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Table of Contents
Students' Perception of Academic Planning
Effectiveness in Nigerian Universities
Ernmanuel.A, lsah 1
Sex Education asa Strategy for Sexually
Transmitted Infections Reduction in.lbadan, Nigeria
Yernisi Lydia Olaleye 17
Analysis of Public Knowledge and AttituGet-o
Climate Change Issues in Ibadan, Nigeria
P. A. Amosun & A. A.,Olayemi& F. 0. Oderinde 33
An Exploration ofthePrediction of Resource Availability,
Allocation and Utilisationon Organisational
Performance inthe Nigerian Adult-and
Non-Formal Education Sector
,K. O.Kester & 0.,8: Owojuyigbe 45
, Implication of Universal &asic:Education and
Adult Basic Education.for-Societa+Development
M~Okenwa-Ojo 63
Teacher Conflict Handling Styles and
Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in
Ibadan North Local Government-Area of Oyo State
...A. bicdun-Olurnide Ayeni 73
. ,Educational Resources-Status-as.Determinants of
I •• ,
.' Students' LearningOutcomes in.Senier.SecondarvSchool
.. Government in Oyo StatesNigeria
Ikmat.Olanrewaju Junaid . 91
Transformational Leadership.An Impetus for
~Organizational Culture andChange
David A. Olaniyan 109
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Evaluation of Home Type, Abuse Prevalence and
Care-Perception on Physical and Emotional
Healthemong Elderiv People in South West, Nigeria
Ezekiel Olusegun Babatunde &
MosunmadeTemilade Olubisi Oyegbade 119
Empirical Investigation of Conflict Manifestations and
Problems Associated with Collective Bargaining in an
Industrial Organisation in Lagos State, Nigeria
Agbomehre M. Momoh 131 .
Comparative Investigation of Information and
Communication TechnclogvIlt'T] Oriented Teaching
Awareness, Disposition and Competence between
Middle and Upper Basic Science Teachers in Nigeria
"'joshua 'O.A'del-eke .147
'Cultural Values and Student Indiscipline in
..: Colleges of Education in Lagos State
. ,.(:Oare B. OlatundeS, Femi S. Akinwumi 167;
'. Dispositional, Factors in Adjustment among
Cadets of Nigerian Military Academv
John 0 Ekore& Dennis O. Atafo 189
j
1 '.
t
!
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS IN ADJUSTMENT AMONG CADETS OF
NIGERIAN MILITARY ACADEMY
John a Ekore & Dennis O. Atafo
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of tbadon, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Email:jekore@yahoo.com
Abstract
Training 'outcomes of cadets in Nigerian military academy may be well
determined by their adjustment capacity. The discouraging statistics of
graduation rote (59%- 63% over a 5-year period) at the Nigerian
Defence Academy reflect adjustment problem. This necessitated the
need to investigate dispositional factors in adjustment of cadets in the
Academy. The cross-sectionol study was designed as a survey using
questionnaires with scales for data collection. It involved a sample size
:of 63 drawn from cadets in their first to the fourth year (100L- 400L).
. The proposition that those who score higher on core self-evaluation will
significantly report better adjustment than others was confirmed (t=-
10.9, df=~l, p<. 001). There was no significant difference in adjustment
between cadets who attended military secondary schools and those
from secular (civilian) secondary schools. It implied that self-esteem, . ','
emotional stability, generalized self-efficacy; and locus of control need
to be considered in policy to prepare cadets to effectively cope in the
academy. It was suggested that the current selection method which
does not discriminate type of secondary school attended need to be a
sustained poiicv: Finally, assessment of the dispositional factors in
cadets d.uring skill development programme would be necessary in
order to % adequately prepare them on the traits because they are
siqnificantfoctors in adjustment.
Key words: Dispositional, Core self-evaluation, Cadets, Adjustment.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
190 Dispositional Factors In ...
Introduction
The regimented life of military personnel differs largely from those of
the civil populace. The characteristics of the military institution create
an environment which is not usual for most people (Johansson, 2004).
