attempt all the test items under normal 
examination conditions. Their responses were scored on the 
basis of right or wrong.
3.9.3 Determination of the Difficulty Indices of the 
SSPT
*
Item analysis was carried out to examine the difficulty
indices of the test items. The difficulty index of an item is
obtained by dividing the number of candidates who got each
item right by the total number of candidates who attempted the
item at the end of the test administration. (Gronlund, 1976) .
Difficulty Index = No. of candidates getting the Item right
Tptal Number of candidates
The result of the analysis is presented in the Appendix III. 
The items with low difficulty indices were deleted. The 
deletion of these items with low facility indices left the 
SSPT with 50 items.
3.9.4 Reliability of SSPT
The fifty (50) objective test items finally selected for 
the achievement tests were trial-tested on the sample of 60
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
99
students the second time. This was two weeks after the first 
administ-ration. The students' responses were also scored on 
the basis of right or wrong and the result was analyzed. 
Scores from the two administrations were analyzed using the 
test-retest approach.
This became necessary in light of Butt's (1964) suggestion
that comparison of the individual scores on two attempts on an
item is the best indication of the stability of the test
instrument. A correlation coefficient of 0.75 was obtained,
which shows that the test is reliable.
3.10 Social Studies Immediate 
Recall Test (SSIRT)
The Social Studies Immediate Recall Test is a test which 
has six subtests. Each subtest was based on the contents of 
each topic taught within a lecture period and the number of 
test items in each subtest was determined by the number of 
concepts in each topic. The questions in the subtests were as 
follows: topic 1, ten item; topic 2, ten items; topic 3, ten 
items; topic 4, seVen items; topic 5, five items and topic 6, 
eight items, making a total of 50 items in all.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
100
3.11 Social Studies Delayed 
Recall Test (SSDRT)
The Social Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT) is a 
single test containing the 50 items selected from the 
different subject of the Social Studies Immediate Recall Test. 
The items were, however, re-arranged in random order and the 
options given for each item were similarly displaced. This 
was basically to reduce students' test wiseness. Thus it 
could be taken that all the processes of establishing the 
validity and reliability undertaken for the SSPT were equally 
applicable to the SSDRT.
3.12 Differences Between the 
SSIRT and SSDRT
These two achievement tests used in the study are made up 
of the same basic items. However, they differ in the 
following ways:
(i) The SSIRT was made up by six small tests of
different sizes while the SSDRT was one single 
50 item test.
(ii) Each subset (or part) of the SSIRT was administered
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRA
Y
101
since the items making it up are those relevant to 
that particular topic of discussion alone.
(iii) The SSDRT was made up by items based on the six 
topics discussed during the whole period of the 
experiment.
However, the items were arranged in random order,
(iv) The positions of the options of the multiple choice 
objective items were re-arranged in the SSDRT thus 
making the position of the correct options different 
from what it was in the SSIRT and thereby reducing 
the effect of test-wiseness.
(v) Score on the SSIRT subtests were added together to 
form subjects' total score on SSIRT, while the 
scores on all the items of SSDRT served as the 
total score.
3.13 The Pilot Study
A pilot study where all the procedures of the main study 
were trial-tested was conducted. The pilot study took place 
at the Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
102
3.13.1 Need for tjie Pilot Study
As Churchill (1977) opined, the pre-test is the most 
inexpensive insurance the researcher can buy to ensure the 
success of his questionnaire and other research instruments, 
hence, the pilot study was essential to the investigation 
because of the following reasons:
(a) to provide empirical information in the validity 
and reliability of the research instruments;
(b) to discover any constraint to the workability of 
the research design with a view to identifying 
and correcting any flaws detected.
(c) to provide opportunity for a trial analysis of the 
data collected.
(d) to give opportunity for identifying administrative 
and logistic problems that might likely be 
encountered during the main study phase.
3.13.2 Procedure of the Pilot Study
The pilot study was carried out in February 1994 at the 
Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun.
Based on the selection of sample procedure (as shown in 
section 3.4 and on table 3.3) the Social Studies pretest
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
103
(SSPT) was administered on the selected subjects.
Since the achievement pre-test was a criterion referenced 
test rather than a norm referenced dne, (Nwana, 1979), all the 
subjects were given sufficient time to attempt all the 
questions. The responses were scored and the total score for 
each subject was recorded as the pre-test score.
The time table for lectures was arranged through 
balloting system. No one group had the privilege of being 
taught permanently first or the last. Each session lasted one
: t
hour and the three groups were taught the same topic each 
week. Lecture period lasted 
six weeks.
Lectures were delivered through the audio tape to ensure 
the comparability of information given and the rate of 
delivery of lecture. At the beginning of each lecture, 
materials were distributed to members of the group. The 
experimental group 1, the note-taking group was given writing 
sheets and biro. The note following group was given the 
lecture's prepared notes and biro, while the listening only 
group (control group) was not given any material but was 
instructed to listen attentively and note the important or
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
104
main points of the lecture. At the end of each
' . . I
lecture, material so distributed and used were collected from 
the subjects before the Social Studies Immediate Recall Test 
(SSIRT) was administers• No subject was allowed to take away 
any material used for taking notes or jotting points during 
the audio taped lecture. This was to prevent contamination.
The Social Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT) was 
adminis-tered a week after the last lecture.
3.13.3 Results of the Pilot Study
The scores of the subjects on the pretest and post-tests 
were processed using the analysis of covariance statistic. 
The results which showed that the students performed poorly in 
the pretest, indicated some improvement in the immediate post 
test (SSIRT). The experimental group 2, that is the students 
that followed prepared notes performed best in the immediate 
posttest while the students that took concurrent notes, 
experimental group 1, performed best on the delayed posttest 
(SSDRT).
On the basis of the observation made during the pilot 
study certain information was gained. This includes:
(i) that the research design was found to be appropriate
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
105
and the procedure of selection of subjects was 
adequate;
(ii) that the treatment had significant effect on the 
subjects performances at the delayed posttest.
(iii) that attitudinal differences reflected differences 
in achievement at the delayed level of recall while 
personality differences produced no significant 
differences at both the immediate and delayed 
recall test..
(iv) that the pilot study provided additional 
information on the validity and reliability of the 
research instruments. It particularly revealed 
that the prepared lecture notes appeared too long
i - - .: . i , t  i
and had to be modified;to reduce subjects' reading 
during lecture and to have enough time for 
listening.
Before the main study, the contents of the prepared lecture 
notes were modified, though the basic concepts were not reduced, 
thus leaving only the essential points listed under the appropriate 
headings.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
106 if .
Two Social Studies lecturers from Osun State College of
Education, Ila-Ora*ngun assisted in going over the modified
lecture notes. Their advice and suggestions were duly- 
incorporated into the notes.
3.14 The Main Study
The method and procedure adopted during the pilot study 
was also used for the main study,1 The main study was, 
however, undertaken in three Colleges of Education. The
experimental group 1* was in St. Andrew's Colleges of 
Education, Oyo, the experimental group 2 in Osun State College 
of Education, Ilesa while the control group was in Federal 
College of Education (Special), Oyo.
3.14.1 Selection of Subjects for the Main Study
The subjects for the main study were sampled from the 
first year students, taking Social Studies as their major 
subject in three Colleges of Education named above. The
assignment of each College to specific treatment group was 
randomly done through balloting. The subjects were selected 
in line with the same procedure adopted in the pilot study. 
However, subjects for the main study were greater in number 
than those selected for the pilot study. In all, there were
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 0 7
ninety-six (96) subjects selected for the study. This was 
made up of 48 extrovert (24 with positive and 24 with negative 
attitude) as well as 48 introverts (24 with positive and 24 
with negative attitude towards Social Studies).
Table 3.3 shows the distribution of subjects for the main 
study.
Table 3.3
Distribution ,o f„ Sample ..for..the...Main-Study
PERSONALITY GROUP
TREATMENT GROUP ATTITUDINAL GROUP TOTAI
EXTRAVERT INTROVERTS
NOTE-TAKING POSITIVE 8 8 16
32
NEGATIVE 8 16
NOTE FOLLOWING POSITIVE 8 8 16 *
32
NEG*ATIVE 8 8 16
LISTENING POSITIVE 8 8 16
(CONTROL)
32 NEGATIVE 8 8 16
TOTAL 48 48 96
3.14.2 Research Instruments
The same instrumen1 ts used in ■ the ■ pilot , stu-d ' y ■ phase of the 
investigation were adopted wholesale during the main study.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
CO
108
These instruments are the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), 
the Students' Attitude to Social Studies Questionnaire
(SASSQ), the Social Studies Pretest (SSPT), the Social Studies
Immediate Recall Rest 1 (SSIRT), the Social Studies Delayeds
Recall Test (SSDRTj and the Prepared Lecture Notes. It was
only the prepared lecture notes that were slightly modified
as a result of the findings of'the pilot study. The reading
materials was reduced thus students' reading task during
lecture was reduced to enable them concentrate more on
listening. However, the modification did not reduce or alter
the basic contents and sequence of discussion of the learning
material.
The administration of the various instruments, the use of 
the audio tapes and the administration of achievement tests, 
followed strictly the pattern adopted during the pilot study. 
Similarly, the scoring of the subjects' response to the 
instruments was carried out in line with the prescribed 
schemes of the authors and as done during the pilot study.
3.15 Treatment Implementation
The different note-taking groups were taught in separate 
colleges through the use of audio tape. The researcher gave
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
109
brief instruction or explanation at the beginning of each 
lecture, distributed materials where applicable before turning 
on the radio. The researcher and one Social Studies Lecturer 
from each college stayed at the back of the class through out 
the lecture delivery time. At the beginning of each lecture 
both the researcher and the 'helper' distributed needed 
materials and collected same at the end of lecture. This was 
to ensure that the used materials were not taken out of the 
classrooms.
The Social Studies Immediate Recall Test (SSIRT) followed 
each lecture as expected while the Social Studies Delayed 
Recall Test (SSDRT) came summatively a week after the ladt 
lecture. Scores in each of the subsets of the Social Studies 
Immediate Recall Test (SSIRT) were recorded and later collated 
to form a whole test-score while the scores on the Social 
Studies Delayed Recall Test (SSDRT) formed another score 
entity.
At the end, three separate scores were obtained for each 
subject, a pretest score, an immediate test score, and a 
delayed posttest score. The pretest scores were compared
1 ! • ' Q
first with the immediate posttest score and later with the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
110
delayed posttest scores. There was also the comparison of the
immediate and the delayed posttest scores.
3.16 Analysis of Result of 
the Main Study
The scores obtained from the experiment were coded by the 
researcher before computer analysis. Descriptive statistics 
such as Mean and Standard Deviation were calculated before the 
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) statistics was applied. The 
pretest score served as the covariate, in each of the 
comparisons, with the immediate and delayed posttest scores.
Further test or post hoc tests were also carried out 
where significant differences were obtained. Tukey Honestly 
Significant Difference Method was used for the post hoc test. 
The results are presented in chapter four of the write up.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
I l l
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF 
THE RESULTS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter deals with the analysis of data and the 
presentation of the results of the study. Students' scores 
were arranged and organised. Frequency counts, means and 
standard deviation were used as descriptive statistics while 
analysis of covariance was used as inferential statistics. 
Tukey Honestly Significant Difference formula was applied as 
the post hoc test for multiple comparison of means. t
Eight Null Hypothesis were tested to determine the main
%
and the interactive effects of the independent variables on 
the dependent variables. The level of significance was set at 
P<0.05 The results are as presented in the tables below.
4.1 Hypothesis One (Hoi)
There will be no statistically significant effect of the 
note-taking strategies on the students' achievement in the 
immediate recall test.
The focus of this hypothesis is the effect which the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
112
different not-taking strategies had on the students' 
achievement during the immediate recall test. The descriptive 
statistics of the result are shown on table 4.1:
Table 4.1
Descriptive Statistics of Students Immediate Post Test Scores 
Under the Three Note-Taking Strategies
NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
N X S.D N X S.D N X S.D
Immediate 
Post test 32 10.156 3.55 32 11.343 4 .12 32 9.75 3 .66
Table 4.1 shows the immediate post test means and 
standard deviation of the gain scores. All the three 
strategy-groups had appreciably high posttest scores. The 
magnitudes of achievement, however, would appear wider between 
the two experimental groups on one side and control group on 
the other.
Specifically, experimental group 2, the note following 
group, performed best, X = 11.343, followed by the 
experimental group 1, the concurrent note-taking group with X 
= 10.156 while the control group had a mean, X of 9.75; thus
X2>X1>X3.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
113
To determine if any statistically significant difference 
exist among the mean scores of each of the strategy groups, an 
analysis of covariance was computed. This is presented in 
Table 4.2:
Table 4.2
Analysis of Covariance of Immediate Post Test Scores for the 
Three Note-Taking Groups
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariance (pretest) 563.705 1 563.703 71.656 000
Main Effect Strategy . 91.889 2 45.945 5.840 004**
Explained 655.593 3 218.531 27.779 000
Residual 723.741 92 7.867
Total 1379.333 95 14.519
** Significant at P <.05 level.
Table 4.2 above reveals a statistically significant 
difference in the subjects' performance among the three note­
taking strategies (F2, 92 = 5.840 P<.004) and with this F. 
value, the decision was to reject the Ho which states that 
there is no statistically significant difference in the Social 
Studies immediate posttest scores of the subjects under the 
three note-taking strategies. This is because significant 
differences exist among the three groups.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
114
Table 4.3
Multiple Classification Analysis of Covariance on the Immediate
Post-Test Scores
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariate
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 - .26 - . 17
2. Following notes 32 . 93 1.28
3. Listening notes
(control) 32 - . 67 -1.11
. 18 .26
2
Multiple R .475
Multiple R . 689
The Multiple Classification analysis in Table 4.3 shows a 
result similar to the analysis of covariance in Table 4.2. 
From the table, the grand mean is 10.417 while the control 
group has an adjusted mean of 10.86 (9.75 + 1.11) . The 
experimental group 2 has an adjusted mean of 10.326 (11.345- 
1.28) while the note-taking group has an adjusted mean of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
115
10.063. (10.156-.17). The multiple R on table 4.3 reveals
that only 48% (682) of the variation of the immediate posttest 
scores is accounted for by the different note-taking 
strategies.
Based on all results, as shown in tables 4.1, 4.2 and 
4.3, the Null Hypothesis of a significant difference is 
rejected.
An attempt to further probe into the source of the 
difference was carried out by using the Tukey Honestly 
Significant Difference formula for posterior multiple 
comparison of the mean scores of the different strategy 
groups. The result is shown in table 4.4 
Table 4.4
Multiple Comparison, of Mean.Scores for the immediate , 
Posttest of the Different Strategy Groups
Strategies 1 2 3
Groups
X 10.156 11.343 9.75
Note-taking 1 1.69 . 579
Note Following 2 - 2.27*
Control 3 -
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
116
*Significant a P<.05 level critical value tab. = 2.131 
A statistically significant difference between the scores 
of subjects in the three different strategies was found 
between strategy two and three while there were no 
statistically significant differences between „ 
group 1 and 2 and between 1 and 3.
4.2 Hypothesis Two (Ho2)
This hypothesis states that there is no significant 
difference in the Social Studies delayed posttest scores of 
subjects under the three note-taking strategies (X( = =
Table 4.5
Descriptive Statistics of Subjects' Delayed Posttest Scores 
Under the Three Note-Taking Strategies
NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
N X ■ S.D N X S.D N X S.D
Delayed
Posttest 32 12.84 5.05 32 10.03 4.97 32 9.63 3 .68
The effect of the different note-taking strategies on the 
subjects performance in the delayed posttest is depicted in 
table 4.5 above. With 32 subjects in each note-taking group,
UNIV
RSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
117
the experi-mental group 1 has the highest mean (X = 12.844) 
followed by group II with a mean of 10.031. The control group 
III has the lowest mean (X = 9.65).
Table 4.6
Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed Posttest Scores for the 
Three NQte-Taking,Strategies *
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariate (pretest) 590.257 1 590.257 40.195 000
Main Effect
Strategy 231.409 2 115.705 7.879 001*
Explained 821.667 3 273.889 18.651 000
Residual 1350.990 92 14.683
Total 2172.656 95 22.870
**Significant at P<.05 level 
The analysis of covariance was performed on the subjects 
pretest and delayed posttest as shown on table 4.6 above. The 
F-value associated . with effect of the strategies on the 
delayed posttest of each group is significant (F2, 92 = 7.879 
P <.001) . The Null Hypothesis of no statistically significant 
difference is hereby rejected.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
118
Table 4.7 shows the Multiple Classification Analysis. 
From this table, it can be found t̂ hat the students under the 
note-taking strategy had a better achievement on the delayed
test, followed by.,'the note followiing group and the least was 
the control group. The
adjusted for independent and covariate deviation were 2.09, - 
.45 and -1.64 respectively.
Table 4.7
Multiple. Classification Analysis.of.the.Analysis of covariance
on the Delayed Posttest Scores 
Grand Mean = 10.844
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
1 Note-taking
j Strategies *
11. Taking Notes 32 2.00 2.09
;2. Following notes 32 -0.81 - .45
! 3. Listening notes
(control) 32 -1.19 -1.64
.30 .33
2
Multiple R .378
Multiple R .615
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
119
With the indication of a statistically significant 
difference among the delayed posttest scores of the groups 
shown in tables 4.6 and 4.7, a posterior contrast test at 0.05 
level was conducted through the Tukey Honestly Significant 
Difference Method. The result is shown in the Multiple 
Comparison table 4.8.
Table 4.8
Multiple Comparison of Means Scores for the Different 
Strategy
Groups
Strategies 1 2 3
Groups
X 12.84 10.031 9.63
Note-taking 1 - 2.936* 3.334*
Note Following 2 - .397
Control 3 -
♦Significant at Pc.05 level tab. = 2.131 
Table 4.8 shows that significant differences exist 
between the performances of the two experimental groups on 
one hand, and between experimental group one and the control
group. The largest difference, 3.334* was obtained between
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
120
the experimental group one and the control group.
4.3 Hypothesis Three Ho3
There will be no statistically significant effect of 
note-taking strategies and the attitudinal differences on the 
students' achievement in the immediate recall test.
Table 4.9
V
Descriptive Statistics of Students Immediate Posttest 
Scores of the Different Note-Taking Groups Under Their
Attitudinal Group
STRATEGIES
NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
ATTITUDI- 
NAL GROUPS N X S.D N X S.D N X S.D
POSITIVE 16 11.44 3.26 16 11.75 3.87 16 10.25 3.91 
NEGATIVE 16 8.88 3.46 16 10.94 4.45 16 9.25 3.45
Table 4.9 displays the means and the standard deviations 
of the posttest scores of the subjects under the three note­
taking groups and in their different attitudinal groups. 
Subjects with positive attitude, under the note following 
strategy had the highest mean score (11.75). This is closely 
followed by those with positive attitude under the note-taking 
strategy with a mean score of 11.44. Under each of the three
UNIVERSITY OF IB
DAN LIBRARY
121
had higher achievement test scores than those with negative 
attitude.
Taking the subjects with negative attitude as a group, 
the note following strategy subgroup had the highest mean 
(10.94) followed by the control (9.25) while the note-taking 
group had the lowest mean. (8.88) X2> X3> X2. But for the
subjects with positive 
attitude it was X2> X3.
Table 4.10
Twp-way Analysis _Q.f_C,Qyiiyi$tnce of .the.I mmMi.at.e._ pq.s11est
Scores of the Different Attitudinal Groups Under the Three 
Notts,-Taking „ strategies
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariance (pretest) 563.703 1 563.703 70.787 . 000
Main Effect Strategy 91.383 2 45.692 5.738 .005* i
Attitude .368 1 .368 0.46 . 830ns
2 Way Interactions 
Strategy X Attitude 14.631 2 7.315 . 919 .403ns
Explained 670.591 5 111.765 14.035 . 000
Residual 708.742 90 7.963
Total 1379.333 95 14.519
** Significant at P <.05 level.
(ns) Not Significant P<.05 level.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
122
The effects of the note-taking strategies, interacting 
with the different attitudinal dispositions were tested with 
a two way analysis of covariance. From table 4.10 above, it 
was observed that strategy as a main effect produced 
significant effect (F(2.93) = 5.738 P<.05) but attitude did
not produce significant main effect (F(2.89) = 0.046 P<.05). 
Similarly the two way interaction of the strategy and the 
attitudinal differences did not produce significant effect 
(F(2.89) = 0.919 Pc. 05). With this F - value the hypothesis
which states that there will be no significant interactive 
effect is therefore accepted. At the immediate posttest that 
interaction of strategy and attitude produced no significant 
effect.
