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DEDICATION·
It is with deep LOVE and AFFECTION that I dedicate
this work to:
ANTHONIA
IHUOMA
CHINWE
OLUCHI
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iii
ABSTRACT
The present study investigated the relative effective-
ness of modelling and shaping on the English language achieve-
ment of deaf students. The study also investigated the
possible effect of modelling and shaping on the
subjects attitudes, and self-concept during ~nglish
language sessions.
The sample was a natural cluster of 45 form four secondary
school Nigerian deaf students drawn from a secondary school
for the deaf in Ibadan. A J x J factorial design was adoptedo
Four instruments namely a Special ~nglish language achievement
test, an attitude scale, and a self-concept scale were used for
the study.
The subjects were divided randomly into three groups - the
modelling, shaping and control groups. Each group comprised of
five students of high, live students of average, and five
students of low achievement levels. The three groups were pre-
and post-tested. The data obtained were
analysed by the analysis of covariance and t-test, using the
pre-test scores as the covariate and post-test scores as criterion.
It was found that both modelling and Shaping programmes
significantly improved the EngliSh language achievement of the
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iv
deaf subjects (F=2J.87, df=2/J6, P Z.Ol). When the modelling
group was compared wi th the control ,.groupwith the help of
t-test, the modelling group was superior (t=).lJ, df=28,
P .(..001). The shaping group was also found to be superior to
the control group (t=2.88, df=28, P ~ 05). But there was no
significant difference between the modelling and shaping pro-
grammes i~ improving the English language of the deaf when
the two procedures were compared, although the modelling group
had superior adjusted ¥-mean score. The average achievement
level subjects who used the modelling programme were however
superior to their shaping counterparts (t=6.J, df=8, P~.OOl).
The treatment prpgrammes also improved the attitude of
the subjects during the study, (F=4.7J, df=2/J6, P <'.05).
Although there was no significant difference between the effect
of modelling and shaping programmes on the subjects attitude
both collectively and at various achievement levels, the
mOdelling high achievers were superior to the shaping high
achievers (t=2.J1, df=8, P ~.05). When the mOdelling group
was compared with the control group, the mOdelling group was
superior (b::J.67, df=28, P ~001). The shaping group was also o
found to be superior to the control group (t=3.59, df=28, P (..001)0
HoJelling and shaping strategie s were found to have signi-
ficantly influenced the self-concept of the subjects
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(F=7.52, df=2/36, P Further analYHis showed that
the modelling and shaping programmes influenced the self-
concept of the subjects equally. But the mOdelling group was
superior to the control (t=2.08, df=8, P <. .05). The shaping
group was also superior to the control group (t=Z~08,df=8,
PZ·05). Apart from the modelling low achievers who showed
superiority over the shaping low achievers (t=2.96, df=8,
P Z .05), there was no significant difference between the
various modelling achievement levels and their shaping counter-
parts in self-concept.
These findings have important i;nplications for the reme-
diation of deficiencies in underachievement and poor achieve-
ment motivation.
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vi
ACKNOWLeDGEMENTS
It is with tears of joy and happiness that I express my
hearty and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor J.O.
Akinboye for the way in which he energetically but yet dili-
gently, sincerely and genuinely attended to this thesis from
its conception to completion. Professor Akinboye made himself
available for discussion on this work during the day and night,
in his office, home, play ground, corridor, just name it. He
was a motivator, a model and a challellger. I must particularly
thank him for cominU to my rescue when my academic moral was
at the minimal level. I am wholly indebted to Professor
Akinboye for the style with which he introduced me to behavioural
psychology. Professor Akinboye has not only introduced me to
psychology but has al so taught me what it me ans to be genuine,
sincere and straight-forward.
Special thanks are due to Professor C.G.N. Bakare - Head
of department, a wonderful and open-minded teacher for the
genuine way he approached all my personal and academic problems.
I remain also particularly grateful for the role he played when
I was choosing the title for .his research work.
I wish to express my appreciation to Urs. S.A. Gesinde,
N.N. Ok oye , A.O. Alao, T. Hassan, Hr s, Nwagwu for their
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
vii
encouragement and support throughout this long period of academic
search.
My gratitude also goes to Hr. Au qu st in e , the departmental
secretary, Mr. Kennedy Dickson, Mr. Jacob, Mr. Clement,
Mr. Joseph and Mrs. Aderele for giving me all the necessary moral
and admini strat ive support.
I would want to thank Professor Pai Obanya, Ursa ~.E.
Ezewu, Alegbeleye, C.O. Udoh, Anyanwu, Nwankwos. These great
people have always been sources of inspiration.
My special thanks go to my colleagues in the department
of special education - Drs. P.O. Mba, C.A. Bakare, ~.E. Adima,
Mrs. ~.O. Adesokan, Dr. (Mrs.) Onwuchekwa, Mrs. Alade,
Dr. (Mrs.) Oye boIa, Mr. Ikujuni, Hr. Abi odun for the interest
they have always shown in my welfare. Dr. P.O. Mba's unique
role as a reliable "father" is highl y apprecIat e d.
May I offer my appreciati on to Mr. Oduduwa, Department al
Secretary, department of special education, I'1r.Ogazi, Mr.
Oluloro, Mrs .• Amajo, Miss Otuechere, Mr. Godfrey Ak pa bor-o,
Mr. Benson Dike, Mrs. Caro Oyekusibe, Mrs. Adeola ~yunsola,
Mr. Charles Nwaogwugwu, Charles Ibeabuchi, Okey Ekwuruke,
Bosede, Mr. Akpan for their unusual cooperation and respect.
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viii
My thanks are due to my special friends - urs. Akpavia,
Ogunsanwo, Dr. F. Okafor, Dr. Fred Onyeoziri, Dr. Fred, Dr.
Akusu, Dr. Oguntimehin, Dr. E. Osuji, Dr. Onwu, Dr. Ajayi,
Dr. Bola Ogunsanya, Dr. Ogwuegbu, Dr. Kalu Onwuka, Professor
Anosa, Dr. Dele Braimoh, Dr. Anyanwu, Dr. Hensary, Dr. Akintayo,
Mrs. Bamidele Sannoh, Dr. (Chief) Babatunde, Professor Dom
Okorie, Mr. Hemi Uesimenu. The wonderful support of the above
named people immensely contributed to the successful accom-
plishment of this study.
I must thank Dr. Onwuegbu (Provost), Federal College of
Education Special, Oyo, Dr. Obani, Miss Emeruwa, Mrs. Ruth
Ogbue, Mrs. K. Igbokwe for giving me the opportunity to expand
and consolidate my knowLe dqe,
The assistance and cooperation from the staff, children
and principal of the unit school used in thi s st udy con-
tributed extensively towards the successful completion of the
field work. Special mention must be made of Mr. Afolabi,
Gbegben, Mrs. Essen, Mrs. Olukoju for their special contribution.
This is acknowLe dqe d and appreciated.
My brothers - Emeka, Obinwanne, Nkenjika, Sisters -
Chibuzor, Chisara, Eziokwu. Also, Mrs. Dike, Adanne, Mr. Sunday
Uluocha, Azunna are also acknowledged for their moral support.
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ix -
My in-laws, Mrs. M.N. Okonkwo, Mr. and tvlrs. Ezeako,
Mrs. Chukwuan L, Dr. and Hrs. UbosL, Mr. and Mrs. Ogbata,
Capt. and Mrs. Gana, t-lr. and Mrs. Ekezie for showing a great
deal of concern for my progress and well-being.
I would like to thank the Umuopara and Umuahi.a communities
i n Lb adan for their moral support and solidarity.
My past students for enriching me with knowledge and
posing all the challenges. I would want to give special thanks
to ~lr. Ozoj I , Hr. Er on i nL, Hr. Okeugiri, Mr. Onyenakaya, Mr.
Ukaywu. They were really yood, kind and reliable students.
Some people have been particularly dear to my family and
have all the time been more concerned about the progress of
this work than could be imagined. These include t-Ir. and Mrs.
friday Chukwuemeka Eluwa, Hr. and Mrs. Iheany Okor o , l-Ir. and
Mrs. Sam Peters, Mrs. Megwa, Mrs. Lola Akinboye, Vr. and !vlrs.
Gab. Osuji, Dr. and !-Irs. OLu Ogunsanwo, Hr , and Mrs. Ekw ur uke ,
I sincerely acknowledge their good-will.
I couldn't have done much w i t hou t some kind of spiritual
support. I wish to acknowledge the support of Hev.(Vr.) Louis
Nunoz, Hgrs Adegbo, all the inmates of Irawo Centre in this
direction.
Dr. Charles Uwakwe is always push i nq and pulling in times
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- x -
of relaxation as far as this work is concerned. He al so gave
me most of the statistical support. I deeply appreciate his
encouragement and inspiration. He has come to be more of a
brother than a friend.
Mrs. Olaofe, Acting Director Df Computer Centre, was very
much helpful with the computer services. Also to be in this
direction are Hrs. Mba, and Mr. Igbani. I am most grateful.
The secretarial services executed on this thesis ought to be
acknowledged. I am grateful to Hr. Law. A • .s. Oje who apart
from typing this thesis, helped me out with some essential
materials.
I would also want to acknowledge the wonderful services
rendered at home by my house helps - To Chukwu and Ego. Such
services provided a warm atmosphere for writing when the
chi Idren were in bed.
My Children - Ihuoma, Chinwe anu Oluchi were incredibly
good children during the period this wurk was in progress.
Al though they missed my presence at horne, they never comp La i n od,
I am very appreciative.
Ny wi fe - ANTllON IA I was eve r y t h ing tome. She was loving,
un de r st an ui n q, source of encouragement ari d inspiration. Sh e
n c-v e r- stopped praying to God for the successful completion of
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xi -
this work. I owe her all my love.
Finally, I am most grateful to ALMIGTY GOD for making all
t hi n qs possible. I do hope HE would endow His humble servant
with the wisdom to use the acquired knowledge for the service
of mankind and worship Him the rest of my. life.
Chigorom Okechukwu Abosi
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CERT H~ICAT ION
This is to certify that this work was carried out
by Mr. Chigorom Okechukwu Abosi in the department of
Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
SUPERVISOR
J.O. Akinboye, B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.V.,
Professor of Psychology,
Vepartment of Guidance and
Counselling,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Ni geri a.
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xiii
CONTENTS
Abstract .... ·... iii
Acknowledgements ·... ·... ·... vi
Cert ifi cat ion ... ·... ·... ·... xii
Contents ·... ·... ·... ·... xiii
l'igures •••• ·... ·... ....
Tables .... ·... ·... ·... ....
Appendi ces .... ·... ·... ·... ·...
CHAPTER OI\E: PH013LEt-1 ANv 13ACKG1WUNlJ . ·... 1
Introduction ·... ·...
Review of Literature ·... •••• 7
Theoretical Background ·... ·... 7
Normal Process of language Develop-
ment ·... ·... 7
Language De veIopmen t in Deaf Children 15
Nodelling ·... ·... ·... 22
!:>haping .... ·... ·... 27
Psychological Fact ors in language
AchieVement ·... ·... 32
Hotivation and lan~uage Acquisition 32
!:>elfConcept and language Acquisition 36
Empirical Background .... .... 41
Language lJevelopment in Children ••• 41
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xiv
Page
Language Development in Deaf
Children •••• •••• ·... • ••• 50
Hodellin~ ·... .... .... 58
Shaping •••• .... ·... 66
Psycholog~cal factors in language
Development •••• ••••
Hot ivat i on and Language Ac qui si ti on 72
Self-Concept ari d Lan j uaqe Acquisition 75
Conceptual Nouel •••• ·... ·... 77
Hypotheses ·... 79
CiiAPTER TI..'O : DESIGN 82
Desi gn .... .... ·... 82
Subjects ••• ·... •••• 0 ••• 8J
Instrument s .... 84
Procedure ·... ·... 82
Pre-Treatment Assessment ... ·... 88
Heans of COlllmunication adopted for
the ~udy •••• •••• •••• 90
Haseline Data ·... ·... ·... 91
Treat ment .. ·... ·... 106
Post-Treatment Assessment .. 121
CONTHOL OF EXTHAi'-:EOU::> VAHIALlLL::>·... 121
Analysis of Vata ••• • ••• ·... 12J
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CHAPTER TIlREE: HE.::.ULTS ·... 126
SUHMARY UF HL.::;ULTS AI\ L.I CUI\CLU.::;IUN •• 146
CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSIUN ·... .... 148
Peculiarities ·... .... .... 148
Discussion of the f i n di n qs 150
Implications of the finyings .... 165
::;u!Jyestions for further Hesearch ••• 167
HEFEHE;\CES .... ·... 169
APPE;\DICES .... 202
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xvi
LI,sT OF FHlUHES
fILiUHE: PAGE
1: The Conceptual Model •••• 80
2: Design of the study •••• .... 82
Baseline Graph: Achievement of the
modelling high achievers group before
and during treatment 0... . ... 95
4: Baseline Graph: Achievement of the
modelling average achievers group be fore
and during treatment •••• .... 97
5: Baseline Graph: Achievement of the modelling
low achievers group before and during
treatment •••• ·... 99
6 : Baseline Graph: Achievement of the
Shaping high achievers group before and
during intervention •••• ·... 101
7: Baseline Graph: Achievement of the
Shaping average achievers group before and
during intervention •••• •••• •••• 10)
8: Baseline Graph; Achievement of the Shaping
low achievers group before and during
intervention •••• •••• •••• ·... 105
9 : Demonstration of the mo de Lf i nu technique 107
10: Demonstration of the shaping technique 115
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LIST OF TABL1:.S
TABLE: PA.GE
1A: Baseline Data in English for Modelling
group - High Achievers •••• ••••
1B: Baseline Data in English for Modelling
group - Average Achievers 0... . ... 96
1C: Baseline Data in English for Modelling
group - Low Achievers •••• •••• •••• 98
2A: Baseline lJata in English for Shaping
group - High Achievers •••• 100
2B: Baseline lJata in English for ~haping
group - Average Achievers •••• •••• 102
2C: Baseline Data in English for ~haping
group - Low Achievers •••• ••••
J: Adjusted Y-means of subjects English
language achievement scores based on
treatments and achievement levels .... 127
4: Analysis of Covariance of subjects English
language scores on treatments anJ achieve-
ment levels •••• •••• •••• 128
5: Inter-Treatment Group t-test comparison on
adjusted Y-means of subjects English
language achievement scores using the stan-
dard error (5E) of means •••• •••• 129
6: T-test Comparison of adjusted Y-means of
subjects English language achievement
scores based on treatment and academic
achievement levels, using the ;Standard
Errors (5E) of means •••• .... .... 1)0
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xviii
TAULE: PAGE
7: Adjusted ¥-means of Subject Attitude
scores on treatments ari d achievement levels 135
8: Analysis of covariance of subjects attitude
scores on treatments and achievement levels 136
9: Inter-Treatment group t-test comparison on
adjusted ¥-m~ans of subjects attitudes
scores using the
means •••• ....Standard Error (~E) of• ••• ·... ·... 137
10 : T-test comparison of adjusted ¥-means of
subjects attitude scores based on treat-
ment and academic achievement levels using
the standard error (SE) of means •••• 138
11~ Adjusted Y-means of subjects self-concept
scores based on treatment and·a.c.h.ievemlevels ·e.nt..
12: Analysis of covariance of subjects self-
concept scores on treatment s and achieve-
ment levels •••• •••• •••• •••• 142
13: Inter-Treatment Group t-test comparison and
adjusted ¥-means of subjects self concept
scores using t.h.e..Stand.a.r.d. Error (SE) ofmeans •••• • ••• ·... 143
14: T-test comparison of adjusted ¥-means of
subjects self-concept scores based on
treatment and academic achievement levels
using the ~tandard Error (SE) of means 144
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xix
LI~T Or APPENDICES
APPENDIX: PAGE
1: Modell ing Programme ·... ·... 202
2: Shaping Programme ·... .... ·... 217
3: EngliSh Achievement Test ·... ·... :!.J6
4.: Attitude Scale ·... ·... ·... 24.0
5: Self-Concept ~cale ·... .... .... 24.2
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CHAPTER ONE
PRUBLEM AND BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION:
Auditory Perception is one of the main sensory sources
through which the human organism understands the world around
him. It is through the auditory senses that a .large pro-
portion of human information processing takes place. Yet a
number of people have this auditory modality either profoundly
or mildly impaired. When an individual is hearing impaired,
his learning, social interaction, general operation and adjust-
ments are likely to be affected. This is why it is very crucial
that intensive studies be conducted in the area of heariny
impairment.
A number of studies (Dale1, MyKlebust2, IvimeyJ, Cornett
et a14, Mba5) have shown that the average young deaf child pro-
gresses more slowly in understanding the environment in language
and in social development.
1. D.M.C. Dale. Deaf Children at Home and School.
London University Press, 1972.
2. H. MyKlebust. The Psychology of deafness. Grune and
Stratton. New York, 1964.
3. G. Ivimey. "Transformational Grammarlf unpublished
paper. University of £ondon Institute of
Education, 1978.
4. o. Cornett et ale A theoretical model of the development
of reading in hearing impaired children.
Gallaudet Conference, Washington, 1978.
5. P.O. Mba. Language Development in Deaf Children through
Natural Method. Unpublished paper Univ. of Ibadan, 1981.
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Language is an audition-based symbol by which individuals
understand things and express understanding to other people.
The ability of man to communicate with his fellow man is the
major skill that differentiates him from animals. O'Conor 1
describes language as the gateway to the achievement of
educational, vocational, social and civil competence necessary
for happy and effective living.
Human beings use language everyday. Most of the time, the
medium of language used is either oral or written. Ayodele et
al2 stressed that whatever kind of language used, the purpose
is to communicate ideas, feelings, needs, news to other people.
For centuries, it was considered impossible to develop
language skills in the deaf children. For this reason, it was
believed that the deaf could not be educated. Initially, deaf
people were not allowed to hold a position of responsibility
because they lacked or did not have enough language. Language
is often referred to as one of the most important sources of
knowledge, understanding and self realization.
1. C.D. O'Conor. Lexington SchooL for the Deaf.
Eighty-eighth Annual Report, June )0, 1965.
2. S.O. Ayodele et ale Reading to Learn.
Hennimann, Ibadan, 1985.
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Deafness imposes a heavy burden on a child who begins
life without normal hearing. Not only must the deaf develop
the ability to communicate without hearing, but he should also
acquire the educational, vocational skills, knowledge and com-
petence necessary for effective living through his eyes. In
addition to a full life, the deaf should build a set of
spiritual and moral values out of his daily experiences in a
world devoid of sound and uninfluenced by the shades of meaning
conveyed through audible speech.
There is no doubt that the deaf child is severely handi-
capped in the process of languag~ acquisition. The deaf child
cannot hear, and his aUditory encoding and decoding process is
impossible. He only employs visual decoding in the form of
lip-reading, finger spelling and signing. These approaches
are very much inadequate. At the age of six years the hearing
child on starting school, has a vocabulary repertoire of between
2,500 to ),000 words whereas the deaf child at the same age has
under 100 words. This therefore makes it very necessary that
a teacher should have a good knowledge of the pattern of lan-
guage development in hearing children if he is to work with
deaf children. There is therefore the need to conduct more
intensive studies on the factors affecting the achievement of
the deaf.
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The deaf child differs from the hearing child in that he
cannot hear and communicate in the ordinary way. His handicap
is very great because of lack of words to express his thought,
needs and desires. The present study adopted behavioural
strategies to enhance English Language Achievement of Deaf
Children. The behavioural strategies were adopted because the
psychodynamic-interpersonal and the sensory-neurological mOdels
are concerned wi th "why" a child behaves as he does and "how"
intrahuman factors affect his behaviour. The practitioner of
behaviour modification on the other hand is concerned with "what"
behaviour the child exhibits that is inappropriate or unaccept-
able and what intervention can be applied in efforts to change
observable behaviour.
Behaviour modification and its application to individual
and group behaviour problems have their roots in the work of
This study is considered important because the need to
determine effecti ve therapeut ic techniques in enhancing 1anguage
1. I.P. Pavlov. Lectures on Conditioned reflexes Vol. 1 and
2. International Universities Press, New York, 19lt1.
2. J.B. Watson. Behaviourism. University of Chicago Press,
19)0.
). A. Bandura. Principles of Behaviour Modification.
Holt. Rinehart and Watson, New York, 1969.
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- 5 -
achievement of deaf children cannot be over-stressed. Secondly,
the first set of Nigerian deaf students attempted the West
African School Certificate Examination in 1984 and have been
seeking admission into various institution of higher learning.
The major problem as expressed by the teachers is that of poor
English language background. Dale 1 observes that many deaf
children who attain mental age of say fifteen years have reading
vocabulary ages of only eight or nine years. Their oral English
is frequently not as syntactically correct as that of many three-
year old children who have normal hearing. Dale 1 however
pointed out that deaf children are able to cope with new concepts
quite adequately provided they are taught skilfully.
There was therefore the need of finding out whether the
two strategies enhanced English language development in deaf
children. It was also necessary to know which of the strategies
enhanced it more. The result has provided some hope for
solution to oral and written English problems among children.
The two therapeutic methods adopted were modelling and
shaping. The two methods represent different orientations
within behaviour therapy. Modelling is a behaviour change
1. D.M.C.Dale. Deaf Children at Home and School.
London University Press, 1972.
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strategy that provides vicarious experience to the observer who
imitates the experiences. ~aping on the other hand is a behaviour
change process in which cues, prompts and instructions are used
to initiate children into performing behaviour. Every approxi-
mation to expectant behaviour is continously reinforced.
Among other things, this study investigated how effective these
therapeutic strategies are in relation to one another in
enhancing English language achievement in deaf children. It also
attempted to see if effectiveness of therapy resulted in improved
English language achievement.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
A study of this nature would need to be backed up with
sufficient literature. Such literatures will expose the past
works done that are relevant to the present study. The result
obtained from the study will also be much more meaningful.
The literature review on this study will therefore be treated
under two headings, thus theoretical and empirical backgrounds.
Theoretical Background&
All normal children in a normal environment acquire ,1an-
guage (Ginsberg and Shatz1). But the mystery of how a child
learns to speak has intrigued and puzzled adults for many gene-
rations.
each child exposed to a different sample of language will arrive
1. E.H. Ginsberg and M. Shatz. Linguistic Input and Child's
Acquisition of language. Psychological Bulletin
1982, vol. 92, No.1.
2. B. Klima. Linguistic Mechanism underlying child speech. In
E.M. Zals (Ed.). Proceedings of Conference on language
and language behaviour, Appletton-Century-Crofts
25, N. York, 1968.
J. F. Smith. Understanding Reading. Holt-Rinehart and
Winston, Inc. N. York, 1971.
4. J.A. Emig et ale Language and Learning. Harcourt World
Inc. N. York, 1966.
G. Brown. Child Development. Open Books, London, 1977.
/
6. R. Brown. Social psychology. The Free Press, N. York,
1966.
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- 8 -
at essentially the same grammar in a short time whether the
child was taught or not. ~ach child rapidly becomes a full
fledged member of language community, able to produce and com-
prehend an endless variety of novel and meaningful utterances
Until recently behaviouristic psychology looked upon
language and the task of first language learning as just
another form of human behaviour which could be reduced to the
laws of conditioning. The point that is made here however is
that a child creatively constructs his language on his own in
accordance with innate and interinsic capacities. In other
words, a child develops new theories as he grows. This
situation differs radically from the traditional view of a child
whose learning is governed by variables such as frequency,
recency, contiguity and reinforcement (Black1).
Blac kl observed that the ~.nfants early attempts at vocal
communication are quite different from human language in many
important ways. There is a repertoire of inborn noises ex-
pressing a spectrum of need states. However, it will take a
long time before vocalization are used to designate objects or
events.
1. M. Black. The Importance of Language.
New York Englewood Cliffs, 1972.
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Smith1, Chomsky2, SlobinJ all agree that normal children
acquire language in the same manner. Thus at the age of three
months, the child babblesl at about 18 months, the child pro-
duces his first two word utterances; by J~ years, he appears
to have mastered all the important rules of his language.
They however point out that the child's vocabulary may not be
as rich as that of adults; the child may not talk about such
complex events but he has constructed for himself a grammar
that gives him the competence to produce and comprehend all the
possible types of sentences used by the language community in
which he lives.
Supporting the above view (Maratsos and Chalkley~, Pinker5,
Brown6 stress that spoken language is literally self taught to
a degree far beyond the appreciation of most parents and many
specialist in child development.
1. F. Smith. Under~tanding Readingl A Psycholinguistic
Analysis of reading and learning to read. Holt
Rinehart and·Winston Inc. N. York, 1971.
2. N.A. Chomsky. Language and Mind.
Harcourt Brace. New York. 1968.
J. D.I. Slobin. Recall of full and truncated passive
sentences connected discourse. J. Verb learn.
Verb. Beh. 7. 1968.
~. C. Maratsos findT. 'Chalkley. The internal La nguaqe of
children's syntax. In K.-~. Nelson. (Ed.). Children's
language vol. 2, Gardner Press, N. Yo'rR, 1980.
5. S. Pinker. On~the acquisition of grammatical morphones.
Journal of child psychology 8, 1981.
6. R. Brown. How shall a thing be called?
Psychological Review 65, 1958.
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Maratsos et aI1(1980) maintain that most children learn
to speak without any need for formal instruction. They go on
to say that the process of first language learning proceeds in
an extremely rapid, smooth and predictable sequence, indicating
that a child is well equiped bioloyically both to learn and use
language.
Miller and M.cneil12 point out that during the first few
years of life, children find no particular difficulty in
learning any language. They are not born more ready to speak
one language than another. They observed that at three months,
it is impossible to distinguish the babbling of a Chinesse child
from that of an African.
Contrary to popular pracental belief, the child is not
learning words and then finding meaning for them. Instead he
is acquiring or inventing words which mayor may not have a
close relation to adult language.