A major challenge that confronts military training institutions is the
adaptation of people from diverse background to the regimented way
of life. Therefore, it is not uncommon to find trainees experiencing
some difficulties that interfere with their adjustment during training.
A foremost military training institution in Africa is the Nigerian
Defence Academy (NDA), Kaduna. It was established in 1964 to train
officer cadets for the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Unlike other conventional tertiary institutions where the emphasis is on
academic training, cadets in the NDA are required to undergo both
academic and military training simultaneously. For instance in the
secular universities, students who encounter difficulty with adjustment
or. find the situation unsatisfactory can make their objections known,
segure a change within the institution or choose to engage in
alternative endeavour. But in a military institution, these options are
r~,lfltively difficult and as Hevns (1958) pointed out, 'anxiety is most
1ij\e,lyto occur when efforts to escape the danger are ineffective or
jmpossible' .
,~~. According to Yusuf (2010), cadet training in the Academy is a
stressful and difficult experience. During military training, the cadet is
converted and assimilated into an organisation whose nature and
primarv functions are constructed around combat activities and control
o.flyiolence. According to Anderson (1974), individualism gives way to
collective actions and consequently, there are no individuals with
personal choices, alternatives or decisions. Self-determination is
diminished to the minimum, so the individual has practically no liberty
for other choices than adjustment or escape from the situation.
Discipline, control and obedience are justified as essential for
the functioning of a military unit. Therefore the cadet faces a highly
formalised organisation which regulates most behaviours of its
members who are pressured to comply and conform to the norms of
the military (Hayden, 2000). In the course of indoctrination there are
pervasive sets of control that cadets are only expected to accept and
adapt. They are not allowed to question the status quo but only adopta
conforming orientation. The ability to conform to the military way of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis O. AtaJo 191
life is taken as an indicator of successful military adjustment (Stouffer,
1949). Adjustment has been a popular concept in discussing
psychological challenges of individuals in task and general human
functioning. In this study, we view it as a coping capacity, which can be
taken to mean the ability to meet the demands placed on an individual
in his/her environment while remaining successful.
Training imposes demand for learning duty-related skills,
dealing with supervisors, adjusting to the reality of the organisation,
and developing a social identity in a unit. Particularly, a cadet is
confronted with multiple training-related challenges that create anxiety
such as increased information load, low task significance, lack of sleep,
strict time-table and increased physical and academic demands (Britt,
1999). These organisational factors do have impact at the onset of
training and may either make or break the cadet (Thompson and
Hignac, 2011). Besides training-related factors, the social aspects of the
military are of great concern for the cadets. Their personality qualities
in terms of disposition help to define who they are as individuals.
Perhaps, it is worthy to note that the importance of personal
disposition in work outcomes has been recognised for a long time
(Kirkcaldy, Shepard and Fumharm, 2002). In this direction, studies have
focused on broad personality traits, including core-self-evaluation (CSE)
(Judge, Locke, & Kluger, 1997), which refers to the evaluation
individuals hold about themselves and their functioning in the
envir-onment (Judge and Bono, 2001). As a higher order concept, CSEis
comprised of four lower-order traits: self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of
control and emotional stability (Judge, Erez, Bono and Thoresen, 2002).
The CSEconcept has emerged as a valid predictor of affective work
outcomes, mainly job satisfaction (Judge and Bono, 2001).
Investigating the role of CSE in adjustment to training in a
Nigerian military academy may not be out of place. Reports of several
studies outside Africa support dimensions of CSEas dispositional quality
in military settings. Atwater et al. (1999) indicate self esteem was
positively related to male cadets' emergence from matriculation
through graduation at a military college. In another study, Bradley and
Nicol (2006) indicated that cadets' locus of control correlated highest
with military occupation classification phase training grade, while
Smither, London and Richmond (2005) found that American Military
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
192 Dispositional Factors In...
leaders high in emotional stability were more likely to be rated by a
psychologist and motivated to use the feedback.
Although enlistment into the Academy is voluntary, it is evident
that several cadets are not fully prepared for the experiences during
training and are not able to perform according to expectations. While
some adjust to the unique environment, others have serious challenges
that jeopardise their well-being and training which may lead to
discontinuing the programmes.