A further attempt to analyse this result led to the
%
computation of the Multiple Classification of the 3 x 2  
analysis of covariance table 4.11.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
123
Table 4.11
Multiple Clarification.Q.f.the 3 k 2. Analysis ,gf Covariance
on Students Immediate Posttest Scores Recall Test 
Grand Mean 10.417
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 - .26 -.17
2. Following notes 32 . 93 1.28
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 - . 67 -1.11
. 18 .26
Attitude
Positive 48 - .73 - . 06
Negative 48 .73 .06
. 19 . 02
2
Multiple R .476
Multiple R .690
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
124
From the Multiple Classification Analysis table 4.11 it
is observed that the computed beta for note-taking is .26 and
%
that of attitude is .02. This indicates that as distinct 
factors strategy and attitude explained only 6.76% (.26 ) and 
.4% (.02 ) of the observed variance respectively. With these 
beta weights it could be observed that note-taking strategy 
contributed more to the variance than attitude at the
immediate recall test.
4.4 Hypothesis Four (Ho4)
There will be no statistidally significant effect of 
note-taking strategy and attitudinal differences on the
students' achievement in the delayed recall test.
The descriptive statistics which depicts the effect of 
note-taking strategies and attitudinal differences at the
delayed recall test is as shown on table 4.12
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
125
Table 4.12
Descriptive Statistic of Students Delayed Posttest Scores 
According to the Different Attitudinal Groups Under Their 
Note-Taking.Strategies
STRATEGIES
NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
ATTITUDI- 
NAL GROUPS N X S.D N X S.D N X S.D
POSITIVE 16 13.81 4.26 16 12.00 3.75 16 9 .00 3 .2 
NEGATIVE 16 11.88 3.7 16 8.05 3.29 16 10.31 3.34
Table 4.12 shows that in the two experimental groups, 
subjects with positive attitude performed better than their 
counterparts with negative attitudes towards Social Studies. 
In the experi­
mental group 1 the 'positives' had a mean of 13.81 as against 
the 'negatives' with 11.88. Similarly in experimental group 
2, the subjects with positive attitudes had a mean score of 
12.00 while those with negative attitudes had 8.05. An 
interesting result, however, is obtained from the control 
group where those with negative attitude outscored those with 
positive attitude viz. 10.31: 9.00 respectively.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
126
Table 4.13
Two-Way Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed Posttest 
Scores of the Different Attitudinal Groups Under 
Different Note-Taking Strategies
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariance (pretest) 590.257 1 590.257 50.824 . 000
Main Effect Strategy 239.350 2 119.675 10.305 . 000*
Attitude 213.654 1 213.654 18.3976 . 000*
2 Way Interactions f
Strategy X Attitude 103.720 2 51.860 4.465 . 014*
Explained 1139.040 5 189.840 16.346 . 000
Residual 1033.616 90 11.614
Total 2172.656 95 22.870
** Significant at P <.05 level.
The 3 x 2  analysis of covariance table 4.13 shows 
strategy and attitude as main effects, are very significant. 
The interactive
effect of the note-taking strategies and the attitudinal 
difference is also significant. With an F-value of (F(2.90) 
= 4.465 P<0.05) the interaction of the note-taking strategies
and the attitudinal differences had significant effect on
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
127
subjects achievement at the delayed posttest level. The two 
main effect also produced significant effect as well.
Additional information is obtained from the Multiple 
Classification Analysis (MCA) in table 4.14. At this 
posttest, the students with positive attitude and an adjusted
mean score of 12.414 while those with negative attitude had an
*
adjusted mean score of 9.274. The Beta scores show that at 
the delayed posttest attitude contributed 10.89% (.33 ) of the 
observed variance. Note-taking strategy also contributed
similar proportion of variance:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
128
Table 4.14 '
Multiple Classification Analysis of the 3 x \2 Analysis of
Covariance..of..the interaction of Strategy and. Attitude on 5
.Students Achievement at the.,D.fe-l.a.y.e.d .Recall Test
k , „<• {. * 'Grand Mean 10.6i44 % 5.
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + (£ovariance
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking x
Strategies tfev
1. Taking Notes 32 2.00 2.,ni0
V ■/
2. Following notes 32 - .81 - . 39
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 -1.19 -1.71
.30 .33
Attitude
Positive 48 - .76 1.55
Negative 48 . 76 -1.55
.33
2
Multiple R .477
Multiple R .690
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
f
129
From the above table 4.14 strategy and attitude 
contributed equally to the variance observed. Based on the 
information from
tables 4.12 to 4.14 the Null hypothesis is hereby rejected. 
There is significant effect of the interaction of the note­
taking strategies and attitudinal differences in the 
achievement test scores at the delayed recall test.
For a post hoc test of the source of the significant 
interaction effect the Tukey Honestly Significant Difference 
test is applied and the result is presented on table 4.15. 
fable 4.15
Mu_lt,ipla....CQiTip9r i sqp o f Score s fo r ,,,.th e ..D .iffeEsnt
AjULUudinal-MdJJQt e - tak in g  Qypyps
ATTITUDINAL GROUP 1+ 2+ 3+ 1- 2- 3-
13.81 12.00 9.00 11.88 8.05 10.31
Exp. i :Positive (1+) 2.493* 6.626* 2.658* 7.935* 4.822*
Exp. II Positive (2 +) 4.133* .165 5.442* 2.328*
Control Positive (3 + ) 3.96* 1.308 1.085*
Exp. I Negative (1-) * 5.216* 2.162*
Exp. 11 Negative (2-) 3.113*
Control Negative (3-) -
*Significant at P<.05 level (tab. 2.131)
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
■ V f  ,i ;
■ V. •*.
130
As shown above in table 4.15, signiiff icant differeHnce
exist between groups when the different attitudes are crossed 
with different note-taking strategies. For example the 
subjects with positive attitude to Social Studies in the note­
taking group (Experimental group 1 ’positive1) and those with 
negative attitude using the same strategy (Experimental group 
1 - ’negative’) had significantly different mean scores.
There is also a significant difference between the pairs of 
those with positive attitude under strategy one and those with 
negative attitude in the control group. (see 1 and 2, 1 and
w*
3, 1 and 4, 1 and 5, 1 and 6, 2 and 3, 2 and 5, 2 and 6, 3 and
4, 4 and 5, 4 and 6 and 5 and 6 in table 4.15 above)
An interesting result is that which indicates significant 
difference between the subjects with negative attitude in the 
two experimental groups (X negatives = 11.88 and X = 8.05)
4.5 Hypothesis Five (Ho5)
There will be no significant effect of the note-taking 
strategies and the personality differences on the students' 
achievement at the immediate recall test.
The interactive effect of note-taking strategies and the 
personality differences on the students' achievement at the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
131
immediate recall test is the focus of this hypothesis. For 
this, the descriptive statistics illustrating the results and 
presented in table 4.16.
Table 4.16
Descriptive Statistics of the Students Achievement According 
to the Note-Taking Strategies and the Personality Groups at
the.Immediate Posttest
/ STRATEGIES
PERSON- NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
ALITY
GROUPS N X S .D N S.D N X S.D
EXTRAVERT 16 10.53 4.52 16 9.94 4 .12 16 8.38 3.61 
INTROVERTS 16 9.73 3.67 16 12.75 5.3 16 11.15 4.06
Table 4.16 illustrates the achievement of the students in 
their different personality groups across the note-taking 
strategies. The introverts in experimental group II (note 
following) and control group scored higher than the extrovert 
in these same groups (12.75 to 9.94 and 11.13 to 8.38
respectively). However, the extrovert in the note-taking 
group, experimental group 1, had a higher mean that their 
introverted counterparts (10.53 to 9.73).
To find out if these observed differences are
statistically significant, analysis of covariance was computed
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
132
to show the interaction of the two variables, strategy and 
personality differences.
Table 4.17
Analysis of Covariance of the. Iromsdiafcg-Pgat.test.Scores of
I
the Different Personality Groups Under Their Note-Taking 
Strategies *
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariance (pretest) 563 ,.703 1 $ 563,.703 74 . 852 . 000
Main Effect Strategy 90,. 066 2 45 ,. 033 5 . 980 . 004*
Personality 15,.182 1 15 .182 2..016 . 159n9l
2 Way Interactions
Strategy X Attitude 38 .307 2 19 .154 2 ,.543 . 0 8 4 ns 1
Explained 709 . 082 5 118 . 180 15 ,.693 .000
Residual 670 .251 90 7.531
Total 1379 .333 95 14 .519
** Significant at P <.05 level.
(ns) Not Significant at P<.05 level
The analysis of covariance table 4.17 reveals,.<that the 
main effect of strategy is significant, but that of 
personality is not significant. The interactive effect of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
133
strategy and personality has an F value of F(2.90) = 2.543 
P<0.05) which is not significant.
The non-significant interactive effect of strategy and 
personality differences indicates that note-taking strategy 
and personality difference have no significant effect on the 
achievement of students on the immediate recall test. 
Hypothesis 5, which states that there will be no significant 
interactive effect of strategy and personality difference is 
therefore accepted.
To be able to apportion adequately the contribution of 
each of the interacting factors the Multiple Classification 
Analysis (MCA) was undertaken. The result is shown in table 
4.18.
(
•*»
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
134
Table 4.18
Multiple ciasailiga.ti.Qo. Analygie, Qf the 3x2 Analysie of 
Covariance of the Interaction of Strategy and Personality 
atthe Immediate Posttest
Grand Mean 10.417
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 - .26 - . 16
2. Following notes 32 . 93 1.27
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 - .67 -1.11
.18 .26
Personality
Extravert 48 - .78 - .39
Introverts 48 - .78 .41
. 11
2
Multiple R .486
Multiple R .697
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
135
The Multiple Classification Analysis table 4.18 shows 
that strategy contributed 6.76% (.262) of the differences in 
the students' achievement while personality differences 
contributed 1.21% (.ll2) of the observed total variance. With 
the information from tables 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18, the 
hypothesis of non-significant interactive effect between note­
taking strategies and attitudinal difference is accepted.
4.6 Hypothesis Six (Ho6)
There will be no statistically significant effect of the 
note-taking strategies and the personality differences on the 
students' achievement in the delayed recall test.
Table 4.19
Descriptive Statistics of the Students' Achievement According 
to the Note-Taking Strategies and the Personality Groups at
the Delayed Posttest
STRATEGIES
:ERSON- NOTE-TAKING NOTE FOLLOWING CONTROL
UjITY
1-ROUPS N X S.D N X S.D N X S.D
ZXTRAVERT 16 16.29 4.25 16 9.81 3.7 16 8.31 3 .21 
INTROVERTS 16 12.33 4.62 16 10.25 3.23 16 11.00 3.40
From table 4.19 it was found that the extrovert in the 
note-taking group (experimental group 1) had a higher mean
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 3 6
score than the introverts under the same note-taking strategy, 
viz 13.29 to 12.33. However, in the note following and 
control groups, the introverts performed better than the 
extroverts: 10.25 to 9.81 and 11.00 to 8.31 respectively.
To further investigate the effect of strategy and 
personality differences, a two-way analysis of covariance was 
computed as shown in table 4.20.
Table 4.20
Two-wav Analysis of Covariance of the Delayed Posttest Scores 
of the Different Personality Groupg Under Their Note-taking
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariance (pretest) 590.257 1 590.257 39.835 .000
Main Effect Strategy 231.079 2 115.540 7.797 .001*
Personality .212 1 .212 .014 . 9 0 5ns 1
2 Way Interactions
Strategy X Attitude 32.016 2 16.008 1.080 . 3 4 4 "s I
Explained 853.895 5 142.316 9.606 .000
Residual 1318.761 90 14.818
Total 2172.656 95 22.870 O
** Significant at P <.05 level.
(ns) Not Significant at P<.05 level
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
137
The 3 x 2  analysis of covariance in table 4.20 shows that 
there was no significant interactive effect of note-taking 
strategies and personality differences on the students 
achievement. With the F value of F(2,90) = 1.080 P<0.05), it 
can be said that no statistically significant difference 
exists between the achievement of the extrovert and introverts 
under the different note-taking strategies. The Null
hypothesis is therefore accepted.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
138
Table 4.21
Multiple Classification Analysis of the Delayed Posttest 
Scores pf the Different Pers_omlto_g.rQvpg under the 
D.i.£f.£.r.ent..Note-Taking...Stretegieg
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
N
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 2.. 00 2.09
2. Following notes 32 ; - .81 - .45
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 -1.19 -1.64
.30 . 33
Personality
Extravert 48 - .31 . 05
Introverts 48 .33 - .05
. 01
2
Multiple R .378
Multiple R . 615
The Multiple Classification Analysis table (4.2!) shows
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
139
the relative contribution of each factor to the observed 
variance. Note-taking king strategies as a factor has 
accounted 0.01% of the observed variance,!. This further 
confirms that there is no statistically significant 
interactive effect of note-taking strategies and personality 
differences on the subjects' scores in the delayed recall 
test. The non-significant interactive effect of these two 
independent variables implied that there was no significant 
differential effects of personality differences on all types 
of note-taking strategies. Extrovert and introverts who 
adopted the same type of note-taking strategy did not perform 
markedly different at the delayed recall test in Social 
Studies.
4.7 Hypothesis Seven (Ho7)
There will be no statistically significant effect of the 
note-taking strategies, attitudinal and personality 
differences on the students' achievement in the immediate 
recall test.
Table 4.22 depicts the information on the summary of the 
analysis of covariance of the main effects, the two and three 
way interactions ‘of the factors involved in the study.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
140
Table 4.22
Summary Qf....fch.e..3x2x2 Ana ly.s„ig,._QjE_C.Qva.r i,̂ nc g.„ of. _t he.. 1 mmg d i a t e
Posttest Scores ofthe Different Attitudinal and Personality 
groups Under..the.Different Note-Taking Strategies
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariate (pretest) 563.703 1 563.703 77.762 . 000
Main Effect 108.158 4 27.039 3.730 .008*
Strategy 89.208 2 44.604 6.153 .003*
Attitude 1.087 1 1.087 .150 . 700nal
Personality 15.901 1 15.901 2.193 . 142nal
2 Way Interactions 67.828 5 13.566 1.871 . 108ns |
Strategy X Attitude 11.051 2 5.525 .762 . 470nsl
Strategy x Persona­
lity 32.769 2 16.384 2.260 .111-1 ̂
3 Way Interaction 
Strategy x Attitude 
x Personality 37.968 2 18.984 2.619 0.079"!
Explained * 777.657 12 64.805 8.940 . 000
Residual 601.676 83 7.249
Total 1379.333 95 14.519
* Significant at P <0.05 level.
(ns) Not Significant at P<0.05 level
Table 4.22 indicates the F-ratio for the main effects,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
141
the two and the three way interactive effects of strategy, 
attitude and personality. With F.rvalue of F(2,83) = 6.153
P<0.05) effects of strategy have been found to be significant.
However, attitude and personality as main effects have not
*
been significant F (2,83) = 150 P<0.05) and F (2,83) = 2.193 
P<0.05) respectively).
Similarly, the two way interactions have also been found 
to be non-significant. The three way interraction only 
approaches significance, with an F ratio of F (2,83) = 2.619 
P<0.07).
With these results, the Null hypothesis of non­
significant interactive effects of strategy, attitude and 
personality is hereby accepted at the immediate recall test.
To further examine the source of the differences, 
additional information was sought from the Multiple 
Classification Analysis, table 4.23.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
142
Table 4.23
Muitipl.e._Clasai£.ig.a.tlQn.Analysis of the 3x2x2 Analysis of
Covariance on the Immediate Posttest Scores of the Students
Grand Mean 10.417
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
N ,
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 - .26 - .16
2. Following notes 32 . 93 1.26
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 - .67 - .11
.18 .26
Attitude:
1. Positive 48 - .73 - .11
2. Negative 48 .73 .19 .03
Personality
1 Extravert 48 - .78 - .41
Introverts 48 - .82 .42
. 11 
2
Multiple R .487
Multiple R .698
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
ik?- 
143
From the Multiple Classification Analysis (MGA) table 
4.23, it was found that the difference in note-taking 
strategies contributed 6.76% (. 2 62) of the observed variance 
while attitudinal differences accounted for .09% (.032) and
personality differences contributed 1.21% (.ll2) of the 
variance. In essence note-taking strategies accounted for the 
greatest proportion of the variations observed.
4.8 Hypothesis Eight (Ho8)
This hypothesis states that there will be no
statistically significant interactive effect of note-taking 
strategy, attitudinal and personality differences on the 
students' achievement in the delayed recall test.
Information relating to this hypothesis is shown on table
4.24 below:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
144
able 4.24
Summary of the 3x2x2 Analysis of Covariance on the Delayed
Posttest Scores.of the Different Attitudinal and Personality
Groups Under Their Note-Taking Strategies
Source of Variation SS DF MS F P
Covariate (pretest) 590.257 1 590.257 51.808 .000
Main Effect 449.407 4 112.352 9.861 .000*
Strategy * 258.307 2 119.154 10.458 .000*
Attitude 217.785 1 217.785 19.115 . 000*
Personality 4.343 1 4.343 .381 . 5 3 9ns 1
2 Way Interactions 175.574 5 35.115 3.082 .013*
Strategy X Attitude 101.571 2 53.185 4.721 . Oil*
Strategy x Persona­
lity 28.863 2 28.863 2.533 . 115nsl
3 Way Interaction 
Strategy x Attitude 
x Personality 11.791 2 5.896 .517 ’ .598"!
Explained 1222.029 12 102.252 8.975 .000
Residual 945.627 83 11.393
Total 2172.696 95 22.870
* Significant at P <0.05 level.
Table 4.24 reveals a significant F-ratio of F(2,83) =
10.458 P<0.05) for strategy as a main effect and F(2,83) =
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
145
19.115 P<0.05) for attitude* An F-value F(2,83) = .381 P<0.05) 
for personality is not significant. The two way interactions 
between strategy and attitude had significant effect on the 
students' performance while the interactive effect of strategy 
and personality is non-significant. Similarly the 3 way 
interaction among the three factors, strategy, attitude and 
personality is non-significant. (F(2,83) =.517 P<0.05).
The Multiple Classification Analysis on table 4.25 
further depicts the interactive effects of strategy, 
attitudinal and personality difference at the delayed recall
test.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
146
Table 4.25
Multiple.Classification Analysis, gf the 3 x2 * 2  Analysis of
:Qv$triancg of the Subjects Achievement, in the Delayed Posttest
Unadjusted Adjusted for Independent 
Variable +Category + Covariance
Deviation Eta Deviation Beta
Note-taking
Strategies
1. Taking Notes 32 2.00 2.10
2. Following notes 32 -.81 - .38
3. Listening notes 
(control) 32 -1.91 -1.71 $
* .30 .33
Attitude:
1. Positive 48 .76 1.57
2. Negative 48 - .76 .16 -1.57 .33
Personality
( Extravert 48 - .31 .21
2. Introverts 48 .33 - .22
.07 .05
2
Multiple R ,, .05 
.479 
Multiple R .692
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
147
Table 4.25 shows the Multiple Classification Analysis of 
the subjects' scores at the delayed recall test. From the 
table it is observed that strategy, attitudinal and 
personality differences
accounted for 10.89% (.332), 10.89% (. 3 32) and . 25%,, ( . 052) of 
the variances observed in the scores.
Based on the information on tables 4.24 and 4.25 the Null 
Hypothesis of no significant difference is hereby accepted. 
A 3- way interaction among strategy, attitudinal and 
personality differences did not produce any significant 
effect.
4.9 Summary of the Result
From the analysis presented in table 4.1 to 4.25 the 
following conclusions were be reached:
(1) There were statistically significant differences 
between the scores of the subjects who adopted 
different note-taking strategies on the immediate 
and delayed test, thus Hypothesis one (Hoi) and 
hypothesis two (Ho2) were both rejected.
(2) There were no statistically significant differences 
in the interacting effect of the note-taking
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 4 8
strategy and attitudinal differences during the 
immediate recall test. But in the delayed recall 
test, significant differences existed in the 
interactive effect of note-taking strategies and 
attitudinal differences of the three groups. Thus 
while hypothesis three (Ho3) was accepted, 
hypothesis four (Ho4) was rejected.
(3) The interactive effect of note-taking strategy and
*
personality differences produced no statistically 
significant results at both the immediate and the 
delayed recall test. Thus hypotheses five (Ho5) and 
six (Ho6) were accepted.