\RJe1• r3 stresses that even at the holoplastic stage, babies
are speaking more language than a Chi mpanz.e could even i'earn•
•••
1. C. Maratsos and T. Chalkley. The internal language of
children's syntax. In K•.b;. Na.v son (Ed.) Children's
language vol. 2. Gardner Press, New York, 1980.
2. G. A. Miller and D. Mcneill. Psycholinguistics. In Lindzey
and Aronson, .b;. (Ed). Handbook of Social Psy-
chology. Addison-Wesley Mass. 1968.
3. R.H. Weir. Language in the crib.
The Hague Mouton, 1962.
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While Chimpazee words are literally signs, in that there is
one to one correspondence between each sound and its meaning,
a human infant is already communicating complex underlying
structure but not the transformations to put words together at
the surface level.
Normally, by 18 months, many children have acquired a
powerful syntactic rule. At this age, they are producing two
or three word phrases like "see baby" "All gone sugar". Two as
aspects of this development are significant, firstly these
short sentences are certainly not imitated from parents but are
genuinely constructed by the child himself and secondly the
constructions are not random (Weir1). The task for the language
learning child is to find out what are the rules of grammar -
to uncover the structure that lies beneath the surface of every
utterance and that bridges the gap between sound and meaning.
Carden 2 points out that what the child does is to try
out alternative rules for constructing the kind. of sentences
that he hears. The child never repeats a sentence that he hears
an adult utters. In this light, the responsibility of parents
becomes clear; they should provide a child with information when
1. R.H. Weir. Language in the crib.
The Hague. Mouton, 1962.
2. C. Carden. Environmental Assistance to the child's
acquisition of grammar. Doctoral thesis, School
of Education, Harvard University, 1965.
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he needs it. The child needs feedback to tell him whether he is
observing the significant differences of his language.
When parents expand a child's language, they only provide
him with an adult lanUuage surface structure for a deep struc-
ture that the child already has in his mind. It is not a
matter of correct ing an item of a chil d's 1anguage but of giving
information so that the child can verify a rule that has just
been applied at a time when he can relate it to the appropriate
deep structure (Baratz and Shuy 1, Carden 2).
Chomsky3 and Lenneberg4 maintained that the child learning
to talk, looks for rules that will reduce some of the uncer-
tainty of the world around him. In the normal progression of
development, the child goes on to apply the same rule in order
to discover skills to the task of learning how to read.
1. J.E. Baratz and H.W. Shuy. Teaching black children to
read. Washington D.C. Confer. for Applied
Lingui st i cs, 1969.
2. C. Carden. Environmental Assistance to the Child's
acquisition of grammar. Doctoral thesis. School
of Education, Harvard University, 1965.
J. N.A. Chomsky. A review of li.F. Skinner's Verbal
Behaviour language 35, 1959.
4. E.H. Lenneberg. On explaining language. Science
1969.
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The frontier knowledge in theory and research of lan-
guage development in children is to emphasize universality and
existence of innate and biological determinants of such univer-
sality (Chomsky1, Lenneberg2). The arguments around the issue
of innate factors in language acquisition are complex and
heated. The complexity has made it plausible to postulate that
the child's mind is somehow set in a pre-determined way to pro-
cess the sort of structure which characterises human language
arriving at something like a transformational grammar of his
native language.
Different behavioural principles have been more commonly
used to attempt to explain the manner in which words come to be
uttered in specific contexts. The explanation hinges upon the
fact that acts which are reinforced or rewarded in some way are
likely to be repeated. This is a situation which will be
exploited in the present study.
Skinner3 proposed a much more detailed and elaborate
explanation of behaviour principles. He proposed that an
1. N.A. Chomsky. It. review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal
Behaviour language. 35, 1959.
2. E.H. Lenneberg. On explaining language Science
1969 164.
J. B.F. Skinner. Beyond Freedom and dignit y , Alfred
A. Knopf Inc. New York, 1971.
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utterance which asked for something would be reinforced if what-
ever that was asked for was produced. Skinner further said
that class of operants were those which the child reinforced
by self-stimulation. Repetition of invented sounds or sounds
uttered by adults would be the source of what Skinner called
echoic responses. And by repeating such sounds to his own
satisfaction, the child would be reinforcing himself. These pro-
cesses of operant conditioning often achieve success by shaping
behaviour toward some desired outcome.
Another approach to discovering the mechanism of and con-
straints on language acquisition has been to construct formal
models of the acquisition procedure and subject these models to
mathematical proof (Anderson1, Wexler and Culicover2). Unlike
the developmentalists who are concerned with the course of
acquisition of language, the focus of this approach has been
to account for the fact of acquisition by describing the con-
ditions under which language can be demonstrated to be Learn-
One conclusion with implication for acquisition
1. J. Anderson. Language Acquisition by Computer and Child.
(Tech. Rep. 55) Ann Arbor. University of Michigan
Dept. of Psychology, December, 1977.
2. K. Wexler and P. Culicover. Formal principles of Language
acq~isition. Mass HIT Press, Cambridge, 1980.
J. S. Pinker. On the acquisition of grammatical morphemes.
Journal of Child Psychology 8, 1981.
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theories is that language is not learnable from an unordered
sample of sentences (Gold1). Some additional constraints must
be provided, either in the input or in the form of a priori
knowledge, which reduces the number of hypotheses the child has
to entertain.
The kind of input that would most easily solve the for-
mal problem is getting feedbacks and identifying ungrammatical
strings. This solution has typically been rejected as unrea-
listic on the basis of Brown and Hanlons (1970) assertion that
mothers do not often correct ungrammatical utterances produced
by their language-learning children. The children do not even
pay much attention to such feedback when they get it. Further-
more (Brown and Hanlon 2 ) found that mothers were equally able
to respond with sequiturs to their children's primitive and
well-formed utterances.
Language Development in Deaf Childrena
In most countries including Nigeria, people still refer
to the deaf as dumb. The reason for this misconception could
be that in the past many deaf people were unable to talk at all.
1. E. Gold. Language identification in the limit.
Information and Control 16, 1967.
2. R. Brown and C. Hanlon. Derivational Complexity and
order of acquisition in Child Speech. In J.R.
Hayes (Ed.) Cognition and development of lan-
guage. Wiley, New York, 1970.
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Again it has been observed that when children are born deaf,
it is impossible for them to develop absolute normal speech
(Dale1). However, we speak as we hear; if a person is born in
Ibadan, he hears Yoruba all around him; so that when he is old
enough to talk, Yoruba words are produced. Again if the person
was born in Abiriba, his speech would have a typical Abiriba
accent. But if a child was born profoundly deaf, he would
hear no speech at all and as a result would speak little until
specially taught to do so.
Deax children do not realize that words exist. They only
see all sorts of movements about them but words play no part
in these. Gradually however as Myklebust 2 puts it, the deaf
would become aware that the movements of mother's or fahter's
lips do mean certain things.
In dealing with the language of deaf children, one should
be mainly concerned with the semantics rather than the syntax.
This is so because research has shown that the language con-
struction of deaf children is full of gaps, although the meaning
1. D.M.C. Dale. Deaf children at home and school.
University ox London Press, 1972.
2. H. Myklebust. The psychology of deafness.
Grune and Stratton, New York, 1964.
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they convey could be conceived with much problem. I, 1v a me y ,
S1'Iverman2, Dal)e have shIotwn a 0 0f'1.nterest'1n t n1i .Sarea 0f
language development of the deaf.
Ivimeyl and Dale) maintain that the deaf have no orderly
syntactic knowledge. Blanton 4 asserts that the deaf pre-
sumably lack English syntactic organization and that if any
exists, it is unknoftn. Furth5 seems to agree with Blanton in
that view. Fusfeld 6 goes further to say that the writing of
the deaf is a "tangled web type of expression in which words
occur in profusion but do not align themselves in an orderly way".
1. G. Ivimey. Trans~.rmational Grammar. Unpublished
paper. University of London Institute of
Education, 1976.
2. S.R. Silverman and H. Davies. Hearing and Deafness.
Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1960.
J. D.M.C. Dale. Deaf Children at home and school.
University of London Press, 1972.
4. R.L. Blanton. Symbolic and Linguistic Processes of the
deaf. Vanderbilt University, 1974.
5. H.G. Furth. A comparison of reading test norms of
deaf and hearing children. American Annals of
the deaf March 1966.
6. I.S. Fusfeld. The academic programme of school
for the Deaf. Volta Review vol. 57, 1965.
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Simmons1 reports deaf children's preference for short,
simple expressions. Fusfeld2 also categorizes deaf children's
language as displaying "poorly developed grammatical abilities".
Myklebust] quotes many features common to the language of deaf
children, notably omission of function - as opposed to con-
tent - words, with many unnecessary additions and substitutions,
especially in verb phrases construction.
Groht4 maintains that deaf children cannot express them-
selves without help. They must be approached as far as lan-
guage is concerned in very special way. LeVl.ne5 says that b y
language of actions, moods and attitudes, the deaf child tries
his best to achieve meaningful contact with the world. Pel.6.
maintains that the deaf child knows nothing of structure of
1. A. Simmon. Comparison of written and spoken language for
deaf and hearing children at five age levels.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Washington
University, 1962.
2. I.S. Fusf'e Ld , The academic programme of school for the
Deaf. Volta Review vol. 57, 1965.
1. H. MyKlebust. The psychology of deafness.
Grune and Stratton. New York, 1974.
4. Groht. Natural language for Ueaf children. Alex
Graham Bell. Ass. for the Deaf Inc. Washington,
1958.
5. E.S. Levine. Nursery school and the deaf child.
Volta Review 57, 1965.
6. M. Pei. All about language. J.B. Lippincott Co.
New York, 1964.
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language but is motivated solely by his needs, feelings, thoughts
and emotions. The real purpose of language according to him
is to carry meaning and to transfer thought from one human brain
to another. If language doesn't do this, it isn't language -
it is just sound or gesture he stresses.
McCarthy 1 maintains that a young deaf child should become
acquainted with language in the same cas~al and informal way
in which the hearing child does. He says that if language is
ever going to be vital to the deaf child, it must be attained
by him, not as a lesson but as a meaning approach to a very
necessary, useful and happy way of understanding himself and
others.
A central question in developmental psycholinguistics has
been the extent to which the course and outcome of normal
development are constrained by properties of the environment and
by properties of the child.
Caplon and Chomsky 2 propose that language acquisition
depends on input to set a few basic parameters but that once a
particular line of development is established, the full richness
1. D. McCarthy. Language Development in children in
Manual of Child Psychology. Carmichael, L. (ed. )
John Wiley, New York, 1976 -.
2. N. Caplon and N. Chomsky. Language and Mind.
Harcourt Brace, New York, 1968.
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and detail of language unfold following the blueprint of the
genetic programme. As Caplon and Chomsky noted, this model
suggests there should be a strong dependence of acquisition
on a few critical properties of input. Further specification
of genetically defined options and the environmental variables
that set those parameters would allow empirical investigations
of a position that has generally been impossible to disprove.
Traditionally, some psychologists' claim has been that
the child must have rich innate linguistic knowledge because
there is no way he could achieve language otherwise. This
position reduces to the assertion that the child's input is
too poor and her or his general inductive abilities too weak
to account for acquisition.
The argument that the child's input is inadequate to
support language acquisition has been interpreted in two ways.
One view is that the language the child hears is a poor sample
of the language he must learn. The operant conditioning theory
postulates that the probability of response emission increases
with reinforcement and the social learning theory also main-
tains that all behaviours can be learnt.
A number of published theoretical statements have attempted
to account for the development of language in children in recent
years. The primary emphasis in these accounts has varied
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considerably, from the learning theory accounts of Sk~.nner 1 and
Staats2 emphasizing the role of reinforcement and imitation, to
the accounts of LennebergJ and McNeil4 which emphasized the role
of biological and innate components in language development.
Despite the diversity of theoretical orientation, most
researchers in Children language agree that children appear to
exhibit IIgenerativell repertoires very early in the development
of language. That is, children emit language that has appeared
in their repertoires previously. Children also emit language
that has been neither directly taught nor demonstrated to them
by other speakers. Ervin5 for example has used the terms
lIanalogy" to refer among other things to the occurrence of
plural forms such as IIfeet S" IIfoot s!' and IIman Sll. Although these
plural forms appear to be extensions of normal English plurali-
zation forms, it appears unlikely that these responses were
1. B.F. Skinner. Science and Human Behaviour.
MacMillan Inc. New York, 195J.
2. A.W. Staats. Learning language and cognition.
Holt-Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1958.
J. E.H. Lenneberg. On explaining language. Science
164 1969.
4. D. McNeil. Developmental Psycholinguistics. In F.
Smith and G.S. Miller (Eds.) The genesis of
language. MIT. Press, Cambridge.
5. S.M. Ervin, Imitation and structural change in children's
language. In E. Lenneberg (Ed.) New directions
in study of language. Mass MIT Press,
Cambridge, 1964.
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taught directly to the child or heard by him in the speech of
others. Brown and Bellugi1 have discussed similar phenomena
under the label of "induction of the latent structure".
MOVELLING:
Modelling is one of the most frequently applied methods
of changing behavoural. It is often one of several components
of bellavioural training programmes (Gladstone and Sherman,2
. 3 4:
R r nqe r' , Wet zel , F·~nney 5 , Strupp and Jenk~.ns.6) Akinboye7
defines modelling as a behaviour change strategy that developed
1. R. Brown and U. Bellugi. Three processes in child's
acquisition of syntax. In E. Lenneberg (Ed.).
New directions in stUdy of language. Mass
MIT Press Cambridge, 1964:.
2. B.W. Gladstone and J.A. Sherman. Developing generalized
Behaviour modification skills in high school
student working with Retarded children. J. App.
Analysis, 1975, 8, 169-180.
). V.M.J. Ringer. The use of "token helper" in the manage-
ment of classroom behaviour problems and in teaching
training. J. of App. Beh. Analysis, 197), 6, 671-677.
4. R.J. Wetzel. Behaviour Modification techniques and
training of teachers aid. Psy. in the school
1970, 7, 325-330.
5. B.C. Finney. Some teChniques and procedures for teaching
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research
and Practice, 1968, 5.
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from social learning principles. The major concept of the
social learning principles according to Akinboye is that human
behaviour is powerfully influenced by that which he observes,
hears, feels, perceives, conceives, creates or participates in.
Modelling is thus a behaviour change strategy that provides
experiences to observer who may imitate the experiences.
Baer, Wol f and R1.S 1ey 1 on the other hand had defined
applied behaviour therapy as the application of behaviour tech-
niques to the solution of socially relevant problems. They
maintained that the successful application of behaviour modifi-
cation techniques in homes, classrooms, institutional settings
has stimulated interest in the experimental psychology.
Research has also shown that parents, teachers and others
interested in the welfare of children could be taught to apply
those techniques themselves.
Skinner2 had stressed that in providing effective contin-
gencies, in behaviour modification, teachers may arrange rele-
vant antecedent events by telling their students how to perform
through verbal and written instructions and by showing them how
1. D. Baer, M. Wolf and T. Risley. Some current dimensions
of applied behaviour analy~is. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analysis, 1968.
2. B.F. Skinner. Science and Human Behaviour.
MacMillan Inc. New York, 1953.
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to perform by modelling.
Modelling seems to have many advantages as a therapeutic
technique (Adorno1). Adorno points out that a picture is worth
a thousand words. He maintains that a model can provide topo-
graphical discriminative cues for desired trainee responses
that cannot easily or conveniently be presented through written
or verbal instruction.
Modelling by itself may not be sufficient to achieve the
desired performance in every situation. This is because in
teaching and learning new skills, verbal instruction may com-
plement modelling by increasing the likelihood that trainees will
attend to relevant rather than irrelevant features of model's
performance (Hall, Lund and Jackson,2 Harris, Wolf and BaerJ ,
It
Madsen Becker and Thomas ). Factual and corrective feedback may
1. T.W. Adorno. The authoritarian Personality.
Harper and Row. New York, 1950.
2. R. Hall, D. Lund and D. Jackson. Effects of teachers
attention on study behaviour. Journal of Applied
Behaviour Analysis I, 1968.
). J. Harris, M. Wolf and G. Baer. Language for the pre-
school child. Gruns and Straton, New York,
1976.
4. C. Madsen, W. Becker and D. Thomas. Rules, Praise and
Ignoring elements of elementary classroom control.
Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis It 1968.
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also complement modelling by increasing the similarity Qetween
trainee responses and the model's performance (Kanfer and
Goldste~.n 1)•
Kanfer and Goldstein1 refer to modelling as the process
of observational learning in which the behaviour of the indivi-
dual or group acts as a stimulus for the thought, attitude or
behaviour of another individual who observes the model's perfor-
mance.
Aniegbuna2 distinguished between learning and performance.
BanduraJ maintains that the requirement for learning through
modelling is the observation of a model. The response of the
model is assumed to be acquired by the observer through a cog-
nitive coding of the observed event. It is important to note
that whether a learned response is performed, depended on res-
ponse consequences associated with the response.
Bandura4 outlined modelling in the following manner - In
the first stage of the process, the model's behaviour is attended
1. F.H. Kanfer and A.P. Goldstein. Helping people change.
Pergamon, New York, 1975.
2. C.C. Aniegbuna. Differential effectiveness of shaping
and modelling on Maths achievement and intelli-
gence of some secondary SChool blind
Doctoral thesis. University of Ibadan, 1984.
J. A. Bandura. Principles of Behaviour modification.
Holt Rinehart and Watson, New York, 1969.
4. A. Bandura. Psychotherapy Based Upon Modelling.
Wiley, New Yorm, 1971.
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to by an observer. Thi s he called tithe acquisition stagetla
during this period, the actions of the model are acquired by
the observer. The second stage is the performance of the
imitator in the modelled response. The difference between
acquisition and performance is very important because the res-
ponse acquired by the observer may not actually be performed
by him.
There are factors that could enhance the acquisition of
a response. These have been extensively discussed under the
psychological factors. There is another factor which could
influence acquisition. This is the characteristic of the
modelling presentation. The state of the model - whether the
display is life or symbolic, whether the observed response is
complex or broken into manageable components and the nature of
the given instructions, determine the impact of modelling on
the m~.nd of the observer (.Ak~nboye 1) •
Another important factor that could enhance performance
is adequate vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement
is in-built into the actions bf the model who endeavours to
present behaviours that would be reinforcing to the observer.
1. J.O. Akinboye. Lectures on Principles of Behaviour
Modification. University of Ibadan, 1983.
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SHAPING:
Behaviours that are not in the repertoire of the client
are non-existent in the client. Such behaviours are to be
newly acquired. Akinboye1 describes shaping as one of the
behaviour change methods that can be used to help acquire many
behaviour deficits such as inability to read, write, pronounce
words, walk, run, jump, relate and socialize.
Walker and Shea1 define shaping as a systematic immediate
reinforcement of successive approximations of desired behaviour
until the desired behaviour is established. They maintain that
shaping is primarily used to establish behaviours that have not
been previously manifested in the individual's behavioural
repertoire. Almost as the sculptor shapes and mo~lQ an object
of art from clay, the behaviour modification practitioner shapes
and moulds a new behaviour from undifferentiated behavioural
response.
Ross 2 had outlined the following sequences of shaping:
the presence of a discriminati ve stimulus; the em.i ssi on of
operant response; the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus
which is usually followed by a consumatory response.
1. J.E. Walker and T.M. Shea. Behaviour Modification. A
practical approach for educators. The C.V.
Mosby Co. Saint Louis, 1976.
2. Ross. Behaviour therapy: In B. Wolman (ed.)
Manual of child psychopaths. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1972.
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Shaping procedure is very useful in a learning situation
where the response is lacking. For shaping, each new form of
behaviour to be shaped is identified and approximations to such
desired behaviours are also identified for reinforcement. We
can produce a new behaviour by picking level of varian~e pf ~
existing response and reinforcing it. If the various skills
involved in shaping procedure are gradually and progressively
applied, the behaviour could be moved to the relevant direction.
Each new form of behaviour is an approximation to the desired
terminal behaviour. This selective reinforcement and extinction
process is called "successive approximation" or shaping
(Millenson1>.
Walker and Shea 2 have listed six steps in the behaviour
shaping process thusl
i. Selecting a target
ii. Obtaining reliable baseline data
iii. Selecting potent reinforcers
iv. Reinforcing successive approximation of the
desired behaviour each time they occur
v. Reinforcing the newly established behaviour each
time it occurs.
1. J.R. Millenson. Principles of Behavioural Analysis.
MacMillan, New York, 1967.
2. J.E. Walker and T.M. Shea. Behaviour Modification. A
practical approach for educato1r9s~osby Company. Sa~nt Lou~s, 7.6. The C.Y.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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vi. Reinforcing the behaviour on a variable reinforce-
ment schedule.
Kanfer and Goldstein1 listed seven steps in ther own view
thus
i. Begin by observing individuals whose behaviour is
is considered to be deficient. Observe the res-
ponses that occur at high frequency, identify the
antecedent and consequent environmental stimuli
associated with those high frequency behaviours.
Note the variability in topography of the available
response.
ii." Based upon the observational data, decide
(a) whether the de sired terminal response can
be differentiated out of the existing
behaviour and if so,
(b) What a first approximation to the end goal
should be.
iii. Establish the criterion for the first approximation.
Blackwood2 points out that the criterion of dividing
responses must be divided into two classes.
(1) response that we would like most and (2) res-
ponsea that we would like least.
1. F.H. Kanf~and A.P. Goldstein. Helping People Change.
Pergamon, New York, 1975.
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iv. Arrange the setting for maximum likelihood of
response emission.
v. Differentially reinforce (with the most powerful
reinforcers at your disposal, food, praise, physi-
cal affection etc.). Variants of on-going
behaviour that may be crude first approximations
of the desired response. Withdraw reinforcement
from variants that are incompartible with the
desired end goal.
vi. Observe the shift in the direction of the goal
behaviour and shift the criterion accordingly if
repeated reinforcement fails to reliably establish
a response, the criterion may need to be lowered.
vii. Use verbal or gestural cues, prompts or instruc-
tion at all stages of the process, even though the
cues do not at first reliably elicit the behaviour
being shpped. At the outse~ of the shaping pro-
cedure, the child's behaviour will determine what
cues the shaper will use.
The increase flexibility occurring in shaping approach
gives the child much more latitude in terms of shaping his
lexicon. The shapiug approach then has obvious implications
for the way in which the child deals with meaning or semantic
development and the consequent implication for the development
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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of reading ability. The child exposed to language through the
shaping process has a clear and complete code to follow. Cornett
et . aI1 observes that this approach offers fidelity to written
code of English that could prove advantageous to development of
reading.
While the early laboratory demonstrations of shaping were
interesting, it would be right to say that reinforcement is
an important aspect of shaping strategy. Some psychologists
have also described reinforcement as an important tool in
behaviour therapy (Okoye2). However, it ~s Thorndike) that
originally proposed the law of effect which states that learning
occurs as a result of reinforcement. This means that law of
effect holds that an act will be strengthened or weakened; that
is, it will be reinforced positively or negatively depending on
its consequences. In some situation or in he presence of cer-
tain stimuli, a particular response may be reinforced, while
in other situation or in the presence of other stimuli it is
not.
1. O. Cornett, N.H. Hey, C. Williams and V.A. Knight.
Theoretical Model of development of reading
in hearing impaired. A paper presented
Gallandet, 1978.
2. N.N. Okoye. The psychology of effective learning.
Department of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan, 1981.
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Psychological Factors in Language Achievement I
Certain psychological influences have been associated
with language achievement. These include motivation, locus
of control, self concept, attitude etc.
Motivation and Language Acquisitionl
The inner urge or desire to study originates from the
expected end-product of studying. Ayodele 1 maintains that the
motives of an individual determine why and how he performs
particular acts. A student who sets reasonable goals already
has the compelling desire to succeed. The increased complexity
of living in society has made it necessary to cultivate in the
young the will to acquire many varied cognitive as well as
physical skills. Child2 gave a working definition of motivation
to consist of internal process which spur us on to satisfy some
need.
Motivation is believed to operate through a common mecha-
nism (Mcclelland et al3 ). This commonality is the conceptuali-
zation of motives as deficit states which energise an organism
1. 5.0. Ayodele, 5.L. James, V.C. Ajala. Reading to
Learn. Reading Association of Nigeria (RAN).
Monograph series B. Heinemann education Books, 1985.
2. D. Child. Psychology and the teacher. Holt, Rinehart
and Wiston, London, 1973.
3. D.C. Mcclelland, J.W. Atkinson, R.A. Clark and
E.L. Lowell. The Achievement Motive. Irvington
publishers, N. York, 1976.
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until relief is attained or equilibrium restored. This view
has received support from many authors (Miller and Uollard 1,
Hull2, Murray and Kluchahn J ). Mowrer4 developed the concept of
motives as energisers of the activities of the organism. He
viewed motivation primarily as anxiety over the possibility
of painful sensations to arise from failure to satisfy primary
biological needs. Essentially, this view assigns to motive
the property of negative effective state derived :primarily from
painful experience. Mowrer4 proposes that all the basic needs
are types of discomfort and are in the broad sense painful.
Human beings are capable of being motivated not only by organic
needs that are immediately present and felt, but also by the
mere anticipation of such needs. The key to all motives is
anxiety (Mowrer5>.
In spite of the richness of tensional conceptualization
of motive, some psychologists have sonsidered it inadequate for
1. N.E. Miller, and J. Uollard. Social learning and
imitation. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1941.
2. C.L. Hull. Principles of Behaviour. Appleton-Century-
Crofts. New York, 1943.
). C. Luckhohn and H.A. Murray. Personality in Nature,
Society and Culture. Knopf, New York, 1948.
4. O.H. Mowrer. Learning Theory and Personality Uynamics.
Ronald Press, 1950.
5. O.H. Mowrer. Motivation, in C.P. Stone and D.W.
Taylow (Eds.). Annual Review of Psychology.
Annual Review, Stanford, 1952.