Consequent upon poor adjustment to training, negative
behaviours such as 'absent without leave (AWOL)', deviant behaviour,
disciplinary problems, malingering, emotional instability, intentions to
leave, high attrition rate, drug or alcohol related offences, poor
academic performance, etc. are found to manifest among the cadets.
Table 1 showing Admission and Graduation Figures of Cadets in NDA
over a 5- year period
Period Admitted Graduands %Graduated % drop out /
(Academic unable to
session) graduate
normally
RC59 254 161 63.4 36.6
RC58 278 185 66.5 33.5
RC57 263 . 172 653 34.7
RC56 248 133 53.6 46.4
RC55 290 172 593 40.7
Source: NDA Cadets Brigade
The table above shows anon-graduation rate that ranged
between 36 and 40%. This is an indication of adjustment problem
among cadets inNDA. In describing the adjustment process, it has been
reported -that some military trainees lack -self-confldence, while others
lack mental' preparation for the stress and rigour (Erwin, 2002).
Therefore, it becomes debatable the extent to which pre-existing
personal characteristics in the individual will influence cadets'
adjustment process. Importantly, not much has been documented to
examine adjustment of cadets in NDA despite the above statistics that
show graduation rate of between 53.6% and 66.5%. Hence, the need to
examine core self-evaluation as a dispositional variable among other
•.:1'
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis 0. AtoJo 193
factors that may play important roles in adjustment to training by
cadets. This necessarily generates the questions below:
What role will the components of core self-evaluation play in
adjustment? Do cadets who attended Nigerian Military Secondary
Schools differ from others in their level of adjustment in the academy?
Literature Review
Perhaps, it is noteworthy to reiterate the importance of theories and
empirical review in providing a starting point for expressing proposition
about variables (Ekore, 2001). Holland's theory of vocational choice
(Holland, 1959) conceptualised the person in broad terms that include
such diverse attributes as values, interests, task and role preferences,
skills, abilities, problem-solving approaches, and self-image.
Collectively, these attributes constitute the personal orientation of the
individual which have been classified into motoric, intellectual,
supportive, conforming, persuasive, and esthetic orientation. In
Holland's proposition, an individual whose personal orientation tallies
with a vocational choice as the military profession would adjust
effectively. In this manner, 'the person making a vocational choice in a
sense 'searches' for situations which satisfies the hierarchy of adjustive
orientations' (Holland, 1959).
Similarly, the core self-evaluation theory by Judge, Bono, Erez,
and Thoresen (2002) offers a higher order concept representing the
fundamental evaluations people make about themselves, their
environments, and the relationship between themselves and their
environment. The concept is manifested by four key traits of self-
esteem, emotional stability or neuroticism, locus of control, and
generalised self-efficacy. According to Judge et aI., (1997); Judge and
Bono (2001), the four core traits are conceptually related. Self-esteem
is typically defined as the overall value that one places on oneself as a
person (Judge and Bono, 2000). Neuroticism (emotional stability)
represents the tendency to experience negative feelings such as fear,
self-doubt, and depression (Judge et al., 1997). General ized self-efficacy
encompasses an individual's evaluation of his /her capacity to generate
the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to
exercise control and deal successfully with life's challenges (Judge et aI.,
1997). Finally, locus of control according to Rotter (1966) represents
the perceived degree of control over the outcomes of one's actions
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
194 Oisposiriona/ Factors In ...
(Judge et al. 1997). Rotter divided individuals into two camps based on
their locus of control: individuals with an internal locus of control
believe they control events around them, while those with an external
locus of control believe events around them are controlled by luck,
chance, fate, or powerful others. The dimensions of core self evaluation
indicate individual differences in personal dispositions. Individual
differences have been linked with work outcomes, including various
training criteria. These outcomes include training motivation (e.g.,
Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000L training performance (Sales & Coannon-
Bowers, 2001L and transfer of training (e.g. Coloquitt et aI., 2000).