(4) The interaction of note-taking strategy,
attitudinaland personality differences did not 
produce statistically significant difference
between the groups at both the immediate and 
delayed recall test. With these results hypotheses 
seven (Ho7) and eight (Ho8) were accepted.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
. ( ; i.i . • «: A
4 V- ‘ i**: i t ■ Ui v *\
! 149 , e . . j
, tCHAPTER Fiyp y.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS  \ $I MPLI’C iA T• 1 , IO• ; NS• 1 . 
f • ?,  * AN41 D•  SUG1G < ESTIO> NS <t .
' " ■ 'V?'., •z „ iY;" ■/ / '■
5.0, Introduction jt
In this chapter, the findings which have emerged from the 
study are discussed. Insights thia, t were provi. *’ ded |. I'-a1' ■b,out the
comparative effectiveness of the three note-taking strategies, 
as applied to the attitude, personality and the achievement of 
students in Social Studies. Other information which was found 
to be novel was also highlighted. The chapter concludes with 
the implications of the findings and the suggestions which 
were offered for further research work in the area under 
study.
5.1 Effects of Note-Taking Strategies on Students' 
Achievement in the Immediate Recall Test
The question addressed by the first hypothesis of this
study was whether the concurrent .n ott;e-taking group, the note 
following group (experimental groups 1 and 2) and the control 
group would differ^significantly in their achievement at the 
immediate recall test. The result obtained yielded a 
statistically significant difference (F(2,93) = 5.840 P<0.5).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
J >7 .
i V-.
150 I:
The students who followed note performed better than those who
took note and the least were thosh,i| n;  the cont; r>■o ',l group. They
had a mean score of 11.34, 10.15 apd 9.75 respectively.
v , : : ; " Tl!1
With these results the two experimental groups performed
substantially better than the con■'t"r''oil' 1 group. 
klT'h-us note-taking
': . . !| .,i  , l1L * V 11 
• 1 •,.:> ■
strategies produced improved achievement than/npn-note-taking
, ' ' ' . ’/• •*?'.* ’ s'’*  ' if'■! '
strategy. But within the two experimental groups, significant
differences were still obtained.  . in favour of the note
, , i ' » '
following group (experimental grou• ;pr  . 2) . , l!
v.; . , • • 1V i .! •
These findings appear to be supportive of that of Peper 
and Mayer (1978) who reported significant differences between 
the performance of note-• t' akers and 'int on-note-t' : "* ,'»
ak
.«*’,i*
ers. In their
study, the subjects who took notes during' lecture had
significantly higher mean scores th\a n’  those wh;voV just listened
to lecture. ’ .■
. , i, ■ :b; '
In another dimension, the present results, are consistent 
with an earlier study by Todd and Kesler (1971).'who found that 
those who followed or underlined teacher's prepared notes had
' I
higher mean scores than those who took notes concurrently with 
lecture. Their study also found that the 'two note-taking 
groups had higher mean scores than the control group.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
i
• l , !
. t. 151
That the note*. followers in these experiments performed 
better than the concurrent note-takers and the control group 
is consistent with tjî ( distrap^ion hypothesis (Frase, 1970; 
and Peper and Mayer^ jSi 1978) ,wjiich states that note-taking 
during lecture forces, the learner to concentrate on the motor 
act of writing instead of more fully listening to the lecture.. 
Thus note-taking tentatively prevented the concurrent note- 
takers from paying adequate attention to the lecture material 
or information as much as the note followers did (Peter, 
1972).
However, the fact that both the note takers and the note 
followers had higher mean scores than the control group 
evidently confirms the facilitative effect of note-taking in 
whatever form it takes and as widely reported in the 
literature (Divesta and Gray, 1972; Fisher and Harris, 1973; 
Aiken, Thomas and Shennum, 1975;
Mayer, 1984; Uwakwe, 1984; and Peper and Mayer, 1986).
5.2 Effect of Note-taking Strategies on Students Achievement
in the Delayed Recall Test
The results of the performance of students in the note­
taking, note following and control groups at the delayed
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
5
152 : '
recall test, displayed in tableis (4.5 to 4.8 i indicate that 
there are significant difference•' sf among the performances of
the different groups. In the same v?ay at the immediate recall
!;v. s
test, the. two experimental groups performed better than the 
control group. The one-way analysis of i covariance with an F- 
value of (F, (1,93) = 7.879 P<. 05.) is quite indicative of the 
significant difference in the performance of the different 
groups.
It is however interesting to find that the concurrent 
note-takers who performed worse than the note followers in the 
immediate posttest performed better at the delayed test than 
the note followers and more distinctly better than the control 
group {X1 = 13.844, X2 = 10.031 and X3 = 9.65). Unlike the 
suggestions of investigators such as Peters (1972) Fisher and 
Harris (1974) Carter and Van Matre (1975) and Aiken, Thomas 
and Shennum (1975) that note taking • interferes With learning, 
the present results have shown that rather than interfering, 
concurrent note-taking enhanced the recall of lecture 
information at the delayed recall test than note following.
In the present study, the note-taking activities during 
lecture have been found to serve as a generative device that
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
153
encouraged the building of connections between what was 
presented and what was already known by the learners. In line 
with the expectations of the generative hypothesis (Frase,
1970) there had been additional cognitive processes undertaken 
during note-taking. For example, a pattern of treatment- 
posttest interaction was set in which note takers performed 
better than the note followers at the delayed post-test. This 
occurred because note takers were able to build a more 
integrated and broader learning outcome that facilitated 
reminiscence which was required in the delayed recall test 
(Wittrock, 1975 and Mayer, 1976 and 1984). It was this which 
assisted the note takers to have a significantly higher mean 
score than the note followers and the control group during the 
delayed posttest.
If the study have been considered only at the immediate 
posttest, as some studies have done; one would have concluded 
that the note follower performed better than the note takers. 
However, because attempts were made to assess the learning 
outcomes at both the immediate and delayed post-tests, 
significant differences emerged in favour of the note takers
at the delayed test. This, therefore, confirms the greater
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
154
facilitative effect of concurrent note-taking over ..note 
following or listening only (control group) in the delayed 
recall of lecture information.
Perhaps, the probability of this result occurring oguld 
be further ascribed to the deeper information processing which
note takers had in dealing with concepts while taking notes.
0 ■
It increased the probability that the concepts would be better 
retrieved even though no opportunity to review written tioteb 
was offered. The^present study offered no opportunity for 
review of notes, yet the note takers still had higher mean 
scores than the note followers and the control during the 
delayed posttest. The results therefore corroborate (Kiewra, 
1985; Kiewra et al (1991, 1993) notion that the complete
effect of whatever is learned during note-taking comes to 
fruition only after a period of contemplation, that is the 
period during which the 'learning has set or gel1.
In Social Studies, students need the information gleaned 
from lecture not only for providing immediate or prompt 
answers but also1 for the solution of problems that develop 
from the various facets of human undertaking. Thus, apart 
from the usefulness of note-taking in performing the external
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
155
storage function (Divesta and Gray, 1992), they also induce 
better remembering at later time.
Of particular interest is the credence learnt to Howe's 
(1970) assertion that the probability of recalling items that 
occurred in the subjects' note was higher than that of 
recalling items in other peoples note. Note followers, who 
had the full complement of information as they were put in the 
lecturer's prepared notes did not recall as much as the note 
takers who produced their own notes. This became more obvious 
during the delayed posttest.
In summary the results of the study as related to the 
main effect of note-taking strategies, proved most consistent 
with the theories of note-taking as postulated by Frase (1970) 
and expanded by Peper and Mayer (1978). Despite the fact that 
two novel conditions of (a) concurrent note-taking and note 
following for series of lectures,- rather than the common 
single lecture situation, was adopted in the present study (b) 
dependent measures that included both immediate and delayed 
recall with no opportunity for review, were introduced in the 
experiment, yet the results are corroborative of some of the 
previous note-taking studies like those of (Todd and Kesletf,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 5 6
1971; Peters, 1972; Fisher and Harris, 1973 and Mayer, 1984.
Peper and Mayer, 1986 and Kiewra et al 1991).
5.3 Effect of Noth-taking Strategy and Attitudinal Difference 
on Students Achievement in the Immediate Recall Test
It was hypothesized that students with positive or 
negative attitude to Social Studies under the three note­
taking strategies will not differ significantly in their 
achievement at the immediate recall test, that is, those 
subjects with positive or negative attitude who adopted the 
same note-taking strategies would be identical in their 
achievement in Social Studies at £he Immediate ..Posttest. The 
results presented in tables 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11 provided some
details of these results.
%
The subjects with positive attitude under each of the 
note-taking strategies, had relatively higher mean score than 
those with negative attitude under the same strategy (viz Exp 
1 X = 11.44 to 8.88; Exp 2 X = 11.75 to 10.94 and control 
group 10.25 to 9.25). However, the two way-analysis of 
covariance (table 4.10) indicated that there was no 
statistically significant difference between the achievement 
of subjects with positive attitude and those with, negative
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
157
attitude under the different note-taking strategies (F(l,90) 
= .919 P<0.05).
The result of the present study runs counter to those of 
*
some other previous studies (Bakare, 1969, Baurect-Fuch, 1975, 
Gardiner, 1985 and Igwe, 19^9) who individually stressed that 
the performance on a task is largely dependent on the type of 
attitude which an individual exhibits to the task.
In the present study the interaction between the note­
taking strategies and positive attitude failed to produce any 
significant difference. Thus it was observed that whether a 
subject's attitude was positive or negative his performance 
was also dependent on the type of note-taking strategy he or 
she adopted.
One needs to proffer some reasons for the non-significant 
difference in the achievement observed in the analysis of 
covariance at this immediate posttest. (Table 4.10). The fact 
that the immediate recall test came quite close to the lecture 
may serve to explain why the effect of the difference in 
attitudinal disposition was not great enough to strengthen the 
effect of the facilitative note-taking strategy. Rather, the 
effect of recency which Akinboye (1981) stated as one of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
158
important factors which favour remembering enabled both 
subjects with positive and those with negative attitude who 
employed similar or different note-taking strategies to have 
similar performances.
Another essentially tentative post hoc rationalisation of 
the present result which is only slightly supported by data is 
that the non-significant difference might be linked to the 
idea that the relationship between attitude and nature of task 
on one side and achievement on the other is a consequence of 
reciprocal influence. Attitude and nature of task influence
»• i* ■
or effect achievement and achievement in' turn affects attitude 
(Neele's, 1969). The students were made to respond to
multiple choice objective items in which achievement could 
easily be influenced by guessing. Thus students with positive 
and negative attitude to the Social Studies responded much in 
similar way. Furthermore those students who adopted any of 
the two experimental strategies were able to glean enough 
information from the lecture and so they were able to respond 
correctly to the test items, the difference in their 
attitudinal disposition notwithstanding.
The above suggestion seems to fall in line with Zimbardo
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
159
and Ebbesen's (1969) opinion that all techniques which are 
known to increase learning should be applicable to producing 
change in attitude. Those subjects with negative attitude who 
adopted facilitaitive note-taking strategies might have 
tentatively changed their attitude to the subject-matter and 
thus responded to the recall test items in a way that earned 
them similar achievements to those who had positive attitude. 
Also, as Webb (1972) opined, attitude and intellectual ability 
are not conterminous with academic performance. Even subjects 
with negative attitude to Social Studies may be highly 
intellectually sound enough to be able to respond very well to 
the presented task at the immediate recall time.
V*
5.4 Effect of Note-taking Strategy And Attitudinal Difference
on Achievement* at the Delayed Recall Test
The result of this study did not support the Null 
Hypothesis that there will be no interactive effect of note­
taking strategy and attitudinal differences on students 
achievement at the delayed recall test. With an F-value of 
(F(2,90) = 4.465 P<0.05, a statistically significant
interactive effect was established (ref. table 4.12). 
Students with positive attitude under the same or different
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
160
note-taking strategies had higher mean scores that* those with 
negative attitude under the same or different note-taking 
strategies except in the control group.
These results establish that positive attitude is 
complemen-tary to facilitative note-taking strategy at the
i i J  ? , V ‘
delayed recall test. These results corroborate previous
findings of Schibeci (1984) and Igwe (1991) who obtained
*
positive correlation between attitude to a task and 
achievement in the particular task. Subjects with positive 
attitude paid greater attention to the presented materials and 
took down the essential or important aspects of the lecture or 
underlined and noted the salient points in the lecturer's 
prepared notes.
Peper and Mayer (1978) and Peter (1972) also found 
similar interactive effects in their note-taking experiments. 
In both studies, students with high ability who adopted 
concurrent note-taking strategy performed significantly better 
than those with medium and low ability who adopted the same or 
different note-taking strategy. Though the variable that 
interacted with note-taking strategy is different, the
interactive effect of the variables still makes them similar
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
161
to the present result.
The Multiple Comparison of mean scores in table 4.15 of 
this study further exemplifies the fact that the relative 
effectiveness of note-taking strategy, complemented by the 
positive attitude of the subjects produced the significant 
effects. Subjects with positive attitude under experimental 
groups 1 and 2 had significantly higher mean scores that those 
with negative attitude in the same or different^ strategy 
groups (see table 4.15).
It can therefore be concluded that the interaction
between note-taking strategy 4and positive attitude induced 
greater reminiscence after learning while negative attitude 
interacting with note-taking strategy produced greater 
forgetfulness in the remembering of cognitive information in 
Social Studies. In relation with the immediate recall, the 
time-lag between lecture and recall test made the differences
v (
in the two results.
5.5 Effect of Note-taking Strategy and Personality 
Differences on Students' Achievement
Hypotheses five and six of the study deal with the 
interactive effects of note-taking and personality differences
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
162
at the immediate and delayed recall test respectively. The 
two hypotheses seek to establish whether an extrovertic 
subject who adopted the same or different note-taking strategy 
with an introvertic subject would differ significantly in 
achievement, first at the immediate recall test and secondly, 
at the delayed recall of Social Studies lecture information. 
For both hypotheses, no significant differences were 
obtained in the subjects' achievement to warrant a rejection 
of either. The 2 way analysis of covariance for the immediate 
recall test yielded an F-value of (F(2,90) = 2.543 P>0.05
while for the delayed posttest it was F(2,90) = .014 P>0.05.
The result of the present experiment, runs counter to the 
findings of some earlier studies (Walker, 1968; Howath, 1968;
Entwistle and Welsh, 1969; Leith, 1969, 1993 and Boyinbode,
*
1989). All these studies found that the extraverts with low 
arousal and weak consolidation recall better later on when 
consolidation had ceased. Unlike the situation in these 
previous studies, the extroverts and the introverts under 
different or the same note-taking strategies did not exhibit 
any significantly different performance in both the immediate 
and delayed recall test.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
163
The non-significant F-values of the analysis of 
covariance obtained in the present study, however, 
corroborates the findings of Warburton (1968b) and Eysenck and 
Cookson (1969). The two studies found little or no evidence 
to suggest a significant difference in the academic 
achievement of extroverts and introverts at the tertiary level 
of education. However, they suggested that extrovert tend to 
be better at school work in the primary and early secondary 
school, but later this observed difference changes and later 
the introverts take over or at worst level up with the 
extroverts.
Similarly, Savage (1962) in Australia and Levin (1967) in 
America reached the same conclusions that there is usually 
little evidence to suggest significant difference between 
extroverts and introverts at the tertiary level of education.
The fact that most of the subjects in the present study 
are in their later adolescence or early adulthood also 
corroborates the suggestions made by the previous researchers. 
The slightly superior achievement of the introverts in the 
note following (Exp 2) and control groups in both the 
immediate and delayed posttest was not significant enough to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
164
contradict the findings of earlier studies;';f N. ’•,
The results . of the present study y^lso show some
similarities with those of Wisdom (1971) who, ..in this study of
/■ * r ,
the relationship between personality, differences and students 
academic, performances in different. ;discipl;irtes, came to th§ 
conclusion that in the Social Sciences, the correlation
*  r  'f
between the extroversion - introversion dimension was
, • r.
negligible. The present study lends *■, credence}  'tto that finding 
as Social Studies, which is the subject-matter of this study 
belongs to the social Sciences.
In the absence of readily available reports of previous 
studies involving the interaction of personality dispositions 
and note-taking strategies, we may have to indulge in some 
speculations here, to explain some of the observable 
inconsistencies. As pointed out in chapter two, the two 
personality dispositions manifest themselves in different 
ways, especially during class activities. While the extrovert 
is enthusiastic and reacts readily to the subject-matter, to 
the lecturer, to fellow-students and even to 'i instructional 
materials, the introverts is slow to show such reactions. 
Similarly, while the extrovert has a greater /tolerance for
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
165
ambiguity and lack of structure in teaching situation, the 
introvert is more inclined to be responsive to unambiguous and 
clearly structured situation. In this study, the measures of
achievement come after the lecture, Ione immediately after and 
the other long after. None of the two recall tests was within 
the lecture time.* Thus, the initial enthusiasm of the 
extravert might have waned before the actual taking of the 
recall test. Hence, his performance was found not to be 
different from that of the introvert. Secondly, the subject- 
matter of this particular study, like many other courses in 
Social Studies, was neither structured nor was the 
presentation of the content ambiguous. In essence the context
of the study was such that gave no particular advantage to
o
either the extrovert ot the introvert under whichever group 
they studied.
One can therefore conclude that the non-significant
difference observed in the interactive effect of note-taking
■' 1 .. i'
strategies and personality differences in this study, may be 
due, in part, to the age and level of education of the 
subjects, the content and context of the experiment, and the 
time when the measures of achievement were taken. All these
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
” ' r; /
166
factors mediated in producing a non-significant difference in 
the achievement of the extrovert and introverts who employed 
the same or different note-taking strategies*.
5.6 The Interactive Effect '̂o£ Note-Taking Strategies,
; •
Attitudinal and Personality Differences on Students'
Achievement ! l'V '
• 1 I '1 _ • ’ r", '
It was hypothesized that the interactive effect of note- 
taking strategy, attitudinal and personality differences would 
produce no significant difference in the subjects' 
achievement. Hypothesis seven focused on the immediate recall 
while hypothesis eight was directed to the delayed recall.
* , . . .  ; .U y ,  ... _>,/ i ki’OW • ( > .
For each of the two hypotheses> 3 Way analysis of covariance 
was computed (table 4.22 and 4.24 respectively).
At the immediate recall level, the analysis of covariance
.■ S; ; ' 'i
produced an F-value of (F(2,83) = 2.619 P<0.05j while at the 
delayed recall the F-ration was,( (F(2,83) = ..■ 5' 1I-7 P<0.05.
Thus, the two Null Hypotheses were similarly accepted. No
statistically significant diffe.rential interactive effect of
note-taking, attitude and personality differences was 
obtained. However, some interesting observations are notable. 
First is the demonstrated superiority of the note-taking
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
167
strategy as a mediating factor. Ipoth immediate and delayed
recall, note-taking strategy as a main effect brought about
iv
significant differences. While attitude as main effect was 
significant at the delayed recall, it was not at the
immediate. Similarly, personality differences did not effect 
significant differences at the two levels of recall. From 
these results, one could infer that the combination of note­
taking strategy and positive attitude to Social Studies would
' < • • • ■ ! \
facilitate greater effective learning of Social Studies. 
However, the personality dimension of extroversion
, • ' '\';V ■ ■ ,''' ■ ,{ ' ■
introversion did not sufficiently mediate in bringing about 
differences in students achievement. That is whether a 
student was introvertic or extrovertic, his level of 
achievement in Social Studies depends on the type of note­
taking strategy and the form of attitude he/she demonstrates 
towards Social Studies.
5.7 Implication of the Findings for Teacher Education System
The need arises from the findings of this study to
. $ 1 ■ ' : . %\ \ ;
highlight some of the implications w■hich the findings have for 
the teacher education system in general and for the Nigerian
Certificate in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
&
, i ( '
168 i
Education Programme in particular.
First and foremost, this research work provides a useful 
link between theory and practice. The theoretical
propositions behind note-taking as a mathemagenic activity 
during lecture h^ve been tested to show how effective they 
are. The attention, distraction and generative theories of
note-taking have been amply corroborated by the results of
■ . , , •
this study. The implication of this, therefore, lies in the 
fact that teacher education programmes, as Johnson and Johnson 
(1979) suggested, should include, as a matter of policy, the 
teaching and practising of skilis necessary in making ones own 
notes during lectures. Students should be trained to put down 
the important lecture information on their own without
' . . jJ . ' '
unnecessarily waiting for lecturers to give them 'handouts' or 
dictate notes for them to write. The actual activities of 
note-taking enable the note takers acquire brohder learning 
outcomes that integrate new materials with the old ones -
, ., ' ' ' I'i.1'. ' •. ; V 1
Peper and Mayer (1978).
