UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN THIS THESIS SUBMITTED BY ............A'P..IOO.G.UN, ,. A~~ . WAS ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF AGRIC. & FORESTRY OF THIS UNIVERSITY THE EFFECTIVE DATE OF THE AWARD IS .............:.t..5..t.h ..Sep:t.em.b.~.:r., 1.97~t . 7/5/79····..···· DATE f·;;/~R ..; REGISTRAR( AD MIC)For: REGISTRAR UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY RETURNS TO Ll\J-vES'INENTS J~ COCOA P~SEP~~CHIN NIGEP~ By AYOADE ABIDOGUN B.Se., M,.Sc., (London) A thesis in the Department of AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS Submitted to the Faculty o~ Agriculture and Forestry in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree 'of , DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of,the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN .' National Cereals Research Institute, Moor Plantation, Ibadan. ,September 1278 " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY r- ~~o~~.~_._=., •~.--., IIB',O':l U;:;VE3SiTY urmr:ave actually stagnated over the years. For im.,tance,'.ihilethe aver-age percerrt.agcannual increase in the income per capita of poor countries chanZ0d from ....3 . .L.. "Co 2.5 between 1950 and 1967, the corresponding .fieures fo~ rich countries dur-Ln.; the same period are 2.8 and 3.6 respectively (see Ta0le 1.1). It has thus become increasingly clear that.the h?pes placed on of'f tcLaL proerarrme of "aidll, hopes that, first,finnncial aid would provide the necessary infrastructure and communications, power- and public services whLch wou Id secure rapid develop- ment, have not materialized. Similarly, later emphasis placed on the need of suppor-t. by "technical assistance" which :,.'iould provide the "missL1r; component." of skills and experience has UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 TABLE 1.1 Changes in income in rich and poor countries: 1950 to 1975 Average percentage annual increase Total income 1950-60 1960-67 1967-75* Rich 4.0 4.8 5.0 Poor 4.6 5.0 6.0 Income per capital Rich 2.8 3.6 4.0 Poor 2.3 2.5 3.0 Source: "Partners in Development: Report on the Commission on Intern2ltional Development," Pall Mall Press, 1969. * Estimates based on Samuelson, P.A., Economics, tenth edition, NcGraw Hill, Kogakusha Ltd, 1976, p.763, Fig. 138c-2. i ( UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3 I ~ proved to be largely illusory in the context of bridging I the gap between industrialized and low-income countries. A number of reasons have been given as to why aid has failed to make any significant impact on the develop- ment of Third World countries. First, it Ls argued that aid merely helps to sustain governments that have little or no commitment to economic and social progress of their societies beyond perpetuating their ovm priviledged cJ.asses. Aid thus enables such regimes to postpone or even avoid painful decisions to carry out necessary reforms in their f .' • institutions and practices. Second, it is charged that aid transfers unsuitable institutions, practices or attitudes from rich to poor countries, thereby strengthen- ing the dualism in the structure of the latter economies, reinforcing the elites of priviledge and wealth, and raising the costs of development against the poor countries with consequent possibility o£ diminishing significant economic and social advance •. Third~ by being made condi- tiobal to the acceptance of prqposals for change in domestic policies and administration based on an inadequate understanding of local 90nditions; being ·tied to the procurement in the donor country; or being tied to specific projects which gain donor approval: the benefits of financial aid may be ~ignificantly dimini~hed. Fourth, the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4 debt service, built up, absorbs an ever increasing part of the foreign exchange available to the poor ~ountry whether earned or acquired by further loans and grants. Fifth, that technical assistance requires supporting facilities which' impose severe constraints on the already undermanned administrative machinery of the recepient country. For instance, the pre-investment surveys make heavy demands on scarce professional manpower and technical ser-vices, person.al housing, office space and trHns~ort, so that "institution building" favoured by the donors 1r•v.oLves Locking up all these other esserrt.LaL services for little or no immediate gain. Finally, that the high standards of living enjoyed by technical assistance expor.ts bring about dissatisfaction among their local counter- parts, leading to demand by the latter of higher salaries and frir.gebenefits. Regardless of the rnerits of these arguments against the effectiveness of foreign aid in promoting economic d~velopment, more si[nificant is the current general awareness among developing nations themselves that the .deveLopmerrt effort must.be based largely on their own self-reliance. This awareness is reflected in such sloi;ans' as "trade, not aid." Such a recognition seems inevitable UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY because the problems involved are so deeply domestic.1 ,- One area in which the spirit, at.least, of self- c-: reliance has of recent been most evident in some countries is in food production." For example, Nigeria's current 'campaign of "Operation Feed the Nation" - as that of Ghana's "Operation Feed Yourself" before it - is an attempt to increase food production through self-efforts in the face of mounting food imports that have characterised West African econbmies since the " 196ofS.~" Th~ possible success of such campaigns lies mainly in generating an increase in the effective hectareage UIlder food cultivation. However, in the context of economic development, what is needed in low-income countries are substantial increases in aFricultural productivity. And this can only come about~ through technoloe;ical chane;e. As Schultz has said, "Despite all that has been ~~itten on how to improve the mix of "factors of poor communi ties, the increase in real income to be had from a better allocation of existing factors are small" and that "agriculture will remain nigeardly under such circumstances. ~~3~T~he issue of technological change 1 Seers, D. and L. Joy (eds.), Development in a divided world. Penguin Books, 1970. p.35. ~ 2 Oluwasanmi, H.A., West African development in the 60's. Pr-oc.e ed.in+s on Ia<:;torsof a.:'"rictuulral ;~rO\vthin ~'.[est ftIi~ica. l'::>Sili, University ~f Ghana, Leson, 1973. 3 Schultz, T.W., Transformin8 traditional agriculture. New Haven, Yale University Pr'ess, 1964. 212 pp. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6 C thus merl~S serious attenticn. 1 .2. Technological ~hcmge ,inagri.culture The cause~ of economic development have received considerable attention in economic literature. ~t is generally aereed among economists that technological change r -. is a vital factor in. this process. Technological change occurs when there is addition to existing stock of knowledte, new techniques, better resource combination, different pattern of organisation and similar changes resulting in more output per unit of input. Technological change is thus an upward shift in t.hs production function. Technological change in agriculture, over time, has significant implications for generaJ. economic development. With unchanging level of resources - particularly land and labour - teChnological Change will result in increasing agricultural supply. But eiven the characteristic low income elasticity of demand for farm products, such increasing supply cannot be sustained indefinitely. Hence resources, especially labour, will have to move out of agriculture, possibly into employment in the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy where their marginal producti v it ies might be higher. The failure of th~ agricultural sectors of industria- lized countries to adjust sufficiently to technolo,;ical UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7 advance by releasing what are in effect redundant resources lies behind the necessity for their agricultural support policies. Since agricultural products in general h8ve a low price - as well as low income - elasticity of demand (together with the fact that agriculture as an industry .approaches the classical concept of perfect competition), increasing aggregate output means declining farm factor earnings. The farmer, paradoxically, is thus penalised by a·falling income precisely because of rising agricultural productivity. Hence the main thrust of agricultural support policy in most of these countries is to reduce the disparity between farm and urban incomes. Such support measures tend to perpetuate the resource imbalance in the agricultural sector and therefqre, in the face of unceasing tecrillological 'progre~, may be largely self-defeating. The problem of agriculture in industralized countries is thus one of too rapid a rate of technological change relative·to the ad- .justment problem of farm resource structure. By contrast, developing countries are faced with the' Cproblem of stimulating technological change in their agricultures. The predominance of this sector in the economy,.employing the bulk of total labour force and prOducing most of the.gross domestic product is itself a· manifestation of the low productivity of the sector. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 8 vlhat are the essential ingredients of technological change in terms of policy prescriptions for developing countries? Attempts have been made to explain changes in the aggregate aericultural input-output ratio in developed countries, using the concept of industry level production function. The earliest studies related increasing output to conventional inputs (land, labour and capital).4 How- ever the studies left varying amounts of output increase unexplained. This unexplained element has been termed "the residual" and is usually attributed to ghost factors like "technoloGical change" and improved managerial skill. Thus while the term "technological change" may be a use- ful device for expository purposes, it is far from being adequate as an analytical concept for explaining economic growth. Glenn Johnson5 has argued that "unconventional" inputs, among which he groups improvement in the human agent, increase in managerial skills. as well as tech...T1ological advance, should not be treated as factors of production 4 Solow, .R.M., Technical change and a£8regate production function, Review of Economic Statistics 39: August 1957 , . 31 2 -1 9 • 5 Uohnson, G.L., A not~ on non-conventional inputs and Lc.oWnv.entional production function.lh Eicher C. K andWitt(eds.), Aericulture in economic development, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964~ pp 120-4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 9 In any sense. He contends that on the contrary, teGhnolo- gical advance involves a new factor of production or pre- viously unknown way of combining old factors of prociuction; in which ca~e the "scientific" procedure requires finding out what new factor or combination of factors of production have been discovered. Once this was done its prod~ctivity could be measured and the production function rel;:.tion;:;hip· involving that factor or combination could be deterwined in a stl'aight-forward conventional manner. More recent studies based on this approach have resulted in a reduction of litheresidual".6,7 First., account had to be taken of the improved qu&lity of the capital as well as its quantity_ For example instead of usine; only the number of tractors as a relevant capital II.'".-- input, qualitative aspect such as horsepower, engine type, steel quality, whether they protect the operator from bad \'leather,ete., all of which enhance their productivity .could be t.ak en into account by deveLopLng a suitable composite measure. Second, the measurement of labour input, 6 Griliches, Z., Measuring inputs in agriculture: A criti- cal survey, Journal of Farm Econornic,E42(5); 1411-22. 7 Griliches, Z., The sources of measured productivity growth: U.S. agriculture 1940-60. Journ~l of Politica! Economy t 21 (4); 331-46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10 takes account of the quality of the human agent, as well L . as the man-hours worked, since a positive relation is \...~~. known to exist between the level of skills and knowledge L of farm workers and their productivity_ For instance, the labour input could be adjusted for·the increasing number of years spent in education by agricultural workers. Third, it has been suggested tbat part of the residual can be explained by the increasing size of holdings w~th subs't.ant'Le L 'economies of scale and a trend to;.a.r.-d.s increasing specializationo Finally, by including agricul- tural research and development expendi tu::eas an input in the aggregate production function, the unexpl3.ined residual IJ..- ~ {t.J element was reduced. . ,I , Quite clearly then~ new technology is conceptuall~ an integral part of the factors of production employed in bringiLg about the output. Hence, by correctly specifying the factors of production, the technology is also being specified. One implication of this is that rather than look upon technological change in vague term5 like "labour- saving," "capital saving" or "neutral," we can identify the capi~al and labour components of the unspecified new facto~5 of production and make it an integral part of the analysis. Once the new factors have been identified they may be four:dto.be substututes for,.or compliments UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 11 V of, particular old factors of production. In the context of economic planning, particularly for developing countrie~, such identification enables us to assess the costs and returns to investment of discovering, developing and producing these new factors of production. As we have noted, the problem of eCDnomic development in most developing countries is one of a.gricultural· development. However, as Schultz has emphasised, tradi- tional agriculture, employing only the factors of production at its disposal, is incapable of growth except at high cost, and that conversely investment in modern agricultural . factors can be hf gh by growth standards.6 Such modern \~~¢~~~ ~' " .;v,,;'( factors of production include material inputs like . "'''-~-, ,enetically improved seed varietie~, chemical fertil\iYze'"rs I and mechanisation equipment as well as improved human capital through acquired managerial skills, knowledge and other capabilities required to successfully adopt these new materiaJ. inputs. The discovery, development and production of these inputs lie in the domain of \... agricultural research. / 8 Schultz, T. W., op.c1t. \ . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 1,3 Research and tec~nological bhang~ In spite of its atknowledged importance as a snu~ce of technological change and hence of Gconomic development, the treatment of research in an economic framework is of relatively recent ori~in.9 This limited emphasis on its -ec-onomic aspects is reflected in the lack of appro-pr-Ls.t.e data e Consequently, much of recent discussions have been based on personal impressions and evidence from developed countries rather than on factual analysis .1.0 ~Nevertheless evidence such as is available suggests that I ~eveloping countries invest very little jn research compared W1.·tl1 1.ndustr1.8I'1zed count'r1es.1-1 Table 1~2 f or 1.ns~J..ance shows that whereas the developed countries spent N10.80 on research per farm in 1965, the corresponding figure for developing countries is only NO.67. How can technological chanGE' in developing couiltri(:~ be accelerated through agricultural research? The in- appropriateness of importing improved technology from developed countries is well recognised. This is even more 9 Evenson, R.E. and Y. Kislev, Agricultural research.and pp.ro1d5uctivit.y. New Haven, Yale Unive~sity Press,1975. 10 Evenson, R. E. and Y. Kislev, op.cit., p.15 11 Abaelu, J. N., Buildj.ng the foundationi of Niseriats agricultural erowth: Public expenditures on agricul- tSuorcailolorgeys,earch, BuLLe t.Ln of Rur'a L Economics and·8(1 ) ;-"11-75:---- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '..J TABLE 1.2" Agricultural research and extension: comparative statistics 1965 Ratio of expenditure to value of total Expenditure per farm agricultural production NI per year* SiNo. Region Research I Extension I Research IExtension 1 • I North America I 1.01 I 0.53 I 59.68 31.27 ~W" 2. I Northern Europe 0.93 0.53 20.87 10.73 3. I Southern Europe 0.38 0.41 1,.56 I 1.61 4. I Oceania, South Africa, Rhodesia I 1.61 0.8.0 121.08 I 60.05 5. Eastern Europe & USSR 0.64 0.39 4.80 I 2.96 6. Latin America I 0.17 0.19 I 1.01 I 1.12 7. I Middle East and North Africa I 0.55 0.55 0.20 I 3.10 /continued /~.. - - UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .•. " , . : TABLE 1.2 '(cont'd) I Ratio of expenditure to value of total Expendit~e per far-m- agricultural production N per year* S/Nq. Region Research Extension Research Extension 8. South and South East Asia 0.24 0.31 4.58 0.35 9. East Asia 0.79 0.57 1.79 3.31 ~+="" 10. Sub-Saharan Africa 0.45. 0.38 1.79 1.49 Developed countries 0.874 0.1-1-96 11.06 6.27 Developing countries 0.259 0.289 0.69 0.76 Source: Evenson, Robert E.and Yoav Kislev. Agricultural research and productivity. New Haven and London. Yale University Press. 1975. p. 18. * Original figures in U.S. dollars converted to naira at the equivalence of 1 dollar to 0.64 naira (June 1978 exchange rate). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 15 so for agricultural technology in view of its biological nature. Differences in biological requirements mean that breeds of dairy cows, for instance, that are highly pro- ductive in the temperate countir'Lse may he unsuitable for /C-£- tropical environment. Soils also vary from one area to another, and this variation affects crop requirements with respect to water, fertilizer, and cultivation practices. There are thus very few agricultural inputs that are ready- made for d~velopin~ countries. However, there is available a corpus of knowledge which has enabled developed countries t~ evolve factors arid techniques of production that are suited to their own requirements, and on which developing countries are them- selves free to draw to develop similar new factors appropriate to the conditions that are specific to their own agriculture. For instance, the genetic principles governing hybridization are the basis of all bybrid maizec Yet to benefit from such established knwlledge, a country needs to apply the technique to develop a superior variety for a particular maize-growing area. V10stmodern agri- cultural factors, particularly those of a biological nature, therefore have to be. "locally produced" using ,I established -scientific.a.nd technical knmlledge as "raw materials." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fro~ this discu3sion two major conclusions can be dr-awn, One is that the contents and orientation of c research in developing countries should emphasise adaptiveor developmental research. This area of research tends to be neglected in these countries in favour of the more "p;lamorousli academic or baslc researcho Second, there is need to step up investment in agri- cuIt.ura1 researc,h Wh"1le LeWl"s,12 f or 1"n8tanee, conSl"ders that the amount of fund devoted to research should not be less than 0.5% of the gross domestic product it has been fcund that most Third World countries devote less than 0.3%.. Yet even in developed ccunt.r-Lsewhere more funds are devoted to research, returns to investment in research is higher than those realized on other public projects (see Tnble 1.3). "Howevar, high as the returns from research may be, the "producerli in agricultural research cannot appropriate all of the benefits from its production. This is because, especially for biological Lnverrt.Lcns , the producer cannot effectively patent his disco~eries since the original material ID9Ybe capable of being multiplied indefinitely without any need to go back to the inventor. This gap between the social and the private benefit-cost ratios c 12 Lew i.s ~ A.\'l., Theory of economic growth. London. Unwin Universit-y. Books ,,1,95'~, p.176 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .. ,"'" • TABLE 1.3 Selected estimates of the economic contribution of agricultural research :Sttls~ f.oun:tU -Pro-duct :rime Period rnterne.l rate-of--r-et-u-rn Griliches (1958) u.s. Hybrid Corn 1940-1955 35-40 l?eter~ou (1967) U.S. Poultry 1915-1960 21~25 f Ayer \1970) :Srazil Cotton 1949-1967 77 ..\ Evenson (1971 ) u.s. Agricultural Sector 1949-19.59 ~.7 .....::I "'ana- (1963) Japc:.n Agricultural Sector 1880-1938 35 • 0 Ardito Barletta(1970) Nexico Crops 1943-1963 45-93 Sourc~; Evenson, R.B. and Yoar Kislev, Agricultural research ..and propd.u1cativity. New Haven., Yale University Press,1~75. .. ' . ., .•.. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 18 " / / together with the zero marginal pricing inherent in the production of scientific knowledge (like all public goods and utilities) marks it out as an area for government intervention. 1.4. £pecification of the p'roblenl In many ertswhile colonial territories, agricultural research institutions were established several decades before the post·-war era of conscious economic planning. C. In Nigeria, for instance, the first experimental station was established in Ibadan in 1899. Yet it is cow~on knowledge that the farmer today continues to employ un- tr~mmelled the farming methods practised by generations before him. He uses little or no modern inputs and techni- ques like genetically superior seed varieties, plant protection measures and chemical fertilizers; depending for maintenance of soil fertility on shifting cultivation. Has a&ricultural research then been ineffective in Nigeria? The question of grossly inadequate inv8stment in research by developing countries has already been high- lighted. Inadequacy of research investment of course im- plies poor staffing and lack of proper eq~ipment and other research infrastructures. But beyond all these, there are other factors that may well have militated aeainst the transfer of technology to the farm level over the years. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 19 One has been the lack of a clear-cut and consistent govern- ment policy on agricultural development.13 This in turn has resulted in lack of a cohesive and coordinated approach to research policies and programmes. For instance, an agricultural development policy hased on large-scale system - such as farm settlements and plantations - would require that research focusses on such aspects as mecha- nisation, sole-cropping and other factory-like processes. On the other hand, a policy based on encouraging higher productivity among small traditional farmers would concent- rate on new inputs. like improved seed varieties and chemical fertilizers, orienting the use of this to multiple cropping which constitutes the framework of Nigerian farming system. For the most part however, the experience in this country has been that research recommendations have'been based, irrespective of whatever government policy may happen to be in operation, on sole-cropping. Yet as.Norman has found in a ~tudy in northern Ni~eria, "there are valid reasons of a technological, sociological 13 Norman, D.W. and E.B. Simmons, Relevant research priorities for farm development in West Africa. Proceedings of conference on factors of economic growth in West Africa, ISSER, University of Ghana Legon , 1973. p .44. . . . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 20 / and economic nature for farmers reluctance to change to a Bole-cropping system.H14 Second, the field of agricultural research has for C/ too long been dominated exclusive~y by the physical scientist. The result is that, given the nature of hi~ trainine, undue emphasis has always been placed on recom- mer-ding technical rather than economic optimum. For example he is apt to prescribe a rate of fertilizer appli- cation that yields the highest physical output which if adopted clearly results in a misallocation of resources in a situation of positive input price. Third, the extension services, as the Third National Development Plan has put it, "have been bedevilled by lack of sound composite training and the limited number of extensicn worker~" For instance it has been estimated that .while about 12,800 staff in the junior cadre vrex:« required for extension services in 1970, only about 8,500 were actually employed. Simiiarly, only 1,000 senior st~ff were on the ground compared with an estimated requirement 14 Norman, D. W., Crop mixtures under indigenous condi- tions in northern Nigeria •. Proceedin~s of conference on factors of economic rowth in vipe.s1t Africa, J.ssffi,niversity of 'hana. Legon, 1973. 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .,, i 21 of 2,800 (Table 1.4). The problem of man-power shortage becomes aggravated against the background. of functioning in a predominantly illiterateco~~unity~ When farm people are literate, farm journals, bulletins, pamphlets and the press generally constitute important media. The use of such media are for many purposes Cheaper and more effective than organising meetings with farmers 011 the basis of oral presentations. Amidst these handicaps to the overall effectivenes~ of research, it is generally agreed that research in 'Nigeria's export crops has :made impressjye contributions to increased production of these crops.1i5 Perhaps the C. most spectacular in this respect has been cocoa. Reviewing the production of cocoa in the post-war years ItAgricul- tural Development in Nigeria" has this to say, liThe.' remarkable upsurge in West African production - in which, Nigeria participated fully - can only be expl·ained by the coming into bearing of'young trees. an increasing proportion of which were of Amazon and selected high-yield- ing Amelonado varieties, and the effects of spraying against diseases and'pests.n16 Cocoa Research can thus be regarded 15 Nigeria. Federal Hinistry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Agricultural development in Nigeria 1973-85. Lagos.~1974. 16 Ibid~, p.112. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ,~ .. " t : J TABLE 1.4 Projections of total population, farm families .' and staff requirements up to 1985 1963/6-4 1969/70 1984/85 .Total Population of Nigeria (Millions) 54.98 67.2 99.7 Agr.icultural Population (Millions) 38.47 46.'2 62.8 ' Number of Farm Families (Millions) 6,41 7.7 10.5 1\,)N Staff Requirements: . (i) ·Junior staff: (~) Extension and Field Services' 6,410 . 7,700 10,500 (b). Non-extensions 2,137 2,$66 3,500 (C) Pr1vat~ sector 2r•.1,37 2,566 ,3:,,500 Total: Junior Staff 10,,684 12,832 17,500 Actua~ number employed: Junior Staff 3,991 8,539 '/continued UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . TABLE 1.4·(Cont'd) 1963/64 1969170 1984/85 (ii) Sehior Supervisory and Specialist Staff: (a) Extension and Field Services 1,282 1,540 2,100 (b) Non-extension 854 1,027 1,400 (c) Private sector 6 214 257 350 I\.)VJ Total: Senior Staff . 2,350 2,824 3,850 I . Actual number employ (Senior Staff) 650 1~000 Source: Federal Ministry of Agriculture ana Natu1r9al Res. A1g9r7i4c.ultural development in Nigeri.a 73-85, ources, Lagos, I'~ 'w _ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY as a beacon showing the kind of contributions that research can rr.aketo increasaiagricultural production and produc- c: tivity. But if the benefits of cocoa research appear obvious, the costs of aChieving those benefits are by no means 50, especially as they involve expenditures stretching back several years. In other words, how really profitable has cocoa research been in terms of investment? The answer to these question should prove of more than academic interest to policy makers and research administrators in Nigeria for at least three major reasons. First, such stock-taking could be a good thing in itself since it provides information on how much resources have been committed to a particular activity, thus contributing to the documentation of the nationts economic history. Second, it provides a basis for a more rational alloca- tion of resources within agricultural research and also .between agricultural research. and other sectors of public inve$tment. At present, allocation of resources, parti- cularly of finance, between and within sectors appear to bear no discernible relationship with accepted investment criteria.17 17 See for example the-three national development plan documents todate. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Third, if cocoa research is found to havG proved acceptably profitable, an analytical study of the factors tllathave'contributed to its success both within and out- side the research set-up could have significant implications for the organisation and conduct of research into other ae;ricultural commodities. Such implications include improvement in genetic v.i.gour: with a view to raising their· present generally low level of performance and productivity. Qbjec!ives of the study, The major objective of this study is to develop an appropriate moci.elfor estimating the social returns to investment in cocoa resea.rch, with a view to ascertaining the adequacy of investment in cocoa research and by inference agricultural research in general. The specific obje9tives of the study are: ~,.{.. ) To estimate alternative rate uf returns to cocoa research through a production,function model with a view to assessing its marginal productivity and relating this to the social rate of return; (~i) To analyse th~ organisation, structure and conduct of cocoa research with a view to identifying the factors that might have helped or hindered the effectiveness of research; (iil) To evaluate the recent reorganisation in agricultural research in the context of C. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 26 \ . research efficiency; (iv) To examine the present system of research funding in relation to research efficiency; (v) To examine research information and extension in relation to efficient transfer of research technology to the grassroots. 1.6. This introduct6~y chapter has discussed certain aspects of economic development in contemporary developing countries within its international setting; the process and consequences of technological change in agr-LcuIture and the role of research in brLng Lng about such a change. _ More speCifically, an attempt has been made to isolate the set of problems faced by agricultural research in Nigeria and this has facilitated the specification of the main-objectives of the study. c., In Chapter II, a review of the organisation of research in Nigeria is made, starting-with the coloniel period through the period of internal self-government Bnd post- independence civil administration to the present military administration era. Against this background, research personnel and administration, research funding and infrastructures and research information and dissemination are discussed. And lastly an attempt at general evaluation UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 27 of research impact on agricultural production is made. Chapter III deals more specifically with cocoa research in relation to the history of cocoa production in Nigeria and the importance of the crop in the economy. It discusses the establishment and activities of the former inter-territorial cocoa research organisation, the West African Cocoa Research, and its national succes50~, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria; and focusses on its major achievements in the areas of disease control and the development of high-yielding varieties. It also examines the prospects of new directions in cOcoa r~search against the background of current gQvernment policy on cocoa production and world market outlook for the crop. Chapter IV deaLs with r-ev.i ew of ltterature and descr-Lbes the methodology of this study, providing the background for the development of the models used, namely the index- number model and the production function appro~ch. In Chapter V, the social.returns to cocoa research is estim2.ted using the index-number model developed in the previous Chapter. The sources and limitation of the data used are discussed. Some policy implications of the results are highlighted. Chapter VI gives an alternative estimation of returns to cocoa research using the production furiction approach. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 28 - Again, the sources and limitations of the data used are discussed and the policy implications of the findings are considered. The policy implications of the whole study are discussed in Chapter VII with special emphasis on the issues of new dimensions in research administration, approach to research funding, training research persormel, periodic research reviews, research information collation, dissemi- nation, and utilisation, research economies, and extension research. Chapter VIII, containing the summary and conclusion of the study, deals specifically with a summary of major findings and recommendations, limitations of the study, and areas for further research and conclusion. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / / 29 CHAPTER II AGRICULTURAL RESEllliCH IN NIG&1IA 2.1 Organisation 0" agricultural research The changes in the organisation of agricultural research in Nigeria have followed very closely the politica1 and constitutional history of the country~ For this reason, the organisation of agricultural research is here discussed against the background of the various landmarks in the political and constitutional development of Nigeria. Broadly speaking, four periods can be Lderrt Lf Led, These are the colonial period running from 1861 to 1950; internal self~government periods 1951 to 1960; the post-independence civil administration period, 1960 t6 1966; and the post-independence military administration period, from 1966 to-date. 2.1.1 ,Colonia} period 1861 - 195,0: The beginning of agricu1tural research in Nigeria can be traced to the establishment of a botanical research station in 1893 by Sir Claude McDonald. Later, in 1899, the British Cotton Growing Association (BCGA) acquired •• ,' -') •. , •.,c., • UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - -3'0 - an area of 10.4 km2 on Noor Plantation, Ibadan for experimental work on cotton. In 1910, the governme~t took over from the BCGA the experimental work on cotton, and Moor Plantation, the seat of the Association, was chosen as the temporary headquart~rs of the Agricultural Department for Southern Provinces which had hitherto been run as part of Agricultural and Forestry Department with Olokemeji as headquarters. In keeping with the prevailing political set-up under which the Northern Provinces and the Southern Provinces were administered as separate units, a Depart- Inentof Agriculture for the Northern Provinces was established in 1912. However, coming into being virtually on the eve of the First World War,·these departments had Iittle time to expand be f cr-c the onset of hos ti.Lties. As the 1921 Annual Report on the Agricultural Department has put it, When reviewing the results achieved since their initiation, it should be r~membered that both agricultural departments were very small indeed until just befcre the war ; and that the war started befbre the increased staff had settled to their work •. Thereafter the staff were depleted until t.ner-e was some- times only one officer actually present in each protectorate. In some cases the agri- cultural stations and work had to be handed over to junior·offi.cers of other departments, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 31 in add.Ition to their own duties!1 If the situation was bad enough for 6griculture as .a who l.es agricultural r-esear'chsuffered an even greater neglect 8.Sthis excerpt from the same report sho\'ls: In regard to this part of the work (work at the experimental farms) on which all future progress must depend, I found on arrival that the state of affairs was very far from satisfactory, especially in the Southern Provincese Little has been done before the war- started; and during the war, the small stRff of European officers was m8.inly occupied in c.uties connected with 'peripatetic introduction' in the Southern Provinces, and cotton extension work in the North. Thus, little attention was devoted tJ the experimental investigations, the c8.rrying out of which necessitates nnlchtime being spent on the experimental farms. Although the political amalgamation of North and South was effected in 1911.1-,it was not until 1921 that the 'Northern and Southern Agricultur8.1 Departments were merged into one depar-tmerrt , This merger marked the beginning of an era of contiD;uity and stability in agricultural organisation that was to span the next fifteen years or so. During this period, considerable progress \1(:lS made in research. For exanpLe , whereas before 1921, research was confined to the selection in 1 Ni ger-J.a, Annual report on the Agr:.cultural Dopar-t.n-errt t Southern Provinces for the period 1st January 1920 to 31st March 1921, LaGOS. 1921. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 32 crop varieties, mainly of cottonf during this period, research was initiated in a whole range of agricultural commodi ties and specialities. 'These include research work in oil palm breeding and small-scale extraction techniques; cocoa establishment trials; soil chemistry; stock breeding; locust control; green manuring; and mlxed farming. By far the most important line of research during the IlFaulkner Strip Layout" era (as the period came to be known) are those on green manuring in the Southern Provinces and wixed farming in the North. These were based.on the need to replace shiftin.g cultivation with some form of permanent cropping system capable of main- taining soil fertility. In view of the enormous resources devoted to its prosecution over a considerable time period, it may be pertinent here to comment briefly on its outcome. The main feature of green manuring is the incorpora- tion of a Legurnf.norscrop into a rotation system. The leguminous crop f o.ind to be the most satisfactory in this case VIasmUCUJ1a,a non-edible crop that had to be buried green into the soil or burnt after its seeds must have matured. While its technical effectiveness in the maintenance of soil fertility - and even its bringing about increases in yields of other crops in the rotation - UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.3 was in no doubt (see table 2.1) such a rotation was found to be unacceptable to the farmer. Two reasons have been given for this. The first was that the farmer grudged the labour of turning the soil over in order to bury the green manure. Secondly, it seemed to him a far- fetched idea that one should grow a crop that was other-wi se utterly useless in order to improve another crop that was to be grown the fo::'lowingyear. Howevert a more fundamental reason for its rejection by farmers ~ould seem to be that the alternative to its .adoption, namely shifting cultivation, was more attractives given the existing availability and abundance of virgin land. This is borne out by the fact that where the position shows more promise this year, particularly in the neighbourhood of Ogbomosho • • • the land has become impoverished throueh continual burning, clearing and farming. The people fully realise;that their land is deteriorating and that they have to go further and further away from the t own to find land fertile enough to grow their food crops; they have therefore readily li~toned to advice about .this matter and many are eager to give green manuring a trial.3 Apart from such flashes in the pan however, the novelty on the whole proved unacceptable to farmers so 3 Nigeria. Annual report on the Ag:;:'ictuulral Depart·- ment 1935. Lagos, 1936. pp 15-16 .. e " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 3'4 l'P.BLE 2.1 Nean yields under green.n.anur-Lng experIments (a) Moor Plantation Ibadan Yams Cotton Glnuts r·laize kg/hec. kg/hec. kg/hec. kg/hGc. 1st Cycle 1922-25 8285 184 1236 2263 2nd Cycle 1926-29 8613 229 1486 2290 .- Increase in yield during 2nd cycle 328 45 250 27 - (b) Ilorin - Yam/Cotton I 2nd year 3r~ year ~ I';ucunaplIanntteerd- ~ 'Ncaoirzne/iCnutienre-a- (due; in) planted kG/bec. kg/hee. - 1st cycle 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 9776 82 1~.16 429 (not wei ghed ) 2nd cycle 4th year 5th year 6th year --12,3L~8 17Si 1278 n~7 (not we i ghed ) .• Increase in yield durine; 2nd cycle 2,572 97 138 318 - ,- Source: Annual ii.eporton the Agricul tural Depar-tmerrt , 1929, P .12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 3"5 that as later as 1946, the Annual :leport for Western Provinces had this to say, These rotations were unattractive to ·the local farmers, however, main~y because they only gave four main crops in four years, whereas the farmers themselves took six or more crops in the same period • • • As the farmers in the areas concerned were not short of land for bush fallowing , it was L not possible (or even desirable at this tshteagenewofrorteasteiaorncsh.)4t0 pers.u'ade them to adopt By comparison, the corresponding introduction in the Nor-ther-n l':rovinces,mixed farming, seemed to have enjoyeJ considerable popularity among farmers (see Table 2.2). Mi~ed farmirig involved the use of ploughs and farm yard manure. Its acceptance was such that applications from farmers to participate had to be turned down because of the difficulties in obtaininG ploughs and suit&b10 cat.tle in sufficient numbers •.5 The onset of the Second Vforld Viarinevi t.a bLy slowed down progress in research, most of the resources being devoted to producing food for'army and civilians, and to increasing the production of export crops J..H:epalm pro- L"JN.'ger.l. a. Annual report on the Agr.iculturo.lDepartment 1945-. Lagos. Government Printer~ 1946. p.3'/. .5 Nigeria. Annu.al report on the Agricl.Jltur2i..D,.~partment, 1945. Lagos, Government Yrlnter, 1946, p~~O. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 36 - TABLE 2.2 Number of mixed farmers in the Northern Provinces up to the year 1945 . No started Failures Total.Year durin~ the during th~ continuing yeabr .. year at the endof the year 1928 3 - 3 1929 9 5 7 1930 13 3 17 1931 31 4 44 1932 71 7 108 1933 84 19 173 193~- 139 14 298 1935 348 25 621 1936 474 41 1,054 1937 41-1-5 66 1,tl-33 1938 321 156 1,598 1939 231 270 1,559 1940 483 222 ·1,820 1941 413 202 2,031 1942 297 366 1,962 1943 406 243 2,125 19~. 512 390 2,;.~1.(1 1945 590 . 290 2 ,Sl~7! . .- Source: Annual report on the A.:3ricultUl~ZDle.plart- ment 19~-.5, p. 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ... 3J du~ts and rubber which could no longer be obtained from Malaya because of Japanese war activities. One feature of research up to the Second World vrar was its close link r: with other activities of the Department of Agriculture. As a result research was an integ~ated affair between laboratory and field work. The end of the war ushered in further political changes under the 1946 Richard Constitution which created three administrative regions, North, West and East. In line with this new arrangement, the Department of Agricul- tt;.rewas organised into three regdmal units, each headed by a Deputy Director, with a Director at the centre co-ordinating the regional departments. Apart from every- thing else this period Dlarked the beginning of a separate existence for research, with regio~al departments concent- rating cn matters relatine to agricultural extension. This break between research and other activities meant a more tenuous link than hitherto between the laboratory and the field, a patterri that seereed to have intensified over the years. 