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explaining the mechanism of motivation (Allport 1, Young 2 ,
Recently, motivation has again been generally looked at
from the tension-reduction perspective. This time, however,
certain additions and elaboration have been incorporated.
Proposing what he descr ibe d as working rne chan i cs of mot ivat ion,
Okoye5 states that motivation starts off when an individual is
pushed off an equilibrium situation, and as a result, the person
finds himself in a state of need. Awareness of this state of
need produces drive. For drive to be reduced, the activities
generate d nee d to be chann e Ll ed into purposi ve b eh av i our.
Channelling of activities into purposive behaviour is done
by a process Okoye5 calls mechanism. In this process,
emotions are evoked to sustain the generated activities
till the organism attains drive reduction. Okoye there-
fore stresses that there are motives behind all human
1. G.W. Allport. Personality. A psychological inter-
pretation. Holt, New York, 1937.
2. P.T. Young. Food seek i n q drive, effective process and
learning. Psychological review, LVI. 1949.
D.G. Hebb. The organisation of rlehaviour. Wiley,
New York, 1949.
4. A.II. Haslow. The instinctoid nature of bas i c needs.
Journal of Personality, 1953.
5. N.N. Ok oye, The psycholoUY of effective learning.
Departrnent of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan.
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behaviours, and that motivation is a necessary fillip in life
for progress and growth as well as adjustment associated with
self-actualization.
McClelland et al1 had acknowledged that psychologists
have had difficulty in considering the possibility that cer-
tain types of sensory stimulation are innately painful. Some
other researchers Young2, Sheffield and Roby3, Weiner and
Stellar '* , Sheff1.eld et al5. and N1ssen and Semmes6 have argued
in support of motivational effect of certain innate gratifi-
cation.
1. D.C. McClelland, J.W. Atkinson, R.A. Clark and E.L.
Lowell. The Achievement Motive. Irvington
Publishers, New York, 1976.
2. P.T. Young. Food seeking drive, affective process and
learning. Psychological Review, LVI 98, 19'*9.
F.D. Sheffield and T.B. Roby. Reward value of a non-
nutritive sweet taste. J. of Comp. Physiol.
Psychol. '*3. 1950.
It. I.H. Weiner and .t;. Stellar. Salt preference of the rat
determined by a single stimulus method. J. Comp.
Physiol. PsyChol. '*'*,1951.
5. F.D. Sheffield, J.J. Wulff and R. Backer. Reward value
of copulation without sex drive reduction.
J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. '*'*1951.
6. H.W. Nissen and J. Semmes. Comparative and physio-
logical psychology. In C.P. Stone and D.W.
Taylor (Eds.). Annual Review of Psychology.
Stanford: Annual Review, 1952.
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Self-Concept and Language Acquisitionl
The self concept is the totality of attitudes, judgement
and values of an individual relating to his behaviour attitudes
and qualities. The self concept reflects who the person is.
It does not only include feelings towards the self and others
but also the moral structure, attitudes values and ideas that
propel one to action or on the other hand, to inaction.
Mouly 1 says that self concept includes feelings about self
both physical self, psychological self in relation to the
environment. Calhoun and Acocella2 define self concept as
"Your own view of your self" and pointed out t.n at it has three
dimensions. They are one's knowledge of one's self, one's
expectations for one's self and one's evaluation of one's self.
Within a healthy person, there should be a good deal of
compatibility among the three dimensions of self. In other
words, self consistency is basic to self competency in human
functioning. If discrepancy exists among the components,
anxiety is created. Pietrofesa et a13 maintains that one's
1. G.J. Mouly. Psychology for effective teaching. Holt
Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York, 1973.
2. F.J. Calhoun and Acocella, R.J. Psychology of adjust-
ment and human relations. Pandom House Inc.
New York, 1978.
). H. Pietrofesa and Splete, P. Counselling theory
Research and Practice. Hand Mcnally College
Publishing Co., Chicago, 1978.
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self concept tends to reinforce itself through selective per-
ception. A person selects from an experience which reinforces
the self concept he has already developed and rejects that
which might be contrary to present feelings or beliefs.
A major aspect of the self concept is one's knowledge of
one's self. People are generally aware of several things
about themselves. However, these qualities about one's self
undergo changes as people gain more experience and better under-
standing of themselves. An important fact with regard to one's
knowledge of one's self is its subjectivity. In other words,
one's knowledge of one's self might be positive or negative
depending on how we perceive ourselves. Some seemingly perma-
nent and outstanding aspects of one might be played down in
our self concept while some other insignificant parts might be
highlighted. Rogers 1 po~.nts out that the greater the d~.scre-
pancy between our picture or what we are and our picture of
what we should or could be, the lower our self esteem. This
leads us to an examination of positive and negative self con-
cept.
Self-Concept can be negative or positive. Negative self
concept correlates positively with low self esteem while
1. C.R. Rogers. On becoming a Personl A therapist's view
of psychotherapy. Houghton Mifflin Sentry
Edition, Boston, 1970.
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positive self concept correlates positively with high self
esteem. In some cases people with negative self concept are
characterized by a disorganised sense of self as is the case
with some adolescents who are undergoing a transition from
childhood to adulthood. On the other hand a negative self
concept could be that characterized by too much rigidity such
that the individual becomes threatened by new information about
hLm or hersel f. This is also the case with the individual
who has a disorganised concept of himself. Sull·~van1 po~.nt s
out that a person with a disorganised or narrow self-concept
simply does not have any mental categories to which he can
relate conflicting information about himself.
A negative self-concept is consequent to a negative self
judgement and in this case individuals with negative self
concept never see anything good about themselves. Calhoun
and Acocella 2 believe that they are characterised by a
relatively high level of anxiety. The positive self concept
is that which results from self acceptance. Chodorkoff3 had
1. H.S. Sullivan. The structure of personality in Hall,
C.S. and G. Lindzey. Theoriest of personality.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978.
2. F.J. Calhoun and H.J. Acocella. Psychology of adjust-
ment and human relations. Pandom House Inc.
New York, 1978.
3. B. Chodorkoff. Self-Perception, Perceptual defence and
adjustment. Journal of Abnormal and social psycho-
~, vol. ~9, No. 62, 195~.
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pointed out that the individual with positive self concept could
be characterized by a very thorough knowledge of himself. He
is aware of and gives room for positive and negative infor-
mation about self. Thus the person with a positive self-concept
can understand and accept a great deal of disparate information
about self. Because positive self concept is large enough to
accommodate the entire range of the person's mental experience,
his evaluation of himself is positive. This does not mean
however that such individuals do not recognise their faults.
The fact is that they have no regrets about their existence.
People with positive self concept have the ability to set
appropriate and realistic goals for themselves which they nor-
mally achieve and this further enhances their positive self-
concept. This seeming vicious circle of success and positive
self-concept enable the individual to face life without fear.
The role of one's self concept in influencing behaviour cannot
I be over-estimated, deaf children not being an exception.
I A self accepting person knows his weakness. He knows
which fault he can alter and learns to live with others. He
I feels that despite his limitations he is a person to be
~pproved. He feels that he is doing what can reasonably be
expected of him. He approves himself without the feelings that
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he is perfect (Cromberch 1). In contrast a person who questions
his own basic worth may try to avoid attention which would
expose his weakness. He may avoi d commitment s because tr.ials
and failures might confirm his feelings painfully. Another
person feeling inferior may spend his time in day dreams. He
never learns to live with his real self. One can suspect a
sense of inadequacy wherever one observes lack of persistence
excessive upset following conflict and neurotic anxiety.
The influence of self concept on the achievement of deaf
children operates by way of attributional processes. Basic to
this operation is a self-consistency hypothesis predicting that
individuals interpret events in a way consistent with their
self evaluat10.n (Feather,2 Jones 3)• High self concept individuals
tend to attribute positive or successful experiences to their
own personal characteristics. Low self concept persons con-
versely, tend to attribute negative or failure experiences to
their own personal inadequacies. In these ways, high self con-
cept individuals maintain their positive self-evaluation while
those with low self concept maintain their negative self
evaluation.
L.J. Cromberch. Educational psychology. Harcourt
Brace and Com. New York, 1954.
2. N. Feather. Organisation and discrepancy in cognitive
structures. Psy. Review, 78, 1971.
3. S. Jones. Self and Interpersonal evaluation: Esteem
theories versus consistency theories.
Psy. Bull. 79, 1973.
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EMPIRICAL HACKGRUUNV:
Language Development in Children:
How does a verbally helpless infant develop into an arti-
culate adult? A widely held belief is that we are born with
vocal equipment and neutral system which gives us the capacity
to verbalize.
Guess, Sailor, and Baer1 provided a starting
point for experimental analysis of language development. Their
studies on operant procedures were used to establish produc-
tive use of language in severely retarded children who have no
language.
Recently, Newport and Morgan2 showed that adults can use
both prosodic and transformational information to arrive at an
understanding of grammatical structure. In their study, they
found that adults were able to learn to distinguish grammatical
from ungrammatical strings provided that the input data somehow
revealed the constituent boundaries in the input strings.
Newport et al3 had argued that the pattern of effects and non
1. D. Guesst:W. Sailor and V.M. Baer. To teach language to
retarded children. In R.L. Shiefelbusch (Ed.)
Language perspective. Macmillan, London, 1974.
2. J.L. Morgan and ~.L. Newport. The role of constituent
structure in the induction of an artificial lan-
guage. Journal of verbal learning and verbal
behaviour 20, 1981.
3. E.L. Newport, H. Gleitman and L.R. Gleitman. Mother I'd
rather do it myself: Some effects and non effects
of maternal speech style. In C. Snow and C.A.
Ferguson (~ds.). Talking in children: Language
Input and acquisition. Cambridge University Press,
1977.
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effects they found in their study is consistent with a nativist
model of 1anguage acqui sition according to which universal pro-
perties of language are innately specified. Newport et al 1
study suggest procedures that are possibly involved in the
child's analysis of her or his input, although the findings are
consistent with multiple interpretations. The results of other
studies are equivocal with regard to the special importance of
1I·..•.,es/N 0 ques toa"ons H0 ff (u0 l0.nsberg 2 foun d for examp 1eo, f 22 2uT~-
year olds that the frequency of some wh- questions in their
mother's speech predicted what auxilIaries did not. On
the other hand, preliminary data analysis suggests that the
frequency of Yes/No questions in experimenter-provided input to
these children was related to their auxilIary growth (Shatz and
Hoff Ginsberg2, Depaulo and BonvillanJ).
1. E.L. Newport, H. Gleitman and L.R. Gleitman. Mother
I'd rather do it myselfl some effects and non
effects of maternal speech style. In C. Snow
and C.A. Ferguson (Eds.) Talking in childrenl
Language Input and acquisition. Cambridge
University Press, 1977.
2. M. Shatz and H. Ginsberg. Beyond syntaxa The influence
of conversational constraints on speech modification.
In C. Snow and C.A. Ferguson (Ed.) Talking to
childrena Language Input and acquisition. Cambridge
University Press, 1977.
J. B.M. Depaulo and J.D. Bonvillan. The effect on language
development of special characteristics of speech
addressed to children. J. of Psy. Research 7. 1978.
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Another type of developmental analysis that might operate
in the child's achievement of syntactic competence, but one
that is independent of semantics is 5uygested by work on the
acquisition of artificial languages. Morgan and Newport 1
found that adults were able to learn to distinguish grammatical
from ungrammatical strings provided that the input data somehow
revealed the constituent boundaries in the input string. The
source of this information could be semantic. For example,
the chil d might derive the const ituent structure of liThe boy
rolls the red ball" from real world semantic correlates; that
is red ball form a single constituent separate from 'rolls'
because the property 'red' is part of the ball in a way that
the action of 'rolling' is not.
The child may derive constituent structure from non-
semantic sources such as pauses and the terminal fall in funda-
mental frequency that mark constituent boundaries although the
reading of such clues is not necessarily straightforward
(Cooper andCooper 2 ).
1. J.L. Morgan and E.L. Newport. The role of constituent
structure in the induction of an artificial
language. Journal of verbal learning and verbal
behaviour 20 1981.
2. W. Cooper. and P. Cooper. J. Syntax and Speech.
Harvard University Press, 1980.
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Studies of the nature of the dependencies that obtain
between properties of the child's input and properties of
syntax acquisition are of two major types. Naturalistic
studies make use of the naturally occurring variability in the
way different mothers talk to their children and look for
correlated variability in children's syntax development: Expe-
rimental studies explicitly create variability in the input
children receive and look for effects of that manipulation.
Interpreting the results of both types of studies is complicated
because the particular findings that have emerged do not trans-
parently reveal the mechanism that produced them and because
numerous methodological problems plague this new area of
research (Ginsberg and Shatz1). Nonetheless, the research to
date suggests certain significant relations between input and
syntax acquisition, and these relations have implications for
I the nature of the child's contribution.
In a naturalistic study, Newport et al2 tape recorded the
I utterances of 15 girls (age 12-27 months) and their mothers
Ginsberg and M. Shatz. Linguistic Input and the
child's acquisition of language.
Psychological Bulletin voL, 92, No. 1,1982.
2. Newport, E.L., Gleitman, H. and uleitman, L.R.
Mother, I'd rather do it myself: Some effects
and noneffect of maternal speech s~yle. In C.
Snow and C.A. Ferguson (cds.). Talking in
childrenl Language Input and acquisition.
Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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in two sessions of 6 months apart. Correlations were computed
between properties of the mother's speech during the first
session and the children's growth in language ability between
sessions 1 and 2. Because the children were of different ages
and because neither variation in maternal speech nor variation
in child growth rate is independent of initial age and stage
in language development, the child's age and initial level of
advancement on the dependent language measure were particular
out of each correlation. All findings were validated on split
halves of the speech sample.
Newport et al1 argued that the pattern of effects and non-
effects they found is consistent with a nativist model of lan-
guage acquisition according to which universal properties of
language are innately specified, and only the acquisition of
language-specific properties depends on input. For example,
nouns and verbs are generally considered to be linguistic univer-
sals, and Newport et al1 found that the children's growth in the
number of noun and verb phrases per utterance was unrelated to
1. E.L. Newport, H. Gleitman and L.R. Gleitman.
Mother, I'd rather do it myself, Some effects
and noneffects of maternal speech style. In C.
Snow and C.A. Ferguson (Eds.). Talking in
Children: Language Input and acquisition.
Cambridge University Press, 1977.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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any maternal speech variable that they measured. On the other
hand, verb auxillaries and noun inflections are not universal -
other languages accomplish their work in a variety of different
ways (Ginsberg and Shatz1). As Newport et al2 themselves
pointed out, however, conclusions drawn from negative findings
are tenuous. Some input-output relations probably change over
the course of language development, depending both on changes
in how the child processes input and where the child's linguistic
system is growingo Newport et al's subjects covered an age
range of 15 months. Thus, their study could find only depen-
dencies that hold across a variety of language levels or are
strong enough when they do hold that a few children can carry a
significant correlation.
Another study that has directly examined the relation bet-
ween a wide variety of maternal speech properties and aspects
1. Ginsberg and M. Shat z. Linguistic Input and the
Child's acquisition of Language. Psychological
Bulletin. vol. 92, No. I, 1982.
2. E.L. Newport, H. Gleitman and L.R. Gleitman.
Mother, I'd rather do it myselfl Some effects
and noneffects of maternat speech style. In
C. Snow and C.A. Ferguson (Eds.). Talking in
Childrenl Language Input and acquisition.
Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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of child language development was conducted by Furrow, Nelson,
and Benedict1• Furrow et al claimed that their data suggests
an account. of the reI ation between input and acqui sition that
is very different from that suggested by the results of Newport
et aI's 2 study. Furrow1 subjects were eight mothers and their
18-month-old children. All of the children were at the one-
world stage at the start of the study. Because their subjects
were equalized by selection, their finding was slightly diffe-
rent from previous findings. Furrow et al found that the
children's development of language-universal structures, verbs
and nouns phrases, was related to properties of maternal speech.
Cross J. an a related study found that mothers of linguis-
tic sequences expansions of their own previous utterance than
do mothers of less advanced speakers.
1. D. Furrow, K. Nelson and H. Benedict. Mothers' speech
to children and syntactic development Some
simple relations. Journal of child language 6,
1979.
2. E.L. Newport, H.Gle itman and L.R. Glei tman. Mother,
I'd rather do it myself: Some effects and non-
effects of maternal speech style. In C. Snow &
C.A. Furguson (Eds.). Talking in children;
Language input and acquisition. Cambridge
University Press, 1977.
3. T.G. Cross. Mothers speech and its association with
linguistic development of special characteristic
of speech addressed to children. J. of Psy.
Research 7, 19780
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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Other related findings include Brown'sl and Moerk's2
reports on the more advanced children in their samples as
measured by age-related mean length of utterances. More recent
enrichment attempts have demonstrated a positive relation bet-
ween expansions in input and syntax development. In a series
of experiments (Nelson3, Nelson et a14) reported producing
specif~c positive effects on the syntactic development of
children by prociding them with recasts of their own utterances
in experimental settings.
Shatz5 investigated whether maternal speech modifications
might restrict the variety of possible form-function pairings,
thus providing the child with functional correlates of syntax.
1. R. Brown. How shall a thing be called? Psychological
Review 65, 1958.
2. E.L. Moerk. Relationship between parental input fre-
quencies and children's language acquisition; A
reanalysis of Brown's data. Journal of child
language, 7, 1980.
3. K.E. Nelson. Facilitating children's syntax acquisition.
Developmental Psychology, 13, 1976.
4. K.E. Nelson, G. Carskaddon and J.D. Bonvillian. Syntax
acquisition; Impact of experimental variation in
adult verbal interaction with the child.
Child Development 44, 1973.
5. M. Shatz. How to do things by asking & Form-Function
pairings in mothers questions and their relation
to children's responses. Child Development 50,
1979.
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It has been observed 1.nformally, Shatz 1,an d exper1.-
mentally (Bridges2, Garnica) that mothers use more explicit
gestures in talking to children than in talking to adults and
that the explicitness of the maternal gestures decline with the
increasing age of the child. Although no known correlational
studies examine the relation of maternal gestures to child
4,
language acquisition, Macnamara found that two gestures at
least aid comprehension. He found that children under 20
months were able to use line of regard and gesture to inter-
pret adult requests, and they were able to make fairly accurate
interpretations on this basis when the language of the request
was entirely foreign.
1. M. Shatz. On mechanisms of language acquisition& Can
features of communicative environment account for
development? In L. Gleitman and E. Wanner (Eds.)
Language acquisition& The State of the art.
Cambridge University Press, New York, 1982.
2. A. Bridges. The role of context and linguistic cues in
the language comprehension of pre-school children.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Bristol,
1977.
). O.K. Garnica. Non-verbal concomitants of language input
to children. In N. Waterson and C. Snow (Eds.) The
development of communication, Wiley Chichester, 1978.
4,. J. Macnamara. From sign to language. In J. Macnamara
(Ed.) Language learning and thought. ACademic
Press, N. York, 1977.
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Language Development in Deaf Children
The impairment of hearing has apparent significant impact
on a child's ability to acquire language based in audition.
Numerous studies have shown that hearing impaired children do
not show the same level of achievement in language skills
(Myklebust 1, Furth2 t Trybus and Buchanan ).t S~mmons 4: klt Stuc ess
and Marks 5 t Marshall and ~u~.gley6., Qu~gley and Power 7,
Quigley8) as do hearing children.
1. H. Myklebust. The psychology of deafness. Grune and
Stratton, New York, 1964:.
2. Furth. A comparison of reading test norms of deaf
and hearing children. American Annals of the
Deaf, March, 1966.
). R. Trybus and C. Buchanan. Studies in achievement testing
of hearing impaired students. Gallandet College,
1971.
4:. A. Simmons. Comparison of written and spoken language
for deaf and hearing children at five age levelso
Unpublsihed doctoral dissertation. Washington
University, 1962.
5. R. Stuckless and C. Mark. Assessment of the written
language of deaf students. University of
Pittsburgh, 1966.
6. W. Marshall and S. Quiley. Quantitative and qualitative
analysis of syntactic structure in the written
language of deaf students. Institute for Research
on exceptional children, Urbana, 1970.
7. S. Quigley and D. Power. The development of syntactic
structures in the language of Deaf Children.
lREC, Urbana, 1972.
8. S. Quigley. Syntactic structures in language of deaf
children. Urbana Champaign Report, 1976.
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Many linguistsr including Hersov 1,McMahon 2 represented
the conversion process in the various approaches in language
development among deaf children by postulating a series of
transformations. That such representations may be necessary
for linguists to describe adult language is one thing and that
children or even adult use these representations to produce
the utterances they make is quite different claim (Hersov1).
A number of experiments in the 1960s resulted in conflicting
evidence. At first, there was some support for claiming that
one approach or the other had some psychological reality or
influence (McMahon2, Mehler), Miller and MCKean4, Savin and
Perchonock5}.
1. L.A. Hersov. Language and Language Disorders in Child-
hood. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980.
2. L.E. McMahon. Grammatical analysis as part of under-
standing a sentence. Doctoral thesis, Harvard
University, 198).
J. J. Mehler. Some effects of grammatical transformations
on the recall of English sentences. J. Verb
Learn, Verb, Behaviour 2, 196J.
4. G.A. Miller and K.C. McKean. Ghronometric study of
some relations between sentences. Quart. J.
Exp. Psychol. 16, 1964.
5. H.B. Savin and E. Perchonock. Grammatical structure
and immediate recall of English sentences.
J. Verb, Learn, Verb, Behaviour 4, 196).
UNIVER
ITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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Later experiments however cast some doubts on this assumption
(Fodor and Garrett1, Slobin2, SlobinJl. It is now generally
accepted that language achievements are more complex than for-
mally believed and that many factors other than .on e approach play
a vital part.
Hughes 4 made a comparison of verbal conceptualization in
deaf children and hearing children. The purpose of the study
was to compare the verbal percept concept sorting performance
of three groups of deaf children with a group of children with
normal hearing. The pupils were tested on the meaning of 241
percept words and were then asked to sort the words they knew
into appropriate categories.
The hard of hearing children knew the meaning of 16J
of the 241 percept words but were able to sort 46 of them
1. Fodor and M. Garrett. Some syntactic determinants
of sentential complexity. Perception and Psycho-
Physics 2, 1967.
2. D.I. Slobin. Recall of full and Truncated Passive
sentences connected discourse. J. Verb Learn
Verb Behaviour, 1968.
J. D.I. Slobin. Grammatical, Transformations in Adulthood
and Childhood. Journal of verbal learning and
Verbal Behaviour, 1966.
4. H. Hughes. Assessment of language development among the
deaf. Journal of teachers of the Deaf, 1959.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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correctlyo The hearing recognised 2)0 of the 2~1 and were signi-
ficantly superior in their ability to sort them correctly. The
verbal behaviour of the deaf was more perceptual than conceptual.
This study is significant because it suggests that perhaps the
methods by which deaf children are taught may emphasise per-
ception and knowledge of single words meaning sO that concept
formation is inhibited.
Myklebust 1 carried out an investigation of language of the
deaf by observing the inter-relationship of measures of language
abilities and other factors and comparing the read and written
language of the deaf and hearing. The following information
were f'o un ds
(i) Teachers' rating of lip reading ability
(ii ) Scores on the "draw-a-man" test
The Columbia Vocabulary test
(iv) The picture story language test and
(v) Teachers' rating on pupils ability to use spoken
language.
Comparison on all measures were made between the deaf and
the hearing on the vocabulary and language tests and between
1. H.M. MyKlebust. Development and Disorders of Written
Language. Vol. I, Picture story Language Test.
Grune and Stratton, London, 1960.
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the deaf in residential and day' schools. The
following findings were madel
(i) Children rated as excellent, good or average
in lip reading were also the more intelligent.
More females than males were found to have
excellent, good, average lip reading ability.
(iii) The results indicate a definite correlation bet-
ween lip reading ability as rated by teachers
and reading as well _ between lip reading and
ability to use written language.
(iv) Females were rated higher than males and day-
school students higher than residential students
in spOken language.
(v) Ratings in spoken language were found to be
unrelated to intelligence.
(vi) The deaf group was significantly inferior to the
hearing on sentence length and syntax; the two
measures of language productivity were considered
most valid.
(vii) The deaf group was significantly inferior to the
hearing group (at the one percent level of signi-
ficance) •
(viii) On comparison between the deaf and hearing on the
use of abstract-concrete concepts in a written
story, the deaf were inferior at all age. levels.
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Other studies have assessed the relative efficacy of
various approaches in effecting differential language related
achievement among deaf children (Masdow1, ~uigley2, Vernon and
KOh). The natural approach show advantage over other methods.
In some studies the natural approach has been compared to home
4:
situation. In either, there is improvement (Yule and Berger,
Guess et al5, Lovass 6.)
1. K. Meadow. Early Manual Communication in relation to
deaf child's intellectual, social and communi-
cative functioning. American Annals of the
Deaf. Jan. 1968.
2. S. Quigley. Syntactic structures in language of deaf
children. Urbana Champaign report, 1976.
). M. Vernon and S. Koh. Early manual communication and
deaf children's achievement. American Annals of
the Deaf, 1970.
4:. W. Yule and M. Berger. Behaviour Modification principles
and speech delay. In the Child with delayed
speech, Rutter, M. and Martin, J.A. (Eds.).
Clinics Developmental Medicine, No. 4:),Simp.
Heinemann, London, 1972.
5. D. Guess, W. Sailor and D.M. Baer. To teach language to
retarded children. In language perspectives.
Lloyds, L.L. (Ed.). MacMillan, London, 1974:.
6. 0.1. Lo ve s s , The a~tistic child; Language development
through Behaviour modification, Wiley, New York,
1974.
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Malouf and Dodd1 demonstrated that imitation and expressions
could be used to teach an artificial grammatical rule concerning/
word order. Whitehurst et al2 use selective mOdelling to teach
children passive construction at an age when they are very
rarely used.