Though students express a marked desire fob, prepared
' !■ , . I f' V ' • ■ , tV.;'/!, ■ .
notes (handouts) and say that handouts help them grasp the 
structure of the lecture more easily (Hartley, 197.0) , it has
* ... jr' :
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
169
been found quite convincingly that taking down lecture 
information individually and concurrently with lectures leads 
to better learning, especially in the more verbal contents 
like Social Studies. The training of students to take 
accurate notes is a task for the trainers of teachers at the 
various teachers colleges, be it at the Teachers' Grade Two 
Certificate Level, the Nigerian Certificate in Education 
Level, the Polytechnics# or the Universities.
Two, another major finding which emerges from this study 
is that taking a written transcription of lecture information 
concurrently with lecture proves facilitative to learning, 
especially in a largely verbal subject such as Social Studies. 
It has been abundantly demonstrated that lecture information, 
encoded during lecture through a note-taking strategy is 
better remembered and recalled than when no such written 
transcription was undertaken. Students should therefore be 
given opportunities to take down lecture information. This 
can be accomplished if lectures are delivered at a relatively 
moderate speed which can allow students hear, comprehend, note 
or j o p  down and digest information for later remembering. 9
Thirdly, teaching with a view to improving students
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
170
I. '!>'
abilities to transcribe information so that it can be 
remembered at a later time also has implicatiojns for the new 
educational dispensation - the 6-3-3-4 system. At all levels 
of education in Nigeria students are tested at the immediate 
post lecture level (formative evaluation) and also at the 
delayed post lecture level (Summative evaluation. Students 
can be stimulated to paraphrase, organise and integrate newly 
presented information by making note thereby engaging in what
i ■ . ’ , ’ ‘H . '
Wittrock (1974) referred to as generative learning. This type
' ■' • ■ V.': , i,■ ■ '•
of learning brings about effective recall after learning so 
that at the terminal point of' each segment .of the 6-3-3-4 
system, students can recall as much as demanded from what was
■3
learnt and so pass creditably.
Furthermore, ^for our educational system, the present 
study is a useful indication of how, as Bakare (1969) puts it, 
the attitude which the learner demonstrates to a course of 
programme of learning, serves as his/her limitihg factor of
• ‘ ti - f
success in the course or programme, With the ever-escalating 
number of intakes into our educational institutions, it 
becomes pertinent to find out our students' attitudes to 
particular course or set of courses before making them
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
171
specialise in the course. Essentially, efforts should be made 
to train our students to develop the correct attitude, not 
only to a subject but also to- school work and education in 
general. Evaluation instruments should be developed, 
validated and standardized and made available to teacher 
trainers and their trainees, so that they can assess learners' 
attitudes. Only those with positive attitude should be made 
to specialise in particular subjects in which they have 
positive attitudes.
Another serious point of note deducible from this study 
and other note-taking studies before it, is the fact that the 
lecture method, though badly criticized, still remains the 
most economical and most commonly used in our teachers
colleges. With the astronomical rise in the number of
"■ ‘ . . l y
students that are admitted annually into our colleges,
: '■ ■: ■ . yK ‘ .
especially the Colleges of Education, it becomes imperative 
that lecturers iri these colleges should learn to Improve on 
their delivery of lectures. Lecture information V should be
• •'V .'! • _ y
disseminated at a rate at which effective learning would take
\ ,r'. ; .y
place through students mathemagenic activities.
This study also has implications for students in the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
y. ' • %
172
primary and secondary stages of education. Th,e students need
instructions on how to process lecture information. These
; ■ 'SO-/ i
young learners should be helped to develop note-taking skills 
early in their academic careers. As they progress through 
school, they would be able to employ this strategy as their 
classes increasingly require more effective note-taking 
skills. Thus, by the time they reach college level, where 
note-taking demands are especially high, students would have 
internalized the monitoring process of note-taking and so have 
more control over their learning tasks.
5.8 Suggestions for Further Research
, ■ . ' A ,'
This research work does not pretend to have exhausted all 
areas of knowledge in the field of this particular
investigation. It has only tried to extend the frontiers of
knowledge in the area of study. Other areas and iaf.spects of 
the study can be explored to advantage. The following are 
therefore suggested as areas needing further research 
endeavours. •H ,•■■■■
(1) The present study could be replicated with 
modification and at a lower or higher educational
level. The modification can take the form of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
173
giving students opportunity to review before taking 
any of the two posttest.
(2) The students could be divided into ability groups
■
along with their personality and attitudinal groups 
before they are randomly selected into note-taking 
strategy groups.
(3) In the present study, students were not offered 
opportunity to decide which note-taking strategy to 
adopt. An area of possible research is to allow 
students to choose which note-taking strategy to 
use.
(4) Another possible area of study is to compare the
relative effectiveness of other mabhemagenic
activities like answering adjunct questions,
setting instructional objectives e.t.c with that of 
note-taking. This will enable the researcher 
determine which of them produces the best learning 
opportunity.
(5) Finally, there is yet no conclusion among 
researchers on whether the encoding functions or 
the external storage functions of note-taking is
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
174
superior. A study may be deviced where a’ group of 
subjects would encode without review, another would 
encode.and later review their notes while a third 
group would only review notes taken by their
classmates. (This group would not attend the
lecture). A comparison of the test performances of
these groups would indicate which of the !'functions 
of note-taking is more facilitative to learning 
from a school subject.
5.9 Limitations of the Study
Generalizability is one of the cardinal objectives of 
research, however, this is often limited by some factors. The 
same applies to the present study.
It should be noted that only a particular school subject, 
Social Studies, and a one-unit course, population studies, 
were used in the present experiment. Some caution is 
therefore necessary in generalizihg the results to other 
varieties of school subjects or courses. However the
procedure of the treatment application in this study is 
similar to others used in other investigations where large 
classes were taught or more school subjects formed the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
175
contents of learning, so the results of this study should not 
be viewed as peculiar to the subject used.
Another limitation of this research is that only
retention and recall of factual information was measured at
two levels (immediate and delayed) \% Note-taking activities
may have more facilitative effects not only on retention of
facts but also on t*ransfer of knowledge.
This experiment was carried out at a specific level of 
teacher education and as such much of its results could not be 
generalized to other lower levels where students have not been 
matured enough to take down long notes.
The present study used the multiple choice objective test 
format for its measurement of subjects' retention and recall
. * v \ ; ■
,  ; ; ■
of lecture information; a rather more applicable and more 
efficient test of retention would have been ’ verbatim 
reproduction or application of knowledge test. The type of 
test used can also be taken as another limitation of the 
study. All these notwithstanding, the study has its own
significance. !' ■
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
176
REFERENCES
ABODUNRIN Rogba: (1994). Test and Measurement in Education;
Oyo Oloye Publishers,Kosobo, Oyo Nigeria.
ADAMS, J. A. (1967). Human Memory. New York: McGraw Hill. 
Book.
ADALUMO, P. A. (1986). A survey of secondary school students 
attitudes and academic performance in Social Studies in 
AkureLocal Government Area of Ondo State. Unpublished 
M.Ed. Project, University of Ibadan.
ADARALEGBE, A. (1980). The Nigerian Social Studies Programme: 
Retrospect and Prospect in Social Studies Teaching Issues 
and Problems/ NERC Publication, Benin City: Ethiope 
Publishers Nigeria Limited.
ADARALEGBE, A. (1982) . Teaching Education in an Emergent 
Nigeria in Nigeria Educational Forum 5(1), 57-71.
ADEYEMI, M. B. (1986). Nigerian Social Studies. The Social 
Studies. 77(5) Sept-Oct. 1986.
ADEYOYIN, F. A. (1990). Wanted: A Theory and Practices of
Social Studies in University of Lagos Series in 
Education. 3: Theory and Practice of Education. F. A. 
Adeyoyin et a l . Lagos: Joja Press Ltd. Ikeja.
AHIERAKWEN, B.A.Y. (1981). Some Correlates of Secondary School 
Students Achievement in Physics in Imo State of Nigeria. 
Unpublished M.Ed. Research Project. University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
AIKEN, E.C.: THOMAS. G.S. AND SHENNUN W. A [1975] Memory for 
a Lecture: Effects of Notes, Lecture Rates and
Information Density. Journal of Educational Psychology. 
67, 439-444.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
177
AIYELAGBE, J.A. (1989). A Comparative Study of Students'
Attitude to Yoruba Language in Colleges of Education of 
Oyo State. M.Ed. Project, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
;; Sjf
AKINBOYE, J.O. et al (1981). Psychological Foundation of 
Education Associateship in Education Series, University 
of Ibadan, Inst, of Education, Heineman Educ. Books Ltd.
ALLPORT, G.W. (1963). Patterns and Growth in Personality. 
London: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
ANDERSON, R.S. and FAUSAT, G.W. (1967). The Effects of Strong 
Formal Prompts in Programmed Instruction. American 
Journal of Educational Research, 4, 345-352.
AUSUBEL, D.P. (1963) Cognitive Structure and the Facilitation 
of Meaningful Verbal Learning. Journal of Teachers 
Education 14, 217-221.
AUSUBEL, D.P. (1970). The Use of Advance Organiser in the 
Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Learning. 
Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.
AUSUBEL, D.P. (1970) . Educational__Psychology ;__A Cognitive
View. New York, Holt Rinehart and Winston.
BAKARE, C.G.M. (1969). Phenomenal Self Concept, Anxiety and 
Academic Performance. Unpublished. P h .D . Dissertation, 
Columbia University.
BALOGUN, T.A. (1974). A Study of Mathemagenics: An \
Investigation of a Topography of Learning Control in a 
Science Subject. M.Ed. Thesis, University of Barmingham, 
United Kingdom.
BALOGUN, T.A. (1983). Effect of Adjunct Questions on Learning 
from programmed Text on some Ecological Concepts. 
Monograph, Department of Teacher Education, University of 
Ibadan.
BALYEJUSA (1981). 'The Nature and Scope of Social Studies' in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
178
NERC. The Concept and Scope of Social Studies Education 
for Schools and Colleges. Ibadan, Onibonoje Publishers 
Nigeria Ltd.
BARNETT, DIVESTA & ROGOZINSKI (1980). '• What is Learned in 
Note-taking: Journal of Educational Psychology. 73(2), 
181-192.
BARR, R. BARTH, J.L. & SHERMIS, S.S. (1978). The Nature of 
Social Studies California. E.T.C. Publication.
BARR, R.D. (1970). The Question of Our Professional Identity 
The Social Studies. 34, 752.
BAURETI-FUCHS, K.M. (1975). Attitudinal Situational and 
Mental Health Correlates of Academic Achievement at the 
Undergraduate University Level. British Journal of 
Educational Psychology. 45, 227-231.
BENDING, A.W. (1960). Extraversion, neuroticism and Students" 
Achievement in Introductory Psychology. Journal of 
Educa-tional Research 53, 263-267.
BENTON, S.L., KIEWRA, K.A., WHITFILLS, J.M. & DENNISON, R. 
(1993).Encoding and External Storage Effects on Writing 
Processes. Journal of Educational Psychology. 85(2), 267- 
280
BOLIVAR, A. (ed.) .e(1973). The New Encyclopedia Britannica.
2, 1973-74.
BORG, w.R. & GALL, M.D. (1979) . Educational__Research An
Introduc-tion. New York, Longmans.
BOYINBODE, (1989). Personality Correlates of Item Response 
Changing Behaviour in Two Objective Test Formats. 
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
BRUNTING, R.H. (1968). Effect of Review and Test like Events 
Within the Learning of Prose Material. Journal of Educa­
tional Psychology. 59, 16-19.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
179
CAMPBELL, D.T. & STANKEY, J.C. (1963) . Experimental and Quasi
Experimental..Resigns for Research- Chicago Rand McNally
Publishers. *
CARROLLS, J.B. (1968). On Learning from Being Told.
Educational Psychologist. 5(2) 1,.5 -1 0 .
CARTER, J.F. and VAN MATRE (1975). Note-taking Versus Note­
having Journal of Educational Psychology. 67, 900-904.
COOK, L.K. & MAYER R.E. (1983). Reading Strategies Training 
for Meaningful Learning from Prose in M. Pressley and
j .r . Leven (eds) . cognitive____Strategy___Research;
Educational Application, New York. Springer-Verlag, 87- 
131.
COWEL, M.D. & ENTWISTLE, N.J. (1971). Personality Study, 
Attitudes and Academic Performance in a Technical 
College. Britain Journal of Educational Psychology . 41, 
85-89.
CRAIK, F.I.M. & LOCKHART, R.S. (1972). Levels of Processing: 
A Framework for Memory Research Journal of Verbal 
Learning and Verbal Behaviour. 11, 671-684.
CRAIK, F.I.M. & TULVING, E. (1975). Department of Processing 
and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory. Journal 
o.£ Experimental Psychology; General 104, 268-294.
CRAWFORD, C.C. (1925). The Correlation Between Lecture Notes 
and Quiz paper. Journal of Educational Research. 12, 
282-291.
DAVIDOFF, L. LINDA (1980). Introduction to Psychology. 2nd 
Edition. McGraw-Hill Inc.
DIVESTA, F. J. Sc GRAY, G.S. (1972) . Listening and Note-Taking
. Journal, of Educational Psychology 63(1), 8-14.
DU-BEY, D.L. (1980). Problems and Issues in Teaching Methods 
of Social Studies in Social Studies Teaching Issues and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
180
Problems. NERC Publication. Benin City. Ethiope 
Publishers Nig. Limited.
DUROJAIYE, M.O.A. (1974) . The Role of Non-Cognitive Factors in 
School Learning of Ugandan Secondary School Pupils. West 
African Journal of Educational and Vocational Measurement 
2 (1 )
EGBUGARA, U.0.(1980). Effects of Orienting Stimuli on the 
Attitudes and Achievement in Biology of a Group of 
Nigerian Secondary School Pupils. Unpublished Ph.D . 
Thesis, University of Ibadan.
EICH, (1982). A Composite Holographic Associative Recall Mode. 
Psychological Review. 89(6) 627-661.
EINSTEIN, G.O., HARRIS, J. & SMITH, S. (1985). Note-Taking 
Individual Differences and Memory for Lecture
information. journal_of_Educational_Psychology- 77(5),
522-532.
ELLIOT, C.D. (1972). Personality Factors and Scholastic 
Attainment. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 
42(1), 23-32.
ENTWISTLE, N.J. & CUNINGHAN, S. (1968). Neuroticism and School 
Attainment - a Linear Relationship British Journal of 
Educational Psychology, 38, 123-133. .
ENTWISTLE, N.J. & WELSH, J. (1969) . Correlates of School 
Attainment at*Different Ability Levels. British Journal 
of Educational Psychology. 39, 57-63.
ENTWISTLE, N.J. (1972). Personality and Academic Attainment. 
British Journal of Educational Psychology. 42, 137-151.
EYSENCK, S.B. & EYSENCK, H.J. (1963). On the Dual nature of
Extraversion. British _Journal_of_Social_and Clinical
Psychology. No.2, 46-55.
EYSENCK, H.J. & EYSENCK, S.B.C. (1968). Manual-Eysenck
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
181
Personality Inventory. Educational and Industrial" 
Testing Service. San Diego, California, 88.
EYSENCK, H.J. (1972) . Personality and ./Learning in W.D. Walls 
and V.P. Varma: Advance in Educational Psychology I: 
University of London Press Ltd. 97-105.
EYSENCK, H.J. & COOKSON, D. (1969). Personality in Primary 
School Children Ability and Achievement. British Journal 
of Educational Psychology. 39, 109-122.
FAFUNWA, A.B. (1972). The Purpose of Teacher Education in A
Philosophy for Nigerian Education. Proceedings of the
Nigerian__ National Curriculum Conference. Ibadan.
Heinemans. 80-97.
FAFUNWA, A.B. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London, 
George Allen and Unwin Limited.
FAW, H.W. & WALLER, T.G. (1976). Mathemagenic Behaviour and 
Efficiency in Learning From Prose. Review of Educational 
Research, 46, 691-720.
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA (1981). National Policy on 
Education (Revised), Lagos Federal Ministry of Education, 
Government Press.
FISHER, J.L. & HARRIS, M.B. (1973). Effects of Note-Taking 
and Review on Recall Journal of Educational Psychology 
65, 321-323'
FISHER, S.L. & HARRIS, M.B. (1974). Note-Taking and Recall. 
Journalof Educational Research. 67, 291-292.
FRASE, L.T. (1968b). Effects of Question Location, Pacing and 
Mode Upon Retention of Prose Material. Journal of 
Educational Psychology, 59, 244-249.
FRASE, L.T. (1968d) . Some Data Concerning The Mathemagenic 
Hypothesis. American Educational Research. Journal 5, 
181-189.
UNIVERSITY O
 IBADAN LIBRARY
182
FRASE, L.T. (1970). Boundary Conditions for Mathemagenic 
Behaviour.Review of Educational Research. 40, 337-347.
FURNEAUX, W .A . (1962) . The Psychologist's and The University
Quarterly. 17, 33-47.
GAGNE, R.M. & SMITH, E.C. (1963). A Study of the Effects of 
Verbalization on Problem Solving. Journal of Experimental 
Psychology. 63, 12-18.
GLASS, G.V. & STANLEY, J.C. (1970) . Statistical Methods in 
Education and Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, New-Jersy. 
Prentice Hall Inc.
GLEAVE, M.B. (1971). Population and Settlement in Tropical 
Africa. Oakland, Hicks Smith and Sons Ltd. 5-23.
GRAY, W.S. & ROGERS, B. (1959). Maturity in Reading. Chicago: 
Chicago University Press.
g r o n l u n d , N.E. (1976) . Measurement__and__Evaluation for
Teaching: Third Edition, London, Macmillan Publishing 
Com. Inc.
HALL, W.E. & ROBINSON, F.P. ( ) An Analystic Approach To
The Study of Reading Skills. Journal of Educational 
Psychology. 36, 429-442.
HANSON, J.W. (1964). The Spirit of the Teacher in Nigeria, in 
Ikejiani, 0. (ed) Nigeria Education. Lagos. Longmans 
Nigeria Limited.
HARTLEY, J. (1976). Lecture handouts and Students1 Note­
taking. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology. 
13, 58-64.
HOWE, M.J.A. (1970). Note-taking Strategy, Review and Long- 
Term Retention of Verbal Information. Journal of 
Educational Research. 63. 100-104.
IBEGBULAM, C.A. (1980). Effects of Orienting Stimuli on the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
183
Attitude and Achievement in Biology of a Group of 
Nigerian Secondary School Pupils. Unpublished Ph.D. 
Thesis. University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
IYEWARUN, S .A . (1981). Objectives, Materials and Methods of
Teaching Social Studies in the Secondary Schools. 
Unpublished M.Ed. Research Project, University of Ilorin, 
Ilorin.
JAROLIMEK, J. (1971): Social Studies in Elementary Education. 
New York, Macmillan.
JONES, H.G. (1960). Relationship Between Personality and 
Scholastic Attainment. Bulletin of British Psychological 
Society 40,42
k e r l i n g e r , F. N. (1979).. Foundations of Behavioural Research, 
Second Edition, London Halt Rinehart and Winston.
KHULVAVY, R.W., DYER, J.W., & SILVER, L. (1975). The Effects 
of Note-Taking Expectancy on the Learning of Text 
Materials. Journal aL.-E.dUQ.ati,QD.a.l_Research, 68, (10) 363-
365 .
KIEWRA, K.A. (1989). A Review of Note-Taking: The Encoding- 
Storage Paradigm and Beyond. Educational Psychology 
Review 1. 147-172
KIEWRA, K.A. et al. (1991) Note-Taking Functions and
Techniques. Journal of Educational Psychology 83(2) 240- 
245 .
KIEWRA, K.A., MAYER, R.E., CHRISTENSEN, M., KIMS & RISCH, N 
(1991). Effects of repetition on Recall and Note-Taking: 
Strategies for Learning from Lectures. Journal of 
Educational.Psychology. 83, 1 2 0 -1 2 3 .
KINSTON, W. (1968). Recognition and Recall of Organised List 
in Free Recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 70, 
481-487.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
184
KLINE, PAUL (1966). Extraversion, Neuroticism and Academic 
Performance Among Ghanian University Students. British 
Journal of Sduta.Li.Qnal.. Psychology, 36, 93-94.
KLINE, P. & GALE, A. (1971). Extraversion, Neuroticism and 
Performance in Psychology Examination. British Journal of 
Education Psychology. 41. 90-93.
KRECH, et al (1967). In Oskamp's Attitudes and Opinions New- 
Jersey. Prentice Hall, Inc. i
LEITH, G.O.M. (1973). The Effects of Extraversion and Methods 
of Programmed Instruction on Achievement. Educational 
Research 15, 150-153.