2.1.2 I~ternal self-government periOdL}_~_i.S1-_1960: The trend towards regionalization whi en began in 1946 took on a greater tempo, cummuLa't ing in virtual political autonomy and self-government for each of the regions during UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / / 38 the de6eje. The ministerial system of government was introduced in 1951, following the adoption of the McPherson constitution. Und er- the new system, the Depart- ment of Agriculture came under the 1'1ini,stroyf Natural V Resources at the Centre, headed by an Inspector-General of Agriculture wh6 was responsible to the Minister, whi Le the Regional Agricultural Departments - also with- in a ministerial set-up - were headed by a Director of Agriculture respectively. However, agricultural research was administered under a central Research Organisation for which the Inspector-General had a direct responsibility. The opening years of this decade witnessed consider- able eAyansion in agricultural research activities. For instance, apart from research programmes initiated and ( financed within the Agricultural Department, a number of new research projects financed from external sources were started or greatly expanded. These include projects financed from the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund - namely, the Rice ~esearch Scheme in Badeggi and the Maize Rust Research Unit at filoorPlantation, Ibadan. Further- more this was the period during wh i ch autonornous it1est African Inter-territorial research organisations were founded notably the West African Oil Palm Research Institute (with a sub-station of the older West African UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 39 Cocoa Research Institute being es~ablished in Nigeri8 in 1952). The yea~ 1954 could be regarded as an importnn~ water- shed in the history of agricultural organisation in Nigeriao In that year, as a iesult of £urther constitut~onal development, the responsibility on all agricultural mat.t.er-s r 'vasailocated to the Regional Governmerrts 1 leaving '--- agricultural r~search on the concurrent legislative list. Consequent upon the new ar-r-ang emerrts a Fec2ral Depart- rnentof Agricultural nesearch Has established under the direction of a Director of Agricultural ~esearch who was responsible to the Federal Minister bf Research and Information. A.Council of Natural Resources compr-Ls tng of ministers responsible for agriculture was established £or co-ordinating the various program~2s of research throughout the country. In general, it ,'rasagreed. that the Federal Department of Agricultural Research f.>bould engage in resoarch of fundamental and long-term nc:tul~e while the Regions should concer-n themselves prirneJrily with short-term or applied r-e aear-ch, Furtl-L:?rrrja(X1.~e Technical Committee composed of the Dir-ect.or- of Jl.gricu'-'-hn'~ll ReBearch, Regional Directors of Agriculture and 3 l'epresen-, t.a ttve of the Faculty of Agri.culture of the University College, Lbadun was set up to advi.se the Council. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .._..-.--------.-.----I-~-·~-·-·-.~~.~. 40 \'ltih the attainment of Regional self-government varJously in 1958 and 19..59, the break between tpe Centre and the Regions in matters of agricultural administration l- became completely formalised. The result of this was that the organs of co-ordination for agricultural research - the National Council for Natural Resources and its 'I'echnLcaL COITnntitees - functioned more on the basis of a gentlemen's agreement, lacking the necess~ry statutory power-s :fortheir assignment. 2.1.3 Post-indenendence civil administration periodJ 1~60- 1956: The euphoria following the at.t.a inmerrt of national independence in 1960 brought in its ~ake rising expectations' for "life more abundant." The immediate post-independence years was thus marked by vast increased in government expenditures aimed at accelerating general development. As "d.th other areas there was intensive regional competi- tion in expanding agricultural research activities, tho emphaS1.S b'elng l.n th'e maln on export commod1.tl.eSe6 The main thrust of agricultl~al development effort during'this period particularly in the two Southern Regions was on large-scale agricultural system cifthe 6 Nigeria. Federal Ninistry of .k.gricutlure and Nat.ur-e.L Resources. Agricultural development in Nigeria 1973-1985, Lagos, 197L~o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 41 farm-settlement type. This represented a big departure from the past h.istoryof agricultural development policy which had always eropha tLcaLLy rejected large-scale schemes. Such shift in emphasis could be expected to have affected the direction of research cffort~. This may well have accounted for the neglect of food crops research during this period, since it seemed to have been the pr€vailine belief that large-scale mechanisation was the cure for all the ills of low agricultural productivity~ In the circumstances such research as there vtee on food cr-ops was haphazard, lacking any clear-cut po~icy direction. Furthermore in the absence of an effectlve machinery for co-ordination of agricultural research throughout the country there was inevitably a large area of overlapping and even outright duplication of research efforts among the·Regions and between the Regions and the Federal Department of Agricultural Research.7· One possible reason why export crops research fared better during this period was that being mostly tree crops, the mechanisation noiion was largely inapplicable; so that research could continue without change .of direction . i . 7 Compare, for instanc.e,the Annua; Heports of the various Regional Agricultural Research Diyisions throughout this period. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY from its previous one of evolving higher-yielding varieties. Another reason, of course, wag that as the countryts main source of forejgn exchange earning tben, it enjoyed a greater financial support, thanks to generous grants from the Regional IvlarketingBoards which, like its predecessors, the Commodity Nar ket.LngBoar-ds, had accummulated (as well as inherited) financial "surplusesllfrom the export sales of these very crops. The importance of these crops to the Nigerian economy and hence the need to enhance their production potentials was further underlined during this period by the former inter-terri torial research or-gan Laat.Lonsdealing in these crops being constituted into autonomous national research institutes. Thus in 1964 the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN) and the Nieerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) as well as the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (iHTR) were establ.ished along similar patterns as their int~r-territorial predecessors (Appendix I). Since the day-to-day operations of these institutes were mostly outside the bureaucratic routine of :the civil service, their autonomy no doubt was a contri- buting factor to whatever success they might have achieved. This contrasts rr.arkedlywith the organisation of food crops research which had always been run under a civil service set-up. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ___ • __ ••• _ •• ,~ '-_ h_" ~··_· • Nevertheless the Federal Goverrunent was not unaware of the need to re-organise food crops research as well under autonomous institutes. Indeed, acting on a report by Sir Frank Engledow on the re-organisation of the Federal Departments responsible for ag~ic~ltural, veterinary, forestry and fisheries research,S the government actually passed an enabling legisl~tion in form of the Scientific and Industrial Research Ordinance No. 35 of 1959 for the establishment of research institutes in these areaso It was against this background that the Northern R8gion Government constituted the Agricultural Research Division of its tlished, each under a governing board (see t.ppe:r~'~I,Vi)x.~ One feature of these new in~titutes was that each was restricted to conducting research into one or a fe\v related crops. For instance, the National Roots Crops Research Institute was to conduct research intci crops like yam, cassava and potatoes, while the Natio~al Cereals Research Institute was to confine its research activities to rnaizeJ rice 'and grain legumes. In spite of the eventual completion of all formalities however, the ARCN never really took of£ the gY'ound in the end. This was because it was superceded by a now body, the Nigerian Science and TeChnology Development Agency (NSTDA) which was established in January 1,977. The NS'l'DA gas a broader scope than the ArlCN, covering medical and industrial as well as agricultural research. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.2 Research personnel and administration Of all research resources personnel is perhaps the most crucial and certainly the most limiting in developing countries. 'I'h Is is due in part to the fact that it requires talent and long years of specialized training to produce a research scientist. This inherent limitation in supply calls for efficient ddministration if available personnel are to be effecti~ely utilized. In NiEeria the earliest organization of research particularly during the 6olonial era was one of close integration Vlii:ie1xtension. For this Te3son it was not always clear which :r:ersonnelwere specifically for research and which were purely extension staff. Nevertheless some staff came to be appointed on the basis of their scientific discipline. The earliest of this group, an entomologist, was appointed about 1910. Apart from the addition of a mycologist a couple of years later nothine much happened until 1924 when'research officers increased to eight~ This period also seemed to mark the turning point in a more efficidnt administration of research personnel with perhaps some recognition of the need for interdisciplinary approach. For instance, that year's annual report had this to say on the work of research UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I . i 47 " / officers. The policy laid down is the concentration of most of each individual's energies on only one problem at one time, and on the concentra- tion, whenever circumstances call for it, of the efforts of several officers on the same problem. The value of such team work in dealing with problems 6f applied science is generally recognised in theory; but, in Government Agricultural Departments, it is not actually a very common practice, for it frequently appears to involve a sharing of the satisfaction of achievement which is not always acceptable to the workers. But although tlhyis attitude is neither unnatural nor entire-unreasonable, there is little doubt that a policy of concentration and cooperation is frequen·tly most advantageous, and often even essential.9 .By and large with increases in.research staff over the years, research efforts were directed to improving export commodities. Thus \'lorkwas concentrated on such crops as cocoa, cotton, groundnuts and palm produce. Such a policy can be said to be rational since returns to research efforts can be expected to be high, given the high value of tht~se expor-t, commodities. Another feature of the growth in nuober of research personnel was that each specialized discipline began to emerge as separate sections for purposes of administration. For instance, 9 Nig,eri.a. Annual report on tbe Agricultural lJepartment 1924. Lagos 1925. pp. 1-2. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 48 whereas in the anuual reports of the Agricultural Depart- ment up to the Second World War research activities were reported under general programmes, such reports now came under their own research sections like Ch9mistry, Botany, Entomology, etc. This trend intensified with regionaliza- "tionin 1946 curnmulatine in the establishment of a central resea~ch organisation in 1951. Again for purposes of effective utilization of the relatively limited res9arch personnel this arrangement "'QuId seem to be rational since to h8ve regionalized research like other areas of agri- culture would h~ve resulted in spreadinG available research personnel too thin on the ground. The situation however changed with the complete regionalization o~ all agricultural matters in 1954. Thereafter, research personnel like other staff were placed w1der the control of their respective regions. This decehtralization of administrative control on research personnel resultc:d in much duplication of research efforts, especially as there was no effective machinery for research co-ordination among the various regions. It VIas against this background that the Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria was established in 1971. The decree establishinc the Council gave it very wide powers in the administration of research generallyo A complementary UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY decree, the Agricultural Research Institute Decre2 spp.lling out the relationship of the MCN with the research institutes was promulgated in 1973 (Appendix III). Among other things, the decree specifically gave the ARCN the powers of appointment, promotion and discipline of research staff in all research institutes. The provisions of this decree together with those of the previous MCN decree thus gave an adequ~te coverage to the need for a central administration of research personnel. The emphasis on research personnel in the new set-up was in evidence in the structure of the ARCN secretariat itself, which established a Division of Hanpower Training. Indeed perhaps the only standing ac~ievement of its credit was the study on agricultural manpower requirements in the whole country which it undertook in conjunction with"the FAO and which was concluded just in time before the supercesion of P.RCN by the NSTDA.10 2.3 ~esearch funding and infrastructure Research funding and the provision of infrastructure are clearly related. Thus scarcity of f~nds over a long 10 Nigeria. Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria. Report of the national semf.nar- on manpower- pLanni.ng for agricultural development in Nigeria. Ibadan, 1977. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY period can be expected to result in inadequate provision for research infrastructure. Among the items of research infrastructure may be included equipment, laboratory buildings, green houses, library - all of which depend directly on research funding. In"addition there is another category of research infrastructure wh i.ch are by way of externalities to r-esear-chinstitutes and whose provision is outside the funding of the research establishments themselves. In this category can be included the proximity of research centres to w1iversities which thus provide ar..".intellectual atmospher-e" as well as certain physical facilities that may ordinarily not be available to a research establis~nent, e.g. computer facilities, electron microscope, conference facilities etc. In Nigeria, the first category of infrastructure has perhaps been the more important, since agricultural research is largely of the applied type. Consequently research funding is particularly relevant in considering the adequacy of such infractructure. How has funding of research, particularly in relation to the provision of infrastructure, fared in Nieeria? As already noted, agricultural research was closely integrated with extension activities up to the Second World lvarf so tbat it was not always clear where research ended and extension began. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY By the same token there was-no distinction between funds for research and extension. ~roreover, given the relative- ly low level of sophistication in research activities in these early years, rese8.rch fund requirements were likely to be minimal. For instance, the dominant research proeramme for over two decades from 1921 was a rotation system incorporating green manure in the south and mixed farming in the north. Clearly the level of infrastructure required for such lines of research in form of equipment, laboratory buildings etc. were necessarily minimal since they were Larget.y field-oriented. Hence it could be reasonably assumed in the absence of documentary evidence that not much of research infrastructure was built up during this perioq. The post second-world-war years witnessed an expan- sion of research facilities, a trend that intensified with the regionalization of agricultural research in the f i.f t.Les, In the main, research infrastructures were built around three regional centres, namely,Samaru in the North, Umudike in the East,and Ibadan in the West. Apart from these, however, research infrastructures were also expanded in the university faculties of Agriculture, notably Tbadun , Ife, Ahmadu Bello, and University of Nigeria, Nsukka • . . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Like the activities of the regional research centres, research funding was not coordinated. Given the inevitable duplication and overlapping in research activities "under such a situation aggregate investment in research, meagre though it has been in relative terms, was in effect dissipated. Again the rationalization of funding and provision of research expenditure is one of the objectives, of the establishment of the ,A.'i.CN. 2.4 Research information dissemination The dissemination of findings constitute an important aspect of the research process. As Ashton and Rogers have put it, "The learned paper which sits on the shelf gathering dust is of little benefit to anyone .•1•1 Dd ssemi,» nation of research information is even more vital to applied research like in agricultural research where tbe real objective is consciously to raise farm productivity_ Indeed for agricultural research "it is a tenable pr-opc sL« tion that a research is not completed until its findings have been understood. by those who are in a position to act on the results.,,12 11 Ashton, J_ and S. J. Hogers , 'Agricultural adjustment - a challenge to economists. Journal of A~ricul- tural Economics (rvlanchester)1B-(20),p. 186. 12 Ashton, J. and S. J. Rogers,op.cit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 53 In Nigeria the dissemination of agricultural re3earch information has taken various forms which can be grouped into two main categories on the basis of "audience type." The first category consists of those forms aimed largely at scientific and professional atidience, and include publications in scientific journals, departmental bulletinsJ the holding of conferenc€ss seminars and workshops. T~e main value of these forms of dissemination is that it enables other researchers to keep abreast of developments in their respective fields. The second. category of research information dissemination is by extension methods which are of course aimed at getting,the farmers to adopt research findings. These include farm visits, meetings, the use of mass media (press, radio and television), demonstration farms , agricultural shows and farmers festivals, and "progressive farmersll approac.h • :'Farm ',' visits by extension workers is th~ most direct form of communicating researcb information to farmerss par-t.LcLuar-Lyin a pr-edomi.nerrt.Ly illiterate society. 'I'he effectiveness of this me't.hod .of extension depends on the ratio of extension workers to farming population, a ratio which in Nigeria like in other developing countries is far from the ideal. For instance while the ratio of extension workers to farm families in developed countries UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY is 1:400-500 the corresponding fi~ure for Nigeria has been put at 1:2000.13 Furthermore, this ratio says nothing about the low quality of the personnel. Typically, the orGanisation of the extension network_is such that the category of staff directly in day~to-day contact with the farmer are predominantly field overseers. These grades of staff have little fcrmal education beyond the primary level and hardly any vocational training in agriculture. The progressive farmer strategy offers a big attraction as an extension method, particularly where extension workers are spread thinly on the ground. Under this strategy, extension resources are concentrated on relativ~- ly few farmers who are most Li.ke Ly to accept and adopt innovations with the expectation that they will in turn act ~s demonstration agerits in the diffusion of informa- tien and improved practices. Various forms of this strategy have been tried in N~geria at different times. These range from using "progressivesll among traditional .farmers themselves to creating an entirely new class of farmers who by virtue of education and agricultural training could be expected to adopt improved practices --------------------------------- 13 F.A.O., Af,ricultural development in Nigeria 1965-1980 . Rome, 1966, p.300. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY as a matter of course. In the latter group are included the farm school programmes of the post Second World War years under which young farmers were trained in farm schools for a couple of years after which they went back to their respective villages to put their acquired knovr-' ledge into practice. The Niger Agricultural Project esta- blished in 1950 also had a co~ponent that aimed at producing a community of farm settlers with superior farming skills.14 This "revolutionary" approach reached its highest develop- ment in the farm settlement scheme of the sixties. The demonstration farm has been recognised as an important tool of extension since the establishment of the Department of ~griculture itself. Indeed the main stations like Moor Plantation and Samaru were demonstra- tion as well as research farms. ApRrt from the main stations, model farms - as the demor.stration farms were then called - were established in several "agricultural districts which were too remote from the Agricultural Station.sfor farmers conveniently to visi t the latter. n15 Apart from demonstrating new skills and improved farming 14 Baldwin, K.D.S. The Nieer agricultural project, / Oxford, Basil Blackwell~ 1957, 221p. 15 Nigeria. Annual rep~ort on the Aericul tural Department, Southern Nigeria for the year 1913. Lagos, 1914 p.10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ., 56 proc.tice~, these farms also supplied improved varieties of seeds, seedlings and breeding stock. This tradition has continued and in fact has intensified all through the constitutional changes especially with regionalization. Thus with its poliferation, demonstration farms have been called different names among whio.h are experimental unit farms, Native Authority farm centres, extension work stations etc. Agricultural shows as a means of disseminating research informaticn also has a long history, the first show having been held in Lagos in 1910. As in the case of the demonstration farms, agricultural shows have become a part of the extension routine over the years. The main pur'pose of the agricultural show is the exhibition of farm products especially for their qualities and high yields with a view of fostering a spf.r-L t of competition among farmers in attaining high quality and yields by adopting improved farming practices. The show also pro- vides a forum for researchers to acquaint farmers with their latest findings such as new crop varieties, improved husbandry methods and processing techniques. In this context it may be mentioned that apart from the converi- tional'type of agricultural show which is usually organised by the extension services of Ministries of ABriculture, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY thE' organisation of what is usually called IIfield days" or "farmers days" have in recent years become popular among research instibJ.tes. On such occasions farmers have the opportunity to obtain first-hand information on various research activities and programmes being carried on in the institute, particularly those that have immediate relevance for farmer adoption. Another trend in the dissemination of ~esearch information is that after decades of existence of research and extension as separate organisational entities, the research institutes core beg i.nnLng rto incorporate extension ac t ivities into their own set-up through the formation of an Agricultural Extension Research Liasion Service (AERLS). This has reached full development at the Institute for Agricultural Research of Ahmadu Bello University which origOinated the idea. Indeed the activities of this Institute's AERLS have expanded to the extent that it has now been constituted into an autonomous body, separate from its parent institute. Also, of major significance on the current extension scene is the National Accelerated Food Production Pr-ogr-arane (NAFPP) initiated by the Federal Hinistry of Agriculture arid Natural Resources in 1972. The National Accelerated Food Production Progra~me (NAFPP) is another devploping UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 58 medium for the dissemination of research information to farmers. Basically, the programme which vms launched in 1973 is an attempt to integrate research, extension and agro-service (material and service inputs) and to bring to bear their synergistic effect on increasing the pro- ductivity of certain selected ~ropsi The crops are rices maize, millet, sorghum, wheat and cassava. Operationally the programme is organised into three national crop centres based in research institutes as follows: the Rice/Maize Centre at the National Cereals Research Institute, Moor Plantation) Ibadan; the Millet/Sorghum/~fueat Centre at the Institute of Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Samar~; and the Cassava Centre at the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike. These centres work in close collaboration with state extension services to develop crop varieties and cu.Ltivation methods wh i.ch are tested on specific sites ~nd individual farms through what are known as m.tni-kits. Mini-kits are specially prepared packages of seed of different varieties, fertili- zers of different analysis, and recommended quantities of the rieht pesticides. It is claimed that the use of mini-kits as a research and teaching tool reduces the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 59 period between the proof of an improved practice and its mass-adoption from 7-9 years to 2-3 years.16 Finally, the use of the mass media for disseminating research information has tal(encn an increasin~ importance in recent years. Both radio and television ih many parts of the country no\~feature a8ricultural information in their regular programmes in addition to news coverage of sp~cial occasions like meetings, seminars, workshopss conferences etc.:pertaining to agricultural matterso Similarly, some sections of the press carry special columns on scientific information including those on agricultural research. All in all, there exists a wide variety of channels through which research information could be dissemjnated. While a few are of recent develop- ment, many have been part of the history of Nigerian agriculture itself. 2.5 Gerieral evaluation of research imoact Agricultural research in Nigeria has ~een in existence now for four decades, the first exper-Lmen t.s L station having been established in Ibadan in 1899. Given its fairly long history, what has been its impact on agricul- 16 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, The NAFPP: A new dimension for Nigerian agri~ulture .Ibadan ,1977 • UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 60 tural development in the courrtr-y? One significant factor to be borne in mind in considering the impact of r-esear-ch on agricultural development is that largely as a result of British coTonial policy of "protectorate" administration rather than wholesale colonisation, Nigerian agriculture has continued in its socio-cultural small-scaJ..esetting. Thus, the conduct of research and dissemination of research infor- mati on has had to operate in a milieu of mass illiteracy, subsistence-oriented production, and primitive implements that characterise the shifting cultl.vation system of the Nigerian small-holder. It is common knowledge that there has been little change in the state of farming technology over the years. This is often attributed to the neglect of food crops research.~7 However, this is not borne out by historical evidence. What could be asserted is that the research efforts have made little impact on food production - which 1s different from saying that no efforts were made. On the contrary, available evidence suggests that from early times in the history of res'?arch, efforts were 17 Oluwasanm.i.,B.A., ~'lestAfrican agricultural develop- mAnt in the '60's. Proceedin~ of tonf2rence on factors of c'conomic grOl·rch l~Jest .,;{~·1.ca, Legon .' 19'"1.3 J p.2. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .61 directed co tackling the fundamental problem of food production, n~melYJ the need to develop a system of continuous cropping capable of maintaining soil fertiltty in place of traditional shifting cultivation. For instance, during the period from ·1921up to the end of the Second World War, agricultural research was dominated almost exclusively by experiments on "green manuring" in the south and Hmixed farming" in the north. Thus for some twenty-five years, agr-Lcu Lt.ur-Iaresearch was pre·· occupied with attacking the problems of low food productivity from the roots, as it were. It is interesting to speculate on whether some acceptable substitute for sbift- ing cultivation would have been evolved. However, as it turned out, the end of the Second World War marked the beginning of rapid constitutional and poli 'tLcaL changes which resulted in successive re-organi sE~tions of the Department of Agriculture and resultant changes in research policies and ~rogrammes. Even then, research in food crops have continued, albeit by focussing on Lnd.tv Ldua.L crops rather than as part of a farming system.18 There are many reasons for the lacY.·.of research impact on traditional farming practices. One is that the 18 See,for instance, the annual reports of both Federal and Regional Research establishments f ro:»191.~6to the ·1960' s UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 62 relative abundance and availability of land ravours the continuance of the traditional shifting cultivation; there is therefore no incentive to adopt improved practices. Secondly, the commune.L land tenure system is not suited to present-day requirement of cash crops production.19 Thus the occupier of agricultural lancl has no real incen~ tive to improve or even to maintain the fertility of the land he is cultivating. Thirdly, agricultural research has not always progressed evenly on all fronts. so that the adoptior- of an improvement in one area of farming may be handicapped by lack of correspor-ding innovation in other complementary areas. For axamp Le , the increase in output from the adoption of modern practices like improved varieties and fertilizer applicp.tion TIlaybe nullified by lack of adequate pr-oce ssLrig and s t cr-ag e methods for the resulting excess. Fourthly, there is the nOD- application of what Norman and &immonf° have called the urelevance criteria" in the formulation of rG:search policies and programmes. For example, inter-cropping is known to be the predominant system of farming in most parts of the 19. F. A. 0., .Op. cit. 20 Norman, D.W. and B. B. Simmons, Determinntion of relevant priori t.Les for f ar-m clf>vcJ_()"~:'t:::r:!t in ':,:o;::t Arr i.C8., Pree f> edin.""'r:fs' th(~ CO)}? ':1"."1" \.:.r: ',;'1 f ~c~t·,oy·~; 0·.!".. Ca':r';r'.-l"·_C"I'''·t..·"·',l, with the object of r2.~SiD':t:h;e quality of cocoa as well 8S other export crops. This interveri- tion together with war-time export control arrangements resulted in better quality of produce e:'Torts. The Cocoa l~;arketillgBoard establi!:.:,·8iln 19L~7 successfully used is price~fixing powers to effect even UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE 3.1 GroWth of cocoa production In '000 metric tons: average Change from preceeding Period of four-year periods period per cent ending: Nigeria Africa"* America Ivorld Nigeria Africa*" " America World 1914 4.1 91 .8 151 .1 249.3 •• .. •• .. 1918 11 .0 125.4 169.7 301.7 + 164 + 37 + 12 + 21 ". o- 1922 23.2 216.3 187.0 410.1 + 111 + 73 + 10 + 36 \D 1926 38.1 295.0 178.9 480.9 + 64 +" 36 - 4 + 17 1930 48.6" 317.6 177.0 503.1 + 28 + 8 - 1 + 5 1934 66.3 374.1 185.0 566.7 + 36" + 18 + 5 + 13 19";)8 90.9 351.4 208.2 667.6 + 37 + 21 + 13 + 18 * Including Nigeria Source: ,Galletti, R~, K. D. ~. Baldwin and I. O. Dina, Nigerian cocoa farmers, Oxford University Press, 1956, p.1. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 70 TABLE 3.2 Nigeria's cocoa production as percentage of World production Season Production Percentage of World(metric tonsj Prdduction 1965/66 184,6J2 14,'39 1956/67 267,273 19.60 1967/68 238,653 17.56 1968/69 187,533 15.02 1969/70 222,969 15.59 1970/71 307,915 20.60 1971/72 256, 60L~ • 16.13 1972/73 241,286 17.16 1973/74 190,900 13.1l8 •, 1974/75 214,000 I 13.81- Source: Statistical Information on Hestern State of Nieerian Controlled Produce, Western Nigeria Marketing Board, April 1976. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 71 greater :'Jnprovementin the quality of cocoa export. For instance in 1947/48, 47 per cent of cocoa purchased by the Board was of grade one quality, 25 per cent grade two, 21 per cent grade three and,7 per cent grade four. In 1950/51 the Board's purchases were 95 per cent grade one and 5 per cent grade two, with grades three and four no longer sold (Table 3.3). This course of action as indeed its other policies has been the subject of severe criticism.4 It is contended that the minimum quality prescribed by the Boards was always higher t~an the lowest quality acceptable on the world market, and that such prohibition of inferior but commercially marketable grades of produce represented a loss not only to the producers but to the economy at large. On the other hand, some economists have hailed the improvement in produce quality as having contributed to the Nigerian economy.5,6 Another significant government intervention in cocoa ~roduction is in pests and diseases control. Following 4 Notably by Ba0er_ For a definitive study of the Harketing Boar-d s see Bauer, P.T., v/estAfric2.n trade, (London) Routledge and Kogan Faul Ltd, . 1963 f 5 Clayton, B.S., Freedom and welfare in developing countries, Farm Economist 10(6), 1963. 6 Hill, Poly. Fluctuations in incomes of primary producers. Economic Journal . • . June 1963 . . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 72 TABLE 3.3 Nigeria Cocoa Marketing Board producer prices for cocoa and distribution of purchase between erades, 1947-54 Producer Prices Proportion ofquantity boue;ht Year .Quantity - . Grades . Grades bought-- I II III IV I II III IV N per ton per cent '000 tons 1947-L~8 122 120 114 96 47 25 21 7 75 1948-49 240 230 210 180 76 21 2 1 109 1949-50 200 190 150 - 89 10 (a) - 99 1950-51 240 220 Grades 95 5 Grades 110 1951-52 340 310 no 96 4 no 108 1952-53 340 310 longer 95 5 lonf,er 109 1953-54 340 310 bought bought 97 (a) less than O~5 Source: Nieeria Cocoa Marketing Board records UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 73 the outbreak of swoILen shoot disease during the second world war, the government conducted a swollen shoot virus survey throughout the cocoa-producing area. Since there was no known cure, this led to a massive "cutting out" campaign with a view to preventing the disease from spread- ing to healthy trees. This failed to control the disease, and government resorted to sealing off those areas that were badly affected by the disease (the "Ar~as of Mass Infection" - AIlI)by the establishment of "a cordon sanitaire 11 around them. 7he two areas declared as M·n were around Ibadan and Ilaro. The most striking develop- ment was the iutroduction in 1954 of spr3ying against black pod disease throuGh the training of farmers and subsidies for chemicals. This together with spraying against cap~id pests reduced yield loss considerably • .Even more deleterious to sustained production is the fact that 65 per cent of existing hectarage have passed their economiclife.7 In 1964, the Western Region Ministry of Agriculture initiated a special Cocoa Development Scheme. This was aimed at replanting 5,200 hectares of old cocoa farm and to establish~_,OqO hectares of new plantings over four years. Participating farmers 7 Nigeria. We~tern State Frogran~e of the Third National Development Plan 1975-80. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 who must belong to co-operative societies were to adopt a package of recommended pre.ctices under the close supervision of extension staff. The government also pro- vided grants for replantingS and credit for new plantings through the Agricultural Credit C-orporation. The project 'It/aesxpected to be implemented through a loan from the World Bank. However the targets had to be reduced because the expected World Bank loan was not forthcoming. The hectarage actually planted was less than 1,600 hectares for replanting and 'i,560hectares for new planting. During the 1970-74 Development Flan, the scheme for rehabilitation, which \'lasstarted under the special Cocoa Development Scheme, was given a new impetus by the establishment of the Cocoa Development Unit as an autonomous body, with the assistance of the World Bank in form of 102n and technical know-how. Under the new project a total of 10,926 hectares of replanting as well as 10,926 hectares of new planting were to be underta]~en at a total cost of 1':8.3 million. Following a favourable report of a Horla Bank mission which r-ev Lewed the project in 1973,·it \'lasrecommended that the scheme be extended from the total of 17,60L~ to 42 f 694 hectares at an addi- tional cost of N13 million. With the creation of three states out of the erstwhile \Vestern·State,·each with its UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 75 own Cocoa Development Unit, indications are that the scheme of rep18nting and new plantings would be more intensified. For instance, by the 1976/77 planting season, a total of 45,919 hectares have been achieved. The year-by-year hectarage achiev.ement in the three states --_.. are shown in 'fable 3.4. Another factor that has been identified as having had a negative effect on cocoa production is the Marketing Board pricing policy which has for long imposed a heavy burden·of tax on producers and fixed producer prices at levels far below world market prices.8,9 For instance in 1966/67 the producer price paid was only 35.6 per cent of world market price (see Table 3.5). In 1973 the govern- ment reviewed the pricing policy of the Marketing Board. In particular, the taxation element was eliminated, and prices were to be fixed more in line with the world market. Furthermore in 1977, the whole Marketing Board system in Nigeria was overhauled, the regional set-up being replaced by Commodity Boards. The Marketing Board system 8 Olatunbosun, D. and S.O. Olayide, Effects of the marketing boards on the output and income Of primary producers. Internaticnal conference on marketing board system, NIS£R Ibadan, 1971. 9 Olatunbosun, D. Pricing policy and supply response in cocoa production: the Nigerian case. Pr-oc eedi.ngs on cocoa econQmics research conference, Legon, April 1973 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE 3.4 Cocoa Development Unit: Hectarage achievemen~ in states comprising the old Western State 1972-76 Total Year New' Planting Replanting Plantines (hectares) Ondo Ogun Oyo Ondo Ogun Oyo All States • 1972 752+ 78 330 301 178 554 2195 ~(j'\ 1973 1342 134 878 798 258 1223 4633 1974 1919 510 761 751 409 2L~64 6978 1975 1832 1340 846 2193 991 .4lJ·99 11,699 1976 3059 214-4- 1485 . '4684 1297 7743 20,414 Total 8906 4206 4300 8691 3133 16481 45,919 Sourc~: Western State Cocoa Development Unit records UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 77 - TABLE 3.5 Nigerian producer price as percentage of wor-Ld price World price Nigerian producer Nigerian Year per tonmie:t-ric price per metric producer price ton as percentageof world price Naira 1958/59 694 371 53.5 1959/60 562 351 62<'5 1960/61 445 367 82.5 1961/62 354 251 70.9 1962/63 335 268 80.0 1963/64 404 256 63.4 1964/65 375 250 66.7 1965/66 277 130 46.9 1966/67 386 207 53.6 1967/68 476 203:. 42.6 1968/69 639 203 31 .8 1969/70 831 317 38.1 P.T.O. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 78~ TABLE 3.5 (cont'd) World price Nigerian producer Nigerian Year per metric price per metric producer price ton* ton as percentageof world price Naira 1970/71 611 303 49.6 1971/72 465 318 68.4 1972/73 541 366 67.7 1973/7L~ 1171 399 34.1 1974/75 1980 580 29.3 1975/76 2212 652 29.5 The f'Lgur-e s used are London prices._ .:.---_ .--.: : -- ••• .& Sources: Gill and Duffus, Cocoa market report, No. 270; Western Nigeria Marketing Board, Statistical information on Western State of Nigeria controlled produce, Ibadan, April 1976. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 79 in Nigeria could thus be salj to have come full circle since the post-second 'World War period. What is the outlook for cocoa production in Nigeria? In the words of the Western State Prograrr~e of the Third National Development Plan, the massive investment in cocoa and positive response whioh is expected, will result in the output of cocoa in the state as shown in Table 3.6.10 These targets rangine from 200,000 to 369,600 tonnes are .substantial. If the stipulated targets are achieved, Nigeria would re[ain her previous position in the world market as the second largest producer of cocca by 1980. 3.2. Cocoa and the Nigerian eCono~ Of all Nigeria f s t.r-ad i tior~al export crops, cocoa has made the greatest impact on the economy, especially during the pre-petroleum era. Given the concentration of production in Western Nigeria, cocoa has always dominated the econcmY.of that part of the country almost. exclusively. Thus the production of ciocoahas contributed immensely to the economic progress of Western Nigeria in terms of reformatory effects on certain traditional 10 Nigeria. Western St~te programme of the third . national development plan 1975-80. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 80 TABLE 3.6 Projected output of cocoa 1975-80 (metric tons) 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 200,000 324,coo 336,000 341,600 369,600 Source: Western State Programme of the Third Nation1a9l75-D8e0v,elopment Planp.• 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ·. 81 institut~ons notably land tenure, raising farmers income, and pr-ovidi.nggovernment vii th revenue and resources for the developmental effort. Howeve-r,its contributions to the national economy at large has been no less remark- able, especially as an earner of £oreign exchange as well as being an important component of the gross domestic product. The impact of cocoa on the economy could there- fore be assessed in relation to these factors. In doing so, emphasis is focussed on the period up to the 1960's when the distorting influence of petrolewn export was yet to affect the picture. The cultivation of cocoa per se has had some modifying effects on the traditional land ten~re system. Sirtce under the customary system of land tenure the right of the individual over the trees planted by him is recognised, the cultivation of cocoa means an indefinite interest on the part of the producer in a particular plot of land. 'It also mean~ an abrogati.on of shiftin!3cultivation which is a feature of the customary system. "Ymilethe rever- sionary riGht of the community to a plot of land remains unimparecl by the cu'l tivation of cocoa 1 thj_ssituation does give ample scope for tendencies 't.owar'd s individuali- zation of land ownership.11. For instance, the cultivator 11 See H~llciner, C.K. P~easant aericultu~e, government and economic growth in Nigeria. Homewood, Illinois. Richard D. Irwin, Inco 1966. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY J 82 .has the rieht to mortgage his crop or pledge it against indebtedness. Above all the individual at death can transfer the r~ght over the trees to his heirs, thereby circumscribing the reversionary right to the community of the land carrying his crop. In successive generations, r such land may, in practice, be lost to the community. This modified situation vis-a-vis the pure form of tra- ditional tenure has significant implications for the farmer's willingness to invest in his piece of lanc. On a more spectacular plane, cocoa production has created opportunities for increasing far~ers' incomes over the years (Table 3.7), mostly a~ a resul~ of rising commodity prices. In particular, the boom period of the post Second ~{orld \'laryears resulted not only in un- precedented increases in producer incoillebut also led to considerable rise in the gener~l standard of living in the then Western Region as this exerpt from Baldwin Galletti and Dina shows: .In everything that goes to improv~ the material standard bf life beyond bare necessities of food and shelter, the inhabitants of the Western Region seem tb enjoy at least twice as much as those in the Eastern Region and in most respects threE;;t'imes as those of the Northern Ret;ion• .Nor, thouf;h the towns get the lion's share of the imports, is the material improvement confined to cities and t.owns , In the consump- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 83 TABLE 3.7 Incomes received by farmers from sales of COC08, 1939/40 - 1975/76 Year -~---------r- 1939/40 '194°/41 19i~1/42 1948/49 1950/51 1951/52 1952/53 1953/54 1954/55 1955/56 1956/57 1957/58 1958/59 1959/t;>0 1960/61 __ , -'- --U, .,•,__ ._~~ . _ Source: Helleiner (1966)~ Central Bank of Nigeria Economic and Financial ReviewJ several issues, Western Nigeria Marketinc Board. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 84 tion of textiles, iron sheets, and cement, cigarettes, beer and kerosene, the Yoruba Affarrimcien.g--s;ett2tlement is ahead of most of Even more spect.acu.Lari-s the contribution of cocoa to government revenue, particularly at the regional level. This contribution has come mostly in form of produce sales tax. From Table 3.8 it can be seen that cocoa contributed more than 70 per cent of the total revenue from produce sales tax for each year between 1960 and 1968.13 Furthermore the Marketing Board reserves accummulated over the years provided an important source of investment funds especially in the 1950-60 decade , Development in the first hctlfof the century depended largely on loans raised overseas. Between 1950 and 1959, however, the. Marketing Boards replaced the forei~n investor as a source of investment funds for the public sector. By 1954, the Commodity Marketing Boards reserves was over ~163 million after M68 million had already,been allocated for economic development and research out of which the Cocoa l1arketing Board contributed 35.7 and 39.3 per cent respectively 12 Galletti, R., K. Dc S. Baldwin and I. O. Dina. op.cit. 13 To this must be added the indirect benefit of duties accruing to government from tileimports for which cocoa exports help to pay. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE 3.8 Contribution of Cocoa Marketing Board to general reserves and appropriations 1949-54 Appropriations for Development General Reserves (end of year) and Research (Cumulative to end of year) Year All Cocoa Cocoa Cocoa Fiarketing; Marketing Harketing All Cocoa Marketing Boards Board Board's Marketing Market'ing Board's .Share Boards Board Share Q) \11. .;.! - ,- •~ ", ... , '- (Nmillion) (~million) (%) (~million) (~million) (ro) 1949/50 9'-f..4 43.6 45.5 17.0 6.6• 38.8 1950/51 131.6 66.0 50.2 22.8 6.6 29.0 1951/52 135.8 52.0 38.0 49.8 23.2 47.0 1952/53 154.0 52.6 34.2 59.6 23.6 40.0 1953/54 163 .L~ 58.4 35.7 68.2 26.8 39.3 Source: Compiled from Annual Reports of Comrnodity Harketine Board5 1949/50 to 1953/54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 86 (see Tabl'e3.8). With the settLng up of the Capital Development Fllildin 1956/57, the amount provided by the Regional l\iarketingBoards (which replaced the Commodity Boards in 1954) from 1954 to 1960 were even larger. Thus the Federal Government borrowed N22 million while the Western Region Government received a grant of W22 million and borrowed a further ~20 million,·raising thereby more than two-thirds of the amount paid into the Capital Development Fund in 19.56-57. Again the contribution of the i'/esternRegion Harketing Board (which is in effect the successor to the Cocoa Earlf4 million. It is clear from all these that the West African Cocoa Research Institute throughout its existence enjoyed a most generous financial support. Indeed, the Institute virtually dictated - and rece±ved w i.thout cuts - its own financial requirements. Above .all, the financial pr'ov I> sions were made on a guaranteed long-term basis, thus 20 West African Cocoa Research Institute. Anr.uaL r-ep ort , April 1954 to I"iarch1955, London, Cr-own Agents for the colonies, 1955. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 105 enabling it to plan and execute its research programmes un.tramelled by year-to-year limitation and uncertainty o~ funds that normally characterise the set-up in the Civil Service. 3.4-5. Staffing: Coming into being as it did towards the end of the Second ~'iorld\{ar,when there was a general shortage of scientists the wor-Ld over, \v-ACRIwas f or-tunatie in its staffing position from the onset. Thus, out of the approved vacancies of 20 scientific staff, it was able to start with a strength of 15, including some seconded from the Gold Coast Department of Agr-Lcul, ture. As the 1947 Annual Report said, At a time when qualified scientific staff is in short supply, the Institute is fortunate in having th2r1ee-quarters of its establish- .ment filled. This gcod beginning has been maintained in all subsequent years, so that, in spite of inevitable normal staff turn-over, there was never a·year when the scientific staff strength was ever below 15. Indeed, the situation was one of progressive improvement with all available vacancies filled in later years. Furthermore, a look at 't.he composition of the staff by disciplines ShO'tISa good 21 West African Cotcooa Research Institute. Annual report,April 1947 March 1948, London, Cro"m Agents for the colonies, 1948, p.7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 106 coverage vis-a-vis the Institutets requirements. Another significant factor in the staffing was that the Institute was able to augment its staff through second- ment arrangements with older and well established research organisations. Thus there was a~onstant stream of staff secondment from the Rothamstead Experimental Station dating back to 1951 and continuing throughout the existence of the Institute. In 1957/58, a team of specialists was seconded from the Colonial Pesticides Research Unit, Arusha, Tangayika to form a West African Fungicides Research Unit which was attached to the Institute's Sub-station at Ibadan to work on the fungicidal control of black pod disease. Other research bodies which contributed specialist staff to the Institute through secondment inciude the United Kingdom Agricultural rtesearch Institute, the East -- of Scotland College of Agriculture, the Canadian Technical Assistance Scheme, and the National Vegetable Research Station, Warwicks, England. Notwithstanding its relatively favourable staffing level however, the Institute established a scholarship scheme as early as 1947 J aimed at training itlestAfricans for its future scientific staff requirements. The scholar- ships were of two types.· The first was to provide for attendance at Universities to allow scholars to obtain UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 107 first dogiee s and post-graduate qualifications necessary for appointment to specialist staff positions; while the second type provided laboratory training to increase the technical ability of the junior establishments. Some awards \'l1;resubsequentlymade under the scheme. On the whole, the Institute enjoyed considerable stability in the level and composition of staff all through the period of its existence, partly through a vigorous recruitment policy and partly through an arrangement of co-operation in staff secondment with other research bodies. At the time of its dissolution, in 1962, it has built up such staff strength that even at its Ibadan Sub-station there was an adequate number of S~pecialist St. aff to enable any succeeding cocoa research establishment in Nigeria take off successfully. Cocoa Research Institute of Nig)f eria_ The West African Cocoa Research Institute was of course -created and developEd by the British Colonial Administr9:~ tion. Its control and managem~nt, in spite of its inter- territorial status, therefore, raised little or no problem. With constit~tional developments leading to political independence of the Gold Coast in 1956 as the sovereign -state of Ghana, a new element came into the picture. In the wake of her independence, the prevailing political UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 108 'climate in Ghana - as the first black African state was that of making a "clean break with the colonial past." In the circumstances, many inter-territorial organisations became victims of this "break", among the early ones being the West African Currency Board and the West African Airways Corporation. Indeed, the Nanaging Committee of I WACRI had to call a special meeting'in 1959 "in connection with the Ghana GoverY'..ment'dsecision not to take over the Institute's main station at T afo", 22 apparently against . all ex-pectations. The surprising thing therefore was' tr.,atWACRI could survive until 1st October, 1962 when it was formally dissolved as an inter-territorial body. Following the dissolution of WACRI, the Ibadan Sub-station vias reconstituted into the I-'iesAtfrican Cocoa Research Institute (Nigeria) under a Director, and the Nigerian members of the former WACRI Managing Committee were appointed members of the Management COIDffiitteoef the reconstituted body. However"this was clearly a stop-gap measure. In December 1964, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria ,(CRIN) was established by the Research Institutes Act (which also established the Nieerian Institute for 22 West African Cocoa Research Lnst:l tute. Annual report 1958~59, London, Cr-own Ar;ents for the colonies, 1959 p.9 (our italics). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 109 Oil Palm Research and the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (both of them also successors to the former West African inter-territorial research institutes as well). Under the Act the responsibility of the new Institute was expanded to cover.coffee and kola as well as cocoa. 3.5-1 Policy and 6rganisation: The policy in respect of cocoa research as well as the organisation of CRIN remained ess'crrt.i a'lIy the same as those of its pr-ed ecessor, Like WA.CRI, it was an autonomous body with similar organi- sation and arrangements: a Governing Coi-nc i.L (as the Managing C.oomittee was now called); specialict research divisions (Plant Breeding, Agronomy, Plant Pathology, and Soils and Chemistry) each under a head of division who is responsible to the Director for the day-to-day running of the division; a Deputy Director to assist the Director " in the management of the Institute, and to act in the Director's absence; etc. Following th~ creatiori of the Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria (AR-eN) and subsequent promulgation of 'the Research Institutes (Establishment) Order of 1975, CRIN along with all other research establishments in the agricultural s. ector wa~ reconstituted under the aegis of / .the ARCH. Under' the new arrangement, the Institute still UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 110 - had a Governing Board, except that it had somewhat less powers than its predecessor. However, the JffiCNhad not really sett~ed down to its functions before it was superceded by another umbrella body, the NSTDA, in 1977. lhe new body has responsibility for research not only in agriculture, but also in medicine and industry. tlInderthe NSTDA, the Institutes emerged with a greater degre& of autonomy than 'was the case under the ARCN (see Appendix V)o Rowever the new organisational relationship between the NSTDA and the Research Institute is still in the process of evolving. 3.5-2 FunJiing: The funding of CRJN from the outset took the form of annual grants contributed by the then Regional Governments in proportion to the importance of coca in their respective economies, with the highest contribution naturally coming from the Western Region Government. But from 1972 the Federal Government took over the entire financing of the Institute. If,. ViACRIhad a generous financial base, CRIN t s position in this respect was even more so. R~ght from its inception the annual grant in any year has never been less than ~1 million. Apart from annual grants, it also obtains income from other sources such as interest, from c.I?own Agents Deposit Account (part of the assets inherited from WACRI) and interest from local bank accounts as well as UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY :- r • ; 111 from sundry sales (cocoa, firewood, auction, etc.). The result has been that the Institute wa5 able to record continuously a surplus of income over expenditure for several years; so that by 1974 the accummulated surplus amounted to about ~3.7 mi1lion (see table 3.11). It must be mentioned that these annual grants are meant for recur- rent expenditure and exclude capital expenditure for which additional provisions are made. For instance, about ~4.2million was voted for the Institute's capital development programnle under the second National Development Plan 1970-74. It can therefore be concluded that cocoa research since 1944 has enjoyed enormous financial support, first under the West African Cocoa Research Institute and later under th8 Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria. 3.5-3 ~taffing: The establishment of CRIN came at a period of massive drive for th~ "Nigerianisation" of senior positions in all sectors of the public service. Given the ·specialized nature of research, in terms of the calibre of its manpower requirements , it was clear that an insti tu- tion like CRIN could not afford to pursue a Niterianisation policy indiscriminately. It was no doubt in realization of this that it embarked right from its inception on a programme of in-service-training for newly recruited graduate staff. Thus, out of a total scientii'ic staff UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '\ ., - I / .. I TABLE 3.11 Income and accumulated 5urplu3 funds of CRIN 1965-1975 Nai Year (April-Harch) AccummulatedA ..('~'nGnruaanlt. Other Receipts .Total 1Fund from annual(Income surpluses of income over expenditure • 1965/66 . 1,005,786 37,733 1,043,519 975,239 -' 1966/67 1,116,806 77.,925 1,194,731 1,488,2'13 ~~I\) 1967/68 1,000tOOO 75,736 1,075,736 2,003,604 1968/69 1,020,000 78,950 1,098,950 2~012,822 1969/70 1,085,460 86,342 1,171,802 2,.1502,420 1970/71 1,000,000 129,522 1,129,522 2,593,679 1971/72 1,009,841 201,657 1,211,498 3,206,439 1972/73 1,333,000 217,961 1,550,961 3 ,!~13,013 197317Lt 1,300,000 173,710 1,473,710 3,695,679 1974/75 . 1,115,020 217,961 1,332,981 4,131 ,716 SQ~rce: CRIN records UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '-' 113 of 33 in J 964/65, eighteen wer-e on Ln=ser-vf.ce-ct.r-a i.n.Lng at the post-graduate level. Furthermore the scholarship award scheme initiated by WACRI was intensified, particu- larly for undergraduate courses in scientific disciplines. For example in 1964/65 ten undergraduates in variou~ Nigerian universi ties were bei.ngsponsored by the Institute .• This scheme has proved successful in stabilizing the staffing position. By 1972/73, scientific staff with postgraduate degrees numbered 22 (compared with only 6 in 1965), while another 9 were still on in-service-training. Moreover the in-service-trainint scheme has enabled the Institute to direct training emphasis to critical areas of staff shortage. All in all, GRIN not only has been able to maintain the level of staff strength i~~erited \ . from its predecessor, WACRI, but thrbugh a vi~orous inservice training programme as well as scholarship awards, it has succeeded in establishing a stable hierachy of research personnel, thus ensuring a continuity in the execution of its research programmes. 3.6. Imoact of coc'oaresearch on production Nig~ria's prod~ction of cocoa r.osephenomenally in the first four decades of the century, reaching its peak both absolutely and in proportion· to wor-Ld production in . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the period ending 1942/43, after which it began to decline.23 This decline was attributed to a whole range of factors including the 11increasing incidence er sahlbergella. ;;24 Dr. Tempany, the Agricultural Adviser to the Colonial O££ice, confirmed "disturbing reports concerning the spread of cocoa pests and diseases in West Africa" after touring cocoa areas both in the Gold Coast ~ndNigeria.25 The outcome o£ this visit led in 1944 to the establishment of WACRI which was later succeeded by CRIN. What has been the impact of cocoa research on production? World production of cocoa was beginning to recover in the immediate po st=war' years. Between 1946/47 and 195H/59 world production rose from 713,000 metric tons to 831,000 metric: tons, an increase of about 17 per cent. It rose 30 per cent to 1,166,500 metric tons by 1960/61, attaining 1,525,000 metric tons by 1964/65. Production between 1958/59 and 1964/65 thus virtually. doubled. 23 Galletti, R., K. D. S. Baldwin and I. O. Dina, op.cit. p.2. 24 Nigeria. Annual report on the Depar trcerrt of j..gricul- ture 1943-44. Lagos, Government Printer, 1945, p.26 25 West African Cocoa Research Institute. Annual renort 1944--45. London, Crown Agents for the colonies, 1945. p.5. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY •. 1.. , / - 115 Practically the whole of th2se increases have come from \'lestAfrica. 26 This r-emar-kab l e up surge in Vlest African production has 'been attributed to the cominG into bearing of young trees an increasing proportion of which wer e of Amazon and selected high-yielding Amelonado varieties and the effects of spraying agai.nst pests and diseases. These factors to whi.ch the phenomenal Lncr-ea se in Vlest Af'r-Lcan production has been attributed are of course the outcome cfresearch, specifically research in disease and pests control and deve Lopmerrt of improved varieties. ~D~~c_e_~'"s: e an-a'-'_hKo.~s~t_-_' '~Co..nl. L~- ro~l-.' As ViaS mer.t.Lcne d ea r'Li.e r' the immediate stimulus to tho creatio'n of WACrn Vi2S the need for !faconcerted drive by scientists to investigate '-0ocoa] pests and diseases and to devise control rneaaurc s against them.1I27 J-md as we have also seen ea:clier in thii chapter, the orieinal plan was in fact an emereency measure solely to combat pests and diseases rather than the establishment of a permanent research institute deni~ lng with general problems affecting the efficiency of West Afri.can cocoa production as it t.ur-ncd Gut to be. It i3 26 F.A.O, Agricultupr.al45 development in ~iGeria 1965-1S60,Rome, 1966. 27 Ibid., p.5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 116 not surprising therefore that iIACE.Idevoted considerable resources to research on pests and diseases. An essential aspect of research into pests and diseases was the need to have information concerning the whereabouts of diseases and pests in the cocoa-growing areas. Not only was there no knowledge about this at the inception of WACRI but there was an astonishing ignorance regarding the position of the cocoa areas themselves, especially where new plantings had not yet come into bearing. A survey of cocoa farms was therefore illldertakenin the . Gold Coast and Nigeria, starting in 1944. The immediate objectives of these surveys were (a) to find where cocoa was being grown (b) to note the presence or absence of -- swollen-shoot disease, and (c) to observe the degree of \ damage caused by Capsids (Sahlber~eila and Distantiell~) • .Of all WACRI research activities, swollen shoot virus . disease has received the most prominence from the very( outset. The Institute soon came out with thf;}recommenda- tion that ~ontrollingthe spread of the disease could only be done by cutting out infected trees. The implimenta- tion of this recommendation by the Gold Coast Government led to disturbances in that country Leadi.ngto the setting i up of ~ Commission of enquiry in 1948. The cutting-out policy was also initiated in Nigeri~. In·1950 this ·policy ..... : . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .' 117 was replaced by one of "sealing off" the Areas of Na ss Infection (40,000 hectares around Ibadan and 10,000 hectares around Ilaro). However, frequent surveys outside the ANI are undertaken and diseased trees and contacts uprooted and destroyed, government paying forty kobo compensation per tree so destroyed. By this met~od the disease has been kept well under control. Given the enormous,costs and unpopularity of the cutting-out recom- mendation, research was directed to finding cocoa strains that are resistant to swollen-shoot attack. Another di~ease on which research has been done is the black pod. This is a fungus disease caused by Phytophthora palmivora. Research into chemical control of the disease was started in 1948. In '1956 the Western Region Government started a campaign of cocoa spraying against black pod through farmer training and subsidies- for chemicals. This has resulted in widespread annual spraying aGainst black pod as-well as other diseases and pests. Capsids constitute serious insect pests on cocoa. The two most important, species affecting cocoa in West Africa are Sahlbere;ella singular-is Hagl. and Distantiella theobroma, Dist. The former attacks the shoot and pods of . mature cocoa, while the latter confines its activities UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY r 118 mainly to young trees and sometimes pods. They affect cocoa yield through emitting a toxic substance thereby destroying the tissues around the point of penetration. Again the Western Nigeria Government follo"ling recommenda- tions by WACRI launched a campaien of spraying a~ainst capsid in 1957. Table 3.12 shows the estirr.atedannual .acreages sprayed against pests and diseases between 1957 and 1977. 3.6.2 Develcpment of Improved ~arieties: The orielnal cocoa variety introduced into Nigeria is the West African Amelonado. It ~as been estimated that about 90 per cent of c6coa hectarage in Nigeria today i~ Amelonado. The variety produces the first commercial yield of 114-170 kg per hectare 5-7 years after successful establisr&ent. From .abou't15 year;3 onwards a yield of 570 - 1140 kg per h~ctare may be expected under good management. In 1944, cocoa pods of the·Upper Amazon origin were introduced by WAC21 from Trinid:=ldand after a quarantine period. in Accra the resultant plants were planted out at WACRI Tafo in 1945. In 1945/46 it bad already been observed that the Upper Amazon progenies in WACRI showed outstanding vigour. In 1946/47 good·pods were harvested from 67 trees comprisin.r:1;4 types mainly of the Upper Amazon origin. By 1948 the precocity and generally superior UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ~ r····_.:... .,' j .. , I I I I ~~ .... \. .. .... TABLE 3.12 Consumption o!spraying chemicals and estimated area· sprayed in 'Western Nigeria, 1956 - 1977 Capsid Control ..Blackpod Control Year April-March Consumption Estimated Conswnption Ccnsumption Estima ted range.of hec tar es of of cuprous of hectarecapsidicides coppersulphate oxide .. (litres) sprayed (metric tons) (metric tons) sprayed ...lo 1956/57 - - 127.5 535.5 36,800 - 73,(500 ...lo\D 1957/58 82,000 21,280 56.1 158.1 11,320 ~ 22,640 1958/59 246,000 . 6.3,840 230,5 147.9 15,060 - 30,120 1959/60 . 41),400 107,280 459.0 )22.3 )1,740 - 6),480 1960/61 ·399,)80 103,680 466.1 . 362.1 34,1~20- 68,840 1961/62, 372:,240 96,600 .546.1' 429.4 40,660 - 81,320 1962/63 590,730 153,)00 72).2 443.7 46,0'00- 92,000 1963/54 862,010 227,433 7.30.) 587.5 55.200.- 110,400 1$64/65 1,25),840· 339.606 .1020.0 766.0 7),660 - 147,330 - , . " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ~ .-.4"._.... .... ..~: .•. .--'., ---.;.~':, H . I ..•.., . , ,- , ", . ~ ' ......." ..•. '" ._L~ ..•••.•.•••...•._. . . , . ' .. TABLE 3.12 (cont'd) .. Capsid Control Blackpod Control '. YearApril-Narch Cons.uomfption Estimated Consumption Consumptionof of cuprous Estimated range capsidicides hectares~prayed coppersulphate vxide of hectare (11tres) (metric tons) (metric tons) sprayed 1<;65/66 523 •.660 136,236 1097.5 562.0 72,eOO - 145,600 1966/67 912,330 ~237,355 1233.3 592.6 103,100 - 207,600 ro .0 . . 1967/68 633,270 164,753 214.0.0 715.0 149,2130 - 298•,400 .1968/69 36,5130 146,330 282.2 846.5 .20,120 - 31,840 1969/70 63,560 254,250 215.5 645 .l~ , 15,140- 26,840 .1970/71 101,9130' 407,730 240.4 .. 721,2 16:,.800- 26,020 . 1971/72 . 92,200 371,090· 420.) 1260.7 30,,310 - 41,8.50 1972/73 45,260 181,040 70.5 220.1 . 4,150 - . 10,410 . 1973/74 84,e80 . .339,520 '280.3 840.5 20,130 -: 31,390 ...". ...••... /ccnt inued " \ " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ,:,>, .,. '( - If .•. .....•. '_." .- ~- -= ..•..z '\. 'U ., , 1 e , " , I '..••..• ', .•~. :. _t' _' • ....-. .•.:...; •••••·•~.. .•••••~, ••••trw....;.;. ...\...~.,.\..•,J.;-.~_..a~.,~.:...u....~.:..~..;...........•... ·M.:. ... ( .""""- •• -( . ...;., t". , ••.•.• • ." •••)' .. : -_ ..... ! !0, I P." •.•• J. f' J " , . ';f ! TABLE 3.12 (cont'd) 1 I ! Capsid Control Blackpod Control Year April-MarCh Consumption Iof J: .•.:stimated , Consumption Consumptionof of'cuprous' Estimated rangei cafsidtirceisd)es hectares sprayed coppersulphate oxide of hectare 11 (metric tons) (metric tons) sprayed i I I 1974/7.5 39,020 356,070 ;~70.~ 218.2 5,180 - 20,440 ~ 1975/76 '. N46,4-50 185,810 210.9 6)2.7 15;180 - 24,100 ~ 1Q76177 192,690 ·770,750 140.3 420.6 10,120 - 21,820 I ' I 0, I ! ',i Sources: Western Nigeria !1inistry of Agriculture, and Natural Resources; I ,I Tirnefeormcartoiponproojne,cWte;steWrensteSrtnateNigoefriNaigeMrairaketcionngtroBlolaerdd, prSotdautcies.tical .:;'.' ,I .~. " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 122 •. w performance of these progenies were acknowledged. Because of certain characters like vigour, precocity, heavy subsequent yielding and acceptable flavour it was decided to establish multiplication plots with open-pollinated seed (F2 ill~gitimate) from the trees belon~ing to the approved selections (F1). These multiplication plots or seed,tdrdens were to raise seeds (F3' illegitimate genera-- tion) for the farmers plantings. It is this cocoa type that is now popularly known as F3-Amazon. F3-Amazon has been described as "one of the major achievements of WACRI."28 It is reiatively easy to establish, hi~h-yieldin€ arldearly-m~turing, coming into bearing within 3-4 years of planting. It is better able to withstand adverse concitions because of its wide parent- al background. Although it is suscep ti o'Leto mirids (~alon~ctria rigiduscula) and swollen shoot virus, it will withstand and recover from attacks much better than Amelonado. F3-Amazon will yield up to 220 kg per hectare 'in the,third year and could go up to 1700 kg at full maturity. St.artIng from 1954 the ;{estern Nicerian Ninistry of 28 Toxopeus, F., Amazon cocoa in Nigeria. Annual report of the West African Cocoa Research (Nigeria) 1963-64, Ibadan. p.13 " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY j , - 123 Agriculture and Natural Resources established cocoa nurseries throughout the region for the sale of seedlings of the new variety to farmers. Table 3.13 shows the annual distribution of F3 Amazon cocoa seed~ings from these nurseries and the estimated areas planted and successfully established between 1954 and 1976. Th~ spectacular up- surge in cocoa production 6bsel'ved in the sixties is the result of trees of this new variety coming into bearing. However, the F3 Amazon is not the only nevi variety that has been developed. In 1963 CRIN (still WACRI (Nigeria) at that time) embarked on what was callej "The Second Ni~erian Breeding Programme." The ultimate objective of this programme was that of producing a variety of cocoa type5 of tfagood gerie r-aI yielding potential well adapted to the specific difficulties of the various areas." In parti- cular, work was to be concentrated on the production of types that could establish under marginal conditions, tolerant to cocoa swollen shoot virus with low virus content in the plant when infected, and black pod resistance. From this programme 15 promising progenies were selected· and christened IICRINEstablisb.TJ1ent-AbilityElite Proge!lies". As"well as having an improved establishment ability over the F3 Amazon, these progenies also have h.ieher yields. Po l.yc.Lone.L seed gardens were established in various UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 124 / states to produce these hybrids for farmers planting. They have since achieved widespread distribution throughout the country and are already making an impact on production. 3.7 New directions in 'cocoartesearch As we have seen, cocoa research in West Africa hag concentrated over the last three decades on production problems, especially the control of cocoa diseases and pests and the development of new varieties ~ith higher yieJ.ding potential, improved establishment ability, etc. This exclusive concern with production problems derives partly from the fact that until recently the only market outlet forcocoa was through ::e~ort. Thus to maxf.mi se the contribution of cocoa to the GNP (and especially as an Lmpor t.arrt earner of foreign exchange) meant the plant- 1n~ of varieties with hieh yields, the control of devas- tating pests and diseases, and the use of improved cultural pr-ac t.Ic e s, While the problems of production remain the focus of cocoa research, increasing possibilities for local processing of cocoa and its products have led CRIN to broaden the scope of its r'e sear'ch into what is commonly ref~rred to as "processing and utilization". Basically~ the objective of this line of research is to investigate UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 125 alternative uses for cocoa b~sides the current conventional uses for chocolate and other confectioneries. Already some progress has been made in this direction.. The best kno~m outcoQe of research along this line is ncocoa wine~r. Other promising areas are the use' of cocoa pod husks as a component in livestock feeding stuff, processing of cocoa juice into jam and jellies, .and possible uses for butter from fungus-infected cocoa pods. Given the increasing pace of industralization in the cOIDltryand the instability of world cow~odity markets, research in processing and utilization seems likely to loom larger and larger among the activities of CRINin the coming years • .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 126 CHAPTER IV REVIEW OF LITERATURE J'd~D METHODOLOGY 4.1. Research as a public good: ~ome theoretical .9onsiderations One distinguishing characteristic of a purely private good is that it can be subdivided so that each part can be competi tively sold separately to a different Lnd.t.vf duaL, with no external effects on other individuals. By contrast a public good (also kno\\'1als social or collective· good) confer benefi. ts which involve external consumption. effects on more than one individual. Once such a good is produced, it becomes available to everybody, although the benefits derived from a unit of output may vary from one consumer to another. The consumption of one unit of such a good can in no way diminish the consumptLon by another individual of the same unit. Examples of a public good include national security, fire brigade services, .roads and research knowledge. Given the extern~lity effects· of the benefits acruing from the consumption of a public good, for example, reseaI'ch UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 127 information, the price mechanism cannot operate, since in a free market, potential consumers would not reveal their true preferences, knowing that once one unit of the good is produced the benefits of that unit would be.avai.lable to everyone. Herice the private sector would not undertake the proauction of such goods, since it cannot appropriate much of the benefits acruing from their production. Ra tner- the state not uncommonly finds itself as a producer in this area, supply being determined through the political process (e.g. the ballot box) in place of the market naira-votE. A further justj f'Lca tton for state intervention in the production of research knowledge as well as other public goods can be made on grounds of pricing effeciency. As we noted above, the consumption of one unit by one Lnd i,vi- dual does not diminish the consumption by another individual of that same unit. This means that the marginal cost of the last consumer taking advantage of ex.i st.Lng r-esear-ch findings, for instance, is zero. Therefore to chaig e a positive price will not conduce to socially optirral resource allocation. The loss in total welfar~ in¥olved in charging a positive price in-this situation is high- lighted in Figure 4.1. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 128 ". ;' . .--------- o Q1 Q Quantity Fig. 4.1 Welfare effect of charging positive price for use of research inforrnation . ,, ... . .. I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 129 CQ is the aggregate demand curve for research information. The supply curve is co-linear with the horizontal axis OQ (i.e. marginal cost is constant at zero). Equ.iLd.br-umis established at Q, tl},epoint of intersection· of the two curves, with a quantity OQ and price zero. At this level the highest total welfare measured by the consumer surplus COQ, is obtained. Now suppose a price above zero, say O~, is imposed on the use of research information. This will limit effective demand to ow1•1 However supply 00 once produced cannot be contracted, say by withdrawing SODe units, since output is indivisible. Hence to deny consumers who are not 'willing t.o pay the price OP1 any access to research information will result in loss of social welfare amounting to the area DQ1Q • .A more rigorous analysis of this problem can be made assuming thot there are costs to the producer in imposing a limit to the use of research information and that he will want to maximise returns to these costs, i.e. to equate marginal cost witL marginal revenue (price). The costs are those incurred in the efforts to prevent research informa- 1 Although 001 can be regarded conceptually as the quantity . of research information units which will be available at price OP , strictly speakins it is a proxy for the number of c~nsumers willing to pay the price OP1 for use of the entire stock of research information OW since the latter cannot be VIi thdravm in part. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 130 tion from IIleakingltto anybody unwilling to pay up to the price OP1. Thus the marginal cost - and hence the supply curve2 will be OS as in Figure 4.2. The point of inter- section of the supply and demand curves, D, represents the market equilibrum for the producer. The loss in wel- fare to society resulting from restriction of use to· payment of price OP1 remains DQ1Q. However a further point of interest here is that since production is being run Oil the public account, society incurs a needless additional cost equal to the area OL'Q1 in making any effort at all to restrict the use of rese~rch information already produced to only those who are prepared to pay a price OP1. The total costs to society of the allocative inefficiency in- volved is thus given by the area ODQ • .But, clearly, a zero price implies one hundr-ed per cent subsidy. Where is the subsidy to come from? The obvious answer is, of course, from taxes. However it has. been argued that taxation as a source of f i.nanci.ngpub Lf,c goods is not equitable on the grounds that it. would amount 2 The curve is one of increasing marginal cost because as more and more consumers pay for the use of research information it would require increasing m~rginal effort to ensure that the information is not "disserninatedll or resold to prospective conSUl~ers by the original purchasers, given the non-exclusive nature of its consumption.· UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY · 131 Price C s· .... o Q . Quantity Fig. 4.2 . Co st s of efforts to restrict use of available research information .1 .. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 132 to tax payers who are not conswners of the goods in question subsidising those who are.3,4 Agricultural research as a public good probably occupies a unique position as an exception to this argument. This is because every individual· in society is of biological necessity an. active consumer CD in a literal as well as in an economic sense - of agricultural products, especially food. Further- more agriculture as an industry, more than any other, approximates to the concept of perfect competition in its market conditions. Thus increased output resulting from the applicatioL of rese2rch knowledge can be expected to be passed on to con2umers in form of larger consumer surplus. Regardless of the merits and demerits of financing research from general taxes, more pertinent from the standpoint of economic development is the question of whether research can and does stand the test of social profitability as measured by accepted inveEtment criteria. 3 See, for example, Int'r-oducing economics. By McCormick gt al. Penguin Education, 1974. pp 383-384. 4 In this context the financing of cocoa research in Nigeria can be said to be equitable, since the bulk of it has come from the Ilsurplusesll generated by the cocoa industry itself through the Marketing Board Sys,tem. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 133 Such indication remains the only Justification for conti- nuing state intervention in research, notwithstanding acknowledged peculiarities that render the field economically unattractive to private initiative. Ultimately, then, society will have to reckon the opportunity cost of supporting research as with any other investment ventures. 4.•2. Estimates cf_agricul tural reseaioch=productivity The importance of the advance in knowledge in increas- ing production has long been recognised in economic literature. For instance, Alfred Marshal not only rated knowLedge very high but considered it as the most powerful engine of production.5 Frank Knig~t treated "all increase in useful knowledge regardless of what it is about as a produced means of pro.duction" 6• However only in the last two decades have attempts been made to estimate empirically the contribution of "advance in knowledge" to economic growth. Two main methods have been used in this estimation in the agricultural sector. These are the aggregate production function approach and the investment evaluation 5 f.1arshai,Alfred, Principles of economics. 8th edition London. HacHillan, '1930 •. 6 Knight, Frank H., Diminishing returns from investment. Journal oLPolitical Econorgy, 52: Narch 1944, 26-47. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '/ 134 approach. 4.2-1 Aggregate p'roduction ;function approach:, The pioneer in this field is Robert Solo\~~ Using an aggregate pro- duction function, he related increasing output to the raw, inputs of the quantities of land, labour, capital and other conventional inputs in the United States between 1909 and 1949.7 The study attributed to technological chane,e varying amount of output left unexplained by conventional factors of production like labour and capital. This residual (unexplained element) was reflected in the produc- tion function shifting upwards 'at a rate of about one per cent per year for the first half of the period and two percent per year for the last half. In spite of its wide acclaim, this study has been criticized for not coming to grips with the real essence ,of teChnological change. This would have been achieved by including not only the old factors but also the new factors embodying new· techniques of production. In a later paper J SoLow8 attempted to correct this by treating the formation of new capital goods as a "carrier" 7 Solow, Robert M., Techriical chan3e and the a~8regate pro- duction function. Rev i ew of '.t;co:-lomajn.dc.s!£tatist,ics, 39: August 1957, 312-19. ---- 8 Solow, Robert M., Technical progress, capital formation and economic growth, innerican £<~conomic~?'y.i~, 52, May 1962, 76-86. • UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 135 of new technical knowledge, thus taking into account the production effects of some of the new factors ~f production. Salter9 also employed similar treatment by relating technical knowledge to'techniques' of production and in- troducing these techniques into the production function as integral parts of the observable factors of production. The studies discussed so far were concerned mainly with assessing IItechnological change" rather than estimating research productivity per see }levertheless such work could be regarded as indirect measures of research producti- vity since techrological change is the embodiment into new capital, production techniques and new skills, of knowledge emanating from research. Noreover as we move from funda- mental research to applied research the dichotomy between teChnological change and research findings will tend to disappear. Thus in agricultural research, for instance, the end-products of research like higher-yielding seed varieties, improved cultural practices, etc. represent in themselves new technology which can be adopted directly in production. 9 Salter, W.E.G., Productivity and technical Change. l1o•ro.graph 6'of the Department of Applied Economics, University of Cam~ridge, Cambridge University Press 1960. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 136 In recent years attempts have been made to estimate research productivity by itself using the same approach. Peterson has estimated the production function for poultry in the United States, including state experimental station research expenditures as a sepa.rat-e variable 10• Employing a Cobb-Douglas type of production function he used cross- , I secti0nal data on commercial poultry farms for 1959, with the value of each observation being an "average per farm" in eaC!lstate for all variables, except research where the value of observation is total poultry research in the corresponding s~ate experimental station. The form of the function with the variables is I y == AX1b1X2b2X3h3X4b~l..5Y;b;~E;•.