Nelson3 in a naturalistic study investigated language
development in some selected deaf children. He found that the
number of adults the child was exposed to and the number of
outings per week both significantly and positively correlated
with language development. Interestingly, the correlation with
television watching was negative. The evidence suggests that
active social inter-changes rather than any particular linguistic
style is the most important feature •.
Clarke-Stewartls~ findings also indicate that language
1. R.E. Malouf and D.H. Dodd. Role of exposure imitation and
expansion in the acquisition of artificial gramma-
tical rule. Developmental psychology, 1972.
2. G.J. Whitehurst, M. Ironsmith and M. Goldfein.
Selective imitation of the passive construction
through modelling. Journal of experimental
psychology 17, 197~.
3. K. Nelson. Structure and Strategy in learning to talk.
Monogr. Soc. Res. Child development ~~, 1973.
~. K.A. Clarke-stewart. Interactions between mothers and
their young children. Characteristics and con-
sequencies. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Development
38 serial No. 153, 1973.
U
IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
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development is positively correlated with material stimulation
and responsiveness. Newport et al1 found no consistent relation-
ships between the child's language development and the com-
plexity or length of the mothers utterances or the amount of
repetition. The form of the mother's syntax was associated with
some aspects of the child's grammar but not with other features
of his language.
Brown et al2 in an experimental study of some deaf child-
ren compared the effects in language of expansion, modelling
and non-verbal play. Modelling proved to be most effective
treatment.
Young and McConnelJ studied vocabulary retardation in
hard of hearing children. They matched 20 hard of hearing with
20 normally hearing on age, race, sex, socio-economic levels and
non-verbal intelligence levels as measured by the Raven's pro-
1. E.L. Newport, H. Gleitman and L.R. Gleitman. Mother,
I'd rather do it myself& some effects and noneffects
of maternal speech style. In C. Snow and C.A.
Ferguson (Eds.). Talking in children: Language
In~ut and acquisition. Cambridge University
Press, 1977.
2. R. Brown and U. Bellugi. Three processes in the ~hild's
acquisition of syntax. Harvard educational Review
J~, 1969.
J. C. Young and F. McConell. Vocabulary Retardation in
hard of hearing children. Volta Review 16, 1957.
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gressive matrices. Then the Ammons full Range Vocabulary Test
was administered to individual child. The words were presented
visually and verbally. The result showed a significant diffe-
rence between the groups in favour of the hearing group. No
hard of hearing subject received a higher score on the test
more than his matched control peer. The hard of hearing were
retarded verbally in comparison to their respective intellectual
levels.
In another related study, Pintner1 measured the language
abilities and progress of deaf children. He found that the
verbal behaviour of the deaf was more perceptual than conceptual.
Modelling:
The analysis and modification of children's behaviour in
the classroom has become an active area of investigation in
recent years. Many studies have shown that disruptive behaviour
can be reduced, study behaviour increased, and grades improved
by the relatively simple application of behaviour modification
techniques (Bailey, Wolf and Phillips2). Most of the techniques
1. P. Pintner. Language abilities and Language progress of
deaf children. Volta Review ~5, 19790
2. J.S. Bailey, M.M. Wolf, L.L. Phillips. Home-Based Rein-
forcement and the modification of pre-delinquents'
classroom behaviour. Journal of Applied Behaviour
Analysis J, 1970.
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developed have involved the teacher as the key element in the
modification of student behaviour (Hall, Lund, Jackson 1t
Thomas, Becker and Armstrong 2 Madsen, Becker and Thomas J )
The above reaffirms that the teacher has been taught
how to deliver social reinforcers more efficiently, to ignore
inappropriate behaviour, and how to provide other consequences
to improve the academic behaviour of.her students (O'Leary,
BeCkerlt) •
The operant characteristics of modelling have been well
1. R. Hall, D. Lund, D. Jackson. Effects of teacher action
on study behaviour. Journal of Applied Behaviour
Analysis I, 1968.
2. D. Thomas, W. Becker, M. Armstrong. Production and elimi-
nation of disruptive classroom behaviour by
systematic varying teachers behaviour. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analysis I, 1968.
J. C. Madsen, W. Becker, D. Thomas. Rules, praise and
ignoring elements of elementary classroom control.
Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis I, 1968.
4:. K.D. O'Leary and Becker, W.C. Behaviour modification of
an adjustment class. A token r-e Ln f oraement pro-
gramme. Exceptional children JJ, 1967.
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established (Holland!, Holland2, SChroederJ). As such, modelling
is subject to methods of behavioural modifi cation 't h at have
proved successful fora wide range of classroom situations.
Coupled with the recent success of behavioural modification
programme in the classroom (Birnbrauer, Bijou, Wolf and Kidder~,
Birnbrauer, Wolf, Kidder and Tague5, Hewett6, Nolen, Kunzelmann
1. J.G. Holland. Techniques for behavioural analysis of
human observing. Science, 125, 1957.
2. J.G. Holand. Human vigilance: Science, 128, 1958.
J. S.R. Schroeder. Operant control of eye movement during
vigilance. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Pittsburgh, 1967.
~. J.S. Birnbrauer, S.W. Bijou, M.M. Wolf and J.D. Kidder.
Programmed instruction in the classroom. In L.
Ullman and L. Krasner (Eds.) Case studies in
behaviour modification. Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
New York, 1966.
5. J.S. Birnbrauer, M.M. Wolf, J.D. Kidder and C.E. Ta~ue.
Classroom behaviour of retarded pupils with token
reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Child
PSYChology 2, 1965.
6. F.M. Hewett. Education engineering with emotionally
disturbed children. Exceptional children.
JJ, 1967.
,.
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and Haring1, O'Leary and Becker2 and ValettJ), these experiments
>
provide a basis for attempts to alter behaviours in the class-
room situation.
To date, no known behaviour modification research has
been reported in Nigeria for classroom average deaf children. How-
ever modelling is especially essential to the deaf child's
classroom education. This is so because the deaf child is vir-
tually cut off from the auditory stimuli surrounding those who
hear. If the deaf child does not look directly at the infor-
mation-bearing stimulus, he is categorically prevented from
acquiring that information. In the classroom situation, the
instructional stimuli from the teacher and from fellow students
who contribute to the discussion must become the model to imitate.
Modelling has been found to be effective strategy that
could be used in helping deaf children in language development.
1. P.A. Nolen, H.F. Kunzelmann and Haring, N.G.. Behaviour
Modification in a junior high learning disabilities
classroom. Exceptional children, 34, 1967.
2. K. O'Leary, W. Becker, M. Evans and R. Sandargas.
A token reinforcement programme in a public schoola
a replication and systematic analysis. Journal
of Applied Behaviour Analysis 2 1969.
3. R. Valett. A social reinforcement technique for class-
room management of behaviour disorders.
Exceptional Children. JJ, 1966.
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Schumaker et all, Crayer2, GoldsteinJ, HOlman4 and Carnine5
have all shown in their various studies the effectiveness of
modelling as a strategy in solving various social problems.
The studies of modelling procedures show that providing
factual information to teachers about designated behaviour will
reliably change their behaviour in the desired direction
(Cooper and 'fhornson6).
Paloutzian7 had worked with non-imitative children,
teaching them social interaction with peers. The children were
1. J. Schumaker and J.A. Sherman. Training Generative Verb
Usage by Imitation and reinforcement procedures.
Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis J, 1970.
2. T.L. Crayer. Application of self-modelling procedure to
modify inappropriate Behaviour. Behaviour Research
and Therapy. vol. 8, 1970.
J. A.P. Goldstein. Increasing independence via use of
modelling procedures. Journal of educational
research vol. 72, No.4, 1980.
4. L.R. Homan. The effect of stimulus presentation mode and
cognitive style on sentence recognition memory.
J. of educational research, vol. 72, No.4, 1980.
D. Carnine. Relationships between stimulus variation and
formation of misconception. Journal of edu. Res.
vol. 74, No.2, 1980.
6. M.L. Cooper and C.L. Thomson. The experimental modifi-
cation of teacher attending behaviour. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analysis J, 1970.
7. R.F. Paloutzian and J. Hasazi. Promotion of Positive
social interaction in severely retarded young
'children. American journal of mental deficiency,
1971.
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taught to imitate some social interaction behaviours. The
researcher reported that the children required only a few
training sessions to learn to imitate these complex behaviours.
In another study Stromer 1 remediated various letters and
number reversal difficulties in children from regUlar and
special education classes by modelling correct and incorrect
symbol formation, providing differential feedback following
correct and incorrect symbol formation. All reversals were
vertually eliminated in all cases with follow-up observations
indicating enduring effects.
Recognising that many children with learning problems
have reading comprehension problems, Lahey et al2 developed a
behaviour management programme to deal specifically with deficits
in reading for comprehension. Some children whose reading com-
prehension were two years below their oral reading grade level
were provid~d social and tangible reinforcers following correct
answers to comprehension questions. Under the new contingency,
reading comprehension rose to grade level performance and
R. Stromer. Modifying letter and number reversals in
elementary school children. Journal of Applied
Behaviour Analysis, 1975.
2. B.B. Lahey, M.P. McNees and C.C. Brown.
Modification of deficits in reading for com-
prehension. Journal of Applied Behaviour
Analysis 1973.
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remained there throughout the periods in which consistent rein-
forcement was provided.
Many researchers have re-emphasized the importance of
imitative programme in the general education of the child.
Piaget1 had theorized that from the beginning to the final
stage of mental development, the child learns to imitate and
to respond to people through imitative behaviour.
Piaget1 had observed that at a certain stage of develop-
ment, the child looks beyond the family for models to imitate.
These'observations imply that a strategy such as modelling
would be effective in improving the language of the deaf.
In related development, Crayer 2 carried out a study and
found that modelling improves the self-concept of an individual.
He applied self-modelling techniques successfully to accom-
plish modification of withdrawal tendencies.
The effectiveness of the modelling strategy in improving
self-concept was also seen in the work of GOldstein~ who
1. J. Piaget. Psychology of the child. Basic Books Inc.
New York, 1969.
2. T.L. Crayer. Application of self-modelling procedure to
modify inappropriate Behaviour. Behaviour Research
and Therapy vol. 8, 1970.
). Goldstein. Increasing independence via use of
modelling procedures. Journal of educational
research, vol. 72, No.4, 1980.
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conducted three experiments aimed at increasing independence
via use of modelling procedures. In two respective samples
of neurotic out-patients and a sample of psychiatric in-
patients significant gains in independence emerged in all three
investigations.
Other studies which involved the use of psychological
strategies in solving problems include that of Malin1• He
tried to determine the differential effectiveness of modelling
in improving the performance of junior high sChool algebra
students. The students were instructed to solve problems
using various directions of search. Significant differences
were noted in the performance of the students.
Holman 2 had also studied the effects of stimulus presen-
tation mode and cognitive style on sentence recoynition memory.
Results showed that verbal recognition memory was sensitive to
both cognitive tempo and stimulus presentation mode. Supporting
the effectiveness of modelling, PiagetJ had asserted that
1. J.T. Malin. Strategies in mathematical problem-solving:
Journal of educational research, vol.7J, No.2, 1979.
2. L.R. Holman. The effect of stimulus presentation mode
and cognitive style on sentence recognition memory:
Journal of educational research, vol.72, No.4, 1980.
J. J. Piaget. Psychology of the child.
Basic Books Inc. New York, 1969.
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imitative learning is a very crucial process in mental develop-
mente
Shaping I
The successful application of reinforcement principles
to modify the academic and social behaviour of children in the
classroom has been demonstrated in a number of recent studies.
Wolf, Giles and Hall1 adopting the shaping strategy and
using token economy as a reinforcer accelerated achievement in
low-achieving fifth and sixth graders. They also found that
daily performance depended on relati ve rate of "pay".
Hawkins2 modified out',of-seat behaviour in a year old emotionally
disturbed boy by training the teacher to avoid talking to the
boy when out of his seat and to talk to him more often when
he was in his seat.
Geller, Johnson and PettonJ demonstrated the efficacy
of a simple incentive procedure for prompting seat-belt use
that involved the distribution of seat-belt promotion fliers.
1. M.W. Wolf, D.K. Giles and R.V. Hall. Experiments with
token reinforcement in a remedial classroom.
Behaviour Research and Therapy 6, 1968.
2. R.P. Hawkins. The public school classroom as a behav i our-e I
laboratory. American psychological proceedings.
Washington, 1967.
). E.S. Geller, R.P. Johnson and S.L. Pelton. Community
based interventions for encouraging safety belt
use. American journal of Community Psychology,
10, 1982.
,
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For example prompts to drivers who stopped at a pedestrian
cross walk on a university campus with the contingency
(announced on the first flier per driver) that a prize would
be awarded to those who collected each of the six different
fliers. Of 180 drivers who received two fliers, 17.2% were
wearing a lap and or shoulder belt during the first flier
receipt, whereas ~2.2% of these same drivers were wearing a
seat belt when given a second flier prompt. Only 25 drivers
received four or more fliers, but 52% of these drivers were
wearing a seat belt upon receiving fourth flier.
In a second experiment Geller et al1 demonstrated that
a similar prompting and incentive strategy can be applied in
a community setting. However, several questions regarding
optimal application of prompts and incentives for motivating
seat belt use remain, unanswered e.?pecially as regards the
use of response-reward contingency. The present study was
designed to examine the relative need for a response-reward
contingency in ~nglish achievement of deaf children.
1. E.S. Geller, J.G. Casali, R.P. Johnson. Seat-Belt
usages A potential target for applied behaviour
analysis. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis,
13, 1980.
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In another development, Hingtgen and Trost 1 sought
to establish co-operative and vocal response in a group of
young children diagnosed as schizophrenic. It was expected
that the acquisition of these responses would lead to increased
freedom of action and to greater acceptance of these children
in the natural environment. The investigators worked with
four children, who were trained in pairs and alone. Vocal
responses were shaped in the morning session for the child
alone and cooperative responses in an afternoon session.
The cooperative response was shaped using four steps.
Firstly, touching was reinforced using the process of succes-
sive approximation. Secondly, only physical contact and vocali-
zation were rewarded~ Thirdly, touching with both hands, and
vocalization were required. And lastly, reinforcement was only
given if both children touched each other with both hands and
.made a vocal response. The results of this programme were
positive in that children who initially showed no tendency
towards recognizable speech nor towards peer interaction,
learned the rudiments of interpersonal behaviour.
1. J.N. Hingtgen and T. Trost. Intensive Reinforcement
of Imitative Behaviour in Mute Autistic
Children. American Medical Association, 1967.
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Cruickshank1 had employed shaping (Prompting procedure)
in influencing the behaviour of a child with some exceptional
characteri st Lcs, The work of Gardner2 is an illustration of a
more complex behaviour pattern that was developed by initial
reinforcement of less complex segments and gradual integration
of these into the desired goal. The behaviour objective was to
get a girl to sit at her desk when the work time was announced,
attend to instructions provided to her group, and complete the
ten perceptual motor tasks presented and bring the completed
work to the teacher. The reinforcement procedure was providing
the child with a 'smiling face' sticker on completed work, and
social reinforcement of 'praise' as well as getting the child
to engage in some activities such as listening to the music,
looking at a slige view, taking a pOlaroid picture and finger
painting.
The result of this treatment was that the child was able
to sit at her desk when work time was announced, attended to
group instruction, completed the task and took it to the
1. W.M. Cruickshank. The learning environment. In M.W.
Cruickshank and D.P. Hallathan (Eds.). Perceptual
and learning Disabilities in Children, Syracuse
University Press, New York, 1975.
2. W.I. Gardner. Children with learning and Behaviour
Problems. Allyn and Bacon Inc. Boston,
Masachusetts, 1978.
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teacher's desk. The entire sequence of behaviour was being
maintained by the final reinforcing consequences provided by
the teacher. Reinforcement was continued for a sufficient
period of time to ensure that the behaviour is maintained by
more natural reinforcing events.
The ultimate goal of shaping is complete rehabilitation.
In this study, deaf students, resorting to their lip-reading,
sign language skills were trained through shaping and with the
use of sign language to carry out desirable behaviours like
"wor d usage" "sentence making".
Many researchers had employed shaping or allied strategies
to improve on the ~nglish achievement for the hearing children
and not for the deaf students.
Scopes 1 had employed the investigation strategy in teaching
some group of children. The principle of investigation concerns
a method of learning by discovery. Under this strategy, as in
shaping students, were given cues and instructions, and they
went on to perform some tasks following a step-by-step procedure.
Although, no mention was made of the reinforcement schedule
employed, the researcher had pointed out a number of advantages
1. J. Scopes. Teaching Mathematics in the Secondary
School. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
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to be derived from an application of this strategy.
Witman1 had used positive reinforcement, physical guidance
and fading procedures to teach two severely retarded children
motor responses to a variety of verbal instructions. The
responses of the children to one set of instructions, indicated
the baseline condition, while the responses to a second set of
instructions were used to assess tile generalized effects of
training. Results indicated that the subjects showed pronounced
increases in instruction following behaviours. The results
also showed the applicability of the training procedures for
producing and maintaining instruction following behaviours for
instructions not directly involved in the treatment.
Chadwick2 in his own study clearly showed the effective-
ness of shaping on academic performance of under-achieving
students. The research was carried out in an experimental
classroom of 25 selected under-achieving students. The effects
of reinforcement on three measures of academic performance -
percent of time at work, work output minute and accuracy were
1. T.L. Witman. Effect of Reinforcement and Guidance pro-
cedures on instruction following behaviour of
severely retarded children. Journal of Applied
Behaviour Analysis, vol. 4, 1971.
2. B.A. Chadwick. Systematic Reinforcementl Academic
Performance of Under-achieving students. Journal
of Applied Behaviour Analysis, vol. 4, 1971.
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assessed. Results showed that with combined tangible and
social reinforcement, students work-time rate of output per
hour and accuracy in all activities sUbstantially increased.
A number of researchers, Lowenfeld1, SChol12 have investi-
gated and asserted that a behavioural strategy like shaping
would improve the intelligence, self-concept, motivation etc.
of an individual.
Motivation and Language Acquisition,
The motive to achieve, whilst having no well-established
origins in primary needs, is nevertheless, a useful concept
which has some face validity in the class-room. Researchers
have been trying to understand nature of achievement motivation
for many years now. AusubelJ conceived three component drives
(cogni tive, ego _ enhancing and affili ative ) in achievement
motivation. Based on this, Bakare4 generated items making up
his Academic Need Achievement ~cale. Komolafe5 utilizing the
1. B. Lowenfeld. Creative and Mental Growth.
Macmillan, New York, 1967.
2. G.T. Scho 01. Meeting Developmental Needs of the Blind.
School of Education, University of Michigan, 1969.
J. D.P. Ausubel. Educational Psychologya A cognitive view.
Holt, Rinehart and ~inston, New York, 1968.
4. C.G.M. Bakare. Academic need achievement scale and
manual. Uepartment of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan, 1976.
5. 0.0. Komolafe. Academic Need Achievement of a group of
students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed.
Project, Department of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan, 1981.
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scale in a sample of Nigerian adolescents demonstrated signi-
ficant positive relationship between drive and academic
achi evement. Komolafe 1 also established positive relationship
between academic achievement motivation and academic achieve-
mente
Another direction of exploration arises from the work of McCle-
.lland et a.l2• He introduced the term need for achievement. The
persistence of both children and adults to master objects and
idea would suggest that they have a strong desire to achieve.
Whatever the cause, its presence is a constant source of hope
and encouragement. McClelland' et al2 adopted' pr-oj e.ct i on ! . techniques
to differentiate the levels of need to achieve following from
a variety of experimental conditions. In one research there were
two stages to the experiment a the first stage consisted of
seven pencil-and-paper verbal and motor test; the second stage
followed with a test of creative imagination. The results seem
to show that the difference between the success and the
failure groups is statistically significant.
1. 0.0. Komolafe. Academic Need Achievement of a group of
students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed.
project. Department of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan, 1981.
2. D.C. McClelland, J.W. Atkinson, R.A. Clark, E.L. Lowell.
The Achievement Motive. Appleton-Century-Crofts,
New York, 1953.
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Much important recent research, Birney1 points to the
paradox in our society, with its over-riding respect for those
who think they have failed, especially those who have tasted
success.
Empirical support has likewise been explored for Veroff's2
autonomous and self-other social orientations of achievement
motivation. Ruhland et alJreported that empirical support has
been found for these forms of motivation. They also reported
that Feld et al4 found moderate relationships between autonomous
achievement motivation and scholastic performance for second
graders, and between social comparison achievement motivation
and sCholastic performance for fifth graders. Thus scholastic
performance was differentially predicted by the two types of
achievement motivation for younger and older children in elemen-
tary school.
1. R.C. Birney, H. Burdick and R.C. Teevan. Fear of Failure,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1969.
2. J. Veroff. Social comparison and the development of
achievement motivation. In C.P. Smith (ed.).
Achievement-related motives in children. Russell
Sage Foundation, New York, 1969.
J. D. Ruhland, M. Gold and F. Feld. Role problems and the
relationship of achievement motivation to scho-
lastic performance. Journal of educational
psychology, 70, 1978.
4. S. Feld, D. Ruhland and M. Gold. Developmental changes
in achievement motivation. Merrill-Palmer in
press, 1978.
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Self-Concept and Language Acquisitiona
Positive and negative self evaluation have their emotional
implications in relation to achievement motivation. Weiner et
all showed in their study that causal attributions determine
affective reactions to achievement outcomes. Ame s2 reported
that high self concept children engage in more self congratu-
latory behaviour following success than did low self-concept
children. This particular study is relevant to the present study.
Smith) made a study of 200 physically disabled adolescents
attending ordinary schools. He found that those with mild
hearing problems had a higher self-concept scores than those with
a more severe hearing problem. The severely deaf girls had the
lowest self concept scores.
Behre4 in a similar situation studied 32 male and 32 female
deaf adolescents with the age range of 11 to 16 years. She
1. B. Weiner, I.H. Frieze, A. Kukla, L. Reed, S. Rest and
R.M. Rosenbaum. Perceiving the causes of success
and failure. General learning press, Morristown,
1971.
2. C. Ames. Children's achievement attributions and self-
reinforcementa Effects of self concept and competi-
tive rewqrd structure. Journal of educational
psychology, 70, 1978.
3. S.J. Smiths. Reaction of self-concept and others to the
obviousness and severity of physical disability.
Dissertation Abstract, St. Louis University, 1964.
4. A.C. Behre. Effects of Role playing on the self-concept
of deaf adolescents. Dissertation ~bstract.
Columbia University, 1971.
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divided her subjects into groups A and B and randomly assigned
them to experimental and control group. The treatment con-
sisted of 2~ sessions of role playing based on incidents relating
to problem areas in adolescent life experinece at home, school,
neighbourhood. The finding waS that the deaf adolescents had
difficulties in attaining realistic self-concept.
In a related development, ~lmore1 found in his own study
that the stigma of deafness on the deaf subjects affected their
self-concept.
Gwenth 2 carried ~ study on the self concept and academic
ability and academic performance of deaf auolescents in resi-
dential and non-rsidential schools. His findings showed that
there was higher correlation, in the residential group between
sel f concept of academic ability and grade point average.
AbosiJ had carried out a comparative study between Nigerian
1. A.P. ~lmore. An inquiry into self-concept of Ueaf
Adolescents. DissertatiDn Abstract, University
of Minnesota, 1977.
2. J.M. Gwenth. Self concept among deaf adolescent and
its relationship to social sensitivity and
personality. Dissertation Abstract. Catholic
University, 1975.
J. c.o. Abosi. Comparative study of self-concept of
Nigerian Deaf and Hearing adolescents. Journal
of Curriculum Studies, 1985.
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deaf and hearing adolescents. The instrument used in this study
was the section A of the Adolescent Personality Data Inventory
designed by Akinboye. The result showed that the normal
hearing adolescent group had higher score, hence it was con-
cluded that normal hearing adolescents have higher concept score
than the hearing impaired adolescent.
Ames 1 in the previous work had also shown that high self-
concept students attributed success outcomes more to their
higher ability and engage in more positive self reinforcement
following success than low concept students. The implication
of this finding in the classroom setting and its interpretation
involves explanation about the Causes of achievement outcome
that may have important implication for one's subsequent achieve-
ment oriented behaviour, self evaluation and interpersonal
reIationah.ip,
A CONCEPTUAL MOVEL FOR THe. STUDY
The following conceptual model explains the process by
which a change of behaviour is affected in the study of English
language by deaf children. The various methods of teaching
English language namely modelling-life model, symbolic model,
1. C. Ames. Children's achievement attributions and self-
reinforcement. Effects of self concept and com-
petitive reward structure. Journal of educational
psychology, 70, 1978.
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self modelling, participants modelling and shaping-cues, prompt.,
instructions, positive reinforcement are the treatment strategies
in this study. They also form the independent variable. This
aspect of the mOdel is seen as the stimulus dimension, S.
Some personality correlates of the organism such as self-
concept, motivation locus of control, attitude, Age, intelli-
gence, emotional states, perceptual faculties, Health attributes
are considered as the first-order intervening variable or orga-
nismic variables. These are fact ors whi ch are expecte d to
affect performance in ~nglish language development thus deter-
mining the efficacy of the treatment strategies. There is also
a second order intervening variables. This considers the envi-
ronment and level of interaction during the stUdy. This could
affect the outcome of the stUdy. These variables are denoted
by '0' residing in the biological system of the organism.
The response of dimension 'R' of this mOdel will be the
measurable dependent variable namely growth in language ability
English language competence, syntactic development.
Kanfer and Phillips1 had interpreted the '0' of the S-O-R
1. F.H. Kanfer and J.S. Phillips. Learning foundations of
behaviour therapy.
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model as biological state of the organism. Organismic variables
include other variables other than biological state (Goldfried
and Vava. son 1) •
The conceptual model given diagramaticallY in Fi~ I explains
how English language could be effectively achieved through
modelling and shaping within the limits of the individuals intel-
lectual and personal funct ioning.