LOCKE (1977). An Empirical Study of Note-Taking Among College 
Students. Journal of Educational Research. 71, 93-99.
MACHART, N.C. (1977). A Study of the Attitudes of Selected
6 th Grade___ Slmd.en.tB___Concerning___Social___ Studies.
Dissertation Abstract 38(11): 6361A-6988A, 6668A.
MADDOX, H. (1963). How to Study. London, Pan Books Limited.
MAKINDE, M .A . (1979) . Integrated Social Studies: A handbook
for Teachers. London, Oxford University Press.
MANSARAY, A. (1984). Effects of Two Modes of Concept 
Presentation and Cognitive Style on the Attainment of 
Some Social Studies Concepts by Secondary School 
Students. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan. >
MAYER, R.E. (1980). Elaboration Techniques That Increase The 
Meaningfulness of Technical Test. An Experimental Test 
of Learning Strategy Hypotheses. Journal of Experimental 
Psychology, 72, 770-784.
MAYER, R.E. (1984). Aids to Test Comprehension: Educational 
Psychologist, 19, 30-47.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
185
MAYER, R.E. & BROMAGE, B.K. (1980). Different Recall Protocols 
for Technical Text Due to Advance Organisers. Journal of 
Educational..Research. 72(2)., 2 0 9-2 2 5 .
MICHAELIS, J.U. (1968). Social Studies for Children in a 
Democracy Recent Trends and Development. New Jersey. 
Prentice Hall Inc. Engle Woodcliff New Jersey.
MICHAELIS, J.U. ci£69). In Cottle (ed.) Social Studies for 
Young Adolescents Programmes for Grades 7, 8. and 9. 
Curriculum Series No. 6. Washington D.C. National 
Council for Social Studies.
MILLER, G.A. GALANTER, E.D. & PRIBRAM, E. (1960). Plans and 
The Structure of Behaviour. New York, Holt Rinehart and 
Winston.
NATKING & SHAHTER, E. (1969). The Effects of Adjunct Questions 
on Short and Long Term Recall of Prose Materials. 
American Educational Research Journal. 6, 425-432.
NEISSER, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New Jersey. 
Appleton Century Crofts.
NELSON, L .A. (1988). Attitudes of Western Australian Students 
Towards Micro Computer. British Journal of Educational 
Technology. 19(1). 53-57.
NERC (1981). The.Concept of Social Studies Education for
Schools and Colleges. Ibadan, Onibonoje Nig. Ltd.
NERC (1982). Primary School Syllabus in Social Studies.
NOLL, V.H. & SCANNEL, D.F. (1972). Introduction to Educational 
Measurement. Houghton. Mufflin Boston.
NORWICH B & DUNCAN, J. (1990). Attitudes, Subjective Norm,
Perceived Preventive Factors, Intentions and Learning 
Science: Testing a Modified Theory of Reasoned Action. 
British Journal of Educational Psychology 60 (3), 312-
321.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
186
NWANA, O.C. 91979). Test and Measurement for Teachers Nelson. 
Africa.
OBEMEATA, J.O. et al (1981). Social Studies Methods: 
Associateship Certificate in Education Series (Institute 
of Education University of Ibadan, Series, Ibadan 
Heinemann Nig. Limited.
ODUFUYE, F. 0. (1985) . Nature and Measure of Attitude of
Formation and Changing of Attitude. Seminar Paper 
presented at Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
o g u n s a n y a , M. (T984). Introduction to the Methodologies of 
Social Studies. Ibadan. Evans Brothers Nigeria.
OGUNSOLA, W.O. (1983).. Teachers Preferences for Methods of 
Teaching Social Studies. Unpublished M.Ed. Project Work, 
University of Ibadan.
OGUNSOLA, W.O. (1990). The Effectiveness of Selected 
mathemagenic Activities and Teachers Instructional Style 
on Students Cognitive and Affective Learning in Social 
Studies. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
OKUNROTIFA P.0 (1972) . An Investigation Into Nigerian Pupils'
Attitude to and Achievement in Geography by programmes 
instruction. HaaL_African Journal of Education. 1(2)
OKUNROTIFA P.0. (1974). Recent Trends in Geography and
Their Implication for Supervision of Instruction. The 
Social Studies 65(4).
OLAOGUN, M.O. (1984) . A Study of Acceptability of the New 
Social Studies in Post Primary Schools in Oyo Local 
Government Area of Oyo State. Unpublished M.Ed.,■ 
Projects. University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
OLAWEPO, J.A. (1984). Student-Teachers Attitude to and 
Performance in Social Studies. Unpublished M.Ed.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
187
Project. University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
ORIMOLOYE, P.S. (1978). The Issue of Selecting and Organising 
The New Integrated Social Studies Content, Paper Read at 
SOSAN Conference, University of Ibadan, (1978).
OSHO, I. (1985). The Effects of Problem-Solving and 
Conventional Teaching Strategies on Students Achievement 
on Social Studies, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
OSKAMP, S. (1977). Attitudes and Opinions. Prentice Hall.
PEPER, R.J. & MAYER, R.E. (1978). Note-Taking as a Generative 
Activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 514-522.
PEPER, R.J. & MAYER, R.E. (1986) . Generative Effects of Note- 
Taking During Science Lectures. Journal of Educational 
Psychology. 78(1), 34-38.
PETERS, D.L. (1972) . Effects of Note-Taking and Rate qf 
Presentation on Short Term Objective Test Performance. 
Journal of Educational Psychology. 63, 276-280.
*
QUARTEY, S.M. (1983). 'The Teaching of Social Studies and 
National Development.' Paper read at the SOSAN Annual 
Conference, Enugu, 1983.
RAMSETT, D.E. (1983) . JOHNSON, J.D. & ADAMS, C. (1974) . An 
institutional Study of Student Attitudes Towards
Principles of Economics. Journal__of__ Experimental
Education. 42(3).
ROBERT VOTH (1975) . On Lecturing. The Social_Studies LXX
(Nov/Dec. 1975) 247-248.
ROBINSON, F.P. (1970). Effective Study. Evanston Harper and 
Row Publishers.
ROTHKOPF, E.Z. (1965). Some Theoretical and Experimental 
Appraoches to Problems in Written Instruction in J.D.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
188
Krumboltz (ed) Learning___ and___ the___ Educational
Process.Chicago. McNally, 193-221
ROTHKOPT, E.Z. (1970). The Concept of Mathemagenics. Review 
pf Educational Research,. 40 (3), 325-336. ^
RUSHTON, J.R. (1966). The Relationship Between Personality 
Characteristics and Scholastic Success in 11-year old 
Children. British Journal Educational Psychology. 36, 
178-184.
SAVAGE, R.D. (1966) . Personality Factors in Academic 
Attainment in Junior School Children. British Journal of 
Educational Psychology. 36, 91-94.
SCHIBECI, R. A. (1984). Attitudes in Science, an up-date.
Studies in.S.Qi.e.nc.e....Education n ,  26-59.
SHAUELSON, R.J., BERLINER, D.C., RAVITCH, M.M. & LOEDING, 
DAVID: Effects of Position and Type of Question on 
Learning from Prose Material: Interaction of Treatments 
Within Individual Differences. Journal of Educational 
Psychology 66(1), 40-48.
SHAW & WRIGHT (1969). Scales For Measurement of Attitudes. 
MC Graw-Hill. Inc. New York.
SHERIF, C.W. Sc SHERIF M. (1967). Attitudes as the Individual's 
own Categories: The Social Judgement-Involvement Approach 
to Attitude and Attitude change in C.W. Sherif and M. 
Sherif (ed) Attitudes Ego-Involvement and chances. New 
York. Wiley.
SLAMEEKA, N.J. (1967). (ed.). Human_Learning_and_Memory
Selected Readings. Oxford. Oxford University Press Ltd.
SMITHERS, A.G. & BATCOCK, A. (1970)$ Success and Failure Among 
Social Scientists and Health Scientists at a 
Technological University. British Journal of Educationa,! 
Psychology. 40, 44-53.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
189
SKOTKO, D.J. Sc ROURKE, D.L. (1980). The Effects of Time in 
Short-term Storage (STS) on Subsequent Recall From Long- 
Term Memory (LTM). Psychological Record. 30(3), 347-360
TALLAND, G.A. (1968) . Disorders_of_Memory_and_Learning.
London Penguin Books Ltd.
t u c k m a n, b .w . (1975) . Measuring__Educational__Outcomes;
Fundamentals__of__Testing. New York, Harcourt-Brace.
Jovanovich International Edition.
TUCHMAN, B.W, (1978). Conducting Educational Research. New 
York. Harcourt-Brace Jovanocich Inc.
UNOH, (1979). Reading to Remember: Ibadan University Press
Ltd. Ibadanl
UWAKWE, C.B.U. (1984). The Relative Effectiveness of Note- 
Taking, Summarizing and Repetition on Students Fact 
Recall. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
VABAZA, K.T. (1974). The Relationship Between Some Personality 
Factors and Academic Performance Among Some Nigerian 
Secondary School Students. Unpublished M.Ed. Project 
University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
VENABLE, E. (1963). Social Differences Among Day Release 
Students in: Relation to Their Recruitment and Exam. 
Success. British Journal of Social and Clinical 
Psychology. 3, 138-152.
WALKO, J.K. (1989). The Effects of Varied Note-Taking 
Strategies on Students Ability to Profit from Visualized 
Instruction as Measured by Tests Assessing Different 
Educational Objectives: Ph.D. Dissertation. The
Pennsylvania University, 1981 in Dissertation Abstract 
International Vol. 51(5): DA 9018293.
WEEKS, L.H. (1972) . An Inquiry Into The Attitudes of Infants" 
Teachers. Journal of...Educational Research. , 15 (l), 10- 
15 .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
190
WEENER, P. (1974). Note-Taking and Student Verbalization as 
Instrumental Learning Activities in Instructional 
Science. 3, 5 1 -7 4 .
*
WESLEY EDGAR (1950) . Teaching Social Studies.in. High School, 
Boston, Health and Company. 128-129.
WESLEY, E.B. (1978). Foreward in R.D. Berr, J.L. Barth and
s.s. Shermis: The Nature of Social.Studies... Palm Springs
C .A . ETC Publication.
WILSON, J.D. (1971). Predicting Levels of First Year 
University Performance. British Journal of Educational 
Psychology 41, 163-170.
WITTROCK, M.C. (1974). Learning as a Generative Process. 
Educational Psychologist 11, 87-95.
WITTROCK, M.C. & DUCTOROW, M. (1975). Reading as a .Generative 
Process. Journal of Educat.iQnaL.Psychclpgy. 67 (4), 484- 
489.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
191
APPENDIX 1
EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY (EPI)
Directions
The items below contain pieces of information required 
from you. Please, check the items and tick [ ] either
vYes', ''No', or undecided according to the statement that best 
describes you or your opinion.
r
Statement Yes No Undecided
1. Do you often long for excitement?
2. Are you usually carefree?
3. Do you stop and think things over 
before doing anything?
4. Do you generally do or any things 
quickly without stopping to think?
5y Would you do almost anything for 
a dare?
6. Do you often do things on the spur 
of the moment?
7. Generally, do you prefer reading to 
meeting people?
8. Do you like going out a lot?
9. Do you prefer to have few but 
special friends?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
192
10. When people shout at you, do you 
shout back?
11. Can you usually let yourself go 
and enjoy yourself a lot at a 
party?
12. Do other people think of you as 
being very lively?
13. Are you mostly quiet when you are 
with other people?
14. If there is something you want to 
know about, would you rather look
15. Do you like the kind of things that 
you need to pay close attention to?
16. Do you like being with a crowd who 
play jokes on one another?
17. Do you like doing things in which 
you have to act quickly?
18. Are you slow and unworried in the 
way you move?
19. Do you like talking to people so 
much that you would never miss a 
change of talking to a stranger?
20. Would you be very unhappy if you 
could not see lots of people most 
of the time?
21. Would you say you are fairly self 
confident?
22. Do you find it hard to really enjoy 
yourself at a lively party?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
1 9 3
*
23. Can you easily get some life into 
a rather dull party?
24. Do you like playing pranks on others?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
194
APPENDIX II
STUDENTS ATTITUDE TO SOCIAL STUDIES QUESTIONNAIRE (SASSO)
This questionnaire is to obtain your sincere opinion about the 
need to study Social Studies at the NCE teacher education level.
The answer to the statements range from strongly agree to 
strongly disagree as follows:
SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree
D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree
Now tick l\s ] the letter/letters (SA; A; D; SD) which most 
closely represents your* opinion.
SECTION A
SA A D SD
1. Social Studies is a different subjects.
2 . I prefer Geography, Political Science, 
History and Economics to Social Studies.
3 . Social Studies is exciting to study at
NCE level.
4 . Going' on Social Studies field trips costs
a lot of money.
5 . I feel challenged when given assignment
Social Studies.
6 . Social Studies inculcates good citizenship 
in students.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
195
7. Social Studies lectures teach us how to 
think.
8. What we learn in Social Studies is very- 
true to life.
9. Social Studies does not tell us about 
economic production and scientific 
inventions.
10. I feel very lively in Social Studies 
lectures.
11. I spend too much money buying notebooks 
and handouts in Social Studies.
12. Too much time is spent on Social Studies 
than on Education or other subject in my 
combination.
13. Attending Social Studies lectures makes 
me nervous.
14. I feel calm in a Social Studies lecture.
15. I always help others students to solve 
their problems in Social Studies.
16. It takes me a lot of time to understand 
new concepts in Social Studies.
17. Social Studies has developed my interest 
in national and international events.
18. Since I started learning Social Studies,
I have developed more interest in tradition 
and culture of my people.
19. I now obey rules and regulations more/better 
than before.
UNIVER
ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
196
20. Social Studies should be made compulsory for 
all teachers in-training.
21. I shall offer Social Studies as my teaching 
subject in the University.
22. Reading Social Studies at NCE level has no 
future prospect.
23. I read Social Studies because it is a new 
subject which has no prerequisite for 
admission.
24. All college students should take an 
introductory course in Social Studies.
25. A good knowledge of Social Studies will 
help me secure a job after College 
training.
26. No matter how much I try, I still do not 
do well enough in Social Studies.
27. It is easier for a Social Studies student
to find job than students of other subjects.
28. Social Studies involve extensive reading.
29. I like reading textbooks on Social Studies.
30. I obtain much of my Social Studies knowledge 
or information from sources other than the 
textbooks.
31. Social Studies textbooks are difficult to 
find to buy.
32. Newspapers and Magazines serve as sources 
of Social Studies information.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
197
SECTION B
V.ATR. ICULATI ON NUMBER : ____________________ £
SUBJECT COMBINATION:_____________________________
SEX: (MALE)______________________  (FEMALE) :_______________
(Tick as Appropriate)
HIGHEST QUALIFICATION TC II [ ] SSCE/WASC [ ]
APPENDIX III
STUDENTS ATTITUDE TQ....SQ.CIAL STUDIES..QUESTIONNAIRE ;
CONTRIBUTION OF EACH ITEM TO THE TOTAL CONSTRUCT
Item | St. Dev. | Corr. | Average
No. 1 Item-Total
1 Correlation
1 1.1 0.3371 0.2416
2 1.16 0.2635 0.1588
3 1.11 -0.263 -0.1289*
4 1.01 0.2846 0.1947
5 0.76 0.3488 0.2842
6 r. 1 5 0.1079 0.0005
7 0.82 0.487 0.4253
8 0.93 0.343 0.2631
9 1.17 -0.071 -0.1778*
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
198
10 0.81 0.071
11 0.71 0.0118
12 0.49 0.4825 f,
13 0.9 0.3787
14 1.06 0.0699
15 1.02 0.3306
16 0.91 0.3503
17 1.22 0.1377
18 0.95 0.4862
19 0.96 0.3515
20 1.06 0.3515
21 0.84 1 -0.0119
22 0.64 0.6285
23 0.78 0 ;395
24 0.79 0.371
25 0.76 -0.0365
26 1.*21 0.4714
27 0.87 0.0214
28 0.98 0.4163
29 0.91 0.3567
30 0.74 0.202
31 1.01 0.3294
32 0.94 0.3862
33 0.8 0.0367
34 1.1 0.2476
35 1.03 0.523
36 0.95 0.2187
37 0.91 0.5047
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
199
38 0.86 0.4691 0.4029
39 1.28 0.3494 0.2383
40 0.97 0.3747 0.2930
1
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
200
A P P E N D I X  IV
FACILITY INDICES OF THE SSIRT
FACILITY ITEM FACILITY
INDEX
. 71 16 . 58
2 . 62 17 . 75
3 . 64 18 .42
4 . 51 19 . 67
5 . 79 20 .46
6 .38* 21 .38*
7 .37* 22 .47
8 . 67 23 .48
9 .69 24 . 58
10
11 *
.45 25 . 53
.57 26 .52
12 .52 27 . 62
13 . 55 28 . 93
14 .56 29 . 84
15 .53 30 .54
31 . 61 46 .68
32 .21* 47 .42
33 .49 48 .30*
34 . 62 49 .63
35 . 50 50 .58
36 . 53 51 .47
37 . 52 52 .22*
38 .41 53 .25*
39 .64 54 .67
40 . 55 55 .79
41 w.64 56 . 72
42 .33* 57 .48
43 . 66 58 .32 *
44 . 65 59 .42*
45 * .42 60 . 55
from final copy of tests
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
201
APPENDIX V
Table of Specification for the SSIRT
OBJECTIVES
CONTENT
REMEMBERING UNDERSTANDINC3 | THINKINC} | TOTAI
1. The concept of
population, growth 1, 4, 6, 7, 2, 8, 16 3, 5, 9 12
and structure.
2 . Factors of popula- 12, 13, 14, 18, 25, 20, 24
tion distribution 15, 19, 21, 10
and movement. /
3 . Sources of Popula- 31, 32, 33, 36, 32, 39 -
tion data. 34,35,38,40 10
4 . Population policy
in Nigeria. 27,30,41,42 26, 28 29 7
tion data.
5 . Advantages and
disadvantages of 57, 58 53 17 10
large population.
6 . The Malthusian
Population theory 43,44,48,49 45,46,47,60 50,56,59 11
and resources. I
Total 31 18 11 60
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
202
APPENDIX VI
Prepared Lecture Notes 
SOCIAL STUDIES - POPULATION STUDIES 
LECTURE I
TOPIC: The Concept of Population
1.0 Meaning and Importance of Population
Population means different concepts to different people 
and to different disciplines. A biologist takes population as 
a collection of plants and animals in a given environment. He 
sees population as the totality of the inhabitants of a given
i j
ecological space. A demographer and a sociologist refer to 
population as the total number of people in a given community 
or a given state. Their concept of population is the total 
number of all human beings living in a given territory.
Population is, on the other hand, defined as the quantity 
and quality of the human inhabitants of a defined territory. 
Quality deals with the mode or condition of living of a set of 
people while quantity is reflected in the actual numerical 
figure of the inhabitants that occupy a given area.
Population plays an important role in the development
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
203
process of a place or country: (1) It is the most important 
resource base of the state; (2) Development plan for any state 
is usually based on and dictated by the population and 
resources of that state.
2.0 Population Growth:
Right from the pre-historic time, world population has 
steadily increased. During the first century A.D. World 
population was below 300 million. By the 18th century it grew 
to 600 million. By 1820 A.D. world population grew to 1,000 
million. At the beginning of 20th century it grew up to 2,000 
million. In 1960, it grew to 3,000 million and in the 1990s 
it is estimated at 6,500 million. The continuous increase in 
the number of people living in the world is known as 
population growth.
World population has consistently doubled itself within 
increasingly smaller number of years. It once doubled itself 
in 1700 years, but within the last 30 years it has again 
doubled itself.
During the 1980s an extra of 300,000 people was added to 
the world population everyday. More than 12,000 is added each
hour.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
204
3.0 Population Growth Rate
The rate at which population increases at specific period 
of time is called population growth rate. The growth rate 
differs from country to country and from one economy to 
another. Growth rate is lower in the developed world. For 
example, Western Europe has a growth rate of 0.6% per annum. 
Asia, African and Latin America have growth rates of 2.5% and 
above per annum.
Population growth, in any country, takes two ways. 
First, population increases as a result of natural change 
(more births) and secondly through migration (immigration into 
the country).
4.0 Determinants of Population Growth
The population of a country is usually affected by 
changes in birth rate or fertility rate, death or mortality- 
rate and by migration. High birth rate, low death rate and 
migration induce increase in population while other factors 
such as plague, diseases, famine, flood, and wars lead to
decrease in population. In recent times, the factors which
*
lead to increase in population have gained an edge over those 
that decrease population.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
205
Natural increase in population is due to the balance 
between births and deaths in a given period of time. If the 
balance is negative, decrease occurs but when it is positive 
increase occurs.