Research that supports dispositional influence exploits singular traits
such as conscientiousness, as well as multi-dimensional frameworks
such as the Five-Factor Model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992),
and core self-evaluation.
As an individual's fundamental self-appraisal, core self--
evaluation is a psychological variable that has predicted work
outcomes, especially job satisfaction (Judge, Locke, & Kluger, 1997).
However, the outcomes may well include adjustment in a training
institution as the military. Accordingly, the present study set to
investigate CSE's relation with adjustment as a training outcome.
Adjustment to military life in the academy refers to the process of
reducing the tensions in the trainee entry into the military
(Hollingshead, 1946).
Stouffer (1949) defined adjustment as that adaptation to
changing environmental demands, which minimize psychological
tension or anxiety. The definition practically sees the word 'adjust' to
mean to fit, cope, make correspond, adapt, and accommodate. It was
further explained that the term "to adjust" as used in psychology,
means that individuals must accommodate themselves in order to fit
certain demands of their environment; and adjustment consists of the
processes by which they manage these demands, It is obvious that
adjustment can be summarized to mean 'effectiveness'.
According to Sawrey and Telford (1971), adjustment
emphasises socialisation of the individual and development of coping
behaviour. A review of the position takes psychological adjustment as
consisting of the processes by which the individual copes with the
psycho- social demands and expectations of the environment. Thus, the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis 0. AtoJo 195
individual who adequately deals with these demands and expectations
can be described as well adjusted.
When people are successful in adjustment, they are able to
manage demands of the environment better and mini mise
psychological tension and anxiety. They are also able to achieve quality
of life that equals personal needs (Thompson & Gignac, 2011). In the
adjustment process, the person does not necessarily have a total
triumph over the environment or total surrender to it, but a striving
toward an acceptable compromise (Salo, 2008).
Buddin (1998), documented the attrition patterns in the US
military services from 1952-1955. The attrition rates across training
bases did not depend only on the characteristics of the individual
recruit but also on other factors. These attrition factor patterns
indicated that institutional or "demand side" factors also play
important role in determining attrition rates. Vickers et al, (1989) found
substantial associations between personality traits and coping styles. It
was identified in recruits going through US Navy basic training.
Conscientiousness was related to active problem- solving efforts, while
neuroticism was found to be related to self blame and wishful thinking.
The findings link stable psychological trait to the situation. Another
studv by Tubiana (2006) was predicated on the need for reliable and
I
v;alid measures of personality .in the prediction of success in trairiing.
Results showed that the questionnaire was equivalent to the interview
as a predictor of performance in military training. Martin et al. (2006)
also evaluated the level of adjustment amongst soldiers in the US
military using self-report. Results showed that perception of situational
factors contributed to adjustment during the stress of basic training. It
shows that surveys serve useful purpose in the study.
Saks (1995) conducted a longitudinal field study on moderating
and mediating effects of self-efficacy on the relationship between
training and. the adjustment of newcomers during first year of
enlistment. Results provided some support for the hypothesis that
initial self-efficacy moderates the relationship between training and
adjustment. Furthermore, training was strongly related to post-training
self-efficacy, ability to cope, job performance, and intention to quit the
profession for newcomers with low levels of initial self-efficacy. From
the review of previous studies, it is pertinent to note that personal
disposition of trainees has been known to play key roles in studies
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Dispositional Factors In ...
carried out in the west. However, not much has been done to consider
core self-evaluation as a key personality trait in explaining the attrition
rate in military training schools especially in deveioping countries.
Hypotheses
a. Cadets with high Core Self-evaluation will report significantly
higher adjustment than those with low scores on Core Self-
evaluation
b. Cadets that attended military secondary schools will report
significantly higher adjustment than cadets from non-military
secondary schools.
METHODS
Research Design
The study was designed as a survey. The cross-sectional study set to
investigate dispositional factors of Core Self-evaluation in adjustment
to training by Cadets in a military academy.