Hypothesesa
The following Null hypotheses were tested in the present
study.
1. There is no significant difference between the
English Achievement of deaf students treated. with
modelling programme and deaf students who are not
exposed to such treatment.
1. M.R. Goldfried and G.C. Davidson. Clinical Behaviour
Therapy. Hol t Rinehart and Winston, New
York, 1976.
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-  80 - Fig. 1. THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL.
First -  order Second-order D ependent
Independent intervening variables in te rve n in g  v a r ia b le
va riab le s (organismic variables) va r iab le s  phenotypic 
fA  M O T I V A T I O N ole;
Modeling
strategy S E L F  C O N C E P T  j-J S t im u la t in g E n g l ish
t e r a peu t i c  — 2 language
----------- 3K----- LOCUS OF CONTROL envir oment competence
A T T I T U D E 7
3 C Mr
----------W------ 1 I N T E L L I G  E N C E V
Shap in g —i  EMOTIONAL STAT E LevelI of
strategy ft ----- in te r a c  tion S y  n ta t ic  
A GE during -----5
t h e r a p y development
i PERCEPTUAL FACULTIES
V I  HEALTH ATTRIBUTES
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2. There is no significant difference between the
English Achievement of deaf students treated
wi t h shaping programme and deaf student s who are
not exposed to such treatment.
J. There is no significant difference between the
English Achievement of deaf students treated with
modelling programme and those treated with
shaping programme.
4. There is no significant difference in the atti-
tude of students treated with modelling, shaping
programmes and deaf students who are not exposed
to such treatment.
5. There is no significant difference in the self
concept of deaf students treated with modelling,
shaping programmes and deaf students who are
not exposed to such treatment.
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CHAPTl!.R TWO
DESIGN ANU PROCEDURE
Design:
A J x J factorial design was used for the study (Fig. 2).
This gave nine treatment groups in all. Six of these groups
were randomly assigned to treatment groups while the remaining
three were assigned to the control groups. The modelling,
shaping and control groups were on the rows while the low,
average and high levels of achievement constituted the columns.
These were labelled from I to IX.
Fig. 2 Design of the study
Treatment
Programme Academic Achievement Levels
Low Average High
Modelling Group I Group II Group III
Shaping Group IV Group V Group VI
Control Group VII Group VIII Group IX
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,
- 8) -
Subjects&
45 deaf students consisting of males were used in the
study. T~ sample was drawn from their natural cluster environ-
mentbecause deaf students of the standard required for this
study are not many in this country. In short all the form four
students available were used. Thus the subjects were drawn
from a deaf secondary school unit in Ibadan. Form four was
deliberately chosen to allow at least one year follow-up before
the students pass out from school. Their age ranged from 17-22
years with a mean of 19.5. Students who had acquired speech
before becoming deaf were not involved in the study because such
students were likely to have a s~i\Jht advantage over the other
subjects in English language.
The Academic Achievement Test (Abosi1) scores were used
to match the subjedts. The subjects were grouped into low,
average and high levels of academic achievement. Thus subjects
who scored 55 and above formed the high achievers, 4)-54 average
and 42 and below constituted the low achievers.
1. C.O. Abosi. Academic Achievement Test. Department
of Guidance and Counselling, University of
Ibadan, 1986.
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,
- 84 -
The 15 subjects selected for each of low, average and
high levels of academic achievement were assigned to three
groups by the random blocks technique. These three groups
(each containing 5 subjects) were then randomly assigned to
treatment programmes as followsl (1) to modelling, (1) to
shaping, and (1) to control. Therefore, of the 15 subjects
selected for each of low, average and high levels of academic
achievement, 5 went to each of modelling, shaping programmes
and control. In other words each of the nine groups involved
in the study contained 5 subjects (see figure 2).
Instrumentsl
The following instruments were used in the studYI
1. Academic Achievement Test (Abosi1).
2. Self Concept Scale (Akinboye2).
). Attitudes Towards English (Akinboye).
1. C.O. Abosi. Academic Achievement Test. Department of
Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibudan, 1986.
2. J.O. Akinboye. Adolescent Personality Data Inventory
(APDI). Marit"imePrinters, Ibadan, 1977.
). J.O. Akinboye. Attitudes Towards English.
University of Ibadan, 1974.
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I
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1. Academic Achievement Test (AAT)
Academic achievement test was constructed for measuring
the academic level of the subjects involved in this study by
the researcher. The test which consists of 100 items was used
in placing the children in the different levels thus low,
average, and high achievement levels. Subjects who. scored
below ~J on the test formed the low achievers, while subjects
who scored between ~J and 5~ formed the average and those who
scored 55 and above formed the high level achievers.
The psychometric information has been obtained on the
instrument. The test has a face validity hence the involvement
of some classroom teachers in the selection of the items. The
index val idity of the test is 0.75.
To determine the internal consistency of the test, the
split Half Reliability was computed based on the correlation of
the scores of the odd and even components. After adjusting for
full length using the Spearman Brown Prophecy Formular, Ir I was
found to be 0.82. The test exhibited a coefficient of stability
of 0.81 after correlating the scores on two administration with
two weeks interval with the same set of students.
2. Adolescent Personality Data Inventory
Adolescent personal Uata Inventory (APDI) (Akinboye1) is
1. J.O. Akinboye. Adolescent Personal Data Inventory
(APDl). Maritime Press, Ibadan, 1977.
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primarily designated to serve as a battery of non-intellective
ability tests. It may be used with other cognitive tests in
assessing the characteristic behaviour patterns of adolescents.
APDI consists of six sub-scale (A, B, C, D, E, and F)
as followSl
Self-concept
B Study behaviour
C Health attributes
D Psychopathology
E Vocational interest
F Questionnaire tapping facts about adolescents'
biological characteristics.
The present study employed the sub-scale A of the APDI.
Sub-scale ,~, is a general self perception scale which may be
able to tap academic SOCial, personal and intellectual ability
perception of the adolescents. It consists of )0 items. A co-
efficient alpha of 0.75 was established for internal consis-
tency reliability (Akinboye1,2). Akinboye1 further noted that
1. J.O. Akinboye. Adolescent Personal Data Inventory (APDI)l
Users Manual. Maritime Printers, Ibadan, 1985.
2. J.O. Akinboye. Research reports on the adolescent personal
data inventory. Paper presented at departmental
seminar. Department of Guidance and Counselling,
University of Ibadan, 1981.
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apart from the fact that a face validity was assured by the
process of item analysis and careful observation of the meaning
of the )0 items. factor analytic characteristics were established
for the sub-scale. Nine factors were isolated. Of these, 20
items loaded heavily on factor one which accounted for 16.0% of
the variance while the other 8 factors accounted for 5~.6%.
The sub-scale is scored by subjects rating themselves
numerically on a ten-point scale. Ratings on the nine-point
scale range from 0 to 8. Total scores on the sub-scale there-
fore range from 0 to 2~0. Subjects scores are interpreted
according to the following normsl
(1) 120 raw score represents just the minimum accept-
able self-concept for a psychologically healthy
person;
(2) 220 raw score represents a high self-concept.
(3) Any score below 120 indicates low self-concept.
). Attitude Towards English Scale
The scale was constructed, developed and validated by
~inboyel. The scale is based on (Shaw and Wright). The scale
was used to discriminate attitudes to reading between different
1. J.O. Akinboye. Study habits modification study attitudes
change and academic performance. Unpublished M.Ed.
dissertation, University of lbadan, 197~.
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levels. The English attitudes scale (EAS) has a test-retest
reliability of O.9~ and high construct validity.
PROCEDURE I
Heads of schools are somewhat reluctant to allow researchers
to carry out studies in their various schools since as they
claimed the result of such studies are never utilized. So apart
from making sure that the study was carried out in the subjects
school environment, permission was obtained from the school
before the study com.oenc ed; Deaf children could be unfriendly
and suspicious when they are not sure of one's mission. The ex-
perimenter, apart from conducting the experiment himself, took
time off to familiarize himself with the children - especiallY
as regards what they like. This situation helped the experi-
menter to determine what the children would like as reinforcers.
PRE-TREATMENT ASSESS~~TI
Before training started, all subjects were assessed in
the following areaSI
1. Academic Achievement Test (Abosi1 Appendix J).
1. C.O. Abosi. Academic Achievement Test.
Department of Guidance and Counselling,
University of lbadan, 1986.
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2. Self-Concept by Adolescent Personal Data Inventory
(Akinboye1 Appendix 5).
3. Attitude ~cale {Akinboye~ Appendix 4)0
After the ~nglish Achievement Test, the question papers
were retrieved from the subjects and they were not given the
papers until post-test assessment. The subjects were not also
told that it was the same test that would be given again at the
end of the treatment, thus reducing to some extent, the sensiti-
zation to the criteria tests which might contaminate the effects
of the treatment.
The subjects were ranked-ordered according to their per-
formances on the achievement test. The subjects who scored 55%
and above were ranked the high achievers, those who scored bet-
ween 43 and 54 formed the average achievers while those·who
scored 43% and below formed the low achievers.
The subjects were then divided into nine groups thus the
low achievers were randomly divided into three groups. The
average and high achievers were also randomly divided into three
groups each. The balot system was adopted in randomization.
1. J.O. Akinboye. Adolescent Personal Data Inventory
(APDI). Maritime Press, Ibadan, 1977.
2. J.O. Akinboye. Study habits modification study attitudes
change and aCademic performance. Unpublished M.Ed.
dissertation, University of Ibadan, 1974.
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The resulting nine group5were again randomly assigned to the
different methods for the different levelo
The random method of selection was deliberately chosen to
ensure that other extraneous variables resulting from dLfferences in
£ocio-economicbackground, previous knowledge of English language
etc. were brought into control.
Means of Communication adopted for the study:
This study adopted the sign language and finger spelling
aspect, of "total communication".
Total Communicationl
Total communication traditionally means the use of any
mode of communication or combination of modes in establishing
a two-way communication system with the deaf. It includes
speech, speech reading, audition, finger spelling, sign lan-
guage, gestures, pantomimes, reading, writing and drawing.
There is undisputable research eviden~~ pointing to the fact
that deaf children gain greater improvement educationally, psy-
chologically and socially when total communication is used with
them, than when any other single mode of communication is
employed (Mba 1).
Finger Spellingl
Finger spelling is a system whereby an individual can
represent manually each of the twenty-six letters in the English
1. P.O. Mba (Ed.). Syllabus in total comll1unicationfor the
Deaf. NERC, 1978.
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alphabet on a single hand. Finger spelling is thus a kind of
writing in the air.
Sign Language:
Sign language is a language in which what are commonly
called gestures do the usual work of words.
The sign language and finger spelling were used in teaching
~nglish language to the subjects, employing modelling and
shaping techniques with the relevant groups. The technique of
dividing the subjects of each group into low achievers, average
achievers and high achievers sub-groups was helpful for data
analysis, but for purposes of treatment, each group was taught
together, differences in level of achievement not withstanding.
Different programmes for modelling and shaping were built round
relevant sign language and finger spelling.
BASELINE:
Information collected before the behaviour change inter-
vention was implemented is referred to as baseline or pre-
intervention data (Walker and Shea 1). Akinboye2 describes
1. J.E. Walker and T.M. Shea. Behaviour modification
a practical approach for educators. The C.Vo
Mosby Co. Saint Louis, 1976.
2. J.O. Akinboye. Introduction to clinical behaviour
therapy in African contexts.
Department of Guidance and Counselling, Univer-
sity of Ibadan, 1984.
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- 92 -
baseline as the initial repeated measurement of the target
behaviour frequency before treatment.
Baseline data indicate the natural frequency of the
behaviour before it is manipulated in a therapy. The impor-
tance of a baseline data in a behaviour modification programme
cannot be over-stressed because it provides the foundation on
which the behaviour change process is evaluated. The data was
also used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention
during the evaluation phase of the behaviour change process.
Hersen and Barlow 1 have however war.ned that when selecting a
baseline, its stability and variability must be carefully
examined. This study in appreciation of the warning, used the
average or the mean of the baseline scores in plotting the base-
line graph.
During baseline, data on English achievement was collected
for five days. No attempt was made to teach the students. The
students were told that the exercise was to help prepare them
for their final examination whiCh would come up in the following
year. Also to enable them do well in English which many
students failed in the last West African School Certificate
examinations. Initially the subjects thought the exercise was
1. M. Hersen and D.H. Barlow. Single-case experimental
designsl Strategies for studying behaviour
change, 1977.
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for screening for those who would go on to form five but after
the second day, they became more relaxed and showed more
interest in the exercise. The mean for the scores obtained by
each group was recorded for the five days espe~ially when it
was observed that the response had become stable (see figure
5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and to and tables ta, b, c, 2a, b, c.).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Table lA: Baseline Data in English for
Modelling group
High Achievers
DAYS MEAN GRAUE MEAN GRADEBA~ELINE INTERV~TION
1 "6 7
2 6 7
J 7 8
It 6 8
5 8 9
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- 95 -
.o
c
-
(/)
Ul
~10 ~~V'
'-9 •., J
~ 8 •.~ .
r»
u/~'
- V "
"
7 .....
~ 6 .,.. •./
~
1 ~J
" 7'
~ 5
.~-5-
4
3
« 2
. 1 ,
12345 12345
Days Days
Baseline --- Intervention -
, Fig. 5. Achievement of the modeling
high achievers group before and during
in terven t io n .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Table lBI Baseline Data in English
for Modelling group
Average Archivers
DAYS MEAN GRADE MEAN GRADEBASELINE INTEHVENT ION
1 5 5
2 5 7
J 6 8
4: 5 10
5 5 10
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- 97 -
10
9 r
~
"
8 JV"
7 ,"/
6 oJ V'V'\
5 .•. ~/ I\u I J" " " " "
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 I 2.3 4 5
Days Days
.....:.-Baseline Intervention -
Fig. 6. Achievement of the rnodelinq
overage achievers group before and
during the intervention.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Table lea Baseline Data in English
for Modelling group
Low Achievers
DAYS Ml:..AGNRADE MEAN GRADEBASELINE INTERVENTION
1 J 4
2 2 4
J 4 5
4 4 5
5 5 5
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- 99 -
c
.0
U-l
Ul
~10
'-
c()J. 8
9
7
-c 6
~ 5 UI rU: U, v,
~ 4 ..
/'
/ .1/
>
.~ 3 u<, V '"
" ,..
~ 2 JA
<3: 1
1234512345
Days Days
- Baseline - Intervention-
Fig.7. Achievement of the modeling low
achievers group before and during inter-
vention.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Table 2AJ Baseline Data in English
for Shaping group
High Achievers
DAYS l-lliAGNRADE MEAN GRADEBASELINE INTERVENTION
1 6 6
2 6 6
J 7 7
4: 6 7
5 8 8
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- 101 -
c
.-0
(J)
~ 10
tJl 9
V""''"
~ 8 ,./
Q. 7 ...• / V
V"..
C ~6 ../ 1,....I ..~ ~I6 " "
(Y " "5
~E 4
>
.~ 3
-5 2
« 1
12345 i2345
Days Days
-Baseline Intervention-
Fig.8-Achi.ev~ment of t he shaping
high achievers group before and during
intervention.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Table 2Ba Baseline Data in English
for Shaping group
Average Achievers
DAYS MEAN GRADE MEAN GRADEBASELINE INTERVENTION "',
1 5 5
2 5 6
J 6 6
4: 5 7
5 5 7
I /I
- _ ......,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
- 10) -
c
.o-
\I)
lI)
~ 10
9
~ 8
~a. 7 •,..~.
__ 6 r"'" ./
~ 5 .. ~ ..• ../
~ "-
./ ~
" -n"
~ 4 "
.>~ 3
-5 -2
«1
12345 12345
Days Days
- Baseline --- Intervention -
Fig.9. Achievement of the shaping
overoqe achievers group before and during
in tervention.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
-,
"
Table 2CI Baseline Data in English
for Shaping group
Low Achievers
DAYS Mr:AN GRADE MEAN GRADEBASELINE INTERVENTION
1 J J
2 2 4:
J 4: 4:
4: 4: 5
5 5 5
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
- ;1.05 -
-e : "
. , c
.0-
Vl
Vl
~ 10
U) 9
&...
~ 80..
7
•••••
C .6
~
E 5 vr-
. •..1 ,•i...
.. ./ V"·4 ~ / •.I>~ If " V" ,..
.~- ..~ /J: a
u 2 '"hi
"
," <t "
J ..
1.. 234512345
Days Days
- Base line Intervention -
Fig .10.Achievernent of the shaping low
achievers 9rouP betore and during inter-
vention.
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- 106 -
The Treatment.
The programmes were originally scheduled to last for nine
sessions, but at the end of the intrOductory session, it was
realized that the deaf children progressed rather slowly in
language acquisition and therefore needed more time. A method
in which one session was spent on teaching and another session
spent in revising the previous work was adopted. This was to
ensure that the children understood the previous work before
new items were introduced to them.
For each of the programmes, modelling and shaping, apart
Lrom the post-test session, sixteen sessions were held. Each
session lasted for ~5 minutes and two sessions were held in
one week for each programme.
Trainigg in these programmes were administered to the
various groups of subjects as scheduled in figure 2. Subjects
in groups ~, II, III, (with low, average, and high) levels of
academic achievement respectively were trained in the same
'situation in modelling training programme. Subjects in groups
IV, V and VI with (low,awerage and high) levels of academic
achievement were in the same situation trained in shaping
training programme.
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- 107 -
Fig. lla (Demonstration of Modelling techniques)
A student demonstrates while peers observe
in a modelling session as they would be
expected to imitate him later.
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- 108 -
Subjects in groups VII, VIII, IX with (low, average and high)
levels of academic achievement respectively in the same
situation formed the control groups. The programmes were held
on Thursdays and Fridays of every week. At the end of each
session a take-home assignment covering the topic dealt with,
was given the subjects. The following topics were dealt with
on each programme.
i. The use of Nouns
ii. The use of present tense
iii. The ~e of personal pronouns
i~ The use of past tense
v. The use of future tense.
The take-home assignment given to the subjects at the end
of a session were completed and the scripts submitted for marking
during next session. The marked scripts were returned to the
subjects at the beginning of another session of the same pro-
gramme. Prizes in form of tokens were awarded to the best and
second best respectively in each of the modelling and shaping
groups in the post-test. The subjects were appropriately
informed before the commencement of treatment.
Token economies and social reinforcement which were con-
tingent on performance were employed in each programme. Apart
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- 109 -
from the above in-built, reinforcement strategy, the subjects
were trained to make certain self-statements after their com-
pleted assignments have been marked, irrespective of whether
they ~ere successful or not. This helped the subjects to
evaluate themselves and make certain self-instructions and
self-reinforcement.
The Modelling Programme.
During modelling the task was divided into components and
arranged in proper sequence. The researcher was the model. The
subjects were instructed to watch the performance of the model
quite closely and note the different steps taken by the model
and the sequence the steps were taken because they would later
be asked to do exactly what the model had done.
The model first demonstrated what should be done. He
commented as he moved from step to step; for example, he said
"The first thing to do is this" (he performed it), "then the
next is this" (he performed) and so on. When the whole task
had been performed, the model repeated it about three times
before asking the observer to perform.
Token economies and social reinforcement were made con-
tingent on performance. During modelling programme, vicarious
reinforcement was essentially employed. The researcher
rehearsed any task to be learnt before hand so as to be sure
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- 110 -
he was sufficiently competent to perform behaviours that would
be reinforcing to the observer.
Each session was divided intoa
(i) Behavioural objectivea where the aim for the
session was stated.
(ii) Teaching aidl the aids used during the session
were listed.
(iii) Exposure to modell Period when the model demon-
strated and the subjects obse-rved.
(iv) Acquisitionl when subjects imitated and performed.
(v) Reinforcement a Reinforcement strategy used.
(vi) Performance: Evaluation strategy used.
Session-by-session account o£ modelling programme is
given below - (for fuller details, see Appendix I).
Session ones
In this session, the subjects were taught how to identify
and use nouns. For example - common nouns are objects; proper
nouns are names of persons and places, abstract nouns are names
of ideas. (see Appendix I for details).
Session Two&
In this session, subjects revised what they were taught
in session one. More practice was on topics like the abstract
nouns. A take-home assignment was given on the topic taught.
This was assignment I.
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Session Threea
This session began with subjects submitting assignment I.
to the experimenter. The subjects were taught how to identify
and use personal pronouns. For example - I; you; he; she.
Session ~ourl
Subjects in this session, revised what they were taught
in session three. The subjects practised how to use personal
pronouns in making correct sentences. A take-home assignment
was given on the topic dealt with. This was assignment 2.
Session Fivel
This session started with the returning of the marked
scripts on the last assignment I to the subjects. Reinforcers
were used to reward good performance. The subjects were then
taught how to identify and use personal pronouns - They; we,
it; in a sentence. The subjects. submitted assignment 2 to the
experimenter.
Session Sixa
Subjects in this session revised what they were taught in
session five. The subjects used personal pronouns - they, we, it
making more sentences. A take-home assignment was given on to
topic dealt with. This was assignment J.
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Session Sevenl
This session begun with subjects submitting assignment J
to the experimenter and they were given marked assignment 2.
The subjects were taught how to make sentences in the present
tense using personal pronouns (I, you, he, she).
Session Eight&
In this se8sion, the subjects revised what they were
taught in session seven. The subjects practised sentence
making in the present tense using (I, you, he, she). A take-
home assignment was given on the topic done. This was. assign-
ment 4.
Session Nine&
In this session, the subjects were taught how to make
sentences in the present tense using personal pronouns (they,
we, it). The subjects submitted assignment 4 to the experi-
menter and they were given marked scripts on assignment ..J.
Session Tenl
The subjects revised what they were taught in session nine.
The subjects practised sentence-making using personal pronouns,
they; we; it; in the present tense. They were given a take-
home assignment 5.
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Session Eleven&
The session began with returning of the marked scripts to
the subjects. The subjects submitted assignment 5. to the ex-
perimenter. The subjects were taught how to make sentences in
the past tense using personal pronouns already learnt. For
example, he; she; I; you; they; we; it (see Appendix I).
Session Twelve&
The subjects were given more practice on the use of per-
sonal pronouns - they, we, it, you, he, she, in making correct
sentences in the past. The subjects were given take-home assign-
ment 6.
Session Thirteen&
In this session, the subjects were taught how to make
correct sentences in future tense using personal pronouns. At
the end of the session, the subjects were given marked scripts
and they in turn submitted assignment 6 to the experimenter
for marking.
Session Fourteen&
Here, the subjects were given more practice on future
tense. They used personal pronouns in making more sentences
in the future. The subjects were given a take-home assignment 7.
Session Fi fteen&
This session began with subjects submitting the take-home
assignment 7 to the experimenter for marking. The subjects
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were then drilled on sentence making involving past tense,
present tense and future-tense. The subjects were also given
marked scripts on assignment 6.
Session Sixteen.
The subjects were given final practice on sentence-making
involving the use of personal pronouns. The subjects were also
given the marked scripts on assignment 7 which is the last
assignment for the programme. (See Appendix I for full details).
Session Seventeen.
This- was the terminal session. The post-test was
administered on the subjects. All the children who participated
in the programme were reinforced with various items ranging from
biro, pencil to exercise books depending on the individual sub-
ject's choice. The outstanding subjects were given a special
token.
The shaping programme.
Under shaping, each learning task was divided into little
st~ps and arranged in the proper sequence. From an observation
of the manner in which subjects handled the pieces of apparatus
and their behaviour therein, the experimenter identified those
behaviours that were related to the first-step of the problem-
solving behaviour and capitalize on them. Using prompts, cues
I and instruction, the subjects were initiated into performing
the first-step behaviour. Even approximations to this behaviour
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Fig. 12& (Demonstration of shaping technique)
Prompting being used in a Shaping
session.
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were continously consistently and contingently reinforced until
the experimenter was satisfied that the behaviour had been con-
siderably mastered. Then with further cues and instructions
serving as discriminative stimuli, the subjects were led into
attempting the second-step behaviour. Approximations to this
behaviour being reinforced till mastery. In this way, progress
was successively made towards the target behaviour which Was
the last step in the hierarchy of event s. At each level of
performance, the experimenter went round the class to see the
individual performances of the subjects. Poor performance on
the part of a subject was not reinforced, rather the subject
was urged to go ahead and perform the desired behaviour. In
thi s, undesired behaviour Was extinguished; while only the
desired or approximations to the desired behaviour were re-
inforced.
Each session was divided into.
(i) Behavioural objectivel where the aim for the
session .was. listed.
(ii) Teaching aidl the aids used during the session
were listed.
(iii) Exposure to shaping. period when experimenter uses
cues, prompts and instruction to initiate the
children into performing the desired behaviour.
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(iv) A~quisitionl when subjects performed the desired
behaviour without cues and prompts.
(v) Reinforcement I Reinforcement strategy used.
(vi) Performance I Evaluation strategy used.
Session-by-session account of shaping programme is given
below (see Appendix I for fuller details).
Session Onel
In this session, the subjects were taught how to identify
and use nouns. For example - common nouns are objectsl Proper
nouns are names of persons and placesl abstract nouns are
names of Lde aas " (See Appendix 2 for details).
Session TwOI
In this session, subjects revised what they were taught
in session one. More practice was given topics like the
abstract nouns. A take-home assignment was given on the topic
taught. This was assignment 1.
Session Threel
This session began with subjects submitting assignment 1
to the experimenter. The subjects were taught how to identify·
and use personal pronouns. For example - I, you, she.
Session Fourl
Subjects in this session revised what they were taught
in session three. The subjects practised how to use personal
pronouns in making correct sentences. A take-home assignment
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was given on the topic dealt with. This was assignment 2.
Session Fi vel
This session started with the returning of the marke d
scripts on the last assignment 1 to the students. Reinforcers
were used to reward good performance. The subjects were then
taught how to identify and use personal pronouns - they, we,
it, in a sentence. The subjects submitted assignment 2 to the
experimenter.