Rapid population increase is usually due to the following 
reasons. c*
l . Increase in birth rate:
The crude bi*rth rate is the ratio between the number of
births in a single year and the total population expressed as 
a number per thousand. Developing countries such as Nigeria 
has 50 per thousand while developed countries like West 
Germany has 9.7 per thousand. Japan has 17.2 per thousand.
Factors which influence the birth rate in a country 
include:
(a) Demographic structure of the country
(b) Educational level and awareness of the people.
(c) Religion of the majority.
(d) Social customs and practices.
(e) Diets and health of the people.
(f) Politics which includes war, apartheid, and
sanctions.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
206
After wars demographic recovery brings about "fertility 
bulge".
2. F a l l .ia JO eaU L-Eataj.
Crude death rate or mortality rate is the ratio between 
the number of deaths and the total population, in a single 
year, expressed as a number per thousand.
As with birth or fertility rate, there is a link between- 
death rate and economic development. Countries with high 
living standards experience the lowest death rate 5 per 
thousand, while the economically backward areas have the 
highest rate of 30 per thousand. Malawi and Ethiopia have 25 
per thousand.
Factors which influence death rate are as follows:
(a) Demographic structure.
(b) Medicine and sanitation.
(c) Social class and or standard of living.
(d) Occupation of the people.
(e) Place of residence.
3. Other Determinants = p
Some other factors also play their parts in determining 
the rate of population growth. They include the following:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
207
(a) Increased employment opportunities.
(b) Migration.
(c) Rise in standard of living.'
5.0 Population Structure
The composition of the population is known as its 
structure. Sociologists study the divisions of population 
into family sizes, marital statuses, income levels, 
educational levels e.t.c. In Social Studies population 
structure is considered in terms of age, sex, occupation, 
marital status, dependency ratio and pattern.
Population structure influence the rate of population 
growth. It determines the level of economic development. It 
dictates the rate of demand for food, services and so on.
Aspects of population structure can be briefly divided as 
follows:
I Age Structure:
This is the division of the population into age groups, 
these are:
(a) Children - usually 0-16 years.
(b) Adults - usually between 16 and 64 years.
(c) The Aged - 65 years and over.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
208
Children - The group includes babies, children and 
adolescents. It is largely a non-productive group. It is 
also non-reproductive. In developing countries, almost half 
the population is in this group. In the developed countries 
the age accounts for only 30% of the population.
Adults - 16-64 years.
The adults age group, particularly those between 16 and 49 
years, is the most productive and reproductive group. The age 
group
supports the other two groups. It is the 'mobile group': 
This group is sometimes divided into two 16-35 and 35-64 and 
called younger and older adults.
That Aged - 65 years and over
The group is non-reproductive. It has majority of females who 
are mostly widows. In the developing countries, they form 3 
per cent or less of the total population whereas in the 
developed countries the proportion is above 15 per cent. 
Nigeria had only 2 per cent in the 1963 population census, as 
aged.
Importance of Knowing the Age Structure
The distribution of age group influences social and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
209
economic development.
It determines the level of demand of goods and services. 
Industrial production is sometimes manipulated to satisfy the 
needs of the age groups.
Age-Sex Pyramid
The distribution of age and sex groups is usually 
represented by a diagram called the age-sex pyramid.
Four types of age-sex pyramids are identified as:
(a) Progressive - shows broad base and narrow apex. 
Large population of 0-15 years about 45-55 per 
cent.The structure is common in the developing 
countries with poor living conditions, high 
fertility, poor diet and health and little medical 
care.
(b) Regressive - obtains where birth and death rates 
are low and declining. Children account for under 
30 per cent of the total population. The aged 
accounts for 15 percent. Common in developed 
countries with high living standards, good foiJcland 
medical care.
(c) Stationary - exists where children accounts for 35-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
210
40 per cent and aged about 10 percent of the total 
population - pattern remains the same for many 
years.
(d) Intermediate - exists in a country passing through 
several stages of development.
- It may be progressive now but becomes regressive 
shortly after.
This is grouping, the total population into males and 
females.
In nearly every country ratio of male to female varies 
between 90:110 to 99:101. Countries experiencing wars, 
emigration, famine and diseases tend to have low male 
proportion. Countries experiencing economic buoyancy, 
immigration and better health care have high male proportion. 
Ill• Occupational Structure:
The economically active portion of the population can be 
grouped under primary, secondary and tertiary occupational 
groups. We sometimes group into extractive, manufacturing and 
services groups. g
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
211
IV. Marital Status;
This involves grouping the total population into single 
(unmarried) married, widowed, divorced. Marital status groups 
are influenced by changes in age structure, sex ration, social 
institutions and economic conditions.
Dependency Ratio:
The work force of a country consists of the active
section of the population. This.is made up of people above 15
• .•*
years of age.
Factors such as health condition, employment availability arid 
rate of urbanisation influence the size of the active 
population.
Dependency ratio gives an indication of the degree to
which unproductive groups in the population depend on the
working population. It is obtained by adding the total
population under 15 to the total population of 65 and above
and dividing it by the total population of 16-64 years.
Dependency ratio = ,Q,-.15..t.6.5.and.ab.OYfl
16 - 64 years ^
Problems of population structure in Africa:
African countries are characterized by young people who
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
212
are less than 15 years old, more women than men, high marriage 
rate, small labour*force size, high dependency ratio and poor 
quality of the labour force. All these lead to the socio­
economic problems of Africa.
These includes:
(a) The predominance of youths in African population 
constitutes great burden on the economy.
(b) Large number of youths causes large number of 
job seekers.
(c) Unemployment leads to greater poverty.
(d) Low level of education, poor health and high 
dependency ratio lead to low level of productivity. 
Long term economic and social planning is seen as 
the only long term remedy.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
213
LECTURE II 9
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND CHANGE
% ,
Population Distribution
The way people are distributed or scattered over a given 
space of land or country is referred to as population 
distribution. All over the world, people are not evenly 
distributed among lend masses. Some areas have dense population 
while others are almost totally uninhabited.
Onc-ultimate factor of population distribution is economic 
potential. All other factors are contributory to it. People 
will live only where they can find a means of earning a living. 
However, factors wljich influence population distribution are 
grouped as physical, historical, political and economic factors. 
Physical Factors Influencing Population Distribution
Physical factors which cause population to be so distributed 
all over the world include:
(i) Accessibility to places of residence and work.
(ii) Relief and soil fertility - lowlands and fertile lands 
carry heavy population - e.g. Prairies of Canada, 
Campus of Brazil and Nile Valley of Egypt.
(iii) Climate: Moderate temperatures, rainfall and humidity
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
214
induce people to settle and live in a place.
(iv) Natural Vegetation - Thick jingles repel population 
lights forest and grasslands attract and support' dense 
population.
(v) Water Supplies - People live where they can secure 
water e.g. Oases in the deserts.
(vi) Mineral Resources - Usually people tend to go to
places where plenty of minerals are available. They 
even endure harsh climatic conditions so as to benefit 
from the minerals.
(vii) Diseases - where there are diseases, people move away 
from such places, e.g. River blindness has caused 
population to decrease in Northern Ghana.
Historical Factors Influencing Population Distribution
Various historical developments have been associated with 
the sparseness of population in certain parts of the world. 
These factors include:
(i) Slave Trade: Africans were carried away as slaves
to Europe and America during the 18th and 19th
centuries.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
215
Between 10 and 15 millions were carried away from 
Africa.
(ii) Inter-tribal Wars: During inter-tribal wars great loss 
of lives usually occur. In the 19th century inter­
tribal wars in Yorubaland, Akan land in Ghana, Zululand 
in Southern Africa many people died. Sudan, Mozambique 
and Somalia are now being depleted of population 
because of wars.
(iii) Religious Persecution: Persecuted people in Britain 
moved away to New England (America) as 'Pilgrim 
Fathers' during the 17th century. The state of Utah 
and its capital Salt Lake City were settled by the 
American Mormons who were forced to move there in the 
19th century.
Political Factors Influencing Population Distribution
Some political policies and decisions which influenced the
$
distribution of population in different parts of the world are 
apartheid, and Resettlement Schemes.
(i) Apartheid:w The policy of separation of blacks and 
whites in South Africa. 14 millions blacks now occupy 20% 
of the land area while 6 million whites occupy the remaining
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
216
80% .
(ii) Resettlement Schemes: People are arbitrary removed
from their homeland and resettled at the dictates of 
government.
Millions of Russians removed to the wastes of 
Siberia.
Britain evacuated the convicts to Australia.
$
In Nigeria inhabitants of Kainji, Abuja, Maroko
(Lagos) %ere moved elsewhere.
(iii) Creation of Forest Reserves: Large portion of arable 
lands are reserved and population concentrate in small 
portion of land. It brings congestion and acute 
shortage of farmlands.
Economic Factors Influencing Population Distribution
Economic factor is the most important factor influencing 
population distribution. Such factors include:
(i) Pressure of population on land which leads people to 
move to other areas.
(ii) Discovery of Mineral deposits - attracts large number 
of miners, carriers and other workers.
(iii) Urbanisation - Urban facilities draw large population
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
217
to it.
(iv) Industrialization - Industrial areas provide jobs and 
services which large number of people look for. 
Population Density
Population, all over the world is unevenly distributed. Two 
types of density divisions, ecumene and non-ecumene are 
identified. Ecumene covers about 60% of total land surface while 
non-ecumene covers 40%.
Population density refers to the ratio of the number of 
people to a given unit of land.
Three-fold divisions of densities are identified.
(a) Area of very dense population (over 100 people per
km2) .
(b) Area of moderate population density (25-100 people 
per km2) .
(c) Area of low population density (below 25 people per 
km2) .
Examples of specific densities:
(a) Areas of very dense population - Over 100 per km2.
(i) Region of high living standards: England, the
J
low countries, West Germany, North-East, U.S.A.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
218
(ii) Region of low living standards: South-East China, 
India, East-Indies.
(b) Areas of moderate population density (25-100 per km2). 
(i) Region of high living standards - France, South- 
East, Australia, South-East, Canada, Midwest U.S.A.
(ii) Region of low living standards - Turkey, Nigeria 
South-East Brazil, Mexico.
(c) Areas of low population density (below 25 per km2) .
(i) Region of high living standard. Sweden Norway,
New Zealand, Western Ca1 n■ada.
(ii) Regions of low living standards - Northern Africa
Central Brazil, Patagonia, New Guinea.
*
Population Distribution and Resources
The survival of man depends on the availability of natural 
resources such as forest, water, mineral and air, which produce 
the basic necessities of life.
The relationship between population size and the available 
natural resources to sustain that population leads to the idea of 
over population, under population and optimum population. 
Overpopulation - exists where there is too great population in a 
given area for the actual or potential resources to support.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
219
Symptoms of overpopulation include, low incomes, high
levels of unemployment, declining living standards,
>
famine and malnutrition.
Temporary solution to this are importation, movement 
away from the place etc.
Permanent solutions are long-term economic planning, 
industrialisation, birth control.
Underpopulation - exists where there are too few people in a 
given area to fully utilise the available resources. It occurs 
in a place where larger population could be supported by the same 
resources.
Symptoms of underpopulation are inadequate work force 
or human resources, low population density, poor economic 
development migration to other areas for better employment 
opportunities.
Examples of underpopulated areas are The Amazon Basin, 
The Congo Basin, The Canadia Coldlands, The Siberia of 
Eastern Rusia.
Optimum Population - is the theoretically perfect situation of 
the relationship of population and resources.
exists where the size of population allows the maximum
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
220
utilization of resources; where man achieves maximum output 
per head and the highest possible living standards. 
Optimum population is not static.
It changes with state of technology and improvement.
The terms overpopulation, underpopulation and optimum population 
do not take into account such factors as culture, racial 
character level of technology, differing expectations of life and 
aesthetic values. Food and employment serve to determine this 
situations in the developing countries but space decides them in 
the developed countries.
. I '
Factors of Population Change
Changes as population can be positive or negative. Some 
lead to rise in population while negative factors lead to 
decrease in population.
Three basic factors are migration, fertility rate and 
mortality rate:
Migration is the movement of people from one place to 
another.
- Migration is classified according to the different types, 
types of motive which induce them.
- There are unconscious drift, compulsory movement and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
221
voluntary movement. $
- Migration can also be classified as internal or
*
international
Internal Migration: takes place within individual countries.
- involves short distances.
- involves moving from countryside to towns and from town 
to town or from towns to the countryside.
- in Nigeria movement is from the interior to coastal urban 
settlement for jobs trade, and social amenities.
International Migration:
- involves movement across international boundaries.
- greater distances are involved.
- migrants may move to totally different place (physical, 
social or economical and political differences may be 
experienced).
- examples of international migration include, movement 
of Africans as slaves to America, from Britain to New 
England, from, Scotland to Nova Scotia, from France to
New York and New France. China to Burma, e.t.c.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
222
Seasonal migration, periodic migration and daily migration 
also occur. Migration can also be classified as temporary of 
permanent.
Components of Migration ;
Two components of migration are immigration and emigration. 
Immigration involves moving into a particular country. 
Emigration is movement out from one particular country. 
Immigration raises number of population while emigration 
decreases the population <?f any one country.
Reasons for Migration:
Two broad factors induce migration.
These are the 'PUSH' factors and the 'PULL' factors.
Push factors encourage emigration while pull factors induce
i, mmigrati, on. * 
The stronger and more wide spread these factors are, the 
father will the migrants move.
A more detailed breakdown of reasons for population movement 
gives the following:
Physical factor such as harsh climates, difficult relief, 
poor soils, drought e.t.c.
Economic factors such as employment or unemployment promise
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
223
of wealth, farmland, low wages, high rents, poverty and social
factors such as changes in family size, changes in family status
>
and wealth, urban attraction like water, light, employment, 
entertainment. Urban repulsion such as congestion, pollution, 
traffic difficulties e.t.c. is
Education may serve as both pull and push factors. 
Political factors such as movement away from persecution, seeking 
political asylum e.g. Russians to Western World.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
224
LECTURE III
SOURCES OF POPULATION DATA 
Sources of Population Data
The study of population requires extensive and accurate data 
because analysis of population structure and distribution depends 
on the availability of population statistics.
No effective long term planning can be accomplished without
accurate population d*ata. Population data are obtainable from 
the following sources - census, vital registration, sample 
surveys population registers and migration statistics. 
Population Census
The main source of population data is the population census. 
A census is defined as the total process of collecting, 
computing, processing and publishing demographic, economic and 
social data about all persons in a country. It inyplves the 
actual counting of the people within a geographical boundary.
Population census is a useful exercise because information
V
derived from census is useful for analysing the present and to 
forecast the future population distribution, size and structure. 
Planning for education, health, housing and employment
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
225
depends on population statistics derived from census.
Two important characteristics that should be ensured in any 
census count is periodicity and universality.
Census must also be taken simultaneously within a given 
country.
(a) Approaches to Population Census
Two basic approaches or methods of population census, all 
over the world are the defacto and the dejure approaches:
(i) Defacto approach: is one in which each individual is 
counted at the place where he/she is found at the time 
of the census. Each person is counted at sight. 
Britain and Nigeria adopt defacto approach.
(ii) Dejure approach is whereby people are counted according 
to their usual place of residence.
U.S.A. and Brazil adopt the dejure approach. Brazil 
has tried the two approaches.
Nigeria finds the defacto method superior to the dejure 
method because of her cultural and occupational varieties. Some 
tribes are particularly mobile or do not have permanent place of 
usual residence.
: $\
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
226
(b) B r ie f  H is t o ry  p f  Census In  N ig e r ia
In Nigeria, the first population census took place in the 
colony of Lagos in 1863. Other census which took place after 
this involved all the protectorate and the colony. There were 
censuses in 1911, 1921, 1931, 1952/53, 1963 and 1973. There was 
no census in 1941 because of the World War II.
The 1952/53 census was considered, generally, as the first 
modern census conducted in Nigeria. But even then it lacked 
simultaneity. They actual counting did not take place at the 
same time all over the country. It was conducted in July 1953 in 
the East. This gave rise to many shortcomings associated with 
the results.
The 1952, 1963, and 1973 censuses were rejected on the
account of various irregularities. However, all the planning 
which the government undertook were based on the data obtained
from these imperfect censuses.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
o
2 2 1
POPULATION... OF . NIGERIA . ACCORDING TO THE 1911-1973 CENSUSES 
-------- ------i------------ !------------- 1-----------
YEAR TOTAL POPULATION %INTERCENSAL ANNUAL GROWTH 
IN MILION INCREASE RATE
11
1911 16.06 -
1921 18.72 17 1.6
1931 20.06 7 0.9
1952/53 30.42 52 1.9
1963 55.66 83 3.6
1973 _______7_9._7_6______ I_____4_3_____ L 2.7
Basic Statistics in/Census Count or Coverage of Census
In any census exercise information or statistics are 
normally obtained on the following: Sex, Age, Residential Status, 
Birth Place, Marital Status, Employment, Education, Religion.
In Nigeria, the National Population Commission is the body 
charged with the responsibility of conducting a census and the 
Federal Office of Statistics is a department of the commission 
which is responsible for organising the census data.
Problems of Censuses in Nigeria I
Problems which militate against accurate census in Nigeria 
include the following,:
1. Lack of sufficient and experienced specialists such as
statisticians and demographers to conduct census.
2. Inadequate publicity and enlightenment of census
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
228
operations.
3. Inadequate time for planning.
4. Inaccessibility of certain parts of the country at 
certain periods of the year.
5. Insufficient training for the census functionaries.
o
6. Inconsistency in the approach of the headcount. 
Counting
in churches, mosques, markets e.t.c. and still in the 
residential places lead to multiple counting.
7. Poor communication and transportation.
8. Lack of office and storage facilities.
9. Lack of up-to-date maps.
10. Problem of incomplete return of census questionnaire.
11. Politicization of census operations leading to inflation
of figures, falsification of, information.
12. Religious beliefs of some people went against giving the 
needed information to enumerators - Purdah system in the
■.’ l l  ■ i . - • | ■ , ■ ,:
North, Jehovah witnesses in the south.
13. Late and inaccurate processing of census data. 
Suggested Solutions to Census Problems
1. Adequate publicity and enlightenment should be given
I
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
229
before during census to allay peoples fears.
2. Adequate training should be given to all census 
functionaries.
3. Accurate and up-to-date maps should be drawn and 
supplied to the enumerators.
4. Fund should be readily made available.
5. Women enumerators should be used in counting women in 
purdah.
6. Provision of offices and stores, data banks should be 
ahead of census.
7. Greater enlightenment to enumerators.
8. Long term planning that would ensure that adequate and 
elaborate preparation is made should be ensured. J
Uses of Census Data *
Census statistics or data are the basic tools for planning, 
administration and research. All these three processes are
undertaken in different aspects of a country's life such as in 
education, health, housing, employment, establishment of 
industries. Education: In educational planning knowledge of
population in the school-going ages, is essential. Age and sex 
differences of children should be known. Number of children in
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
230
the different categories will determine the quality of schodl 
furniture. Equipment̂ , teachers e.t.c.
Health: Health needs differ according to age and sex.
Child care aid and family allowances to be paid to
mothers
can only be calculated with the knowledge of data got 
from census.
In developed countries number of old peoples homes and 
centres, housing and recreation centres are determined by 
population.
Housing: Accurate statistics will help the government to
determine and provide shelter for the people. House types and 
number are determined by the population.
Census gives an insight to distribution of houses between 
rural and urban centres.
Labour Supply. Manpower and Employment
Enterpreneurs base their determination of the site of their 
industries on availability of labour. (apart from other 
considerations).
- Quality of labour will depend on quality of population. 
Dependency ratio in a community marks the level of labour
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
231
supply.
Demand for Food
The census population statistics are important in the 
monitoring of the supply of food in any country. Number and 
structure of population must have clear correspondence with the 
food supply.
2. Vital Registration
Another source of population data is vital registration. It 
is a continuous registration of births; deaths; marriages, 
divorces, separation and adoptions.:* Vital registration is 
compulsory and backed by law. ..
While census deal with the state of population at a fixed
— *
point of time, vital registration is a source of continuous 
progress of or development in population. All incidences which 
continually affect population are recorded. Incidences of births 
e.t.c. are recorded and compiled at the time of occurrence or 
near the time of occurrence.