• (1) .where Y is the value of poultry products sold A is a.iccns t.arrt term X1 is the interest on land and buildings X2 is the expenditure for hired labollr X3 is feed purchased 10 Peterson, Willis L., Return· to poultry research in 4t9he (U3n)i,ted Stat6e5s6,-6bJ9o:urnal of Farm Economic1967, --s-, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 137 X4 is chick (or poults) purchased X5 is expenditure for poultry research at the state experimental station (average of 1954 and 1956), and E 1s the error term. In this study the research coefficient was found to be significant at the 0.001 level. Converting the marginal product of the expenditure on research at the state level he obtained a return to capital of 600 per cent after adjustments for expenditurps on private research and the USDA and extension expendi t.ur-e s, O~leassumption of the study is that poultry output is related to the size of research expenditure. This can only be expected to be so over an appropriately long period, ~aking account of its gestation period. But by using the average of two years expenditure, the study implies that it is current research that affects current production, while irifact research done several years back can be expected to erJ2ance the output of more recent one. The study thus over-estimates the productivity of poultry research. One interesting use of the .production function approach in the estimation of the productivity of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 138 r.esearc h sys~em is a recent study bEyd venson an K'lS1.ev.11 It is interesting because it attempted a global coverage in its estimate of agricultural research productivity as well as for its somewhat unorthodox methodology as compared with other studies using the production function approach. The procedure adopted here is to regard the relationship between research and producti vity as of "a tVIO-staged naturetl• First, scientific inputs produce a set of outputs (i.e. knowledge in variou3 areas). In the second stage, this knowledge is incorporated in the agricultural produc- tion process llild affects agricultural productivity. For the first stage, a gener-a), "knowLedge production f'unctLon" was specified as folJ,.ows,kno.,.l•e.dge being measured by the number of publications in agricultural sciences: Pj = f(Sj·' Ej, P14j' Gj, N .)J • • • (2) wher-e 13 Pj = L po..,1j is total number of publica~ 1=1 tions in agricultural sciencesin country j. 11 Evenson, Robert E. and Yoay Kislev, Agricultural research productivity, Yale University Press, 197.5. \0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 139 and Pij is publications in sector i in country j for 14 sectors P1t . is publications in plant physiology~J S .. is scientific man-years in agricultural research J E. is expenditure on agricultural research J G,. is GNP per capita J Nj is number of newspapers per 10,000 people The variable P14j (publications in the field of plant physiology) is ne arrt to measure related lI'supporting': scientific knowledge in each country.,while per capita GNP and number of newspapers per 10)000 people are a1tar·· native measures of,the level of socio-economic development. The second stage in the aggregate analysis of research productivity in agriculture is undertaken using the production function with the algebraic form: f(X)ed. + Yjt= J . . . (3) Yit is total agricultural product in count.r-y j ,in year' t( j=- 0.' 36) (t = 1 for 1955, 5 for 1960, 10 for 1965, 13 for 1968) X is a vector of inputs: X1' land UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 140 labour livestock fertilizers machinery technical education research knowledge dj country-specific level coeffecient yj country-specific time trend l( ) Cobb-Douglas function Estimating the production function using cross-section data from thirty-six countries, the authors reported ·that the research variable, measured by publications, performed better in regression than the proxies - fertilizers, technical education and schooling which have been suggested by Hayami and Ruttan.12 Without going into further details about their findings there are a number- of po i.rrts that arise regarding their 12- Hayami, Y. and V. W. Ruttan. Agricultural development: An international perspective. Baltimore and London, .Jolms Hopkins Press, 1971. UNIVE SITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY methodology. First it is not clear what useful purpose a ntwo-stagedll estimation pro(;edure serves since the estima- tion of research productivity can be m&de directly without first assessing an "intermediate product". Secondly, the emphasis on "publications II as a measure of research pro- ductivity is open to question in any attempt to estimate the productivity of applied research, the value of whose findings lies more in their application to production than in publications. On the whole their procedure would seem more suitable for estimating the productivity of fundamental research. B~yond the shortcomings of individual studies discussed within the production function approach, how "r-e lLao'l.e " is the general approach itself as a method of estimating research productivity? First, the form of the production function involves some subjective judgement.. It is there- fore impossible to show conclusively that one particular function is the correct one. To that extent estimated values may be far from the true ones. Secondly, in theory, the production function assumes an instantaneous relation- .ship between inputs and output, whereas in practice the relationship is measured over time. In particular, there is a considerable time ,lag between inputs and output in research. Thirdly, the approacb assumes a smooth mCithematic2l UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY function while research as an investment process is discontinuous. Moreover, the output resulting from its investment is by its nature also discontinuous. Hence the introduction of research into a production function raises considerable problems as does the inclusion of any other capital inputs.13 In this connection, the use of investment evaluation techniques offers a more satisfactory approach to the estimation of research proc.:.uctivity. 4.2-2 Investment .e;-aluationa.pproach: Griliches' pioneering work on the economics of research using investment evalua- tion tecrilliquesto estimat~ returns to hybrid corn in the ~nited States14 is generally acknowledged as a classic.15,16 In view of its contribution to the development of methodology 13 For a discussion of some of these lprlo?blems seefYoortopaogur~locsu,ltuPr.aAI~Frpormoducsttl~ocnk ftuonctloWn:ca~Ritm~llcroiannpaultyst.lc approach. Journal of Farm Economic~ 49(2): 1967. p.4'16. 14 Griliches, Zvi, Research costs and social returns: Hybrid corn and related innovations, Journal of .PEl tti ~_alEconomy 66 , October 1955. 15 Schultz, T.W~, Transforming t Yale University Press, 196r4a,ditio1n3a5l. agriculture,p. 16 :Abaelu, J.N., The Nigerian oil palm seftor revisited. Nigerian Journal of Economics and Social Studies 13 3"}; 1971. p~ 293 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 143 in this field., it may be pertinent here to attempt a brief review of the study itself, with particular reference to its theoretical f'r-amewo.rk , Treating research as a production process, Griliches estimated the inputs in form of research expenditures from 1910 to 1955jand output by assuming that gross returns are approximately equal to increase in corn production plus f.,....·• a price-changing adjustment. He then deducted the additional cost of producing hybrid seed from these gross returns to arrive at a f Low of net social returns. By using approp- riate rates of interest all costs and returns were brought forward to 1955 and a rate of return computed. While the estimation of costs appear fairly straighforward, measuring gross returns is m~re complex. Griliches went about this measurement by equating the social value of the increase resulting from the adoption of hybrid corn to the loss in total corn production that would have resulted .if there wer-e no hybrid corn. This loss is measured as in Figure J,I..-;),) ... .Using G.i"ilichesnotations, D is the unchanging demand curve while S is the supply curve with the adoption of hybrid corn. At this supply level the.equilibrum price is Now suppos e hybrid corn we.re to "dLsapp ear-!", The supply( curveS would shift. upwar-d s to S., \"Ii th output reduced from UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY o· : o - 01144 " I 0 • ~:... ... 00 .~ Prico I .• .,:".~ Pz ---s' I I I·· o I ~-----------------------I-P~I t--------~--~-s I 1 .... - .I II .'. ... I I D o ( I I I• • 0 I ~--~----------IO-Z-~--I01~~Q~~ua~ntit~y . • 0 F"Ig.·t'.l. . "w2!.•. f.1easurement of Ios s in toto I corno. " • ". :, -,,:' without: hybrid corn, cssurnrnq on inf initely clostic c,urve 0, i . ." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 145 Q1 to Q2 and equili brum price mov Lng from P1 to P20 The "disappearance" of hybrid corn would thus result in a loss to society of the total area under the demand curve represented by P1P2P2 IP1 I I. This area can be 'separated into (a) the loss resulting from. a rise in production cost over all units of output ~2~ represented by P1P2P2'P1', and (b) the loss in consumer surplus given by triangle P1P2IP1"· Clearly the area P1P2P2'P1·t depends on (i) the elasticity of the demand curve, (ii) the elasticity of the supply curve, (iii) the degree of the upward shift 'of the supply curve which is in turn determined by the differential in productivity between hybrid corn and the open-pollinated variety, and on the proportion of total corn land planted under hybrid. Griliches assumed a price elasticity of demand for corn of 0.5. For the elasticity of supply Griliches ~ssumed, first an infinite elastiCity, and, alternatively, zero elasticity. The first aLt.er-na t.Lv e is shown in Figure 4.3. A linea:r' where k is the percentage Change in yield UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1q.6 P1 is previous equilibrum price of corn °1 is previous quantity of corn produced n is the absolute value of the price elasticity of demand for corn. Calculating- the loss under the alternative assumption, i.e. with elasticity of supply being zero, he assumed that the supply curve shifts-k per cent to the left from 8 to 8' (Figure 4.4). The rectangle Q2tP1"Q1 measures the 10:-3sin corn production at the old price P1, while the triangle P1P2'P11t is the additional loss in consumer surplus. The total loss is therefore given by Loss 2 = Clearly Loss 2 results in a higher estimate than Loss 1. 17 This formula represents the corrected version as pointed out by T.D. Wallace and accepted by Griliches himself. Wallace also argued that the area P1P2P2'P111 would be a more relevant measure than the area Q2P2'P1uQ which was actually used. However Griliches insisted that his definition was more sensible than the suggested alternative arguing that with the sugGested defini- tion an infinitely elastic demand fu.Ylctionwould mean no social gain from hybrid corn which was clearly wr-ongi whereas his own definition wcu Ld stj.llvalue the increase in output at the constant price. See Carl K. Eicher and Lawrence w. \,/tit (Ed) s Agri~u).t.u.re_ J~l.~:s()p~:Hni0deve.Iopmerrt j McGraw Hill, 1964-, pp ,jo.')- )66. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 147 s Price -- ---.--. . . ~~----------------~~---.-~----------°1 °1 Fi g. 4·4: Meusur emen t of loss in to tal corn VJith- out hybrid assuming zero supply elasticity. : . I . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 148 " The two estimates, in fact, bracket estimates to be obtained by assuming any intermediate elasticities of s~pply between zero and infinity. Using this technique to arrive at an estimation of social benefits,18 Griliches employed a variant of the benefit-cost ratio to calculate a rate of return thus: 100k (B~) •••• (6) where r is rate of return k is external rate of interest ~ is benefit-cost ratio This measure gave a rate of return of 700 per cent. Intriguing as the benefit-cost variant used in the study may seem from a theoretical standpoint, it is not commonly used in practice. I~joreoverthe rate of return derived by it might well be confused with the internal rate of return which is a more universally accepted mea~ure of return. Also, by using the internal rate of return, the result can be more easily compared with tho~e of other investment projects. Griliches, in addition, calculated 18 The formula for Loss 1 was used for Griliches' estimate. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 149 the internal rate of return, obtaining an estimate of 35 to 40 per cent.19 Following Griliches, several other studies on returns to agricultural research or aspects of it were conducted. Notable among these are those of Peterson and of Ardito- Barletta. Using the IIIndex-number" technique, a modifica- tion of the Griliches model, P~terson estimated the internal rate of return to investment in poultry research in the United States. 20 'I'heindex-number approach utilizes the productivity indexes to measure downward shifts in the long-run poultry supply function in orde~ to estimate the annual value of "resources saved" as.a result of increased efficiency in the production of poultry:pr6ducts. This llsaving" in resources was measured by 1tQ K2p ( :.:) fen)· (n-1) 2 Po e n •• (7)o 1 ~l+ ... 19 Griliches tried to show that there is actually no difference between the two rates of return he calculated if allowanc~s are made for a lag of approximately 10 years between the date of invest- ment and the date at which the perpetual flc;\·,'. -of returns begins. 20 Peterson, Willis L., op.cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 150 where K is percentage decrease in supply function of poultry products that would occur should new inputs used by poultry farmers suddenly disappear. Q1 is quantity of poultry products with the use of new'poultry inputs P1 is equilibrum price with the use of new poultry inputs Qo is quantity of poultry products without nevi Lnputs Po is equilibrum price without new poultry inputs e is the ~lasticity of supply n is the elasticity of demand Relating the flow of annual net social returns to the flow of annual poultry research expenditureShe obtained an intern8l rate of return of 14 to 21 per cent. Ardito-Barletta used a slight variation of this formula to derive a rate of return to agricultural research in Mexico.21 He measured social benefit as being equal to: P1Q1Kp [1 + L r; _ (1_ri)2ell . 2n.L ri+e J-J ... . t 8)-. 21 Ardito-Barletta, N., Costs and returns of agr1cultural research in }ViexicQ, unpublished PH.n dissertation, University of Chicago. 1970. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1.51 where P1 is current deflated price Q1 is quantity produced the equivalent period of time K is percentage yield increase due to improved crop variety P is percentage area of land planted under improved variety n is price elasticity of demand e is price elasticity of supply. In summary virtually all past estimates'have rar~ed agricultural research very high in terms of internal rate of return (see Table 1.3). The returns are in all cases. .higher than those realised in other public investments. However these studies relate mainly to the economically more developed coUntries. Indeed it has been argued that underdeveloped countries, in general, do not appear to have clearly recognised the Impor-tance of scientific research in their programme of economic development. For instance, Abaelu, using expenditure on research per farmer as an index of the scale of national commitment to aGricultural research, has found that, in Nigeria, this was only 16 kobo:, in 1969/70, rising to about 35 kobo in 1971/72. This UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / " compares with an annual expenditure per farmer of about N56 in the United States.22 The low level of investment in research in less-developed countries \'iQulcr·itnurn affect the number and quality of research personnel as well as laboratory equipment and other infrastructure. Horeover, in the predominantly illiterate environment typical of most· developing countries, dissemination of available research information constitute a further handicap to the produc- tivity of research. Given this situation, what has been the performance of agricultural research in developing African countries and especially Nigeria? Economic literature offers little or no guide on this aspect. About the only available references in this respect are the studies of.Fogg23 and Purvis24 respectively, both of which employ theoretically unsatisfactory methods in 22 Abaelu, J.N., Building the foundations for agricultural growth: Public expenditures on agricultural ~esearch) . Bulletin of Rural Economlcs and 0ociology, 8~1): 1973 23 Fogg, C.b., Economic and social factors affecting the development of small-holder agricultw'e in Eastern Nigeria. Economic Develonment. and Social Chahge, 13 (3): 19"55. .~ . 24 Purvis, M.J., Report on a survey of the oil palm reha- bili tation scheme. CSNFill report No. 10, Nichigan State University, 1968. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 153 their estimates. Calculating the contribution of hybrid palms to the Nigerian economy Fogg obtained an.output- input ratio of 7:1. This is an over-estimate: arising from a failure to mak~ certain n~cessary adjustments in the calculation. First, allowance was not made for the output of improved trees in existence prior to replanting with hybrids. Secondly, public expenditures towards the breeding and agronomic research on hybrid palms were regarded as "sunk costs". Thirdly, no accou~t was taken of the proportion of total oil palm land that had been replanted with hybrids. Purvis study spffers from much the same defects. In effect there are no acceptable estimates of return to agricultural research that could be considered useful as a guide to planning and investment allocation in Nigeria. 4.3. Methodology ado£ted The main objective of this study, as stated earlier, is to estimate the realized returns to investment in cocoa res.earch in Nigeria. In doing this, two approaches are .used. These are (1) the index-number approach and (2) the production function approach. 4.3.1. Index-number ap~roAch: The index-number approach involves, first, developing a formula for a measure of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ...- . -. 154 the value of social benefits generated by increases in cocoa productivity. The measure of productivity used here is the increase in yield resulting from planting improved cocoa varieties F3 Amazon and hy?rids over the traditional Amelonado variety. For this purpose the yield increase per hectare for any year is dRrived from the difference in yields between the improved varieties and the Amelonado variety that would otherwise have been planted. This yield difference is estimated by using yield profiles of the improved and unimproved varieties supplied by the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN). This is computed for the total hectares of improved varieties already mature, i.e. plantings that are 4 years old and above up till the 35th year which is regarded by CRIN scientists as the end ~f the economic life of improved varieties. However, as the economic life of Amelonado is estimated at 38 years from planting, yield increase from the 36th to 38th year in respect of new varieties is taken as negative, being equal to the figure of yield in each of these years that Amelonado will normally have yielded. The.need arises for the development of a formula for the measurement of gross social benefits. In Figure 4.5, D is the demand curve for Nigeria's cocoa while 31 is the supply curve with the availability and adoption 'of improved UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY • I ·s o I . I I I I - - . ~~...-:.--.. I I ..00, .. .O( Fig. 4·5: Shift In supply curve from planting . s,(I of new . cocoa varieties. «. .• I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 156 varieties. The equilibrum price at the supply level Q1 is P1- Now suppose the new varieties were suddenly to disappear. The supply curve would shift leftward. With demand remain- ing unchanged the new equilibrum .price is now P0 wh.i.Le quantity supplied is reduced from Q1 to 00. The total loss resulting from the shift in the supply curve (and which is equivalent to the gross social benefits from Socoa research) is measured by the area under the demand curve between the two supply curves. ~~s area i~ made up of (a) the consumer surplus r-epr-esented. py triangle C, (b) the producer surplus which itself C:•n. in theory be separated into (i) the par-af.Le Logr-am marked .J.~ representing the savings in production costs over all units of output up to the second equilibrum output 00 and tii) the triangle B re~resenting the excess of the demand price over the supply price of the additicnal units of the difference between Qo ~~d Q1. However since practically all cocoa produced in Nigeria is exported the consumer surplus is gained by corisumers in the importing countries. Hence the gross social benefits to the Nigerian economy is A + B • . ; To estimate A + B in terms of P1 arm Q1 let the price eiasticity of demand be n and the price elasticity of supply e. Furthermore ~et K be the 'perce~tage yield decrease that would occur if new cocoa varieties were to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1.57 -disappear. ..•. A.= Qo (x B = ix(Q1 .. •• A + B = Qo (x + y) + !x( Q1 - Qo) Exprecsine x in terms of elasticity of supply e Expressing y in terms of elasticity of demand n y = KP1/n Furthermore (Q1 " , - - • • • A + B = -(Q1- KQ1) (kP1/e + KP1/n) + !KP1/e • KQ1 '" = (.1 + .1)KP1Q1 t (1 - It) e n + !2Le ] = KP1Q1 t(1 _ K) "(I} n+e"e) +~-K& J.•. • (7) This formula is employed in estimating the annu8.l gross benefits using relevant price P1, quc.:ntityQ1' "percentage chunge in supply due to adoption of ~ew varieties K, elasticity of demand n, and elasticity of supply e. To arrive at the net returns any cost incurred by the farmers in realizing the productivity gain are deducted from the *' Takii:!gthe oUlJPly curve 51' a change 1n supply from 01 to Qo (which is by definition a proportional decrease of K in quantity supplied) results in a fall in price by x. This fall as a proportion of the original price P1 is x/Pl· Therefore price elasticity of supply e • KP /X• Hence x = KP1/e. 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 158 estimated gross social benefits. The flow of net returns in real terms is then related to research and extension expenditures in real terms, and an internal rate of return is computed. This is the rate which equates the flow of net returns to zero, and it can be expressed as: = o ••• (8) where bj is past benefit in year j cj is past research and extension expenditure in year j n is past number of years since research expendi- ture began bk is future benefit in year k ck is future research extension expenditure in year k m is future number of years between now and the end of the economic life of improved cocoa plantings r is internal rate of return 4.3.2. Production function approach: The main purpose of employing this approach in addition to the investment evaluation techniques, just discussed, is to provide an UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 159 alternative estimate of returns using different data background. The estimate obtained by this method \'dll be used as a check on the first estimate. In the produc- tion function approach the sum of expenditures on cocoa research and extension is included as a separate variable in an aggregate production function in order to estimate the marginal product of research. In attempting to develop an appropriate cocoa produc- tion function, it is relevant to define the output, i.e. the dependent variable. For instance, since data used in this study come.. from time series, output must be defined as "annual output" "•,h.ich will constitute the unit of observation. This specification, in turn, will determine what factors will constitute the dependent variables. " Cle~rly, for instance, the total hectares of cocoa trees in production in a particular year will come into the model. Another variable that could be included in the function is weather which affects output from year ~o year. Rain- fall,ior instance, is known to affect pod formation and development as well as lead to the spread of black pod disease through high relative humidity. Consequently, rainfall will be included as the"weather variable.25 2$ The relevant period of rainfall affecting the formation and cievelopment of pods is Harch to October. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 1.60 Without disease control measures, the effective output can be expected to fall below the biological yield of the crop. Indeed disease control has been an important aspect of cocoa cultivation in Nigeria in the last three decades. The degree of annual control can be expected to have some bearing on the effective yield. Finally, the research variable is incorporated into the model. We can thus specify our mOdel as follows: = feAt' Wt_1, Dt' T)· ••••• (9) ·whe.!'"E:: is output in year t is total hectares of trees in production; in year t is total rainfall be ewe en March and October in year t-l 1s disease control index in year t is research expenditure in year t-14 plus extension expenditure in year t-4 The research variable T requires some explanation. It is assumed that a research expenditure made in year t UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 161 will not result in mass-adoption result until 10 yea~s later. Furthermore it takes another 4 years {the period of gestation for cocoa) for such experimental benefit to come to fruit. Hence, the total period between research expenditure and the derivation of any benefit is 14 years. In addition to purely research expenditures, consider- able resources have been devoted over the years to exten- sion activities especially in encouraging the adcption of improved varieties through the establishment of cocoa nurseries, distribution of seedlings at subsidized prices, technical supervision etc. These extension efforts have been intensified through the est.ab.Li.ahmerorft.Cocoa Development Units in all major cocoa-producing states of the country. For, this reason extension expenditures are included in the variable T. In doing this, it is assumed that extension expenditures in year t will affect production 4 years later, when the seedlings and technical supervision in plot lay-out, planting, etc. which constitute the bulk of extension efforts will result in first harvests of cocoa pods. Hence, extension expenditure is lagged by 4 years. We thus have the expression UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 162 where Tt is the research variable in year t in the production function Rt-14 is research expenditu~e in year t-14 N~,,-4 is extension expenditure in year t-4 The models developed in this Chapter vlill form the bases for the estimation of returns to cocoa research in Chapters V and VI respectively • .' UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 163 CHAPTER V RETURNS TO COCCA RESEARCH X 5.1 Index-number model In this chapter we attempt to estimate empirically the internal rate of return to investment in cocoa research in Nigeria. The internal rate of return is that disCOQ~t .rate which makes the net present wor-th of the cash flow zero. 'l'h i s represents the aver-age r-ctui-n to investment over the period between the start of the invE;stment expenditure and the end of the economic life of the total area of cocoa trees planted with improved varieties. Since the pay-off from research e:>..-penditur(eass well as the research expendituresthemsel,res) extends from the past into the f'ut.ur-e our model must incorporate both compounding and d.:sic.ounting factors. The model \'1111thus be Ln ;(bj-Cj)(1+r)j + = o ,• • • (1 ) . j=o UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 164, where bj is net social returns in a past year j Cj is total cost (research and extension) in a past year j n is number of years since cocoa research expenditures began 'bk is net social returns in a future year k ~ is tota: cost in a future year k from now m is number of years between now and the economic life of improved cocoa plantings. r is internal rate of return For empirical estimation of internal rate of return, therefore, we shall require data on major items like annual total cost; increased yield due to adoption of improved varieties; and annual gross returns. \~hile total costs can be derived directly from data on ar~ual research and extension expenditures, social returns has to be estimated using the index-number model which we developed in the last chapter. This was obt.a.Lned by using the productivity index of improved cocoa varieties to measure the downward shifts in the long-run cocoa supply function as a way of estimating'the annual value of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 165 "resource savings" resulting from increased productivity of cocoa. As noted in the last chapter the resource savings are equivalent to the gross social returns which is equal to • • • (2 ) wher-e K is percentage decrease in the supply function of ~ocoa that would occur should new varieties adopted suddenly disappear. Pi is the world market price (deflated) Q.• is output of cocoa with the use of new J. varieties n is elasticity of cocoa demand (absolu~e value) e is elasticity of cocoa supply Annual output from the plantings of any particular cocoa varietx will depend on (a) the .total hectareage of trees in production, and (b) the age distribution of trees in production. Accordingly~ annual output in a year j of improved variety plantings Q1 is given by the functio"n c • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (3) j = 1958i59s 1959/60, 1960/61, •.•,2039/40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 166 Output of Amelonado from the same hectareage is given by •• •••••• 0 •••••••• (4) Ey definition K •••• $ ••••••••••• (5) .• " K c: t o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (6) where Q1' Qo and K are as defined earlier, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I 1.67 YZi is yield of i~proved variety at age i years YO! is yield of Amelonado at age 1. years H. i is hectaras of improved variety J- planted in year j-i From equations (2) to (5), therefore, the data required for estimates of annual social returns are in respect of (1) the yield profiles ~or Amazon and Amelonado cocoa varieties respectively, (ii) hectareage of improved cocoa variety in production year by year, (iii) cocoa prices for the relevant years, and (iv) the price elasticities of supply and demand (respectively) for cocoa. Given the stream of total costs (research and extension) as well as the stream of social returns, a cash flo~ table is constructed, from which an internal rate of return is calculated by an iterative procedure. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 168 The data used in this study come: mainly from time series. The availability of data is facilitated by the fact that the Nigerian cocoa industry is export-orir-mted and is therefore weLL documented by vlayof official records, special reports, and other published materialse The m~i~ data categorie;;;re:rl.lireadre (1) data on total costs consisting of research and extension expenditures deflated by consu~er price index; (2) data on gross revenue which is calculated from (a) the yield profile of improved varieties vis-a-vis that of the Amelonado variety, and (b) world market prices (again deflated by consumer price index and adjusted for mar-ke t.Lngcosts). The sources and limitations of data in respect of the various items are-discussed below. 5.2.1. ~earch e~2enditure~: The data on annual research expenditures from -1944/~5 to 1962/63 come from the audited annual accounts of the West African C6coa Research Insti- tute, while those from 1964/65 to 1976/77 come from the 1 annual accolmts of the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria. The revenue genGrated during each financial year from the -------------------------------------~--------------------- 1 ForRe1s9e6a3r/c6h4, Intshteitauctceoun(t~si8oefriat)hewaWsestuseAdf.ricaSneeCocchoaapter IV. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 169 Institutes' activities like sale of cocoa pods and other produce, interest on 'deposits, etc. was deducted frcm expenditure to obtain the net research expenditure. Since the W~st African Cocoa Research Institute served th~ cocoa-growing areas of \'lestAfrica (practically Ghana and Nigeria) the proportion of the expenditure due to Nigeria had to be imputed from the expenditures of the \'Jest African Cocoa Research Institute between 1944/45 and 1962/63. For this purpose the expenditures were weighted by a factor of i on the assumption that the contribution in 1947 of ~610,000 by the Nigerian Cocoa I1arketing Board lagainst N1,380,00b by the Gold CO&s~ Marketing Board) to the West African Cocoa Research Institute endowment fund2 can be taken as Nigeria's proportional share of the Institute's anriual expenditures. One other ground for the choice of this weighting factor is that Nigeria's production of cocoa during the decade 1965166 and 1974/75 represents about J the total production for Ghana and Nigeria combined (see Table 5.1). With regards to the annual expenditures of the Cocoa Research Institute, these cover research on coffee, kola and (in recent years) tea for which the Institute also has 2 S~e Chapter IV. I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY t" 170- TABLE 5.1i Cocoa production in Ghana and Nigeria 1965/66-197$/76 (metric tons) Nigeria's Year Ghana's Nigeria'sProduction Production 'Total Pr%oduction asof Total 1965/66 41:>,493 184,632 600,125 0.30 1966/67 380,902 267,273 646,175 0.41 1967/66 421,200 ,283,653 704,853 0.40 1968/69 332,115 187,533 519,648 0.36 1999/70 413,497 222,969 63F,466 0.35 1970/71 396,199 307,915 704,114 0.43 1971/72 470,000 256,600 726,600 0.35 i 1972/73 415,700 241,300 657,000 0.36 ~i . 1973/74 343,000 190,900 533,900 0.35 1974/75 377,960 214,000 591,960 0.)6 1975/76 382,455 205,400 587,855 0.35 ! - - .:- - -.."---- - l i I ! Total 4,348,521 2,562,175 6,910,696 0.36 I " Source: Statistical information on Western State of Nigeria controlled produce ,'"'estern ~ N1i9g7e6r•ia l'iarl . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ',---" , 190 TABLE 5.7 (cont'd) Estin:ated Output of imnroved Estimated Output % Change Year varieties fro:n of Amelonado Difference in OU1:put planting in from the same in output due to use of improve! (Oct.-Sept) production hectare age varieties ( 1000 ) ( IQOO ) ( ,'000 ) (metric tons) (metric tons) (tletric tons) ~ °1 °0 °1 - °0 K 2007/08 353.215 165.155 188.060 53.2 2008/09 362.958 171.669 191.289 52.7 2009/10 392.718 200.581 192.137 48.9 ,2010/11 394.200 202.507 191.693 48.6 , I, 2011/12 390.804 . 203.915 186.889 47.8 I 2012/13 388.641 209.788 178.853 ~6.0 2013/14 386.928 209.790 177.1)8 45.8 2014/15 . 386.789 210.144 176.645 45.7' 2015/16 373.903 208.367 165.536 44.3 t I 2016/17 352.695 201.078 151.617 43.02017/18 324.906 188.589 1.)6.317 42.0 _1. 2018/19 292.730 174.009 118.721 40.6 i 2019/20 260.554 159.429 101.125 3t1.o 2020/21 ' 228.378 144.849 83.529 36.6 2021/22 196.202 130.269 65.93j 33.6 2022/2) 164.026 - 115.889 48.137 29.5 2023/24 151.960 106.295 45.035 29.6 /contll,-l::ea ; . i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY " .... -191 TABLE 5.7 (cont'd) Estitnated Output of improved Estimated Output % Change Year of ~elcnado Difference in outputvarieties from due to use planting in from the same in output (Oct.-Sept) of improvedproduction hectare age varieties ~ ~ '000 -) ( '000 )metr'i0c00tons)) metric tons) (metric tons) Q1 Q Q1 - Q0 o K 2024/25 127.028 89.397 38.431 30.1 2025/26 115.762 80.633 35.12~ 30.3 2026/27 103.696 71.869 31.827 30.7 2027/28 91.630 63.105 28.525 31.1 2028/29 79.564 54.341 25.223 31.7 2029/30 67.498 45.577 . 21.921 32.5 2030/31 55.432 39.742 15.690 2ts.3 2031/32 43.366 33.907 9.459 21.8 2032/33 31.300 28.162 3.138 10.0 2033/34 27.278 25.388 1.890 7.0 2034/35 15.212 14.447 0.765 5.1. 1 2035/36 4.389 5.114 -- 0.724 - 16.5 1 2036/37 - 5.410 5.248 - 10.658 - 97.0 2037/38 0.000 4.080 - 4.080. - ac 2038/~9 0.000 3.421 - 3.421 - I 2037/38 _C:>C: - 14.186 .511 -OC * 2038/39 - oG - 8.921 511 -oC *" 2039/40 _ d.- - 4.241 .511 :-0<: ','* * I~athematical estimates of gross returns using the value of K at these negative levelsmake no economic sense since, having reached the lowest point, it rises to infinity. This implies that at a time when its yield is supposed to be zero the improved variety has an infinitely larger return than tllat of the unimproved variety which sti. ll retains a positive yield at this time. This is of course absurd.\ , .., However the years concerned lie so far into the future (63 years from 1977) thatthey can be legitimately - and indeed have to be - ignored, given the rate of return (37~c) obtained in this study. The need to employ an alternative and economic- sensical estimAtion' procedure in respect of these YCr.lrs.isthus obViated, their indications in the table bein~ purely for completeness in covering the "life of the . .pr-o je c t "; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I I- I 199 output of cocoa due to the adoption of improved varieties) 0." (c) the correspondj.ng year "s world market cocoa prjces) P1' and (d) the elasticities of supply and demand for Nigerian cocoa, n and e respectiv~ly. Given the estimates of net returns9, as well as the estimates of costs in terms of research and extension expendi'curest Table 5.9 shows the cash flow. By an iterative procedure th2 internal rate of return ",as calculated, 'Choosing that cOTi1pound-cum~ discount rate which makes the sum of cash flow zero, as described by the formula in equation (1) above. This compound/discoun-c rate was found to be 37 per cent. Thus the estimated internal rate of return is 37 per cent. By way of sensitivity analysis with respect to yield estimates, the differentials in yield between Amazon and Amelonado were discounted by 0.5, thus bringing dO\-'1t1h1e yield profile of Amazon to the level ahown in Table 5.3. Table 5.10 shows the cash flow using the modified yield estimates. This gave ~ ; an internal rRte of return of 34 per cent. Thus even with Amazon/Amelonadu yield 9 In this study the net returns are equivalent to the gross returns since the extra costs attendant upon -the adoption of the new varieties (e.g. extra costs of raising improved seedlings etc.) are largely incorporated in extension expenditures. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . - '200 - , .-- . .•. ...- ..... -;.- .-. 1," !' TABLE 5.9 , .....• ., Costs arid returns of cocoa research 'in constant million naira .Year Expenditure Net socialon~7;'esearch returns from Cash flow and extension improved varieties 1944/45 0.042 - - 0.042 1945/46 0.071 - - 0.071 1946/47 0.149 - - 0.149 1947/48 0.055 0.055, - - 1948/49 0.050 - - 0.050 1949/50 0.053 - - 0.053 1950/51 0.065 - - 0.065 1951/52 0.064 - - 0.064 1952/53 0.062 - - 0.062 1953/54 0.061 - -- 0.061 1954/55 0.110 - - 0.110 1955/56 0.057 - - 0.057 1956/57 0.051t - - 0.054 1957/58 0.249 - - 0.249 1958/59 0.317 0•2.37 - 0.080 1959/60 0.418 1.006 0.58~~ 1960/61 0.491 1.826 1.335 1961/62 0.565 i 2.359 1.794 . 1962/63 0.407 3.35t~ 2.947 1963/64 0.367 7.116 6.749 • -.. .~ . '. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ,.." .- r-r- •.. 201 . . TABLE 5.9 (cont'd) Expenditure Net social Year on research returns from Cash flow and extension improved varieties 1964/65 0.378 9.843 .9.465 1965/66 0.370 9.655 9.285 1966/67 0.348 11.703 16.355 1967/68 0.364 27.388 27.024 1968/69 0.385 47.116 46.731 1969/70 0.402 §5.797 65.395 1970/71 0.384 ; 49.883 49.499 1971/72 0.369 ,41.079 40.710 1972/73 0.333 45.352 45.019 1973/74 0.466 109.278 108.812 1974/75 0.603 182.102 181.499 1975/76 0.756 .196.125 195.369 1976/77 1.179 , 191.091 189.912 1977/78 0.667 131.233 130.566 ~ 1978/79 0.667 139.732 139.065 1979/80 0.667 149.695 '148.798 1980/81 0.667 157.279 156.612 1981/82 0.667 168.517 157.850 1982/83 0.667 185.448 184.781 1983/84 0.667 208.951 208.284 1984/85 0.667 242.269 241.602 1985/86 0.667 277.200 276.619 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY _--_.- - -- ------_.- _._-- -- __ .~.J-_ .. .' ----. ..- - - .. - . 202. , TABLE 5.9 (cont'd) Expenditure Net social Year on research returns from Cash flow and ~xtension improved varieties 1986/87. 0.667 317.478 316.811 1987/88 0.667 -, 361.171 360.502 1988/89 0.667 . j 407.482 406.815 1989/90 0.667 454.707 454.040 1990/.91 0.667 . 502.214 .501•.547 1991/92 0.667 . 547.392 .546.72.5 1992/93 0.667 .588.942 588.27.5 1993/94 0.667 629.505 628.838 1994/95 0.667 665·970 664.403 1995/96 0.667 698.900 698.233 1996/97 0.667 731.370 730.703 1997/98 0.667 748.628 747.961 1998/99 0.667 : 774.963 774.296 1999/200Q 0.667 795.947 795.280 2000/01 0.667 816.625 815.958 2001/02 0.667 : 838.369 837.702 2002/03 0.667 ..655.840 8.55.173 2003/04 0.667 ' 'i 875.483 874.816 2004/05 0.667 .906.160 905.493 2005/06 0.667 q '946.846 946.179 2006/07 0.667 . 980.532 979.865 2007/08 0.667 f j 998.892 998.225 . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ", 203 TABLE 5.9 (cont'd) Expenditure Net social Year on research returns from Cash flow and extension improved varieties 2008/09· 0.(567 1031.878 1031.211 2009/10 0.667 1069.$41 1068.87~. 2010/11 0.667 1069.633 1068.966· 2011/12 0.667 1049.836. 1049.169 2012/13 0.667 1019.510 1018.843 2013/14 0.667 1012.233 1011.566 2014/15 0.667 1010.473 1009.809 2015/16 0.667 957.54~ 956.882 2016/17 0.667 885.798 885.131 2017/18 0.667 803.305 802.638 2018/19 0.667 " 637.617 636.950 2019/20 0.667 618.331 617.664 2020/21 0.667 512.824 512.167 2021/22 0.667 413.556 412.889 2022/23 0.667 :312.662 311.995 2023/24 0.667 290.446 289.779 2024/25 0.667 247.556 246.889 2025/26 0.667 225.360 224.693 2026/27 0.667 203.943 203.276 2027/28 0.667 182.045 181.378 2028/29 0.667 160.418 159.751 . 2029/30 0.667 138.721 160.050 , .. - . ~-.'- ---:---- .,-' - UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ~--- -- ----...;.....'; ••• -~ ••• '> -_ •• -- -.---~.- • 204 \ TABLE 5.9 (cont'd) Expenditure Net social, Year on research returns from Cash f'low and «extension improved varieties 2030/31. 0.667 102.2, 32 101.565 2031/32 0.667 64.436 63.769 2032/33 0.667 23.032 ;~2.365 2033/34 0.667 14.314 13.647 2034/35 0.667 5.883 5.216 2035/36 0.667 •• '5.495 -' 6.162 2036/37 0.667 * * 2037/38 0.667 * •• 2038/39 0.667 •• •• 2039/40 0.667 * * ~ .•See footnote on page 198 . ; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 20.5 - TABLE .5.10 Cash flow for costs and returns based on discounting yield difference between Amazon and Amelonado by ·50 per cent - Cash flow Cash flow Year ~cons Yearl\!-mtialnlti)on) ~gcmoinlsltiaonnt)) 1911.1/4..5 - 0.042 '.1960/61 0.220 1945/46 - 0.071 .1961/62 1.008 - 1946/47 - 0.149 1962/63 1.870 1947/48 - 0.0.55 1963/64 3.444 1948/49 - 0.050 1964/65 6.351 1949/50 - 0.053 1965/66 6.467 1950/51 - 0.055 1966/67 11.130 1951/52 - 0.064 1967/68 17.902 1952/53 - 0.062 1968/69 30.114 1953/54 - 0.061 1969/70 40.426 1954/5.5 - 0.110 1970/71 32.172 1955/.56 . - 0.057 1971/72 2.5.092 19.56/57 - 0.054 1972/73 30.028 19.57/58 - 0.249 1973/74 68.61+9 19.58/59 - g~167 1974/7.5 131.811 1959/60 0.22..0 1975/76 120.328 , Lcont Lnued.. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 206 - TABLE 5.101 (cont'd) Cash flmv Cash flow Year ~con$tant~ YearI\million ~Ncmoinlsltiaonnt)) 1976/77 118.499 1991/92 455.492 1977/78 109.808 1992/93 ~-92.422 1978/79 117.982 1993/94 529.038 1979/80 131.807 199~l95 564.259 1980/81 137.766 1995/96 599.289 1981/82 146.866 1996/97 634.151 1982/83 163.040 1997/98 666.827 1983/84 1840062 1998/99 702.868 1984/85 209.720 1999/2000 729.573 1985/86 243.098 2000/01 756 .2.27 1986/87 279.603 2001/02 783.254 1987/88 Z94.359 1988/89 332.600 2002/03 805.968 1989/90 373.670 2003/04 828.778 1990/91 415.135 2004/05-x, 857.868 * The cash flow is not continued beyond this poi!1t because thereafter the contribution to the .NetPresent Worth at the relevant disc6unt rate is practically zero. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY · - 207 differential reduced by 50 per cent - an assumption that is clearly _- extreme in the light of available evidence the in~ernal rate of return would fall by only 8 per cent. We can therefore reasonably conclude that the internal rate of return to investments in cocoa research is about 37 per cent. !3ome policy: ir!lli.lications A 12-per cent return is usually considered an acceptable return to ordinary investment.10 On this basist we are justified in concluding that with a 37 per cent internal rate of return, past investmentsi.n cocoa research in Nigeria has been yielding high dividends. Thus, in spite of apparent generosity in funding cocoa research in the pasts there has clearly been an under-investment in this area. Given Nigeria's commitment to economic growth as a social policy, she will need to place greater emphasis on social profitability as a major o~erational criterion f or- determining the size and composition of hel" investment programme. In this context, cocoa research clearly stands out as an area of investment deserving greater attention than it has so far received. As Griliches' 10 GittingerJJ. Pr1ce,.Economic analysis of agricultural projects. The John Hopkins University Press, 1972 p.90. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 208 / 'has remarked, "Conceptually, the decisions made by an administrator of research funds are amor:gthe most difficult economic decisions to m~ke and evaluate, but basically they are not different-from any type of entre- preneurial decision,"11 Apart from under-investment in cocoa research in the past, the returns accruing to the Niger'Lan economy from such investment has been lower than its actual worth. This is because the return includes an externality compo- nent, since cocoa production in Nigeria is essentially 'export-oriented. Thus the consumer surplus (represented by triangle C in Figure 4.5) is passed on t~ o~erseas consumers, i.e. manufacturers of cocoa products. A significant reduction in the volume of total cocoa exports through the establishment of local cocoa processing plants, particularly for import substitution, will thus result in a higher rate of return to cocoa research by inter- nalising some or all of the consumer surplus. Returns [ to investments in cocoa research could be raised evenfurther if breakthroughs could be achieved in qurrent research into cocoa products utilization such that certain 11 Qriliches, Zvi, op...cit • UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '~" 209 ... t. products of cocca which are at present discarded could find profitable uses, as WE'll as by exploring alternative uses for cocoa beans. Finally, the rate of retlrrnto research in other areas of agriculture, especially food crops, is not kno\~; but it is presumed to be low. Given the high pay-offs from investment in cocoa resea~ch, the latter could serve as a model in terms of its o~ganisational structure, system of financing, staff recruitment and training policy, etc., thus providing valuable insights into more effective ways of mobilising scarce resources for ;reater research productivity in these lagging s ect.or-s , Summ.§.!:Y In this chapter we have attemp-:ed to estimate the internal rate of return to investments in cocoa research. The costs involved expenditures on research and extension while the returns »ei e measured by estimating the shifts in the long-term cocoa supply functions using the index- number model developed in the lait chapter. . I, Data for research expenditures were obtained from the audited annual accounts of the \'lesAtfrican Cocoa Research Institute from 19~~j45 to 1961/62 when the .Institute as an inter-territorial organisation was dissolved. \ . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . " 210 The proportional share for Ni.ger-La of these expenditures was inputed by weighting tbe figures by a factor of -S which is assumed to be the fraction she contr1buted to the ." Institutes total funds, based on relative contributions by the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing Board. From 1962/63 to 1976/77 the research expenditures data carne from its national successor, Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria. Since the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria also has responsibility for three other crops (kola, coffee and tea) the figures were weighted by ~, as imputed values for expenditures on cocoa research. Fer th€ years beyond 1"976/77 the average of the five pr-ev i ous years was taken as a constant annual expenditure needed to maintain current stock of knowledge in cocoa research. Estimates of returns were derived from data on yield profile information provided by the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, together with (a) data frem area of pla~tings under improved varieties obtained from Western State Ministry of Agriculture and Natur~l Resources; (b) world market cocoa prices from Gill and Duffus, and (c)" elasticities of supply and demand for cocoa fro!!1 a recent empirical study • In the main the limitati.ons of these data are such as will UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 211, tend to result in an underestimation of returns. A cash flow table was constructed from the streams of expenditures and net returns, and an internal rate of return computed, employing an iterative procedure. An internal rate of return of 37 per cent was obtained •. Sensitivity analysis with respe8t to·yield estimatl?.s§hoi.•e.d only a small drop in the estimated rate of return. It is therefore ooncluded that the return to investments in cocoa research in Nigeria is about 37 percent. This results clearly shows that investments in research in the past have yielded high dividends when it is realized that a twelve-per cent rate of return is usually considered an acceptable return to ordinary investment. Our findinGs in this study carry a number of major implications for policy. First, for a developing country like Nigeria with aspirations for rapid economic develop- ment, social profitability should be a major consideration in the allocation of resources among various investment options. Given such a decision criterion, cocoa research should rank very high indeed. Secondly, a considerable share of the returns from cocoa res~arch is.at present lost to the Nigerian economy in form of consumer surpluS. This is because the bulk of cocoa produced is at present UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 212 \ exported as beans. Real returns to cocoa research could thus be raised by internalising the consumer surplus through the expansion of local processing and manufacture of cocoa products. Thirdly, returns to research can be raised even further through the in,tensification of current research by Cocoa Research Institute of Kigeria on ~tiliza- tion of cocoa products. which are at p~esent regarded as waste-products. Finally, with its:.highdividends, cocoa research clanpoint the way to similar achievements in the lagging areas of agricultural research, especially food crops, by serving as a model in te~ms of organisational framework, staff resruitment and training policy, financing system, and above all the need for more generous funds in 8. sector that has suffered from gross unde r-Lnve stmerrt - as clearly demonstrated by the high rate of return to past investments in cocoa research itself. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 213 CHAPTER VI RETURNS TO COCOA RESEARCH II 6.1 Production function model In the last c~apter the internal rate of return tJ investments in cocoa research was estimated using the index-number approach. In this chapter we shall attempt to estimate returns to cocoa research by an alternative approach, the production function approach, using the model developed in chapter IV. This model was specifieG as = (1) where Qt is output in year t At is total he~tares of cocoa trees in produc- tion in year t Wt_1 is total rcinfall from March to October in yc;::.tr-l Dt is disease control l.nc.1efxor year t UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ••.214 T is research expenditure in year t-14 plus ~. extension expenditure in year t-4 E is the error term. A Cobb-Douglas form of production function was fitted to the model "Ii th time se-riesdata for the period 1944/45 to 1975/77. Our model can therefore be expressed as: (2 ) where K is a constant and the other variables are as previously defined. Transforming this into a linear function we have = Log K + b1 log At + b2 log Wt_1 + b3 log Dt +' b4 log T • •• (3) Least square mUltiple regression techniques were employed in the estimation procedure. 6.2. Sources and limitation of dat~ 6.2.1 ~ocoa output: The data used as output are those of the annual cocoa ~xports between 1944/45 and 1976/77 and were obtained from the Western Nigeria Marketing Board~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I 21$ The data are likely to underestimate real output since they ignore the amount smuggled to neighbouring countries. Another source of discrepancy between output and volume of exports is the requirement of local cocoa processing industry. Nevertheless in the absence of reliable informa- tion regarding output, tonnage of exports is considered a close approximation to output. Table 6.1 sho~annual cocoa exports from 1944/45 to 1976/77. It may be pertinent to mention here that phys16al quantity rather than naira value of output was used. This is because, as the dependent variable ill this case, it is more stable than gross income, being unaffected by fluctuations in exogenously-determined factors like price.1 This is important since we are interested principally in this.study in the dependence of output on research. For example, research may lead to an increase in physical output of cocoa, but may also result in lower prices 2nd hence lower gross income in the process, given its low price elasticity (ifdemand. Research would thus appear to have had a negative effect on output if gros~ income were used as a direct measure. On the other hand· once ---E-x-o--g-e-n-o-u--s-l-y---d-e--t-e-r-m-i--n-t-?-d-,---t-h-a-t---i-1 s-,---f-r-o-m---t-h-e---s-t-a--n-d-p-o-i-nt of technical input-:-outputrelationship. \ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 216 :- ..~--~ ...•. ~ . ._...l_. -j '.' TABLB 6 .1 1 1 i 1----- ----- -- - ---.._-. I Netric tons Metric tons Year ~to the ~ Year (to the ~nearest ~nearest - (hundred) hundr-ed) 1945 78,300 1962: 197;800 1946 101,600 1963 177,400 . .1947 112,800 1964 . 200,000 1948 92,500 1965 . 298,400 1949 105,700 1966 - 184,700 1950 101,600 1967 267,300 1951 123,000 1968 238,700 1952 116,600 1969 187,600 1953 105,LI-OO 1970 223,000 1954 100,000 1971 308,000 1955 89,800 1972 256,700 1956 119,000 1973 241,300 I "'1957 137,500 1974 214,900 1958 88,600 1975 -2111-,500 I 1959 145,100 I 1976 216,200 , 1960 159,600 ~1977. 215,200 .- :1961 186,900 . I· ,. Sources: Western Nigeria Harketing Boar d; Statistical information on i'lestern State 6f Nigeria con trolled produce, T;aadan l~76. Gill and Duf f us :__.Cc:coamarket report. (series) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / 217 the dependence is determined in physical quantity, this can always be translated into money values usin8 appropriate price adjustments. 6.2 ~2$ A"0f.8 of tree~jnJ.~oduct~2!l: The area of cocoa trees in production was taken as the aLlYlualhectareage of trees with ages ranging :7romseven to thirty' eLght years. This range is based on the estimated economic life~span of the Amelonado variety. The data were derived from the records of annual cocoa plantings obtained from the Western State l'v1inistroyf Agr-a culture and Natural Resources (see Table 6.2). 6.2.3. Rainfall: The rainfall figures required in this study are the totals for March to Octobe~ for the period 1944 to 1976. ~~hese figures were obtained from the Federal Metereological Department in respect of Ibadan, 11e-Ife and Ondo for which complete data were availabl(for the relevant period. The average for the three centres for each year was used as the weather variable (See Table 6.3). One limitation of these data is thut rainfall is made to represent the weather variable •. Clearly weather includes a whole range of factors lik-e relative humidity, tempera- ture, length of daylight, solar radiation, etc. Ideally, therefore, all these "factors shbuld be inteerated into UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 218 - TABLE 602 "-'::.-:'-Estirnatedareas of cocoa trees in production . in Nigeria (7-38 years) 1945-1976/77 I: Hectares . Hectares, Year ((tneoartehset l Year - . -. ((tnoeartehset ~ (thousand (thousand) 1944/45 19L~,000 1961/62 393,000 '194·5/46 208,000 1962/53 .396,000 1946/47 233pOOO I 1963/6L~ , 401,000 '1947/48 . 256,000 1964/65 I Lt.o6,OOO \ 1948/49 278,000 1965/66 410,000 1949/50 ' 293,000 1966/67 413,000 1950/51 310,000 '1967/68 415,000 1951/52 325,000 1968/69 420,000 1952/53 337,000 1969/70 424,000 1953/54 348,000 1970/71 427,000, 1954/55 358,000 1971/72 432,000 195.5/56 370,000 1972/73 434,000 1956/57 373,000 ,I 1973/74 43.5,000 1957/58 377',000 1974/75 , 436,000 " 1958/59 380,000 1975176 437s000 19.59/~0 385,000 1976/77 439,000 1960/61 389,000 II . ::. I .• , .Sour,ce.': Compile '.d from Ministry'of Agriculture and .Nat~ralResources? Western State records. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 219 - TABLE 6••3 . " . --,---Rainfall :in millimetres (Narch-October) ......._..!. 19124-76 - Year Ibadan Ile-Ife Ondo Average 1944 920 1020 1327 1089 1945 897 1067 ..1260- 1075 1946 720 1360 944 1008 1947 1232 121~ 1263 1238 1948 748 1338 1163 1083 19L~9 - 1127 1093 1133 1118 1950 773 1215 1140 1042 1951 1117 1095 1480 1230 -1952 998 1467 1489 1318 1953 1022 1382 1317 1240 1954 1047 1302 1460 1270 1955 1345 1352 1255 1318 1956 704 1015 1268 995 1957 1503 1038 1158 1500 r 1958 _962 1892 1077 1310 1959 1009 1186 1226 1140- . 1960 1320 838 - 1173 - 1110 1961 875 898 1063 91+5 1962 1462 1489 1384. 1445 1963 11l.jB 1508 1408 1355 1964. 1138 - "1653 1453 1430 1965 1167 1412 1374 1318 -.... /2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 220 - TABLE 603 (conttd) - . .. .. . . - .. v.e•a._ r Ibadan Ile-lie Ondo Average•. - . ~ 1966 1068 1313 1323 1225 1967 796 1347 '1235 1126 1968 1712 2052 2035 1933 1969 1141 1509 -1511 1387· 1970 11.~89 1214- 1301 1335 1971 .. 920 1079 1292 1097 1972 '271 1472 1055 1099 1973 1309 1079 1487 1292 1974 I 1124 1316 1607 1349 1975 1054 823 982 953 1976 884 1006 1086 992 Source: Nigerian l'leteorological Service .. , . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 221 a composite variable. However, apart from the methodologi- eal problems involved in this approach~ there ~re no con- sistent data over the period under consideration for most of these other factors. Moreover rainfall is probably the most important weather factor as far as variability in cocoa output from year to year- is concerned. This is because it is known to affect pod . 2f orrne t.Lor- on the one hand, and through relative humidity, the incidence- of blackpod disease on the other. Since these two effects of rainfall bear most directly on cocoa output it seems not unreasonable to use rainfall as a proxy for the weather variable in our model. Another possible limitation of these data is that the average rainfall for Ibadan, lle-Ife and Dndo may not be strictly representative of all coooa- growing areas in the country. However, representing as they do the biggest producing area in terms of tonnage, the effect of rainfall on output in these places can be expect.ed to reflect the situation on aggr-e gate cocoa output 0 6.2.~_.Disea~e co~trol_index: The diseasG control index is based on the hectareage equivalent of the annual 2 See McKelvie, A.D., The relationship between rainfall and main crop yield. Report of the cocoa con~.(~renc~ 1957. p , 11.8. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY j 1&..'11 222 consumption of fungicides and capsidicides. Since disea~e control through the use of chemicals as a mass programme did not start until 1957/58 the annual disease control index for each of the years between 1944/45 and 1956/57 was taken as zero_. The data for 1957/58 to 1967/68 were obtained from a recent work by oni,3 while those for the years 1968/69 to 1976/77 were obtained from the West~rn Nigeria Marketing Board. From the hectareage equivalents of chemical consumption a disease control index was derived year by year, following Oni4 (See Table 6.4). One possible limitation of the data may be that not all the chemicals might actually have been used in pest and disease control since some might have been hoarded, used for purposes other than for cocoa production, or even smuggled to neighbouring countries for sale, given heavy subsidis~tion of supplies. This may result in over-estimation of the degree of disease control. Against this however must be set the omission in the 3 Oni, S. A., op.cit. p.,17? 4 Oni, S. A., op.cit. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , 223 index, of non-chemical con~rol measures: for example uprooting of disease-infected trees. This measure was used extensively in the forties ann early fifties in the wake of government's efforts to control the swollen shoot virus disease. Such a technique may be significant considering that there is no other known control for this disease except by breeding to12rant/resistant cocoa varieties. 6.2.5 Research and extensiol~ ex~enditures: Research expenditures data were derived from the au~ited accounts of the West African Cocoa Resea~ch Institute for the period 1944/45 to 1962/63, and Cocoa R2search Institute of Nigeria from 1963/64 to 1976/77. NinEcia's share of annual research expenditure was imputed by weighting the figures of the West African CO~0a Research Institute by!, this factor being chosen on the basis of her contribution to the Institutesendownment funde Similarly the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria figures were weighted by ~ as the proportion of resources devoted to cocoa. Extension expenditures data were collected from the Western Nigeria Annual Estimates, the annual expenditure records of the Special eocoa Development scheme and the Western state Cocoa Development Unit. Since the expendi- tures from these sources are only in respect of Western UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ___ ._"-~ __ ~. -.".J~_~ _ ._ 22~ .- ._. 1-- . (, 'I TABLI:;6.4. I Disease control indeX I .. ___ •• 0 •• Estimated Hectares HectG.res Hectares of 0' Disease Year hectares in ::';prayed spr~yed Swollen shoot Control , production against against virus disease Index~ i black pod cc.psid uprooted I (Oct-Sept) A B C D BA -+ DC x 100~ II I 1 l 1957/58 373,750 16,992 21,280 - 10.241958/59 372,890 22,590 .63,840 230 23.19 '\ 1959/6C 373,J.!20 47,616 107,280 380 41.52 I, 1960/61 373,780 51,630 103,650 490 41.58 ! .'!~51/G2 371,450 61,000 96,600 260 42.46 ! .1962/63 389,710 68,990 153,300 90 '57.05 i ·1 1963/64 366,260 82,790 22'1,430 130 87.73 i 1964/65 367,270 110,500 ·339,610 50 122.'57 ·1 1965/66 368,164 109,210 136,240 - 66.67 I 1956/67 368,760 1'5'5,710 237,3'50 30 106.f;0 I • 1967/68 367,650 223,9'50 164,7'50 30 105.73 j i 1968/69 420,020 .25,980 146,330 -- 41.02I~ 1969/70 424,450 20,990 254,250 64.85 ! 1970/71 427,320 21,414 407,730 - 100.43 i 1971/72 432,120 36,080 371,090 - 94.2)"I 1, ·1972/73 434,210 7,280 ·181,040 j - 43.37 1• 1973/74 435,430 25,760 339,520 - 63.89f f 1974/75 436,020 12,810 156,070 1 - 38.73 I 1975/76 437,380 19,540 185,810 - 46.~51976/77.. 439,250 15,970 770,7'50 - . 179.11, L. ..... - - ---.- - -"-- .. - .. - _. .-.- - .. ·1 Sources: On!, S.A., An econometric analysis of the i I ~rovincial and aggregate supply responses j. among Western Nigeria cocoa farmers. I . Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of ! Jbadan 197L. 1 Western Nigeria Marketing Board : i Statistical information on western State j .i of Nigeria controlled produce (series) • 1'- . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY i 225 l TABLe; 6 ••4 Disease control index _. .. .. 1 , Estimated Hectares Hectares Hectares of 0' Disease Year hectares I in Sprayed spro.yed Swollen shootagainst Controlproduction aga.ins t;r , virus diseasebLack pod co.psid Indexuprooted (Oct-Sept) A B C D BA _+ DC x ",'00; "957/58 373.750 16,992 21,280 - 10.24 1958/59 372,890 22,590 .63,840 230 23.19 I 1959/6) 373,h20 47,616 107,280 380 41.52 ~960/61 373,780 51.630 103,650 II-90 41.58 -;961/62 t 371,450 61,000 96,600 260 42.46 1962/63 389,710 68,990 153,300 90 57.05 1963/64 366.260 82,790 22rl,11-30 130 87.73 1964/65 367,270 110,500 339,610 50 122.57 1965/66 368,,64 109,210 136,240 - 66.67 . 1966/67 368.760 155,7'10 237,350 30 106.601967/68 367,650 223,950 161-1-,750 30 105.73 1968/69 J~20,020 25,980 1L~6, 330 - 41.02I 1969/70 424,450 20,990 251+,~50 - 64.85 1970/71 427,320 21,11-14 407,730 - 100.43 1971/'/2 432,120 36,080 371,090 - 94.23 1972/73 I 434,210 7,280 181,040 - 43d71 1973/74. 435,430 25,760 339,520 - 83.89 - 1974/75 436,020 12,810 156,070 - 38.73 ,i 1975/76 437,380 19,540 185,810 - 46.951976/77 439,250 15,970 770,750 - - 179.11 ! - - . -- ._> .. --- -- .-- Sources: Oni, SeA., An econometric analysis of the provincial and aggregnte supply responses amana Western Nigeria cocoa farmers. Unpu~lished Ph.D thesis, University of Ibadan 1971.. Western Nigeria Marketing Board : Statistical information on Western State of Nigeria controlled pr.oduce (series). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 226 . -oJ, ' , Nigeria, they were weighted by a factor of 1.0$ in order to -relate them to the whole country, on the assumption that 9.5 per cent of the country's total cocoa output comes from Western Nigeria5. The research variable in our model consists of research expenditure lagged 14 years plus extension expen- diture lagged 4 years. As explained in Chapter IV the assumption 'here ifr:that it \Villtake 10 years on the average for research expe~diture to mature in terms of reaching the stage of mass adoption of its findings. This' ass~1ption is based on the fact that it took 10 years (191-1-4-1954) for the Amazon variety to be deveLoped and adopted in Nigeria on a mass scale. Further, as a tree crop, it takes another 4 years from planting before coming into production. There is thus a total of 14 years gestation period between expenciiture in research and the beginning of its pay-off. In other words, a research expenditure in year t does not result in any pay-off until the year t ,+ 14. Similarly extensio~ expenditures are assumed to have a gestation period of 4 years since .5 For fuller details on source and much of the treatment and limitation of data 011 r-esear-ch and ex.t enc i.on expenc i.tures as may be appLLcab.Le to this SEction see Chapter V ~age 9. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 227 annual expenditures involve mainly activities connected with'cocoa planting and establishment e.g. production of seedlings, extending of technical information on planting methods, production grants and loans, etc. By their nature these expenditures will not begin to payoff until the trees come into produ.ction in the 4th year. Table 6.5 ShOVvEthe research and extension expendii:;urec. Tge b~lk of research expenditures is made up of the cost of scientific and other research personnel, laboratory e~uipment and other infrastructural facilities. Given the nature of these costs it is clearly inappropriate to deflate them by the consumer price index. Moreover increases in costs in research personnel, equipment and other ~ese~rch resources over the years are likely to be as much a reflection of quality changes as they are of c'honges .' InprJ..ce 1eve1s.6 T0 some ext'ent , t\.h.e..same goes for extension expenditures. Given the need to bring out these quality changes over time (in view of the crucial 6 For example scientific research personnel can be expected to.change in quality over time through formal train- ing (e.g. post-Graduate courses},on-the-job exper-Lenc e, seminars, workshops etc., with corresponding rise in rerotmerations. Equipment tend to change in quality over tj.meas old ones are replaced ~ith more sophisti- cated and up-to-date, and,the.cefore,higher priced versions. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .•. c. TABLE 6.$ ~'(.'. , :'.."..... . \., Research and ex~ension expenditures (Wmillion) Year Annual Annual Laggedresearch Lagged~xtension (April-t1arch) r:csearch . Research/ expenditute e.xtensiondxpenditure e:xt~nzionexpenditure expenditure Variable Rt Et Rt-14 E.t_4 T=Rt_14 +E _4 . t 1944/45 0.03e - - - - ~1945/46 0.064 - - - -'. 1946/47 0.134 - - - - NN '. 1947/48 0.0•50 - - - - eX> 1948/49 0.046 - - - - 1949/50 0.050 - - - - 1950/51 0.061 -. . - - , - 1951/52. 0.061 - , - - - 1952/53 0.061 - - - - .,, 1953/54 0.061 " - - - - 1954/55 0.115 - - .•. - ,-o;' " 1955/56 0.0•62 - - - - 1956/57 0.062 1 - - - - !i 1957/58 .. 0.061 0.230 - - -; •• - •• '4 •• v 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ., .' TABLE: 6.S (cont.'d) - ._--, . _. - ' ... - .. '~~'-'-'" . Annual Annual Lagged Lagged Research! .. Year ~esearch cxten::;ion research. extension. extension (April-March) expenditure expenditure expenditure expenditure Variable Rt Et Rt._14 Et_4 T=Rt_14+Et_4 . .....~ 1958/59 0.058 0.322 0.038 - 0.038 1959/60 0.058 0.410 0.064 ~ - , 0.0•64 1960/61 0.057 0.•518 0.134 ~ 0.134 I\) 1961/62 0.317 0.400 0.050 0.230 0.2.80 I\)\D 1962/63 0.199,. 0.358 0.04G 0 •.322 0.368 .. 1953/64 0.198 0.272 0.050 0.410 ' 0.460 , 1964/65 0.2•00 0.280 I 0.061 0••518 0.579 1965/66 ' 0.199 0.286 0.061 0.400 0.460 1966/67 0.208 0.300 . 0.061 0.358 .0.419 .1967/68 0.267 0.246 0.061 0.272 0.333 1968/69, 0.231 . 0.292 0.115 0.280 0.395' 1969/70 0.303 0.292 0.062 0.286 0.348 . 1970/71 0.378 0.260 0.0.62 0.300 0.362 . " 1971/72 0.378 I .0.2.60 '0.061 0.2.46 . 0.307I UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY "it " ... ' .. ,:, '0 • , TABLE 6.5· (cont'd) ..•..• .,i . .. . .' . .... .. ! 014 J .Annual Annual Lagged Lagged Research!.Year r.esearch ex ceris ton r.esearch 'e"xtension extension (Api: i 1-!·1arch) e.xpendI ture e"xpe:ldi tur~ expcnd i ture ,expend i ture var Lao l e Rt .. . Rt-14 . Et_4 T=Rt_14+Et~4~ 1972/73 I .00427 . I 0.252 0.058 / r ,O.~92 0.350 .1973/74 I . 0.516 . I 0.462 0.058 0.292 0.350 N,w·o· 1974/75 It .0.750 I 0.650 0.057 0.260 0•.317 1975/76 '0,,785. '1.620 0.317 0.2•60 0•5.77" 1976/77 10012 . 2.995 0.199 0.252 0.451 of r . ,\... ' .". ;' .. . ' . .' I" • : . " , .. ,. , . <, ,'. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY : 231 significance of resource quality for research output) the research variable is left undeflated. 6.3 Empirical results The coefficients obtained by fitting the production function to time series data are presented in Table 6.~. It can be seen that in terms or overall fit our model is a good one as indicated by the val~e of the coefficient of multiple determination~ In ~ffect about 84 per cent of the variation in output is explained by the model. The Durbin-Watson test statistic indicates the absence of autocorrelated errors. Our mod~l can therefore be said to be useful for predictive purposes. Although we are principally ~oncerned in this stUdy with the research varid~lef the results as they affect other variables in terms 0f overall relationship may be mentioned in passing. Area of cocoa in production was found to be a sig~ificant variable with the expected positive sign. The weather variable has a negative sign. This is not unexpected when it is remembered that rainfall tends to raise relative humidity which in turn leads to a high incidence of black pod disease and hence a decline UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE 6.6 Estimates of the aggregate Cocoa production function - Area in Coefficient production Weather Disease control Research ofDetermination At W _ D T Durbin-Watson 2t 1 t test statistic R ~w ~ 0.405·· - 0.217 0.002 0.056'" , 2.089 , 0.843 (0.13~) (0.203) (0.004) (0.006) Standard error of estimate in parentheses •• Highly si')nificant UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 233 in cocoa output. The value of its coefficient is however not significant. The disease control variable has the expected positive sign although its coefficient is not significant. (The lack of significance may be due to the fact that disease control is itself an outcome of research. The research variable may thus in part have taken care of the disease cont~ol component. This pro- bably explains the high mt':!.ti-colinearitbyetween the two variables - see next paragraph). Finally the research variable has the expected positive sign with a level of significance at O~OOl. The simple correlation mat=ix (Table 6.7) shows that there is a serious multicollinearity between the research and the disease control variables. For this reason the model was estimated with the disea3e control variable omitted. 7 However this made virtually no difference to the magnitude of either the coefficient of multiple deter- mination or the research coefficient. The research coefficient in this case (like any regression coefficients 7 Following Heady and Dillon, only a coefficient greater than 0080 is here considered so high as to warrant - dropping one of the variables so correlated from the regression analysis. See Heady, E.O. and J.L. Dillon, Agricultural production functions, Iowa State Univer- sity Press, 1961, p.136. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABL8 6.7 Simple correlation of the variables used in the time series production function Output Area in Weather Disease " production t!ontrol Research. Q Wt At, t_1 Dt T Qt 1.000 A t-. 0.767 1.000 l\)VJ ~ -,,,: Wt-i 0.078 0.280 1.000 Dt 0.845 0.803 0.154 1.000 T 0.,906 0.753 0.128 0.899 1.000 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 235 in the analysis) is'the elasticity estimate. Since our main focus in this study is on returns to research, this was converted to marginal product, given by y = ••••••••• where y is marginal product, Q~ and T, taken at their mean levels, are.as defined previously, and b4 is the coefficient of T. substituting the relev~nt data in equation (4) the marginal product com~s to 0.048 metric ~on per naira of research expenditure. Converting this to naira value by multiplying by the average of coco. prices (in real terms) for the period 1958/59 to 1976/77 (414 per metric ton) we obtain 1920.09. Our estimate of max-qinal return to cocoa research is thus about n20. 6.4 Comparis.on of res,ults with that of the.}ndex-number approach How does our finding in respect of marginal return compare with the rate of return obtained under the index~ number approach in Chapter V1 For such a comparison the marginal return of N20 was converted into an internal rate of return. This is the rate of interest which m~kes the accummulated value todate of one naira invested a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 23·6 certain number of years ago equal to the discounted present value of a fifteen-naira annua) return into perpetuity. This can be expressed algebraically as = 1 •••••••••• (5) where n is the period in years between expenditure and pay-off, m is period in years bctlveen now and end of the pay-off, y is marginal .ceturn, r is the internal rote of return. Equation (5) relates to a "homogeneous" naira expenditure. However, the naira yielding a marginal return of H20 in this ~tudy is a "composite" one, made up of a research component and an extension component with different periods of gestation. The equation thus needs to be modified to take account of this. For this purpose we need to know the proportional share of each component in the investment, in addition, that is, to their respec- tive gestation periods. Given this, the equation for a composite investment can be expressed generally as follows: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 237 Lm Pj(l+r)h yLn 1 • • • (6) j=1 k=l with ....• . . . . . . . . . . (7) where m is the number of components constituting the investment, Pj ~s the proportional share of the jth component of the investment, h is the gestation period in years of the jth component of the investment, n is the future p~riod in years over which the present value of y is to be earned, Y is the marginal r-e+ur n to the investment, r is the internal rate of return to the invest- mente For this study the corresponding values for the variables defined above are as follows: rn is 2 (research and extension) Pj are 1/3 arid2/3 respectively. These were based -on the average annual expenditure of research UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 238 between 1944/45 ~nd 1976/77, and of extension between 1958/59 and 1976/77, the ratio of the former to the la~ter being estimated at 1::2, h is 14 for research and 4 for extension, n is for practical purposes in perpetuity, y is H20. and r is the internal rate ot return being estimated. Substituting these values in equation (6) and estimating the internal rate of return by an iterative procedure a figure of 42 per cent was obtained~ Th~s compares favourably with an estimate of 37 per-cent by the Lndex-vnumbez- approach. 6.5. Policy implications In chapter V, certain policy implications arising from the magnitude of e~r estimated internal rate of return were highlighted. These policy implications apply a fortori to the find~ngs in this chapter, given an even higher estimate of the rate of return obtained under the .production function approach. 6.6. Summary This chapter has been concerned with estimating the returns to investment in cocoa reseRrch by ~h:_alter6a~ive UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 239 approach, the production function approach, as well as by employing a different data base. Our production function model involves cocoa output as the dependent variable with total area of trees in production, weather, disease control, arydresearch as explanatory variables. A CObb-Douglas form of production function was estimated by means of least square multiple regression on time series data. Cocoa output data were based on annual exports. Area of trees in production was taken as the annual hectareage of trees ranging in age from 7-38 years. The weather variable waS represented by total rainfall figures from March to October, taking the average for lbadan, lle-lfe and Ondo from 1944 to 1976. The disease control variables was based on hectareage equivalents of annual quantities of fungicides and casidicides supplied to farmers by the Western Nigeria Marketing Board. The research variable was made up of annual research expenditure lagged 14 years plus annual extension expen- diture lagged 4 years. This was based on the assumption that it takes a~out 10 years for research expenditure to result in a finding and for such a finding to become UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2'40 widely adopted. For a tree crop like cocoa it takes a further 4 years for the effect of the finding to begin to payoff; bringing the period between research expendi- ture and pay-off to 14 years.. Similarly extension expendi- tures, mos~ of ~hich come at the beginning of planting of cocoa fa~ms, do not mature until' the 4th year. Empirical results from the estimation of cur preduc- tion function showed that the model has a good explanatory power with a coefficient of multiple determination .of0.84. The Durbin-Watson test statistic showed an absence of aute-correlated errors. We can therefere empley the medel· fer predictive purpeses. All the variables have the expected signs, with twe .ofthem (including the research variable) being highly significant. The research variable was significant. at a level .of 0.001. Its coefficient cenverted t.omarginal return gave a value .ofH20.00. In .order to cempare this return with that .obtained in the last Chapter an estimate .of internal rate .ofreturn was derived fr.omthe marginal return. The figure .of42 per cent cempares faveurably with 37 per cent estimated internal rate .ofreturn .obtained using a different appreach reported in the last Chapter. We can therefere reasenably conclude that the internal UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 241 rate of return to investments in cocoa research is about 42 per cent. The policy implications arising from the findings in this chapter are thus the same as those highlighte~ in ~hap~er V, except that with the higher estimated return from this model they assume a greater urgency. . ~-:'" UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER VII POLICY IMPLICATIONS The last decade has witnessed a gr-owi ng official concern over food production and productivity in Nigeri&. This has derived from inadequate supplies resulting in in- flationary food prices and mounting food import bills • Such concer.n is reflected in increasing resource cornmit- ment to food production campaigns, such as the National Accelarated Food Production Project (NAF.c:P),National Seed Service Scheme, the Fertilizer Subsidy and Distribution Programme, etc; cummulating in recent years in the all- embracing Operation Feed th~ Nation (OFN)~ Yet, despite the government's eagerness to encourage the commitment of an even greater resources to agriculture in the coming years1 the absorptive capacity of the food production sub-sector is at present severely constrained by a lack of opening for new investment opportunities through a constant flow of innovations and improved technology eo r 1 This can be seen in recent federal igover-nment. meeSUX'2S such as the 1and-use decree, the guarr-arrt ee scherno for agricultural loans, the 5-year holiday tax for agricultural plantations, etc. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 243 Among the major policy implications of this study that wer-e h.l gh'Li.gh ted in chapter V is the need for reform in the organisatio~al and institutional framework in the lagging areas of agricultural ~es~arch, especi~lly in food crops. As was noted in chapter III the organisation of cocoa research from its inception has always been such as to guarrantee a large measure of admLlist:-atlve, financial as well as institutional autonomy. Our findings indicating a high return to investments in cocoa research thus lend credence and quantitative support to the impressions that such organisational arrangements facili- tate effective use and mobilisation of research resources. By contrast, food crops research has traditionally been run as part of the civil service with its bureaucratic rigidity characterised by admihistrative delays, inept financial regulations and accounting procedure, and a reward s~stem that places undue emphasis on seniority as a criterion for career advancement. Given the env i r-onmerrt within ~lich food crop research has had to operate there~ for~ it is little wonder that it has made little or no impact on the food farming economy. What are the key areas that call for organisational reform if food crops research is to achieve greater operational efficiency? )i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 244 To the extent that the experience in cocoa research is anything to go by, we can identify at least three major aspects. These include research administration, research funding, and the training of research personnel. 7.1 New dimensions in research administration As was noted in Chapter III the administrative frame- work for cocoa research, both at the inter-territorial and national levels, guarranteed a considerable measure of functional autonomy. Thus it had its own management board that was ~esponsible for formulating its policies with regard to research programmes, financial appropria- tions, staff conditions of service, etc., while the Director had full responsibility for the day-to-day running of the institute. Such an arrangement allowed for a flexibility of approach at both the policy and the execu- tion levels. Over the last decade or so there has been a trend towards giving greater autonomy along similar lines to the erstwhile civil service research establishm~nts, cummulating in the creation of fourteen research institutes2 I ! 2 See Appendix IV for d"etails. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 245 under the general supervision of the Agricultural R.esearch Council of Nigeria, a body that has recently been super- seded by the National Science and Technolo~y Development Agency.3 In general these institutes have been constituted so that each restricts its activities to a specific commodity or group of related commodities. For example the National Cereals Research Institute is charged with the responsibility for research into rice, maize and grain legumes, while the National Root Crops Research Institute deals \'lit.hcassava, yam and potatoes. The national coverage in their research activities necessitates the establishment of sub-stations in various ecological zones allover the country. bbile -it is yet too early to assess the full i~pact of the new set-up on research administrative effeciency, one particular aspect deserves some comment. This is the issue of national coverage by each institute in specific _crops. First, it is not clear to what extent the new arrangement has actually prevented overlapl:ing or even duplication of research efforts among research institutes. For example the National Cereals Researc~ Institute is 3 For an account of the various attempts at organisational reforms since 1971 see pages 42-43. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .. - 246 supposed to work on rice, mai.ze and grain legumes through-: out the country. However it is kno\'m that the Institute for Agricultural Research, Samaru also works on maize among other crops. The reason usually given is that the latter is affiliated to the univer-sa ty and .t.her-e f or-e should have no restriction placed on the scope of its research activities since it must acquire research information on any crop for the purpose o.r teaching. The same argument is advanced. for th~ Institute of Agricultural Research and Training which is in a similar position. Yet all of these institutes derive their f~lds from the same direct source, the National Science and Technology Development Agency. Secondly, while the idea of research institutes with national responsibilities may appear attractive, it seems more appropriate, and may even perhaps be the only alternative, for small co~~tries. Given the geographical size and ecological diversity of Nigeria - against the background of a poor communication network, inadequate transport facilities and serious shortage of research personnel - the assumption of a nat.Lori-wf.de research responsi bili ty by an institute poses enormous administrative problems, resulting in spreading scarce resources too thin on the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ·247 ground for any real impact. It is here suggested that a more effecient arrangement in the Nigerian context is one in which the scope of an institute is restricted to a specific ecological zone. The crops that are important in that ecology will then be the materials to work with - a case, in other words, of each institute specialising along ecological Ijnes rather than along commodity lines. The result of this will be that no research institute administrative headquarter:; will be more than a couple of hundred of kilometres from the most remote of its experimental sites. J\part from the greater administrative efficiency that can be expected, considerable resources at present used in constant commuting between headquarters and outstations and experimental plots could be conserved for actual research work. Furthermere, it will result in a fewer number of research institutes and hence a greater share of existing research resources for each. institute. Thirdly, the "criteria of relevancell in the determi- nation of research priofities suggests that at the country!s level of socio-economic development, research activities based on sole cropping is unlikely to find acceptance among the generality of farmers in tileforseeable UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 248 future. On the contrary it has been found that there are IIvalid reasons of a technological, sociological and economic nature for farmers' reluctance to change to a sole cropping system.n4 A research programme based on sole croppihg (a~ is inevitably the casi in an institute specialising in specific crop area as under the present set-UlJ) is to that extent irrelevant. Thus mixed cropping as an ecologically-determined factor will flt into an ecological-specialization arrane;ement. In surninary,the present arrangement will seem to constitute a strain on efficiency to the extent that it stretches scarce resources too thin on the ground~ while not succeeding in removing overlapping of efforts among research institutes. Above all the main focus of research activities seems to be on sole cropping, whereas by apply- ing the criteria of relevance to our research prioritie~ the emphasis should bq on mixed croppin,;. Such re-orien- tation calls for the organisation of the institute on the basis 01 c co.LogLca.l considerations rather than on basis of specific crops on a country-wide scale. 4 Norman, D.W., Crop mixtures under indigenous conditions in Northern Ni[;2ria. Proceedil:.r;:~ of the coni'l?rC'y:ce on e;f6a'nc'1t9o1r-e1-.o-f----e-c--o-n-o--m-i-"c-'- [r:-'owtJh_~7--~iest Hfr_~.y~~9 I::;S·i:R.Le UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 249 7.2 New approach to research funding -, One major implication of the high rate of return to cocoa research obtained in this study is that cocoa research suffers from gross underlnvestment. For agricultural research as a whole such underinvestmerrt can be expected to be even more pronounced. For instance according to Abaelu, Nigeria spent an estimated expendi- ture of 35 kobo per farmer on scientific research in 1971/7~ Gompared with an annual expenditure of N56 by the Unj 'sd States.5 Yet meagre as the resources devoted to'research is wheri compar-ed -•l. ith those of developed countries, such resources are even less productive.6 Given the scarcit~ of investible resources in many developing countries, raising research productivity through a more effective use and deployment of existing resources lliaywell J be the only feasible alternative to raising research productivity in the short ru.l1,and probably even in the long run if only to avoid the dissipe.tion of additional resources when they do become available. How effective 5 Abaelu, J. N. Building the foundations of Nigeria's agricultural growth: public expenditures on e.gricul- tural research. Bulletin of Rural Economics and Sociolo~y, e(1); 61-75, 6 Evenson, R.S. . and Y~. Kislev, A'.gricultural research and productivity. New Haven Yale University Press, 1975, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 250 has been the use of resources in agricultural research in Nigeria? There are of course many factors affecting the effectiveness of resource use. One major factor is the funding arrangement. As has been noted,the fQ~ding arrangement for cocoa research were such as to guarrantee long-term financial stabili ty • For exa!llplei,n the case of the \vestAfrican Cocoa Research Institute, funds were made available for a 20-year period. So comfortable was its financial position that by the time it wound up as an inter-territorial organisation the balance of its endovmlent stood at almost ~4million as at 1st April 1962. Its successor, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, enjoyed much similar financinl a~rangement.7 L By contrast· the funding of food crops research has been tied to the annual government budgetary appropriations, and are thus subject to the vagaries of government fiscal policies. In the even7effective forward ?lanning is difficult even on an annual basis, and almost impossible on a long-term basis. Horse still the April-Narch fiscal year means that Vlhatever funds are to be allocated are 7 See Chapter III UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 251 not known before the first day of April and may not be made available for many weeks thereafter. Yet major preparations for the year's agricultural research pro- grammes need to be carried out well before the rains which are normally on by March. Furthermore, any vote remaining unspent by the end of Narch automatically lapses. This poses serious problems of expenditure timing. Experience has shown that in order to avoid their votes lapsing government .departments usually go on a spending spree towards the end of the fiscal year, often on store items that may not be urgently required. This situation tends to aggravate the shortage of funds for essential research activities •. With the establishment of the Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria whose statutory responsibility included the funding of research, it was hoped that a more rational .financing system for research Vlould emerge. The hope appeared justified when in 1975 the Council introduced the programme budgeting system in the research institutes. However it soon became apparent that nothing much had changed, annual budgetary allocations for research as for'other Qreas haviRg continued to be based on no UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2$2 discernibly rational criteria. In particular, the same uncertainty as to the level of funds to be ,had for cny fiscal year remains. There is thus a need to over-haul the entire system of f~nancing agricultural research in the country if existing funds are to be put to more effective use. For a start, research financing needs to be pl&ced on a lon~-term footing. For e~ample it should be possible for allocations to be made to research through the National Science and Technology Development l-I.gencoyn at least a five-year basis. Furthermore since fund.sare likely to be far short of requirements, allocation should be based on well-formulated research priorities based on perspective planning. 7.3 Training of research personnel Perhaps the most crucial resource in research is personnel. This is because research is a creative occupa~ tion, rather than something of a mechahical process. It therefore demands high-calibre talents and specialized skills. In this context the training of personnel is of utmost importance in achieving a high level of efficiency in research. The training of research personnel could be considered at two levels. The first is the training of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.53 research scientists, while the other is the training of technical supporting staff. In research establishments the world over research scientists are normally recruited' from the ranks of university graduates, usually with pos.t-graduate degrees in,relevant subjects. Only such trained perso~~el are deemed to be capable of undertaking inde~enaent, original research. However, owing to the scarcity of fully trained research seientists, the practice in most research establishments in Nigeria has been to recruit fresh gra- duates with only a first degree with a v5.ewto sending them for post~graduate training after one or two years. The technical supporting staff include such cadres as laboratory technologists, technicians and miscellaneous field staff. In many research institutes there seems to be no clear-cut training policy for laboratory technologists 'and technicians, many of the staff in these cadres having been originally employed with requisite qualifications for the job, or enrolling for the relevant courses on a part-time basis on·their own initiative. How ~ffective has the institutes training policy been, .particalarly in respect of research scientists? ~hile the training policy has undoubtedly succeeded in raising , UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 254 the supply of scientific manpower in various disciplines, one or t\'lOflaws have become noticeable. First, urrtLL now training of research scientists has taken .place abroad where conditions are generally differen.t from those obtaining in Nigeria. Consequeritly the returning trainee sometimes suffemfrom a certain disorientation haviLg to work with generally less sophisticated equipment and on research problems that appear far less glamorous,if more relevant to'local agriculture. This has in Eo~e cases led to a drift of such research staff to the universities where they could at least work in a more academic environ- ment not too .dissimilar to what they were accustomed to .in their training abroad. Secondly, the conditions of service in the research institutions have always been generally inferior to those of the universities. For example, wher-ea s a Ph.D holder is appointed a lecturer ·~n grade level 10 in the university, ·in the institute such a fellow can only t2 appointed as research officer grade I on grade level 09. Such disparities ·serve to intensify the drain from the institutes. The effect of this is the rapid turnover of trained staff with consequent dis- !I ruption in the continuity of research programmes. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .'- 255 'Recent development6 ~,notaply diminishing supply of training funds, a growing difficulty of pLac.emerrtin foreign u.l1iversitiesand an expanding number of research establishments - have led to expansion of facilities for post-graduate training in the local universities. This will hopefully lead to greater relevance in training and orientation to the ~onditions under which the trainees would wor-k , In this connection there is need for the universi ty 'f'acu Lties to work in close'collaboration with the research institutes in evolving suitable post-graduate prograI11!TlesF.or instance, under such an arrangement it should be possible for candidates registered for higher degrees to ~ork on aspects of on-going research programmes in the institute under the supervision of experienced research scientists in the Institute. As for the problems of trnining of supporting staff, there are two aspects to it. First, the agricultural assistant/superintendent cadre who are main~y field stafI. Since this group is at present trained in schools of agriculture originally established to train extel1sion staff, the!.rtraining has only a peripheral bearing on the require-' ments of research. It has been suggested in this connection that a special school with bias for research requirements UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 256 be established to train research field workers.8 The second aspect is the training for laboratory technologists. The situation at the moment is that this category of staff in the institutes enrol mostly on.part-time basis for courses normally organised by the University of Ibadan for its own staff, leading to·the award of the London City and Guild. Clearly dependence on this kind of arrangeffient as a major source of supply for such a key cadre of research staff is unsatisfactory. With as many as eighteen agricultural research institutes in the country there is an urgent need to establish schools to cater specifically for the training of agricultural laboratory technologists and technicians. Apart from providing a regular source of supply of this category of staff, there will be greater relevance in their training in terms of course content and orientation. All in all, the training policy of research pers?rillel needs to be critically reviewed with a view to enhancing its contribution to research productivity. First, post- graduate training for research scientists should emphasise participation by trainees in on-going research projects .in their respective institutes. Thus, after the required 8 ~AO, AGricultural Development in Nigeria 1965-BO. Rome. 1966, p.316. . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / 257 -. / academic course work, the thesis should be based on aspects of the institute's research project, makin& use of available facilities within the institute. 1bis might involve cooperative arrangements whereby experienced research scientists within the institute could be made at least a member of the committee of supervisors. Apart from making a positive and effective contribution to the institutets research programme while in training, the trainee \,/illfind himself better adjusted. to the conditions under which he will have to work. Secondly, training should be based on the identifiable requirements of each institute. For instance, there appears no conscious effort on the part of research institutes to identify areas of critical need at the recrui tment stage. Rather, it wouLd seem that scientific staff are recruited and appointed under a blanket title of "pupil research officer" with no specification as to particular special ties to which they are be.ing appointed. Thus even '-'trhi the relative specialisation at the first- degree level, a candidate with BSe (Agricultural. Biology), for instance, is appointed a "pupil research officer" with little more than a vague assuoption that he could fit into any field such as plant breeding, entomology or UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , 2.58 // plant pathology. What .determines the field he is eventually trained in at the post-graduate level may have nothing to do with the need of the institute. The effect of this is the existence of relatively abundant supply of personnel in some disciplines side by side w~th'critical shortages in others. Training and recruitment policies thus need to be coordinated, so that staff are appointed not just under the blanket title of "pupil research officer" but as "pupil research officer (entomology) II, "pupil research officer (plant breeding)" etc. Thirdly, given the critical shnrtage of laboratory and other supporting staff, there needs to be a definite training policy for this category of staff as in the case of research scientific persmlnel. In particular there is need for the establishment of appropriate schools of agriculture and laboratory technology. In this context, research authorities could borrow a leaf from the field of medicine where a number of medical laboratory schools are already in existence. Finally, in terms of effective overall utilization of trained research personnel in general, it is time appropriate scientific ..staff/supporting staff ratio vIas established. Thi~ would lead to greater rationalisation UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 259 / of the training policy as opposed to the present ad hoc decision rules of recruitment and training of staff in various cadres as well as of various disciplines in research. 7.4 Policy prescriptions . So far in this chapter we have considered certain factors that have teen diagnosed as contributing crucially to the productivity of cocoa researchJ and their implica- tions for enhancing the productivity of other areas of research, especially food crops. Beyond these identified factors, we shall in this section explore certain policy prescriptions/the adoption of which could result in greater rationalisation of the whole process of agricultural research as an investment venture with expected future pay-offs, rather than as some routine services whose provision is taken for granted. 7.4.1. Periodic research review: Throughout the history of agricultural research in this country there has never been any formal arrangement for periodic research review. Such changes as have been brought about in contenl or direction of research have resulted from ad hoc measures such as legislation or reorganisation. For example, responsibility for research in coffee and kola was given UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 260 to the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria by an Act of , Parljament following the dissolution of its predecessor, the West African Cocoa Research Institute, which was concerned exclusively with cocoa research. Similarly, in recent years, the creation of new research institutes has been brought about through the reorganisation of research administration resulting in the establi~hme~t of the Ag~icultural Research Council of Nigeria, and later the National Seience and Technology Development Agency. Such ~d hoc changes are likely to be haphazard since they originate from unrelated events and are cherefore likely to be injurious to research in the long run. The existence of a periodic review machinery, say every five years, should go a long "ray in eliminating much o of the instability in research organisation that has been witnessed over the last fev!years. Such"r-evf.ew could evaluate research in terms of its achievements, problems, resource constraints, and the relevance of its programmes in the"light of current government policies. Furthermore such review would be done on aub-csec tor-a'L: basis". Thus food crops research would be reviewed, so that all insti- tutes dealing with food crops would be evaluated for their effectiveness in raising productivity in food production. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 261 The report of the review should then form the basis for changes in research re-organisation, be it in administra- tion, funding,training of research personnel or the creation of new research institutes as may be necessary. 7.4.2 Research information utilization: The utilization of·research information is the fundamental objective of applied research. In view of its crucial role in raising returns to investments in agricultural research, this item will be dis.cussed in some detail. In Nigeria the utiliza- tion of agricultural research information has been generally poor. It is often claim~d that there is a wide gap between available research knowledge and its applica- tion at the.farmer's level, such gap being attributed to a whoLe r-ange of factors among which are farmers t resistance to change and poor performance by the extension services. Yet/as we have found in this study, the utilization of research knowledge in cocoa production (as evidenced by the high rate of return) has taken place within the same social and institutional framework. If so, it is here suggested that the gap between available research informa- tion and farmers' practice has a more fundamental cause than the reasons that ~re usually advanced. In a recent UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , ! I 262 study,9 for instance, it has been found that the Western Nigeria Cotton Scheme - a sch~me with an integrated research and extension· set-up - failed largely because its research findings were' irrelevant to the farmers' resource 51tuation. Furthermore such findings wer-e usually so rigidly prescribed as to leave the,farmer with only two. options: to accept the findings in its entirety, or to reject. Since the findings wer-e normally out of tune with farmers res~urce situation, they were invariably rp.jected. "How can the utilization of research information be enhanced so as to raise the returns to Lnve strnerrt s in agricultural research? First, research policy must take cognisanceoi the criteria of relevance. Thus research work directed at the traditional farmers must coreeto grips with the issue of farming sys~ems as a framework for introducing improved practices, rather than the present preoccupation ,.l.ith sole-cropping. Secondly , agricultural research in this country has for long been the exclusive pr,eserve. of the .technical scientists. \,Iith increasing :realisation of the need for a multi-disciplinary approach 9 Abidogun, A., Agricultural Research in Nigeria: towards greater relevance for the farm-fi~m~ Journal of . ftural Economics and.Developrnent 11(1),1977, (.inpress) ": .~'. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 263, - to the problems of agricultural production, the economist has recently gained entry. Whilst he is beginning to contribute towards rationalizing research recommendations, for instance by the estimation of production functions from the results of completed experiments,10 he has parti- cipated very little todate in experimental design itself. Yet this is an area in which his involvement could yield the highest dividends in terms of greater acceptability of research r-ecommendat.Lcns, The usuaL approach tc experimental design is to select a few observations (treat- ments) with many replicates on which fun~tional analysis of. variance is then applied to test "signific2nt differences". Such an approach of course results in the kind of all-or- nothing recommendations highlighted above. Analysis based on economic criteria on the other hand requires a good spread of observations to describe a production func- tion surface. This implies a change of emphasis from the traditional question of Ilwhich of the factorsllto "how much of each factor-It. Thirdly, no matter the criteria for its design)results from experimental research, by its controlled nature, are f ! 10 Olayide, S.O. and O. Ogunfowora, Econo~ics of maize response to NPK ap:plicati5o(n1.) BuL'l9et5i=n121o.f ~-:ur81Economics and Sociology., pp. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 264 seldom applicable to work-a-day farming situations. •. Davids~n and Martin11 in an analysis of Australian crop and livestock data have sho~~that farm yields tend to approach experimental yield the more intensive the use of labour in production. For a country like Nigeria in which farm labour is limiting and with ~ittle capital employed in production, this clearly means that the discrepancy between experimental and farm yields would be very high. Erbynn's study on fertilizer experiments in Chana - with largely similar conditions as in Nigeria - showed, for instance that yields were three and four times higher than those found in practice (even vrith fertilizer). 12 Given a differenc~ of such magnitude it is difficult to ignore Candler's suggestion that unadjusted research recomnlenda- tions can only be regarded as untested hypotheses 'that have every chance of being inadequate.13 11 Davidson, B.R. and B.R. Narvti n , The relationship between f~rm and experimental yields. University of ~estern Australia Press, Nedlands. 1967. "., , 12 Erbynn, K.C. IvIaizeresponse surfaces and econ-omic optima in fertilizer use in Volta Region of Ghana. Crops Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Indus- trial Research, Kumasi. Ghana. 1970. 13 Candler, W.V., Produc.tion"economics and problems of animal production. Proceedings of New Zealand Socipty pf Animal Production, 22; 1962. 142-58. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 265 Research. recommendations could be made less hypotheti- cal by subjecting experimental results to a more rigorous do~~-to-earth test and assessment. In this regard the use of I1demonstration farms" as a means of "proving" to the farmers that they could obtain identical results as those of experimental findings is naively question-begging. This is because such demonstration farms teJd to simulate the factor proportions of experimental plots in a single- minded pur-suit of "demonstrating recommended practices". Besides, since they are usually based on sole cropping, they reveal nothing of the effects of n~w practices on existing farming systems and even less of thp.real opportunity costs of new inputs. 'l'hesedifficulties need not arise if the testing bf experimental research findings is recognised as being only another link in the cycle of formulatin~ relevant research priorities, appropriate experimental programmes and design, and the need to establish a reliable basis for an unbiased feed-back. This recognition Lmp'Ld es that no r- experiment is in fact completed until it has re~ched the local farm stage. lhus research programmes should include the siting of field trials on a number of representative farms within identifiable farming systems. Ideally such UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 266 - trials should be run with the operations involved being carried out by the farmer himself as part of his farming routine, research personnel supervising only the technical details in respect of the practices under investigation. The results obtained from such trials will inevitably be less spectacular than those claimed under current arrange- ments, but will obviously provide a set of recommendations far more relevant. 7.4.3 Research ecoDomics and extension: Some previous workers in the field of agricultural research economics have treated research exclusively as a p~ocess of generating new knowledge, presumably on the assumption that once such knowledge becomes available it would automatically be utilized by farmers.14 For developing countries at least this assumption seems nnrealistic, given poor transportation facilities, inadequate communication network and mass illiteracy among the generality of farmers. In the event, the costs of extending research information to farmers are specific costs to research. Hence the approach in this study has been to t-reatresearch and extension-as a system. 14 See for example Griliches, Zvi, Research costs and social returns, hybrid corn and related Lnnova't.i ons , Journal of Political Economy, 66, October 1958. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .' . , / / 267 Failure to see extension as part of the research system is in part responsible for the generally held notion that output in research is unquantifiable. One effect of this is that allocation. of research funds are usually based on non-etonomic criteria, like the size of establi51DTlent,the amount of funds received in the past, or the ability of the representative of the research institu- tion to sway finance administrators at budget meetings. 'I'hisof course results in misallocation of resources. Surprisingly, some economists seem to lend weight to such misallocations, themselves treating research expenditure as sunk costs.15 Given the need to rationalize investment pr-ogr-amme s in terms of benefit-costs criteria, research output will need.to be specified and quan.tified. Certainly for applied agricultural research the logical yardstick for measuring output is the shift in the supply flli~ctionof farm output attributable to the introduction of new varieties, cultiva- tion practices, etc. There is thus a need ";0 adopt a ~stems approach to the treatment of research in ~erms of allocation of resources as well as evaluation. This means 1S Purvis, M.J., Report on a survey of oil palm rehabili- tation in Eastern Nigeria. CSNfll report No. 10, Michigan State Univeisity, 1968 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 268 that the existing arran[,ement under which resource alloca- tions are made separately to research and extension as if both have nothing in common should be reviewed so that any particular research project h~s its extension aspects incorporated into it. This \Villrequire a reorganisation of existing framework, resulting in some form of integra- tion of extension and research activities. In this regard it should be noted that a number of agricultural research institutes have already established an extension arm, usually referred to as Agricultural Extension Research Liaison Services. This seems to have reached it:.;highest develop- ment at the Institute of Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University which has pioneered this innovation right from its inception as an institute. Having been in existence for over fifteen years now an evaluation of its role in enhancing returns to investment in agricultural research may be of great interest to research administrators and policy makers. 7.5 Summary :1'hischapter has been concerned \'lithighlightine; certain policy implications and prescriptions emanating from our findings. The~e include the need for ,reform in UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 269 the areas of research administration, funding, and training 01' research personnel. Among the p.olicyprescriptions made are the-establishment of a machinery for periodic research review, the,need for a new orientation in the formulation, design and execution of research projects with a view to raising the degree of utilization of research information. Finally, in the context of deveLopmerrt pl~rining and resource allocation, a systems approach to the financing of research is advocated such that research and extension are regarded as being related processes in the overe.ll objective of ralsing agricultural productivity, rather than as separate activities-to be financed indepen- dently as seems the case at present. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY -:" " I • ~.' ~I. / 270 CHAPTER VIII SUHMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 8.1 Summary of findings and recomme~dations The gap between developed and developing countries remains as \'Tideas ever in spite of almost two decades of United Nations effort to close the gap through lIaidll .and "t.ecnnf cal assistance. It The hopes of bringing about .a rapid rise in the standard of living ~f these countries have not mater-LaLdsed for a variety of r-easons , An attempt was made to highlight some of these in chapter one, and the conclusion is reached that develcpment in the final analysis has to be internally generated. Furthermore, for many developing countries agriculture represents the Achile's heel of economic development • ..It was suggested that substantial increases iO agricul- tural productivity can only be brought about through technologicai change. The essential ingredients of technological change in terms of policy prescriptions for developing countries were then explored through various studies, among which were those of Solow, Johnson, Griliches UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 271 and Schultz. The connection between research and technological change in developing countries is examined with particular reference to adaptive aspects of agricul- tural research. In chapter two agricultural research in nigeria was critically reviewed through the various stages of its development, starting with the colonial era, through internal self-government and national independence periods! -. to the present post-independence military administration period. Against this background certain key factors that are crucial to an effecient research organisation were ./ highlighted. These include research personnel and administration, research funding and infrastructure, and research information dissemination. A general evaluation of research impe.ct was attempted and it was concluded that research has made virtually no impact on general farming practices, especially in the food farming sector. A number of reasons were identified for the lack of research impact on food production. First, the re}ativ~ abundance and availability of land favours the continua- tion of the traditional shifting cultivation, l~aving no incentive for the adoption of improved practices. Secondly, the commun81 land tenure system is unsuited to present-day requirements for cash crops production since UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY . - 272 the occupier of agricultural land has no incentive to .improve the fertility of the land he is cultivating. Thirdly , agricultural research has not always progressed· evenly on all fronts so that the adoption of an improve- ment in one area of farming may be handicapped by a lack of corresponding innovation in other complementary areas. Fourthly research is frequently directed to problems that may be irrelevant from the farmer's standpoint. Amidst the low productivity level of agricultural research in genera~i cocoa research seems to stand out as an exception. In chapter three cocoa research in Nigeria was reviewed w.Lth particular: reference tc the organisational framework of the West African Cocoa Research Institute and its successor, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria. Some of the factors found to be crucial to the success of cocoa research are the type of organisa- tional set-up, the funding arrangements which guaranteed generous income on a long-term basis, and a virile staff training policy. The impact of research on cocoa produc- tion was examined in terms of development of.new cocoa varietie7 especially the Amazon and the hybrids/and control of cocoa 'pests and diseases. In chapter four, the peculiarities of agricultural research as a public good and the problems of pricing UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .' " 273 from the standpoint of economic welfare theory were -highlighted. In the light of this the conclusion is reached that it is justifiable to run agricultural research on the public account. This was followed by a review of literature on studies dealini with estimates of agricultural research productivity. Among these are the studies by Peterson, Evenson and Kislev, and Griliches. Peterson employed the p~oduction function approach, including research expenditures as an explanatory variable, in a study of returns to poultry research in the United State~. Evenson and Kislev also using the produ~tion function approach adopted paper publications as a measure of research output. One major weakness of the latter study 1s that for applied agricultural research the use of paper publications as output is inappropriate since it assumes that potential users are capable of understanding and adopting the findings published in learned journals. Griliches model using the investment evaluation approach provides a more appropriate technique for estimating returns to research. Peterson also used the same approach in his study. The main weakness of these studies is that extension expenditures were not included as part of the costs of research. This was rectified in the model used in this study by regarding expenditures on cocoa \ . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 274 extension as specific costs to cocoa research. Following the review of literature,jour index-number model under the investment evaluation approach was developed. This consists of a formula for measuring the long-term shifts in the cocoa supply function arising from the adoption -,~ of improved cocoa varieties. Next,another model was , developed under the production function approach , with,' cocoa output as tLe independent variable, while the explanatory variables include area of improved cocoa in production, weather, disease control, ~ and research- plu~-extension expenditures (suitably lagged). / In chapter five our index-number model ~as employed in the empirical estimation of the internal rate of return to cocoa research, using time series data from 1944/45 to 1976/77. This resulted in an estimate of 31 per cent, indicating that between 1944 and 1977 the annual returns to cocoa research has been 37 per cent on the average. As a sensitivity test, the yield difference be-tween improved and unimproved varieties was discounted by half and the internal rate of return on this estimated. A value of 34 per cent was obtained. We.therefore concluded that returns to investment in cocoa research is very hiGh when compared with many development projects. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2'75 An attempt was made in chapter six to estimate the returns to cocoa research using the production runction model described above. The marginal return to cocoa research was r'ound to,be about N20. Converting this to an internal rate of return a value of 42 per cent was obtained. This compores very well with the estimat..:o:f 37 per cent obtained through the index-number model, she .,ing that empirical results from the two approaches are very clo5e. Certain policy implications arising rrom the study were examined in relation to stimulating greater produc- tivity in agricultural research, especially food crops research. These include new'dimensions in research administration, new approach to research funding and d more dynamic staff training policy. Beyond these, certain policy prescriptions were made, which if adopted could result in greater effectiveness in the organisation and conduct of agricultural research., Among these are the need ror periodic research review, the need to treat research and extension as a system, in terms of resource use and planning as well as evaluation. 8.2. Limitations of study The limitations of this study derive from two main sources. The first is in respect of the data. This has UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 276 already been dealt with in details under the various items of data in chapters five and six. In general the limita- tions due to data are 'such as to lead to underestimation of the returns both under the Lndex-riucbe r approach and the production function model. -This is because whenever there was an option between equally reasonable alter- natives, the choice was invariably in favour of the alternative that would result in lower estimate of return. To that extent our estimate of internal rate of return to investment in cocoa research can be rega~ded as a lower bound. The other source of li~itations relates to the assumptions of the production function IIodel in particular vis-a-vis what obtains in practice. First, the assumption of a smooth continuous mathematical function is not applicable, since output of research kno-wledge resulting from research expenditure is a discontinuous process. Thus instead of a smooth continuous curve we have a series .of njumps" • Never·theless, on d conceptual plane, the locus of these jumps over a suffeciently long period vlill form a smooth curve, with the outer vertices fo:r;medby the "steps" representing the points on the curve. To that extent the approach is not inappropriate. Secondly, the production function assumes an instRntaneous relationship UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 277· between·input and outPHt, whereas empirically the relationship had to be measured over time. This is particularly so in this study where the lag between expenditures and research output (in terms of increase in production resulting f'r-om adopt.Lon of research findings) is quite considerable. An attempt to meet this short- coming was made by lagging the research variable as explained in chapter six. All in all, these discrepancies between the assump- tions of the production function and our effipiricalsitua- tion do not seem to be so serious as to render the model unsatisfactory, considering that the internal rate of return obtained through this model is 42 per cent compared with 37 per cent by the ir.tciex-numbemrodel.wh i ch is a more appropriate approach to investment evaluation problems. 8.3 Areas of further research This study has been concerned with the estimation of returns to investnents in cocoa research which is possibly the most successful venture in the whole field of:agricultural research in Nigeria. As a pioneering work in the area of economlcs of agricult.uralresearch in Nigeria, the study has inevitably raised more questions than it has attempted to answer. There is thus an ur-gent; UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 278 " . \ need for more research in this area before a distinct picture of the entire agricultural research situation can begin to emerge. It is suggested,that on basis of priori ty the'questions that require urgent answers are those of an organisational and ad.'ministrative nature. ...~ In this connection the following questions are considered to merit urgent attention' as areas' for further research. ~fuat should be the optimum number of'agricultural research institutes at this stage of Niger~afs socio-eco~omic development? Should agricultural research institutes spec Laf.Lze aLong" commodity lines or on ecological basis? ~lhat should be the upper ,limit in 'thesize of an institute in terms of staffing, considering that many existing research institutes i~ the tradition. of the civil' service tend to be heavily overstaffed? How best can research activities in relevant universi ty :faculties be coordinated ,·Ii th institutes research pr-ogr-amme s? ,Are university~~liated agricultural research institutes , . ~ecessary, or should all research institutes' maintain a semi-autor..OIT1OUsStatus under the t:ational Science / and Technology Development Agency? UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 279 How far should research in food crops go? Should an institute dealing with food crops carry out research in all the fields affecting the crops, including the fields of engineering, food technology, industrial uses, etc.? '.~ What are the real constraints to research in food crops? Has the Agricultural Extension Research Liaison Services (AERLS) approach merits over current extension arrange- ments under the various state ministries of agriculture? ~that should be the role of the ministries of agriculture ./ in the dissemination of agricultural research findings? Conclusions The focus on"this study is to establish the need for an evaluation of investments in agricultural research on the same basis as those of other eccnomic ventures. As has been found in the study the returns to past invest- "ments in cocoa research has been very highv Such high returns suggest gross underinvestment in cocoa research, I and possibly in other areas of agricultural research. The need to correct such an anomaly can only be taken seriously on the strength of empirical studies Of this nature. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 280 Bejond fulfilling the need to rationalize a general impression about the contribution of research to cocoa production by providing quantitative empirical evidence, this study has also attempted to contribute to methodology of investment an31ysis in the special area of agricultural research, with a view to providing the necessary tool for decision-making in resource use and allocation within the agricultural research sector as well as between it and other sectors. Lack of such tool has in the past probably contributed to the use of rather arbitrary criteria for allocating resources to agricultural research, more so as its output unlike those of development projects appears intangible. Given the need to increase resource allocation to J agricultural research (as established by the high returns to cocoa research), an effecient organisational framework will become increasingly important if further investments, particularly in food crop research, are to be beneficial. Yet we are at present ignorant on ~any questions regarding this aspect of agricultural research. Initiating investiga- tions into such areas may well prove invaluable in enhancing the productivity of agricultural research in general • .• UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 281 -,~ / APPENDIX I NIGERI~~ RESEARCH INSTI~JTE ACT, 1964 .-;.: <-: .~.~.: '.. '. :. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY -, 282 A 347 NIGERIAN RESEARCH rNSTlTUTES ACT, 1964 r 0". ARHANGE~!ENT OF SECTlO:">l~ Section 5. Application of Pensjons Act to J. Esthblishment nnd functions of employment in the service o{instituter etc. research insti tu tes. 6. Annual report, ?. Managcmenr of affairs of insti- 7. R'·J;ulatiom. Hites. 8. \\,indiag lip of existinr; research institutes and their committees. 3. Financial provisions. 9. Short title, extent, commence- ment and intcrprcrnrion. 4. Compulsory acquisition of land for institutes. SCIlEl)UI.E--Constitllt;oIlS etc. of the councils . .~....• UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 283 " .... I I i 1964, No. 33 rI I AN Acr TO ESTAIlLlSll RESEARCH INSTITUTES IN RESPECT OF COCOA, COFFEE ANDCOLA, IN RESPECT OF TIlE OIL P:\1.!'-1, IN RESl'ECr OF HUl3BER,AND IN RESPELl" j ! OF TRYl'.""'030:'!IASlS ; TO PROVIDE FOR TIlE THA:\SFER TO TIlO:iE INSTITUTES OF CERTAIN ASSETS A!'1l) U:\lHLlTIES OF EXISTING BODIES (IF ANY) ESTAB- J LISHED FOR SIMILAR PURI'OSH A;\iO FOR TilE Wll'ODING UP OF TlIO"E nODlE" ; I I AND FOR PURPOSES CO"';-';~TTED WITH THE MATTERS A}'ORESAID. I L. . [See section 9 (2)] Commence- I ment.BE IT ENACTED by the Legislature of the Federation of Nigeria I in this present Parliament assembled and by the authority of the same I .as follows :- 1.-{1) There shall be established four bodies corporate by the Establish- following names, that is to say- ment andfunctions (a) the Cocoa Research J nstitute of Nigeria; of research institutes. (b) the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research; (c) the Rubber Research Institute of ~igeria ; and (d) the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomi:1sis Research, i which bodies are hereafter in this Act referred r-. collectively as "theinstitutes" and scverallv as "the Cocoa Jnstiture", "the Oil Palm iI: Institute", "the Rubber institute" and "the Trypanosomiasis Institute"respectively. I, (2) The institutes shall be charged" ith the general duty of under- i' I taking research into and providing information and advice relating to- (0) the production anti products of cocoa, coflce and cob ill the case of the Cocoa Institute; (I» the production ana products of oil palm and of such other palms as the Minister may determine in the case of the Oil Palm Institute; (c) the production and products of rubber; and (d) trypanosomiasis in thc case of the Trypanosomiasis Institute. (3) subject to the following provisions of this section, each of the institutes shall have power to do anything which. in the c~illion of the institute, is calculated to Facilitate the carrying on of the activities of the institute. (4) Except with the prior approval in writing of the Minister, an institute sh311not have power- (0) to incur expenditure outside approved estimates under this I. : Act; or . (b) to borrow money. (5) The Minister may from time to time give to an institute directions of a gen~ral nature in writing with respect to the performance of its functions ; and it shall be the duty of the institute to comply with the directions. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2t34 A 350 1964, No. 33 Nigerian Research. Institutes ;v!anagc- 2.-(!) There shall he established for each institute agovcrning uient of council (hcrcaftcrjn this Act referred to, in relation to the relevant anairs of institutes, institute, as "the council"), and the provisions of the Schedule to this Act shall have effect, so l:lr as applicahlc, will: respect to the constitutions of the councils and the (II her matters there mentioned. (2) The affairs of each institute shall be managed by the council, and references in Ihis Act to the institutes shall be construed accordingly ; and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions of this subsection-e- ' (a) anything falling to be done hy or to an institute shall be done by or to the council on behalf of the institute, or by or to such person acting as the representative of the council as the council may deter- , mine; and ' ,.~;_.... (b) in particular, any contract or instrument which, if made or j: executed by a person not being a body corporate, would not be required to be under seal may be made or executed on behalf of the institute by allY person generally or specially authoriscd to act for " that purpose by the council. "," (3) It shall be the duty of the council of each institute- (a) to prepare a programme of research within the field for which that institute is responsible for such periods of not less than three years as the board may, with the approval of the :'.linistcr determine, together with detailed estimates of the expenditure which will be required to carry out the programme; (b) each year to review, and if necessary revise, the programme approved under paragraph (a) for the following year, together with the estimates of expenditure for that year; r ' ,(c) to submit the programmc~ and estimates of expenditure, and ~ any annual revisions, for approval hy thc Minister ; (d) to carry out the progr:llnmes of research approved by the Minister, (4) There shall be a director for each institute, who shall be appointed by the :'Iinistcr on the advice of the council and shall be a person with wide experience of the matters with which the relevant institute is concerned; and the director shall- (a) be charged with the day to day management of the affairs of the institute in accordance with such instructions as may from time to time be given to him by the council; and (b) hold office, subject to the provisions of section five of this Act, in accordance with the terms of the instrument by which he is appointed (including terms as to the payment of his remuneration by '~' the council), ., Financial 3.--{1) Each of the institutes shall establish and maintain a fund provisions. from which there shall be defrayed all expenditure incurred by the institute. (2) There shall be paid or credited to the fund- (a) such sums out of moneys provided by Parliament as Parlia- I ment may from time to time determine ; f r J .'f; .. ":, '.:. '. t. j" ...- •....~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 285 Nigerian Research institutes 1964, No. 33 A 351 (b) in the case of any institute other than the Trypanosomiasis Institute, such SlIl1lS out of 11l0nl'y~ to be provided hX the legislature of each Region or by the appropriate statutory agency of each Region, in accordance with a formula agreed by the several governments and the government of the Federation; (c) such assets of the relevant institute and committee mentioned in section eight of this Act as arc transferred to the institute in pur- suance of that secriou ; and (es under this Act; and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, regulations may provide for the disciplinary control oyer the stall' of the institute concerned. (2) Regulation,; made under the foregoing subsection shall mor have effect until they are approved by the Minister and have thereafter been published in the c;.l7.ctte. Winding up 8.-(1) The Minister shall by order provide for- of c~i3ting research (0) the winding up of the atlairs of the institutes and committees institutes and established bv the West African Institute for Oil 1\11m Research their com- ACl and the \\'CS! African Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research minecs. Aet respectively; and Caps. 218 and 219. (b) the winding up as respects Nigeria of the affairs of rhc institute and committee n~gubtcd by the West African COCOJ Research No.6oi Institute (Nigerian ::;tatus) Act, 1950, 1950. , - , - . ,". r-o . . ~.~~. .... ; .'., UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 287 NIgerian Research Institutes 1964, No. 33 A 353 and for the transfer of the assets and liahililies of each such institute '. r and committee as aforesaid to the corresponding institute established by this Act; but nothing in this subsection shall be construed as affecting the assets or liabilities of the institute or committee regulated by tile said Act of 11)50 except to thc extent that they arise within Nigeria or by reason of activities carried on or formerly carried on 'within Nigeria. (2) An order made in pursuance of subsection (1) of this section may contain such incidental and supplementary provisions as the t . '\ ·.- Minister considers expedient for the purposes of the order.1 ..~: -. . . i' .. . (3) When it appears to the Minister that the affairs of any institute I' r /' .., , mentioned ill paragraph (1I) or (b) of subsection (1) of this section and f - its committee have been wound up, he shall by order declare the institute J . and committee to be dissolved on such day as may be specified by theorder; and the order- I· (a) shall include provision repealing on that day the enactments I mentioned in subsection (1) of this section so far as they relate to . the institute and committee dissolved by the order; and .r , (b) may include provision repealing or modifying any other enactment relating to that institute or committee to such extent as the Minister considers expedient in consequence of any other provision made by an order under this section. / Short title, '/-, ~ 9.-(1) This Actmay be cited as the Nigerian Research InstitutesAct, 1964, and shall apply throughout the Federation. extent, com- I mencementand interpre- , ,If (2) This Act shall come into force on such day as the Minister tation. I may by order appoint, and a different day may be appointed in pur-suance of this subsection in relation to each of the institutes. I (3) In this Act "the Minister" mcane+- J . : ~.". . . (0) in relation to institutes other than the Trypanosomiasis Institute,the Minister of the government of the Federation responsible for , agricultural research; and .' (b) in relation to the Trypanosomlasls Institute, the Minister of the government of the Federation responsible for veterinary re- search. ~'.:'.. . ': ~. • "I" '. .. ~ .. ....:; ,',: .. ", '"':" • "I,: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 288 A 354 1964. No. 33 Nigerian Research Institutes .Sectlon 2 SCHEDULE ., Constitutions etc. of the councils Membership of the councils ·1.-(1) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the council of the Cocoa Institute shall consist of eleven members anti cornprise+- (a) two persons appointed by the l\1inister. (b) the director of the institute; (e) five persons appointed by the Government of Western Nigeria; ..(d) one pcr~on appointed by the Government of Eastern Nigeria; . , . .(e) one persoll appointed by the Government of Northern Nigeria; (j) one person appointed bv the Government of Mid-Western Nigeria; " , ., . (2) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the council of the Oil Palm Institute shall consist of ten members and comprise-- (a) two persons appointed by the Minister, (b) the director of the institute; (e) one person appointed by the Government of Western Nigeria; (d)' four persolls appointed by the Government of Eastern Nigeria; . (e) one person appointed by the Government of Northern Nigeria; (j) one person appointed by the Government of Mid-Western Nigeria. (3) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the council of the Rubber Institute shall consist of ten members and comprise- (a) two persons appointed by the Minister. (h) the director of the institute; (c) one person appointed by. the Government of Western Nigeria; (d) one person appointed by the Goyernmellt of Eastern Nigeria; (l) one person appointed by the Government of Northern Nigeria; (() four persons appointed by the Government of Mid-Western Nigeria. (4) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the council of the Trypanosomiaeis I nstitute shall consist of eleven members and com- prise-- (0) five persons appointed by the Minister • . (b) the director of the institute; (c) one person appointed by the Government of \Vestern Nigeria; (d) one person appointed by the Government of Eastern Nigeria; (e) two persons appointed by the Government of Northern Nigeria; (f) one person appointcd by the Government of Mid-Western Nigeria. (5) If the Minister responsible for a particular institute is satisfied that persons who are not members ought, by reason of their experience. or professional competence to be admitted to membership he may, . by notice in the Gazette, appoint as additional members not more than five persons so qualified; and an)' perso:) so appointed under this sub-paragraph may attend all meetings and take part in any deliberations of the council, but shall not be entitled to vote thereat. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ...•. , 289 .,, . I.:' Nigerian Research Institutes 1964, No. 33 A 355 Tenure of office of mrmbers '. i 2.-(1) Subject to the provisions of this paragraph, a member of a council shall hold office for the period of five YC:.lnl beginning-c- (a) in the case of ;l member appointed to fill a vacancy which has not previously been filled, with the day when this Act comes into force as respects the relevant institute; . (b) in any other case, with the day next following that on which the term of office of his predecessor expires by the efiluxion of time or, where the predecessor has previously vacated ofiice, on which it would have so expired. . (2) With a view to securing the retirement in rotation of members . ,~ appointed as additional members of each council, the Minister may by order provide that the term of office of any three of such members shall be such shorter period as the Minister may from time to time approve, but not less in any particular case than three years. (3) Wher ; a member ceases to hold office at a time when more than three months of his term of office remain unexpired, the authority who appointed him shall as soon as may be appoint a successor who shall, •subject to the following provisions of this paragraph, hold office for the residue of that term. (4) Without prejudice to the provisions of section eleven of the Interpretation Act. 19M (which, among other things. provides for the 19G4. No. 1. removal of appointees by the persons who appointed them), a member of the council shall cease to hold office if he resigns his oflice by a notice in writing signed by him and served on the Minister. ,', r (5) A person who ce.1SCSto hold office as a member of a council [ shall be eligible for reappointment as such a member. , ,' (6) References in the foregoing provisions of this paragraph toj members of a council do not include references to the director of the . f relevant institute. i Proceedings of councils r ! 3. Subject to the provisions of this Act and of section twenty-six ',t, of the Interpretation Act, 1964 (which provides for decisions of a I statutory body to be taken by a majority of its members and for thechairman to have a second or casting vote), each council may make t standing orders regulating the proceedings of the council or any com-mittee thereof. t 4. The quorum of the council shall be five provided that at the • I i meeting there are at least two members present to represent ot her f \" ,~' governments on the council; and the quorum of any committee of a r council shall be determined by the council.t 5.-(1) The Minister after consultation with the Regional Govern- ments shall appoint the chairman of a council from among its members and every council of its own motion shall elect some other member to be the deputy chairman of the council; so however that notwithstanding , the period for which the appointment or election is to have effect, if a chairman or deputy chairman ceases to be a member of the council he shall cease to hold the office to which he was so appointed or elected as the case may be. . ..' ,. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 290 A 356 1964, No. 33 Nigerian Research Institutes (2) At any time while the office of chairman is vacant or the chair- man is in the opinion of the council permanently or temporarily unable to perform the functions of his office, the deputy-chairman shall perform those functions, and references in this Schedule to the chairman shall be construed accordingly. 6.-(1) Subject to the provisions of its standing orders, a council shall meet whenever it is summoned by the chairman; and if the chair- man is required so to do by notice giVt!l1 to him by not less than four members of the council he shall summon a rneetinv of the council to be held within twenty-eight days from the date, on \\ hieh the notice is given. If the chairman fails to summon any meeting when so required, the Minister in Ius discretion may exercise such power. (2) At any meeting of a council the chairman or in his absence the deputy-chairman shall preside, but if both are absent the members present at the meeting shall elect one of their number to preside at that meeting. • (3) 'Where a council desires to obtain the advice of any person on a particular matter the council may co-opt him as a member for such period as it thinks tit ; but a pcrson who is a member by virtue of this subparagraph shall not be entitled to vote at any meeting of the council and shall not count towards a quorum. (4) Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this paragraph, the first mcctiug of each council shall he summoned by the Minister, who f",:ly give such directions as he thinks fit as to the member who shall preside and the procedure which shall be followed at that meeting. Committees 7.-{1) Each council may appoint one or more committees to carry out, on behalf of the council, such of its functions as the council may determine. ~;. , (2) A committee appointed under this paragraph shall consist of the number of persons determined by the council, and a persall other than a member of the council shall hold office on the committee in accordance with the terms of the instrument by which he is appointed. (3) A decision of a committee appointed under this paragraph shall be of no effect until it is confirmed by the council. Officers and servants 8. Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (3) of section one of this Act but subject to subsections (4) and (5) of that section, each council shall have power- (0) to appoint such officers and servants of the institute as the -council may determine; and (b) to pay to any officers and servants of the institute such remune- - ration as the council may determine. ... UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ,'!, 291 """ r~~" '- " ; -. "'~,I:' "" " Nigerian Research Institutes 1964. No. 33 A 357 . , ' r , .•• "7-'" :..-_----""""""'------------- _ Miscellaneous 9. Standing orders made by a council may provide for the payment to any member of the councilor other person appointed to a committee of the council of such travelling and subsistence allowances in respect of any periods spent 011 the business of the council as the council may determine; but, notwithstanding anything in secrisn one of this Act, no other remuneration shall be paid by the council to any such member or other person. <, ' lO.-{l) The fixing of the seal of each institute shall be authcnti- cated by the signature of the director or of some other member of the council authoriscd generally or specially by the council to act for that ...... : purpose. (2) Any document purporting to be a document duly executed under the seal of an institute sl.all be received in evidence and shall, , unless the contrary is proved, be deemed to he so executed, , "; 11. The validity of a:1Y proceedings of a council or a committee thereof shall not be affected by any vacancy in the membership of the councilor committee, or by any defect in the appointment of a member , , of the council or of a person to serve on the committee, or by reason that a person not entitled to do so took part in the: proceedings. '\' < 12 Any member of a council or of a committee of a council who has a personal interest in any contract or arrangerncrv entered into or pro- posed to be considered by the councilor a committee thereof shall ~ forthwith disclose his interest to the council and shall not vote on anv, question rcl"ting to the contract or arrangement. • I I:' ~ " I ',' ..' ". "~ .. '" '.' "". ; I ., PUllLlSllED BY J\UTIIOHITY O}' TilE FH)ER.~L GOVt-:ll;\;ME-;T OF NIGF.R£.••A)'-n PIlll'n:D r,"/· I BY THE l\1l~1~11\YOF INFOn~1.\T10N, PRll'TING 1)1'11510:-1, Lxcos. '" ;0' .~-~.. ' .' -. "," ., ,..;1 .' ' •••• :.:'. I , ..... ':::" . ";..."',:';. t.,,·... '. =r,' . r', UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - 292 - APPENDIX II THE AGRICU~TURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF NIGERIA DECREE 1971 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 293 I , I'· .i A 111 V THE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF NIGERIA DECREE 19.71 ,'1, ,'\.~. ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS Section ; 1; Establishment of tlu- :\gt icultural 10. Sccretarv and othcr officers of the Research Council of Nigeria. Count:i!. 2 •. Functions of t.ic Council. 11. Application of °cnsions Act toofficers of the Council, 3. Membership of thc Council. t 2. Ofli.:cs and premises. 4. Tenure of office of Chuirmau and 13. Power to accept gifts. members. 14. Financial pro\"i,~ions. 5: Travelling and subsistence allowances. 1 S. Report on rhe activ ities of theCouncil. 6. Temporary appointments. 16. Compulsory acquisition of ImJ. 7. Power of certain persons II) attend ,/17. Regulations. mcNi·.gs of Council. lit Iutcrprct.uion. S. Proceedings of the Council, 19. Citation, extent and 'CU!l1m~nCt:· 9. Committees of the Council, ment. Decree No. 25 [See section 19(2)] Commence- ment. THE FEDERAL :\11UTAH. Y GOVERN i\IE;-";T hereby decrees as follows ;-- '. , 1~~(1) There IS hereby established a body to be known as the Establi,:l- Agricultural Research Council of :\'igeria (in this Decree referred to as rncnr of the "the Council") which shall have the functions assigned to it by this Decree Auricul-rural and which shall be a RCS<:i1fCh Council for the purposes of thc Nigerian Research Council for Science and Technology Decree 1970. Council of \,... (2) The Council shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and Nigeria. .. 1970 ;-":0. 6.a common seal. ./' . 2. The functions of the Council shall be- Functions (n) to advise the ~igcriall Council for Science and Technology and of theCouncil. through it the Federal Military Government and the State governments on national science policy and financial requirements for the implementation of such policy in respect of research and training in (h,- a.r::ricllltural sciences and the application of the results of such research and training to promote the national economy; (b) to ensure the implementation of national science policy laid down by the Nigerian Council for Science and Techuolouy in respect of research • and training in the agrindtural sciences; I',' -,. . . ~. ~4~::_. .." UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 294 A 112 1971 No. 25 Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria .r. (e) to survey and maintain an up-to-date record of all the existing facilities and personnel for research and training in the agricultural sciences throughout Nigeria and advise- the Nigerian Council for Science and Technology and through it the Federal 1\ lilitury Government and the State govcmmcnts 011 their adequacy and efficient utilization in the interest of thc national economy ; (d) to co-ordinate the research and training carried on by institutions mentioned in paragraph (c) above and to allocate priorities to them in accordance with the policy bid down by the Nigerian Council for Science and Technology; (e) to advise the Nigerian Council for t>cience and Technology, and through it the Federal :'IIilitary Government and the State Governments on such organisational changes, including the establishment of institutes, as are required to implement or further the efficiency of research in the agricultural sciences, and to bring under the aegis of the Counci' such institutes as may from time to time be agreed by the Federal Military Government or, as the C:lSC may be, the State Governments: (j) to encourage gt.'neral education in the agricultural sciences and to sponsor the training of post-graduate students for research work; (g) to publish or sponsor the publication of the results of research and training in the agricultural sciences particularly in relation to Nigerian problems and to popularise such results where their general recognition is, in the Council's oyiuion. of national importance; (h) to encourage and promote collaboration between those engaged in . research in the agricultural sciences in Nigeria and those so engaged in other countries; . (i) to carry out such other activities as may, in the opinion of the Council. further the advancement of research and training in the agricultural ~m~. . Member- 3.-(1) The Council shall, subject to subsection (4-) below consist of ship of the Council. twenty-two members as follo\\'s-- (a) a Chairman who must be a person of distinction in one or more of the agricultural sciences and who shall be appointed by the Federal Executive Council on the recommendation of the Commissioner; (b) one member chosen from amongst the Directors of the Federal Departments of Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fisheries and Meteorology: (c) one member representing each State in the Federation such member being an Agriculturist, Ycterinarian or Forester in the service of the government of the State concerned ; (d) six scientists from the universities in Nigeria chosen from the faculties of Agriculture, Veterinary Sciencc .and Forestry of such universities; and (e) two persons with extensive technical knowledge of and close associa- lion with the development of the agricultural sciences, (2) All appointments under paragraphs (b) to (e) of subsection (I) above shall be made hy the Commissioner, (3) The Commissioner shall, in appointing members under paragraph (c) of subsection (1) above, give prcfereL.:£ to the most senior Agriculturist, Veterinarian or Forester in thc service of the government of the State COIl- cerned but may appoint another person who is not the most senior (but who is UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 29$ A,t:ricu/Ilira/ Rcscar •.h Council of Nigeria 1971 No. 25 A 113 otherwise qualified under IlJr;lgr;lph (c) as aforesaid) if the Commissioner is satisfied that it is nvccss.uv to do so ill order to maintuin a proper balance of the diflercnt professions Oil the Council. (04-) The Federal Eseclltiyl' Council may by notice in the Gazette increase or reduce the membership ,If the Council. ' 4.-{ I) Subject to the provisions of this section, a person appointed as Tenure of Chairman of the Councilor ;IS a member thereof shall hold office for a period ot1ice of of three years from thcxlat e of his appointment and shall he c1i~iblc for Cha irrnunand re-appointment for one further period of three ~'cars ; thereafter he shall no members. longer be eligihle for re-appointment : Provided that nothinn in this subsection shall be construed as entitlirig " any person who 11:1'; held oflice as Chairman for a term and who is being re-appointed under this section to he appointed again as Chairman, (2) The Federal Executive Council may at any time remove the Chair- man from his office and if so removed the Chairman shall cease to he a member of the COIIIlcil. (3) The Chairman mav re,;ign his appointment by a. letter addressed to the Secretary to the Federal ?II iliiary Government anti the resignation shall have effect from the date of the receipt of the kiter by the Secretary to the Federal Military Government. (4) A member other t han the Chairman mav resign his office hy a letter addressed to tilt: Comruis-.ioner and that member's resiznation shall have effect as from the date of tht' receipt of the letter by the Commissioner. (5) The foregoing provisions of this section shall :>ewithout prejudice to the provisions of section 11 of the Interpretation Act 1964 relating to 1%4 :-\0, 1. appointment. 5. There shall be paid to every member of the Council, out of the T'ravelliru; moneys at the disposal of the Council, such tru n~lljng and subsistence and subsis- allow anccs in respect of any periods spent on the business of the Council as tenceullowancvv. the Commissioner rnav determine, but no other remuneration shall be paid to any member of the C:oullcil. 6.-{t) The Federal Executive Council may, on the recommendation Tcmporarv of the Commissioner, appoint a person to act in the place of the Chairman appoint- rncnrs. during a long absence or dllfing the temporary incapacity from illness of the Chairman; and that person while so acting may exercise all the functions of the Chairman under this Decree. (2) The Corn;ni:;sioner /l1~y appoint any per,;oll to be a temporary member during a long- absence or during the temporary incapacity from illness of any rr.ernher : and that person, while the appointment subsists, \... ,.' may exercise all the functions of a member under this DCCTee. 7. The following persons, that is to say- Power of (a) the Permanent Secretary, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and certain persons to Natural Resources, or his representative, attend (b) not more than two members of the Nigerian Council for Science and mcerirurs of Technology, and Councu. (c) any'of the Directors of 'Federal Departments of Agriculture, Live- stock, Forestry, Fisheries and Meteorology not appointed a member of the / Council under paragraph (h) of section 3 (1) of this Decree, may attend any mee,ting ~f the Counc:~:::yd may take part in its deliberations but shall not be entitled to vote, "", UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 296 A 114 1971 No. 25 .·l.;;r/ndfllra! Rescarcb Council of ""igeria Proceed- 8.--· (1) Subject to the prov isions of section 26 of the' Interpretation in~~ of the Coull"il, Act I~1(14(\\ hich prO\ ides for dccisiou« of a statutorv body to he taken by a J 96.• !'-III. 1. majority (It its mcmlx-rs and f(lr the chairman to li.ivc a second or casting vote), the Council Illay ruake standing orders regulating the proceedings of the Council or ;Ill~ conuuit tcc thvt cof. . (2) The quorum of till' Council shall be t cn, and the quorum of anv committee of t hc Council shall he dct crrnincd by the Council. . (3) The \'alidity of any proccrcliugs of the Councilor of its committees sha 1I not he a rl'l'('t ni - (il) by any \';JC;lJ!cy in the membership of the Councilor any such .,~ committee; (h) by any defect ill the appoiutmeut of any such member; (c) h~ reason of the fact that any person not entitled to do so took part in the pfl\ct'l'dillg~, (4) All) member of the Councilor allY committee thereof who has a personal interest in :Hly contract or arr;\ngel1lcllt entered into 01 proposed to be considered bv the Council or ;111\ committee thereof shall forthwith declare l.is iuterest to tite Council and ~hall not vot c on any question relating to the coutr.ict or arr.mgvrueru. (5) The Council shall meet not lc-s than twice in each year and on such other occasion" as may he nen'~";lr,\', (6) The sccrcrary shull atll'nd n1el'tings of the Council but shall not be entitled to "01:'. l.'('aur;it~ 9.·-(1) T;ll' Council "iJ.t11 appoint it cummittcc each for agriculture, tees 01' rhc Counc.'. vctcrin.uv sci (';'>('1.' , forcst rv, fisheries aud manp(]wt'(' training; and, without prejudice to the fOI't'goinl!, the Council 11l;1\' appoint such other standing, steering :lnd ad hoc committees ;IS the Council thinks fit to carry out, consider and report on any matter with which the Council i~concerned, (2) The Council "h;dl appoint OIIC of its members to be chairman of any committee appointed under this section. (3) .\ committee appointed under this section mal' include persons who ar e Hot members of t lu: Couucil ; aud if such members arc appointed or co-nptc.l on the' committee. they Illay t.rkc part ill the deliberations thereof but shall not be c-ntitlcd ,(l \'CHC thereon. Sccreturv 10.-,(1) The Council shall appoint a secretary to manage the affairs of and olh,~r the Council under its direction. officers oi the Council. r~)The Council 111.1~ appoint Stich other persons to he officers and servants of the Council as the Council mav determine to assist the secretary in the exercise of his function;;,' • (3) Tilt, remuneration and tenure of office and conditions of service of .:: the sccretarv and other Iltiil'<'rs .uid servants of the Council shall be as deter- mined by the Council with the approval of the Federal Commissioner for Esrab Iishrncn t s. Aprdicat.on 11.- .. t1) The Fvdcr.i! Commissioner for E"t<1.hlishm,(:\\. - =~h'll Q,'~II of Pc nsicns k:l\~\'\'C m ~-e ~r:\7,""'\ \:' (\cc'hn~'fhe offlcl' of fhe sccrcturv of the Counci! or . ct \(' "W,- cers oi II1\' of anv pt.'rs()11 l'nll'\OYl'c\ b~' the Council to he it pensionable oRicl' for the COUIlCIL purposes of the Pcnsiou« Act. Cup. 1-17, (2) Subject to subsections (3) and (4) below. the Pensions Act shall, in its upplicatio» b\' virtue of' the foregoing subsection to any office, have 1 ')(,,1 effect as if the ollicc \\'L'Il: ill the public service of the Federation within ihc x«, 211. meaning of the Const itut ion of the Fcdcrat ion. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 297 Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria 1971 No. 2S A 115 (3) For the purposes of the application of the provisions of the Pensions Act in uccord.mcc with subsection (2) al!()\,e- - (0) paragraph (I) of section 7 of that Act (which confers Oil the Com- missioner power to waive the requireme-nt to ~iVt! notice of desire to retire at the age of Iortv-Iivc) shall have ell,'l't as if for the references to the Commissioner there were substituted references to the Council; and (b) the power under section I) (1) of the Act to require an otliccr to retire at allY time :1fl,'r attaining the agl' of forty-five shall be exercisable by the Council and 110t by any other authority, (4-) ~()thill~ in t he foregoing provisions shall prevent the appointment of a person tu any otlicc on terms which preclude the grant of a pension or gratuity in respect of service in that office. 12.· -(1) Fur the purpose of providing offices and premises necessary Offices and for the performance of its functions, the Council may··-- premises. (n) purchase or take 011 h'a~(' any land, and (") huild, equip and maintain offices and premises. (2) The Council may sell 01' lease any laud, offices or premises held hy it and no longer required for the performance of its functions. 13.-(1) The Council may accept gifts of land, money or other property, Power to upon such trusts and conditions. jf any, as may be specified by the person accept gifts. making the gift. (2) TIn' Council shall not accept any gift jf the conditions attached hy the person llI'lking the t:ift to the acceptance thereof .• .:~ . \.\ .t:' 't, •:' .:: ..", -,,, • .',1 ';.: .... 0 to' ::~ I 30 '.:::~":'; . .. -.,' ..;.~.".,' 1",," ......•. ' ,••. 1'.' : '. ~.~';.: r,. ••••. - . '. ~....• , I ~.: r' ~ . >",' :,:. Supplemonf to Official Gazette No. 46, Vol. 60, ":l1l September, 197J.-Part A A. 599 .l·r. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES DECREE 1973 .-' ....... ...... ( .. .l' .. :1'- ....• "'. . ,. ..• . .:.'. ':.'~ ..~. .'" , '.,'-: .~,..' ARRANGEMENT 01:' SECTIONS -. Section .". -; r>: Establishment and ·Jl1anagement of -. S. Power of ddcgntion by Council.( ) <, -: Researcl: Institutes 9. Regulatiorn. , ~I • .r 1. Power '0 establish research : .., . institutes. . Finardal Prooisious . ..... 2. Status of institutes, etc. 10. Financial Provisions, 3: Duties of boards. 11. Power to beerowmoney, . 1.-{1) The Commissioner may, on the advice of the Agricultural Power to Research Council of Nigeria (in this Decree hereafter referred to as "the estaolishresearch Council") and the Nigerian Council for Science and Technology, by order institutes. .:...,, .establish institutes to conduct research and training in :my field of- (a) .....Agriculture, •• ~ .. " . (b) Veterinary Science,·' .. ' • (c) Fisheries, .;..' ,. "" ;.' " . (d) Forestry, and . ..~. . ~ \. .~ .: ..... -, ~,. (c) Agro.meteorology and water resources, I for tbe purposcs of the Agricultural Research Councilcf Nigcria Decree 1971. 1971 No. 25,, .' ~2) An order establishing an institute under this section :>11:111 not come1 into iorce until it has been approved by the Federal Ezccutive Council. I . :. '.~, ~.:.1,1': . . (3) An order establishing an institute under this section may contain supplementary or incidental provisions consistent ,-,:j6 this D~CiCC relating to the establishment of the institute, including, without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power:;, provisions fnf-- .. ;;:.'.,,; (a) the designation of the institute; <>: r .: .." . (b). the matter on which the iu:;titute is to condoct research, including !r:untng where appropriate; , ... '.. .. . . ..' ~.~: \. '~.' .' ; .:;~>.~:;'~"':. ' ~ !, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY : ... ; ••_., •• :, ••.• 1, . "",' . .•.•. t'l·'.. j :j 301 .. 'I' ,'\ ." ••;.f. ~ . :,',. ~. .' " J ;:, ··\'~/·:': "", .:' ••~ I .:-: ,.,' 'f::-: ';.I' :~ ... ,- .':::.'.' . ,.-, ," .' :.".'~ , -/':.~' .- :". ' A 600 lQ73 No. 35 Agricultural Researrt- ,T,rs!itutts : .. . (c) the transfer-to the institute (If any existing Federal or State Research Statton or other assets bdongin~ to any existing Federal or State research department (If institute; (d) the establishment, constitution, and proceedings of a governing board to manage the affairs of the institute; , (e) a suitable association or other form of rclationshio of the institute with any university or institution of higher learning in Nignia ; and ,964No.33. '. (f) the repeal of the Nigerian Research Institutes Act of 1964 in respect .•.. of any institute established under that Act, if the assets of such institutes .. are transferred to a new institute in pu:suance of paragraph (c) of this' subsection.,;' ......', ',.1 Status of institutes, '.2.-(1) Any institute shall be a bOGY corporate with perpetual successi(JI1· de. and a common seal and nuy sue or L.! sued in its corporate na-nc. '. (2) The application of the seal of each of the institutes shall be authenti- ,cated by two signatures, namcly-s- (a) the signature of the Chairman or some other member of the board • authoriscd by the inst itute to authenticate the application of the seal; and (b) the director of the institute or officer authoriscd by the institute to act in his place for this purpose. (3) Any instrument or contract which, if executed or entered into by a person other than a body corporate, would not require to be under seal, may be executed or entered into on behalf of an institute by the Chairman or , by the director or such other members or servants of the institute as may be'. -": ~.( appointed to act in their place. . Duties of 3. It shall be the duty of the board of each institutc- boards, (0) to prepare a pror:ramme of research within the field for which the institute is responsible for such periods, not Jess than three years, as the board, with the approval of the Council, may determine. together with detailed estimates of the expenditure which will be required tv carry out '!I,' ':',::- ,; ••:-~,.: the Vl'ogramme; .' I' I· .- ~ (b) to review, and if necessary revise, each year the programme approvedi ." " under paragraph (tl) above for the following y(~ar, together with the \ I :1 estimates of expenditure for that year ;'. (c) to submit the programme ami estimates of eXf>:;nditiJre and "ny . t.· annual revisions for approval by the Council; 'I 'I (d) to carry out the programme of research approved by the Council; ,I I I (e) to arrange for the preparation of annual reports \);1 the progress of 'i '~." the work of the institute and the submission of such' reports to the Council; .i ~d . ,'. ,", (1) to make suitable arrangemcr.tsfor the application of the results of .,', 'f the work of the institute by the extension service's of those States in which such results can be applied'. . Powers of , 4.-(1) Subject to the provisions of this Decree, any such institute shall .Institut~:s. have power to do anYlhing and to. enter into any transaction which in its' opinion ought to be done in the proper discharge of its functions. (2) Each of the institutes shall, in particular, and without prejudice to .1'" , .•'. the generality of the foregoing pow.;:r, have power to :\cq\Jir~ and hold land'.;,,., .:: :and property. ' , : . .." ; .. . of',' ~. '",~. :. . ... '. . ;,'.:':: " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ._ •. "_.e ..•.••.....•.••• _ •• ~ ••. i 302 ,, .I , Agricultural Research Institutes 1973 No. 3S A 601 (3) For the purpose of the Public Lands Acquisition Act the purposes of Clip. 167. an institute shall be public purposes of the Federation within the meaning of that Act. S. The board of each of the institutes may appoint Committees and Committees delegate to them any of its functions other than :my function affecting the of hoards. constitution of the hoard and its committees. 6. There shall be as director for each, of the institutes such person Directors of appointed by the Council, who shall be a person with wide experience of the institutes. , matters with which the relevant institute is concerned; and the director shall-(0) be charged with the day to day management of the affuirs of the '\ institute in accordance with such instructions as may from' time to time I be given to him by the institute; and I I (b) hold office on such terms and conditions as the Council may deter-mine. ' I Staff I 7. The Council may appoint such officers and servants as are deemed Employment necessary for the proper disch irgc of the functions of an institute under this of officers I and servants,Decree upon such terms and conditions of service as the Council may I, determine : , I . Provided that the rates and scales of salary and other emoluments,.'I relating to any such appointment or employment shall be comparable withI ,•. those prcvaitmg in Nigerian universities .8. The Council may delegate to the hoard of the institute its power Power of under section 7 of this Decree to appoint officers and servants of the institute, de!cr;:ttion I by Council.subject to such conditions and restrictions as it may deem fit to impose.9.-(1) The board of each of the institutes may make regulations fur its Regulations. purposes under this Decree; and, without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, the rc;:;ulations m:ly provide for the disciplinar y control over the staff of the institute concerned, (2) The regulations made under the foregoing subsection shall not have effect until they have been approved by the Council. Financial Provisions 1O.-(1) Each of the institutes shall establish and maintain a fund from Financial which there shall be defrayed all expenditure incurred by the institute, provisions, (2) There shall be paid or credited to the fund- (a) such sums of money provided by the Federal and State Governments and their agencies as the Council may allocate to the institute ; .. (b) such assets of the relevant research departments and institutes as i I may be transferred to the institute in pursuance (If this Decree; and 'j I (c) all other assets from time to time accruing to the institute. , ,(3) The fund shall be m.inagcd in accordance with rules made by the , Council with the joint approval of the Commissioner and the Federal Commissioner for Finance ; and without prejudice to the generality of the power (0 make rules conferred by this subsection, the rules shall, ill particular, include provlsions=- ' (a) specifying the manner in which the assets (If the fund arc to be held ';'" ", and regulating the making of payments to anti from the fund; ,j , iI . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ( .. • • •,1·_.. .......:. ...'-" I 303 A 602 lQ73 No. 35 Agricultural Research lnstltutes (b) requiring the keeping of proper accounts and records for the purpose of the fund in such form as may be specified by the rules; . . (c) for securing that the accounts are audited annznlly by an auditor ,. approved by the Council; ! (d) requiring copies of the accounts and of the audit report on them to be forwarded to the Council not later than three months following the end of the period to which the accounts relate .. Power to borrow 11. Each of the institutes may borrow or lend fit·ney only with the money. approval of the Council. . s Miscellaneous .~ Disposal of fund, etc. of 12. Where an institute is dissolved hy reason of the revocation of an . "~ an institute order establishing such institute, any balance of the fund of the institute and on all other property 0i the institute remaining at the date' of tne revocation dissolution. shall be disposed of and applied as may be approved by th:Commissioner. Inter- pretation. '13. In this Decree, unless the context otherwise rccuires, the followingexpressions have the meanings hereby assigned to them respectively, that is to say- . 'board' in relation to an institute means the beard established to manage the institut e in accordance with any order made under section 1 of this Decree establishing such institute ; 'Conunissioner' means the Federal Commissioner for Agriculture and Natural Resources; 'Council' means the Agricultural Research Council (!{Nigeria ; 'institute' means an institute established by an order made under section 1 of this Decree, Citation. 14. This Decree may be cited as the Agricultural Research Institutes Decree 1973. l\UDE at Lagos this 27th day of August 1973. GENERAL Y. GOWON, . Head of the Federal }Jili/ary Gocernment, Commander-in-Chicle! the Armed Forces, .r ... Federal R(f>u~iic of Nigeria ~ ,. . EXPLhNATOHY NOTE (This note d~s not form part of tlie abooe Decree b:t is inte.tdcd . . . :. to explain its purport) The Decree empowers the Federal Cornrnissionce for.Agriculture and Natural Resources, OIl the advice of the Agricuh 1H2! Research Council of Nigeria and the Nigerian Council for Science and Tcehnology, to establish , . institutes to conduct research anti traininj; into the fields of agriculture, veterinary science, fisheries, forestry, agro-ructcorologj' and water resources by order. I PUlll.ISIlFO DY AUTHORrTY Of THE FEI1I:""''' IVill.nAIl\, G()".t~I;N~IE~lT OF NIGEHlAANI) PIUNTEO UY T!lI: !\IL'IISTIlY 01' 11'~·ol\~!~1'\ONl'lt.l:-ll,,'iG 1)1\'1510.'1. LAGOS ", . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 304 APPENDIX IV ./ AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES DECREE 1973 Research Institutes (Establishment, etc.) Order 1975 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .; ..... ~'''l , ) .I 30,5 'I>:"~..,; ".' ..~. D 30?. " , j. .': . !'\-l-I.'.p.-l-"-l1-'l-~n-l--10-1-O.ll~ki'l"I Ga:ft'"c No. 61, V"I: (,2, 11th December, 197'5.=: ..•. •.. --- -------. -------.,...,....~-:lr-t!-1~ ,.' .....~. 1..~. i07 of 1975 '. :.' -v," ~ : 'I . -' •.~',... AGRICUL TUR.\L RESEARCH (r-;ST1'l':l1.1:1\~ DI~CREE J9'iJ ",';': L..•~. (11}73 Nil, ~5) Research Institutes [Estubl lsh m ent, etc.) Order 1975 . Commcncemm! : 1st Nm'Nuher 11)75· In cxrrci,,(' of Inc- powers t'olll{crrt,tI on rno by eectton 1 of the Ar,ricultur ••l Ih·~.•·•r c h In,litulo'o; I>.'l·re<' 197J. and of "II orh cr powers 1'lIablinl~ trre i.n.th:!l "dull', I. Ilt-rn"ru OI!lH'n('li.onlc \\,illi;llll Mllf,'ai. Federal Co m m ivs io n cr' for ,\cri,'ulture :tnd Hut .•1 l)evclol'mc:nt. hen'by m ak e tho {ulluwin:: Order :._- .: l. --( 1) Tbcre .irv h"ll'h~' c;t;\bli~hl'd H,,~t'an:h Insu: IIh'$ (h -:reinaftcr in Estahlish· . ,"", Or-II'" referred 1\1.1" "rhe institutes") dl'"i~.n;,tl'd:l$ fl.II,,\\':,- :-- mcnr of :he Rcse arrh '.; (II} The CO~''';\ Research Insritut« of ;\i~cri3, In"tilllt:~. {It> The Forestrv HC~CHCh Institute of j\ignia, ! ..• (r) The Kainji LJk c Research I ustitutc, . "'r , . (d) The 'Lakt, ChaJ Research r nstitute, (~l The Leather Research Institute of Nigeria, (f) The N,l:itlllaJ .\!~ill;,,1Production Research Institute, ..-; .~.~)The ~'b:i,'nal Cernl" Rcse.irch Institute. V'!) The ~Jtjtl!1al Horticultural RCSl'JIl."h I nstitute, {i) The .!'::tt::IIlJI" Root Crol''' Research Institute, (j) The Natil,p:"1 \'dt-rin::ry Research Institure, (k) 'I'llc, :\igeri;lll In .s.t itutc for Occ.mopraphy ;lOJ i\briM Research, t·t) The ~igeri;lJl lustitu;e for Oil Palm Research, (m) The ~ignian )»stitute for Trypanosomiasis Research, and . '.' (n) The Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria. (:!\ The institutes "h;)11 be research institutes [or the pl\rp{l5~S of the 1973 xs. ~5. :\~ri('ull:lr,l! Rcscorch Institutes Decree II),] and shall, except in the ":;I$t' l~( the :"\.I:illl.,11 '\;li:I;;I1 Production Research Institute, be subject to the " .... control flf Ihl' :\gncII1:ur:d Rcs-rarvh CI'lIlll'il of Ni~\'fia (ht'fcinaftcr referred r », :,'1~; .tn ill this Order ;l~ "th c Counrrl") cst.thlishcd by the .·\gricultural Research 1971 So. 25.;. (' ••nn •;..l of :-\igl·ria Decree 11)71. ' (,\) The ;'\arion,t! :\ni;ll:tl l'fI.iJIIl'tio~ Research Institute shall he subject hi rh~'control ilf !ht' Ahmadu Bdl.1 University. 2. The: C"C'lI;\ Research Institute pf ~ig,'ria shall conduct research into Field of ''''''<1:1, eHlke, Jr.l. kula and and res.::H('h ofl':I~hl'w ~h;I~I,ill particular, undertake research intu-· . the COCOAResearch In5tit:lle of (tl) thl" iillprll\ l'lii •-.nt of th •'. ~~'Il{'ti~ l'0telltials Il{ rhc specified crops, :\lgt'ri;l, (h) the impr..vcnu-nt of ~.l!ronol1lic .md husbandry practices, '. {el the mecb.mis.uion and improvement of the methods of cultivating. har~·\'Sling, pro(l'""ill~ ;\11,\ stllrag~ of l~,(' spccif •.d erop", (eI) ihe improvement (If thl' utiliza+ion of by-products, (e) tll •.•,'colp!!!, of 1h'5tS ;\Ilt! diseases of the specified crops and improved methods nf their control, .' ..~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ', 306 <. 'II.I "'». 1\ ~lO I;' 01 thl' i'\("gl;ltitlJl "f Ih,' l·ulli':lliol1·of the spccilicd crop~ into. fanning :\\:-tl'lI1< ill .lirl. i cut "\.'111",'.<.11 /lIlll'S .md its socio-economic dkct:s 011 the rural i'1l1,"f.llillll". ;tnJ .' (g) :Illy Ullin prul-lvms rl'i:llt:d to the specified crop:4, ., .. F,,·j j nf .,f J. TIt<: Forestrv Research Institute of Niuci ia :;1",11 cou.luvt researchfl;"o(',fTt:, • ,·",,·,t in·liI 1',·(•.';11\' .uu] 'the cunsvrv ntiun l)f wih! li"r:l and fauna ,',Ht shall. illf~:. r\ 1(.·•••·.II.·h . P,lIl icular , illl,krlah' rcscurvh i!l!o-- 1.,H,4\lt,· (u)" the il1!lin)\'clIll'lIt llflhl',l;"lIdic potentials of forest trees of economic ·,j"lIdi.l. III) port.mcc. (Ii) the iuipruvcmctu tli silvicultural practices rdalil1.~ to forest trees \.1 economic iurportnuc>, (l') the mcchanisatiou .111<1 improvement of thl' methods of cultivatinz h:lnl'$t::l~ alld l'roco.~it;g "I for c:'1 t rvvs of economic impm t.mcc, I.d) the improvcrucnt "f rhl' utilisntion (If by-products. Cd tl... n:o!ug\' ,If I"';;!'; .ind diseases of rurc~~ trees of Cl'0I10\lW:: importance .md illll'rIion"t:\"i"",1 (a) the gene!i.: ;llIJ P'Itrilic>II.t1 illlprO\'Cll1cllt of catt le, sheep .. ~";lt$ Jlld rr\lJ:'H.·tl,ln other livestock (If ccououuc i'lIparl.lIIc,·, It<,c~\l-h InSllllll<:. (b) the imprl)\'Cll1ClIt of livestock man;lgl'mrnt and husbandry pr:tctic,·~. (c) the t'l:IlIWnlic:, of meat plOduclion, (el) nomadism ,IIIJ t hc ~,)(i,)-t'conomic c:lTe.:t~ (If rh, settlement of nomads, (r) the in!q:rati0n 01 li\'e~lol'k into the farming systems and iis ~OCIO- economic etlccts Oil the rur.il l'''p,d:Jlions, (f) the imnrovcrucnt ;111,\ 1lI:lliagc'lIlcn! of natur.il ranzc for the grning (If livestock, (g) the il\ll'rLln'l11t'r'lt, est:ll>ti,hll1cnt anJ management of 50\\"n pa:,turt·", Jod (II) any other l'fllbkms rel.ucd to ;\I1i111:11production. s1l:ill FidJ of8, The l\atic)!1Jl Ccrc.rls R(,:,l',ltch Institute conduct research into the rcS<:Jfl h production arid pll·,h,,'ts ()I rice. lll:li71' and grains Jflll irglll1ll'S of l'conomic of the: importance and Sh,I!I, in r.1nH:u1.lr, IIndt'rt:lkc: research into- :",,,! io n aI CC(c','\s (a) the improvement d tbe ,<:c'nl'l ir I'llt~nlia1s of the "pl'cificJ crops. }{("(':lrch {b) the impruYl'Illefll ,If apu)\;)lI1ic: JnJ husb.mdrv practices, lnsrrtute. tc) the ll1t:c!unis;llion ;11\<1 ill1l'Oll\ COlen! of the rnet hmls of cultivating, har\'t:sting, pnxc":'sitll! .Ill.j SlurJ!!": (Ii the spl'cifin! crops. (el) the illll'!'\)\'ement ofrl.e utilisation nfhy-products, (c) the ccologv of l'C'sts ;\11.1 disl';!~e~ of the specified crops and improved methods of their control. (f) the il!tl'gr.lli(ln (If till' (1Ii!il":ltioll of the spl'cilied crops into f;lrmin~ svstcrns in different l'ct)!,,~i('.d Z,1Ile.; anti its SOCiO-I'C()nCllllic .•:Irects on the rurnl !'0l'u!Jtinl1s, anti ' (~,) any tither l'f(.f.!t:IIIS I'Chll,:d to the specified crop". "- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY J08 " . U 312 r :cI~ or I), The:' :\.lti,IIlal 1l.ll'til'li1l11r.d Ik~I·'lrfh Instilllte :-\,,111,~nlld'ict r"~t':Hfh 1t;,,· .. t("h pC lilt.) f~'II;: !TIT:' ,111,1 \"'!:I'I.I1,l.-" ••1 .,\,.liltlllli •. illlp.'rl,llI(,l· 1!"IHT;1Ik ;.Illd "kill. in 'lit :"-JtHII:31 pJrticld.lr. IIIHlt'I\..kr r(S";ud, ill!.I' , '. . ... ~. Ik"~I'1J1· lur:..! (.1). till' in'l'lll\"'II1l'111 01 t l« ;!"I1l'li~ ptlt"JltiJb 01 the spcci!il·t\ crops, Ih~.8rch (h) rl1\' i1lIpr"\"'I1lClllllt ;\1:1 (111,IlIli.: .md hll~";1("~ry practices, 1,,<1'1\111'. lr) tlH' \lI(',·".",i:<:lIillll :111,1il1I1'1'<\\'c'!11t'1It(If Ill(' IlIdhnds of cultiv ,lIil1l'. h:H\'I.>till~. l'n'co,;iJ1~ :111.1"Iorag" (If the ~1'l'6Iil·.!crops, ' ViI ,tltl' imi,wH·nll·nt ••f Ih, utilisation ofhY-Phldlll't"', '(t"\'~hl' 1'I'"t'I!~y of I'ob ;111.1 .liseascs of tl;l' !'I"'\'ilinl crop~ and il11l'ron·\1 IIII,th ••.!s ••f their l'I'HI r.,1. . '. '. . ijl III,' inTq.:r;lIi(l1l "I' tl,\' 1"llti\':llilll111fllw l')1n:itinll'1'tlr::o intl\{.Hlllil1l!·: "YSklll:' in dilfl'r(nt l'ull'»)!;"al'll'IIt::' and its ~n.:io-I·~'JnOI1l!C ctlccts 011 the ('\Iral I'llI'll IJt iOI\:I. ~1I111 ' . '.- C.d any nllwr nl;It!,'r" f,'l;tt,·,j tll the ~pceiti",ll'nlr:\· Field of 10. The :\,IIi.1I1al ROllI t 'r"l'~ Rt'Sl':'IrciI 1nstinuc sll.1l1 conduct research res •.a•rch of into .Ihl" production and 1'1".111(1': of yams, .cOCO;l-y:\lIlS. C;1~$:l\·:1. sweett-. the Nat ional Fllt;tto",;.lri~h pntaltlc:) ;\n,1 "th,'r root and tuber crops of t:':l)numic import- n.:>", Crop' ance and ,;h.dl. in p.Hti.:ul.ll. undertake research illto- HrS<8n'h In~,i!utt'. {a} the impll'\'l'llIcnl I,t t~ll' I~,·nl·til- putl'lllj3l" ,'f the :;pl't.·ilieJ crops, (h) the ilnl'rLl\'l'I11C1\1 lIf ;I'.;fllllomic and husbandry practices, (c) tll\.' 11H·,'h:tni~:lti"n ,11\,\ improvement of the methods of clllti";ltil1g, h"n,('"tinC.l'r"el's~ill~ and ,;till :1C!Io' f the ~pt'citil'll crops, ~dl tho il\~rl'tlH'Il't:n: ••f (\Il'ulilis;llion of h:-,-rro'Juct~, . (t) th c ,'colngy of p('~t:; :11111diseases of the Slwcilied crop!' .md improved mcthvJs of their control, (J) tIll' intrgratill" of 1111.':ullivatioo cf the :'f'I'Cil\1'11 nops into fIrming s\,:;I<:ms in dilTacnl l'.:"I,)~i",11 ;WI\l':; ;tnd its 5\lci('-'·\"Ill)l'Ct51)f ;I\1imal mltlition. (c) the production of vaccines 30'\ sa;', .' (J) the intwducli,'n of exotic stock to ilOrro\'l" r••(':H. milk and ('g~ production. 9- (e) t11(' ~tal1'\;Hjjs.lti()n :1\1.1qu.mt itycontwl oi IIl:U,uf.,ctllfl·J aninl;,l .'...~ fec:d3. and f': . ;::~.' . (J) :my other rdatt',l matters. 12. The ~i~cri;1\l I n:'titllte for (k':;lIll1gr;lphy :IIIII ~Lnine RC=""UC!I ,;h.l!! h.,hi of rl'''~ardl 01 cl'nJurt res~Mch into thl' rC~ll\lrC,',; :111,1 physj~'al l'har.ldcri:.til':' "I' 1\It' the :-;'.:ni:ln ~igC'ria1\ tl'rrittlri.ll \\.lI,TS ;11,,1 the high ';l'~'" \wyol1.!. :llltl in l',\rliclIbr'·· IIhlln.: c tor ( lc,:(".u.•,)~r1- (.1) thl' ahlll1.lllll'C. ,li~Iribull,'n and other hi'll, ,~il'al ch"r.ldn i-rics (If ph,· ,1•• .1 ~I\l.(i,'s oi fi"h,'~ ~ln,1 "tilt'\' iu.uinc forrns 1'1' life :1Il.! pr:l.:tical nll·thuds 01 'l~lln~ ,l,c:~,'arch, their rJtiun"II"plnit:ltill!' ,IIlJ \lli~is.'li(ln. . ~. .,' .•, . .' 0. .: UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY .. " .. 309 . '" . . :./ ',-. .:, ,. . ,~.1.,,' . , :. , .;.8 313 ':'''::. .. :.: .'-:.:.~..:.~., ..., .. ....... . ;' (h\ Ihl.' illll~ro\'l";l\'l\t or I'fad.ish water li:;hillJ,( an~1 lic"hcII1Tllt'l':' i! (e:) the :;"l'i"-l'~'''I\\lIl)il.' prohkm=, ••r \'\I'loililll~ tl\l' 1',',,11\1\'\"\':> II! the M';\ ,m.) brackish \\';11\'1'1-, IcI~ the dfl'l.'t:; (If pili" 11illn 011N igl'l'i;1Il 1.',),lslal waters and its prevention. (t') the nature pI' the m.uiuv l'I\\·ifOnml'nl. il1c1thlill~ wcatlur forl.'I.':lsting alHI tlu' tnpogr'lI'hy IIf t lu- :'01.';'\','.1 ,IfHI rhc dq'tlsits on ul" 1I!\da till" ~I'al)('d, ' and'· . . ~:, .,', -: . (f) all)' other rd;lh'll·tn.ltll'r::., ;.:' ",;\. .~ , P. Thl' ~ig'Ti,1II [nst ituu: for (Iii Pahu Research ~h;1I1 Field 1)(Ctll1.IIICt H~~.I~dl into th,' pn1,luctitlll alld PIli'!:''''; ••I' I,il p.ihu a!H1 otl,er I'.alm" "f rC"':~f'\:h "(I.'ctontllllk rhe :-\.xo:rian importance aud shall, in p,lrticlILr, uudcrt.ikc research into ,0. ' Instirutc for 011 1',.1111 (a) thc improvcrucnt ••f till' gl.'l\cti,' p"I"t\lials (If tIll' sp,'citird rrop:<.· H('~".trdl, (h) tilt' improvement (It' ;1r:ronoOliL' ;\1,.) husbandrv I'r.1l'lic,'" n'htil\!! to ,', . 1I11"specified crl'Pl'. ' ' , (t') the mechanis.uion and iml'\'II\ emcn; of the ~'Ill'th ••ds ,,/ "'ltlti\'.Iljll~. harvest in?, pfocr~si nl! .md storage (If the spt'l:iril'\1 Crtlp~, ..•.. (d) the improvement (If tll\' IItili~,lti,," (If hv-prodllct:;: ,.~:". «() thl'l,'l.·n!ugy 0(1'1'''''' ;In.! di~t';t,,(",..\If the ~})Ccifi,',I.l"rops ,IIHI improved .' methods 01 t lu-ir cont 101, . the illtq:r.1ti(ln "I' rhv clllti\';lIi.m of tit,' :'l'el.'ilit't1l'rol'~ into fanllit:~ "y~tl'OI" in ditfcrent ,'eulo)!i",tI zl'nc~ alltl its :, l/l~lil\ll': {or'Trvpanoso- (el) II\\' l'3thu!og\', im\ll1\l\fll0l!Y ,mJ methods of treatment of the diseases, 1I11aSIS' (h) th"l'I.">!",':::- UIlJ Itf"-l'~',-k of th~ \Tl.'t,JrS ;1011the mode of tr'.; •.' ;,;'" .! ,; . . f ""';'B314: .. :;·:,,/:~::::::/i~' . .' .. )';.:.!:~:' ,.:~:\.:/"\;:;"..~-, ;;. ,: ;:~:\,. : ~~:.:~.:~:: . ... .. '... - . . '.( , .' ,.,' ,.,' .... Non- ..... '.: ·~i,...~-.·(I)·1'1"."jl;,;;it'lI~{'~WIII'H' apl,lic;Jhk' nl.I~;::~t;hc'~rill~~rl'~:q';'~o~f';~Il~Yt " ;.'~::.::~ rCj(,"~I •.:J~ ,,<.",:,\.\,~.f_utnh_c_tion- 01 gll"t'T:1lm'r!( "t!l'ltl~', 1",';11 gll\ crmnrnt :l\ltlwrily or j'[i\':1te budy, and if the ",sri 'lItc~ .. il~"I.illltl'" l'II/\,., •.i•l',f have rl':-ollrn'~ to 'I\IITI such request, train laboratory.:": :.::;::;:: <. \."' .... l':\:lt'n"i'lI1 ;Iud IIIh,'/ 'c:lt"l!lIri,'': IIr Ih':\'('rnn\(,llt.::.·: .:..~·:;.·.·,,: ;lllthont)' .lr pn\'llll' hodv, . .' "';'.' ;., .'.'. .".: .:-, (2) "'illt,l(l! pn'.illdic~ to the !'pl'l~itil'.l )'tos,'uch'functiolls t;rtl;t: institutes, ., " i: .. :' •. ';.'. .. tlu- in:;li(lltl'" concerned ~h;J1I produce improved l>t't"{ .tnd other pbnfing· .' .e: .:Y:,'-:,;. IIl:lfni.lls rl imarilv (or their research un.l cxpcrirncntal prugrailllll":; hut may,' .. ' '. .": ..~'.' '. :..~.: .. for Iht','\If\,O:', ":. ..... :.. ' ..~., OJ All ~1',: iU"lit;llll:$ ::\\;\1/, when :;1I n:q;lc::te:d hy':;tny i'io>cn~ment' in ·the.: '",.'.':,.,.~.;: ~.,:i...':' I·~'daati\ '11, !C0n:rnnll'llt ;1!.!,'ncy, 1",,;1) ~1l\'l'rnnWll t authoritv or any eurhoriscd : .: .•.:.c.., ~.; ~;", .:'. ::.; Iwdy. prrvidc inrl'rmalillll or ~;\'t' ollh in' rd,lIill~ to their ~'p,'cili{'d fields of . .,;.:: : -. ',' research r.., such ~U\'~'r!Hn,'l\t, g{l\',TlIl\ll'lll ,l)!l'lll'y.llX'al l!,)\I'mrllcnt .Iuthflrity :~.:' r '. .••• IIr .Ilr:h'l:-i~ •.d• bodv, . '. " __ • . . , ' , . '. '., .;:~.. . ':-: ... '. . :-; .', ~-.vt:::fi~~ .;r _ 17.- (1\ (In the cominc into ('tTl:l'I of this Order, 311 the :t~.•ets, reopcni\.':o· . r .iI~~l't!', ':~\:. and rigbb hcrcinb •.f.on: vested ill JI\,l exercised by' the :,pl'cined Federal '. . x\.,~:;<",< research ,:t.1I iOI'" or dcpnrnncnts sha II wit hout further :1,SSU ranee apart from this .·f:·•.. Order "rst in rhl' respccrive institutes spceiticd hereunder, being institutes l"" .blishcd under !hi" Order, Ih:lt is It I ~y~ .." \; ' .. ;.. .' ',:... '(Ill i:1 11'1•. ; ~'.~ " "" ...-:. :,-'. '... .. (i) the COCO.1 Research In:'1 irutc of Nig('riJ~'" .~, , ." .'. :;.' " .. ' Iii) t he ~igl'fiall In,;:illltl' fill' Oill',llm Rese.irch.. .; '. ::L· ';;" .. s-. (ii:'} the R;lhhn Research l ust irur« oi Nigl'fi:\, and. . .'.' '. . ...• --: . \id rh •.' ;\i~cri:\Il l n-riuu« fllr Tryp'lIl(1!""(", l'rnl't'rri,,< ;1I:t! [i~hts .,.h,1I1 \l·~t in the N;'Itinnal Cereals Research Itl~tillll e, (r)in cite case of Urnudikc Agriuillllr;,! Research and Training ~tJtiun, ,'/. ". ,. . / ." ~.: (11(' .1.,:'('tOoI, 'r"l'l'rlic~ '\lI11ri,.:ht:, !oll:lll \ est in the: :\atit';Jrch fllllctlllOS tit the DCI',lftilll'lIt 1111Ill<' Lakt' Ch:h.1 :;11,111Yl'st ill the L:lkl' l'h,l.! R~~l',lrch In,titllh',:ln.! ..... .,' .... i.: ;:~. • ',', ':. I·~·.;, ,... ,. ' :.~ .: ~...~. .~ ',' •• ·r .• •.. , . '..'.~'. ';.'. I":.' .' .·f. I.., ..:.~.:.•__ ., __ I"". :t.r;: , ...• UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY / 311 tiil III(: from the d:lt;' ·'f t l.cir ;lpI'IliJ1III1Cllt and may h," ,"Ii!-!ihle f,'r app .•intrncnt for one [urt lur term of three yl·:tr~" (f» \\'ithout prejudice III the fnrct::"ill;! provisions, t lu- l'llmllli,."iollt'f nl;l~ "FP,)int .Jn~·persC1n 10 .ict :1'; \t·J1Ii'"r.ll' <. '11:Iirl1101n nr 1I1<'l11b,'r "f tit,' I3p3rJ of ;tny institute ,tllring I"n\! :JhS,'lll',' ,.r Inll)'"C.ln" in(;tI'·Kit~·h, il1l1l"",. or ("lier ," ,11,,<: of the C:",;lil nun ur ,I meml-rr ; ,111\\ .1 1'"'r,.,'11 :ill ,IPI"'llltnl "hall. \1 hil« the' .JppUin!melll subsists, hal l' till' ~a(\\,· ,',"\l'r:' as arc ,'xlTcis;lbk by the Chairman or the member. (7) :\:1)' member "j the n.!;tr,! iJllllldill~ the Chairman 11101\ rl":,i~11 his appoir.tmcnt by ,I lcr.rr .ldJrc~~cJ 10 t h,- <. 'onuuis-iurur. .md If .In·,"plnl. the H'~i:.;nJtil.n "hJII tal-I' dkct from Ih,' d.it. the l\IJl1IllI:,,,inner n ceivcd the letter 0: re~i;::n.1tion, 1'). :\ot\\"~thstJnJinl! the pn"i,.iol1~ "i :'l'l'lilJn lS (2) ••t'",l'. where the C,,-ort('J BClO1rJ desires t,) obtain the .rd vicc "f :111)' I'cr~ll:\ '1\1 all) I\lOltlcI. tk·U,l.lr.! J1la~" members . co-opt that pcr"un ,':'.1 numlur ,,1' the Ho.ird j"r :-u,'h )1,'1 ilh\ ,I~ it I1I;>YJ~'I'1\l n(',,'s~Jry s: i"'\\I'n"C that such :1 co-opted 1111'11I1>('r:;110111not he t'l1ci:Il'l1 tll vote nor count t ow ards « '11l,lrum. ~Il ."-( I) The BO:lrJ of c.lCh in"W"'" iiU\ In,I~'" "t.lIhl;lI~ urdu, rq!u!.ltillt: Pro('('~"'11':' :~,cpn)ccl'Jin(!" III the U.).1r.l 1'1,"IllY ,'ol11Jnittn' Ih,'I\·ol.' ." of Ih.· Iloor.i \21 The quorum ,If tll,' 13,.,11.1"kill he [our ;Ill.! the "!unCUIII,If ;\1\,\ (.f irs cornnnt tccs ~hJ!I be dcu-rrnincd hv t!ll' nn;lrd, (J l The \ ,JliJil~ of .lny pn>Cl'l'Ji;I~S (If the U",II d or .my ••f it" l'OI1lIl1;rtn';' ;'!1.I:1n:l! be ,1"",:le,\-·- (II) by .my vacanvv ill the membvre-hip, or (It) hy .my J,'f.:cI in t hc :lpl',".intllll'lll oj a member, or (c) by rea-on Ill' the pn':;t'llc(' or l':lrtil'il';ltilli\ III the prllcl'I'Jin,."" ul the Board hy ,I pcr"on who i~not 0111ll'1lIb,'r ••[t hc Ilonnl. ". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , . 312- '. ' :.~'.. D JIt, '., .~l TII,·UII·'·'I,,! ", ,;1,1, ;1I,,:i,II',· ,,",1 !III' S(·t·r(·I"" "I !ill' \ 'ounvil ••I' t luir .~ . -.". n:p r, ·'"'·•.,.lt·~'·'. "h.oil 1-,' (,lllil\",1 1" :o1ll'lId I\lcl'lin,~,; ,,( till' U"ahl "f ;\11 ,'., lIl:,tilll;.· ,'ll,} 1,lk\' I',ll I in il:; ddihl'l':tlions, hili :::h.ill 1101 IH' ,'[1Iilll'l1 10 VOlt' .;n .1t1~'lII;IU~Tor j,,~.I/L ('C'~''''I'" tt_'f) ~ I. "'114' 1'W\,,,j('II:; of ~l'diolls Il'!, i" ;1I:d 20 ah!).\.: :ro\J\.ks f"rfhe :r.w"i"1 ",f \,r"I'nl,. ,lilt! other rig!lt:" 1I1l\\' \ ,'",,:d in :~;- !>cicnce and 'l"t'cnlll!/ugy J)~ \·.-!"PIOCl:t ,\~cnc)' ~11,'1l'a{ln in till" Oll'll~' If" lit (,/ (1;,. referred to .IS "thl' i\L;l'Il':'\''') which (jIlJU' th.u n.unc :.It:tll hl' a !'udy ~ .•t," ...tl((lIP,lf,Hl' S..'",lh..l." tl:,i- FlltH:"III'S of hility f,'r Ih~'l'r"rn()ti(t1l and development of s.:iell(C and :'·.-)lIll,1111:)'. including tl.c ••gtIlLY. iruti ••ti"lI uf 1'1lIi~'Yin rcLtlilln t".lrl.l. nussionvr to in"tilUIl''' ; .If"l th,' pru\'i~i"ns Ill' Schedule I to this Decree sliall apply III hl ••t.lish research rclatiou 10 ;IIIY ill~t itutc su cstahlrshcd. in~tlturC:f, (2) An orll':T l'Stablis:lin~ a research institute under this Dt:Lfn: /11:1)' contain SUl'l'klllentary or inciJcn!.l1 provisions, induJing pr')\'i~iLJIl:> fur -- (u) till' ,h:"igllatillll of the institute: (b) 11." m.utcr or m.utcrs 1111 which till' insutut-: i:> to conduct rcse.irch, including tr ..lining where apprIJpriate ; (d tIll' tr,llI"f,'r to thv institute uf the .h"ds and liabilitit::I of all)' c"i"lill~ Federal or State research cst..blishntents ; (i/) the ,·"tahlishml'llt. constitution anJ \'llIcl'nlin;;s of a gllwrll:n~ bOJrJ to 1ll;ln:l~e the utlairs uf the institute; (t) :I suit..lhlc :l..-;:>ueiatiun or other Iorrns uf n:btil,nship III' the 1II:.:illltl with any university or institution of hil:hrr It..lrnillg ill ~ibcri:1. t.lcmhet- 4,--{ I) "I'hc Ag.:nry shal! consist of the following ruerubcrs -- _hip,"l(". (a) the C"l1l111i~ilJl\l'r who ~hJIl be the l'h;lirn,~m : (b) seven Ji,;till~ui~h\.:J slit:nlists to be ..Il'poillkJ by the l,\·d::"I\ Exccu- rive Counci! to rt:prcscllt the following scicntitic tidJ" - ..' , (.) ;Igricullural sciences; (ii) hir)\(Igie;lI sciences; (i;/) l'ngiIlCl'rill!; and technology : (it') medical sciences j (t:) physical sciences ; (t.i) social sciences : and ({.i,) military science and technology ; , (e) six other persons (0 be appointed by the Ft:Jcr.ll Executive Coulll:iJ ' to represent interests nut otherwise rq)n:~CIlI<·J ; (.I) the Executive Secretary (If the Ag cncy who shall be an ~x-o:licio member wit h no voting rights, , . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 316 1917No.5 : " -------------------...---- , C:) ~uhin'l hI SlTliCll\ 5 l,f this Decree, a member (lither than the Ch;tirln,lll) \\ hv is not .Ipuhlic ulli'.'n·" (II) ".hall 1",1,1 (,II;,:l' I'M ;\ period of three vcars from tl.c d.nc of his 3pp"illtIlH:JlI ,IIlJ ~h,dl be digibll' fur rCJppOilll;IH'IlL fOf ouc furhcr term of tlllt:l' )l'ar,.. l);"~ ; , - - , - • (/I) ~!,~,ll ,hI.: p:,id slidl rcltl,llllcration und allowances :&:1thq Federal L'.X~'l'Ut1\'l'l "lilli'll 11,,1)' determine. ' 5. The IIlli,l' uf ;1 uu-mhcr who is not II public Iltliccr shall hCl'ulllc n<:n;v,-~1 \o'",C;I •• t ii hc rC,I);"S hi" (lf1ic~ by a kltlr addr,':,snj !If hi'!1 tu t hc Corumis- front n.t.\(: ofrtllaal1i.('( oJ sioncr , or till' l'''llIl1li,~i(lI,,'r is s:lti,..lit'l1 Ih,lt il ,i,.. 1101 in the interest of thl' tho: .\I(n.cy, AgnlC)' fur tb,' pl'r;i,11l JI,\,,,illtl'l1 tu continue ill uffin! :rs IIH'II.l>cr :1IIt! w ith the' :lppru\'ill of tlte F~'~kr:d Lxccut ive Council, the Commissioner ~k"l notify the muntin in writing to th.u dt'cl:t. , 6.-(1) There ~kdl he established by the A~:ency:r fUI!J tll be known us FunJ,;. tht: Natir.'llill Sci,'IlI.:,' ;llId '1"':clll!f1I11;;Y l~\:\d;.JpllIl'nt Fund. \2) There :.1I;dl lie l':.tiJ into rh« funJ such SUiIlS as ruav !a~rna.!c avail- able Itl tl;\: Agl'lIcy lly till' h'Jcrai I\lilit:try Govcrnrnvnt for allocation fof research in l'ur:-II.IO\:t: of p:tragrilph (c) of section 2 of tltis Decree. (3) ,ThL' :\).:I'nc)' shall establish ,InJ maintain a S~'J';lr;Jtl' fund ("'Ill which :-.hJll be ,ldl.l~'l't1 ;tli o;I',l:odllure incurred by the Al:,'n('y otherwise than in PUbU;IIlCI'OI' ~lIhsn:ti(ln (2) J[,U\'C, (4) There ,..h.dl Ill; paid into the fund t':>t;lulbhl,J in jllJrsu;tTlcc of sub- section (3) ahoH'- -. (0) such sum.,;lS muy Ill' lIIa.!e ;I\'~il;lb1c by the Fnkrill ~'(ilitary Govern-ment fur the runuuu; e~pl'lI:;l'S uf the Agency ; ;1m! (b) such "Ilia sums as ilia), ••ccruc to the Agency from any other source, 7 .--{l) TI" •.c !olt,dl be :rppuintl'J by the Fcdt'fJl Executive Council 1,:>.,-, uti\'e an Exn;uti,'c ~n:fl't,lry to the Agency, who shall be an S,-·l'rt.:I.Jry~'lllill~'nt ~ne/lrl:>t ~1l,1 1Ilh("r with wide t'~q'l'fil'IlC': in the field uf science adrninistr.uion. It(,>lf •• I' If,,, (2) The E.,u.:uti\-c St'nctary \\110 sidl be the chid executive otficer of tlte A!;llll)'. Ac('nc), shall hlllt! "Hicc on such terms aud conditions ;t.; may L1I:~pn:i1il·J ill his lctt •.r of ;Jl'PUilltlllt'nt or on such other terms and conditions ;IS may .- be determined fruru tunc tv time . (3) The Agl'll<':y In;]), appoint such other persons to he -cmployce:! of the: Agcncy :IS it IlIJ}' clcern tit. , (4) The rcmuuvratiun and tenure of oflice of employees (other than the Executiv c Secretary) of till' :\t!"llcy sh.il] be d •-.tcrrn i.ll:J b~' the Agl'llCY after consultation \\ illt the Feller.!l Commissioner Llr L~tahli~llJllcnLS. (5) The Agt'.KY ~It••ll have tIll: PUWl." to make, \\ ilil the approval of the Fcder;ll Executive Council, regui;rliul1~ j;ovcr1iill~ conditions uf service of its ernplo),l'l:s. (6) The "\.~l'ncy may g-rant loans to its employees fur- purpose:! approved by tho! Federal i\ liluary GU\oTrnlnClit. '8.--(1) The Agency shall keep proper ~ccount'" and proper records Account. uru] ••uJI!. in relation thereto :Ill.! shall prepare in respect of each financi ••1 )'l'ar a statement of accounts in such form as it m:ly direct. , (2) The AJ~cllc)' shall as soon' as may be after the end of the fill:.nci;ll year to which the nccount.s relate c.rusc its J.l'l'ollnt>l to be audited b)' auditors appwn:J by the Federal CUIl\!nissioller for Finance. -. ..' - .f:'- ,', ...... . ,'. ,...... " , UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 317 ,'~."i1' ,, A. ••8 1m No, 5 National Scienc« and TtchnllltJgy Deoelopment Agau:yt , -----------,_ ..__ ._----_._._-------- ';,.; ,! ' (.l) The .ltHlitof:; skill on completion (If the audit of the.' accounts of the Age.'ncy f,ll' l'.Idl tinaucial year prl'pare anJ submit to the Agency the Iollow- . , ing two r<'p0rl:!, that is to say ..- (a) .1 gCHl'ral rcport sl,ttill~: out the obscrv ations and recommendations . of tIll' auditors Oil the financial ajj'llir.; of the Agency generally for that )'(0\1 and 01\ any important mutters which the auditors may consider 1It'l:l'S".II~' to hring to the notice of t he Agl'm'Y ; and (h) it dvtuiled report containing the observations and recommendations of thc.' au.I.tors in ,k[.Iil on all aspects of the operation of the Agency for that )'~'ar, . ,'".. .,~ Allnu ••1 9. Till: A~~ncy "hall prepare and submit to the Federal Executive report. Council through the C ••mmissioucr a report 011 the activiric •• of the Agcnl:Y during rhc I'n:cccJing tinancial Far and a I'!ojt'clion for the following year, and shall include ill SUI:I! report a Clipy of thc audited Recounts of the Agency, I'r<><:~edin~ 10.-- (1) The quurum for meetings of [he :\gency shall be six of whom of the at It'ast two shall be persons appointed under sn:li()fi 4 (I) (b) above. Agency. (2\ The Agency shall meet not less than three times in elicit year and on 1011<;''' other occasions as may be necessary. (3) If the Agency desires to obtain the au vice of any person on any particular malta, the Agency may co-opt th.ll person to be a member for as many JIIl'dings as lIlay be necessary, but he ~hall nut be entitled to vote. / (4) TIll' validity of any proceedings of the Agenc)' sha1l not be !llf(~cted by allY vacancy in the membership of the Agency, or by ;lilY defect in the ,',' , appointment of a member of the Ag<::IlI:Y or by reason that .wy pawn not enritlcd tv do so took part in the proceedings, ~' , ' .•••• i. Hcpul • 11.~{1) The enactments specified in fkhdul~ 3 to this Decree pproved by the Agency and {,f) tu make suitable arrangements for the application of the results oE the work of the institute by Federal and State Ministries am! their agencies ti' development 3-:ti\"itj~, . 2. The members of the governing board of each institute shall be appointed by the Commissioner with the approval of the rcder.u Executive Council, .. 3. Subject to the provrsrons of this Decree, each institute shall have I'()\\<:r to do anything and to enter into any tr,lns.:t.s:.!io(L~]lic!ljn. i~ opinipn ';\I~li( i.~llle~Ull(:in.tl_l.c:.l~~.()l'E~.d.!~~!l.:~itg~eJ.~()nfction~. oJ. E.lcll institute shall, ill particular, and without prejudice to the g~·lIlIJli(y ui the foregoing pllwc:r, have power to acquire and hold land ,u:J propcrt}', " ' . . , 5. F••r the PUTI'OSt' of the Public Lands ACCJui~itjoll Act the purposes Cap. 167, IIf all in"titute shalll>e public purposes of the Federation within the meaning IIi Ihat Act. . . . . ... ;- .- " , , . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY " • 319 A 50 1977 No.5 ----- -.- ----- ., .-- ------------- ----,.._------ , 6, Till' 1•••.lrd uf each ill,lilUII! ma), appoint such nuruhvr of st'IlIJi'n~ .111,101.1.1.,1\.' ,'"llIlllIlln S .I~ it Ihill!,'; IiI 10 c••I",uk r alld rt'I",rI 1111 ;111) matter wirh \\bictl Ih,' 11I.,lId j" concerned. . . i. Thcrv sh.ill he ;I \)in'clof fll'" cadi insiuurc ;11'poilltt:d hy the (\Inll:lis"illlll'r "11 rhe ;1,1\ in: III' the l",arJ uf the instuuic c.mccruvd. who ,t.,' :.h;lll be J j'cb,1I1 \\ilh \\id,~ lXl'l'lil'IICl: uf the 1II,IIIl'I" •••I•lt. "bichtll": rc lcv antilbtitlltl' i~Clolll:l'lIlld ; ;1IIII the Uin'l'Ior ;;11".111-:--, . ," ..' (II) Ix' ch.,rgnl \\illl rhc day ro d.IY 1lI:11l:1~l'l11cnt of thl' ;tlfairj '"f t11\: ill:.tilllll' ill ,1<.'\'''I,\.lIll·'· with stich iust ructions 01:11Il,W 1'111111 rime tu lill1l: b\: gin' n Ie, [uru by the hllJrll ••I' till: in"litllll.! ; 0111.1 - (h) Lc ;lPl'uill\l·.1 in ''':(,l'n:if) ill:~ till' Illanner in \\ l.ich the ;lSSt'ts und the fund are tu be htlJ and 1l";1I1.1tlllg the l1laking of I'Jymcnts to and from the fund; .J (h) n:qlliritl>: th~'ll.!cpinl! of proper accC)unts Jilt! records fur the purpusl! of the CU1,J in such [orru as lIl:JY be specilicJ by the rules ; (c) for N·•..uri\l!~ that 1he accounts 'ICe audited ;lonually by an auditor approved by the b ~ency ; (cI) fl~quirin~ copies of the Jccounts and of the auJit report on thl'ln to he forwJrdnl t., the Ag(~n(:y nut later than three mouths following the end \If ti,l' l'L'riml to which the accounts relate. . 13. E;Jch institute may burrow or knd money only with the approval of the Agcncy, H. Each in~litute 111,1)g' rant 10;\I1sto its employ<.:..:s [IIr purposl',; appw\'tJ . hy the :\gl'l1cy, ' 15. 'LIl:h institute :;halll'rcl'afe and submit its I'rogr.llllllll~ and u>tilllatcJ budget and an)' annual rc\'isiol\ f,)r ;lppruv:l1 by the J\gt:llc)" UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 320 1971 No, 5 A 51 SCIlEOuu:2 Sutiull 11 (2) 'l'HANSl'l'IONA I. PRO\' ISIO:-';S RELATI Nn TO 'rAKJ-:-OVEI{ OF ASSETS AND LI.\lllLlTIES OF COllNCILS l'HE\'!OUSLY HES}'():\SIIlLE FOH Sl'IE1'\CE A~I> 'l'ECH~()I.O(n' I, The functions. and a.ssdli and )iaLilitic~ of .III}' of the Coun •..ils specified tu:rl'un,la (linl-iu:lfccr r.-fnrul tll ;I~ the ",llrl.'':l<:d council") !o!.all J:) frum tll,- CI>IIIIIICrlI.:nlll·llt of this Decree he tlisl'osnl ~,f in accordance with the (tllI()will.'~ prll\'isill!IS of this Sd Il:d 1I1\.', 2. l :1'1'11tile CIIIllIIICnn-'\lUII (If this Decree -,- (II) tht: rights, interests .II\J obligati()~s in n:.;j1ec·t of assets ;InJ liabilitj •.s. of any aNl'cte,: council "ub;;i::.lillg inuncdi.itcly hdor,· tltl' commencement of this Decree, under any contract or instrument shall by virtue of this . Deere c be assigned to and vested in the A~l.'nc)' ; (b) any such contract or instrument as is uwnrioncd in pOiragr.lph (t the Agl.'lIcy ;IS it mj~ht h;IH' hccn hy Of ag.linl't an atfectcd council if this Decree bJJ not been rnadc, of. In this Schedule, "affected council" means any of the following _Councils, that is - (n) the NigaiJIl Council for Science and Tcdlllolol{y l':S!;Jhli,heJ under the: Nigerian Council for Science and Technology Decree 11),U ; 1'J70 No, 6. (b) the Agril:ull ural Research Council (If Nigt:ria ~'st••b. lishcd under the Agriwltur'll Research Council of Nigeria Decree 1c)71, : lyil No. 25. (e) the Industrial Research Council of Nigcri» established under the Industrial Research Council of Nigeria Deere c• 197 I ; t'J71 No, 33. . (d) the Medica! Research Council of Nigeria established under the MeJic;l1 Resl'arch Council of Nigl:ria Decree 1')72 ; 1<)72 No_ 1. ; , (e) the NJtUfJI Sciences Research Council of Nigeria established under / the Natural Sciences Research Council of Nigeria Decree 1973 . 1')13 No 9. '.'. . -s " l·. ,', " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , . . A~2 1977No.5 -.. !5CIIlDOU. 3 Section 11 (I) ..": ~". ..... REPEALS Number ·1i"llt &tml 0/Rtpcal ' ...... • ".f IIJi'O No.6 Niger::.!/I Council for Science .' .....•• .11\41 Tech- .",~. nology Dn:rcc 1970 .. The whole Decree 19i1 ?\o. 25 Agril'II1tllfal Research Council of Nigeria Decree 1tJ71 The whole Decree •., .. 1971 No. 33 Industrial Hn;.:arch Council of Nigeria :'..~. Decree 1971 The whole Decree ..-., 1972 No.1 i\h·Jic.II Hl',;r.:.uch Council of Nigeria '." Dcere\.' 11)/2 The whole Decree 19i3 No. \) Natural Sciences Research Council of Nit;criJ. Decree 1973 .. The whole Decree 1973 >;~.35 A~ricultural Research lll:.titutc.s Decree ..~.- 1<;73 The whole Decree '. .," !\1.~:_ at Lagos thi,;, 20th ~ay of January 1977.~ .. : " -~ !. LT.-QENERAL O. OIlASANJO, Head (If the Federal Military G,-.',mJll:mJ, - CUT1/lIJllnJa.jll-Chi('! of tlu Armed FOTCil, FIJeTa~ &public oj Nigeria /. ,........... ..... . . ;. •..:. :: . - i ',; .. ExPLANATORY r\OTI ". r (". (This note J~s4l01 form port ,1the obooe Decree rX; y" but is illtcn.!"J tv v:plaill its purp<..;t) - - . / The Decree c~l"hlis~t.:50 the };;lticlO;JI Science and 'Tcchnoloay Develop- ment Agency as a b",\)' corporate and confers on it, among other ':-'i.)g~. executive responsibiluy f'Je the promotion and Jl.'\-clopment of science and . technology, includiru; initiation of policy rt:1;Jtin,~ to scientific research and technology. The Ag,'ncy takes over the functions of the varioua existing statutorily cstJbli~IIl:J re.search councils which are now dissolved. .;. . '.. .- " I'l'Ill.\"IlLlJ u\- A1HIWIIIT\' Of TilE FrD"",\I. J\IILrrAIlY GOV\;HNM\;NT or r-;IC~IIJ" A.-':1J I'ltlNl'Ui II\, Hit, :\II1'I,;ll1'{ or lw:u~IAToION, i'IIIN-rtNO 1>1\,ISIUN, L.~t;OS .' '; , .. " t, . ):., .... ,. : I,'-.~.' ~... . . . , ,.' . c ' , ',' ., . . .. !. .. , ..,•. :.' ..... J~ .' • -,': .~ 'f>' •.';," . .,~.. ~.... i··.··\-.·..·;·-, ~'.::'··.:. . -.'j • ~.i ~ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 322 . "" I ./ d, \ BIBLIOGRAPHY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY , I 323 I BOOKS Baldwin, K.D.S., The marketing of cocoa in western Nigeria. Oxford. Oxford University .Press, 19~4. --;.....- The. Nlger agricu.Ltural project. Otiord. Basil Biackwel.L, 19~7• .Bau:x.,P. T., West African 'l'radeL~ondon. Routledge and Kegan Paui Ltd. 1963. Blase, Me~vin ~. (ed), Institutions in agricu.Ltural development. Ames, Iowa. Iowa State University • Caine, S., Prices for primary producers Hobart. Paper No. 24. London. 1963. Clayton, E. S., Agrarian development in peasant economies. ·London. Pergamon Press, 1964. Dillon, John, The analysis of response in crop and lives- stock production. London. Pergamon Press, 19b8 Eicher, Carl K. and (.;arlLiedholm (ed), Growth and dev0lop- ment in the Nigerian. economy. Lansing. Michigan State University ~ress, 1Y70. ___ and. Lawr-ence «, witt (ed), Agriculture in economic deve.Lopment. McGraw Hll.L,·19b4. !I Enke, Stephen, Economi-cs for deve.Lopment. Englewood Cliffs • .Prentice Hall Inc.~ 19b3. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Evenson; Robert and Yoav Kislev, Agricultural research productivity. New Haven. Yale University Press, 1975. Ezekiel, M. and K. Fox, Methods of correlation analysis (third edition)." New York. John Wiley and Sons. 1959. Fishel, W"alter L. (ed), Resource allocation in agricultural research. Mi~eapolis. University of Minnesota Press, / 1971. Galleti, R'., K.D.S. Baldwin and I. O. Dina, Nigerian cocoa £armers. London. OX£ord University Press, 1956. Gittinger, J. Price, Economic analysis of agricultural projects. The John Hopkins Univer~ity Press, 1972. Hawkins, C. J. and D. W. Pearce. Capital Lnve scmerrt in" appraisal. London. IviacmillanEconomic Studies. The "Nacmillan Press Ltd., 1971. Hayami, Y. and V. W. Ruttan, Agricultural development: an international perspective. Baltimore. John Hopkins Press, 1971. "Heady, E. O. and .J. L. Dillon, Agricultural production £unctions. Iowa State University Press, 1961. Helleiner, G. K. Peasant agriculture, goverI"l..meanntd economic growth in Nigeria. Homewood, Illinois. Richard D. Irwin Inc., 1966~ I Higgins, Benjamin, Ecopomic development. Principles, problems and policies. London. Constable and Company Ltd., 1959. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Hill, Poly, The Gold Coast farmer: a preliminary survey. London. Oxford University Press, 1956. _______ The migrant cocoa farmers of southern Ghana. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1963. Hirsc~.man, Albert 0., The strategy of economic development. ---- New Hav~n. Yale University Press, 1958. Johnson, J., Econometric methods. New York. McGraw-Hill Inc., 1963. Lewis, Arthur W., Theory of economic growth. London. Urwin University Books, 1955. Marshal, Alree~ Principles of economic~. 8th edition. London. Mac;.rillan,'1930. McCormick, B.J. et ale Introducing economics. Penguin Education 1974. Mynt, Hla, The economics of developing countries. London. Hutchinson and Co. Ltd., 1968. Oluwasanmi, H.A., Agriculture and Nigerian development. London. Oxford University Press, t966. Peston, }\laurice,Public goods and the public sector. London. Macmillan economic studies. Macmillan Press, 1972. Samuelson, Paul A., Economics, tenth edLtion. McGra,..H.ill, i Kogakusha Ltd., t976 " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 326 "Schultz, T. W., Transforming traditional agriculture. Jew Haven. Yale Universi ty Press, "1964. Seers, D. and L. Joy (ed.), Development in a divided world. Penguin Books. 1970-. ..~ Stewart, I. G. and H. W. Ord (ed), African primary pro- ducts and international trade. Edinburgh. 1964. ./' Stopler, W.•F., Plo.nning without facts: lessons in resource allocation from Nigeria's development. Cambridge. Harvard University Press, 1966. Wells, Jerome C., Agricultural policy ~~d economic growth / in Nigeria, 1962-1968. London. Oxford University Press," 1974. II JOURNAL ARTICLES Abaelu, J. N., Buildi~g the foundations for Nigeria's -00 ".." • - agricultural growth: public expenda tur-es on agri- cultural r-es.ear-ch , Bulletin of Rural Economics and Sociology, e. (1); 1973. The Nigerian oil palm sector revisited. The .Nigerian Journal of Economics and Social $tudies, 13 (3); 1971, 285-298. Anon ,, Resear-ch and development in Nigeria - Federal Government research institutions. Nigerian Trade Journal, 15 (1); 1967.9-18. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 327 Anthonio, Q.B.O., Agriculture and economic development: Some misconceptions in research policy. The Nigerian of Economic and Social Studies, Harch 1972. Ashton, J. and S. J. Rogers, Agricultural adjustment - a challenge to economists. Journal of Agricultural .Economics, 18(20); 1967. Cash, w. C,., A.critique of manpower plStnni~g and educa- tiona.l change in Mrica. Economic Development and Cultural chan~, October 1965. Clayton, E.S., Freedom IDldwelfare in developing countries. Farm Economist 10(6); 1963. Grilichest Zvi, Hybrid corn: an exploration in the economics of technological change. Econometrica, 2~; 501-22, 1957. _______ Research costs and social returns: hybrid corn and related innovations. Journal of Political Economy. 66: 419-31,1958. _____ The sources of measured productivity growth, U.S. agriculture, 1940-1960. Journal of Political economy, 71: 331-46, 1962. Essang, ·S.M. and S. O. Olayide, Pattern of estimated· agricultural expenditures in the 1975-80. Nigerian plan: some implications. The Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies, 17(3): 245-62, 1975. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 328 Evenson, Robert and Yoav Kislev, Research and productivity in wheat and maize. Journal of ~olitlcal Economy 81: 1309-29, 1973. ________ Investment in agricu~tural researcn ana extension: "., an internationa~ survey. ~conomic Deve~opment and t;ultural Change / Fogg, ~.D.,Econom~c and socia~ factors affocting the deve~opment of sma~~-ho~aer agriculture in Eastern Nigeria. Economic and 00cia~ Cnange, 13(3): 19b5. Latimer, R. and D. Paarlburg, veographic a1str~bution of - ./ research ~osts ana benefits •. Journa~ o~ Farm Ecoomics 47: 234-41; 1965. Mohan, R~ D. Jha and R. E. Evenson, lbe Indian agricu~tural research system. Economics and Politics Weekly; March 31, 1973. Belson,. R. R. and E. Se Phelps, Investment in humans, technological diffusion and economic growth. American ~conomic Revie~, 56: 69-75, 19bb. OlayemI, J. K., SOIDe economic characteristics of peasant agr-Lcu.i ture In tne cocoa belt 01·Western Ni ger-La , Bulletin of Rural Economics and Sociology, 7(2), 1972. Olayide, S.O. and O. Ogunfowora, Economics of maize response to NPK app~ications. Bulletin of Rural Economics and SociOlO~y, 5 (1): 95~122, 1970• • UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY L ,f 329 Peterson, Willis L., Return to poultry research in the United States. Journal of Farm Economics, 49 (3): 6$6-669, 1967. Prest, A.fi. and R. l~vey, Benef~t-cost analysis: a survey • .. Economic Journal, December 1965. Ruttan, Vernon W., Research institutions: questions of organ~sation. In Institutions in agr~cultural develop~ merit. Edited by Belvin G. Blase, Ames, Iowa. Iowa State University Press, 1971. Sol.ow, Robert N., Technical change and the aggregate ." production function. Review of Ecoaomics and Statis- ~ics. 39: 312-19, August 1957. --- Technical progress, capital formatfon and economic gr-owth; American Economic Review, $2; 76-86, Nay 1962. Stigler, G.J.,Tne economics of information. Journal of - Political'Economv, 69: 213-25, 1961.' -.t. . _. . .Tang, A~,.Research and education in Japanese agricultural. development. Economic Studies Quarterly, 13:27-41 •. Tweenten', Luther G. and Fred H •.Tyner, Towards an optimum rate of technological change~ Journal of Farm ..'.. p.;COilOITli4c6s:, 1075-84, December 1964. Ugoh, s. U., Prospects of some Nigerian agricultural products in tbe world market. The Nigerian Journal of Economic 'and Social Studies, November 1965.- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 330 .Wickizer, V.D., The plantation sys~em in the development of tropical economies. Journal of Farm Economics, 40 (1), 1958. The small-holder in tropical export crop production. .., Food Research Institute Studies,FE-bruary 1960. Wood, G.A.R., Cocoa research in Ghana. World Agriculture, 19:88" 1967 Yotopoulos, P.A., From stock to flo\llcapital inputs for agricultural 9roduction function: a microanalytical approach. Journal of Farm Economics, 49 (2): 1967. III THESES.jRESEARCH PAPERS AND REP~TS. Abidogun, A., The role of export crops in economic develop- ment with special reference to Nigeria. Unpublished .M.Sc. thesis, University of London, 1965. Ardito-Barletta, N., Costs and returns of agricultural research in Nexico. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Univer- sity of Chicago, 1970. Ayer, H., The costs,· returns and effects of agricultural research in a developing country. _ The case of cotton seed research in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Purdue University. 1970. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 332 Gill and Duf.fust. Cocoa market report (series). Glendiffing, E.R., The performance of the introductions and hybrid in WACRI trials. Report of the cocoa conference. Londono The Cocoa, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance, 1957. Hines, J., The utilization of research .for development: two case stud.ies in rural modernization and agricul- ture in Peru. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Princeton University, 1972. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, The NAFPP: a new dimension for Nigerian agriculture. Ibadan, 1977. Lewis, Arthur W., Re.flections on Nigeria's economic growth~ Development Centre Studies, O.E.C.D., Paris, 1967. McFarlane, D. and Martin Oworen, Investment in oil palm plantation: a financial and economic appraisal. Economic Development Institute, Enugu. 1966. McKelvie, A.D., The relationship between rail1~all and ~;._~;,-.;main crop yield. Report of the coco(a", c.o...nference, 1957.. Norman, D.W., Crop mixtures under indigenous conditions in northern Nigeria. Conference on factors of economic growth in West Africa. ISSER, University of .Ghana, Legon. 1971.. _______ .and E. B. Simm.o. ns, Relevant research priorities for farm development in West Africa. Conference on UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 333 factors of economic growth in West Africa. ISSER, University of Ghana, Legon. 1971. Okurume, Godwin, The food crop economy in Nigerian agricultural policy. CSNRD report No. 31, 1969. Olatunbosun, Dupe. Nigerian farm settlements and school leavers farm - profitability, resource use and social-psycho~ogical considerations. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1967'. ______ Nigerian government policies affecting investment in agriculture. CSNRD report No. ~S,1968. ______ and S. O. Olayide, Effects of the marketing boards on the output and income of primary producers. International conference on marketing board system, NISER, Ibadan 1971 •. _______ Pricing policy and supply response in cocoa production: the.Nigerian case. Proceedings of cocoa economic research, Univer~ity of Ghana, Legon. April 1973. Olayemi, J. K.) 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