Session Six,
Subjects in this session revised what they were taught in
session five. The subjects used personal pronouns - they, we,
it in making more sentences. A take-home assignment was given
on the topic dealt with. This was assignment J.
Session Seven,
This session began with subjects submitting assignment J
to the experimenter and were given marked assignment 2. The
subjects were taught how to make sentences in the present
tense using personal pronouns (I, you, he, she).
Session Eight,
In this' session, the subjects revised what they were
taught in session seven. The subjects practised sentence
making in the present tense using (I, you, he, she). A take-
home assignment was given on the topic done. This was assign-
ment It.
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Session Ninel
In this session, the subjects were taught how to make
sentences in the present tense using personal pronouns (they,
we, it). The subjects sUbmitted assignment 4 to the experi-
menter and were given marked s~ripts on assignment J.
Session Tenl
The subjects revised what they were taught in session
nine. The subjects practised sentence-making using personal
pronouns - (they, we, it) in the present tense. They were
given a take-home assignment 5.
Session Elevenl
The session began with the returning of the marked scripts
to the sUbjects. The subjects submitted assignment 5 to the
experimenter. The subjects were taught how to make sentences
in the past tense using personal pronouns already learnt. For
example, he, she, I, you, they, we, it.
Session Twelvel
The subjects were given more practice on the use of per-
sonal pronouns - they, we, it, you, he, she, in making correct
sentences in the past. The subjects were given take-home
assignment 6.
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Session Thirteenl
~n this session, the sUbjects were taught how to make
correct sentences in future tense using personal pronouns.
At the end of the session, the sUbjects were given marked
scripts and they in turn submitted assignment 6 to the experi-
menter for marking.
Session Fourteenl
Here the subjects were given more practice on future tense.
They used personal pronouns in making more sentences in the
future. The subjects were given a take-home assignment 7.
Session Fifteen.
The session began with subjects submitting the take-home
assignment 7 to the experimenter for marking. The subjects
were then drilled on sentence making involving past,tense,
present tense and futUre tense. The subjects were also given
marked scripts on assignment 6.
Session Sixteen.
The subjects were given final practice on sentence - making
involving the USe of personal pronouns. The subjects were also
given marked scripts on assignment 7 which is the last assign-
ment for the programme.
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Session Seventeenl
This was the terminal session. The post-test was
admini stered on the subject a, All the chil.dren who participated
in the programme were reinforced with various items ranging from
biro, pencil to exercise books depending on the individual
subjects choice. The outstanding subjects were given a special
token. (See Appendix 2 for full details of the shaping pro-
gramme).
~T-T~AT~NT ASSESS~NTI
At the end of treatment period, all the subjects were re-
assessed in the same respects and by the same instruments as
done during pre-treatment assessment.
CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES I
This study could rightly be described as a field experi-
mente (Kerlinger1) describes field experiment as a research
study in a realistic situation in which one or more independent
variables are ~anipulated by the experimenter under as Care
fully controlled conditions as the situation will permit. As a
result, the control of the experimental field situation cannot
match that obtainable from laboratory experimental situation.
\.- 1. F.N. Kerlinger. Foundations of Behavioural Research.
Hol t, Rinehart and Winston, 1973.
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This is due to the possibility of independent variables mani-
pulated by the experimenter being contaminated ..by uncontrolled
environmental variables. In other words, one of the main tasks
of the field experimenter is to try to make the research con-
dition approximate the conditions of the laboratory experiment
more closely - This is rather difficult thing to do.
This study was carried out in accordance with certain
strategies that would reduce a great deal of the contermination
by extraneous variables. By adopting factorial design, the
recognisable extraneous variable - variations in subjects pre-
test academic achievement was controlled-by incorporating
achievement levels into the design. Extraneous variables were
also controlled by selection of subjects through several
stages of randomisation. Testing conditions were uniform for
all subjects in the sUbject. There was one therapist - the
experimenter himself. The experimenter administered the two
treatment programmes. The use of more than one experimenter
would have introduced more bias.
Hawthorne effect (subjects reactions to novelty or change
other than specifics of the treatment programmes) might also not
have contaminated the independent variables recognisably. In
addition to treating in the same situations all subjects
scheduled for same treatment, Hawthorne effect would have been
controlled through extended period of treatment, and more so
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when homework assignments are a significant component of each
programme.
As an additional strategy for controlling extraneous
variables, it Was hoped that the sensitivity of analysis of
covariance would control for variations beyond the reach of
the design and other procedures of research. The overall
situation is that where the effects of extraneous variations
still remain, the efficacy of the treatment programmes would
be reduced. But where the efficacy of the treatments remain
significant despite the effects of extraneous variations, and
through analysis of covariance which has the advantage of
regression and analysis of variance, then the treatments will
be regarded as effective.
ANALYSIS OF DATAl
Data obtained in this study were analysed to determine
the effects of the independent variables on the dependent
variables. The main independent effects of modelling and
shaping methods(on the rows) and Low, Average and High levels
of academic achievement (on the column) on English language
achievement of deaf children including their self concept,
locus of control, and attitude were determined. In addition,
the interactive effects of modelling and shaping programme~
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(on the rows) and low, average and high levels of academic
achievement (on the columns) on the dependent variables were
determined. Furthermore, differntial effects of these indepen-
dent variables on the dependent variables were investigated.
Analysis of covariance and t-test (using standard error
of means) were employed to analyse the data. Analysis of
covariance was adopted for this purpose on the basis of its
advantages in increasing precision in randomised experiments.
Kerlinger1 points out that analysis of covariance is a form of
analysis of variance that tests the significance of the diffe-
rences between means of final experimental data. This is done
by taking into account the correlation between the dependent
variable and one or more covariates, and by adjusting initial
mean difference in the experimental groups. Operationally,
analysis of covariance corrects initial mean differences in the
pre-test measures between the experimental groups taking the
correlation between the pre-test and the post-test measures
into account. In effect, analysis of covariance reduces the
effect of extraneous variations in pre-test measures and on
1. F.N. Kerlinger. Foundations of Behavioural Research.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, London, 1973.
2. W.G. Cochran. Analysis of covariance: its~na~ure and
uses. Biometrics. 1957, 13.
3. H.F. Smith. Interpretation of adjusted treatment means
and regressions in analysis of covariance.
BiometricB, 1957, 13.
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By the way of 't'-test using standard error of means, diffe-
rential effectiveness of the independent variables was
ascertained.
"
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CIlAPTEH THREE
RESULTS
The chapter on Results is organized in such a way that
the hypotheses posed in chapter one of this report might be
tested. The results of the tested hypotheses essentially form
the content of this chapter. Hypotheses are tested one by one,
and the results are explained by reference to the tables.
In testing the hypotheses that there is no significant
difference between the English achievement of deaf students
treated with modelling and shaping programmes respectively
and the control group. Tables )-6 indicate the results of
possible combined effects of the treatment programmes (modelling
and Shaping) and academic achievement levels (high, average and
low) on the English language achievement of some secondary
school deaf children. The rows show the effects of the treat-
ment programmes, while the columns show the effects of levels
of academic achievement on English achievement of the subjects.
Table ~ specifically shows that the treatment programmes had
statistically significant effects on English language achieve-
ment of deaf children (F=23.87, dfc2/36, P~.Ol). The main
effects of level of academic achievement and the interaction
effects of the treatment programmes were also statistically
significant.
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TABLE ): ADJUSTED Y-~ANS OF SUBJECTS ENGLISH LANGUAGE
ACHIEVEMENT SCORES BASED ON TREATMENTS AND
ACHIEVE~NT LEVELS.
ROWS· COLUMNS··
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMKNT LEVELS
HIGH AVERAGE LOW
X-X Y-x N X-X- Y-X- N X-X- Y-X- N
MODELLING 59.80 68.80 5 4.8.20 70.4.0 5 27.25 4.6.50 5
SHAPING 60.60 66.4.0 5 4.9.20 58.0 5 30.80 52.20 5
CONTROL 59.00 59.60 5 4.8.4.0 4.8.80 5 28.75 27.25 5
• ROWS: TREATMENTS: MODELLING
SHAPING
•• COLUMNS: Academic Achievement levels
High
Average
Low
't..
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TABLE ~& ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SUBJ~CTS ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SCORES ON TREATMENTS AND ACHIBVEMENT LEVELS
VARIABLE SOURCE SS DF MS F P
ROWS ~58.70 2 229.35 23.87 <'.01
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE COLUMNS 100.97 2 50.~8 5.26 <".05
ACHIEVE-
MENT
INTBRACTION 161.27 ~ ~0.31 ~.2 .c( .05
\WITHIN 1638.25 36 9.60
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TABLE 5. INTER-TREATMENT GROUP T-TE":! :CX",I.'Ahl!:lUl'i OF ADJUSTED
Y _ MEANS OF SUBJECTS ENGLI:::ik LI'.J\IGUJ-\GF.t ACHIEVJ::MENT
SCORES.
VARIABLE MODELLING GROUP CONTROL GHOUf t PL
N X SD N X SD
15 63.0 15.18 15 46.8 13.6 3.13 .001
SHAPING GROUP CONTROL GROUP
ENGLISH N X SD N X SD
LANGUAGE 15 58.8 9.0 15 46.8 13.6 2.88 .05
MODELLING GROUP SHAPING GROUP
N X SD N X SD
15 63.0 15.18 15 58.8 9.0 0.9 NS
NS = Not Significant at .05.
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TABLE 6: T_T~ST COM.t>AHISOJ'.OF WUSThD Y. _. r"!E.~'1;; ,.)f ~UBJECTS
ENGLISli LANGUAGE ACHIEVE.HENT ;:;CCX{f/· bf •• LiJ 0N
TREJ\TMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIF.;V";[Jl~Ij'l' LEVl;,LS.
VARIABLE MODELLING HIGH GROUP SHAPING HIGH GROUP t P'-
N X SD N X SD , t
5 68.8 9.36 5 66.4 8.45 , .:O.l~ NS
ENGLISH MODELLING AVERAGE GROUP SHAPING AVERAGE GROUP
N X SD N X SD
LANGUAGE 5 70.4 4.32 5 58.8 7.93 6.37 .001
MODELLING LOW GROUP SHAPING LOW GROUP
N X SD N X SD
5 46050 16.72 5 52.2 3.96 1.00 NS
NS * Not Significant at .05
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It was also found by a surface observation of the means
of the pre-test scores (X - X) and post-test scores (y _ X) and
of the adjusted Y- scores (Adjusted Y-X) - (table I) that both
the modelling and the shaping procedures improved to some
extent the English achievement of the high, average and low
ach Le ver-s ;
To analyse the data further, t-tests were employed to com-
pare the adjusted Y-means of pairs of sub-groups (tables 5 and 6).
Tables 5 and 6 indicate the following-reBultsl
(a) There was no significant difference between the
scores of subjects who were trained under modelling
and those trained under shaping.
(b) Subjects treated with the modelling programme
scored significantly higher than those in the
control group (t~3.1Jt df:28, P ~OOl).
(c) Subjects trained with the shaping programme per-
formed better than those in the control group
(t=2.68, dfc28, P<.05).
(d) There was no significant difference between the
high achievers of the modelling group and the high
achievers of the shaping group.
(e) The average achievers of the modelling group were
superior to the average achievers of shaping group
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in English achievement (' = 6.3, df = 8,
p L... .001).
(f) There was no significant difference between the
low aChievers of the modelling group and the low
achievers of the shaping group.
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([) And finally among subjects treated with shaping pro-
gramme, the average achievers scored higher than the
low achievers (t=7.52, df;:8, P (..001).
These results indicate that the effects of the treatment
programmes (Modelling and Shaping) on English language develop-
ment were mediated by the academic achievement levels of the
treated groups. For each of the programmes (modelling and
shaping), subjects with high academic achievement ability scored
significantly higher than those with low academic achievement
abili ty. For subjects in the control group, no mediation
effect was observed between the high achievers and low achievers.
In testing hypothesis J that there is no significant diffe-
rence between the English achievement of deaf students treated
with modelling programme and those treated with shaping programme.
Table 5 shows no significant difference between the effect of the
two programmes, but a closer observation of the adjusted ¥-means
of the subjects scores on table J shows that the modelling group
has a higher mean than the shaping group.
In testing hypothesis ~ that there is no significant diffe-
rence in the attitude of students treated with modelling,
shaping programmes and the control group; analysis of covariance
(table 8) which is robust in nature confirms that both modelling
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and shaping were statistically significant in improving the
attitude of the deaf towards English language (F=4.73t df=2/36,
p Zo05).
Using a t-test to further analyse the differential
effectiveness of modelling and shaping in improving the attitude
of the deaf towards English, (table 9) indicates the following
results'
(a) There waS no significant difference in the attitude
of the subjects treated with modelling programme and
those treated with shaping programmes towards English.
(b) Subject treated with the modelling programme scored
significantly higher than those in the coutrol
group (t= 3.6]" dl=2ut p ~.001).
(e) Subjects treated with shaping programme scored
significantly higher than those in the control
group (t=3.59., df=28, P .(.001).
(d) The high achievement subjects of the mOdelling group
were superior to the high achievement subjects of
the shaping group (t=2.31, df••8•, P <.. .05).
(e) There was no significant difference in the attitude
of the average academic achievement subjects of
modelling and shaping groups. respecti vely. '
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TABL.I~7 & ADJUSTED Y-MEANS OF SUBJECTS ATTITUDES SCORES
BASED ON TREAT~NTS AND ACHIEVEMENT ~VELS
ROWS· COLUMNS··
ACADEMIC ACH IEVEMENT LEVELS
HIGH AVERAGE LOW
X-X Y-X N X-X Y-X N X-X Y-X N
MODELLING 36.80 47.80 5 4:1.20 4:1.80 5 38.50 4:9.15 5
SHAPING 35.60 39.20 5 35.4:0 4:0.4: 5 4:0.60 44:.00 5
CONTROL 37.60 38.4:0 5 30.60 33.60 5 31.25 35.00 5
• ROWSa TREAT~NTS& Modelling
Shaping
•• COLUMNS: ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS
High
'Average
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.: TABLE 81 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SUBJECTS ATTITUDE
SCORES ON TREATM&NTS AND ACHn;V~MENT lliVELS
VARIABLE SOURCE S5 DF MS F P
ROWS 101.39 2 5.69 4,.73 L... .05
ATTITUDE COLUMNS 14,.31 2 7.15 0.67 (NS)
INTERACTION 4,1.23 4, 10.30 0.9 (NS)
WITHIN 1828.08 36 10.70
NS :=: Not significant at .05.
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TABLE 9: INTER-TREATl'lI:.:Nb'kf(JUP T-TEST COMPARISON OF ADJUSTEL
Y - MEANS OF SuBJECTS ATTITUDE SCORES.
VARIABLE MODELLING GROUP CONTROL GROUP t P~
N X SD N X SD
15 47.2 10.9 15 35.8 4.6E 3.67 .001
ATTITUDE SHAPING GROUP CONTROL GROUP
N X SD N X SD ~ ~ .- -
15 44.7 -8.26 15 35.8 4.68 3.59 .001
1
.-
MODELLING GROUP SHAPING GROUP
N j( SD N X SD
.
15 47..2 10.9 15 44.7 8.26 1.09 NS
NS :: Not Significant at .05
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TABLE 10:
ACHIEVEMENT LEVE1.Sc
I I I
VAlUABLE MODELLING HIGH GROUP S pt-.H•.APING MIGH GtWUP t
N X SD N I II X SD
5 47.8 14.8 5 39.20 12.17 2.3 .05
I--MODELLING AVERAGE GROUP SHAPING AVERAGE GROUP
fit . '.;
ATTITUDE N X SD N X SD
5 41.8 3.18 5 40.4 3.93 1.2 NS
MODELLING LOw GROUP SHAPING LOW GROUP
N X SD N X SD
5 49.15 8.83 5 44.00 5.84 1.87 NS
I I II
NS = Not Significant at .05
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(f) There was also no significant difference in the
attitude of low academic achievement subjects of
modelling group and the low ~cademic achievement
subjects of shaping group.
Further analysis with t-tests reveal some significant
differences in the effects of the programmes (modelling and
shaping) on the attitudes of the different academic achievement
levels (high, average and low) for each treatment groups.
Adjusted Y-means scores of the subjects attitude based on treat-
ments and academic achievement levels were compared using the
t-test statistics.
Table 10 indicates the following resultsl
(a) Among subjects treated with mOdelling and shaping pro-
grammes the modelling high achievers!scored higher than
the Shaping high achievers (t~2.J, df=8, P .05).
In testing hypothesis 5 that there is no significant diffe-
rence in the self-concept of deaf students treated with modelling,
shaping programmes and the control group; table 12 indicates
that both modelling and shaping programmes were statistically
significant in improving the self-concept of the deaf students
(F=7.52', df=2/J6, P L.Ol).
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Using a .t-test to furth~r analyse the differential
r
effectiveness of modelling and shaping in improving the self-
concept of the deaf subjects, Tables 13 and 14 indicate the
following results:
(a) There was no significant difference in the self-
concept of subjects treated with modelling pro-
gramme and those treated with shaping programme.
(b) Subjects treated with modelling programme scored
significantly higher than those in the control
group (t=2.08, df=28, P~.05).
(c) Also subjects trained with the shaping programme
scored higher than those in the control group
(t=2.08,df=28, P ~.05).
(d) There was no significant difference.in the self-
concept of the high academic achievement subjects
of modelling group and high academic achievement
subjects of shaping group.
(e) There was no desirable significant difference in
the self-concept of the average academic achieve-
ment subjects of the shaping group.
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TABLE 11& ADJUSTED Y-MEANS OF SUBJECTS SELF CONCEPT SCORES
BASED ON TREATMENTS AND ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS.
ROWS· COLUMNS··
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS
HIGH AVERAGE LOW
X-X Y-X N X-X- Y-X- N X-X- Y-X N
MODELLING 15.20 16.60 5 13.00 17.00 5 14.50 15.50 5
SHAPING 15.60 16.60 5 15.60 16.60 5 13.20 10.00 5
CONTROL 16.80 16.80 5 16.60 16.00 5 15.25 14.75 5
·ROWS: TREATMENTS: Modelling
Shaping
··COLUMNSa ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT .LEVELS
High
Average
Low
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TABLE 12: ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SUBJECTS SELF, CONCEPT
SCORES ON TREATMENTS AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
LEVELS.
VARIABLES SOURCE . SS DF MS F P
ROWS 11.45 2 5.72 7.52 L.. .01
SELF COLUMNS 1.)2 2 0.62 0.87 (NS)
CONCEPT
INTERACTION 9.88 4 0.47 ).2 (NS)
WITHIN 129.91 )6 0.76
NS Not significant at .01.
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TABLE 13: INTEH._'l'REATfc1ENT GROUP T-TrSI ';O;"J'N\l;iON OF Al)JUSTED
Y -, MEAN!> OF SUBJECTS SELF CGN :r;PT SCORES.
VARIABLE MODELLING GROUP CONTROL GROUP t PI-
N X SD N X SD
15 16.46 2.22 15 14.8 2.19 2.08 .05
SELF SHAPING GROUP CONTROL GROUP
CONCEPT N X SD N X SD
15 16.43 2.05 15 14.8 2.19 2.08 .05
MODELLING GHOUP SHAPING GROUP
N X SD N X SD
15 16.46 2.22 15 16.33 2.05 0.92 NS
NS Not Significant at .05
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TABLE 14: T _ TEST COMPARISON OF' '-!.it.,::.'J'LV Y _ MEANS OF
SUBJECTS SELF CONCEPT SCOiU':,s. BA!:>ED0l'J TR~TMENT
AND ACADEI-'lIACCHIEVr;l'1ENLTEV.t:;LS.
VARIABLE MODELLING HIGH GROUP SHAPING HIGH GROUP t pe:-
N X SD N I X SD
5 16.6 1.35 5 16.6 1.35 0.0 NS
SELF MODELLING AVERAGE GROUP SHAPING AVERAGE GROUP
CONCEPT N X SD N X I SD
5 17.0 1.25 5 16.4 1.95 0.98 NS
MODELLING LOW GROUP SHAPING LOW GROUP
N ·X SD N X SD
5 15.5 3.25 5 10.0 2.61 2.96 .05
NS = Not Significant at .05
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(f) There was a significant difference in the self
concept of the subjects; the low academic achieve-
ment subjects of the modelling group were superior
to the low academic achievement subjects of the
shaping group (t = 2.96, df = 8, P ~.05).
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Although it was found by a surface observation of the
means of the pre-test scores (X-X), post-test scores (Y-x), and
of the adjusted Y-scores (adjusted Y-X) - (table 11 that both
the modelling and shaping procedures improved to_ some extent,
the self concept of the subjects, a closer observeration shows
that the mOdelling programme had a more positive effect on the
self concept of the subjects.
Apart from the results obtained from the statistical cal-
culation which shows the effectiveness of the modelling and
shaping procedures on the four variables used in this study -
English, Attitude, Locus of Control and Self Concept, the base-
line data graphs (fig. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10) clearly show
improvement in English language achievement of the subjects
during intervention.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The results and conclusions obtained from the present study
have been summarized as followsl
MOdelling and shaping programmes had significant effects
on subjects English language development. Their effects however,
were mediated by academic achievement levels of the subjects
involved in the therapy. Across the treatment programmes,
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subjects who were trained under modelling programme scored
significantly higher than those treated under shaping programme.
The high academic achievers scored significantly higher than
the low academic achievers. There was no change in the scores
of the control group.
!
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CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION
Efforts are made in this chapter to discuss the findings
of the study as they relate to the earlier posed research
questions. The peculiarities of this study are highlighted so
that readers may interprete the findings within such peculia-
rities. The limitations of the study will also be outlined
before the actual discussions. This is to enable the reader
appreciate the contribution of this study in line with such
limitations. The implications of the findings of this study
for schools, teachers and further researches will be specified
and relevant recommendations made.
Peculiarities of the study&
A number of studies have been carried out in Europe and
America in line with the present study but none of these studies
has African background in terms of home and environmental
influences. The present study took into consideration the
influence of Nigerian culture, including Nigerian attitude
towards the hearing impaired.
Here in Nigeria, some researchers had however studied the
effectiveness of modelling and shaping on some school subjects.
Many have also compared Lhe methods in terms of their effective-
ness in improving ~hese abilities. But such studies were carried
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out with hearing students and not with the deaf.
Again even though adequate randomization and necessary
experimental controls were adopted in this study, it was not
possible to remove inter subjec~ differences such as intellec-
tual ability levels, socio-economic background and otlier per-
sonality influences. These are normally not reduced by randomi-
za~iull, so statistical control wa~ used. If statistical control
had any limitations, it was felt that this would be minimal.
Inspite of this, it is important to report that statistical
control was used to equate factors like differences in intel-
lectual ability levels, socio-economic background and other forms
of inter subject differences.
One area of possible limitation is the fact that the experi-
ment was conducted in the open school system. It is possible
that routine school procedure would have been a source of dis-
traction to the experimental subjects. If such distractors should
have effect, it should show on the effect of the programmes on
the treated subjects. Possibly, the effect of the programmes
wbuld have been more profound if it was conducted in an entirely
stimulus environment.
Yet another problem that was encountered was how to keep
students of different groups (modelling, shaping and control)
apart to avoid possible interactions that might prevent the
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differential effects of the methods from being realized. The
groups to which the students belong were not considered when
placing them in the various classrooms. The precaution taken
to avoid contamination of the methods was to teach the groups
the same day. While one group was receiving treatment, the rest
of the groups were kept under control with the help of the class
teachers.
Control of extraneous variables could not have been abso-
lute in the present study, especially as it was a field experi-
ment. Nevertheless, the design and procedure of the study would
have minimized contamination by extraneous variables.
Discussion on the Findingsl
The findings of the present study indicated that the
subject treated with modelling and shaping programmes showed
significant difference in English language across treatments and
academic achievement levels. This therefore means the rejection
of hypotheses one and two which state that there is no signifi-
cant difference between the English achievement of deaf students
treated with modelling and shaping programmes respectively and
the control groups. Results of the analysis of covariance showed
significant differences in the English language achievement bet-
ween the three groups. Further analysis with the t-test statistic
revealed that subjects treated with either Modelling or shaping
scored significantly higher than the control group. But there
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was no difference between the English language scores of the
modelling group and that of the shaping group.
The finding that modelling programme had statistically
significant effect on English language achievement of secondary
school deaf students corroborates the findings of researchers
who found that modelling is an effective strategy that could
be used in helping deaf children in language development.
(Schumaker et al)1. Other researchers with similar findings
include crayer2, GoldsteinJ, HOlman~ and Cornine5•
Supporting the effectiveness of modelling, Piaget6 had
asserted that imitative learning is a very crucial process in
mental development. In another study which is in line with the
1. J. Schumaker and J.A. ~herman. Training Generative verb
usage by imitation and reinforcement procedune.
Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis J, 1970.
2. T.L. Crayer. Application of self-modelling procedure to
modify inappropriate behaviour. Behaviour Research
and Therapy vol. 8, 1970.
J. A.P. Goldstein. Increasing independence via use of
modelling procedures. Journal of educational
research vol. 72, No. ~, 1980.
~. L.R. Holman. The effect of stimulus presentation mode
and cognitive style on sentence recognition memory.
J. of educational research vol. 72, No.~, 1980.
5. D. Carnine. Relationship between stimulus variation and
formation of misconception. Journal of educational
research, vol. 7~, No.2, 1980.
6. J. Piaget. Psychology of the child.
Basic Books Inc., New York, 1969.
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present study, Stromer 1 remedied various letters and number
reversal difficulties in children by the modelling techniques.
Malouf and Dodd 2 not only demonstrated that imitation and
expansion could be used to teach an artificial grammatical rule
concerning word order but also showed the effectiveness of
modelling. The operant characteristics of modelling have been
well established HollandJ, HOlland~, Schroeder5• As such
modelling which has proved a successful behaviour modification
teChnique in the classroom situations has also corroborated its
efficacy in the present study.
One explanation for the enhanced English language achieve-
ment of the students treated with modelling programme could be
that the modelling procedure, through showing students what to
1. R. Stromer. Modifying letter and number reversals in
elementary school children. Journal of Applied
Behaviour analysis, 1975.
2. R.E. Malouf and D.H. Dodd. Role of exposure, imitation
and expansion in the acquisition of artificial
grammatical rule. Developmental Psychology, 1972.
J. J.G. Holland. Techniques for behavioural analysis of
human observing. Science 125, 1957.
~. J.G. Holland. Human Vigilance. Science 128, 1958.
5. S.R. Schroeder. Operant control of eye movement
during vigilance. Doctoral dissertation, Univer-
sity of Pittsburgh, 1967.
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do by concrete examples and active participation improved the
information gathering ability, facilitated comprehension and
memory and therefore enhanced the overall ~nglish language
acquisition. It is through observational learning-modelling
that a student comes to see similarities and differences and
understand some cause-effect relationships.
Further more the deaf child is virtually cut off from the
auditory stimulus surrounding those who hear. If the deaf
child does not look directly at the information-bearing stimulus,
he is categorically prevented from acquiring that information.
In the classroom situation, the instructional stimuli from the
teacher and from fellow students who contribute to the dis-
cussion usually become the mOdel to imitate. Modelling has
therefore been found to be effective strategy for helping deaf
children in language development.
Another possible reason for improved achievement in
English by the deaf students was that they were strongly motivated
to learn English during this experiment so as to perform well
in their forth-coming General Certifi€ate Examination.
Modelling programme improved the attitude of the subjects
towards English language. This finding is supported by Scopes1
1. J. Scopes. Teaching Mathematics in the secondary school:
Cambridge University Press, 197J.
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studies. Scope 1 discovered that participation in a modelling
programme led some secondary school students to drop their
negative attitude towards mathematics and therefore achieved.
The haunch that satisfaction with school work and
favourable attitude towards studying are logically related to
scholastic achievement has been extensively investigated in
psychological research. The results of some of the studies are
relevant to the outcome of the present study. Capella et al2
in a study came with the finding that actual study time e~loyed
by a student is important but that the attitudes determine the
productivity of that study time. In the same light, LavinJ,
Kniveton4 and Malpass5 revealed from their findings that
study behaviours and study attitudes each contribute indepen-
dently to academic performance.
1. J. Scopes. Teaching Mathematics in the secondary
school. Cambridge University Press, 197J.
2. B.J. Capella, M. Wagner, J.A. Kusmier. Relation of study
habits and attitudes to academic performance.
Psychological Reports, 1982, 50 (2).
J. D. Lavin. The prediction of academic performance.
Russel Saga Foundation, 1965.
4. B.H. Kniveton. An investigation of the attitudes of
adolescents to aspect of their schooling& British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 1969, J9.
5. L.F. Malpass. Some relationship between students per-
ception of school and their aChievement. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 195J, 44 (8).
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The traditional principle o£ demonstrating the task
to be learnt, including the principle o£ "attitude
development" were embeded in the modelling procedure which
is there£ore very likely to be e££ective in teaching
English and other school subjects.
The e££ect o£ modelling on the sel£ concept o£ the subjects
was determined. It was found that the programme (modelling)
improved the self-concept o£ the dea£ students. This £inding
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supported the findings of Crayer 1,Scholl 2 • Crayer had applied
self-modelling techniques successfully to accomplish modifi-
cation of withdrawal-tendencies. This study also corroborates
the finding of GoldsteinJ that modelling was effective in
improving the self-concept in an individual.
On tne other hand, one reason why modelling improved the
self-concept of the treated subjects so quickly might be that
in this particular study the observers had confidence in the
model's knowledge of sign language which is an important means
of communication for the deaf. This was .en ouuh r-e in f'o r-ceoeut;
for the students to go ahead and accomplish the tasks and were
able to apply the gained confidence to other problems. Generaily,
the deaf are more relaxed if they realized that one is quite
knowledgeable in their language.
1. T.L. Crayer. Application of self-modelling procedure
to modify inappropriate behaviour. Behaviour
Research and Therapy, 1970, vol. 8
2. G.T. Scholl. Meeting Developmental Needs of the Blind.
School of Bducation, the University of Michigan,
1969.
J. A.P. Goldstein. Increasing independence via use of
modelling procedures. Journal of Bducational
Research, 1980, vol. 92, No.4.
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Hypothesis 2 had specifically stated that there is no
significant difference between the ~nglish achievement of deaf
students treated with shaping programme and the control group.
This hypothesis was rejected. It was found by an analysis of
covariance and t-test statistics that the shaping strategy had
statistically significant effect in improving the ~nglish
language achievement of deaf students. This finding is in
agreement with the findings of Wolf, Giles and Hall1 who
adopted the shaping strategy and using token-economy as a rein-
forcer accelerated achievement in low achieving fifth and sixth
graders.
Cruickshank's2 work corroborates with this study and the
two findings are quite similar. Cruickshank had employed
shaping programme in influencing the behaviour of a child with
some exceptional characteristics. The study of GardnerJ also
supports shaping as an effective strategy that was used to get
a girl to sit at her desk when the work time was announced.
1. M.M. Wolf, D.K. Giles and R.V. Hall. Experiments with
token reinforcement in a remedial classroom.
Behaviour Research and Therapy 6, 1968.
2. W.M. Cruickshank. The learning environment. In M.W.
Cruickshank and D.P. Hallathan (Eds.). Perceptual
and learning Disabilities in Children.
Syracuse University Press, New York, 1975.
J. W.I. Gardner. Children with learning and Behaviour
Problems. Allyn and Bacon Inc., Boston, 1978.
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Witman1 used positive reinforcement physical guidance and
fading procedures to produce pronounced increases in instruc-
tion following behaviour in severely retarded children.
Witman'sl study is quite in line with the present study.
Other findings which corroborate with the present finding
include the works of Geller et al2, scopesJ, Hingtgen and Trost 4:.
Chadwick5 in his own study clearly showed the effectiveness of
shaping on academic performance of under-achieving students.
1. T.L. Witman. Effects of Reinforcement and Guidance pro-
cedures on instruction - following Behaviour of
severely Retarded children. Journal of Applied
Behaviour Analysis 4:, 1971.
2. E.S. Geller, R.P. Johnson and S.L. Pelton. Community
based interventions for encouraging safety belt use.
American Journal of Community Psychology 10, 1982.
J. J. Scopes. Teaching Mathematics in the secondary schools
Cambridge University Press, 197J.
4:. J.N. Hingtgen and T. Trost. Intensive Reinforcement of
Imitative Behaviour in Mute Autistics Children.
American Medical Association, 1967.
5. Chadwick, B.A. Systematic Reinforcement. ACademic
Performance of under-achieving student's Journal
of Applied Behaviour.Ahalysis. Vol. 4:, 1971.
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A good understanding of the shaping process reveals that
some of the traditional principles for the teaching of English:
the step-by-step principle, the schematic principle and the
principle of programming (individualized instructions) are
embeded in the shaping strategy. If the traditional principles
can produce good results, it is not surprising therefore that
shaping is an effective strategy for teaching English, whether
to the deaf or hearing students.
The child exposed to language by the shaping process has
a clear and complete code to follow. Cornett 1 observes that
this approach offers fidelity to written code of English that
could prove advantageous to development of English.
Another explanation for the high achievement in English
by deaf students of the shaping group was that the students
were highly motivated to the subject. Deaf students in general,
live in a world of imagination and guesses; shaping which is
a prompting procedure seems to fall in line with their style
of life, thus acceptable to them.
1. O. Cornett, N.H. Rey, C. Williams and D.A. Knight.
Theoretical model of development of reading in
hearing impaired. A paper presented at Gallaudet,
1978.
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Hypothesis )1 That there is no significant difference
between the English achievement of deaf students treated with
modelling programme and t hose treated wi th shaping was accepted.
The two programmes were found to be equally effective. The
various research findings which corroborate the effectiveness
of modelling and shaping in the present study are quite rele-
vant here.
The effect of shaping on other varibales (attitude,
locus of control and self concept) employed in this study was
ascertained. The results obtained from the analysis of
covariance and t-test statistics show that shaping improved
the attitude of the subjects towards English language. This
finding is supported by Scopes 1 studies. Scopes1 discovered
that participation in a new behavioural approach led to some
secondary school students to drop their native attitude towards
mathematics and therefore achieved.
The hypothesis that positive attitudinal dimension towards
learning and satisfaction with academic environment are positive
1. J. Scopes. Teaching mathematics in the secondary schools.
Cambridge University Press, 1973.
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indeces of scholastic attainment has attracted a lot of psy-
chological investigations. The outcomes of some of the studies
are relevant to the findings of the present study. Capella et
all found out in their study that actual study time employed
by a student is important but that attitudes determine the
productivity of that study time.
In the same light, Lavin2, Kniveton3 and MaiPass4 revealed
from their studies that study behaviours and study attitudes
each contributes independently to academic performance.
The traditional principle of progressive learning including
the principle of "attitude development" are embeded in the
shaping procedure which is therefore very likely to be effective
1. B.J. Capella, M. Wagner and J.~. Kusmiers. Relation of
study habits and attitudes to academic performance.
Psychological reports, 1982, 50(2).
2. D.Lavin. The prediction of academic performance.
Russel Saga Foundation, 1965.
3. B.H. Kniveton. An investigation of the attitudes of
adolescents to aspect of their schooling.
British Journal of educational psy. 1969, 39.
L.F. Malpass. Some relationship ~e~ween students per-
ception of school and their achievement.
~ournal of educa~ional psy. 1953, 44 (8).
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
in teaching English and other school subjects.
Although the results of analysis of covariance indicated
that modelling and shaping programme had significant effect
on the attitude of the secondary school deaf students, across
treatment programme and academic achievement levels showed
varied results. There was no significant difference between
the attitude of modelling group and the shaping group. none-
theless, the high academic achievers of the mOdelling group
were superior to the high academic achievers of the shaping
group.
No doubt, what an individual sees would have a more
positive and a lasting effect on him than what he is told.
The effect of shaping on the self-concept of subjects
was determined. It was found that the programme (shaping)
improved the self-concept of the deaf students. This finding
agrees with the findings of Lowenfeld1 and SCholl2, who had
investigated and ascertained that a behavioural strategy like
1. B. Lowenfeld. Creative and Mental Growth.
Macmillan, New York, 1967.
2. G.T. Scholl. Meeting Developmental Needs of the Blind.
School of Education, University of Michigan,
1969.
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shaping improved the intelligence, self-concept, motivation
etc. of an individual.
The shaping programme encouraged the students to meet
challenges and to recognise their capacities and limitations
realistically. Success increased their self-esteem and they
were motivated to explore further; failure did not lead to
depression, the net result enhanced self-concept even within
a short period of time.
Another reason why shaping improved the self-concept of
the treated subjects so quickly might be that'the experimenter
combined finger spelling and sign language most effectively in
prompting the subjects, so the lessons were progressively
presented to them. This new innovation was enough reinforce-
ment for students to go ahead and accomplish the tasks and
were able to apply the gained confidence to other problems.
The study also tried to compare the effect of modelling
and shaping programmes on English achievement of deaf students.
The analysis of covariance and t-test statistics used in the
study showed no significant differences between mOdelling and
shaping programmes on the English achievement of the deaf. But
closer observation of the table of the adjusted Y-means for
both strategies shows that modelling had a slight advantage over
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161z -
the shaping programme in improving the Lnglish achievement of
the deaf. This outcome corroborates the finding of Marlin1
that modelling was superior to shaping in improving the pro-
blem solving behaviour of his experimental subjects.
Other studies which support the superiority of modelling
over shaping includes, Meadow2, Quigley), Vernon and Kohlz•
They maintained that mOdelling showed advantage over other
methods.
A number of reasons could be advanced for this finding.
Modelling demonstrates exactly the task to be performed, and
the subjects invariably imitated correctly. This probably
raised their morale and interest •. Shaping on the other hand,
is essentially a prompting and eliciting strategy for evoking
new ideas, the group that used it did not perform better than
1. J.T. Malin. Strategies in Mathematical problems-
solving. Journal of educational Research, vol. 7),
No.2, 1979.
2. K. Meadow. Early manual communication in relation to
deaf child's intellectual, social and communicative
functioning. American Annals of the Deaf, Jan. 1968.
). S. Quigley. Syntactic structures in language of deaf
children. Urbana Champaign Report, 1976.
Iz. M. Vernon and S. Koh. Early Manual Communication and
Deaf Children's attachment. American Annals of
the Deaf, 1970.
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the modelling group. The reason could be that the deaf children
might have missed some of the instructions while the modelling
group did not. This might be because they observed the model.
This was a visual process. In teaching the deaf such little
things that could be taken for granted may tilt the balance.
IMPLICATION OF THl:;FINVINGS
The results of this study have important implications for
application in the Nigerian educational settings. It was shown
in this study that the academic achievement level could be
fostered experimentally in the deaf. In formulating programmes
for fostering academic achievement, characteristics of the deaf
,j
should be taken into account. For example, it was found in the
present study that achievement level had significant effect on
English development. Subjects, high in academic achievement
scored higher than those low in achievement. This outcome
therefore means that it will be more challenging to foster
English language in subjects whose academic achievement levels
are low. A longer period may be required for the low achievers.
The common features between the treatment programme
appeared to have been more important than distinguishing features
regarding the effects of the programmes on English language
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improvement. These common features centred around goal setting,
task performance towards achievement of goals, and self-
reinforcement and self-instruction during task performance.
It seems that treatment programme incorporating these features
will foster or improve English language. The apparent effects
of the common features across the various treatment programmes
notwithstanding, differential effects were observed across
programmes. This means that the distinctive features of the
treatment programmes were of importance in fostering English
language. It may be necessary to stress these features
(modelling and shaping) as specific therapeutic goals.
j
However, it is of the opinion here that a blend of both
the modelling and shaping procedures can produce even better
effects. The teacher might start with giving cues and instruc-
tions and urge the students to go ahead to perform the first
step of the task. But when the first trial has failed, he
then demonstrates the task to be learnt. When the first step
has been mastered, the teacher goes to the second step using
the same technique - shaping followed by modelling. In this
way, some of the advantage of shaping and modelling will be
realized and retention enhanced.
It is obvious that modelling and shaping are just some
of the techniques that can be fostered in individuals learners
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in academic settings. It is recommended here that a more com-
prehensive study guidance programme that would be most suitable
to the Nigerian educational setting should have some guide-
post. Among these are Ln davadue Ld za'tLon ; Ueaf sLudents have
different programmes of needs, different ability patterns and
different methods of learning. To yield best results there-
fore, any dynamic psychologi~al programme in Nigeria should
be individualized as the student progresses in learning the
essential skills. An effective psychological programme should
go beyond helping a student discover what is wrong but should
include the relevant therapy.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUHTH~H RESEARCH
The behavioural techniques employed in the present study
are essentially promising for fostering and improving the
English language development in clients of varying characteris-
tics. The outcome of the present study calls for further
research for developing relevant therapies for fostering and
improving ~nglish language in subjects whose academic achieve-
ments are relatively low. For example extension of treatment
duration for subjects with low academic achievement could
result to considerably higher improvement in English language
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
performance than observed in the present study.
The design of the study may be modified to ascertain the
kind of information that subjects can best acquire with each
of the strategies (Modelling and Shaping). In other words,
did the subjects learn more specific facts or general ideas
through the use of the different psychological procedures?
The present study was rather detached from the subjects
regular academic activities in the school. There is therefore
the need to investigate the effectiveness of the modelling and
shaping therapies when incorporated into the regular academic
activities in the school. In such a situation the daily or
weekly study assignments in the various school subjects will
be built into the programmes as study tasks.
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Slobin, D.I. Universal and particular in the acquisition of
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acquisition. The state of the art. University Press,
Cambridge, 1982.
Slobin, D.I. Psycholinguistics. Scott forestman and company,
London, 1971t.
Smith, F. Understanding Reading - A psycholinguistic Analysis
of reading and learning to read. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston Inc., New York, 1971.
Smith, H.F. Interpretation of readjusted treatment means and
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Smith, S.J. Beaction of self-concept and others to the
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Spiker, C.C. "Verbal factors in the discrimination of
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Stokes, T.R. and Baer, D.M. An implicit technology of generali-
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Stokoe, W. The study and use of sign language sign language
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Stuckless, R. and Marks, C. Assessment of the written lan-
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Stroner, R. Modifying letter and number reversals in elemen-
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Sullivan, H.S. The structure of personality in Hall, C.S.
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APPENDIX I
MODELLING TRAINING PROGRAMME I
Introduction
Language is an auditory based symbol by which we under-
stand things and express our understanding to other people.
Infact, we need language for communication, self expression,
learning and pleasure.
The modelling programme is aimed at helping children
acquire and improve on the important skills of generating
English sentences that they would need as individuals. Under
modelling, the task to be learnt is divided into components
and arranged in proper sequence.
Unit ;n The use of Nouns
Unit III The use of Personal Pronouns
Unit III I The use of Present Tense
Unit IVa The use of Past Tense
Unit Va The use of future Tense.
The experimenter is the model. The children are to watch
the performance of the mod~l very closely, noting the different
steps taken by the model and the order in which the steps were
taken because they would afterwards be asked to do exactly
what the model had done. The model will start with the first
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step, demonstrating what should be done. He will conunent along
as he passes from step to step' e. g. "First thing to do is this
"(he performs)" then the next is this "(he performs)", and so
on. The model will demonstrate number of time, say three times
before asking the children to perfo~m.
Each session has been divided intol
(1) Behavioural Objective&- Where the aim for the
session is stated.
(2) Teaching Aid& The aids to be used during the session
are Iisted.
(J) Exposure to Model&- Period when the model demons-
trates and the subjects observe.
(~) Acquisitionl- When subjects imitate and perform.
(5) Reinforcementl- Reinforcement strategy to be used.
(6) Performancel- Evaluation strategy used.
Teaching deaf children could sometimes be slow because of
communication problem. Do not try to go too fast. Each Unit
apart from Unit I and V has been divided into two sessions
lasting JO minutes a session. Complete the units. If you do
not complete the unit, you cannot expect to achieve the full
benefit of the material.
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MOU~LLING TRAINING PROGRAMME (MTP): SES~ION BY SES~ION
ORDER OF PROGRAMME
SESSION ONE
Behavioural Objectivel-
At the end of this session, the children will be able to
identify nouns in a sentence and correctly use such nouns.
Teaching Aids:- Flash cards, pupils, pictures.
Exposure To Modell-
The experimenter is the model. The class teacher
assist while the children observe.
Step I: The experimenter signs to the children - "there are
three kinds of nouns.
Step III Esperimenter writes on the board in table form thusl
Common Nouns Proper Nouns Abstract Nouns
Names of Object Names of Person/Place Names of ideas in our mind
Step 1111 Experimenter now shows some examples of each of the group.
Common Nouns Proper Nouns Abstract Nouns
Objects names of Persons/Places names of ideas
bicycle Dele Ibadan Beauty
aeroplane Taiwo Akure honesty
boy John Oyo
girl Tun de
radio Oluchi
desk
table
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Acquisitionl- Experimenter calls the children one after the
other to imitate him by writing on the board under appro-
priate column I example of the various types of Nouns e.g.
"book", "ruler" under CommOn Nouns. Ogbomosho, Dele,
Tunde, Peter etc. under proper Nouns; movement, honesty,
pride etc. under Abstract Nouns.
Reinforcementl- Reinforce good performance with praises like -
"very gOod" clapping of hands; sweets should be given to
the best performers.
Performancel The children are given take home assignment.
SESSION TWO
Behavioural Objectivel
At the end of this session the children will be able to
identify the following personal pronouns (I, you, he, she)
in a sentence
(ii) Correctly use such pronouns
(iii) Associate the pronouns with appropriate nouns.
Teaching Aidl
Concrete objects, Flash cards, children themselves, class
teachers, sign language.
Exposure to Modell
The experimenter is the model. The class teacher assists
while the children observe. The class teacher stands some
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yards away from the experimenter.
Step II The experimenter signs "I". Children watch. ~xperi-
menter emphasizes the sign. Children watch closely to
see the shape of the fingers. "I" is written on the board.
Step II: Experimenter points to the class teacher and says "You".
Children are encouraged to watch the shape of the mouth
of the experimenter. ~xperimenter points to a member of
the class and says "You". This is to avoid the children
thinking that "You" refers only to the teacher. "You"
is now written on the board.
Step III: The experimenter exhibits pictures of a girl and a
boy on the board. Children watch. Experimenter points
to one of the girls in the class and says "She". "She"
is written on the board. Experimenter points to the
picture of the boy and says "He". ~xperimenter points to
one of the boys in 't.he class and says "He". ("He" and
"She") are written under relevant picture on the board.
Acquisition:
The experimenter calls out two children at a time. One
acting as the experimenter and the other - the class
teacher. The children will now imitate all that the
experimenter had demonstrate ("I", "You", "She" and "He").
Theirs exchange positions to make sure each pupil acted
as the experimenter. •
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Reinforcement: Praises and c lapping of hands are used to
reinforce those who did well.
Performance: The subjects are given take-home assigncent.
SESSION THREE
Behavioural Objective:
At the end of this session, the children will be able to
identify the following pronouns ('they', 'it', 'we') in
a sentence.
(ii) Correctly use such pronouns
(iii) Associate the pronouns with appropriate nouns.
Teaching Aida Picture of an animal, picture of children at
play, the teacher, sign language.
Exposure to Modell
The experimenter is the model. The class teacher assists
while the children observe.
Step I: The experimenter exhibits a picture of group of children
at play on the board and says "they" ("They" wri tten under
the picture). Experimenter calls the attention of the class
teacher pointing at the children says "They". (.;hildren
are strongly advised to watch the shape of the experi-
menter's mouth.
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step III Experimenter exhibits a picture of a dog or any other
animal on the board, pointing to it and says "it". Write
"It" on the board under the picture.
Step 1111 Experimenter and the class teacher sit with the
children. The experimenter pointing at everybody including
himself says "We".
Acquisitionl
The experimenter calls the children individually to
imitate the experimenter.
Reinforcement I Praises like "good" "well done" are used to
reinforce children who did well.
Performancel The subjects submit the previous assignment to
the experimenter and are given a take-home assignment II.
SESSION FOUR
Behavioural Objective&
At the end of the session, the subjects will be able to
make and identify sentence in present tense using the
following pronouns <"I", "You", "He", 'She')o
Teaching Aidl The children, Flash cards, class teacher, pictures.
Exposure To Modell The experimenter demostrates with the
help of class teacher each action verb.
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Step II experimenter tells the teacher "jump". As the teacher
jumps, the experimenter says to him "You jump". The
experimenter writes this on the board. (Vary the
activities with action verbs like (kick, throw, play).
Step III Experimenter calls out one of the girls and tells
her "jumps", as she jumps, the experimenter says to the
class pointing at the girl "she jumps". Write this on
the blackboard.
Step 1111 Experimenter calls out one of the boys and tells him
to "jump". The experimenter says to the class "he jumps".
Write "He jumps on the board.
Step IVI The eXperimenter jumps himself and says "I jump".
This is written on the board.
Acquisitionl The experimenter now invites the children one
after the other to do exactly what he had demonstrated
(III jump", "She jumps", "You jump").
Reinforcement I The children are appropriately reinforced with
praises. The names of those who did very well in the
last assignment are displayed on the blackboard.
Performance I The subjects submit the previous assignment to
the experimenter and are given take-home assignment :.1.11.
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SESSION l"IVE
Behavioural Objectivel
At the end of the session, the subjects will be able to
make and identify sentences in present tense using the
following pronouns (They, We, It).
Teaching Aidl Pictures, Flash cards, class teacher, Experi-
menter, blackboard.
Exposure To Modell The experimenter demonstrates with the
hel of the class teacher. Children observe.
Step II The experimenter tells the whole class to .stand and
jump. As they jump, he tells the class teacher pointing
at the children "They jump". Write "they jump" on the
board. Display a picture of children at play on the
board. The experimenter points at the picture and says
to the children "They ~lay". Vary activities - Play,
run, rock, laugh etc.
Step III Experimenter displays a picture of an animal jumping
and says "It jumps". Write on the board "It jumps".
Step 1111 The experimenter joins the class with the class
teacher. They all jump together. The experimenter says
to the children "We jump". "We jump" is written on the
board. Sign language for "We" is well demonstrated.
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step IV& Experimenter calls the attention of subjects to the
fact that in the present tense, when pronouns like "He",
"She", lilt" are used, "s" is added at the end of the verb.
Acquisition& The experimenter now calls out the children
individually to imitate the model. Other appropriate
action verbs are used e.g. clean, wash, sleep, run etc.
The experimenter gives command.
Reinforcement& Children who did well are appropriately
reinforced with praises and clapping of hands.
Performance & The subjects submit the previous assignment to
the experimenter and are given take home assignment IV.
The marked scripts are also given back to the subjects.
SESSION SIX
Behavioural Objective&
At the end of the session, the subjects will be able to
identify and make sentences in the past tense using some
of the pronouns previously learnt.
Teaching Ai d& Pictures, Flash cards, ball, sign language.
Exposure To Model& The Experimenter demonstrates to the
subjects to imitate.
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step II The experimenter shows a ball to the subjects.
He plays it a while and returns to a corner. The experi-
menter says to the subjectsl "I played the ball" a few
minutes ago. The experimenter writes on the board.
Step III The experimenter tells the class teacher to take the
ball and play for a while. The experimenter stops him
tells him to return the ball. Looking at the teacher,
the experimenter saysl "You played the ball" a while ago.
This is written on the board.
Step 1111 The experimenter calls a girl out and says to her
"jump" after jumping for a while he stops her and tells
her to go and sit down. Pointing at the girl, the experi-
menter tells the rest of class "she jumped a while ago.
(vary the activities e.g. kicked, laughed). Write "she
jumped" on the board.
Step IVI The experimenter calls out a boy and asks him to kick
the ball. The boy kicks the ball. The boy returns to
his seat. The experimenter now says to class "The boy
kicked ball". This is written on the board.
Acquisitionl The experimenter gives the children games acti-
vities like jumping, throwing, catching, bouncing. They
are to imitate the experimenter using pronouns in making
relevant sentences in the past tense, e.g. "I jumped",
"He bounced" etc.
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Rein forcemen tI Good performance is reinforced with praises
like "good", "clap for him", Excellent performance
could be given tokens like pencil, erazers. Poor per-
formance are encouraged to do better next time.
Performance I The subjects submit assignment IV to .he
experimenter. The marked scripts are returned to the
subjects. The take-home assignment V is given to the
subjects.
SESSION SEVEN
Behavi our alObje ctive I
At the end of session, the subjects will be able to
identi fy and make sentences in the future tense.
Teaching Aidl Class teacher, pupils, Flash cards.
Exposure to Modell The experimenter is the model. He demons-
trates. The children observe. The teacher assists.
Step II The Experimenter asks the class teacher "what will
you do when the school closes?
Teacher: "I will go home". The experimenter writes "I
will go home" on the board. The experimenter says to
the teacher "You will go homel" Experimenter writes
"You will go home" on the board. Experimenter asks one
of the girls "What will you do after school?" The girl
says "I will go home after school". Pointing at the girl,
the experimenter tells the rest of the class _ "She will
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go home after school". Write this on the board.
Step III Using "Tomorrow" as a marker, the experimenter asks
the class teacher "where will your pupils go tomorrow?"
Teacher: "Tomorrow, they will come to school". This
is written on the board.
Acquisition: The experimenter now calls out the children in
pairs and encourage them to imitate the model. Use
questions and answers method, e.g. "where will you go
after school?" Will she come to school tomorrow?"
Reinforcement I List the subjects names on the board and
star names of good performers. Subjects with the highest
number of stars will get ice-cream.
Perform nce: The subjects are given the marked scripts, the
subjects submit finished assignment to the experimenter.
They are given take-home assignment.
SESSION EIGHT
Behavioural Objectives:
To drill the children on English sentence making involving
Past tense, Present tense, and future tense so that at
the end of the session the children will be able to
generate English sentence.
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Teaching Aid: Flash cards, pictures, class teacher, pupils
themselves, the blackboard.
~xposure to Modell The experimenter is the model, the class
teacher assists while the children observe.
Step I: ~xperimenter draws a table on the board providing
for different tenses that have been taught.
Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense
Step III Using some of the events that the children know that
happened before and that will happen, the experimenter
fill the blank spaces. Experimenter cleans the board
and says "I clean the board now". "Yesterday, Tunde
cle aned the board" pointing at Tunde who must have cleaned
the board yesterday. "Tomorrow your teacher will clean
the board".
Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense
Now I clean the Tunde cleaned the The teacher will
board board yesterday clean the board
tomorrow.
Step 1111 Experimenter writes out sentences on the board
leaving blank spaces. The experimenter completes the
bl ank spaces.
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(i) Tomorrow the rain fall
(ii) Yesterday the football team a match
(iii) Baby Eagles Football in China
(iv) Our teacher his shirt now but tomorrow he ______ e
Acquisition, The experimenter calls out the children one after
the other to imitate him by filling the blank spaces
using verbs different from the ones used by the experimentere
Reinforcement, Good performers are given additional stars
on their names. The person with the highest stars gets
exercise book.
Performance' The subjects are given their marked scripts.
They also submit previous assignment to the experimenter
for marking.
SESSION NINE
Session 9 is the termination session for the modelling
training programme. It is expected that subjects would have
attained mastery of the programme by the end of this session.
The experimenter will administer Post-Test at this session.
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APP~NDIX 2
SHAPING TRAINING PHOGRA~
Introduction
Language is an auditory based symbol by which we under-
stand things and express our understanding to other people.
Infact we need language for communication, self expression,
learning and pleasure.
The shaping programme is aimed at helping children acquire
and improve on the important skills of generating English
sentences that they would need as individuals. Under shaping,
the task to be learnt is divided into components and arranged
in proper sequence.
Unit II The use of Nouns
Unit III The use of Personal Pronouns
Unit 1111 The use of present tense
Unit IVI The use of past tense
Unit VI The use of Future Tense.
The experimenter uses cues, prompts and instruction to
initiate the children into performing the first-step behaviour.
Approximations to the behaviour are continuously, consistently
and contingently reinforced until the experimenter is satisfied
that the behaViour has been considerably mastered. With further
cues and instructions serving as discriminative stimuli, the
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subjects are led into attempting the seoond step behaviour.
Each time, approximations to the expectant benaviour is
reinforced. In this way, progress is successfully made towards
the target behaviour. As each level of performance, the experi-
menter goes round the class to see the individual performances
of the subjects. Poor performances are not reinforced rahter
the subjects are encouraged and prompted to perform the desired
behaviour.
The progrftmme consists of nine sessions. Each session
apart from session nine has been divided intoa
(1) Behavioural objectivea where the aim for the session
is stated.
(2) Teaching Aida The aids to be used during the session
are listed.
(3) Exposure to shapinga Period when experimenter uses
cues, prompts, and instruction to initiate the
children into performing the desired behaviour.
(4) Acquisitiona When subjects perform the desired
behaviour without cues and prompts.
(5) Reinforcement a Reinforcement strategy to be used.
(6) Performance a Evaluation strategy used.
Teaching deaf children could sometime be slow because
of communication problem. Do not try to go too fast or teach
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too much at a time. Each unit apart from unit I and V has
been divided into two sessions lasting 30 minutes a session.
Complete the units. If you do not complete the unit, you
cannot expect to achieve the full benefit of the programme.
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220-
SHAPING TRAINING PROGRAMME (STP)
SESSION BY SESSION ORDER Of PROGRAMME
SESSION ONE
Behavioural Objectivel
At the end of this session the children will be able to
identify nouns in a sentence and correctly use such nouns.
Teaching Aidsl Flash cards, Pupils, Pictures.
Exposure To Shaping' The experimenter explains that nouns, are
names of objects, persons, places and ideas.
Step II Experimenter asks children to mention names of objects,
persons, places, and ideas. Children must take the
question in turn.
Step III Experimenter lists all the children responses on the
blackboard.
Step 1111 Experimenter explains to the children that nouns
could be grouped into three. Experimenter draws the
table on the board, thusl
Cornmon Nouns Proper Nouns Abstract Nouns
Names of Names of Name s of ideas in
objects persons our mind.
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Step IVa Experimenter calls the children one after the other
to choose from list of words already on theboard - one
common Noun, one proper Noun and one abstract Noun and
place in appropriate column on the board. All attempts
are reinforced with - 'good', 'well done', clapping of
hand. Where a child confuses the nouns, the experi-
mente.r says 'Not quite right', 'Let another child help
you' •.
Acquisitiona Experimenter calls children one after the other
to think of noun and write it on the appropriate column.
The noun must not be one of those already on the board.
All attempts are reinforced with - 'well done', 'good',
'clap for him/her', 'Oh - not quite but good attempt'.
Reinforcementa All good attempts are immediately reinforced
with praises and a child who has been consistent in getting
correct answers could be reinforced with sweet, ruler, biro.
Performance a The children are given take-home assignment.
SESSION TWO
Behavioural Objectivea At the end of this session, the children
will be able to identify the following personal pronouns
(I, you, he, she) in a sentence (ii) correctly use such
personal pronouns (iii) associate the pronouns with
appropriate nouns.
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Teaching Aida pictures, Flash cards.
Exposure to Shapinga The experimenter explains that pronouns
are words which can be used in place of nouns e.g. They, he, it
Step II Experimenter displays the following pictures on the
bl ackboard.
A boy jumping (J) The experimenter standing
A girl playing (~) One of the pupils
Step III Experimenter asks a pupil pointing at picture (1)1
"ls the person in the picture a boy or a girl?"
If the child says "He is a boy", reinforce by saying
'very good' but if the child says 'the person is a boy'
Experimenter says 'yes' 'but which other way can we
say it?' Continue until a child has used 'He'. Experi-
menter explains that a 'boy' is a Noun as previously
learnt in session one but when we do not want to use
the Noun 'boy' we can use pronoun 'He' in its place.
Step 1111 Experimenter asks children to make sentences using
'He' instead of boya
(a) He is jumping (b) He is playing etc.
Step IVI Experimenter repeats the same process for the girl
using 'She' instead of 'He'.
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Step Va Experimenter points to the picture of himself and
asks a pupil "who is this?" If the pupil says "you"
He is reinforced with "very gOOd" but if he says
"teacher", the experimenter says 'yes', 'but you can
say it in another way'. Continue until a pupil says
'you'.
Step VIa Experimenter asks children to make sentences des-
cribing his activities, e.g.
(a) You are laughing
(b) You are writing
(c) You are sitting.
Step VIla Experimenter says to one of the pupils: "Dele tell
us the game you like to play" If Dele says "I like
football". He is reinforced with "well done". But if
he says something else not using "I" continue until a
pupil starts the sentence with "I". All the pupils must
be given the opportunity to contribute to the exercise.
Acquisitiona ~xperimenter calls children one after the other
to give example of personal pronoun. All attempts are
reinforced with "well done", "very good", "Clap for
him/her"
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Reinforcement: All good attempts are immediately with praises
and a child who has shown consistency in getting
correct answers should be reinforced with sweet, ruler,
exercise book.
Performance: The children are given take home assignment II
while assignment one is returned to the experimenter
for marking.
SESSION THREE
Behavioural Objectivel
At the end of this session, the children will be able to
identify the following personal pronouns (they, we, it)
in a sentence.
(ii) Correctly use such personal pronouns
(iii) Associate the pronouns with appropriate nouns.
Teaching Aid: Pictures, Flash cards, pupils themselves.
Exposure to shapingl The experimenter explains that pronouns
are words whiCh can be used in place of nouns.
Step II Experimenter displays the following pictures on the
blackboard.
(1) Group of children playing
(2) Dog eating
(J) The pupils playing.
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step III Experimenter asks a pupil pointing at picture (1)
"What are the children in the picture doing?"
If the pupil says "They .are playing" Reinforce "very
good" but if the child says "The children are playing"
Experimenter says 'yes' but which other way can we say
it? Continue until a child has used "They". Experi-
menter explains that 'children' is a collective noun as
previously learnt in session one but when we do not want
to use the noun 'children' or 'group of people', we can
use pronoun 'they' in its place.
step 1111 Experimenter asks the pupils to make sentences
using "They" instead of "the children".
(a) They are playing
(b) They a:e singing.
Step IV: Experimenter points to the second picture and asks
"what is thi s?" if a child says "Dog", experimenter
says 'good' what is the dog doing? If child says the
dog is looking; continue until a child says "it is
looking". Reinforce the nearer the answer with praises
like "very good", "clap for him/her".
!)tep V: ~xperimenter asks children to make sentences using
'it' instead of animal or dog•
•
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Step VII Experimenter points to the third picture. A picture
of the class children and asks who are those? A pupil
says "we" Reinforce immedi ately with pr aises like
"well done" but if he says something else, continue to
prompt until the child says "we". Experimenter explains
that "we" is used when one is involved in an action.
Step VIII Experimenter asks children to make sentences using
'we'•
(a) We run
(b) We play.
Acquisitionl Experimenter calls children one after the other
to think of a personal pr-on oun'<and use it in making
sentences. All attempts and nearer attempts are rein-
forced with displays of names on the board, winning of
extra star which would be exchanged for a tangible reward.
Reinforcement I All good attempts are immediately reinforced
with praises and outstanding performances are rewarded
with exercise books, pencils and biro.
Performance I The children are given taken home assignment
III, children submit assignment II to experimenter for
marking. Experimenter gives marked assignment one to the
pupils. This is also reinforcingo
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SESSION FOUR
Behavioural Objective.
At the end of this session, the children will be able to
identify and make sentences in the present tense using
the pronouns (I, you, het she).
Teaching Aid. Flash cards, pictures, pupils.
Exposure to Shapingl
"Experimenter explains that present tense means 'now'.
Step- II Experimenter asks one of the pupils to jump.
"What are you doing"? The pupil says "I jump". The
pupil is immediately reinforced with praises like "very
good" but if the child says something else, continue to
prompt until a child says the correct thing.
Step III Experimenter calls out a boy and asks him to jump.
Experimenter asks another pupil "what is he doing?"
or what other way can "He is jumping" 'Yes' But which
other way can you say it? "He jumps" Reinforce as soon
as a child says "He jumps".
Step 1111 Experimenter repeats step II for a girl. This time
'she' is used for girl.
Step IVI Experimenter jumps and asks a pupil "What am I doing?"
The pupil says "you jump". All attempts are reinforced
with "good" "but not quite". Correct answers are well
reinforced with clapping of hands.
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Acquisitiona Experimenter calls children one after the other
to make sentences in present tense using 'I', 'you'
'she' and 'He'. All attempts or near attempts are
reinforced with appointment as class leader, winning
of price like pencil, erazer etc.
Re inforcement a All good attempts are immediately reinforced
with praises and outstanding performances are rewarded
with sweets, exercise book.
Performancea The children are given take-home assignment IV.
Children submit assignment III to experimenter for
marking. Experimenter gives marked assignment two to
the pupils. This is also reinforcing.
SESSION FIVE
Behavioural Objective:
At the end of this session, the children will be able to
identify and make sentences, in the present tense using
the pronouns 'they', 'we', 'it').
Teaching Aids& Flash cards, pictures, pupils.
Exposure to Shapinga
Experimenter explains that present tense means 'now'
as done in session four.
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step II Experimenter asks three members of the class come out
and jump. Experimenter asks another member of the class
"What do they do?" "They jump". The pupil is reinforced
immediately with praise "very good". But if the child
says something else, continue to guide the child until
the right thing is said.
Step III Experimenter calls and asks three members of the class
to jump. Experimenter asks them "what do you do?"
The children respond "we jump", if the children say "we
are jumping" continue to prompt until a child says
"we jump".
Step 1111 Experimenter displays a picture of an animal e.g.
dog sitting. Experimenter asks "whose picture is this
pointing at the picture". "It is a dog". What does it
do?" The pupil says "It sits", if the child says
something else, continue until the child says the right
thing. Every attempt is reinforced with 'good attempt'.
Acquisition. Experimenter calls children one after the other
to make sentences in present tense using, 'they' 'we'
and 'it'. All attempts are reinforced with praises but
good performances are reinfDrced with gifts.
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Reinforcementl Praises are used - 'well done', 'good' during
- '
acquisition period but gifts are used for outstanding
performances.
Performancesl The subjects are given take-home assignment V.
Children submit assignment IV to experimenter for
marking. Experimenter gives marked assignment III to
the pupils.
S~SSION SIX
Behavioural Objectivel
At the end of the session, the subjects will be able to
identify and make sentences in the past tense using some
of the personal pronouns previously learnt.
Teaching Aidl Pictures, flash cards, ball, sign language.
~xp08ure To Shaping&
Experimenter explains that past tense means "Before".
Step II Experimenter gives_two subjects ball to play and
after a while asked them to stop.
Step III Experimenter asks one of the subjects who played a
while ago, "what did. you do..a while ago?" "I played
a ball", or "we played a ball".
Step 1111 ~xperimenter asks one of the subjects who observed,
pointing at one of girls who played. Do the same for
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2.:31-
the girl. Continue until the right thing is given.
Subjects are reinforced at any point in time with
either praises or gifts.
Step IV: Experimenter calls out a child and asks "How did
you get the shirt you are wearing? The child answers
"My mother bought it". The experimenter writes on
appropriate space on the board.
Acquisition: Experimenter calls subjects one after the other
to make sentences in past tense using some of the
personal pronouns. All good attempts must be
reinforced with some sweets, exercise book.
Reinforcement: Praises are used to motivate the children into
more positive action.
Performance: The subjects are given take-home assignment VI.
Children submit assignment V to experimenter for marking.
Experimenter gives marked assignment IV to the subjects.
SESSION SEVEN
Behavioural Objective:
At the end of the session, the subjects will be able to
identify and make sentences in the future tense.
Teaching Aid: subjects, flash cards.
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232 -
Exposure to Shaping.
Experimenter explains that future tense means "After".
Step II Experimenter asks a subject. "What will you do when
the school closes today?" "I will go home". But if
the chil d says something else, say "not quite". Repeat
the question for another child. Continue until a child
gets "I will go home". Write this on the blackboard.
Step II: Experimenter asks another child pointing at the boy/
girl who answered the question: "what did he/she say
she/he will do after school?" "He/she will go home
after school". Continue prompting and reinforcing with
praises until the correct answer is given.
Step III: Experimenter calls out two subjects and asks them:
"what will two of you do when the school closes today?"
"We will go home". Continue until the right answer is
obtained. Each time reinforcing good attempts.
Step IV: Experimenter asks another child: "what did those two
people say they will do when school closes?" "They will.
go home" if the child says something else, continue
Until the right answer is obtained. Reinforce each
attempt with "good""not quite."
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- 2.3.3 -
Acquisitionl Experimenter calls children one after the other
to make sentences in future tense using "they", "you",
"we", "you", "he", "she", "it". All attempts are re-
inforced with praises like clapping of hands but good
performances are reinforced with gifts like biro,
pencil, ruler.
Reinforcement. Praises are used - "well done", "good", clap for
him/her, during acquisition period but gifts are used
for outstanding performances.
Performances. The subjects are given take-home assignment VII.
Children submit assignment VI to experimenter for marking.
Experimenter gives marked assignment V to the subjects.
SESSION l!:IGHT
Behavioural Objective.
To drill the children on English sentences making
involving. Past tense, present tense and future tense
so that at the end of the session the children will be
able to generate English sentences.
Teaching Ai d. Flash cards, pictures.
Exposure to shapingl
Experimenter explains to the subjects that they are
expected to make three sentences each. (1) Event
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- 2J'* -
happening now (2) Event that happened before
(J) Event that will happen after.
Step I: Experimenter draws a table on the board. providing for
the different tenses that have been taught.
Present Tense Past Tense Fut ure Tense
Step_ II: Experimenter now calls out the children one after
the other to write in appropriate columns sentences.
Children are guided in order to make good sentences.
Subjects are encouraged to use "markers" "Now" I clean
the board". Yesterday, I cleaned the board",
Tomorrow I will clean the board".
ACquisition. Exercise could now but changed into a game. The
first child writes "I play now" under present tense.
Experimenter asks another child "what did Dele do?"
"Dele played". ~xperimenter asks another child:
"What will Dele do tomorrow?" "Dele will play". Con-
tinue until all the children have had their turn.
Reinforcement. Children are consistently reinforced with praises
and gifts.
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Performance & The subjects are given their marked scripts.
They also submit previous assignment to the experi-
menter for marking.
SESSION NINE
Session 9 is the termination session for the shaping
training programme. It is expected that subject would have
attained mastery of the programme by the end of this session.
The experimenter will administer Post-Test at this session.
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APPENDD~ J
TE~T ON k-NGLISH
Read the Passage Carefully and Answer the Questions below:
Many years ago there was a :fisherman called All.
He had a wife. The name of his wife was Siata. They were
poor. They lived near a river not far from a village called
Aka.
One day Ali went to fish. He fished with his hook. His
hook caught a fish it was a magic fish. When a Siata saw the
fish, she was happy_ Ali said to Siata. "Come, we must go
home". Siata sai d to Ali, "you must catch one more fish before
we go home. Ali said, "I will drop my 'hook again"'. His hook
caught a fish with one eye. It was a magic fish. The fish
begged Ali to let him go. Ali told the fish that he waS a poor
man. The fish promised to make Ali rich. Ali became rich.
Questions
Underline all the personal pronouns in the passage.
(1) Who was Ali? (a) A farmer (b) A fisherman.
(2) Ali's wife was? (a) Dele (b) Siata
(J) What caught the fish? (a) Hook (b) Net
(It) Was Ali Rich? (a) No (b) Yes.
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( 5) What kind of fish did Ali catch? (a) Gold fish (b) Mag ic fish
(6) Who made Ali rich? (a) Dele (b) Magic fish
(7) The fish had (a) Two eyes (b) One eye.
( 8) Ali lived near a village called (a) Ibadan (b) Aka.
(20 marks).
2. From each of the following sentences, underline a noun,
say whether it is common, proper or abstract.
(a) He met that man yesterday.
(b) Did Charles speak to them?
(c) This desk is mine.
(d) Fear made her tremble.
(e) Buy the apples which are red.
(f) Where did John find it?
(9) She has a few friends.
(h) They will admire his courage.
(i) Joe does not know her.
(j) Find the boy who whistled.
(20 marks).
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3. Complete the table belowl
Present Past Future
They play They ••••• They will play
You ..... you saw you will see
We ••••• •••••••••• we will run
He washes •••••••••• •••••••••••
she ••••••• she called •••••••••••
it ••••••••• it jumped •••••••••••
I sleep ••••••••• •••••••••••
He buys ••••••••• •••••••••••
(20 marks)
Use the following nouns to complete the work beloWI
4. John; book; work; flowers; school; beauty; yellow;
bucket; house; mother.
1. My naae is •••••••••••
2. I planted ••••• in my garden.
3. The boy has gone to his ••••••••
4. My father built this •••••••••
5. Your ••••• is cooking in the kitchen
6. Carry your ...... to the river
7. The girl has a . .
8. She is reading a ••••••••••
9. I am going to do my ••••••••••
10. The flower is • • • • • • in colour • (20 marks)
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5. From each of the following sentences, underline
verbs in the past tense.
(a) James suddenly began to whistle
(b) Up the road strolled a stranger
(c) Sitting down, I opened the letters
(d) What happened to John
(e) Frightened by the noise, James fainted.
(f) Around the lawn ran a path
(g) Who came to meet you?
(h) How untidy they arel
(i) Open that window
(j) Tunde likes collecting stamps.
(20 marks)
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APPl<.NiJIX it-
COGNITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARD
ENGLISH SCALE (CATES)
Please read each of the following statements carefully.
Circle the number on the alternative that describes your belief.
1. 0:: STRONGLY DISAGREE
2. = DISAGREE
J. = UNDECIDED
4:. = AGREE
5. = STRONGLY AGREE
1. I believe that teachers secretly enjoy
giving their students a "hard time" in
English exercise.
2. No matter what happens, I believe in
English and it comes first in my
choice of subjects.
English develops good reasoning ability
but can also run a person mental 1 2 J 4: 5
English is profitable to everybody who
takes it 1 2 J 4: 5
I always memorize English rules and
apply them directly to solve problems.
6. English is universally accepted as a
useful subject but I believe it is too
difficult to understand. 1 2 J 4: 5
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- 2itl -
I believe that having a g000 time and
getting one's full share of fun out of
life is more important than engaging
fruitlessly in solving English problems.
8. I believe that English is not receiving
its due weight in the Nigerian School system 1 2 ) it 5
I think I seem to accomplish very little
in relation to the amount of time I spend
on solving English problems
10. I can concentrate on solving English
problems only for a short while before
comprehension scare enthusiasm out of me 1 2 ) it 5
11. After learning some English laws, I
believe I am wrong each time I
attempted to solve a problem
12. When solving a long diffi~ult problems,
I periodically stop to review my English
construction. 1 2 ) it 5
1). I believe I am always careless in solving
problems 12) it 5
lit. English teaches me to be imaginative and
accurate in analytical procedures. 1 2 ) it 5
15. English is a mental exercise that yields
no good fruit but only weakens the brain. 12) It 5
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APPE VIA ::;
_ SELF-CONCEPT SGALE
(ADOLESCENT P~RSONAL DATA INVENTORY APDI)
DATE: · .
AGE: · .
SEX: · .
NATIONALITY: •••••••••••••••••••••
RELIGION: •••••••••••••••••••••••
STATE: •••••••••••••••••••••••••
TOWN OK VILLAGE: ................
DIRECTIONS:
Please use the ten-point scale below to rate yourself on
each of the following items. Rate the items most descriptive
of yourself at the high end, those least descriptive of you at
the low end, and those about which you are not sure or undecided
at the middle. For each item record the number which rep-
resents your response on the blank space on the right side of
the items.
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Thus "Least like me" "Most Like Me"
Scale& o 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9
EXAMPLE & 7
I am a happy boy ..................................
Seven is put in the blank space on the right side of the
item because this statement is somehow "most like me".
You can now start on the items.
SECTION A
1. I have warm social attraction for others •••••••••••
2. I am a responsible person ••••••••••••••
My life has great value for me ••••••••••••••
I am afraid of enemies •••••••••••••
5. I am a sUbmissive person ••••••••••••
6. I am active •••••••••••••
I am confident about what other people
think about me •••••••••
8. I am concerned about what other people
think about me ••••••••
I constantly feel insecure ••••••••••••••
10. I express my feelings freely • ••••••••••••
11. I am an optimistic person • •••••••••••••••
12. I usually like people • •••••••••••••••
13. I like to work hard • •••••••••••••••
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14. I can face any difficulty in life 0000 •• 00 ••
15. I am ambitious over attaining mastery of things ••••••••
16. I am unreliable ••••••••••••••
17. I may lie in certain situations .0.00 •••••••
18. I fear I would fail on anything I plan to do •••••••••
I am sel f-centred ••••••••••••
I always agree with my mates on all issues 0 •••••• ••••
21. I am dependably reliable •••••••••••••
22. I often feel lonely • •••••••••••••••
23. I am original in all ways • ••••••••• 0
24. I am lazy ••••••••••••••
250 I am shy ••••••••••••••
26. I am always methodical •• 0eo ••• o •• 0
I like to generate new ideas all the time 0 ••••••• •••••
I am always thirsty for knowledge •••••••••••
Life is meaningless eo ••• O ••• OO•
30. I like to be myself always o •• oeoo.o •• o
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