In Nigeria the registration of vital events was first 
adopted in the Lagos colony in 1867, _ I I t
was made compulsory in 1868. A compulsory national vital 
registration system decree was passed in 1979 and the 1979
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
232
Federal Republic of Nigeria Constitution charged the National 
Population Commission with the responsibility of establishing and 
monitoring the machinery of continuous and universal registration 
of birth and deaths throughout the country.
3. Sample Surveys:
This is much like census:
Involves selecting a component or a segment to represent the
entire population or a particular section of it. Q
Sample survey is vised to acquire information about a 
segment of the population.
In 1991, immediately before and after the census sample 
surveys of one tenth of the country's population were taken 
Problems connected with selection of which portion or
segment to survey include sampling errors and difficulty 
of making a sample truly representative.
Sometimes difficult to make generalization - about entire 
population from the sample survey.
4. Population Registers
This is the continuous recording of- the characteristics of 
each individual and of information on the events that occur to 
him or her. Each individual has his/her dossier.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
233
Information contained in the dossier include, date of birth, 
date entered nursery school, primary school e.t.c. date travelled 
to other country, date returned, date got married e.t.c.
Use of population register demands accuracy, literacy, 
honesty and meticulous record keeping.
It also has financial implications for the government.
5. Migration Statistics
This involves the statistics on emigration and immigration. 
Data on emigration will account for : Jde cr.ease in population from
source other than death.
Data on immigration tells of increases in population other 
than births. Two otfier divisions of these statistics are:
(a) Internal Migration Statistics: Modern censuses now 
contain information on change of residence and place 
of birth. This facilitates migration analysis. 
Information on volume, frequency, direction, and 
characteristics of internal migration is obtained 
through this source.;
(b) International Migration Statistics: These are derived
Q .
from the records of arrival at the international bound­
aries. Persons crossing international boundaries
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
2 3 4
usually have to produce their passports and to complete 
various forms on arrival or departure. The information 
required on arrival and departure forms vary from 
country to country.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
235
LECTURE IV
|
POPULATION POLICY
1.0 Population Policy: is defined as all deliberate government 
and administrative programmes directed towards some clearly 
defined set of demographic objectives that can influence 
population growth, size, distribution and structure.
This definition has been adopted by the United Nations. 
Population policy may be directed either to increase the 
rate of growth of population or to regulate the rate and 
volume of migration within and outside the national 
boundaries. It may be ; diy?r ecte. d towards*  reduciOng the
actual population.
2.0 Types of.Population Policy
There are three types of population policies:
(a) Anti-natal policy - is aimed at reducing the rate of 
growth of population.
(b) Pro-natal policy is aimed at accelerating or increasing 
the rate of growth of population.
(c) 1 Neutral policy is mid-way between pro and anti-natal
policies.
It neither increases nor decreases population growth.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
236
Examples of countries operating anti-natal policy are Egypt, 
Ghana and Kenya. Nigeria also started this type of policy 
recently. Examples of countries operating pro-natal policy are 
Gabon and Zaire.
A large number of African countries maintain neutral 
positions. Nigeria maintained this policy till the military 
administration came up with an anti-natalist policy. Generally 
all the various policies, especially those directed at reducing 
or checking the rate of population growth in Africa are not easy 
to introduce because of a number of factor.
EacLtars That Militate ,.Againat-Ĵ .i.-Ha.,ta.l_£.o.licy:
Among the factors which make the pursuit of anti-natal 
population policies less practicable in Africa are:
(i) Religious__Factor: Birth control through family
planning is contrary to the teachings of some religions.
Roman Catholic Christians, ^uslims and others oppose 
family planning.
{f
(ii) Social Factor: In Africa, custom such as polygamy, 
multiple marriages, early marriages, and prolonged child 
bearing militate against anti-natal policy. Africans men 
and women marry early and they continue to have children up
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
237
till the age of 50 and above.
(iii) Economic .Factor ; Majority of Africans are farmers and
they regard large number of children as assets. Children
,
form a source of cheap labour. Africans oppose government 
policies that prevent their having large number of children.
Children also form a sort of insurance for old age for 
Africans.
(iv) Political Factor: Politics is a game of number.
Majority wins elections. Africans encourage rapid growth of 
population for purpose of attracting more than a fair share 
of government allocation of revenue and other benefits.
(v) Illiteracy: Illiterates do not understand why they
should limit the number of their children. Only the
educated and rational persons are able to anticipate the
effects of early marriage and having too many children.
(vi) Mis-Information: Sometimes the true purpose or goal of"
population policies are not well explained. Ignorance
causes opposition to anti-natal policy.
Population Policies in Nigeria:
The Armed Forces Ruling Council took a bold step to dictate 
*
policies to provide a framework and appropriate guidelines for
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
238
examining and solving the nations population problems.
It approved a national policy on population for development, 
unity, progress and self reliance in February, 1988.
Earlier, in 1970, the Nigerian government recognised that 
the country has been very populous by African and World 
Standards. In 1980, Nigeria's population was estimated as 84 
million with a growth rate of 3.3 percent per annum. Nigeria 
population was and is the largest in Africa and one of the ten 
most populous countries in the WQll&,
Fertility rate is put at 20 per t h o u s a n d .  B a s e d  o n  t h i s  
information, the government took a step to arrest the rapid 
growth of population.
The population policy has the following goals:
(i) to improve the standards of living and the quality 
of life of the people of the nation;
(ii) to promote their health and welfare, especially 
through preventing pre-mature deaths and illness 
among high risk mothers and children.
(iii) to achieve lower population growth rates through 
reduction of birth rate by voluntary fertility 
regulation method;
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
239
(iv) to achieve a more even distribution of population 
between urban and rural areas.
The main features of the National Population Policy and
Programme are
(i) , respect for the right of each couple to determine 
voluntarily the number and spacing of their children;
(ii) steps taken to accelerate the rate of growth of the 
economy rather than embark on direct action to achieve 
an immediate reduction in the overall birth rate;
(iii) Integrating the various family planning schemes into 
the overall health and social welfare programmes of the 
country;
(iv) helping the population to have access to information 
facilities and services that will allow them the 
freedom to choose the number and spacing of their 
children; *
(v) attending the rapid growth of migration from rural to 
urban areas through planned and controlled urban growth 
by pursuing a policy of integrated urban-rural develop­
ment .
The third National Development Plan 1975-80 pursued the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
240
above policy objectives and had the above features that had 
indirect implications for population issues.
The fourth National Development Plan 1981-85 recognised the 
close relationship between population and economic development. 
He also recognised that the general lack of up-to-date 
information on the various demographic processes should not be 
regarded as an indication of government's insensitivity to the
effects of these factors on the development prospects of the
' , >
country.
The government strengthened the social and economic forces; 
Provided facilities* for family planning in its health 
institutions.
The government recognizes the fact that mortality rate is 
already on the decline and that overall rate of population growth 
has to be brought down.
The government also recognised the current public debate on 
abortion as a mechanism for birth control and improvement of 
individual health welfare. Q .
The government came out with a policy on population which 
mandate a woman to give birth to only 4 children.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
241 O
Targets for the Population Policy:
The population policy focused on achieving the following
ends:
(i) to protect the health of mother and child, to reduce
the proportion of women who get married before the age of 18 
years by 50% by 1995 and 80% by the year 2,000 A.D.;
(ii) to reduce pregnancy to mothers below 18 years and above 
35 years of age by 50% by 1995 and by 90% by the year 
2,000 A.D‘;
(iii) to reduce the proportion of women bearing more than 4 
children;
(iv) to extend the coverage of family planning services;
(v) - to reduce the number of children a woman is likely to 
have during her life time; ..
(vi) to reduce the infant mortality rate and crude death
rate;
! T . -
(vii) to provide 50% of rural communities either basic social
$
amenities in order to stimulate and sustain self- 
reliant development;
(ix to make family planning services available to all 
persons voluntarily wishing to use them.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
242
The strategies for implementation of the national population 
policy was voluntarily and in accord with the fundamental human 
rights of the individual.
To effect the policy there was the creation of institutional 
arrangements. These are:
(i) The National.Population Commissipn
The commission was established before the 1979 Second
Republican Constitution.
*
It was responsible for formulating and implementing 
population policy and programme in Nigeria. The Commission was 
however only inaugurated by Gen. Babangida's regime on April 22, 
1988. He backed the commission with a decree - Decree 23 of 1988 
which stipulates that it should conduct an adequate census within 
3 years.
The National Population Commission has a Chairman, 7 other 
members and Director General (ex-officio member). The Chairman 
was Alhaji Shehu Musa.
Functions and Powers of the N.P.C.
(i) to undertake the enumeration of the nation's population 
periodically through census, sample surveys e.t.c.;
(ii) to collect, collate and publish data on migration
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
243
statistics^
(iii) to arrange for the appointment and training of
enumerators and all other categories of staff of the 
National Population Commission.
(iv) to provide information and data on population for 
purpose of facilitating national planning and economic 
development;
(v) to advise the Federal Government on other population 
and population related programmes and problems;
(vi) to disseminate information and educate the general 
public akout the work of the National Population 
Commission;
(vii) to establish and maintain the machinery for continuous 
and universal registration of births and deaths;
(viii) to prepare and maintain a national frame for the
delineation exercise for census and sample surveys. 
Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria:
This organisation which was started by the Marriage Guidance 
Council in 1958, led to the establishment of the Family Planning 
Council of Nigeria in 1964.
The Council's name changed to Planned Parenthood
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
244
Federation of Nigeria (PPFN) in 1979. 
the PPFN has now become independent.
It is a private non-governmental, non-profit making 
organisation. It has the following objectives:
(i) to encourage the building upf of healthy happy families 
through proper pacing of children; 5
(ii) to help parents to understand the value of having only
— *
those children for whom they can provide adequate care, 
nutrition, housing, clothing and education;
(iii) to educate women about unwanted pregnancies;
(iv) to advise and help those who want children but are 
having difficulty in doing so.
The first family planning clinic was established in Lagos in 
1965. The organization registered only 702 clients in 1965 but 
now has over 300,000 clients on its register. The Federal Office 
of Statistics (FOS) in addition to the National Population 
Commission had conducted series of multi-purpose surveys in which 
data were collected on a wide range of demographic and related
issues.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
245
V
LECTURE V
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE POPULATION 
Introduction
The population of any country is the nation's most valuable 
asset. It is both the agent and the beneficiary of the national
development. The size of the co.untry's population can therefore
bestow both advantages and disadvantages on the people.
Ady.antage.a_Qf -Large. Population;
(i) Increase_In Working Population; Large population
facili­
tates the availability of increased working population,
which, ...
if complemented with other necessary factors of production 
such as capital and land, will increase output and income.
Thus, the economy will improve.
(ii) Expansion of Domestic Market; A large population or an 
increase in population will expand the domestic market for 
goods and services of the nation's population. The larger 
the domestic market, the easier it is to engage in large- 
scale production with the consequent decrease in cost per
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
246
unit. The decrease in cost per unit of production will lead 
to a fall in price which will further expand the market.
(iii) Enlarged. -Diversity .of.Skills......and ..Talents; a large
population is likely to be accompanied by diversity of
■ ’• ' .
skills and talents. Various skills possessed by the 
different sections and groups can be harnessed for 
increased and improved production.
(iv) Strategic and Ps.y“.'Wc.yhlQ,lc»gical— Sa.tiafast.ign;, a large*. ' '  . ' *k ‘  V, V*
population can. give a country both strategic and 
psychological satisfaction. In the days when national 
armies engaged in face-to-face battle, more people 
would be available to defend a country with a large 
population.
(v) Prestige and Respect at I;n tIernational Level; Large
population given a country a feeling of importance and 
security. A country with large population gains greater” 
respect than * countries with small population at 
Internationallevels. In the United Nations and other 
international gatherings countries like Nigeria, Ghana and 
Egypt are more respected by member countries than others 
like Gabon, Liberia, or Burkina Faso. If benefits like
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
247
financial and educational aids are to be shared on the basis 
of population, Nigeria will get more aids than countries 
with small population. Even in attracting foreign loans, 
populous countries attract greater assurance of recovery 
from populous countries.
(vi) Security Against Physical Hazards: In case of any physical 
hazards like famine, earthquake e.t.c. The death of a 
number of inhabitants will not affect the country with large 
population as adversely as it would affect one with small
population Disadvantages, .of. A Large.Population,;.
Once the size of the population in a country passes above
!,' , ’ ' i
the optimum mark, various disadvantages will begin to set in
unless this large population is complemented by other factors.
A large population leads to:  the folMl-oyw1? inVg. : / Se
(i) Overpopulation; A large population that is nqt
accompanied by an increase in other factors of
............  ”51
production particularly capital, may lead to
overpopulation with its own problems such as
overcrowding, spread of diseases, unemployment and so 
on.
(ii) Increased Urbanisation,;. Increased urbanisation brings
.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
248
about a strain on social amenities such as hospitals, water, 
electricity, housing e.t.c. The effect of urban congestion 
are crimes, pollution, health problems, transportation 
problems and so on.
(iii) Food Shortage: A large population without the necessary 
accompanying increased production leads to food shortage. 
This eventually leads to importation of food from other 
countries which will in turn lead to imbalance of payment 
between the exporting country and the country with large 
population. Such compulsory importation of food, or getting 
of food aid from abroad has disastrous consequences for the 
political pride of the importing country.
(iv) Political Instability: Rapid and uncontrolled growth 
of population leads to political instability because the govern­
ment will not be able to control and provide the necessary 
social and economic facilities thus social and economic 
problems would arise.
(v) Increased Pressure on Land: There is the problem of 
increased pressure on land in a large population. 
Fractionalisation of previous holdings (lands) to small and 
insufficient land areas for farming, and which in turn leads
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
249
to continuous use of same plot and therefore may lead to 
diminishing returns from the land. Apart from decrease in 
agricultural production there will be shortage of land for 
industrial purposes and even for building purposes too. 
This may cause the lowering of standard of living of the 
people.
(vi)Unemployment: Large scale unemployment of qualified and
less qualified hands will set in. Many people in the large 
population will be left without jobs and this unemployment 
will bring about many social evils and vices such as 
robbery, prostitution, drug pushing, duping e.t.c.
(vii) Heavy Dependency Ratio: Over-population leads to heavy 
dependency ration. The proportion of dependent people to 
those engaged in active and effective production will be 
high and this will in turn increase the number of dependents 
population.
Suggested Solutions To The Problems of Large Population
Preventing the occurrence of large population seems a better 
move than finding solutions for it after it has occurred. 
However, some solutions can be suggested for solving its
occurrence:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
250
1. Improving Agriculture, to solve food shortage, unemployment
and lack of adequate nutritional components. Improved
agricultural practices such as the if' use of fertilizer, crop
rotation, improved methods of pest and diseases control and tĥ e
use of machinery will result in improved agriculture.
*
2. Enlightenment through mass media to educate the people on the 
evil affects of large and uncontrolled growth of population.
3. Encouraging Internal and International Migration. Within the 
country, people may be. encouraged to move from areas of 
congestion to less occupied areas. On the other hand skilled men 
and women can be encouraged to move outside the country to find 
jobs so as to plough back their acquired wealth into the 
country's economy.
4. Introduction of Population Policy: The government can enact 
various laws to control the growth of population. If the crude 
birth rate will decrease, the net increase at any given time will 
also decrease. This deliberate government and administrative
programmes directed towards some clearly defined set of 
demographic objectives that can influence population size, 
distribution and composition should be undertaken.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
251
Population Growth and Development
Government's development plans are usually based on the 
population size, growth and available resources. Thus, it is 
important that accurate knowledge of population and its features 
should be known by the government of the country. Unless the 
total number of people in a country, and its distribution over 
space is known provision of social facilities, such as health 
care, school buildings, housing and other utilities cannot be 
provided as necessary.
While growth of population is in a way beneficial to 
government in that it supplies manpower for effective production, 
uncontrolled growth of population hinders accurate planning.
The structure or quality of population, as against the mere 
number, affects economic development. Where too high a 
percentage of population is between 0 and 15 years, the 
dependency ratio will be high and thus net production will be 
very small. Few producers will support large consumers. 
Therefore, economic development will be small or slow.
Likewise, an increase in the number of old or aged will 
result in high dependency ration. Old people do not produce and 
they need be provided for. If the proportion of such people is
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
252
very high in an economy, the average standard of living in such 
people is very high in an economy, the average standard of living 
in such country may decline.
Increased number of the working population leads to 
pressures on the existing job market. If the economy can expand 
rapidly to provide the required jobs, not problem will arise but 
where it does not, then problem or under-employment or absolute 
unemployment sets in.
Thus, it can be established that there is a close link 
between population and economic development or otherwise.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
253
LECTURE VI
MALTHUSIAN POPULATION THEORY AND RESOURCES 
Introduction
During the period referred to as the Age of Mercantilism, ■ 
the political and military despots sought to strengthen their
political and military power and therefore economic strength by
I
\
encouraging rapid population growth. These despots saw the 
growth of population as a means of increasing their own strength. 
But during this time, scholars as well favoured the increase in 
population but with the corresponding increase in resources to 
support the population. They had several notions of population 
increase.
(1) That the fact that population rises would be a means of 
substainance for population. Population will lead to increase in 
production of food.
(2) Population rise/increase will bring increase in food supply. 
They thought that increased population will bring effective 
utilization of resources and division of labour to increase
V
production.
(3) Scholars tended to be consensus that the number of people 
would determine amount of available resource exploitation.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
254
(4) Scholars forgot the need to provide for and to nurture the 
young people until they are able to work and increase production.
One such scholar was Daniel Malthus whose own son Robert 
Malthus later developed and postulated the Malthusian Theory on 
Population. Robert, unlike his father saw the other side of 
rapid increase in population and large size of population. 
MALTHUS THEORY
Thomas Robert Malthus was an English Clergyman who lived 
from 1766 to 1834. He is widely regarded as the first 
professional demographer. His book.: entitled, "Essay on the 
Principles of Population" is the first most influential work
relating to population growth and its consequences. In his book
*
Malthus recognised and formulated a theory of inter-relationship 
between population and social change and economic resources.
The story of Malthus started with the conflicting views on 
population growth in the age of Enlightenment. Malthus was 
opposed to the idea of encouraging population growth. He thought 
that the relationship between population growth and resources was 
not linear. In the stage of population growth, there is a point 
where a number of imbalances occur. Malthus thought such state
of imbalance occurs because of desire of human beings to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
255
multiply.
Maithus observed that population tended to grow more rapidly 
than good resources do, a phenomenon that gave rise to tension 
between population and subsistence. Malthus argued that 
population tended to increase in GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION (i.e. 2, 
4, 16, 32..) doubling every 30 to 40 years; whereas the output of 
food increases at an ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION, (1,2,3,4,5...) 
For example, if the population of a country with 20 million 
people was doubling itself every 25 years and has enough food for 
20 million, after 25 years, it would have 40 million people and 
enough food for 30 million. But after 50 years, the population 
would have increased to 80 million but the food supplies would 
only by enough for 40 million.
Malthus stated that the implication of such a lopsided 
relationship between the human population and food resources is 
that the human population will inevitably be forced to live at 
subsistence levels. The capacity to improve food production 
might be increased with improvements in farming. Through this, 
the eventual fall in standard of living could be postponed, 
though it cannot be finally solved if population continues to 
increase at a faster rate than production.
%
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
256
Malthus later went to suggest the following possible checks:
(a) Positive Checks: These are factors that will increase death 
rate and thus limit the rate of population growth. In this 
category are poverty, disease, epidemic, war, famine e.t.c. The 
occupance of any of this will increase human loss of population. 
May would die and the vitality of those living will reduce.
(b) Preventive Checks: These are factors that will reduce birth 
rate. In this category are abstinence, contraception and 
abortion. This category of checks appear to be evil and 
unacceptable to many especially the religious ones.
(c) Moral Restraint: This, according to Malthus, is the only 
acceptable means of preventing increased birth rate. This will 
imply delayed marriage, and well spaced births, which implies 
that marriages will not be contracted until the man is able to 
support a viable family. Malthus viewed moral restraints as very 
important because, he is of the view that if people were allowed 
to prevent births by what he called improper means then they 
would waste their energies on economically unproductive 
activities.
Another of Malthus argument is that rapid population growth 
would lead to poverty. He believed that there is a natural law
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
257
of population growth in which increased food resources would lead 
to too many people for available resources and this would 
eventually lead to poverty.
Malthus suggested that educated and rational persons should 
be able to anticipate the effects of marrying quite early and 
having children which cannot be cared for adequately. As a 
result, marriage and sexual intercourse should be postponed so 
that the ugly incidence of object poverty can be avoided.