Participants
A sample size of 63 was drawn from the population of cadets in the
Nigerian Defence Academy (NDA). They are at the 100 to 400 levels of
study and randomly selected to participate in the study. The
distribution showed that 23{36.5%) of them were in 100 level,
24{38.1%) in 200 level, 10(15.9%) at 300level, while 6(9.5%) were in 400
level. Also, 32(50.8%) attended military secondary schools while
31{49.2%) had their secondary school education in non-military schools.
Instruments
Core Self-Evaluation: The 12-item scale from Judge, Erez, Bono &
Thoresen (2003) was used to assessthe four traits of self-esteem, self-
efficacy, locus of control and emotional stability that make up Core self-
evaluation (CSE).The eSEscale is scored on a 5-point Likert response
.format, High scores indicate higher level of CSEwhile lower scores
reflected low level of eSE.
Adjustment: It was measured by using an adapted version of the
Military Adjustment Questionnaire developed by Salo (2008) with
modification to fit the setting of the current study. A Cronbach alpha
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis O. AtoJo 197
value of 0.85 was recorded. It was scored on a Yes/No response format.
Scores above the mean indicate high level of adjustment while scores
below the mean score indicate lower level of adjustment. The scale was
labeled Cadet Adjustment Scale.
Procedure
Data collection was made possible through official letter from the
university of Ibadan Psychology Department, which sought permission
from the NDA authority. After gaining approval from the institution,
data collection was supervised by the co-investigator. Participants were
duly briefed and informed that participation is voluntary. Their names
were not required and they were assured that the study was strictly for
scholarship but with possible implication to guide policy and pre-
training programmes for cadets.
RESULT.S
The data collected was ana lysed with SPSS package, version 15. The
hypotheses were tested using appropriate statistics and results
presented in summary table. It was hypothesised that cadets with high
Core Self-evaluation will report significantly higher adjustment than
those with low Core Self-evaluation. This t-test result is presented
below:
Table 2: Summary of t-test result comparing high and low Core Self-
evaluation on adjustment
OV Core N X SO Of t P
self-evaluation
Low 33 39.55 1.99
Adjustment 61
,r .. 10.89 P.<.001
.t;,' High 30 45.63 2.44
~
~"-.',,
~. As shown in table 2 above, cadets with high Core Self-evaluation
1:'
rt:· significantly scored significantly higher on adjustment (X =45.63,
;t. 50=2.44) than their colleagues with low Core Self-evaluation
~. - I
~' (X =39.s5~ 50=1.99) [t (61) = -10.89, P<.OOl]. The hypothesis was
.~
;t confirmed:
s.
~.. i;~'":~.
!.o;-{'
.r~·
~.j
;E-
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
198 Dispositional Factors In ...
However, the prediction that cadets who attended military
secondary schools would significantly report higher level of adjustment
than others was not supported. It was rejected.
Discussion
The study was designed to examine the possible influence of
dispositional factors in core self-evaluation on adjustment among
cadets. Those in the first year (100 level) up to the fourth year
(400Ievel) were sampled. The proposition that cadets who scored
higher on core self-evaluation will report significantly higher
adjustment than those with lower core self-evaluation was confirmed.
The finding confirmed core self-evaluation as an important factor in
,.. '.
adjustment of cadets in military academy. The position enjoys empirical
support from previous studies; Atwater et al., (1999) and Bradley and
Nicol (2006). They investigated the impact of various personality. traits
on military activities. The present findings also agree with the core self-
evaluation theory that linked it with higher performance across
different areas. Previous studies had repeatedly found personality traits
associating with adjustment of military personnel in the west, but not in
military training institutions in African countries. Judge et al., (1997);
Judge and Bono (2001) identified the four core traits in CSE as
conceptually related. Self-esteem, Neuroticism (emotional stability),
.Generalised self-efficacy specifically encompasses an individual's
evaluation of his /her capacity to generate the motivation, cognitive
resources, and courses of action needed to exercise control and deal
successfully with challenges. Locus of control as the fourth dimension
represents the perceived degree of control over the outcomes of one's
experiences. All these dimensions were found to play significant role in
adjustment of Nigerian military academy cadets. For instance, Rotter
identified individuals as either with internal locus of control when they
believe they control events around them, or externa I locus of control
when they believe events around them are controlled by luck, chance,
fate, or powerful others.
In examining the attrition rate in the US Army, Vickers et al,
t:
:;'. (1989) found substantial associations between personality traits and
coping styles. It was also reported among recruits in US Navy basic
training. The personality trait of conscientiousness was related to active
problem- solving efforts, while neuroticism was found to be related to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis 0. AtoJo 199
self blame and wishful thinking. The findings link stable psychological
trait to the situation. Another study by Tubiana (2006) successfully
linked personality to the prediction of successful performance in
military training. Since most of the dispositional factors or personality
traits identified in past studies covered conscientiousness and other
dimensions in the Big- five personality factors, the present study
specifically focused on the dimensions contained in the Core self-
evaluation. Yet, similar findings have been obtained. This has shown the
importance of personality as an inevitable point of emphasis in
adjustment to military training. The 1995 investigation by Saks of the
moderating and mediating effects of self-efficacy on the relationship
between training and the adjustment of newcomers during their first
year of enlistment is another position that corroborated the present
finding. The various studies show that adjustment is a topic of concern.
in military organisations in almost everywhere.
However in Martin et al. (2006) evaluation of the level of
adjustment amongst soldiers in the US military, perception of
situational factors contributed to adjustment during the stress of basic
training which the present study did not cover. Despite prior experience
of military life on individuals by cadets who attended military secondary
schools before entry the Nigerian Defence Academy, no significant
difference was found in their level of adjustment when compared with
cadets from secular secondary school background. The general
. perception is that graduates of military secondary schools were more
likely to cope with the rigours of military training. Based on the results
obtained, the hypothesis was rejected. Prior exposure was expected to
playa role in their adjustment but it never did. Though previous studies
that examined personality factors and adjustment of military trainees
were carried out in developed and' some emerging societies,
development in Africa may have shown that the issue of adjustment is
, a common problem as it is in other climes.
A major conclusion based on the findings is that dispositional
factors contained in core self-evaluation are important in the
adjustment of cadets attending the Nigerian elite military academy.
Prior experience in attending military secondary school is not a
significant factor that enables the cadet to adjust better in the
Academy.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
200 Dispositional Factors/n ...
This implies that self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of control, and
generalised self-efficacy are salient dispositional factors to emphasise
and develop in cadets admitted to the academy. The high rate of
voluntary and involuntary attrition as reflected in the graduation rates
at NDA may be attributed to deficien cies on the core self-evaluation
traits among cadets. The policy of the Armed Forces Selection Board
(AFSB), in selecting candidates who graduate from both military and
non-military schools for admission into the Defence Academy is
justified. Therefore, a major recommendation is that there is the need
to emphasise a policy of pre-training personality assessment that
include core self-evaluation for all cadets admitted to the Nigerian
Defence Academy. Those found to be deficient in the dimensions would
be exposed to personal skills training to develop adequate capacity
because of the important role CSEplays in military trai nees' adjustment
as found in Nigeria and elsewhere. As a general policy, programme on
'developing core self-evaluation and coping skills' can be incorporated
in the preliminary entry development activities for newly admitted
cadets. When effectively equipped, cadets would have been well
prepared to adjust in the military academy.
Limitations and Suggestion for Future Research
The findings of this study address a critical issue of adjustment to
.training by cadets in NDA. Apart from providing insight to adjustment of
cadets and complementing existing studies on adjustment of trainees in
military institutions, it has provided an African perspective to the global
literature. However, there may be other variables that can be involved
in adjustment that were not covered in the present study. The
regimented nature of the academy made it difficult to be able to collect
data from lager sample. In-depth interviews and other qualitative
sources of data would have helped generalisation. Nonetheless, the
findings have offered a perspective that is expected to sensitise the
management of the academy on adjustment challenges that may offer
explanation on the high drop-out rate. Further researches are expected
and encouraged in the area to include larger sample and variables.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
John 0 Ekore & Dennis O. AtoJo 201
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