Some Criticisms of Malthus Theory
Although, the Malthusian theory provides a simple, and in 
many respects, an attractive theory of the relationship between 
population growth and available resources to sustain human 
existence, it is unfortunately based on a number of simplistic 
assumptions and hypotheses that do not stand the test of 
empirical verification. Consequently, the following criticisms 
were levied against it.
First, theory as proposed by Malthus, constantly confused 
moralistic and scientific thinking. As a scientific theory it 
fails to establish a base for testability.
Secondly, Malthus does not take into account the importance 
impact of technology and discoveries in solving the problems of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
258
rapid population growth. Technological development which leads
to improved agricultural methods such sas the use of fertilizer
and new types of breeds of livestock have increased productivity.
Thirdly, Malthus was basically correct in assuming land as
*
being in limited supply. He, however, did not anticipate the 
benefits from improved transportation and combined with the 
opening up of new agricultural lands in the 'new world'
Fourthly, Malthus assumed that population growth is directly 
related to the rise in the level of income (wage increase). But 
in many Third World Countries, population in fact has increased 
without any rise in income levels.
As a result of the use of modern medicine and public health 
programmes, death rates have fallen sharply while birth rates 
have risen. V
Fifthly, Malthus did not envisage "the control of fertility" 
within marriage. He was of the view that once a couple got 
married they will procreate and increase the population. But as 
far back as the late 18th century birth control was being 
advocated for married couples in many countries.
Merits of Malthus Theory
Despite Malthus warning, economic progress has began to slow
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
259
down and population has continued to rise. The changes Malthu,© 
failed to forecast did not refute his argument but merely 
postponed the inevitable.
Two, today, the world is facing some harsh ecological facts. 
Man is pressing hard on his environment and the imbalance between 
the world population and material resources is becoming greater. 
Social and economic problem which Malthus envisaged are now 
becoming quite evident.
Thirdly, Malthus was the first to call attention to 
population growth as a major source of human suffering. Though 
his critics though^ that he was reactionary and that as a 
religious priest, his comments were regarded as blasphemous 
against God, because he called on people to take full 
responsibility of the number of children they produced, yet his 
postulates are becoming factual.
Fourthly, Malthus helped to collect ideas about population. 
These ideas were fragmentary up till now, however, nevertheless, 
the ideas provided, a more organised framework for studying 
population and its problems. His ideas have led to a greater and 
deeper study and debate on the nature and problems of population
levels and trends.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
260
Furthermore, the greater demand for precision, 
quantification and prediction in recent times have not found 
Malthus theory wanting for any scientific study.
*
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
261
APPENDIX V
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST (SSIRT) I
N a m e : ................... C o m b i n a t i o n : .............
Institution:..........
INSTRUCTIONS
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative from thb 
options A to D given for each item.
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided,
(iii) Attempt all questions. .
1. What is population?
A. It is the number of inhabitants of a country.
B. It is the quantity and quality of the inhabitants in 
a defined area.
C. It is the total number of men and women in a country.
D. All the children living in a country.
2. To plan effectively for development in any country there
is a need to know the .......
A. fund available for use in the country.
B. number of people in the country.
C. quantity and quality of the population in the country.
D. number of workers in the country.
3. What is crude increase in population? It is the .......
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
262
A. number of additional births.
B. difference between the number of births and the number 
of deaths.
C. fall in death rate in a country.
D. number of increased employment.
4. Which of the following is NOT a course of population growth?
A. Increase in the birth rate.
B. Fall in the death rate.
C. Increase in the wealth of the state.
D. Migration into the state.
5. Why is the knowledge of the age-sex structure of population
important in planning for a country? It ......
A. enables us to know how old the people is.
B. reflects quality of the population.
C. affords planners the knowledge of how to plan 
for the country.
D. allows for adequate planning for all levels of the 
population.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
263
Fig. I
6. The diagram in figure 1 depicts a population with 
structure.
A. progressive
B. regressive
C. matured
D. stationary
7. The characteristics of a population structure is normally 
represented by a population ....
A. chart
B. cone
C. pyramid
D. pie Graph
8. What is the dependency ratio in a population which has
2,000 children, 8,000 adults and 1,000 aged people?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
264
A. 2:3 B. 3:8 C. 1:5 D. 10:1
9. When there is greater population in a given area of land 
than actual or potential resources can support ... sets in
A. optimum population
B. underpopulation
C. overpopulation
D. regressive population
Fig. 2 Population distribution in town Z.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
265
10. The diagram in Fig. 1. represents the distribution of
population according to age groups. The town has _______  '
A. low dependency ratio.
B. high dependency ratio.
C. static population structure.
D. regressive population structure.
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST II
N a m e : .............  C o m b i n a t i o n : ...............
Institution:....... ?,......
INSTRUCTION:
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative from the 
options A to D given for each item.
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided.
(iii) Attempt all questions.
1. The most important factor which accounts for the distribution-
of population over the land masses is ......
A. relief and accessibility
y
B. economic potentialities
C. water supply *
D. historical factor
2. The attraction of some areas to seasonal labour migrants
is usually based on their .......
A. more highly developed culture
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
266
B. better economic opportunities
C. better social amenities
D. highly developed transport and communication
3. There are few cities with more than a million (1,000,000)
people in Africa because .......
A. African population is mainly nomadic
B. The population of the continent is low and industries 
are few.
C. There is no capital to develop the towns
D. The rate of migration from rural to urban areas is not 
very high.
4. Which of the following statements about population 
distribution in Nigeria is UNTRUE.
A. Area of fertile soils are thickly populated
B. Mangrove swamps carry thick population
C. Industrial areas have dense population
D. Population tends to concentrate in cash crop producing
areas. $
5. Which of the following factors DOES NOT generally explain 
population concentration?
A. Fertile soils
B. Availability of industries
C. Availability of educational facilities
D. The type of vegetation
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
267
6. What is population density? It is the ....
A. number of people living in a country
B. relationship between population and productivity 
of a unit of land.
C. expression of the ratio between population and a 
given unit of land.
D. ratio between total population and the inhabited 
unit of land.
7. Which of the following historical factors influenced
population distribution that resulted in emigration from
Africa?
A. Apartheid
B. Intertribal wars
C. Slave trade
D. Resettlement schemes $
The population of a country is NEITHER increased NOR 
decreased by one* of the followings Which is it?
A. Seasonal migration
B . Emigration
C. Immigration
D. Increased fertility
The reduce population concentration in the urban areas of
Nigeria, the government should .....
A. improve transportation system
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
268
B. establish more industries in the towns
C. provide social amenities and employment in the 
rural areas
D. reduce the birth rate of the urban dwellers
10. The following forms of immigration are voluntary movements 
of people EXCEPT ....
A. attending a higher institution in another city
B . taking up employment in the urban area
C. leaving the urban areas for the country-side during 
old age
D. the trans-atlantic slave trade of the 18th and 19th 
centuries.
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST III
N a m e : ............i . . . . C o m b i n a t i o n : ...............
Institution:...... * . . .
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative from the 
options
A to D given for each item.
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided,
(iii) Attempt all questions,
i. Who do countries conduct population censuses?
A. To know how many people have died
B. To know the number of people born in each town, or 
village
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
269
C. To obtain information on the structure and distribution 
of population.
D. To obtain information on the number of emigrants from 
the country.
2. Population censuses are normally conducted .......
A. Every year
B. Every two years
C. Every five years
D. Every ten years
3. Censuses which are conducted very ten years is know as .... 
Censuses
A. bi-annual B. de-facto C. decennial
D. none of the above
4. A census approach in which people are enumerated only 
when and where they are found adopts ... approach.
A. Sight B. Dejure C. Defacto
D. Residential
5. Nigeria had no population census in 1941 because of the
A. Slave trade B. Inter tribal war
C. World War II D. Civil War
6. A census sample survey is less accurate than full census 
because ....
A. it may not cover all the population
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
270
B. it cannot be generalized on the total population
C. certain important element of the population may be 
left unenumerated.
D. all the above points.
7. Why is enumeration undertaken at the same period during 
a census?
. 'v
A. To enable the enumerators finish counting quickly
B. To avoid doable counting of individuals
C. To reduce the expenses on movement of enumerators
D. To avoid the inflation of census figures by the 
enumerators.
8. Which of the following government agencies is responsible 
for conducting the 1991 census in Nigeria?
A. National Commission on Education.
B. Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria.
C. National Republican Convention.
D. National Population Commission
9. The population head-count in which only a small percentage 
of the entire population of a country is enumerated at a 
time is known as ....
A. census B. vital registration
C. migration statistics D. sample survey
10. The personnel that does the actual counting and recording
of population census information is knows as ......
A. facilitator B. supervisor
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
271
C. enumerator D. calculator
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST IV
N a m e : .......... . C o m b i n a t i o n : .............
Institution.........
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative from the 
options *
A to D given for each item.
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided,
(iii) Attempt all questions.
1. Which of the following is the most appropriate indication of
the term overpopulation?
A. Too many people for actual or potential resources.
B. Low productivity because of low level of technology
C. Many people living in a small land area
D. Too few people to fully exploit the resources.
2. Why does Nigeria adopt the antinatalist rather than the
pronatalist population policy? It is to ....
V
A. increase the number of people in the country.
B. reduce the death rate in the population of the country
C. reduce the rate of population growth in the country
D. accelerate the rate of economic development in the 
country
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
272
3. Which of the following countries adopts pronatalist 
population policy?
A. Ghana B. Egypt C. Kenya D. Gabon
4. Which of the following factors DOES NOT militate against 
antinatalist population policy in Nigeria?
y
A. Religious factor B. Ethnic factor
C. Political factor D. Social factor
5. Objectives of the* Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria 
(PPFN) are the following EXCEPT:
A. Encouraging the building of healthy happy families 
through proper spacing of children.
B. Educating women about unwanted pregnancies.
C. Helping parents to understand the value of having 
only those children they can care for.
D. Controlling the distribution of population in the 
country.
6. To reduce the rapid growth of population in Nigeria, the
Federal Government has come out with a policy ,that says 
each. . .
A. man should marry not more than 4 wives.
B. man should'have only one wife.
C. woman should give birth to only 4 children.
D. women should give birth to only 1 child.
1 . A. long run or permanent solution to over popul a t i o n  in 
Nigeria is ......
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
273
A. migration from rural to urban areas.
B. extension of cultivable areas of land.
C. importation of basic food and materials.
D. adequate birth control measures.
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST V
N a m e : ................. C o m b i n a t i o n : ..............
Institution:. ........
INSTRUCTIONS
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative- from the 
options
A to D given for each item.
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided,
(iii) Attempt all questions.
1. Too many people settling in a small agricultural area
creates a situation of .....
A. high population pressure
B. high Agricultural productivity
C. low man-land ration
D. soil Improvement
2. An advantage of large population in a country is .....
A. large urban concentration
B. improved transport and communication
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
274
C. expansion of domestic market
D. large production of essential commodities
3. A country with a small population size will experience 
the following EXCEPT ....
A. immigration and emigration of people
B. low international prestige
C. maximum exploitation of natural resources
D. high man-land ratio
4. In a small country with large population, which of the 
following characteristics will NOT exist?
A. Low population density
B. High man-land ratio
C. High urban concentration
D. Large domestic market
5. United States of America (U.S.A.) has a larger population 
than any African country yet she does not experience high 
pressure on her natural resources because it ....
A. is populated by the Whites
B. has larger land area than the African countries
C. has more natural resources than the African countries
D. has better technology for resource exploitation than _ 
the African countries.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
2,75
SOCIAL STUDIES IMMEDIATE RECALL TEST (SSIRT) VI
N a m e : ............... C o m b i n a t i o n : ...............
Institution.............
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) Choose the most appropriate alternative from the 
options A to D given for each item
(ii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided,
(iii) Attempt all questions.
1. During the Age of Mercantilism scholars favoured increased 
population because ....
A. rise in population served as a means to sustain the 
population.
B. population increase enhance increase in food supply.
C. all members of the population contributed to the 
production of food and services.
D. the number of people determined the level of resource 
exploitation.
2. Thomas Robert Malthus who propounded a theory of population
and resources was a ....
A. clergyman B. politician
C. scientist D. teacher
The best check which man could apply to bring down the
rate of population growth i & .....
A. preventive check B. positive check
C. moral restraint D. negative measures
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
276
4. Rapid population growth results from ....
A. Low marriage age B. High fertility rate
C. Reduced spacing of pregnancies o,
D. All the above
5. Malthus argued that while population increase, geometrically,
(2, 4, 8, 16 etc) food supply increases .....
' . ' ., . ■ ' n' I-’, | j:- r; f' ' ''1 . ' - ■ • , - ,t
A. graphically B. arithmetically
C. astronomically D. economically
6. In the developing countries, there is general fall in 
per-capital income because ....
A. famine has destroyed much of the agricultural
B. there are no enough people to fully tap the natural 
resources. /
C. industries have not been established to process the 
agricultural products.
D. much pressure on land has led to diminishing returns 
on agriculture.
7. The degree to which the unproductive group depend on the
productive group in the population is known as ....
A. interaction ratio B. dependency ratio
C. productivity index D. unemployment index
8. Which of the following is a criticism of Malthus theory on
population and resources. Malthus ....
A. was not a scientist, so he could not propound a theory
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
277
B. did not consider the effect of scientific discoveries
C. was the son of a clergyman
D. did not have enough facts for his theory.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
278
APPENDIX VI
SOCIAL STUDIES DELAYED RECALL TEST (SSDRT) 
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) Read carefully through each test item
(ii) Choose the most appropriate alternative from the 
options A to D given for each item.
(iii) Shade as appropriate in the answer sheet provided.
(iv) Attempt all question. Each item carries a whole mark.
1. What is population density? It is the ....
A. Ratio between total population and the inhabited unit 
of land. >
B. Number of people living in a country.
C. Relationship between population and a given unit of 
land.
D. Expression of the ratio between population and a given 
unit.
2. To plan effectively for development in any country there is 
a need to know the ...
A. fund available for use in the country
B. number of workers in the country
C. quantity and quality of the population in the country
D. number of people in the country.
3. Why do countries conduct population censuses?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
LIBRARY
280
are enumerated only when where they are found?
A. Residential B. Defacto
C. Dejure D. Sight
8. Which of the followings is the most appropriate indication 
of the term overpopulation.
A. Low productivity because of low level of technology
B. Many people living in a small land area
C. Too few people to fully exploit the resources
D. Too many people for actual and potential resources
9. Why does Nigeria adopt the antinatalist rather than 
pronatalist population policy? It is to ... .
A. Increase the number of people in the country
B. Reduce in rate of population growth in the country
C. Increase the number of people in the country
D. Accelerate the rate of economic development in the 
country $
10. Too many people settling in a small agricultural area creates 
a situation of . .„. . .
A. Soil improvement
B. Low man-land ratio
C. High agricultural productivity
D. High population pressure
11. An advantage of large population in a country is ....
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
282
structure.
A. progressive B. regressive C. matured
D. stationary
Fig. 1
16. Malthus argued that while population increases, geometrically
(2, 4, 8, 16 e.t.c.) food supply increases ......
A. graphically B. arithmetically
C. economically D. astronomically
17. The most important factor which accounts for the distribution
of population over the land surface is ....
A. historical
B. water supply
C. better econdtnic opportunities
D. relief and accessibility
18. The attraction of some areas to seasonal labour migrates 
is usually based on their ....
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
284
A. immigration and emigration of people
B. low international prestige
C. maximum exploitation of natural resources
D. high man-land ratio
24. The personnel that does the actual counting and recording 
of population census information is known as ....
A. Facilitator B. Supervisor
C. Enumerator D. Calculator
25. The degree to which the unproductive group depend on the 
productive group in the population is know as ....
A. productivity index
B. unemployment index
C. interaction ratio
D. dependency ratio
26. Which of the following is a criticism of Malthus theory
on population and resources? Malthus ....
A. Was the son of a Clergyman
B. Was not a scientist, so he could not propound a theory
C. Did not consider the effect
27. Which of the following is NOT a cause of population growth?
A. Increase in the birth rate
B. Fall in the death rate
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
285
C. Increase in the wealth of the state
D. Migration into the state
28. Why is the knowledge of the age-sex structure of population 
important in planning for a country. It
A. enables us to know how old the population is
B. reflects quality of the population
C. affords planners the knowledge of how to plan for the
country. *
D. allows for adequate planning for all levels of the 
population.
29. What is the dependency ratio in a population which has 2,000 
children, 8,000 adults and 1,000 aged people?
A. 1:5 B. 10:1 C. 3 : 8  D . 2 : 3
30. There are few cities with more than a million (1,000,000) 
people in Africa because ....
A. african population is mainly nomadic
B. there is no capital to develop the towns o
C. the population of the continent is low and industries 
are few.
D. the rate of migration from rural to urban areas is not 
high
31. The population of a country is NEITHER increased NOR 
decreased
by one of the following factors. This is it?
A. Seasonal migration
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
286
B. Emigration
C. Immigration
D. Increased fertility-
32. To reduce population concentration in the urban areas of 
Nigeria, the government should ....
A. reduce the birth rate of the urban dwellers
B. provide social amenities and employment in the rural 
areas
C. establish more industries in the towns
D. improve transport and communication systems
33. Which of the following government agencies in responsible 
for conducting the 1991 census in Nigeria?
A. National Commission on Education
B. National Population Commission
C. National Republican Convention
D. Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria
34. The population head-count in which only a small percentage 
of the entire population of a country is enumerated at a 
time is known as ....
A. vital registration B. sample survey
C. census D. migration statistics
35. Objectives of the Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria 
(PPFN) are the following EXCEPT ....
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
287
C. encouraging the building of healthy happy families 
through proper spacing of children.
D. helping parents to understand the value of having 
only those children they can care for.
36. To reduce the rapid growth of population in Nigeria the
Federal Government has come out with a policy that each ....
A. man should marry not more than 4 wives
B. woman should give birth to only one child
C. man should have only one wife
D. women should give birth to only 4 children
37. In small country with large population, which of the 
following characteristics will NOT exist?
A. High man-land ratio
B. Low population density
C. High urban concentration
D. Large domestic market
38. United States of America (USA) has a larger population than 
any African country, yet she does not experience high 
pressure on her natural resources, because it ....
A. has more natural resources that the African countries
B. is populated by the Whites
C. has better technology for resources exploitation than 
the African countries
D. has larger land area than the African countries
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
288
39. The best check which man would apply to bring down the rate 
to population growth is ....
A. preventive check B. negative check
V
C. positive check D. moral restraint
40. Rapid population growth results from ....
A. low marriage age
B. high fertility rate
C. reduced spacing of pregnancies
D. all the above
41. The characteristics of a population structure is normally
represented by a population ------
A. cone B. chart
C. Pie graph D. Pyramid
42. When there is greater population in a given area of land
than actual or potential resources can support ____  sets in
A. optimum population
B. overpopulation
C. regressive population
'It
D. underpopulation
w
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
289
43 .
Fig. 2: Population distribution in town Z.
The diagram in Fig. 2. represents the distribution of 
population according to age groups. The town has _______
A. static population structure
B. low dependency ratio
C. high dependency ratio
D. regressive population structure
44. In the developing countries, there is general fall in per 
capital income because ....
A. much pressure on land had led to diminishing returns 
in agriculture
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
290
B. there are not enough people to fully tap the natural 
resources
C. famine has destroyed much of the agricultural products
D. industries have not been established to process the 
agricultural products.
45. What name is given to censuses which are conducted every
ten years?
A. Bi-annual B. De-factor
C. Decennial D. Dejure
46. Why is enumeration undertaken at the same period during 
a census?
A. To avoid the inflation of census figures by the 
enumerators
B . To reduce the expenses on movement of enumerators
C. To enable the enumerators finish counting at same time
D. To avoid double counting of individuals
47. Which of the following statements about population 
distribution in Nigeria is UNTRUE?
A. Population tends to concentrate in cash crop producing 
areas.
B. Industrial areas have dense population
C. Mangrove swamps carry thick population
D. Areas of fertile soils are thickly populated
48. Which of the following historical factors that resulted in 
emigration of population from Africa?
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
291
A. Resettlement schemes
B. Apartheid
C. Slave trade
D. Intertribal wars
49. The following forms of migration are voluntary movements 
of people EXCEPT ....
A. attending a higher institution in another city.
B. leaving the urban areas for the country-side during old 
age.
C. the trans-atlantic slave trade of the 18th and 19th 
centuries.*
D. taking up employment in the urban areas.
50. A long-run or permanent solution to over population in 
Nigeria
is ....
A. adequate birth control measures
B. migration from rural to urban areas
C. extension of cultivable areas of land
D. importation of basic food materials
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY