PSYCHO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LAGOS- STATE, NIGERIA BY MELEKEOWEI PREMOBOWEI DELE (Matric Number: 141505) B.Sc.Ed, Physical and Health Education (Lasu) M.Ed Measurement and Evaluation (Unilag) March, 2014. CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Mr. MELEKEOWEI PREMOBOWEI DELE, in the Department of Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, under my supervision. __________________ __________________ Supervisor Date Prof. Oyesoji Aremu Professor of Counselling and Criminal Justice Department of Guidance and Counselling University of Ibadan Ibadan. ii DEDICATION Dedicated to the ALMIGHTY GOD, the father our lord Jesus Christ, late valiant Melekeowei and my mother-Brakigha Biu Melekeowei ii i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My gratitude goes to almighty God, who has granted me the grace to pursuit this programme to its ultimate end. My thanks go to Prof. Oyesoji Aremu my supervisor. Sir, permit me to say that you are a distinguished scholar and through this programme enhanced my quality as a research student. Further, your brilliant advice, corrections and suggestions helped to improve the resounding quality of this dissertation, thank you sir. By all standard, I am indebted to all my lecturers in the Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan namely; Prof.J.O.Osiki (current H.O.D), Prof. D.A. Adeyemo (immediate past H.O.D), Prof.C.B.U Ukwakwe, Prof. Jibola Falaye, Dr. Ayo Hammed, Prof. S.O. Salami, Dr. Animashau R.A, Dr. Bayo Oluwole D.A, Dr.fehintola J.O, Dr. Ogundokun M.O, Dr. Azuzu C.C, Dr. Jimoh A.M, Dr. Buchi Opara, Dr.Owodunni A.A, Bunmi Alade, Dr. Busari A.O, Dr. Awoyemi,A.E, Dr Adeyemi A.O, and Taiwo A.K who have supported and encourage me throughout the programme. Equally the effort and concern shown by Dr. O.A. Adegbesan, Prof. Abass A.O and Dr. Omolanwon K.O in the department of physical and health education in recent time has propelled me towards the completion of this programme. I am grateful to you all. I want to appreciate the modest contribution of Dr. S.O. Popoola during my Pre and Post field presentation at the departmental seminar. Sir, your contributions have also helped to shape the dissertation. I am grateful to you. Let me express my deep appreciation to my colleagues in Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education (AOCOED) under the leadership of Mr. Bashorun Olamilekan Wasiu, I am grateful to Dr. (Mrs) Odigie J.I, Dr (Mrs) Osinubi E.O, Dr (Mrs) Adeniyi M.A, Dr Ogunjimi M.O, Dr (Mrs) Adedotun K.O, Dr. Daodu M.A, Mr. Lapite A.O, Mr. Olajide J.A (baba Aduke) and Dr. Adebayo Komolafe who was the immediate past Head of Department of Educational Psychology, G&C, and fortunately has moved his service to the premier University. Also I appreciate the following colleagues in AOCOED for their various challenging contributions to the completion of this programme: Adeyemi Adesanya, Femi Keshiro, Victor Akinola, Dr(Mrs) Dele Giwa, Dr. Owoso Oluropo, Prince Oloyede T, Dr. Okedeyi S, Elesho T.T, Askhia T and Nelson Ige, Dean school of education and others too numerous to mention. Thank you so much for your moral support. iv I am indebted to my mentor(s) who gave me the platform for academic exploits. These include Dr. A.O.K Noah, formal provost AOCOED. Dr Olu Ayodabo (Rtd), Prof. Okuneye R.O, Prof. Ademola Onifade, Prof. Olu Akeusola and Alh. Umoru Idegu. I also want to appreciate my family members who have supported me morally and they include: Ebisidor Clara Adu, Melekeowei Ebimobowei, Melekeowei Oyinmiebi, Melekeowei Oyingbanabulu, Melekeowei Ekiyonbulemu, Melekeowei Halaere, uncle Innocent Melekeowei, Uncle Ebenador Biu and Mrs Deborah Poubinafa. Finally, I have chosen to express my heartfelt gratitude to the bone of my bone, my angel, Modupeola Grace Omolayo Melekeowei. Your contribution towards this project is worthy of note, I commend your resolute support through the duration of this programme. Thank you so much. And our lovely children Oyinkro, Oyinbrakemi and Oyinkepreye. v ABSTRACT The importance of teacher effectiveness cannot be over emphasised, as it is linked to learning outcomes and socially desirable behaviour among students. Besides, it is one of the indices through which quality assurance is ascertained in education. Literature has shown that the combination of certain psycho-demographic factors such as teacher personality, self efficacy, self esteem, gender and work experience have link with teacher effectiveness. However, most studies on teacher effectiveness have examined separately the effects of these factors without adequate attention on their combined effects. This study, therefore, investigated the psycho-demographic (self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, work experience, gender and personality) factors as correlates of teacher effectiveness in secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 574 Junior Secondary School teachers from six education districts in Lagos State. Five instruments were used: Teacher Effectiveness Questionnaire with three sub-scales (Teacher Self-reported version r=0.76; Student Reported Version r=0.73; and Head of Unit/Principal Reported Version r=0.71); Teacher Self-efficacy Scale (r=0.62); Self-esteem Scale (r=0.84); Teacher Locus of Control Scale (r=0.61), and NEO-five Factor Inventory (r=0.79). Six research questions were answered and two hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Multiple Regression. There was a significant joint effect of independent variables (self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, gender and work experience) on teacher effectiveness (F(8,501)= 3.59, p<0.05); and a significant relative effect in this order of magnitude: teacher‟s self-esteem (β=0.10, t=2.27, p<0.05); self-efficacy (β=0.09, t=1.97, p<0.05); locus of control (β=0.08, t=1.63, p>0.05); gender (β=-0.05, t=1.05, p>0.05), and work experience (β=0.04, t=0.82, p>0.05). The results further showed that self-efficacy (r=0.12, p<0.05) and locus of control (r=0.09, p<0.05) had significant relationship with teacher effectiveness. Work experience, gender and extroversion however, did not show significant influence on teacher effectiveness. Self-efficacy impacted on teacher level of effectiveness, whereas work experience, gender, and extroversion did not show predictable influence on their effectiveness. There was also significant joint effect of teacher personality factors (openness to experience, conscientiousness, neuroticism, extroversion and agreeableness) on teacher effectiveness (F (5,504)=16.42, p<0.05); and a significant relative effect in this order of magnitude: openness (β=0.54, t=4.97, p<0.05); conscientiousness (β = -0.62, t=5.70, p<0.05); neuroticism (β=-0.38, t=4.75, p<0.05); extroversion (β =0.11, t=1.96, p<0.05) and agreeableness (β =-0.04, t=0.07, p>0.05). The results also showed that openness to experience (r=0.15, p<0.05), agreeableness (r=-0.11, p<0.05), neuroticism (r=-0.20, p<0.05), and conscientiousness (r=-0.20, p<0.05) had significant relationship with teacher effectiveness. Teacher personality, self efficacy and locus of control are crucial to teacher effectiveness. Thus secondary school teachers in Lagos state should be made to go through meta-cognitive and self regulation training in other to enhance their level of effectiveness, with a view to enhancing students‟ general performance. Key words: Teacher effectiveness, Psycho-demographic factors, Secondary schools in Lagos State Word count: 458 v i TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background to the study 1-17 Statement of the problem 17-18 Purpose of the study 18 Significance of the study 18 Scope of the study 18-19 Operational definition of term 19 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction 20 Theoretical Reviews 20 Teacher‟s Effectiveness 20-25 Big five factor personality type 25-31 Teacher‟s self-efficacy 32-36 Teachers self-esteem 36-41 Teachers‟ locus of control 41-45 Gender as a factor 45-51 Teacher work experience as a factor 51-57 Theories of Effectiveness 57-62 Empirical Reviews of literature Teachers‟ effectiveness and big five personality factors 62-67 Teacher effectiveness and self-efficacy 67-70 Teacher effectiveness and self-esteem 70-72 Teacher effectiveness and locus of control 72-75 Teacher‟s effectiveness and gender factor 75-76 Teacher‟s effectiveness and work experience factor 77-79 Appraisal of reviewed literature 79-80 Research Question 80 Hypothesis 80 Conceptual model for the study 81 vi i CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction 82 Research Design 82 Population of the study 82 Sample and Sampling Procedure 82-83 Instrumentation 83-86 Procedure for Data Collection 86-87 Data Analysis 87 CHAPTER FOUR Result 88-99 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Discussion of Finding 100-106 Implication for Educational Practice 106 Limitations of the study 106-107 Contribution to knowledge 107 Recommendation 107 Conclusion 108 Suggestions for further studies 108 References 109-131 Appendix 132-145 vi ii LIST OF TABLE Table 2.1 Big Five traits 53 2.2 Specific models of worker effectiveness 59 2.3 Models of worker effectiveness 60 3.1 Distribution of mathematics and English language teachers in Lagos State 82 4.1 Descriptive statistics and Correlations among the variables 87 4.2 Joint effect of the independent (personality factors) variables 88 4.3 Relative effect of the independent (personality factors) variables on the dependent factor 89 4.4 Descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables 89 4.5 Joint effect of the independent (self efficacy, self esteem, locus control, work experience and gender) variables 90 4.6 Relative effect of the independent (self efficacy, self esteem, locus control, work experience and gender) variable 91 4.7 Relationship between self-efficacy and teachers‟ effectiveness 92 4.8 Relationship between Teacher, self esteem and Teachers‟ Effective 92 4.9 Relationship between Teacher, locus of control and teacher effectiveness 93 4.10 Relationship between Teacher, work experience and teacher effectiveness 93 4.11 Relationship between Teacher, gender and teacher effectiveness 94 4.12 Relationship between Openness to experience and Teacher effectiveness 94 4.13 Relationship between Teacher, Agreeableness and Teacher effectives 95 4.14 Relationship between Teacher, Neuroticism and teacher effectiveness 96 4.16 Relationship between Teacher, Conscientiousness and Teacher effectiveness 96 ix LIST OF FIGURE Figure 2.1 Teacher Professional life Phase 53 2.2 Hypothesized Models of factors contributing to teacher effectiveness 80 x CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Study The importance of teacher in the development of meaningful education at all levels is reflected in the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education that no educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers, and Sikora (1997) contended that the teacher is an important component within the school system, and school improvement efforts and educational reform are likely to be ineffective if teachers are not regarded as the most important entity. Awoniyi (2007) further asserted that significant innovation in education must be driven by the quality, quantity and attitudes of teachers. Stronge (2010) contended that most teachers are effective, committed to their students and profession and strive to meet students‟ needs every day. Researches from Mcber (2000); Brunning, Schraw and Ronning (1999); Adediwura and Tayo (2007) has shown that effective teachers uses their knowledge, skill, and behaviors to create learning environment in their classroom which helps students maximize opportunities to learn and characteristics such as personal efficacy, modeling, enthusiasm, caring and teachers‟ high expectation promote learners‟ motivation and encourage students to learn, even with those from poor families or with parents that are not adequately involved in their studies. The question that arises from the foregoing is, if most teachers are effective, does it matter if a few are ineffective? The answer to this question is yes, perhaps, because an ineffective teacher inhibits the learning of a large group of students over time. As argued by Chait (2010), it is plausible that an ineffective teacher can depress achievement and inhibit the learning of many students during the course of his or her career. Hezborn, Bernard, Elizabeth and Catherine (2012) summed that the problems posed by ineffective teachers to students are numerous, for instance they make it difficult for students to learn or discourage them from learning due to lack of enthusiasm for the subject, as a result of hostile or inappropriate behaviour and a failure to maintain discipline In the class or by not being fair to all. Also, walls, Nardi, Von Minden and Hoffman (2012) reported five characteristics of ineffective teachers as follows, partiality in treating students, disorganised, not resourceful, discourage students from asking questions and authoritarian. Horton (2009) reported four characteristics of ineffective teachers as yelling at students, making empty threats, failing to give prompt feedback and giving them excessive tasks. Notably, Hezbom et al (2012) reported 20 characteristics of trained ineffective teachers in secondary schools in Kenya with respect to students, these are wastage of time, poor mastery of the subject, sources of 1 boredom, partial in treatment, lack of respect for them low level of self confidence, poor mastery of pedagogical skill, emotional instability, inappropriate dressing to class, fond of frivolous comments in class, miscommunication in class, poor in providing feedback, non – dialogical in class, poor in maintaining discipline, immoral behaviour, unapproachable, poor in guidance and counseling, poor psychological health and autocratic to students in class. Teachers effectiveness have been affected by some factors as identified by Ryan and Cooper (2008), these includes attitudes that foster learning and genuine human relationship; knowledge of the subject matter ; theoretical knowledge about learning and human behavior and pedagogical skills of teaching that promote students‟ learning. These areas of competence according to Susana de Souza(1998) and FGN(2009) vision 2020 report have been affected by poor teachers motivation, poor salary and incentives, poor teachers‟ welfare, inconsistency in their training programmes due to strike actions leading to ill equipped personnel, lack of confidence in subject content, resistance to curricular and methodological innovations, lack of coherence between classroom practice and expressed educational beliefs, lack of commitment towards good learning and make believe teaching. Bennell (2004) and Okebukola (2008) argued that the working and living environments for many teacher are poor, which tends to reduce their self-esteem and is generally de-motivating. Many teachers remain untrained in low-income developing countries (LICs) which adversely affect “can-do” motivation. Nwodo (2012), citing Osunde and Izevbigie (2006) advanced that teaching has become employment of the last resort among university graduates and secondary school leavers in many African countries. Teachers often lack strong long-term commitment to teaching as a vocation, this has important implications for the development of a critical mass of competent and experienced teachers in education and conversely affecting their effectiveness in schools. Taking into account various reports from print and electronic media, teachers‟ effectiveness in recent time has become worrisome, for example, National Examination Council (2010) results released show that a high percentage of students performed (98% of the 234, 682 students who sat for the November/December 2009/2010 Senior Secondary School Certificate examination failed to record five credits including Mathematics and English language) below average. Also, the May/June 2009/10 West African Examinations Council recorded overall poor performances with only 25.99% of the 1,373,009 obtaining credit passes in Mathematics and English Language (West African Examinations Council, 2009). And report has also shown that students engage in series of anti social conduct such as 2 truancy, lateness to school, alcoholism, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, gangsterism and smoking. (Igwe, Ojinnaka, Ejiofor, Emechebe & Ibe, 2009). Gross incompetence was also reported among teachers in a survey conducted by the Kaduna State universal basic education when a test meant for primary four pupils was administered to them, out of 1,599 teachers selected from across the State, only one scored 75%, 250 scored between 50% and 75% and 1.300 scored below 25% (Mohammed, 2013) Teacher effectiveness is central to overall students‟ academic achievement. As indicated by Creemers (1996) cognitive outcomes remain important in any definition of effectiveness. Luyten (1994) revealed that some three-quarters of school performance could be explained by teachers‟ effectiveness and children with low cognitive outcomes and poor educational achievement are likely to be at risk of poor attendance and behavior in school, not sufficiently motivated and become involved in criminal or other anti-social activities later in life. Ryan and Cooper (1998) summed it up that those who study classroom life often observe and report that not all students succeed; some fail in their classroom environment. As students progress through the grades, few excel. Some students do not visibly participate in the classroom. At the senior high level, many drop out of school, others “drop out” but remain in the classroom. Explanations for this phenomenon abound. Some blame overly stringent academic requirements; others attribute it to the differences in students‟ home environment or socio-economic status, others call for various teaching strategies to reach students with diverse backgrounds and different abilities. Some researchers suggest that teachers play a part in communicating expectation, that certain students will excel and others will fail. Teachers do form expectations about a student‟s performance; these tend to relate to the student‟s achievement. The source of a teacher‟s expectations may vary: it might be a student‟s social class, race, sex, information from previous test scores and / or family background information. Teachers may communicate their expectation by the quantity and quality of their interactions with students, including the use of praise or criticism to guide a student‟s performance. Good and Brophy (1997) suggested process by which teachers‟ expectation may encourage certain levels of achievement. First, the teacher forms certain expectation with respect to the behaviour and achievement for a student, then the teachers‟ behaviour towards a student will be premised on the expectation of each student. The students perceive the teacher‟s expectations from how they are treated; this perception affects their self-concept, 3 motivation to achieve and aspiration to excel over time, students from whom much is expected will perform well and students from whom little is expected tend to perform poorly. Joshua, Akon and Krislsonis (2006) citing Darling-Hammond, Wise and Pease (1983) and Joshua (1998) posited that use of student achievement scores as the basis to assess or evaluate teachers is one of the many approaches epitomise when teaching is conceived as the production of a product in the different conception of teaching. Arguably, targeted outcomes for students may be relatively narrow, typically involving the learning of specific knowledge and skill. They also may be broad, comprehending text, learning how to learn, developing collaborative skills, or improving wellbeing. Accordingly, Timperley (2008) stated that whether narrow or broad, they must be clear to the teachers engaging the professional learning experiences, otherwise, the teachers‟ engagement is not likely to make a difference to their students. Also, Timperley (2008) suggested that where achievement problems are apparent only over time, teachers are of the opinion that students can acquire new knowledge and skills when taught differently. Enhanced teacher expectation of students come from observing improved outcome. Awoniyi (2007) viewed that a teachers‟ role is to keep, foster and stimulate a child‟s learning techniques as well as his/her learning environment. Through learning, the child modifies his/her behaviour in the light of his/her physical environment, acquires skills and competence which help him/her to use his/her hereditary potentials. Ololube (2010) citing Amahala (1979) contended that classroom instructional and methodological competencies when accompanied by clearly written instructional objectives, understanding students basic cognitive and social problems without doubt provide the students with the necessary guidance in learning and help the instructor in assessing the outcome and therefore aid in overall teaching learning and assessment. This is because according to Creemers (1994) and Gronlunds, (2000), teacher‟s instructional methods provide an additional resource in associating the instructional activity with the intended outcomes. Notably, well-written instructional objectives also aid in peer-evaluation of instruction. Avalos and Haddad (1981) reviewed studies on the teaching situation as related to outcomes and some of the findings reported include that with guided discovery method, students cognitive styles are a significant factor on recall and comprehension, as well analytic students did better than those who are non-analytic. Also, it was found that teaching th for understanding is more effective for problem solving in arithmetic at the 5 grade level and that teaching for understanding in logic is superior in developing scientific attitudes and critical thinking among others. 4 Professional learning approaches that focus primarily on building new knowledge and skills are suitable when teachers‟ existing understanding are congruent with the new information and therefore can be integrated readily into their existing practice, but when teachers‟ personal opinions about students, valued curricula, and effective teaching practices differ from those promoted in the professional learning, a different approach is needed. In the case of mathematics and science, for example, existing curricula usually emphasis‟ computational and factual knowledge while new curricular typically emphasis‟ reasoning and problem solving skills. This kind of change involves more than learning new knowledge and skills. It requires that teachers understand the limitations of the current emphasis and the new ways of deciding what knowledge is valued, (Timperley, 2008). Ryan and Cooper (1998) posited that a person‟s attitudes, or predispositions to act in a positive or negative way towards other, ideas, and events are fundamental dimension of that person‟s ideas, and events, are fundamental dimensions of that person‟s personality. Ryan and Cooper (1998) also argued that the relationship between general personality traits and teacher effectiveness has proven elusive; almost all educators are convinced of the importance of teachers‟ attitudes in the teaching process. Attitude has a direct, though often unrecognised effect on behaviour because it determines the way we view ourselves and interact with others. Adediwuwa and Tayo (2007) citing Fazio and Roskes (1994) stated that attitudes are important to educational psychology because they strongly influence social thought, the way an individual thinks about and process social information. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2001), positive teachers‟ attitude is fundamental to effective teaching. A teacher must be interesting, that is a teacher must work on his/her students in such a way that he/she will be interested in what the teacher is going to teach him/her such that every other object of distraction is banished from his mind. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) highlighted a few teachers‟ attitude that will facilitate a caring and supportive classroom environment. They are: enthusiasm, caring, firm, democratic practices to promote students responsibility, use of time for lesson effectively, have established efficient routines, and interact freely with students and providing motivation for them. Teacher characteristics such as personal teaching efficacy, modeling and enthusiasm, caring and high expectation promote learner motivation (Adediwura & Tayo, 2007). Olatunde (2009) citing Oguniyi (1982) viewed that positive attitude towards science could be enhanced by the following teacher- related factors such as Teacher enthusiasm, resourcefulness and their thorough knowledge of the subject matter. Ryan and Cooper (1998) 5 believed there are four major categories of attitudes that affect teaching behaviour: The teachers‟ attitude towards self; the teachers‟ attitude towards children and relationship between self and children; their attitude towards peers and pupils‟ parents; and the attitude towards the subject matter. If teachers are to help students have meaningful experience, develop their aptitudes, face their inner difficulties and accept themselves as people, they need to know and understand those students. Before teachers can do that, they must work on knowing and understanding themselves. Empirical evidence according to Ryan and Cooper (1998) indicated that people who deny or are unable to cope with their own emotions are unlikely to respect and deal with others feelings appropriately. Also, children are sensitive observers of adult behaviour, they often see, and become preoccupied with, aspects of a the teacher‟s attitude towards them which the teacher may be unaware of, for example a teachers‟ effectiveness might be reduced by these feelings or attitudes toward students: strong dislike for particular pupils and obvious fondness of others; Biases toward or against particular ethnic groups; bias towards certain behaviour of students, such as docility or inquisitiveness; and uneasiness in working with children who has disabilities. Darling-Hammond (1999) stated that the most frequently used analytical variables when attempting to explain why some teachers are more effective than others are mastery of the subject matter and pedagogical knowledge. Mastery of the subject matter is seen as a basic requirement relatively uniformly addressed in initial teacher training. Hawks, coble, and Sivanson (1985) observed that the relationship between teachers‟ training in science and student achievement is more in higher-level science courses. Ryan and Cooper (1998) viewed Pedagogical content as the knowledge that bridges content knowledge and pedagogy. It is the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are recognized, represented, and adopted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction. Baumert, Blum, Brunner, Jordan, Klussmann, Krauss, Kunter, Nellbrand and Tsai`s (2005) study on professional knowledge of teachers, cognitive Activating Instruction, and the development of Mathematics competency showed clear positive effects of pedagogical content knowledge on students mathematics achievement. Timperley (2008) argued that for substantive learning such as that involved in improving their students‟ reading comprehension, mathematics problem solving, or scientific reasoning, teachers need extended time in which to learn and change. In such cases, it typically takes one to two years, for teachers to understand how existing beliefs and practices are different from those being promoted to build the required pedagogical content knowledge 6 and to change practice. Further, Timperley (2008) indicated that learning important content through engagement of meaningful activities supported by a rationale for participation based on identified students needs, has a greater impact on student outcomes than the circumstances that lead teachers to sign up. Mcber (2000) contended that efficient teachers use their knowledge, skills and behaviour to create effective learning environments in the classroom: they create environments which maximize opportunities to learn, in which pupils are well managed and motivated to learn. From the pupils‟ perspectives, they are mostly looking up to the teacher to create a sense of security and order in the classroom, an opportunity to participate actively in the class and for it to be an interesting and exciting place. Awoniyi (2007) summed the Nigeria experience in relation to the types of classroom that exists : Many classrooms in Nigeria are hardly better than shops because the class is overcrowded, and the windows and ceilings are falling off .in such a situation we cannot expect free movements of pupils or joy in the pupils. When a school is located in a busy and ever bursting part of the town with a lot of distractions, we cannot expect the children to be calm (pp. 46) Awoniyi (2007) further stated that the sitting arrangement, the location of learning materials, the distribution of responsibilities, as well as class routines, all have some influence on the learning environment. Ryan and Cooper (1998) stated that a teacher should establish and maintain classroom conditions that facilitate effective and efficient instruction. Such conditions as teacher-student rapport, establishing productive group norms, and rewarding promptness are examples of managerial behaviour. Brophy (2002) reported that productive contexts for learning feature an ethic of caring that pervades teacher/student and student/student interactions and transcends gender, race, ethnicity, culture, socio-economic status, handicapping conditions and all other individual differences. Brophy (2002) also said to create a climate for molding their students into a cohesive and supportive learning community, teachers need to display personal attributes that will make them effective as models and socializes a cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional maturity, sincerity, and caring about students as individuals as well as learners, the teacher displays concern and affection for students, is attentive to their needs and emotions and socializes them to display these same characteristics in their interactions with one another. Assessment is a vital part of the instructional process. And it is conducted in order to determine whether students are learning, gauge the appropriateness of the curriculum for a given group of students, identify what must be re-taught, ensure proper placement of 7 individual students within a programme of instruction and ensure that stated guidelines for achievement have been met ( Biehler & Snowwan, 1993). Mcber (2000) opined that effective teachers employ a range of assessment methods and techniques to monitor pupils‟ understanding of lessons and work. These could be tests competitions, questioning or regular marking of written school or home work. The effective teacher looks for gains in learning, gaps in knowledge and areas of misunderstanding through their day-to-day work with pupils. Also, an effective teacher encourages pupils to judge the success of their work and to set themselves targets for improvement. They also offer critical and supportive feedback to students. Timperley (2008) reported that teachers need knowledge and skills in assessment to maintain student focus: the ability to identify exactly what students know and can do is a prerequisite for teaching that is responsive to each students needs, he also argues that teachers cannot develop their assessment knowledge in isolation of knowledge of pedagogical contents, which is also vital as they focus their teaching on meeting the identified needs of the students. Avalos and Haddad (1981) viewed teacher effectiveness in term of change which takes place in the knowledge, attitude, and behaviours of individuals and communities as a result of teacher involvement. Bhadwaj (1998) expressed teacher effectiveness as the process of achieving the objectives and intended results of education and thus contributing hugely to the quality of education. Whereas Harris and Rutledge (2007) contended that teaching is largely an occupation in which teachers function both within their classroom and as a member of the larger school, something that has been identified for teachers as a dual allegiance to the school and student. Teacher effectiveness requires that students be offered the best possible chance to learn, regardless of the nature of their individual preferences. Coker and Coker (1992), have identified certain key competences as pre-requisites to teacher effectiveness and they include instructional strategies, techniques and/or methods, communication with learners and learners‟ reinforcement-involvements. Kemp and Hall (1992) conducted studies on teacher-effectiveness and reported that students achieve more when teachers employ systematic teaching procedures and feedback about their performances. Also, achievement has been higher in classroom where the climate is neither harsh nor overtly lavish with review. Kemp and Hall (1992) further reported that teachers who adjust the difficulty level of materials to students ability have high rate of achievement in their classes and classrooms in which engaged learning occurs have high levels of student cooperation, student success and task involvement. Further, effective teachers provide a various opportunities for students to apply and use knowledge and skills in 8 different learning situations. Finally, the study reported that effective teachers clearly articulate rules and involve children in discussions about rules and procedures, and are able to pace the size of information presented to the class, check student progress continually by asking questions from students and relate new to prior leanings. Taylor, Pearson and Walpole (1999) observed that effective teachers who spend more time working with small groups throughout the day have high rate of communication with parents, and have more students in their classes on tasks and are engaged in learning throughout the day. Effective teachers ensure that students achieve on tested subjects. Promoting students academic achievement is arguably the most important component of their job, but teachers contribute to their students‟ development in myriad ways. For example, they help students learn to work cooperatively with peers; conduct themselves appropriately in classrooms and schools, resolve differences peacefully and understand their role as citizens in classrooms, schools, communities, and society as a whole. Teachers also have responsibilities beyond direct instruction, such as working with colleagues to identify at risk students and develop plans to support them (Goe & Croft, 2009). Teachers contribute significantly to the establishment and maintenance of supportive, learning-centered environments in their classrooms and schools and work with parents and the community to support educational opportunities and success; observably, their relationship within schools (e.g, mentoring new teachers, serving on committees, providing leadership for extracurricular activities) may not directly impact student learning, but they create an environment conducive to successful teaching and learning (Goe, Bell & little, 2008; Goe & Croft, 2009). Goe et al (2008) developed a five point definition of teacher effectiveness by analysing researches, policies and standards that address teacher effectiveness. The five-point definition of teacher effectiveness consist of the following; Effective teachers‟ have high expectations for all students and help them learn as measured by values added or other test based appraisals measured or by alternative measures, effective teachers contribute to positive academic, attitudinal, and social outcome for students such as regular attendance, timely promotion to the next grade/class, timely graduation, self –efficacy and cooperative behavior, effective teachers use diverse resources to plan and structure engaging learning opportunities; monitor student progress formatively, adapting instruction as needed and evaluate learning using multiple source of evidence, effective teachers contribute to the development of classrooms and schools that value diversity and civic mindedness, effective teachers collaborate with other teachers, administrators, parents and education professionals 9 to ensure student success, particularly the success of students with special needs and those at high risk of failure. Goe et al (2008) further explained that this definition is intended to focus measurement effort on multiple components of teachers‟ effectiveness. It is not proposed as a criticism of other useful definitions, many of which were considered in the formation of these definition, but as a means of clarifying priorities for measuring teacher effectiveness. The first point directly addresses students achievement gains on standardized tests, and the other points focus on teachers‟ contributions that may ultimately improve students‟ learning, albeit indirectly. Clearly, students achievement gains on standardised tests are not the only possible approach of assessing, indeed it is not even the most important-outcome against which teacher performance should be evaluated. A comprehensive evaluation of their effectiveness might be based on a composite that includes teachers‟ scores using a number of different measures. Goe et al (2008) then argued that although it is theoretically possible to identify indicators of all the components in the definition of effective teachers so that they can be measured and scored, there is a dearth of researches in many of these areas. Considering the poor state of students‟ academic achievement and their engagement in anti social conducts, and dearth of standardized measure of teacher effectiveness, it became pertinent that the researcher should conduct this study. More so, studies observed has either investigated teacher effectiveness as a subject matter or combined with one independent factor. The objective of this study is therefore to determine the predictive factors of teacher effectiveness premised on the demographic and psychological variables. Teachers‟ effectiveness in schools may be determined by a number of factors which influence their job performance. Among these factors are gender, work experience, teacher personality, teaching efficacy, locus of control and self-esteem. Gender is of interest especially now that females are gradually taking over and dominating the teaching profession at primary and secondary levels of education. For example, the total number of female teacher in Nigeria primary school in 2004 and 2005 respectively were 300,090 and 304, 738 against 291, 384 and 294,434 male teachers. In Lagos State, statistics shows that in 2005 a total number of 7,283 female secondary school teachers‟ were employed against 6,194 male teachers‟ (National Bureau of Statistics, 2009). Sprinthall, Sprinthall and Oja (1998) summed that there is long standing controversy concerning the possible significance of gender differences in cognition, cognitive development stage and academic achievement, particularly in scientific thinking and performance. Avalos and Haddad (1981) reported that in a number of studies comparing 1 0 male and female teachers, for the most part in secondary school, found that female teachers were satisfied with their career, exhibited a better attitude towards their profession, students‟ and school work, demonstrated better mental health and suffered less problems on their teaching activities. Work experience is what a person has working overtime in a specific occupation. Avalos and Haddad (1981) in a review of teachers‟ work experience reported that there is some positive effect of length of experience upon the type of techniques used in the classroom, this evidence is limited and even contradictory regarding what type of techniques are associated with different levels of experience. A number of studies reviewed on the use of participatory and less authoritarian type of teaching, such as problem-solving and discussion methods have being associated with teachers with between 10 and 20 years of experience (Drama‟ a El-Balani, 1974). Bhatnager (1972), Johnson (1970), and Ozumba (1974) also noted that teachers‟ experience (10 years and above) coincided with more commitment to their instructional role and the tendency to follow the expectation in this regard. Beyond this period, teachers according to Ozumba (1974) move away from their expected role. With regards to teacher attitudes towards students and teaching, Avalos and Haddad (1981) summarized that they either do not appear related to experience at all or related to experience beyond 13 years. Day, Stobart, Sammons, Kington, Gu, Smees and Mujtaba (2006) and National Council on Teacher Quality (2009) contended that experience and expertise do not fully account for differences in teachers‟ perceived and relative effectiveness. Effectiveness it was argued does not necessarily grow in relation to time in teaching (experience). Thus teachers‟ capacities to be effective are influenced by variations in their work, lives and identities and their capacities to manage these. Also, Day et al (2006) further argued that teachers‟ professional life phases are core moderating influences on their effectiveness and that their capacities to sustain effectiveness in difference phases of their professional lives are affected positively and negatively by their sense of professional identity. Teachers‟ sense of identity is a major contributing factor to their commitment and resilience. It is neither intrinsically stable nor unstable but can be affected positively or negatively by different degrees of tension experienced between their educational ideals and aspirations, personal life experiences, the leadership and culture in their schools, pupils‟ behavior and relationship and the impact of external policies on their work. Day et al (2006) also summed that commitment and resilience are crucial to teachers‟ abilities to sustain effectiveness – positive 1 1 relationships with school leaders and colleagues‟ support can sustain teachers‟ commitment, resilience and effectiveness. A teacher is a person engaged in interactive behavior with one or more students for the purpose of effecting a change in them. The change, whether it is to be in knowledge (cognitive), skill (psychomotor) or feelings (affective), is intentional on the part of the teacher. This designation distinguishes the teacher from instructional materials and other school personnel (Lew, 1977). The essential task of the teacher is to arrange the conditions of the learner‟s environment so that the process of learning will be activated, supported, enhanced and maintained (Gagne, 1976). A teachers‟ personality is a crucial factor in arranging the conditions of the learners environment for effective teaching and learning. Colman (2003) viewed personality as the sum total of the behavioral and mental characteristics that are distinctive of an individual. Gordon and Yorke (ND), citing Maddis and Mischel defined personality as the relatively stable and distinctive styles of behavior and emotional responses that characterise a person‟s ability to adapt to surrounding circumstances. Lew (1977) defined personality as the dynamic organisation of those traits and characteristics of behavioral pattern unique to the individual. Arguably some social psychologists take the position that personality is purely a matter of social perception that it is meaningless to speak of anyone‟s personality apart from the particular people who interact with him/her, get impressions about him/her, and use trait terms in describing him/her (Holt, 1971). A trait is a simple behavioral pattern – a disposition or tendency to behave in a describable way. Allport (1963) proposed eight basic criteria, defining personality trait; it is more generalisable than a habit; it is dynamic and determinative in behavior; may be viewed either in the light of the personality which contains it or in the light of its distribution in the population at large, and cannot be proved nonexistent by the mere fact that some acts are inconsistent with it; a trait‟s existence may be established empirically; is only relatively independent of other traits; a trait is not synonymous with moral or social judgment; and a trait has more than nominal existence (Hjelle & Ziegler 1981). Personality type is viewed as an identifiable pattern in a manner that an individual prefers to perceive and make judgment (McClain, 1987). A teachers‟ personality is based on the assumption that as a person, he/she is relevant or an important factor in the teaching and learning process. Personality influences the behavior of a teacher in diverse ways, such as interaction with students, methods selected, and learning experience. 12 The effective use of teacher‟s personality is essential in conducting instructional activities. Personality arguably aids teaching, communication takes place between the teacher and the learner, even without the spoken word (non- verbal communication). The teacher whose personality helps create and maintain a classroom or learning environment in which students‟ feel comfortable and they are motivated to learn is said to have a desirable teaching personality. Each individual has certain attributes of personality, which influence the manner he/she behaves towards others and the way they respond to him/her. The teacher with pervasive authoritarian characteristics, for example, is likely to reflect them in his/her relationship with students and in the techniques he/she uses in his/her instruction. Lew (1977) explained that the school is more than a place where knowledge and skills are taught and learnt. It is a miniature community where members interact and influence the behavior of each other. The nature of interactions and influences in the school is an important factor in determining the learner‟s perceptions of school and his/her attitudes towards school-related persons and activities. This factor involves the interplay between the personality of the teacher and that of the learner. Teacher personality is directly and indirectly related to learning and teaching in the affective domain as well as to that in cognitive and psychomotor domains. Accordingly, reports of great teachers commonly stress their personalities, rather than scholarship or technical teaching skills. Bhardwaj (1998) opined that the key to satisfied, successful and effective occupational and professional life is to have those personality traits most suited to one‟s profession, job or occupation. Specifically, teaching as a novel and innovative profession demands certain personality trait to be essential for efficacy and quality performance. In this regard, Holland‟s typology of personality and congruent occupations states that social type of persons prefer activities that involve and develop others and are sociable, friendly, cooperative and understanding. Awoniyi (2007) suggested that a teacher who is fair, firm, devoted, dedicated, loving, sympathetic, knowledgeable in his/her work, considerate, democratic, is more likely to stimulate a happy learning environment than a cruel, indolent, ignorant, unloving, unfair, lazy, and unsympathetic teacher. More so, the enthusiasm and thoroughness with which a teacher does his/her work is reflected in the achievement of his/her pupils and in the society. Since there are individual differences in teachers, there are bound to be differences among the students in the classroom. 13 Several personality type models have evolved over the years in order to unlock the elusive human qualities. For example, Jung (1971) described his model of personality as a complex network of interacting systems that strive towards eventual harmony with oneself and environment. He believe human behavior, though seemingly random and unorganised, are consistent and orderly and are a function of different ways in which people prefer to use their perception and judgment. Perception is understood to be the way people become aware of the environment, other people and occurrences, while judgment is considered the method employed by people to make conclusions about experiences perceived (Awoniyi, 2007). Jung (1971) argued that perception and judgment consists of two contrasting functions. The two functions of perception are sense(s) which reflects the use of five senses to establish what exists and intuition (N), the use of the unconscious as a way of indirectly perceiving through insight and associations that exist. The two functions are thinking (T), a decision-making process utilising an analytical, objective consideration of the situation, and feeling (F), a decision-making process including heavy consideration to the personal or social values and merits of the situation. Further, Jung (1971) identified two complimentary attitudes or orientations towards life. These he describes as extraversion (E) and introversion (I). The former is an attitude in which the person is oriented to the outer world of people and things. Introversion is an attitude in which the person is drawn to his/her inner world of thoughts and ideas. He believes that the attitudes and functions combine to affect how individuals relate to the world and to other people (McClain, 1987). Teacher personal factors have been found to contribute to teacher effectiveness, whereas several factors such as satisfaction derived from teaching, marital status and teaching fulfillment are classified as personal intrinsic factors. These factors are rarely considered as important elements affecting a teacher‟s professional role enactment. Bruening and Hoover (1991) attempted to relate job satisfaction to extrinsic factors such as increased salaries, investment in the profession and improved teaching status. These factors, it is argued have a direct impact on the job satisfaction of the teacher which indirectly leads to a more effective educator. Of utmost importance of the variables considered to be psychological to the classroom teacher are the teachers‟ personality, self-esteem, self-efficacy and locus of control. Self- esteem is positive or negative orientation towards oneself. Basically, is an overall evaluation of one‟s worth. Braden‟s (1969) described self-esteem to include the following primary properties: 1 4 It is a basic human need which makes an essential contribution to life process, indispensable to normal and healthy self-development and has a value for survival. Self-esteem is an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals‟ choice in using their consciousness. It is something experienced as a part of or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions. Self- esteem is a concept of personality, for it to grow, one needs to have self- worth, which will be sought from embracing challenges that result in the showing of success. Theories have suggested self-esteem as a basic human need of motivation (Hjelle & Ziegler 1981). Maslow (1965) includes self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He described two different forms of esteem: the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect or inner self- esteem. Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem; he further argued that without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to it. Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons why humans are motivated to maintain high regards for them. Socio-meter model maintains that self- esteem evolved to check one‟s level and acceptance in ones‟ social group. The terror management model contended that self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death (Neva, 1990). Rosenberg‟s (1965) self-esteem model relies on two factors; reflected appraisals and social comparisons. Regarding reflected appraisal, Rosenberg (1965) acknowledged that human communication depends on viewing matters from other people‟s perspectives. In the process of taking the role of the others, one become aware that people are objects of others attention, perception, and evaluation. One thus sees people through the eyes of others. Social comparisons emphasise that self-esteem is in part a consequence of individuals comparing themselves with others and making positive or negative self-evaluations. Self-efficacy according to Henson, Kogan and Vacha-Haase (2001) is defined as belief in one‟s capabilities to organise and execute the course of action required to produce given attainments. Carlson, Heth, Miller, Donahoe, Buskist and Martin (2007), referred to self-efficacy as a person‟s belief about his or her ability to act as required in a particular situation in order to experience satisfying outcomes. Labanoe (2005) observed that in defining the concept of teacher efficacy, some contention exists. While some investigators have continued to maintain the broad uni- dimensional definitions, others prefer the bi-dimensional definition proposed by Ashton and Webb (1984). This proposition explains that a teacher‟s sense of efficacy consists of two 1 5 dimensions: general teaching efficacy – a judgment of whether or not teachers can change students outcomes and personal teaching efficacy – a judgment about their personal ability to control student outcomes. A further explanation indicates that a high level of general teaching efficacy would suggest that a teacher believes that teachers in general are capable of changing students outcomes regardless of the student‟s background and they may view themselves as capable of achieving this (high personal teaching efficacy) or unable to achieve this (low personal teaching efficacy). Alternatively, they may have a low level of general teaching efficacy, suggesting that they believe teachers are unable to change students outcomes as the influence of students background is too great and they may view themselves as being constrained by this (low personal teaching efficacy) or as being an exception to the rule (high personal teaching efficacy). Pajares (1996) opined that if Bandura‟s cautions regarding correspondence of belief to criteria task are justified, such measures of teacher efficacy are insensitive to context and may minimise the actual influence of teachers‟ beliefs on instructional practices or students outcomes. Consistent with these guidelines, he argued investigators should endeavour to assess the teacher beliefs that correspond to the criteria of interest rather than assess those beliefs with a generalised measure and then make the connection with this assessment to specific practices or outcomes. Knobloch (2001), defined teacher efficacy as the teacher‟s belief in his or her capacity to organise and execute course of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context. Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events that affect them. Individuals with high internal locus of control believe events result primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with high external locus of control believe powerful others, fate or chance primarily determines events. Those with high internal locus of control have better control of their behavior and tend to exhibit social related behavior than externals and are more likely to attempt to influence other people. They are more likely to assume their effort will be successful. They are more active in seeking information and knowledge concerning their situation than do externals (Rotter, 1966). A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of actions are contingent on what to do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation). Thus, locus of control is conceptualised as referring to a one-dimensional continuum, ranging from external to internal (Marsh & Richards, 1986). Observably, most researches on teachers‟ effectiveness examined a relatively small set of their characteristics such as their attitude and academic achievement (Olatunde, 2009), 1 6 teachers‟ attributes as correlates of students academic performance (Sabitu and Nurudeen, 2010) and methodological competent of teachers (Ololube, 2008). No study has examined the psycho-demographic factors on teachers‟ effectiveness; hence, the investigation is conceived. Statement of the Problem Differences exist with regard to teacher quality and effectiveness in Lagos State Schools. This is evident in qualified teachers‟ lack of appropriate ability to promote learning overtime, poor performance of students in public examinations and engagement in antisocial behavior. Characteristics such as teachers‟ partiality in treatment of students, being less resourceful, poor mastery of teaching content, possession of unstructured personality, poor motivation and incentive, poor attitude and interest in the teaching profession have impact on trained teachers‟ effectiveness. Government at all the three tiers (local, state and federal) have continued to evolve and develop new policies and strategies aimed at improving the school system in other words, there has been curriculum review at all levels (National Commission for Colleges of Education, 2010). While these activities are ongoing, the effectiveness of teachers in school is doubtful considering students‟ output in terms of overall academic performance and engagement in antisocial conducts. Poor quality of teaching in schools have resulted in low morale of students, loss of interest in school work, loss of confidence in teachers, truancy, etc. are attributable to ineffectiveness of teachers. When students are ill-equipped, their cognitive ability and mastery of the subject matter could be hindered and their progression towards a complex form of learning could also be affected. Above all, these could make students engage in un- towards behaviours that could hamper teaching-learning and thereby resulting in more debilitating behaviors like gangsterism, cultism, and other vices. Teachers‟ ineffectiveness has been identified to impact on parents‟ frustration, and as such they engage in examination malpractices within the school, thereby offering incentives to teachers for their wards to pass external examinations by ensuring they are assisted. The implication of the foregoing practice is the production of students with low academic competence which will negatively impact on their output and behavior. Obanya (2006) emphasises the problems of quality teaching in schools, when he argued that a qualified teacher is not necessarily competent, and a competent teacher may not necessarily be efficient /effective. Teacher effectiveness has increasingly become the bane of 17 society outcry for a reform or policy shift in the educational system. Hence, the study is designed to investigate the psycho-demographic factors on teacher effectiveness. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between psycho- demographic factors on secondary school teachers‟ effectiveness. Second, the study is designed to establish which psycho-demographic factors (teacher self-efficacy teacher self- esteem, teacher locus of control, teacher work experience, gender and personality) factor that best predict teacher effectiveness. And third, the study will attempt to ascertain the combined and relative effects of psycho-demographic factors on teachers‟ effectiveness Significance of the Study Teacher effectiveness is synonymous with the development of quality workforce which will impart upon the nations‟ infrastructural, economic, social and political development. And based on the problem teachers‟ effectiveness poses for students learning and academic achievement over time. The expected findings of this study should provide the various stakeholders opportunity to maximize the use of the variable to promote teacher effectiveness .For example, policy makers would be expected to design appropriate in-service programme that will help promote teaching effectiveness. Further, curriculum planners would develop appropriate content and pedagogical skills for continuous training of teachers. Further, the anticipated benefit of the various programmes will impact on parents and society. In other words , parents and the society will focus on activities that will promote high integrity among teachers and administrators in school. Also determining appropriate psycho- demographic factors and their correct use will go a long way in promoting effectiveness of trained teachers. When this is done, students‟ academic performance will be enhanced, and reduction of students‟ engagement in anti-social behaviour will be achieved. The expected finding of this study will help in knowing which psychological as well as demographic factors will better predict teacher effectiveness and also know whether gender is synonymous with teacher effectiveness. Finally the expected findings of the study will contribute to knowledge and bridge possible gaps where they already exist and it will add to the body of knowledge which will become a reference point in the future. 1 8 Scope of the Study This study covers public Junior Secondary School teachers from six educational districts in Lagos state covering; Agege, Maryland, Falomo, Yaba Amuwo Odofin and Oshodi/Isolo. The study is designed to determine the extent to which psycho-demographic factors could predict teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers. The study is also limited to only Mathematics and English language teachers‟ because they provide the foundation for quality learning which is established at the level of basic and compulsory education. Operational Definition of Terms The following terms are defined as used in the study  Teacher effectiveness – is viewed as secondary school teachers‟ high expectation of learning outcome; academic, attitudinal and social change among students; utilization of diverse resources; development of civic mindedness and collaborating with other stakeholders.  Teacher work experience – is viewed as the experience that the secondary school teacher gained overtime which enhances their knowledge, skill and productivity of working within the school system.  Teacher self-efficacy is the secondary school teacher‟s belief in his or her capacity to organised and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context  Teacher self-esteem- This is viewed as the positive or negative orientation towards oneself as a teacher in secondary school.  Teacher locus of control –This refers to the extent to which secondary schools teachers believe they can control events that affect them in the course of their work life.  Teacher personality: This is characterised by secondary school teachers behaviours that tends to influence learning and classroom interaction 1 9 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURES The review of Literature is based on the following theoretical background; theories of effectiveness, teaching efficacy theory, self-esteem theory, theory of teacher effectiveness, work experience and gender theory, five factors theory, social cognitive theory, theory and locus of control. Also, empirical studies will be reviewed on gender and teacher effectiveness, work experience and teacher effectiveness, five factors and teacher effectiveness, teaching efficacy and teacher effectiveness, teacher self-esteem and teacher effectiveness, teacher locus of control and teacher effectiveness. Theoretical Background Teacher’s Effectiveness Clark and Walsh (2013) proposed a model of the effective teacher and classified this into four cisterns: content (discipline) knowledge, pedagogical knowledge skills and knowledge of context and personal knowledge. This model is characterised by various components which consist of content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values and knowledge of educational contexts. Other characterisation of the components of the effective teacher according to Clarke and Walsh (2013) and as stated in Jasman (2012) and the National board for professional teaching standard in the United States (2011) includes, theoretical, practical and pedagogical knowledge, focus of concern on students, pedagogical reasoning, understanding of context, reflection and research on their knowledge and practices, collaboration with colleagues and community, a sphere of influence beyond the classroom, being a change agent; and orientation towards improvement of student learning. Clark and Walsh (2013) described disciple knowledge to encompass an understanding of the salient concepts, relationship among concepts, ideas and skills of a subject and has always been acknowledged as the first prerequisite of ability to effectively teach a discipline. Teachers are often described in terms of a specific discipline knowledge. Discipline knowledge is a necessary component of most theories of teaching whether they are traditional transmission models, constructivism or even behaviorist. Discipline knowledge is also a crucial prerequisite in the development of teacher self confidence. Understanding and being able to apply discipline knowledge builds self 2 0 confidence, which is crucial in the development of an effective teacher. (Tisher, 2012) Although discipline knowledge is an expectation, when it comes to choosing and judging teachers it is the combination of discipline knowledge, application, interpersonal skills and motivational style that is values (Clark and Walsh 2013). Pedagogical skills with the rise of professional teachers rather than the tradition of practitioners who apprenticed students, notably with the sophistic in classical Greece, the distinction between the practice and teaching of the discipline gave rise to the notion of skills and knowledge independent of the discipline and particularly to teaching. This art and science of teaching became knowledge as pedagogy, and defining pedagogical knowledge as consisting primarily of knowledge about classroom management, the organisation of classroom, assessment, methods for the motivation of students, personal knowledge about particular students and their families and social interactional skills. Based on the conceptualisation of pedagogical knowledge, there remains tension over the separation of the categories of discipline and pedagogical knowledge, Clark and Walsh (2013) citing Lusted (2009), contended that how one teaches cannot be separated from how one learns and the nature of the subject matter, therefore instruction cannot be separated from learning or curriculum, second, the separation of pedagogical skill and personal qualities is also artificial, according to Van Uanen (1994), pedagogy is viewed as the relational knowledge of children, that one understands children and youths, how they look at the world, and how each child is a unique person. Knowledge of context; Clark and Walsh (2013) posited that, the classroom, school culture, community educational system and students can all significantly influence teacher effectiveness. A teacher who may be effective in one context may struggle in another. Any model of effective teaching must be situational contingent. In other words any theory of contingency will need to involve such factors as the volatility of the environment, the discipline taught, the community, the school and departmental organization and philosophy and the background of the student. As the context changes the weight of degree of importance while for marginalised students, personal qualities come more to the fore. Personal knowledge; the teacher‟s personal qualities are recognised as being influential in the overall picture of an effective teacher. Two components of personal qualities are the moral code of behavior such as honesty, and integrity, and the teacher‟s personal philosophy and self belief, which is best described within a motivational framework. Effective teachers are driven by a strong and coherent philosophy, and influenced by their self efficacy beliefs. Not inexpertly these teachers reveal a holistic philosophy that centre on 2 1 educating students for life. These teachers also have positive self-efficacy belief and are comfortable with innovation, risk taking self efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of behaviors and explain the choice people make, their aspiration and persistence in difficult situation (Clark and Walsh 2013). Figure 2.1: Model of teaching effectiveness Discipline Knowledge Pedagogical Knowledge Personal Knowledge Knowledge Of Context Teaching is largely an occupation in which teachers function within the classroom and as members of the larger school organisation, this is identified with teachers as a dual allegiance to the school and students. Models of teaching place different emphasis on the relationship between student, teacher, and the school administration (Harris & Rutledge 2007). There are at least four prevailing models or conception of teachers‟ work found in research literature: teaching as labor, teaching as craft, teaching as a profession and teaching as an art (Darling-Hammond, Wise & Peace, 1983; Mitchell & Kirchner, 1983; Rowan, 1994). These conceptualisations focus on different characteristics of the school as an organisation and the role of the teacher within that organisation. Harris and Rutledge (2007) citing Firestone and Bader (1991) contended that in teaching as labor conceptualisation, teachers‟ work is understood to occur within the school system hierarchy and is subject to oversight by administration. At the classroom level, teachers adhere to external demand as well as school level routines and procedures that can be measured and evaluated. Teaching is seen as a rational activity and teachers are seen as adaptable to new theories and external circumstances. There are at least two branches of educational research that utilise teaching as labor view. Responding to organisation and theory that assumes members of organisations engage in behavior and decision making to maximise organisational productivity, early studies of school organization focused on the bureaucratic components of the work (Metz, 1978; Rogers, 1968). These studies identified bureaucratic aspects of schools including a division of labor with staff assigned to specific instruction and managerial tasks, job recruitment based 2 2 on competence and merit, a hierarchy in the status for administrators and teachers. At the same time, they described schools as characterised by a structural looseness or a loose coupling with the teaching technology semi-autonomous from the administrative structure (Weick, 1976). The resource allocation research provides an additional example of the teaching of labor model. This approach contends that different levels of the school system have a “conditional and contributionary relation to events and outcomes occurring at adjacent ones”(Barr & Dreeben, 1983) and focuses among other things on the way teachers make decisions about the allocation of time, materials and students within classrooms. Empirically, these studies demonstrate that some teachers are more likely than others to allocate similar resources in ways that raise students achievement scores (Barr & Dreeben, 1983; Gamoran & Dreeben, 1986) for example in a study of 15 first grade classroom, Barr and Dreeben (1983) found that teachers vary in their decisions about how to sue the same curricular and instructional materials and how to group students and that these decisions seem to be associated with higher student achievement gains (controlling for initial students achievement) Rowan and Miracle (1983) also found that the way teachers implement their curriculum affects students‟ achievement. In sum, there is an implicit assumption, consistent with teaching as labor view, that there are “better” decisions that others and effective teachers are those who make the connection between theory and evidence, they do not endeavour to identify the specific characteristics of the individual teachers who make better decisions about student grouping. In the conception of teaching as a profession, teacher‟s work is understood to include a technical knowledge as well as an exercise of judgment as to how to apply this knowledge with students. Because teaching is viewed as highly complex, it requires professional judgment in which teachers draw on their formal knowledge base as well as their knowledge of learners (Firestone & Bader, 1991; Shulman, 1987) Teachers‟ knowledge base is gained through education experience and meaningful professional development (Darling-Hammond 1998) Further, teachers‟ work occurs within a community supported by administrators and peers who provide tools and support for effective work (Tarlbert and Mclaughlin, 1994). Effective teacher under this model draws on a strong knowledge base, as well as in collegial relationships with peers, to deal with the uncertain environment of the classroom. There are many branches of research which use and support teaching as a profession. Teachers in schools with high levels of professional involvement are likely to participate in on-going continuous improvement (Little, 1982). Schools have networks of teachers leading 2 3 to different patterns of communication and interaction (Siskin, 1995). Teachers make policy implementation decisions through formal and informal interaction with networks of colleagues within the school (Obum, 2004). Studies have also examined how subject matter identification shapes teachers‟ more in high schools. This research has found that teachers‟ networks shape, in large part, their support networks and their collegial interactions (Stodolsky, 1984; Stodolsky & Grossman, 1995). At the high school level, department serves as a primary locus of organization for teachers defining their professional community and their value (Siskin & Little, 1995). The subject of matter field also shapes, in large part, teachers‟ attitude about the technology of teaching, particularly, conception of how materials should be presented the types of instructional activity that should be used. Rowan (1994) lended support to teaching as profession model in his study comparing the complexity of teachers‟ work to other occupations. Given findings on the relative complexity of teaching compared to other occupations, Rowan citing Hanushek (1996) work on school effectiveness said that, “the relatively high level of Language development required for teaching appear to have an objective functional value in the education workplace and is therefore more than an expression of false professionalism. In teaching as a craft, teachers maintain discretion over classroom decisions, applying their knowledge of curricular and instructional techniques as appropriate. In addition, there is a focus on the interaction between a teacher and his or her students. In this conceptualisation, an effective teacher employs pedagogical information useful in enhancing learners daily classroom action, (Grimmett & Mackinnon, 1992). Teachers are expected to draw on pedagogical content knowledge as well as knowledge of each student to optimise student learning. Teaching as a craft is similar to teaching as a profession, except with a greater focus on the classroom and student-teacher relationships with administrators and peers. Finally, teaching as an art focuses on the individualised nature of the teaching task and the unpredictable nature of the classroom environment. While teachers draw on professional repertoire and knowledge, their teaching reflects professional repertoire and knowledge and unique personality as well as the distinctive interactions in students. An effective teacher under this categorisation has a spear gift and talent with students but also thinks critically about the pedagogical implications of external influence (Gage & Berliner, 1989). Teaching as an art, as with the craft and profession views, also appears to be relationship oriented, although for somewhat different reasons. 24 Big five Factors Personality Type One of the psychological constructs that lack precise and universally accepted definition is the term personality. Its problems of definition stems from two major factor, the first is traced to diverse theoretical orientation of scholars of the concept who have put toward these definition, the second factor is related to the etymology of the word personality (Ben, 2011). Prasad and Bannergee (2007) defined personality to include an individual‟s own evaluation about himself or herself with other peoples perceptions. Hall and Lindzoy (2008) viewed personality as the uniqueness of individual behavior, the essence of human condition as well as the mediating force in human adjustment. Onyejiaku (2008) also defined it as the organisation of human behavior, the changing nature of personal growth, the psychological and genetic basis of actions and the motivational and natural emotional determination and individual‟s behavior in certain situations from the foregoing, it can be pointed out that some common features exist across the various definitions of personality which include that each individual is unique in terms of his/her personality traits and characteristics, that no two persons are exactly the same and that personality is not a situational or chance occurrence, it is characteristic of the individual. Garcia, Kupczynki & Holland (2011) observed one of the challenges that is facing education is the various personality styles that could either negatively or positively impact academic excellence in secondary students. For example Garcia et al (2011) citing Richardson and Arker (2010), David (2006) and Mccombs and Millar (2006) emphasised that personality styles need to be recognised to meet individual students‟ needs also, good relationship between students and teachers often lead to increased students‟ performance which implies that examining the relationship between students and teacher would be a good predictor of the Learners motivation to achieve academically. Gurren, Rueden, Massenkoff, Kaplan and Lero Vie (2012) observed that the five-factor model is a widely accepted construct describing personality variation along five dimensions that is extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness neuroticism and agreeableness. Cross cultural tests of the five factor model in over 50 societies across six continents supported the existence and universality of the covariance among traits in human despite vastly different culture, history, economy, social life, ideology and every other form of cultural and behavioral expression (Schmitt, Allik, McCrae, Bennet-Martinez, Akaky, & Ault, 2007). 25 Gurven et al (2012) summed that despite the increasing consensus supporting the five factor models a five factor structure does not robustly emerge everywhere and that some researchers have posited more than five personality factors within certain populations. However, these additional factors can often be subsumed under one of the big five factors. Thus, the five factor model has to be robustly falsified. Henriques (2012) admitted that the most well-known work in personality psychology over the past three decades has been the “Big five” model of personality trait. Traits are broad dimensions of personality, which have been found to be present across cultures and remain remarkably stable after emerging adulthood. Accordingly, personality researchers have reached a general consensus that there are five big traits. Extraversion, which refers to the general degree of positively, approaching motivation and sociability; Neuroticism, which refers to the general degree of negativity, avoidance motivation, and emotional reactivity; Agreeableness, which refers to the tendency to get along, be warm, sympathetic and understanding; conscientiousness, which refers to the extent of organised planning, responsibility and achievement motivation and openness, which refers to the desire to experience novelty, connect with new feelings and learn new thing Rafi, Jafri, Ashraf and Scholar (2012) reviewed research articles and summed that teaching profession does not require only capacity to teach lessons, it also requires an understanding of the system and regulations of the school culture. It has capability to cooperate with each other and likelihood of communism in which one has to teach. Individual difference is considered an uphill task in the course of dealing with the challenges of the teaching profession; hence, personality traits are likely to be essential forecasters of this capability. Personality research has found shifts since prior research were conducted on this area of interest. The dynamic change has been the acknowledgement of the Big five factor model of personality which divides personality traits into five groups; neurotism (self-concerned), extraversion (Conversational), openness to experience (self-governing), agreeableness (compassionate) and conscientiousness (consistent) (srivastava and John, 2009). The Big five is the commonly used term for the model of personality which describes the five fundamental factors of personality (Roughton, 2006).The Big five model is considered to be one of the most comprehensive empirical, data-driven research findings in the history of personality psychology. Identifying the traits and structure of human personality has been one of the most fundamental goals of psychology. Over three or four decades of research, these five broad factors were discovered and defined by several independent sets of researchers (Digman, 1990). 2 6 Mershon and Gorsuch (1988); Paunonon and Ashton (2001) noted that these traits have been found to organise personality at the highest level, and so they are most helpful as a conceptual, organising framework for regular, low level personality traits. However, because the big five traits are so broad and comprehensive, they are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous lower-level traits. These researchers began by studying known personality traits and then factor-analysing hundreds of measures of these traits in self-report and questionnaire data, peer ratings and objective measures from experimental settings in order to find the underlying factors of personality. The initial model was advanced by Tupes and Cristal (1961), but failed to reach an academic audience until 1989. In 1990, Digman advanced his five factors model of personality, which Goldberg extended to the highest level of organisation (Goldberg, 1993). These five over- arching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits. This five factors provide a rich conceptual framework for integrating all the research finding and theory in personality psychology. The big five traits are also referred as the five factor model or FFM (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and as the Global factors of personality (Russell & Karol, 1994). At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same Big five factors Tupes & Cristal (1961), were first, followed by Goldberg at the oregun research institute (Goldberg 1982; Norman & Goldberg, 1996; Peabody & Goldberg 1989; Saucier & Goldberg 1996; Digman, 1989). Cattel at the University of Illinois, (Cattle, Marshael, & Georgaides, 1957; Karson & O‟Dell 1976; Krug & John 1986; Catell & Mend, 2007. And Costar and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health (Costa & McCrae, 1992). This four sets of researchers used different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five factors has different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly interrelated and factor analytically aligned (International personality item pool, 2001; Carnivez & Allen 2005; Conn & Rieke, 1994; Cattel 1996, Grucza & Goldberg, 2007). When scored for individual feedback, these traits are frequently presented as percentile scores. For example, a conscientiousness of responsibility, and orderliness, whereas an extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional need for solitude and quiet. Although these trait clusters are statistical aggregates, exceptions may exist on individual personality profiles. On the average people who register high in openness are intellectually curious, open to emotion, interested in art and willing to try new things. An 2 7 individual may have a high overall openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures but have no great interest in arts or poetry. Popkins (2001) contended that to determine the greatness of a psychological theory, it is necessary to examine several key factors, first, to truly be labeled a great theory, it should be established that the theory does not contradict currently held or accepted theories. Also, once this is established a great theory would include some kind of taxonomy. In addition, a truly great theory would be applicable. In other words, the theory would have some sort of clinical applied uses and would be able to predict experimental results without contradictions and with a relatively high level of consistency. Also, it requires originality. Finally, a great personality theory also needs to be universal. Cultural or situational dependent models. To establish the five factor mode‟s compatibility with other models, it is necessary to examine other popular or long held personality theories. Foremost, it is easy to see that the five factor model is consistent with other factor analytical models. For example, Eysenck developed his Psychotics, Extraversion and Neuroticism (PEN) model from cattle‟s sixteen-factor model. In this same vein of factor analytical models, it is now proposed that the structure of personality is best conceptual as consisting of five major traits, rather than Eysenck‟s three types (Mc Martins, 1995). It seems natural that any factor analytic model should not directly contradict another. With the five factors placed on sliding scales, it becomes only an exercise in persistence (through experimentation, survey and interview to associate various human characteristics with one or more of the five factors. Strong correlation quickly becomes evident and as trends develop, it becomes possible to assign scales associated with the five factors. It seems plausible that these results can be used to extrapolate many behavioural characteristics, including such dependent traits such as financial success and depth of religious faith. Accordingly Langston and Sykes (1997) attempted to empirically establish a taxonomy of personality. Naturally, this taxonomy has long been the goal of personality psychologists, though it seems that of late, has developed in trying to extrapolate the broadest of personality traits (the big five, essentially) (Langston & Sykes, 1997). The problem with the five factor model is that, although often very categorical and taxonomy, it does not delve deeply into the causation of certain correlates. In fact, some relationships are counter intuitive, making extrapolation by common sense difficult. In general, most of the applications of the five-factor model as it now exists seem to come in the academic and experimental forum, with reference to the novel‟s usefulness in academics. Digman (1990) stated, at a minimum, research on the five-factor model has given 2 8 us a useful set of very broad dimensions that characterise individual differences. This dimension can be measured with high reliability and impressive validity. In summary, Digman (1990) stated that the five variables that compose the five models provide a good answer to the question of personality structure. Popkins (2001) contended that it would be possible to argue that the five-factor model does not meet the criterion of originality because, when Fiske first derived a model for predicting behavior that consisted of five-factor, Cattel‟s sixteen-factor system was already nearly five years old (Digman, 1990). Despite this, the five factor model could arguably be considered distant enough from Cattell‟s model to warrant the label of originality, though it is more useful to think of the models together, as a single set of theories that, although very different individually, all fit into one family. This family of models starting with Cattell‟s sixteen-factor system and including Eysenck‟s model and the five-factor model grew from a study of language initiated by German psychologists, All-port and Odbert (Digman, 1990), who were inspired by two other German Psychologists, Baumgarten and Klages (Digman, 1990). It appears the five-factor model holds very well across cultural and linguistics line. Digman gives three examples of other cultures (and languages) in which the five factor theory has held up nicely, these studies took place in Japan, the Philippines, and Germany, and in all three cases, a five-factor solution was clearly evident at the end of testing (Digman, 1990). A current fault of the five-factor model seems to be that it fails to anticipate behavior in many situations. The same virtue that allows the five-factor model to hold true across cultural boundaries is its fault in specific situations; the five variables are broad (McAdams, 1992). According to Morris and Maistro (2006), Gray (2002), Weiten (2000), contemporary trait theorists have boiled personality traits down to five basic dimensions extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness. Arguably research has shown that these five traits can be used to describe people all over the world, and this has led to a growing consensus today that these Big five personality dimensions, also known as the five-factor model, capture the most salient dimensions of human personality (Funder, 1991; McCrae & Costa, 1996; Wiggins, 1996), although there is some disagreement about whether the fifth dimension should be called “culture” or “openness to experience (McCrae & Costa, 1985) or “Intellect” (Digman & Takemoto-Chock, 1981; Peabody & Goldberg, 1989). Recently, each of the Big five traits has been shown to have at least six facets or components as shown in table 2.1 29 Traits Facets of Each Big Five Trait Extroverts Warmth, gregarious, assertiveness, activity excitement, seeking, positive emotions. Agreeableness Trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tender mindedness. Conscientiousness Competence, order, dutifulness, achievement, striving, self- discipline, deliberation. Emotional in Anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, stability/neuroticism vulnerability. Openness to experience Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values. Adapted from Morris and Maistro (2006). The 30 identified facets are not an exhaustive listing of all aspects of personality, rather, they represent a broad sample of important traits (Costa & McGraw 1992). A brief explanation of the Big five personality types is presented; Extroversion; this is characterised by positive emotions, urgency and the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extroverts enjoy being with people and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say „yes‟ or let‟s go to opportunities for excitement. In group they like to talk, assert themselves and draw attention to themselves (Weiten, 2001; Gray, 2002). Introverts lack the social exuberance and activity levels of extroverts. They tend to seem quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation than extroverts and more time alone (Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). Agreeableness: Weiten (2001) and Gray (2002) explain that agreeableness is characterised by the tendency to be sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others, they are generally consistent, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. They also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent and trustworthy. Paunonen and Ashton (2001) contended that disagreeable individuals place self interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others‟ well- 3 0 being and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others‟ motives makes them suspicious, unfriendly and uncooperative. Conscientiousness: this is characterised by the individual/people being diligent, disciplined, well-organised, punctual and dependable. The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. It influences the way we control, regulate and direct our impulses. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as need for achievement. (Roughton, 2006; Weiten, 2001; Gray, 2002). Roughton (2006) summed that those who score low on the conscientious continuum are unstructured, have flexible and informal approach to work, are engaged in multiple tasks, not detail conscious, prefer big picture, less committed to formal tasks, work well in chaotic environment and dislike paperwork. Neuroticism: is characterised by the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability. Church (1994), contended that those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in bad moods. These people in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high in neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions and cope effectively with stress. At the other end of the continuum, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable and free from persistent negative feelings. (Paunonen and Ashton, 2001). Openness to experience; is associated with curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity and unconventional attitude (Weiten 2001). They tend to be compared to close people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. People with low scores on openness according to Paunonen and Ashton (2001), tend to have more conventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and science with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as uninteresting. Teachers Self-efficacy Teachers are key factors in determining the level of success of a given education st system. In the early part of the 21 century, many countries realised teacher qualifications are very important and have identified the policy of educational management required to produce good teachers. Education systems are faced with the problems of keeping teachers in the 31 profession as well as increasing their level of qualification and learning achievement of students. Good policy has to be concerned with the quality of the teachers from the moment they embark on their tertiary education programme. Current policies relating to teacher production have to be concerned with the subject the prospective teacher will teach as well as related knowledge, such as techniques and teaching strategies in the classroom and school experience. These classroom skills and techniques can be learnt through work experience programme in schools as part of an undergraduate programme. Accordingly, this training is expected to help in the provision of newly qualified teachers with good knowledge and teaching techniques that will help provide students with the necessary instruction and learning in other to meet certain criteria and testing (Erawan, 2011). Apart from teachers being knowledgeable and being able to apply effective teaching techniques, there is another indicator of a qualified teacher which educators see as important, namely teaching efficacy. Chambers and Hardy (2011) explained that teaching efficacy is an important variable that links knowledge, skills and the behavior of teacher in order to produce efficient and effective teaching practice. Demopoulou (2012) summarized teacher efficacy in relation to how much a teacher believe he or she can effectively complete the tasks teaching requires, so that children acquire the skills required for learning. Teaching efficacy, the equivalent to Bandura‟s outcome expectation, is the teachers‟ belief that students can be taught despite external factors, such as their family environment. Reiterating earlier views, Dimopoulou (2012) reported that teachers‟ efficacy has proven to be an important variable in teacher effectiveness. For example low teacher efficacy has been linked to low students efficacy and low academic achievement, which in turn leads to further decline in teacher efficacy. Tai, Hu, Wang and Chen (2012), reviewed various research outcomes and identified the following components of teacher self-efficacy: Teachers‟ personal teaching self-efficacy, teachers‟ belief in the efficiency of teaching, understanding students and belief that their methods can overcome the harmful effects of the external world on the students and on teaching; teachers general teaching self-efficacy; the teachers belief in their impact on students‟ individual differences, belief in their impact on all students and belief to overcome harmful effect of students‟ family and society; teachers‟ professional teaching self-efficacy; the professional belief and skill that could train students to have professional skill operational ability and the professional knowledge of professional subject and practice. Teacher self-efficacy and the teaching process according to Tai et al (2012) shows a strong association with learning satisfaction and learning outcome. 3 2 In a study investigating the antecedents to instructors self efficacy for teaching, Hora and Ferrare (2012) contended that a possible explanation for the prevalence of ambiguous self efficacy belief is lack of active reflection on teaching process. This is important because information regarding one‟s efficacy alone is not useful but must be actively considered and reflected upon, this suggests that without active reflection, an individual may not form highly developed efficacy beliefs. Another possibility explained by Hora and Ferrara (2012) is, the instructiors do not have sufficient information to reflect upon. As a result, it is worth considering the types of feedback that are available for them to reflect upon. In sum, a system exists for the regular provision of detailed feedback about instructors‟ efficacy as scholars, and this feedback is carefully considered and reflected upon by individuals who frequently incorporate these insights into future behavior. Pendergast, Garvis, and Keogh (2011) also reported that teacher self-efficacy is an important motivational construct that shapes teacher effectiveness in the classroom. Teachers with high level of self-efficacy have been shown to be resilient in their teaching and are likely to put in concerted effort to assist students reach their goal. In contrast, teachers with low level of self-efficacy have been found to be less likely put in concerted efforts to reach the learning needs of all their students. Self-efficacy as a psychological construct has its roots in the social cognitive theory (Aremu, 2008). This theory was developed by Albert Bandura. Labone (1995) citing Bandura, explained that all experiences and related behavior or action are mediated by self- regulatory mechanisms, and he states that one of the most important of these self-regulatory mechanisms is perceived self efficacy. Bandura (1986) defined perceived self-efficacy as people‟s judgement of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of actions required to attain designated types of performance. It is concerned not only with the skills one has but with the judgements of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses. Bandura (1977) stated that psychological procedures, whatever their forms, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. Self efficacy beliefs are concerned with individuals‟ perceived capabilities to produce results and to attain designated types of performance; they differ from related conceptions of personal competence that form the core constructs of the theories. Self-efficacy judgments are more task and situation specific, contextual and individuals make use of these judgments in reference to some type of goal. To better understand the nature of self-efficacy beliefs Pajares (1996) contended that it will be useful to explain how they are acquired , how they influence motivational and self -regulatory process and how they differ from similar or related conception of self belief. According to Aremu 3 3 (2008), Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997), the case for the contextual and mediation role of self efficacy in human behavior can be made by exploring the four sources from which these beliefs are developed, the most influential source of these beliefs is the interpreted result of one purposive performance, or mastery experience, simply put, individuals gauge the effect of their actions, and interpretation of these effects help create efficacy beliefs. Outcomes interpreted as successful increase self-efficacy; those interpreted as failures lower it. Accordingly, Aremu (2008) posited that such an accomplishment, or enactive mastery, is the most influential source of self-efficacy beliefs. The second source of efficacy information is the vicarious experience of the effects produced by the actions of others. This source of information is weaker than the interpreted results of mastery experiences, but when people are uncertain about their abilities or have limited prior experience, they become more sensitive to it. As Schunk, (1981) demonstrated, the effects of models are particularly relevant in this context. A significant model in one‟s life can help instill, self beliefs that will influence the course and direction life will take. Part of one‟s vicarious experience also involves the social comparisons made with other individuals. These comparisons along with peer modeling can be powerful influences on developing self-perceptions of competence (Schunk, 1983). Brown and Inouye (1978), argued that interaction effects can complicate evaluation of the relative power of different modes of influence. For example, a model‟s failure has negative effect on the self-efficacy of observers when they judge themselves as having comparable ability to the model. If, on the other hand, observers judge their capability as superior to that of model‟s, failure of the model does not have a negative effect. Individuals also create and develop self efficacy beliefs as a result of the verbal persuasions they receive from others. Aremu (2008) summed that social verbal persuasion has to do with an individual receiving enforcement for behavior. If this occurs, the individual is likely to have high self-efficacy for that behavior. According to Pajares (1996) someone who must cultivate people‟s beliefs, in their capabilities while e ensuring envisioned success is attainable and just as positive persuasions may work to encourage and empower, negative persuasions can work to defeat and weaken self-beliefs. In fact it is usually easier to weaken self efficacy beliefs through negative appraisal than to strengthen such beliefs through positive encouragement (Bandura, 1986). Physiological states such as anxiety, stress, emotional arousal, fatigue and moods also provide information about efficacy beliefs and because individuals have the capability to alter their thinking, self efficacy beliefs also powerfully influence the physiological states. 3 4 According to Aremu (2008), individuals utilize their moods and bodily sensations when formulating self-Efficacy beliefs behaviors. Pajares (1996) argued that when people experience aversive thoughts and fears about their capabilities those negative affective reactions can further lower perceptions of capability and trigger the stress and agitation that help ensure the inadequate performance they fear. Strong emotional reactions to a task, provide cues about anticipated success or failure of the outcome. Self-efficacy expectations also vary in three dimensions; magnitude, strength and generosity; Magnitude refers to the degree of perceived difficulty or threat a person believes he/she encounters. Thus, when tasks are ordered in level of difficulty, the efficacy expectations of different individuals may be limited to the simpler tasks, extend to moderately difficult ones, or include even the most tasking performances. Strength refers to an individuals persistence in attempting a specific behavior in the face of frustrations, pain and failure. In other words expectancies vary in strength, weak expectations are easily extinguishable by not confirming experiences, whereas individuals who possess strong expectations of mastery will persevere in their coping efforts despite not confirming experiences. Generality refers to whether or not changes in self-efficacy expectancies transfer to other behaviors and situations, that is, expectation also differs in generality. Some experiences create circumscribed mastery expectations, others instill a more generalised sense of efficacy that extends beyond the specific treatment situation (Bandura, 1977; Aremu, 2008). Henson et al (2001) summed research reports on teacher self efficacy to include the following: teacher efficacy is related to positive teaching behaviors and students outcome; teacher efficacy is strongly related to achievement, students‟ sense of efficacy and motivation teachers high in efficacy tend to experiment more with methods of teaching to better meet students‟ needs; efficacious teachers plan more, persist longer with students who struggle and are less critical of students errors. Teacher self efficacy is viewed as the extent to which the teacher believes he or she has the capacity to affect student performance. Pajares (1996) and Labone (1995) reported that teachers‟ beliefs of personal efficacy affect their instructional activities and their orientation towards the educational process, for example, teachers with a low sense of efficacy tend to hold a custodial orientation that takes a pessimistic view of students‟ motivation, emphasises rigid control of classroom behavior, and relies on extrinsic inducements and negative sanctions to get students to study. Teachers with high efficacy 35 create mastery experiences for students whereas those with low instructional efficacy undermine students‟ cognitive development as well as judgment of their capability. Further, teacher efficacy predicts student achievement and students‟ achievement beliefs across various areas and levels. Knobloch (2001) also reported that teacher efficacy is an important variable in teacher development and how they teach. More so, teacher efficacy is related to teachers‟ behaviors, effort, goal, aspiration, openness to new ideas, innovation, planning and organisation, persistence, resilience, reluctance to use criticism, enthusiasm, willingness to work with difficult students and commitment to teaching and their careers. Teacher Self-esteem Mustaq, Shakoor, Azeem and Zia (2012) observed that self esteem is one of the early and oldest concepts that first emerged from William James in 1890, and it was viewed as the comparison of actual self and ideal self. It involves individual‟s perception about his/her own qualities. It finds expression in behavior. Arguably, one can interpret self-esteem as a long term personality characteristic or as a temporary psychological condition, thus, self-esteem refers to how one thinks and feels about himself/herself. Self-esteem is the temperament to experience oneself as being competent to cope with basic challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness. Self-esteem grips self-relevant viewpoint- competent/ incompetent and related self-relevant emotions, triumph/despair, pride/shame, confidence/caution, assertiveness/ timorousness. Mustaq et al (2012), further viewed self- esteem to include a person‟s positive, negative or mixed, subjective appraisal, thoughts or feelings. The more positive these thoughts and feelings are the higher his/her self-esteem will be and conversely the more negative these thoughts and feelings are, the lower his/her self-esteem will be. Feeling good about oneself is important as it gives one a sense of control over one‟s life, helps one feel satisfied in relationships, allows view realistic expectations for oneself, and enables one pursue one‟s goals. It is a very important aspect of one‟s life, if individual has a high level of self-esteem he/she will be confident, happy and sure of him/herself. He/she would be highly motivated and have the right attitude to succeed; self-esteem is therefore crucial to individuals‟ life and is the cornerstone of a positive attitude toward living. On the other hand, feeling bad about oneself, contributes to a distorted view of, lack of self- confidence, poor performance, and unhappiness. Low self-esteem results from having a poor self image caused by attitude. Mustaq et al (2012) citing Mank (2006), summed that self esteem is a ratio of individual‟s success in important areas of life to the failure in them. 3 6 Professional self-esteem according to Tabassum and Ali (2012) is the appraisal of one‟s capabilities that are suitable for a particular profession; it is to get to know the real essence of a profession, its prerequisites, and the competences level of the professional. Tabassum and Ali (2012), citing Connel (1991) viewed the concept as occupational self- esteem and defined it as an organised view of one‟s worth in the work role based on an evaluation of the self in relation to perceptions held about competency in work-related interpersonal relationships and ability to achieve own role expectations. This definition explains that professional/occupation self esteem is achieved through professional competency and fulfillment of professional demands and expectations. Also, Tabassum and Ali (2012), citing Tinsely (2002) described professional self-esteem as an individual‟s self- esteem specifically with regards to his or her professional position and acceptance in that professional role. This definition also highlights the importance of professional position and professional acceptances of individuals that makes them professionals. Professional self-esteem is that cognitive, emotional behaviour state that makes an individual a true professional in real sense, its need is ardently felt in teaching profession as teachers are directly interacting with the whole personality of their students. This interaction needs devotion, sense of ownership and commitments which are directly linked not only with their mind but also with their enthusiastic attachment with their profession. Professional self esteem is eminent for teachers so that they may proceed in their profession with confidence, attachment and without any fear of failure. The teacher‟s professional responsibilities involve reinforcing self and learning. Thus, it involves not only the teaching of particular academic skills, but as importantly, the fostering of student self - esteem (Mustaq et al 2012). Shokraii (2013) contended that self-esteem begins to develop early in life and has been studied in children as young as seven years old, as children learn to describe aspects of themselves, such as their physical attributes, ability and preferences. He concludes that contrary to intuition, individuals have not one but several views of their selves, encompassing many domains of life, such as scholastic ability, physical appearance and romantic appeal, job competence and adequacy as a provider. Furthermore, Shokraii (2013) reported that psychologies generally split self-esteem into two types: earned self-esteem and global self-esteem. The concepts of each differ in critical ways. Earned self-esteem, this is the self-esteem that people earn through their own accomplishments. It possesses all of the positive character traits that ought to be encouraged and applauded, because it is ultimately based on work habit. Global self-esteem. This refers to a general sense of pride in oneself. It is not grounded in a particular skill or achievement. 3 7 This means an under achieving teacher can still have sense of worth in the warmth of global Self-esteem, even if the door to earned self-esteem is shut. The fundamental difference between earned and global self-esteem rest on their concept of attainment roles. Colman (2003) viewed self-esteem as one‟s attitude towards oneself or one‟s opinion or evaluation of oneself, which may be positive (favorable or high), neutral, or negative (unfavorable or low). Self esteem is generally considered the evaluative component of the self concept, a broader representation of the self that includes cognitive and behavioral aspect as well as evaluative or affective one. While the construct is most often used to refer to a global sense of self worth, narrower concepts such as self-confidence or body esteem are used to imply a sense of self-esteem in more specific domains. It is also widely assumed that self-esteem functions as a trait, that is, it is stable across time within individual self esteem which is an extremely popular construct within psychology and has been related to virtually every other psychological concept or domain, including personality (e.g. shyness) behaviors (e.g. task performance), cognitive (e.g. attribution bias), and clinical concepts (e.g. anxiety and depression), while some researchers have been particularly concerned with understanding the nuances of the self-esteem construct, other have focused on the adaptive and self- protective functions. (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991; Dondeneau, Baldium Baccus, Sakellaropoulo & Pruessner, 2007). Huitt (2009) and Flynn (2003), in order to explain the concept of self-esteem, described the self to mean the conscious reflection of one‟s own being or identity, as an object separate from others or from the environment. And it is determined by the ratio of our actualities to our supposed potentialities; a fraction of which our pretensions are the denominator and the numerator our success; thus, self-esteem = successes/pretensions, which may be increased by diminishing the denominator and increasing the numerators, that is, increasing self-esteem results when success is improved relative to expectation. Accordingly, self-esteem is regarded as the affective or emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one‟s self-worth). Rosenberg (1965), who is a pioneer in the development of the concept viewed self- esteem as a term used in psychology to reflect a person‟s overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth, also self-esteem encompasses beliefs and emotions, it is regarded as an enduring personality characteristic trait. though normal, short-term variations occur. Hjelle and Ziegler (1981) expressed self-esteem according to Gordon Allport who was describes the proprium (real self) to mean an individual‟s evaluation of herself or himself. The urge to want to do something for oneself and take all the credit is one of the 3 8 most conspicuous aspects of a 2-year olds behavior. They further contended that parents frequently consider this the age of negativism, since the child resists almost every adult‟s proposal as a threat to integrity and autonomy. Later by the age of 4 or 5, self-esteem acquires a competitive flavor, reflected by the child‟s delight. Self-esteem need as described by Maslow in Hjelle and Ziegler (1981), Boeree (2006), indicated there are two versions of esteem needs, a low and a high one. The low one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even dominance. The high form involves the need for self- respect, including such feelings as confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence and freedom. The negative version of these needs is low self-esteem, inferiority complex, ineptness, weakness and helplessness. This negative self perception, in turn, may give rise to basic discouragement, a sense of futility and hopelessness in dealing with life‟s demands, and a low evaluation of self vis-à-vis others. Maslow emphasises that the healthiest self-esteem is based on earned respect from others rather than on fame, status, or adulation. To be solid, self-esteem must be founded on one‟s actual worth, not on external factors outside one‟s control. Dandeneau and Baldwin (2004), reported that research into cognitive processes characterising people with low and high self-esteem has shown reliable differences in how they respond to certain types of information. This research has generally focused on the evaluative judgment people make of themselves and their performance. After a failure, for example, individuals with low self-esteem tend to focus on the negative outcome, blame themselves for it and draw uncharitable inferences about their abilities. Conversely, high self-esteem individuals, engage in various defensive processes. They engage in processes that are biased toward overestimation of their control over circumstances, overestimation of their performances and a tendency to respond to any negative outcome with external attributions and increased attention to alternative domain of strength. Such differences in handling outcome information explain why low self-esteem has been associated with negative effect, depression, anxiety and maladjustment, while high self-esteem has been associated with confidence, expectation of success, self-enhancement, positive self views, optimism, and low levels of anxiety. Feldman and Downey (1994), Leary, et al (1995), and Ayuk, Mendoza-Denton, Mischel, Downey, Peake and Rodriguez (2000), expatiated the sociometer theory which holds that the self esteem system is, at its core, a gauge that monitors the degree to which 39 one is accepted and included by others versus rejected and excluded. One needs to constantly access and monitor others‟ reactions in order to retrieve social information pertaining to one‟s inclusionary status. According to this theory, people who, over time experienced real or imagined rejection develop lower trait self-esteem than people who feel accepted and included in their social environment, low trait self-esteem in turn predisposes the person to more readily perceive others as rejecting. In contrast, individuals with high self-esteem generally perceive others as accepting. Therefore, according to this perspective, a key cognitive process underlying self-esteem dynamics is the perception of rejection and acceptance. Related research on the construct of rejection sensitivity confirmed that individuals who have a strong tendency to anxiously expect, perceive and overreact to rejection tend to also suffer from low self esteem (Dandeneau & Baldwin, 2004). The concept of self-esteem has been criticised by various authors, foremost among them is Albert Ellis who on numerous occasions criticised the concept “as essentially self- defeating and ultimately destructive”. Although he acknowledges the human propensity and tendency to ego rating as innate, he has claimed that the philosophy of self-esteem is unrealistic, illogical, self and socially destructive – often doing more harm than good. He has questioned the foundations and usefulness of generalised ego strength and claimed that self- esteem is based on arbitrary definitional premises, over generalised, perfectionist and grandiose thinking. He sees rating and valuing human beings‟ totality and total selves as irrational, unethical and absolutistic (Ellis, 2005). Flynn (2003) also criticised the concept of self-esteem when she analyse the theoretical assumptions and methodological application of self-esteem. In her words she concluded by stating: I conclude that the existing assumption of self-esteem reflect and are biased towards Westernised conceptions of the self that are not inclusive of diverse cultural norms that may present a less individuated and more collective notion of the self. (Pp 126). Flynn (2003) further suggested that there is need to refine the current universalistic notion of self-esteem to incorporate localised cultural diversity and gender socialisation. The significance of self esteem has been corroborated in a meta-Analysis by judge and Bono (2001) who contended that self esteem, locus of control, neuroticism and generalised self- efficacy are significant predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. 40 Teachers’ Locus of Control Colman (2003) viewed locus of control as a cognitive style or personality trait characterised by a generalised expectancy about the relationship between behavior and the subsequent occurrence of reinforcement in the form of reward and punishment. People with internal locus of control tend to expect reinforcement to be consequences of their efforts or behavior, whereas people with external locus of control expect reinforcement to be the actions of powerful others. Between these two extremes lies a continuum of intermediate cognitive style. Toussi and Ghanizadeh (2012) explained that the issues of individuals‟ control over fate and life events have long been the topic of debate. The controversy pivoted around the notions of fate or free will, whether life events that affect individuals are in their control or out of their hands. In a related vein and in recent decades, educational researchers and theorists have displayed increased interest in attribution and related cognitive theories of control. One of the pertinent notions is the locus of control perception derived from Rotter social learning theories which contend that individual differences existed as to perceived responsibility for one‟s actions and the individual‟s sense of personal control and reinforcement locus of control. When a persons‟ LOC is external he or she will tend to perceive reinforcements as been the result of other people, luck, and circumstance beyond personal control. Internal LOC is associated with the individual‟s perception of having more control over life circumstances as well as more personal responsibility for outcome. Ghonsooly and Rezvani (2012) posited that locus of control is a psychological factor heavily affecting one‟s motivation, in other words people with internal locus of control orientation believe their success and failure depends on their efforts, why those with external locus of control orientation believe luck and fate play a big role. Toussi and Ghanizadeh (2012) citing Bulus‟ (201) and Rotter (1996), emphasized that locus of control is a well-known cognitive-behavioral psychological attribute describing a person‟s characteristic way of perceiving the world and indicating the extent of control individuals perceive they have over the expectancies of reinforcement or outcomes in their lives. The construct of locus of control and its influence on human behaviour has been increasingly integrated into educational studies. A plethora of studies substantiate the contention that internal locus of control is essentially associated with positive characteristics and achievement Bulus (2011) revealed that prospective teachers‟ high level of internal Locus of control play a role in mastery orientation (goals to improve competence in teaching 41 and mastery of the trade) and academic achievement. Also Lorenz (2011) identified locus of control as a powerful indicator of teacher job attitudes. According to him, teachers with a belief in internal control tend to have a positive job attitude in terms of organisational commitment intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction, social satisfaction, influence satisfaction, role clarity and feeling of job challenge. They also tend to have positive perceptions of the school organisation in terms of principal‟s leadership, organisational structure, teachers‟ social norms and organisational culture and effectiveness Ghonsodly and Rezvani (2012) summarized the findings from previous studies on teacher locus of control; and was viewed as teachers‟ perceptions of personal control over or responsibility for students performance; whether they see students‟ achievement as a consequence of their actions and under their personal control. Norton (2012) noted that teachers with internal Locus of control orientation are reflective teachers because they are more responsive to the educational and affective needs of every individual student and constantly review and appraise the instructional goals and aims. Mearns (2009), writing the biography of Rotter summed that the main idea in Rotters‟ social learning theory is that personality represents an interaction of the individual with his or her environment. In other words, one cannot speak of a personality, internal to the individual, that is independent of the environment neither can one focus on behavior as being an automatic response to an objective set of environmental stimuli. To understand behavior, one must take the individual (i.e his or life history of learning and experiences) and the environment (i.e those stimuli that the person is aware of and responding to ) into account. Rotter (1966) viewed personality and behavior as always changeable. Change the way the person thinks, or change the environment the person is responding to, and behavior will change. He does not believe there is a critical period after which personality is set. The more life experience one has building up certain sets of beliefs, the more effort and intervention required for change to occur. Rotter conceives of people in an optimist way. He viewed them as being drawn forward by their goals, seeking to maximise their reinforcement, rather than just avoiding punishment. Rotter developed four main components to his learning theory model predicting behavior. These are behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and the psychological situations. Behavior potential is the likelihood of engaging in a particular behavior in a specific situation. In other words, in any given situation, there are multiple behavior potentials the individual will exhibit whichever behavior has the highest potential. 4 2 Expectancy; Expectancy is the subjective probability that a given behavior will lead to a particular outcome, or reinforcement. Having high or strong expectancies means the individual is confident the behavior will result in the reinforcement. Having low expectancies means the individual believes it is unlikely that his or her behavior will result in reinforcement. Expectancies are formal based on past experience. The more often a behavior has led to reinforcement in the past, the stronger the person‟s expectancy that the behavior will achieve that outcome. Reinforcement value. Reinforcement is another name for the outcomes of our behavior. It refers to the desirability of these outcomes, that is we are attracted to have a high reinforcement value for things we want to happen, whereas we have low reinforcement value for things we do not want happen. The least amount of reinforcement that has a positive value is known as the minimal goal. People differ in their goals, the same outcome may represent success to one person (with a lower minimal goal). Psychological situation; Rotter believes it is always important to keep in mind that different people interpret the same situation differently, he argued, it is people‟s subjective interpretation of the environment, rather than an objective array of stimuli, that is meaningful to them and that determines how they behave. Mearns (2009) concluded that the strength of Rotter‟s social learning theory is that it explicitly blends specific and general constructs, offering the benefits of each. People are classified along a continuum from internal to external. People with a strong internal locus of control believe the responsibility for whether or not they get reinforced ultimately lies with them. Internals believe success or failure is due to their own efforts, Gershaw (1989) established this assumption stating that people with internal locus of control have shown the following characteristics; Internals are likely to work for achievements, tolerate delays in rewards and plan for long – term goals. After experiencing success in a task, internals are likely to raise their behavioral goals; in contrast, externals are likely to hover their goals. After failing a task, internals re-evaluate future performances and hover their expectations of success. After failure, externals raise their expectation. Internals are better able to resist coercion, they are more likely to learn about their surrounding and learn from past experiences. Internals experience more anxiety, as regards failures and use more repression to forget about their disappointments. They find solving their own bouts of depression easier; likewise, they are less prone to learned helplessness and serious depression. Internals are better at tolerating 43 ambiguous situations, are less willing to take risks. Internals are more willing to work on self- improvement and better themselves through remedial work. Internals greatly benefits from social supports, they make mental healthy recovery in the long term and adjustment to physical disability. Gershaw (1989) further opined that the development of locus of control is associated with family style and resources, cultural stability and experience with effort leading to reward. Many internals have grown up with families that modeled typical internal believes. These families emphasised effort, education, responsibility and thinking. In contrast, externals are typical associated with lower socio economic status, because poor people have less control over their lives. Societies experiencing social unrest increase the expectancy of being out-of-control, so people in such societies become more external. Aremu (2008) and Sheard (1996) also Shared light on the concept of locus of control by maintaining that internal –external locus of control is about how people view the world and how they identify the causes or feature in their lives. They explained that a person‟s goal or reinforcement driven behaviour will be modified by how likely it seems to the subject that the reinforcement with occur, Locus of control is an attitudinal and motivational variable and is acknowledged to have important consequences for teaching learning situations, not only in developed nations but also in the developing ones like Nigeria (Asonibare & Olayonu 1997). Weiner (1980), revealed that generally, in educational setting knowledge flows from the teacher to the student. This type of situations could cause students to withdraw. He suggested that students take more active role in the learning process. In conclusion, he stated that there is a correlation between internal locus of control and exercising pride if a student were to do well in a class that normally is considered to be tough, on the other hand, a student does not view it as a success if he/she receives a good grade from a teacher who always awards high grades. Aronson, Wilson and Akert (2007), citing Weiner (2003) stated that the locus variable affects people‟s self-esteem about their performance; an internal locus of control causes an individual to attribute feeling of pride after success and shame after failure. This view is further supported by Judge and Bono (2001) who summed the finding of spector when he stated that in term of locus of control, internals perform better than externals on job performance. 44 Gender as a Factor Colman (2003), viewed gender as the behavioral, social, and cultural attributes associated with sex. There is an increasing consensus among gender scholars that it is not primarily an identity or role that is taught in childhood and enacted in family relations, instead gender is an institutionalised system of social practices for constituting people as two significant categories, men and women, and organising social relations of inequality on the basis of that difference (Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). Genders, involving cultural beliefs and widely shared social relational contexts are among the core components that maintain and change the gender system. Ridgeway and Correll (2004) are of the view that social relational context comprise any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act, while these include interaction situations, social relational contexts include a considerably broader range of contexts than interaction alone. Gender gap in educational outcome is a matter of real and growing concern. Research has shown that male and female experiences in academic settings can be vastly different. Even students sitting side-by-side in the same classroom can be experiencing a situation differently. Frequently, these different experiences lead women to feel less confident, contribute less and be perceived as less capable (Henes, 2013; Dee, 20121). Dee (2012) summed that much of what a child attains academically depends on the gender of the teacher, implicitly one theory asserts that the teacher‟s gender shapes communications between teacher and pupil, while another states the teacher acts as a gender – specific role model, regardless of what he or she says or does. According to this second theory, students are more engaged, behave more appropriately and perform at a higher level when taught by one who shares their gender, public argument over the role of nature versus nurture is far from settled over how the experience of going to school shapes learning among boys and girls. One school of thought contends that teachers meet boys and girls differently in the classroom. For example, some controversial evidence, based on classroom observation, suggests that they are likely to offer praise and remediation in response to comments by boys but mere acknowledgement to comments by girls. Some cognitive scientists suggests that teachers may subtly communicate different academic expectations of boys and girls and these biased expectations may become self-fulfilling. (Geddes, Tyson & McGreat, 2012; Dee, 2012). Henes (2013) developed a model for creating gender equity in the process of teaching this includes classroom interactions which involves setting the tone, establishing class norms, using gender sensitive materials, setting response etiquette, allowing wait time, organising 4 5 laboratory and work groups, giving encouragement, monitoring interruptions, raising confidence, avoiding stereotypes, monitoring students‟ interactions and regularising modes of address. Gender related language, involves inclusive language, analogies, generalisations, stereotypical jokes, comments on appearance. Gender – related patterns of communication, involves using varied communication styles, using qualifiers and raising intonation. Gender- based assumption, which involves default assumptions, physical strength, gender appropriate behavior value of work, blaming and crying. Campus resources involve teaching resources center and women‟s resources and research center. This model guides the classroom teacher so that he or she can regulate some of those external factors for all students including the homes in the classes. Also, this model contains ideas to help male and female teachers understand the role gender plays in communication and interaction. Jonathan and Louise (2012) examined the role of gender in teaching effectiveness ratings of facility and reported that studies that are focused on gender differences have revealed inconsistencies related to faculty evaluations, whereas some students have shown higher ratings for instruction by females, though in some instances same sex preferences were found. Other studies have shown little or no gender interactions. Geddes et al (2012) in their study of Gender Bias in the Education system, pointed out that apparent in gender bias is society‟s gender roles. The belief that women are motherly, nurturing and caring, whereas men are aggressive, disciplinarians and this, to a large extent focuses public perception of female perpetrating in wholesome behaviours. There are several prima facie reasons for suspecting that cultural beliefs and social relational contexts play significant roles in the gender system. If gender is a system for constituting difference and organising inequality on the basis of that difference, then the widely held cultural beliefs that define the distinguishing characteristics of men and women and how they are expected to behave clearly are a central component of that system. Such cultural beliefs; have long been studied as widely shared stereotypes (Eagly, wood, & Diekman 2000). Considering these beliefs in the context of the gender system, however suggests that they are considerably more than that as well. Widely held gender beliefs are in effect cultural rules or instructions for enacting the social structure of difference and inequality that is understood to be gender. A social structure, argued Sewell (1992), can be understood as jointly constituted by the cultural rules or schemas by which it is enacted and the distributions of resources that result. Viewed this way, gender beliefs, as the cultural rules or schemas for enacting gender are one of the twin pillars (along with resources) on which gender system rest. (Ridgeway & Correll, 2000). It is only through the development of 4 6 such defining cultural beliefs that a system of difference like gender becomes constructed as a distinct organising principle of social relations (Ridgeway, 2000). Thus, while cultural beliefs about gender are indeed stereotypes, they have a substantially broader social significance than our common understanding of the phrase suggests. If cultural beliefs are an important component of the gender system then social relational contexts as the areas where these beliefs or rules are in play-are likely to be important as well. Since social relational context include any contexts in which individuals define themselves in relation to others to comprehend the situation and act, everyday interaction, be it in person, on paper, or through the internet, is a major source of social relational context. Yet as symbolic integrationists have noted, contexts in which individuals act alone are also social relational if they feel their behavior or its consequence will be socially evaluated in such situations, individuals must implicitly define themselves in relation to those others to anticipate and manage the situation, (Stryker & Vryan, 2003). Social relational contexts are of interest because the process of defining self in relation to others involves hegemonic cultural beliefs about gender. The implicit salience of these beliefs in turn, acts as a background such that under specifiable circumstances biases the behavior and evaluations of self and others in gender consistent directions. For instance, it is might be expected that the way the sex composition of a student –teacher interaction implicitly evokes gender beliefs will shape not only the way the individuals enact their roles but also how they evaluate each others‟ performance in that situation (West & Fenstermaker 1995; West & Zimmerman, (1987). Social relational contexts play a role in all systems of difference and inequality, but there are reasons for suspecting that they may be distinctively important in the gender system. Compared to the advantages and the disadvantages in systems of race and class, men and women come into contract wit h one another with greater frequency and often on more intimate terms. Unlike many other social differences, gender differences gender goes home with one in that people are likely to have relatives and share a household with adults or children of opposite sex. Gender is involved in reproduction and heterosexual behaviour. It also divides the population into two similar sized groups. All these factors make relating to the opposite sex a significant feature of nearly everyone‟s daily experience which in turn reinforces the role of gender as a significant social relational context becomes a significant arena in which the basic rules of the gender system are at play (Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). Contemporary stereotypes describe women as communal and men agentic and instrumental (Eagly, Wood & Dickman 2000). In addition to this horizontal dimension of difference, gender beliefs have a hierarchical dimension of status inequality. 4 7 Men are viewed as more status worthy and competent overall and more competent at the things that “count most” (e.g instructional rationality). Women are seen as less competent in general but “nicer and better at communal tasks though these tasks are less valued (Conway, Pizzamiglio, & Mount 1996; Fiske, Suzan, Army, Cuddy, Peter, & Jun, 2002). As these descriptions make clear, gender beliefs are represented as universal depictions of women and men defined by a narrow set of features. This is odd since no one ever has the experience of interacting with a person who is just a manor, just a woman in a way that is not affected by a host of other attributes such as the person‟s race or level of education. The deeply held cultural belief states the inherent difference between men and women appears to disaggregate the concrete experience of interacting with real men and women into simpler, abstract categories. Given the cultural resources and power available to members of dominant groups, the descriptions of men and women that becomes inscribed in these simple, abstract, cultural categories are ones that most closely describe while, middle class, heterosexual men and women, if anyone. These gender beliefs are hegemonic in that the description of women and men they contain are institutionalised in the media, government policy, and normative images of the family and so on. These abstracted hegemonic understandings of men and women are roughly consensual in that virtually everyone in the society knows what they are (Eagly et al, 2000; Fiske et al 2002) and likely expects that most others hold these beliefs. Therefore, as individuals enter public settings that require them to define themselves in relation to others, the default expectation is that others will treat them according to hegemonic gender beliefs. In this way, these hegemonic beliefs act as the implicit rules of the gender game in public context. Given the status distinction contained in hegemonic gender beliefs, then men and women enter most social relational contexts expecting that others believe that men are generally more competent than women, people‟s sense of what others expect of them affects behaviour and biases judgment (Correll, 2001; Foshi, 2000; Ridgeway, 1997). Alternative gender belief systems exist in the culture along with hegemonic beliefs. The modern-day girl power movement is one example of an attempt to present a stronger image of girls, thereby reducing the differentiation between girls and boys. In a setting where people know they are around likeminded others, such as in a gathering of feminists‟ friends or colleagues, their shared alternative gender beliefs, rather than hegemonic gender beliefs are likely to be evoked in the situation and shape their behaviours and evaluations (Dugger 1998; Collins, 1991). Given the wide availability of hegemonic beliefs, however even individuals who live in a community that share alternative genders beliefs and/or who are 4 8 personally committed to alternative gender beliefs are still likely to be aware of the hegemonic beliefs as they move into more public or more uncertain settings. Even for these people, then, hegemonic gender beliefs are a stubborn part of social reality that must be dealt with or accommodated in many contexts, even if they are not personally endorsed. Wagner and Berger (1997) developed the expectation state theory as a well documented account of the impact of gender status and competence beliefs in social relational contexts. Expectation states theory focuses on social relational contexts in which individuals are oriented toward accomplishing a shared and/or socially valued task or goal. These include most work and educational contexts but also many informal and personal goal- oriented contexts. When gender is effectively salient in such settings, the theory argues that beliefs about men‟s greater status and competence implicitly shape the expectations that participants form for their own competence and performances in the setting compared to others in the context trouble with these status-shaped expectations for competence is that they affect people‟s behavior and evaluations in self-fulfilling ways (Ridgeway & smith-lovin, 1999, Wagner & Berger, 1997). Self-other competence expectation affects the likelihood that an individual will speak up with confidence in the setting or hesitate and wait for another to act. Competence expectations affect whose input others solicit. When someone speaks up, these expectations affect whether others ignores or listen to what is said. Thus, self-other competence expectations affect the extent to which men and women assert themselves, whether their ideas and points of view are heard and whether they become influential in the context. Besides affecting participation and influence, self-other competence expectations which are shaped by gender status beliefs, also bias evaluation of performance. Ridgeway and Correll (2004) observed that extensive research has shown that exactly the same performance, idea or product seems better to people when it comes from someone who is higher rather than lower status in the context, a meta-analysis of studies in which the same gender neutral product is labeled as produced by a man or a woman shows a modest but significant tendency for the product to be evaluated as better if produced by a man (Swim & Senna, 1996). When the product is associated with a domain that is culturally defined as masculine, such as engineering or the military, but also management (Heilman, Block & Martell, 1995), the evaluative bias in favor of men is stronger (Swim & Senn, 1996). This is because men are advantaged in such contexts not only by presumptions about their general competence but also by presumptions about their specific gender skills. When the products is associated with a stereotypically feminine domain (e.g care taking), the gender bias in evaluations disappears or weakly favor women (Swim & Sanna 1996). In these contexts, the 4 9 general presumption of men‟s greater competence is counter balance and sometimes overweighed by assumptions about women‟s special gender-typed skills. This pattern of effects is typically of the impact of hegemonic gender beliefs on behaviors as well as evaluation when such beliefs are effectively salient in a context. (Ridgeway 2001; Ridgeway & Smith- Lovin 1999). In addition to biasing evaluation of performance, self-other competence expectation also affect people‟s actual performances independent of skills for example, exposing some categories of women to stereotype beliefs that members of their category are thought to be less competent in a given domain has been shown to raise anxiety and actually lead to lower performance in that domain (Shil, Pittinsky, & Ambady 1999, Spencer, Steche, & Quinn, 1999). On the other hand, when individuals believe members of their category have superior task ability, their performance improves, much like a home team advantage (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999). Finally, self-other competence expectations, shaped by gender beliefs, also bias the extent to which individuals are willing to attribute ability to themselves or others on the basis of a given quality performance. In other words, when effectively salient in a context, gender beliefs create double standard for judging ability or lack thereof from performance (Biernat & Kobynowicz 1999; Correll 2004; Foschi, 2000. To be judged equally able, women may actually have to perform better than men (Pugh & Wahran, 1983). Ridgeway and Correll (2004) opined that when men and women perform objectively similarly in contexts in which hegemonic beliefs are salient, the men are likely to be judged by themselves and others as having more ability at the task than the women (Correll, 2004; Foshi, 2004) argued that there is need to consider the effects of individual resistance on these multiple, self-fulfilling effect of self-other competence expectation that are biased by gender status beliefs. While everyone is aware of hegemonic gender beliefs and implicitly recognises such beliefs as a force to be contended with in social contexts, many people do not fully endorse these beliefs. Some people are consciously aware of the pressure of hegemonic gender beliefs, they act to resist their effect on their self-expectations and intentionally behave in a manner that challenges the beliefs. It is relatively rare, however, for most people to be fully aware of the way their behavior in a given context is being shaped by self other competence expectations because gender is such a taken-for-granted background identity (Rudman & Kilianski 2000). As a result, in most situations, it is difficult for people to effectively resist the constraints on them created by gender beliefs. Since hegemonic beliefs are institutionalised in many settings, there are often real social costs to behaviorally 5 0 challenging them. Consequently while many occasionally resist in small to large ways, most people most of the time largely and often unwillingly comply with the pressure of gender- based expectations in the bulk of their behavior. Teacher Work Experience as a Factor Many occupations recognise employees‟ years of experience as a relevant factor in human resources policies, including compensation systems, benefits packages and promotion decisions. The idea is that experience, gained over time, enhances the knowledge, skill and productivity of workers. In education, teacher experience is probably the key factor in personnel policies that affect current employees. It is a cornerstone of traditional single-salary schedules, it drives teacher transfer policies that prioritise placement and it is commonly considered a major source of inequity across schools and therefore a target for redistribution (Rice, 2010; Rizza, 2012). Rice (2010) citing Ladd (2008) and Sass (2007) contended that experience matters but is not always untimate. The impact of experience is strongest during the first few years of teaching, after that, marginal returns diminish. Teachers show the greatest productivity gains during their first few years on the job, after which their performance tends to level off (Boyo, Pamela, Lanleford, Web & Wyckoff 2008). On the average, teachers with more than 20 years experience are more effective than teachers with no experience, but are not more effective than those with 5 years experience (Ladd, 2008). Studies have shown documental evidence that effectiveness declines after some point, particularly among high school teachers. In fact, evidence suggests that the most experienced (greater than 25 years) high school teachers may be less effective than their less experienced counterpart‟s Rice (2010) Citing Harris and Sass (2007) opined that the magnitude of the effect of teacher experience varies depending on the level of education and the subject area. The impact of early years of experience is strongest in mathematics and more consistent at the elementary and middle school levels than at the high school level National Council on Teacher Quality (2009) argued that a teacher with 20years experience is not apt to be any more effective than a teacher with five years experiences, a body of research has conclusively shown that teachers improve dramatically between their first and second years of teaching, considerably so between their second and third and relatively little in subsequent years. In sum, many teachers become about as effective as they ever will be by their fifth year. 51 Rizza (2012) reported that between 30% and 59% of teachers leave the profession during their first 3to7 years of teaching. The main explanation underlined by research evidence is lack of sufficient and suitable support to keep teachers in the profession as well as the heavy work load and poor working conditions new teachers face when they start working. Throughout their teaching careers teachers develop competences by practicing and need training as well to undertaking their work and to contribute to students achievement. Rizza 2012) inferring from the European Commission (2010 acknowledges that the working environment of teachers‟ and the demands place upon them by society are increasingly complex. Rice (2010) summed from relevant studies that teacher experience or inexperience is systematically related to teacher productivity, as questions surrounding the distribution of inexperienced teachers have policy significance. Studies have offered compelling evidence of an uneven distribution of inexperienced teachers that are systematically related to school and students‟ characteristics (Boyd et al, 2007). Teachers with three or fewer years of experience (those shown to be less effective, on average) are likely to be teaching in high poverty schools. Implicitly redistributing inexperienced teachers will reduce achievement gap only if experience has similar pay off in students‟ performances across different types of schools. Five professional life phases relating to experience, rather than age or responsibility were identified. The teacher career cycle model is comprised of five major themes or phases (Huberman, 1989). The phases of the model illustrate the interrelationships found among complex phenomena and provides a theory about the model sequences teachers may follow throughout their careers. The TCCM acknowledges and integrates the influences of personal or organisational environmental conditions upon development of the teacher. Personal environmental conditions includes family events, positive critical incidents, inherent individual differences and life stages, whereas organisational environmental conditions includes policies and regulations, school climate, various actions and building layout. 5 2 Figure 2.2: Teacher Professional Life Phases Years of teaching Phrases 1 – 3 Career Entry Survival and Discovery 4 – 6 Stabilisation 7 – 18 Experimentation/ stock taking/ Diversification Interrogation 19-30 Serenity Conservatism 31 – 40 Disengagement Source: Huberman, (1989). The professional cycle of teachers, as depicted in the above, suggests teachers move in between the agreeable and challenging streams. Huberman (1995) asserts they may spring forward and/or revert to previous stages. The process of an individual career is often filled with plateaus, discontinuities, regressions, spurts and dead ends. Career entry, discovery and survival; this initial phase, lasts from one to three years. The focus is upon learning how to teach, deciding what to teach, navigating through the teaching environment, learning how to manage students and self and developing an overall sense of efficacy. Teachers discover a lot about themselves, the system and instruction. Stabilisation, the second phase usually occurs during year four to six of the teaching career. Teachers are usually committed to teaching and are set to relinquish other occupational ambitions. Autonomy, independence and membership in the teaching profession mark this phase. Teachers often believe they possess great pedagogical mastery. They place more focus upon the educational needs of students. Teachers leaving the stabilisation phase may take different streams based upon their experiences and personal dispositions. The most agreeable system during the phase experimentation/diversification occurs between 7 and18 years. This is followed by moving into serenity phase during years 19 to 30 and finally disengagement in years 31 and beyond. Teachers experiment with teaching, evaluation strategies, and instructional content during experimentation/diversification phase. They seek to effect change by serving in leadership roles in their education systems and professional organisations. Further, they look for involvement in alternative teaching and administrative roles and appointments. A parable and less progressive pathway after stabilisation is the stock taking/interrogations phase, occurring in years 7 to 18 followed by either entering the conservatism or serenity phase in years 19 to 5 3 30. The stock taking/interrogations phase is characterised by teachers taking stock of their accomplishments, exploring the time remaining to make occupational changes and deciding if they should seek a new path in life. During the serenity phase, teachers bemoan the differences between current declining and initial levels of enthusiasm, activism and energy for teaching. Others experience a sense of decreased professional roles. Increased intergenerational distance often emerges between the teachers and their students. Individual within the conservatism stream (often age 50 and older) are characterised reluctance to accept innovations. They express their discontent and commitment from students and other teachers. Some individuals choose to continue teaching in a re-invigorated and committed manner. The respective experiences in year 31 and beyond during the disengagement phase is serene or bitter period (Huberman & Guskey, 1995). This phase is typified by a sense of withdrawal from professional commitments and greater use of time for personal activities. While some willingly pass the baton to the young professional, others do not. Irrespective of the needs and experiences of colleagues, many elect to only partially disengage by focusing on highly preferred areas of interest and accomplishing preferred tasks and aspects of the programme. The Life Cycle of the Career Teacher Model Steffy and Wolfe (1998) identified six basic phases that committed classroom teachers pass through during their careers, novice, apprentice, professional, expert distinguished and retire. This model is a developmental continuum and is useful for promoting efficacy of a teacher. It is a vision of good practice based upon transferring knowledge and contextual experience to another phase. The lines are blurred between the life cycle phases of a career teacher. The strength of this model is based on how one continues to grow and become a more competent career teacher along the continuum. Novice Teacher, the novice phase begins when pre-service students first encounter practicum experiences as part of their teacher education programme and continues through student teaching and intern experience. Novice teachers begin to acquire the skills necessary to function effectively in the classroom. Preparation in specific subject matter, liberal arts, and a professional and pedagogical course sequences begin. Pre-service teachers naturally are hesitant and unsure of themselves. As they visit the classroom, they are amazed at the master teachers‟ skill at arranging classroom activities. As time passes, novices acquire more skills. They begin to see how the learning environment is created. Their confidence grows as they 54 experience success and learn more about themselves as professionals and actual classroom practices. They become sensitive to the needs of children and strive to acquire the skills needed to be successful teachers. As they approach the next teacher-career phase, they grow in self confidence. They reflect on newly acquired skills and experiences, they enter the apprentice phase (Steffy & Wolfe, 1998). Apprentice teacher, the apprentice phase begins for most teachers during the student teaching experience when they are saddled with the responsibility of planning and delivering instruction. This phase typically continues through the first years of induction and often into second and third year of teaching. Teachers at this career phase are filled with boundless energy. These teachers tend to be idealistic. They truly believe they have the ability and drive necessary to motivate all children. They are open to new ideas. They tend to volunteer to serve on committees or work on extracurricular activities. They are creative and growth oriented. Steffy and Wolfe (1998), advocated that while teachers in this phase may be unsure of their skills, they are passionate about their ability to learn and help children. Above all, these teachers need mentoring. Professional teacher, the professional phase emerges as teachers grow in self-confidence as educators. Student feedback plays a critical role in this process. Students‟ respect for teachers and vice versa forms the bedrock foundation upon which this stage is built. Students view teachers at this stage as patient, kind, understanding, and helpful. These teachers view themselves as student advocates. Arguably, Steffy and Wolfe (1998) contended that most schools are made up of a large numbers of professional teachers. They form the backbone of the profession. They are competent, solid, and dependable. Most view themselves as lifetime teachers with no aspiration to become administrators because they look up to their students to provide the motivation to teach, they are sometimes given less attention by administrators. Professional teachers most frequently seek help and assistance from other teachers at the phase. They actively participate in a collegial professional network and use this network for support and guidance. Professional teachers value opportunities for growth. Observing other teachers‟ innovative practices and then interacting with them are activities professional teachers‟ value. Continued growth and development depends on having ample opportunities for observation, reflection and interaction. Expert Teacher: These teachers anticipate student responses and modify and adjust instruction to promote students growth. Teachers at this level also competently support, facilitate, and nurture the growth and development of all students who represent a myriad of 5 5 diverse background and ability level. Teachers in this phase can be described as being “with it”. These teachers are in tune with learning styles, needs and interests of their students, who are in tune with their teachers. Expert teachers are always evolving, growing and changing; they are usually connected with other expert teachers within the district, region, and state. They hold leadership roles in professional association or content areas and take great pride in maintaining cutting-edge expertise. Expert teachers learn through their roles as teachers. They embody all that parents and society desires for unlocking the learning instincts of children. These teachers understand that students are inclined to learn. In the absence of serious obstacles, this phase can last for the professional life time of a teacher (Steffy and Wolfe 1998). Distinguished Teacher: The distinguished phase is reserved for those who are truly gifted in their field. They exceed current expectation of what teachers are expected to know and are able to do. These teachers exceed everyone‟s definition of exemplary teachers. They are the “pied pipers” of the profession. Students, parents, administrators, and the community revered them. Retiree: For some educators, leaving a career is an end; for others, it is a beginning. Many career professionals choose to honor their lifelong commitment to students by continuing to serve the profession actively in many alternative roles indeed, a few of these retirees remain so active in the field that they earn the status of emeritus teachers. These teachers have formally retired but, because of their expertise and devolutions to the field, continue to be active and involved contributors to the profession (Steffy, 1989).. The Teacher Career Cycle This model was developed by Fester and Christensen (1992), they contended that the cycle was meant to explain the characteristic of the different phases of teachers‟ development. It consists of initial training, at this stage the teacher does not have any true responsibility induction (roughly in the first one to two years); the core of the socialisation for the profession takes place. At this stage, the beginning teacher gets the feeling that everything is under control and is accepted by colleagues and others involved in the school. Improving competence (roughly in the second to fourth years): the teacher realises shortcomings in knowledge and skills and work on improving skills. Enthusiasm and growth, at this stage the teacher works on his/her level of competence. At the end of this phase, teachers are the ideal coaches of starting teachers because they have enough energy and enthusiasm to share their knowledge with others. 56 Stagnation: This stage coincides with the feeling called midlife crises. The teacher gets the feeling of being stuck with the profession. The students are experiences as from another generation. The next phase is stability and it is dependent on the previous phase, if the teacher accepts the profession, he/she will look for new satisfaction. If the teacher is not satisfied with the profession, he/she keeps away some of the aspects of teaching and might become embittered. The last phase is termed ending of career, and the way a career gets to an end depends on the way the pervious phase is ended. Theories of Effectiveness Harris and Rutledge (2007), revealed three specific models of workers effectiveness that were both frequently cited and which seemed to have particular potential for learning about teacher effectiveness. The “classic” model of worker effectiveness from the industrial psychology literature is arguably the most dominant in studies of non-teaching occupations. This model posits that worker effectiveness is determined by job knowledge (Schmidt & Hunter, 1983), which, in turn, is a function of cognitive ability and, to a lesser extent, job experience. The logic of the model is that cognitive ability allows workers to learn necessary information and skills more quickly and accurately, while job experience gives workers more time for such learning to take place (Schmidt, Hunter, & outer bridge, 1986). This industrial psychology model is clearly task-oriented and places little emphasis on the role of work environment. As Cohen and Pfeffer (1984) wrote, “there is an implicit assumption in much of the literature on jobs and job structures that there is some underlying technical imperative that causes the employment relationship and occupational structures to look the way they do”. In other words, there is something inherent about each occupation that requires carrying out particular tasks, irrespective of organizational characteristics or properties of the work environment. Other researchers have echoed this interpretation of the classic model. For example in the case of nurses, the industrial psychology model would suggest that the ability to take a patient‟s blood pressure and correctly identify dangerously high levels, is more important than the amount of empathy shown to patients or to the ability to communicate and coordinate with doctors to solve the patient‟s problems. Two additional models of effectiveness focus on the “fit” between the person and the job. The “person-job fit” (P-J) or “job compatibility” model assumes worker effectiveness depends mainly on how well the specific strengths of the worker match the job requirements. An implicit assumption behind this is that there are no “good” and “bad” worker characteristics per se, but only those that match the needs of the job. Thus, some workers 5 7 who have high cognitive skills may still not be a good fit for specific jobs, especially those jobs that require little job knowledge. In these cases, cognitively skilled workers are more likely to become disengaged from their work and to have greater opportunities for compensation and other rewards by switching jobs. “Person-organisation fit” (P-O) models take this one step further by positing that organisations have cultures and values and that the degree to which these match the preferences and values of specific workers can affect workers‟ success and likelihood of staying on the job. P-O fit is also important because the job of each worker fit the personality of the organistion, which is unlikely to change quickly, rather than fit the job, which is likely to change more rapidly. Werbel and Gilliland (1999) argue that the importance of P-J fit and P-O fit depends on the job. Specifically, P-J fit is relatively more important when technical job requirements are substantial and P-O fit is relatively more important when the organisation has a distinctive culture, the career ladder is lengthy, the interaction among organisation members is great, and work flexibility is high. Put differently, P-O fit matters more than P-J fit when the workers are in an organisation which involves more interaction between people or when the workers will have a various over time. Table 2.2 applies the general approaches and methods highlighted Table 2.1 to the three specific models earlier discussed above. It is important to note that the assumptions and implications listed in the first column vary in the degree to which they capture the key aspects of each model. The P-J fit model is especially poorly captured, as indicated by the large number of “unclear” results, meaning that the modes are not defined in such a way that a clear determination can be made. The reason is that fit models make few assumptions about the person and job characteristics that define a good fit thus, a model that compares a job‟s level of technical skill with a worker‟s cognitive skills. This notion of fit therefore may be too generic to provide a useful theory. 5 8 2.2 Specific Models of Workers Effectiveness Dimension Models of work: Industrial Psych. Person-Org.Fit Person-job Fit General Approach Psychology Organisational n.a. Primary research fields Behavior Worker, Task Workers, workers, Job Primary unit of analysis organisation Intermediate outcomes Effectiveness definition Mostly intermediate Intermediate outcomes outcomes Mix, Mostly subjective Effectiveness measure Subjective Mix, Mostly Subjective Assumptions/Implications Depends on the Job Natural of Task-oriented (unclear) production/work Relationship oriented (unclear) Standardisation/need for Standardised judgment secondary Significance of work Secondary environment Central (unclear) Types of workers skills Technical skills hypothesised to be Interpersonal and important related skills Adapted from Harris and Rutledge (2007) 2.3 Models of Worker Effectiveness Dimensions Common Examples General Approach Research fields Psychology, Economics, Sociology, Organisation Behavior Unit of analysis Individual worker, Team, Organisation Definition of effectiveness Objective measures, Subjective measures Assumption/Implications Nature of effectiveness Task-oriented, Relationship-oriented Degree of work standardisation/need Standardised, Varied/Unpredictable for worker judgment Importance of the work environment Central, secondary Types of workers skills hypothesised to be important Technical; Interpersonal and related skills Source: Harris and Rutledge (2007) 59 Very little attention is paid to defining effectiveness, Borman, Ferstl, Kaufman, Farmer, and Bearden (2003), wrote that this represents arguably the most comprehensive measure of overall performance. These authors also indicate that little attention has been paid by researchers of worker effectiveness to identifying and understanding components of the supervisor evaluation or the evaluation rubric. Suggesting a move toward more objective measures of effectiveness, Borman et al. (2003) pointed out that “a recent trend has been to study job performance in its own right in an attempt to develop substantive model of performance” Some of the objective measures used in the literature are organisational productivity, customer satisfaction, team/business performances, and firm profit (Ployhart, 2004). Studies using he “fit” models tend to focus especially on turnover intention and actual turnover as well as worker satisfaction and commitment. Schmitt, Gooding, Noe and Kirsch (1984) found in a review of 99 studies that empirical studies using objective measures have better explanatory power than those using subjective measures, but, supervisor evaluation remains the most common measure of worker effectiveness. Empirical Review of Literature Teachers’ Effectiveness and Big Five Personality Factors Personality of a teacher is as important in selection as his/her cognitive ability. The key to the satisfied, successful and effective occupational and professional life is to have those personality traits most suited to one‟s profession, job or occupation. Specifically, teaching as a novel and innovative profession demands certain personality traits to be essential for efficacy and quality performance. Bhardwaj (1998) explained that the potential importance of teacher personality has long been of interest to education researchers and most of the research on personality focuses on the types of people who join the teaching profession, rather than their effectiveness, but recent studies have continued to focus on teacher effectiveness, for example, Bhardwaj stated that in six studies conducted using the 16pf as a predictor of teacher evaluations. Three of the studies found that teacher effectiveness is positively related to conscientiousness, experiment- minded/venturesome and outgoing/extroverted. Two studies found that teachers‟ effectiveness is related to self control. Ben (2011) investigated personality traits of agricultural sciences teacher as correlates of effective school farm management in secondary schools and found; extroverted agricultural science teachers are significantly more effective in managing the school farm 60 than introverted agricultural science teachers; emotionally stable agricultural science teacher are significantly more effective in school farm management than a neurotic agricultural science teacher; tough minded agricultural science teachers are significantly more effective in school farm management than the tender minded agricultural science teachers. Garcia, Kupezynski, and Holland (2011) studied impact of teacher personality styles on academic excellence of secondary school students and obtained the following result; students whose teachers had a personality styles of agreeableness had higher scores than students whose teachers are extroverts or conscientious. However, students whose teachers are conscientious and extroverts scored the same; students whose teachers are experienced scored lower than those whose teachers are conscientious and agreeable teachers. Khodadady, and Mrjalili (2012) explored the relationship between English teacher effectiveness and their personality and found that among the five factors underlying the characteristics of effective English language teachers (CEELT), four, that is, rapport, fairness, qualification and facilitation correlated significantly with four dimensions of their personality, that is, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism and openness, the fifth factor underlying English as a foreign language, however, correlated significantly but negatively with extraversion. It did also reveal positive and significant relationship with neuroticism and openness. Rafi et al (2012) investigated HEXOCO model of personality traits and beliefs about Diversity in pre-service teacher and found that; emotionality positively influences the diversity beliefs in pre-service teachers; Extroversion positively influences the diversity belief in pre-service teachers; Agreeableness positively relates to diversity beliefs in pre- service teachers; Conscientiousness positively correlates to diversity beliefs in pre-service teachers and openness to experience positively relates to diversity beliefs in pre-service teachers. Sparks and Lipka (1992) observed that compared with other teachers, master teachers are more warm-hearted, socially outgoing, attentive, driven, respectful, generous in personal relations, hard to fool and able to maintain interpersonal contacts. Bhardwaj (1998) reported that in a survey of elementary teachers with five or more years of experience using a final outcome measure of teacher effectiveness in an urban school district, no differences were found between effective and ineffective teachers. Wangoo (1986) in a study of Indian teachers found that psychotics, adjustment, democratic leadership behavior and emotional stability emerged as the most important personality, characteristics related with teacher effectiveness. He concluded that teachers who had an outgoing attitude and who were less 6 1 aggressive, more trusting, open, forthright, relaxed and group-dependent were highly successful. Murray, Rushton and Paunonen (1990) stated that though the personality profile of an effective teacher differs markedly across different courses, in smaller, intensive level discussion-oriented classes, effective teachers are friendly, gregarious, flexible, adaptable and open to change. Bhardwaj citing High and Katterns agreed that effective teachers are able to flexibly control a repertoire of strategies and tactical skills and are sensitive and flexible In a survey conducted by the American Council on Education for establishing characteristics needed in an effective teacher, result revealed that emotionally stable, friendly, restrained and tolerant teachers were rated as more effective (Bhardwaj 1998). Pal and Bhagoliwal (1987) also found that more effective teachers are more expressive, socialised and express behavior in a socially-approved way. For a teacher, being emotionally stable, sensitive and empathetic, outgoing, less harsh, tender minded, socialised, less impulsive and less hostile is necessary to being effective. Today, Bhardwaj noted that there is a lot of stress in society; families are breaking down, and single parent families and divorced families are on the increase. Hence, according to Kechy and Berthelen (1995), a teacher has an additional role to perform, that is, extend his/her role from just being transmitter of knowledge to being caring, nurturing and understanding. Bhardwaj reported the study by Carkhuff who conducted a large survey relating teacher effectiveness with interpersonal skill, a total of 28 studies involving more than 1,000 teachers and 30 students were reviewed. Teachers with high level of affective interpersonal skills were found to be more effective teachers. Gupta (2008) investigated role of personality in knowledge sharing and knowledge acquisition behavior and the result showed that individuals high in agreeableness and conscientiousness were more involved in knowledge sharing activities than individuals low on agreeableness and conscientiousness. Individuals high in conscientiousness were more involved in knowledge acquisition activities than individual low in conscientiousness. There were no significant differences in knowledge sharing and acquisition activities between individuals high and low in extraversion, openness and neuroticism. Lew (1977) reported various research outcomes in the relationship between teacher personality and teacher effectiveness, for example, attributes such as acceptance, spontaneity, autonomy, democratic nature and creativeness were found to enhance teacher effectiveness; it was concluded that teacher charisma is probably a significant factor of teacher effectiveness; effective teachers were perceived as warm, friendly, supportive, communicate 6 2 clearly, motivate; discipline pupils effectively and is flexible in methodology; teachers who are more flexible are better able to respond differentially to pupils without having to resort to using various organisational strategies (aides, groups, e.t.c) to produce individualization; teachers‟ in high creative schools are more adaptive, flexible, outgoing, permissive and nurturing; Teachers‟ personality as observed by Hong Kong secondary school students should include friendliness, responsible, rational, playful, unaffected, warm and good- tempered (Lew, 1977). Judge et al (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction collecting 163 independent samples classified according to the model. The result showed that neuroticism (r = 0.29) was the strongest correlate of job satisfaction, followed closely by conscientiousness (r=0.26) and extraversion ( r=0.25) finally openness to experience (r=0.02) and (agreeableness r= 0.17) showed weak correlation with job satisfaction. The implication from the forgoing is that neuroticism, conscientiousness and extraversion are positive predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. Furnham and Chamorro-Premuzie (2005), investigated individual differences in student‟s preferences for lecturers‟ personalities collecting students rating (N=136) of 30 lecturer trait characteristics coded in an internally reliable big five taxonomy. Overall, student tended to prefer conscientious, open and stable lecturer personalities, though correlations revealed that these preferences were largely a function of students‟ personality trait. Thus, open students prefer open lecturers, while agreeable students preferred agreeable lecturers. There was evidence of a similarity effect for both agreeableness and openness. In addition, less intelligent students were more likely to prefer agreeable lecturers than their more intelligent counterparts. Ayan and Kocacik (2001) studied the relationship between the of level job satisfaction and types of personality in high school teachers collecting data from a sample of 482 teachers. The result of the study showed the following that; teachers with extroverted personality characteristic have significantly higher level of job satisfaction as compared to teachers with introvert personality characteristics; when the differences of the scores obtained by teachers in the job satisfaction scale is examined, it is seen that job satisfaction significantly differs with the characteristics of likely competence, being ambitious in the social area and profession, getting easily angry, not having time to rest and hiding feelings. Accordingly, teachers who stated that they like competence have greater job satisfaction as compared to those who do not, those stating they are ambitious in the social area and profession have greater job satisfaction as compared to those who do not, in addition, the 6 3 answers of teachers with highest scores among those included in the job satisfaction scale- paralleled attributes defining extrovert personality character. In other words, data obtained from the analysis that scores obtained by teachers in scales of job satisfaction levels, personality characteristics, and job satisfaction scale of teachers according to personality characteristics are consistent with each other and it is seen that teachers who are extroverts have greater satisfaction with their jobs. Therefore, teachers with certain personality characteristics are more efficient in issues like being self-control, improving learning or controlling the class. In a study of the effect of Turkish Geography teacher‟s personality on his teaching experience, Ozel (2007) collected data from 198 teachers and the result showed that teachers reflected their personalities on their teaching experiences as their age and seniority increased. The personal assets the teachers found in themselves were self-confidence, discipline, tidiness, justice and job satisfaction. Ngidi and Sibaya (2003) investigated student teacher anxieties related to practice teaching and obtained data from 75 student teachers, who were in their second week of observation preceding practicing teacher. Several results were obtained among which was that the dimension of neurotic personality is significantly correlated with professional preparation as well as an unsuccessful lesson. This means student teachers who manifest neurotic personality are prone to anxiety caused by professional preparation and unsuccessful lessons, whereas the extraversion personality dimension is not significantly correlated with any of the factors of class control, professional preparation, staff relations and unsuccessful lessons. Barrick and mount (1991) reviewed 117 studies utilising 162 samples with 23,994 participants, they found that conscientiousness showed consistent relations with all performance criteria for all occupational groups. Extroversions was a valid predictor for occupations involving social interaction (e.g. Education and Management) Gordon and Yocke (2007) studied the relationship between personality characteristics and observable teaching effectiveness of selected beginning career and technical education teachers, using the Myer Brigg type indicator and classroom observation keyed for effectiveness research to obtain data. The result showed that, the sensing-intuition temperament type corresponding to openness to experience was the best predictor of teacher effectiveness when compared with extraversion-introversion, thinking-feeling and judgment- perceptions temperament types 64 Many efforts have been made to ascertain predictors of teacher effectiveness. A number of factors like age, seniority, communication style, intelligence, training, stress, teaching styles and personality, have been linked with teacher effectiveness; (Sehgal and Kaur 1995). According to Dickson and Wiersma (1984), there is ample evidence supporting the view that personality of a teacher is a very important determiner of successful teaching and that teacher effectiveness is perceived to exist as a consequence of the characteristics of a teacher as a person. Further, Mohan (1995), contended that teachers have also been found to be effective when they are not dominated by anarchistic self and a neurotic need for power and authority. Teacher Effectiveness and Self-Efficacy Teacher efficacy is an important variable in teacher development and how teachers teach. Teacher efficacy has been shown to be a powerful construct related to student outcome such as achievement, motivation and sense of efficacy. Moreover, teacher efficacy is related to teachers‟ behavior, effort, goals, aspiration, openness to new ideas, innovation, planning and organisation, persistence, resilience, reluctance to use criticism, enthusiasm, willingness to work with difficult students, and commitment to teaching and their careers (Tschannen-moran, woolfolk-Hoy, and Hoy 1998; Ashton and Webb, 1986; Guskey & Passaro, 1994) Dimopoulou (2012) investigated self-efficacy and collective efficacy beliefs of teachers for children with Autism, and concluded that educating children with autism is based on team effort, teachers work in collaboration with teaching assistants and other specialists. It is therefore imperative to look into the beliefs teachers have of the groups/ school‟s capability to provide effective teaching. Tai et al (2012) examined the impact of teacher self-efficacy on student learning outcome, and found that teacher self-efficacy and the teacher teaching process shows a strong association with learning satisfaction. The proposed model accounts for 47.8% of the variance in learning satisfaction and teacher self- efficacy. The teacher teaching process and learning satisfaction all showed a strong association with learning outcomes. Hora and Ferrare (2012) investigated the antecedents of instructors self-efficacy for teaching and found no evidence regarding the relationship between self-efficacy and actual teaching practice but the study provided evidence for the ambiguity of some instructors self 6 5 efficacy beliefs as well as for the critical role of pedagogical reflection in forming these beliefs. Pendagast et al (2011) examined pre-service student teacher self efficacy belief, and conclude that understanding and promoting the development of teacher self efficacy beliefs will be important for reducing the current attrition rate in teaching. Kassabri (2010) studies the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and violence towards students mediated by teacher‟s attitude, the result revealed that one third of home grown teachers reported using physical violence and one in five teachers reported using verbal violence towards students in the classroom. Teachers‟ low perceptions of self-efficacy and high support of the use of verbal or physical violence were significantly correlated with great frequency of reporting their actual use of violence towards their students. Ewaren (2011) investigated a path analysis for factors affecting pre-service teachers teaching efficacy and observed that direct and indirect effects of practicum experience demonstrated a relationship with teaching efficacy. Moore and Esselman (1992), reported that students whose teachers have high levels of efficacy outperformed those whose teachers have low levels of efficacy on the mathematics section of the lowa Test of Basic skills. Watson (1991) also reported that greater achievement was found in rural, urban, majority blacks and white schools for students who had teachers with high level of self-efficacy. In addition, studies have shown that teachers with high levels of efficacy have demonstrated different characteristics related to work ethic and pedagogical practice than teachers with low levels of self-efficacy. For example, studies have shown that teachers with high levels of self efficacy work longer with students that struggle, recognise students errors, and attempt new teaching methods that support students (Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Huskey, 1988) Czernaik (1990) observed that highly efficacious teachers are likely to use reform based teaching methods, such as inquiry- based and student-centre approaches, while teachers with low levels of self-efficacy use more teacher-directed methods, such as lecturing and textbook reading. Lyn Ely Swackhamer, Koeumer and Basile (2006) conducted a study on increasing the self-efficacy of in-service teachers through content knowledge and found that in-service teachers‟ outcome efficacy was higher in teachers‟ who have taken four or more mathematics or science content courses. They concluded that outcome efficacy is a teacher‟s belief that the educational system can work for all students, regardless of outside influence such as socio-economic status and parental influence, while personal teaching 66 efficacy is a teacher‟s belief in his or her personal skills and abilities to positively impact student achievement. Bandura (1994) maintained that “the task of creating learning environment conducive to the development of cognitive skills, rest heavily on the talents and self efficacy of teachers. Teachers who have a strong sense of efficacy about their capabilities can motivate students and improve their cognitive development. However, those who have low sense of efficacy favor a “custodian orientation that relies heavily on negative sanctions to get students to study”. Navidinia, Mousavi and Shirazizade (2009) citing Rose et al contended that a teacher‟s sense of efficacy will determine the effort he or she puts into teaching, the degree of persistence when confronted with difficulties and the task choice made. Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca, and Malone (2006) examined the relationship between teachers‟ self efficacy beliefs, their job satisfaction, and students‟ academic achievement. Their finding indicate that teachers‟ personal efficacy belief affect their job satisfaction and students‟ academic achievement. Ross investigated the relationship between student achievement, teacher efficacy, an interaction with assigned coaches on a sample of 18 grade 7 and 8 history teachers in 36 classes. The result of the study indicates that students‟ achievement was higher in classrooms of teacher who had more contact with their coaches, and in classrooms of teachers with greater confidence in the study of education (Navidinia et al 2009). Ghaith and Shaaban (2005) investigated the relationship between perception of teaching concerns, teacher efficacy and selected teacher characteristics on 292 Lebanese teachers. The result revealed that beginning teachers and those with no sense of personal efficacy were concerned about the task of teaching and the impact they make as teachers more than their highly experienced and more personally efficacious counterparts. (Navidinia et al, 2009) Di Fabio, Mayer and Taralla (2006) investigated the relationship between teacher self efficacy, social demographic variables (age, years of teaching and type of school) and level of job involvement, organisational commitment and organisational satisfaction. The result of their statistical analysis confirmed the correlated nature of the self-efficacy‟s construct with the constructs of job involvement, affective commitment and organisational satisfaction. Brouwers and Tomic (2000), confirmed that teacher efficacy is related to teacher burnout. 6 7 Navidinia et al (2009) conducted a study on the relationship between Iranian English Language teachers‟ efficacy beliefs and their students achievement using a sample of 147 male and 35 female junior and senior high school teachers. The result shows a positive correlation between students‟ achievement and teacher efficacy. Further, each of the three facets of teacher efficacy that is, classroom management instructional strategies, and students‟ engagement had a significant positive correlation with students‟ achievement Pajares (2002) summarised the findings of Wolfolk and Hoy and Woolfolk, Rosoff, and Hoy emphasising that pre-service teachers‟ sense of teacher efficacy is related to their beliefs about controlling students. Teachers with a low sense of efficacy tend to hold a custodial orientation that takes a pessimistic view of students‟ motivation, emphasises rigid control of classroom behavior, and relies on extrinsic inducements and negative sanctions to get students to study. Teachers with high efficacy create mastery experiences for their students whereas teachers with low instructional efficacy undermine students cognitive development as well as students‟ judgment of their own capabilities. Teachers’ Effectiveness and Self-esteem Self-esteem is viewed as one‟s attitude towards oneself or one‟s opinion or evaluation of oneself, which may be positive (favorable or high), neutral, or negative (unfavorable or low). Also called self-evaluation (Colman 2003). Mustaq et al (2012) investigated self-esteem among primary, elementary, secondary and higher secondary schools teachers and note that; teachers from higher secondary schools have higher academic achievement than secondary school teachers; such is the case with elementary school teachers as compared to primary school teachers; Secondary and higher secondary school teachers have self-esteem ranging from 51% to 53% only; secondary school teachers are relatively more consistent in thinking than primary school teachers. Tabassum and Ali (2012) examined professional self-esteem of secondary school teachers and reported that; There is no significant difference with the level of professional self-esteem of art and science teachers at secondary level; There is a significant difference with the level of professional self-esteem of male and female secondary school teachers; No significance difference was found in the level of self-esteem of rural and urban teachers. Navel (1990) defined self-esteem as “belief in oneself” or person of worth or value simply because he or she is a human being. Self esteem is recognising that because one is treated with respect by others, one is worthy of respect. Finally, it is a sense of self- confidence resulting from successful completion of attempted tasks. In relationship to 68 teacher effectiveness, fewer studies have been conducted on teacher self-esteem and teacher effectiveness. However related studies have been conducted by several others, for example Arnold and Hughes (2005) conducted a qualitative study on the importance of inter/intra subjectivity in students‟ perception of teacher effectiveness, using an empathically intelligent approach to understanding. The result of the study indicated that among the various qualities an effective teacher possess are; Ability to control the classroom atmosphere without being a dictator, have a sense of humor, great communication skill and is confident and has high self-esteem. Dobbins (1996) investigated student teacher self-esteem in the practicum, the result showed that teacher self-esteem was found to play a central role in the complexity of the learning process. For example the student teachers in the study, given their disempowered position in the practicum, suffered from constant attack on their self-esteem. This lowered self-esteem affected the way they interpreted their practicum experience, it also had an effects on other aspects of the experience, including their teaching, interpersonal communication skill and learning. On the effect of negative self-esteem on student teachers teaching, the supervisory teachers and university supervisors reported during the study that the student teachers became defensive when they received feedback. This, according to Dobbin (1996) is not hard to understand when one considers the threat to the student teachers‟ self-esteem and the fact that it was the supervisors who were in control of the feedback not only the content, but when and how the feedback was given. On the effect of positive self-esteem, it was noted that teaching ability can be appreciated when it is acknowledged that teachers work through social relationships. Several of the student teachers in the study were perceived to be experiencing the “positive circle”. Their teaching was viewed as effective, they received positive feedback, they felt positive about their teaching ability and then felt positive about themselves, which in turn led to further positive performance. Burn (1991) claimed that teachers with high self concept/or self-esteem tended to espouse more pupil-centred and less teacher-directed approaches to teaching. Tinsley and Hardy (2003) conducted a study on faculty pressures and professional self-esteem. The result revealed that teacher educators‟ levels of professional self-esteem were significantly higher than the level of professional esteem they perceived from other academic colleagues. 69 Judge and Bono (2001) conducted a meta-analysis on relationship of core self- evaluation traits self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job performance; collecting 169 studies that reported a relationship between one of the trait and job satisfaction and 105 studies that reported a relationship between one of the traits and job performance. With respect to job satisfaction, the estimated true score correlation were .26 for self-esteem, .45 for generalised self- efficacy, .32 for internal locus of control, and .24 for emotional stability. With respect to job performance, the correlation were .26 for self-esteem, .23 for generalised self-efficacy, .22 for internal locus of control, .19 for emotional stability. The result suggested that these trait are among the best dispositional predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. In a study titled Assessing student teachers‟ professional self-esteem; A Hong Kong construct validation study by David (1998), it was concluded that the hierarchical structure of the professional self-esteem and the taxonomic organisation of the teaching efficacy, teacher-pupil relationship, and teaching commitment into individual dimensions is visible. It is obvious that professional self-esteem was highly relevant to explicating the meanings of teaching efficacy, teaching-pupils relationship and teaching commitment Abdullah, Samupwa, and Alzaidiyeen (2009) investigated the effects of teacher training programme on teachers‟ productivity as well as seek to understand whether self- esteem can moderate between teacher training and productivity, drawing the sample from 225 school managers and teachers from primary, combined and junior secondary schools, the findings of this research indicate that teacher training has a partial relationship with productivity while self-esteem does not moderate the relationship between teacher training and work behavior. But for job performance, the result shows that self-esteem only moderates the relationship between teaching skills with job performance on the moderating role of self-esteem on the relationship between teacher training and organizational effectiveness, the result shows that self-esteem innovates the relationship between teaching skills, responsibility with organisational effectiveness. Taken together, these findings indicate that when teachers have positive self-esteem, it would increase their impact of teachers‟ teaching skills on performance and organizational effectiveness. While teachers‟ with high responsibility would increase the impact on organizational effectiveness when they have a positive self-esteem. 70 Teachers’ Effectiveness and locus of Control Locus of control has been postulated to be an important element of teacher effectiveness. “A sense of personal control appears to be important for teachers because the basic responsibility of teaching is to promote change in children thus it appears that teachers ideally should perceive themselves as in control of events in their own lives and in the classroom, therefore exhibiting a relatively strong sense of personal control” (Sherman and Gile,, 1981). Sherman and Gile (1981) compared teachers with five or more year‟s internal locus of control with pre-service teachers and those with less than five years experience. The result showed that teachers with five or more years of experience were more internal than pre- service teachers and those with five years or less experience. The latter groups scored 10.76 and 10.23 respectively which is very near the midpoint between internal and external scores on the Rotter I-E scale Experienced teachers scored 8.85 which was significantly more internal. The relationship between locus of control and student achievement was investigated by Rose and Medley (1981) as part of a study of a link between teacher beliefs (Locus of control), teacher behavior, student behavior and students‟ achievement. The investigator predicted that internal teachers would produce higher achieving students by utilising predominantly direct instruction methods and by maintaining a controlled learning environment. While the results of the study confirmed statistically significant difference in achievement in mathematics scores for students taught by teachers with an internal locus control, the observations of teacher behaviors did not conform to the predictions that the internal locus of control would use more controlling techniques. The internal teachers used techniques which were humanistic and gave the students opportunities to develop internal controls for their behaviors. The students did spend more time-on-task in the higher achieving classrooms, but not for the predicted reasons. The study did not show significant differences in teacher internal locus of control and student achievement in several other subject areas included in the study. Sheard (1996) cited and confirmed that internal teachers could be differentiated from external ones in their effects on student achievement. Agnes (1994) compared 88 teachers of the year with 92 in-service teachers, the result showed a higher correlation of humanistic pupil control beliefs, internal locus of control and higher teacher efficacy beliefs for the teachers of the year than for the inexperienced teachers. Kay-Cheng (1989) studied attitude towards responsibility and teacher locus of 71 control, and observed that teachers who place a high value on teaching tend to take greater personal responsibility for their own actions and their students‟ performance. Bimal (2001) studied stress and locus of control among Singaporean trainee special education teachers. Thirty-one trainee special education teachers completed the teacher stress inventory and the teacher locus of control scale. Principal findings indicated that trainee special education teachers‟ who have low stress, have an internal locus of control orientation. It was also revealed that the stress the trainee teachers encountered, was not mediated by the variables such as teachers‟ gender, age, qualification and the type of pupils they were teaching. Gershaw (1989) summarized the following research finding has a typical characteristic of a person with internal locus of control: Internals are likely to work for achievements, tolerate delays in rewards and plan for long-term goals. After experiencing success in a task, internals are likely to raise their behavioral goals. In contrast, externals are likely to lower their goals. After failing a task, internals re-evaluate future performances and lower their expectations of success. After failure, externals raise their expectation. Internals are better able to resist coercion. Internals are more likely to learn about their environment and learn from past experiences. Internals experience more anxiety and guilt with their failures and use more repression to forget about their disappointments. Internals find solving their bouts of depression easier likewise; they are prone to learned helplessness and serious depression. Internals are better at tolerating ambiguous situations, are less willing to take risks, are willing to work on self-improvement and better themselves through remedial work, they derive great benefits from social supports, they make better health recovery in the long- term adjustment to physical disability Cain and Mckay (1996) investigated the relationship between internal locus of control and female role model in female college students. The study presents evidence which suggests that the subjects who identified role models had stronger internal locus of control than the subject who did not identify role models, that locus of control was a changeable variable, that internal locus of control increased over the first year of college in the role model group (positive effect), and that internal locus of control decreased over the first year of college in the no role model group (negative effect) Sheard (1996) studied classroom management skills and early childhood teacher locus of control. Subjects in the study were 55 teachers in child care centers. It was concluded that an external locus of control may be a predictor of poor behavior management skills in early childhood teachers. While an internal locus of control is not always an indicator of good 7 2 management, its absence is a strong predictor of poor skills in this area. Teachers who have a combination of knowledge of good classroom management technique and an internal locus of control are likely to be the most successful in their behavior management efforts. Murat (2003) conducted an analysis of relations among locus of control, burnout, and job satisfaction in Turkish high school teachers, Pearson product moment correlation and multiple regression statistical procedure were used to understand high school teachers‟ burnout when using some predictors such as age, locus of control, and job satisfaction. The results showed that gender, locus of control and job satisfaction were significant on predictor effect on emotional exhaustion. There were difference on gender in relation to emotional exhaustion, that is female teachers had more emotional exhaustion than their male counterparts. Age did not have significant effect. All these independent variables had a combined predictor effect on emotional exhaustion. In the burnout dimension, locus of control and gender had the highest effect. Teachers with external locus of control had more emotional exhaustion than teachers with internal locus of control. All variables were statistically significant in predictive effect on depersonalisation. Thus all the variables had combined predictor effects on depersonalisation. In the burnout dimension, female teachers‟ with burnout and external teachers with locus of control had high depersonalisation. Only age was revealed to be significantly predictive of personal accomplishment. Other variables (such as gender, locus of control, and job satisfaction) were not revealed to be significantly predictive of teachers‟ personal accomplishment. Teachers’ Effectiveness and Gender Factor Factors that may influence teachers‟ effectiveness have been identified to include gender. On the influence of gender, Akiri and Ugborugbo (2008) citing Dee (2005) found that gender interactions between teachers and students have significant effects on students‟ achievement. However the studies of Holmund & Sund (2005) and Iymms (2005) found that teachers‟ gender has no effect on students outcome. Avalos and Haddad (1981) reviewed studies on teacher effectiveness in Africa, India, Latin America, middle East, Philippines and Thailand and summed that a number of studies comparing male and female teachers for secondary schools, found that female teachers were more satisfied with their career, possessed a better attitude toward their profession, students and school work, exhibited better mental health and suffered less problems related to their teaching activities. Also, they contended that female appeared to have a better perception of 73 an open school climate and this in turn appeared associated with better job satisfaction. Although these did not appear to be a clear relationship between gender and teaching attitudes, there were some indications that female teachers use more “modern” teaching approaches such as participating, problem solving methods. Adegbile & Adeyemi (2008) conducted a study on enhancing quality assurance through teachers‟ effectiveness and found that there exists no relationship between male and female teachers in each category of the observed behavioral trait as a means of enhancing quality assurance. Jatol (2008) pointed out that some personal social characteristics were different for men and women teachers, with men generally being more business-like, less friendly and responsible. Mwanwenda & Mwanwenda (1989) studied teacher‟s characteristics and pupils achievement in Botswana primary school, it was concluded that pupils taught by female and experienced teachers performed significantly better than pupils taught by male and those with short teaching experiences. Hassan (1990), examined the difference between the academic achievement of students taught by the female and male teachers in primary schools of Pakistan and one of the findings is that students of male teachers achieve better results in mathematics in grades 4 and 5 than students taught by female teachers. Jatol (2008) investigated gender of teachers and teaching practice in Pakistan, the result showed that teachers in rural schools give more homework in mathematics and science, in rural schools, more male than female teachers give homework to students. Female teachers follow up home work more than male teachers in urban schools. More male and female teachers in urban schools use the teaching kit than their counterparts in rural schools. More male teachers in urban schools use the kit than male in rural schools. More male teachers in urban and rural schools use physical punishment than female teachers in the same area. More male than female in rural and urban areas are likely to use help from student monitors. The significant difference for lesson planning was for rural schools in which more female than male teachers plan their lessons for teaching. Lahiri (2010) reviewed status of female teachers and students‟ evaluation of teachers and commented that since 1960‟s; student evaluation of teachers has been practiced as a criterion for deciding promotion, tenure, wages and administrative decision. In this regard, gender offers an attention because of unequal distribution in the educational set up regarding teacher‟s gender and high attrition rate of female students. Whenever gender bias exists, it is found that male students rate female instructors critically while female students show no gender bias. Teaching in higher classes is over represented by male teachers and thereby, considered as male occupation. Thus female teachers are rated strictly because they are 7 4 trying to fit into non-traditional field. Hence, female instructors are rated leniently on exclusively feminine stereotyped characteristics – affectionate, sympathetic, sensitive to the needs of others, understanding, compassionate, warm and gentle. This position is supported by Basow and Silberg (1987) who contended that female teachers lack interpersonal interaction with students, which makes them devoid of feminine characteristics or motherly attitude. Male teachers are perceived to be dynamic, energetic enthusiastic which are masculine characteristics and students‟ associate this with male rather than female teachers, thus the status of female teachers may be under threat. Teachers’ Effectiveness and Work Experience Factor The importance of experienced teachers in schools has been highlighted by many researchers. Adeyemi (2008) and Ogundare (2001), contended that researchers have also given different opinions about teaching experience and students‟ learning outcomes in schools. Their arguments centre on the fact that experience improves teaching skills while pupils learn better in the hands of teachers who have taught continuously over a period of years. In investigating possible differences in teaching strategies, Schuler (1984) grouped teachers into three levels of teaching experiences (3-6, 7-10; and more than 10 years). His findings revealed that experienced teachers‟ perception of their teaching objectives was significantly more subject-oriented than was that of first-year teachers. Hence, effective teaching could be measured by the level of a teacher‟s subject matter competence which Mullens (1993) regarded as a prime predictor of students‟ learning. The importance of experienced teachers in schools has been argued as being necessary for school effectiveness (Zaku, 1983). This suggests that many experienced teachers might have left the school system probably as a result of better job prospects in other sectors of the economy. However, the desire by government to engage experienced teachers is perhaps hampered by the high cost of education. Hence, Adeyemi (1998) maintained that the more experienced teachers in a school system, the higher would be the recurrent cost of education. In measuring teacher‟s effectiveness, Stiggins and Duke (1990) suggested three parallel evaluation systems, these include induction system for novice teachers with a focus on meeting performance standards; a remediation system for experienced teachers in need of remediation to correct deficiencies in performance and a professional development system for competent, experienced teachers pursuing excellence in particular areas of teaching. 75 Adeyemi (2008) investigated teachers‟ teaching experience and students‟ learning outcome among secondary schools in Ondo State, and found that there was a significant relationship between teachers‟ teaching experience and students‟ learning outcomes as measured by their performance in SSCE examination in the state. The result further showed that schools which have more teachers with teaching experience of more than 12 years performed better compared to those teachers have less than 12 years. Day et al (2006) in a study of a variation in teachers‟ work, life and effectiveness reported that teachers‟ effectiveness is not simply a consequence of age or experience, teachers‟ professional life phases are core moderating influences on their effectiveness. Teachers‟ capacities to sustain their effectiveness in different phases of their professional lives are affected positively and negatively by their sense of professional identity. They identified six professional life phases, relating to experience, rather than age or responsibilities, and the key characteristics of the six professional life phases are; 0 to3 years-commitment, support and challenges, the focus was a developing sense of efficacy in the classroom. This was a phase of high commitment. A crucial factor in successful negotiation of this period was the support of school/department leaders. Poor pupil behavior was seen as having a negative impact. Teachers in this professional life phase had either a developing sense of efficacy (60%) or a reduced sense of efficacy of 40%; 4 to7 years – identity and efficacy in the classroom. The key characteristic was the increased confidence about being effective teachers. Day et al (2006) reported that 78% of teachers in this phase have taken some additional responsibilities, which further strengthened their emerging identities. The management of heavy workloads has a negative impact on some teachers. Teachers in this professional life phase were grouped as; sustaining a strong sense of identity, self-efficacy and effectiveness (49%); sustaining identity, efficacy and effectiveness (31%); or identity, efficacy and effectiveness at risk (20%). 8 to 15 years- managing changes in role and identity: Growing tensions and transitions. This phase was seen as a watershed in teachers‟ professional development, 80% had posts of responsibility and for many there were decisions to make about procession in their careers. Of the teachers in this processional life phase, 76% where judged to have sustained engagement, with 24% showing detachment/loss of motivation. 16 to 23 years-work-life tension: Challenges to motivation and commitment. Day et al (2006) reported that as well as managing heavy workloads, many were facing additional demands outside school (health issues or from partner, children or as careers) as well as additional responsibility in schools, making work-life balance a key concern. The struggle 7 6 for balance was often reported as a negative impact. The feeling at this stage was a feeling of career stagnation linked to lack of support and negative perceptions of pupil behavior. The three sub groups in this phase were: further career advancement and good results leading to increased motivation/commitment; sustained motivation, commitment and effectiveness (34%); and workload/managing competing tensions/career stagnation leading to decreased motivation, commitment and effectiveness (14%). 24 to 30 years – challenges to sustaining motivation. Maintaining motivation in the face of external policies and initiative, which were viewed negatively and declining pupils‟ behavior was the core struggle for teachers in the phase. Teachers in this phase were categorised as either sustaining a strong sense of motivation and commitment (54%) or holding on but losing motivation (46%); 31 years and above – sustaining/declining motivation, coping with change, looking forward to retirement. For majority of teachers, this was a phase, almost two thirds were judged to have high motivation and commitment. Positive teacher-pupil relationships and pupil progress were the basis for this. Government policy, health issues and pupil behavior were often perceived as the most negative factors for this group. Teachers in this phase were seen as either maintaining commitment (64%); or „tied and trapped‟ (36%). Day et al (2006) concluded that the capacity of teachers to manage work life tensions in different professional life phases and in different schools contexts is key to their effectiveness. Alliance for quality teaching (2010), contended that the first three years in the teaching profession are equally crucial in building a quality teacher workforce, and that teachers working conditions outlines key features of the workplace that enhance teacher quality, retention and effectiveness. The key assumption is that teachers‟ characteristic and qualification are not fixed and static rather, they are malleable and dynamic within a rich professional context that encourages learning and growth. The workplace culture plays a key role in whether newly hired teachers stay for more than a year to two. Leigh (2010) reported in a study estimating teacher effectiveness from two –year changes in students‟ test score that experience has the strongest effect, with a large effect in the early years of a teacher‟s career. For literacy and numeracy, there appears to be statistically significant effect of experience in the early years. Compared to novice teachers, teachers with 20 years of experience have test score gains that are 0.1 standard deviations higher in literacy, and 0.2 standard deviation higher in numeracy. Beyond 20 years, there appear to be no further gains to experience. 77 Sachs (2004) surveyed elementary teachers with five or more years of experience in an urban school district. No difference was found between effective and ineffective teachers. Darling –Hommond (1999) Contended that effects of experience are visible when teachers with less than five years experience are included in the study. Appraisal of Reviewed Literatures The study reviewed relevant and related literatures critical to proper understanding of the major factors identified which comprised the theoretical background covering concept as teachers‟ effectiveness, the main five personality factors, self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, gender, work experience and theories of effectiveness. The study also reviewed empirical background, covering concepts as teachers‟ effectiveness and the main big five personality factors, teacher effectiveness and self-efficacy, teacher effectiveness and locus of control, teacher effectiveness and gender factor, teacher effectiveness and work experience. Research Questions The following research questions are answered in the study; 1. What is the relationship between personality types (openness to experience, Agreeableness, Assertiveness, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness) and teacher effectiveness among teachers? 2. What is the combined influence of personality types (openness to experience, Agreeableness, Assertiveness, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness) on teacher effectiveness among teachers? 3. What is the relative influence of personality types (openness to experience, Agreeableness, Assertiveness, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness) on teacher effectiveness among teachers? 4. What is the relationship between teacher self efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teachers‟ effectiveness? 5. What is the combined influence of teachers‟ self efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on their effectiveness in Lagos State? 6. What is the relative influence of the independent factors of teacher self-efficacy, self- esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teacher effectiveness in Lagos State? 7 8 Hypotheses The following hypotheses are tested for significance at 0.05 probability level: 1. There is no significant relationship between teacher personality factors (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) and teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers in Lagos State. 2. There is no significant relationship between teacher self efficacy, self esteem, locus of control, work experience, gender and teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers in Lagos State. Conceptual model for the study This model hypothesise that two independent factors comprising psychological (teacher self-efficacy, self esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender) and personality (openness to experience conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism) factors will influence the dependent factor that will result in increased learning outcome, attitudinal and social change, utilisation of diverse resource in structuring classroom teaching, development of civil mindedness and divers Psycho-demographic factors Personality factors - Teacher self efficacy - openness to experience - Teacher self esteem - Conscientiousness - Teacher locus of control - Extroversion - Teacher work experience - Agreeableness - gender - Neuroticism Teacher effectiveness High Attitudinal and Utilization of Development Collaborating expe ctation of social change diverse of diversities with others learn ing resource & civic outcome mindedness Figure 2.3 Hypothesized Models of Factors Contributing to Teacher Effectiveness. 7 9 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, instrumentation, administration and data analysis to be adopted in this study. Design The correlation research which is a type of descriptive survey of ex-post facto type was used in this study. The rationale is based on seeking the relationship between the variables of interest. Correlation research helps clarify relationships and patterns of relationships between variables. Often, a correlation study is mainly exploratory, given that a researcher attempts to identify the pattern of relationship existing between two or more variables (Gay, 1992). The approach will enable the researcher obtain information from a representative sample of a population in order to describe the situation as they exist from where the researcher can infer the perception of the entire population. Population of the Study The target populations from which the sample for the study was drawn are public Junior Secondary School (JSS) teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. The population comprised of both male and female Mathematics and English Language teachers, this is because both are core subjects to students‟ academic progression. Sample and Sampling Procedure The population of Mathematics and English Language teachers and the number of junior secondary schools in the six districts in Lagos State are presented in Table 3.1 In order to determine the sample size as representative of the study population, a sample fraction of 60% was chosen and multiplied with the total population within each district. Thus, a total population of 574 teachers‟ was obtained The researcher used the multi-stage sampling technique to determine the total number of schools involved in the study. A total of 159 JSS were randomly selected from the six districts in Lagos State, comprising district 1 (16), 2 (24), 3 (34), 4 (26), 5 (39) and 6 (20). All the Mathematics and English language teachers from the randomly selected schools were 80 used in the study. This clusters were chosen because the unit is not an individual, but groups of individuals who are naturally together. Table 3.1: Distribution of Mathematics and English Language teacher in Lagos State S/N District No. of Junior Secondary Population of Sample Size Schools mathematics and English teachers 1. 1 27 122 73 2. 2 40 138 83 3. 3 56 175 105 4. 4 44 173 104 5. 5 65 221 133 6 6 33 129 75 265 958 574 Lagos State Ministry of Education 2012 Instrumentation The following research instruments were used to obtain data from the respondents in this study. 1. Teachers Effectiveness Questionnaire 2. The Big-five personality Inventory 3. Teacher Self efficacy scale 4. Self-esteem Scale 5. Teacher Locus of Control scale Teacher’s Effectiveness Questionnaire Three instruments were used to obtain information on teacher effectiveness these comprise the teachers‟ effectiveness, principal/head of unit assessment of teacher effectiveness and students‟ assessment of the teacher effectiveness, adapted from Virgilio Teacher Behavior Inventory (1987), designed to measure specific teacher behaviors consistently described in teacher effectiveness research. The teachers‟ effectiveness self- reported questionnaire covers items relating to Goe, et al‟s (2008) definition of teachers‟ effectiveness, which includes high expectation of learning outcome, improved academics, attitudinal and social outcome for student, utilization of diverse resources to plan and 81 structure learning outcome, contribute to the development of classrooms and schools that value diversity and civil mindedness and collaborating with others to ensure students‟ success. It is a five point Likert scale, ranging from Never, (1) Rarely (2) Sometimes (3) usually (4) or Always (5). Validation of Instrument The instrument was validated for use by trial testing the instrument on 30 Junior secondary schools teachers, heads of units and students in Ajangbadi junior high school and Ojo high school, after two weeks, the instrument was re-administered to the same set of participants. The product moment correlation was used to establish the psychometric value of the instrument using the test-retest method; it was found to have 0.76 reliability coefficients for teachers effectiveness self-reported questionnaire, 0.71 reliability coefficients for principal/ head of unit teachers‟ effectiveness assessment questionnaire and 0.73 reliability coefficients for students‟ assessment of teacher effectiveness questionnaire. Personality Scale (Neo five factor Inventory) The personality scale in this study was developed by Costa and McCrae (1992). It is a 60-item version of the big five inventory, designed to measure “big five factors of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness”. It is a five-point likert type scale. Open to experience comprised of eight items (i.e items 1-8) and the internal consistency is reported as 0.73. Conscientious comprises of twelve items (i.e. items 9-20) and the internal consistency is reported as 0.81. Extraversion comprises of twenty-two items (i.e items 21-42) and the internal consistency is reported as 0.73. Agreeableness comprises of eleven items (i.e. items 43-53) and internal consistency is reported as 0.68. Lastly neuroticism comprises of seven items (i.e. items 54-60) and the internal consistency is reported as 0.86. Notably, a composite reliability alpha coefficient obtained for the entire items on the scale is 0.87 (Costa & McCrae 1992). Validation of Instrument The instrument was validated for use by trial testing the instrument on thirty Junior secondary schools teachers in Ajangbadi Junior high school, after two weeks the instrument was re-administered to the same set of participants. The product moment correlation was used 8 2 to establish the psychometric value of the instrument using the test-retest method. A composite reliability coefficient obtained for scale his 0.79 Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES) The instrument was developed by Schwarzer, Schmitz and Daytner (1999). The TSES consists of 10 items, used to measure job accomplishment, skill development on the job, social interaction with students, parents and colleagues and coping with job stress. All items were constructed by explicitly following Bandura‟s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997; Schwarzer, 1992). The response format and numerical value are (1) not at all true (2) barely true (3) moderately true and (4) exactly true. The Cronbach‟s alpha for the TSES was found to be between 0.76, and 0.82, test-retest reliability resulted in 0.67 and 0.76 respectively for one-year and 0.65 for two years. Validation of Instrument The instrument was validated for use by trial testing the instrument on 30 Junior secondary schools teachers in Ajangbadi Junior high school, after two weeks the instrument was re-administered to the same set of participants. The product moment correlation was used to establish the psychometric value of the instrument using the test-retest method. A reliability coefficient obtained for the scale is 0.62 1. The Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSE): It is a 10 item Guttman Scale which access self-esteem. It was developed by Rosenberg in 1965. Individuals are asked to rate the degree to which the statement is self descriptive on a 4-point scale (i.e., 0 = Strongly Agree; 1 = Agree; 2=Disagree; 3 = Strongly Disagree for items 3, 5, 8, 9, 10 and 3 = Strongly Agree; 2 = Agree 1 = Disagree, 0 = Strongly Disagree for items 1,2,4,6,7). Internal consistency for a Guttman scale was determined by the patterned relationship that each item has with other items on the scale and is reported in terms of its reproducibility (Rosenberg, 1965). A reliability coefficient obtained for the scale is 0.92. Validation of Instrument The instrument was validated for used by trial testing the instrument on 30 Junior secondary schools teachers in Ajangbadi Junior high school, after two weeks, the instrument was re-administered to the same set of participants . The product moment correlation was 8 3 used to establish the psychometric value of the instrument using the test-retest method. A reliability coefficient obtained for the scale is 0.84 2. Teacher Locus of Control Scale. The teacher locus of control scale consists of 25 items developed by Rose and Medway (1981), teachers were asked to assign responsibility to student successes or failures by choosing between two competing explanations for the situation described. Half the items on the TLC describes situation of students‟ successes while the other half describes student failures. For each success situation one explanation attributes the positive outcome internally to the teacher (1+) while the other assigns responsibility outside the teacher usually the students. Similarly, for each failure situation, one explanation gives an internal attribution (1-) while the other blames external factors. Rose and Medway (1981) found that TLC is a better predictor of teacher behavior than Rotter‟s Locus of Control (I – E) scale probably because it is more specific to the teaching context. The bi-serial correlation of the items range between 0.25 and 0.66. Validation of Instrument The instrument was validated for use by trial testing the instrument on thirty junior secondary schools teachers in Ajangbadi Junior high school, after two weeks the instrument was re-administered to the same set of participants. The product moment correlation was used to establish the psychometric value of the instrument using the test-retest method. A reliability coefficient obtained for the scale is 0.61 Procedure for Data Collection The researcher will collect a letter of introduction from the Head of Department, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan for the purpose of identification and cooperation from the school teachers to be used. Six research assistants were employed and used in the distribution and administration of the questionnaire to the teachers in the chosen school. The questionnaires were administered across the six educational districts of Lagos State over a period of nine weeks. The researcher endeavored to control the influence of the participants over one another in responding to the questionnaire and encouraged them to respond without necessarily doing so in hurry. The researcher also explained the purpose of 8 4 the study to participants assuring them of confidentiality. Instructions regarding how to respond to the scales/inventories were clearly stated and spelt out to the participants after distribution. Questions were entertained before reactions to the scales/inventories; the researcher will be available for further clarification during the process of responding to the scales/inventories. There was be no time limit for responding to the items, nonetheless, the scales/inventories were collected back within 48 hours of distribution. Data Analysis The descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation will be used to analyse the data, while the Pearson Correlation Analysis and Multiple Regression will be used to test the hypotheses and research questions. 85 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS This chapter presents the analysis of the data obtained in the study. Multiple regression analysis was used to provide information on the six research questions and two hypotheses generated for the study. The study examined psycho-demographic variables as determinants of teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. The findings of the study are presented in the following Tables. Research Question One: what is the relationship between personality types (openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) and teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State? Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among the Variables. Openness 1.000 Conscientiousness 0.332** 1.000 Extroversion 0.522** 0.541** 1.000 Agreeableness 0.037 0.131** 0.109* 1.00 Neuroticism 0.262** 0.222** 0.249** 0.323** 1.000 trt. Effectiveness 0.149** -0.195** 0.026 -0.113* -0.197** 1.000 Mean Scores 16.17 30.39 51.84 24.46 20.26 45.86 Standard Deviation 3.28 4.42 6.81 4.43 4.08 7.23 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level Table 4.1: shows mean, standard deviation and zero order correlation among the variables. It is observed that there is significant relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable (teacher‟s effectiveness) in the following order of magnitude: Neuroticism (R= -0.197, p <0.01), conscientiousness (r= -0.195, P<0.01), openness (r= 0.149, p<0.01), agreeableness (r = -0.113, P<0.05) and extroversion (r = 0.026 p >0.05). Research Question Two: what is the combined influence of personality types (openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) on teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos-State, Nigeria? 86 Table 4.2: Joint Effect of the independent variables R 0.374 R Square 0.140 Adjusted r square 0.132 Std. Error of the Estimate 6.73825 ANOVA Sum of squares Df Means Square F Sig Regression 3726.86 5 745.37 16.42 0.000 Residual 22883.59 504 45.40 Total 26610.45 509 a. Predictors (constant), (openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) b. Dependent variable: Teachers‟ effectiveness. Table 4.2 shows that there is joint effect of the independent variables (openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) on teacher effectiveness; R= 0.374, P<0.05. The Table further reveals 13.2% (Adjusted R Square = 0.132) of the variance in the teacher‟s effectiveness were accounted for by the linear combination of the independent variables. The ANOVA results from the regression analysis shows that there is significant influence of the independent variables on the dependent variables, F (5,504) = 16.42, P<0.05). Research Question Three What is the relative influence of personality types (openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) on teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos-State, Nigeria? 8 7 Table 4.3: Relative effect of the independent variables on the dependent variable Unstandardised Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Β Std. Error Beta T Sig Constant 54.111 2.874 18.825 0.000 Openness 0.539 0.109 0.245 4.966 0.000 Conscientiousness -0.462 0.081 -0.282 5.698 0.000 Extroversion 0.114 0.058 0.107 1.962 0.050 Agreeableness -0.044 0.072 -0.027 0.609 0.542 Neuroticism -0.384 0.081 -0.217 4.748 0.000 a. Dependent variable: Teacher‟s effectiveness Table 4.3 above shows all the five independent variables make relative contribution to teachers‟ effectiveness. The variables are arranged in order of importance or magnitude: openness (β =0.539, t = 4.966, p<0.05), conscientiousness (β = -0.462, t= 5.698, p<0.05); neuroticism (β = -0.384, t = 4.748, P<0.05); extroversion (β = 0.114, t= 1.962, P< 0.05) and agreeableness (β = -0.044, t = 0.609, P >0.05) in that order. Research Question Four: what is the relationship between teacher self-efficacy, self- esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos-state, Nigeria? Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among the Variables. Gender 1.000 Qualification -0.196** 1.000 Age 0.441** -0.118** 1.000 Work 0.230 0.067 0.394** 1.000 experience Subject taught 0.004 -0.030 0.033 0.034 1.000 Self-efficacy 0.100* -0.286** 0.122** -0.070 0.001 1.000 Locus of -0.231 -0.008 -0.067 -0.318** 0.273** 1.000 control 0.011 trt.S- Esteem trt -0.087 0.051 -0.227** -0.154** -0.090* - 1.000 effectiveness 0.000 0.027 Mean Scores - - 29.78 3.93 - 21.08 36.73 30.96 45.86 Standard - - 10.56 5.01 - 3.66 3.66 6 .89 7.23 Deviation ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level 88 Table 4.4: shows the mean, standard deviation and zero order correlation among the variables. It is observed that there is significant relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable (teachers‟ effectiveness) in the following order of magnitude: age (r = 0.160, p <0.01), self-efficacy (r = 0.116, P<0.01), locus of control (r = 0.089, p<0.05), work experience (r = 0.056, P>0.05), teacher self-esteem (r = 0.048, p>0.05), gender ( r = 0.017, p>0.05), qualification (r = -0.011, p> 0.05) and subject taught (r = -0.010, p >0.05). Research Question Five: what is the combined influence of self-efficacy, teacher self- esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos-State, Nigeria? Table 4.5: Joint Effect of the independent variables R 0.233 R Square 0.054 Adjusted r square 0.039 Std. Error of the Estimate 7.08778 ANOVA Sum of squares Df Means Square F Sig Regression 1441.93 8 180.24 3.588 0.000 Residual 25168.52 501 50.24 Total 26610.45 509 c. Predictors (constant), (gender, qualification, age, work experience, subjects taught, self- efficacy, locus of control and teacher self-esteem) d. Dependent variable: Teacher‟s effectiveness. Table 4.5 shows there is joint effect of the independent variables teacher self-efficacy, self- esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teacher effectiveness; R= 0.233, P<0.05. The Table further reveals 3.9% (Adjusted R Square = 0.039) of the variance in the teacher‟s effectiveness are accounted for by the linear combination of the independent variables. The ANOVA results from the regression analysis shows there is significant effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables, F (8,501) = 3.588, P<0.05). 89 Research Question Six: what is the relative influence of teacher self efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, work experience and gender on teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria? Unstandardised Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Β Std. Error Beta T Sig Constant 25.682 6.584 3.900 0.000 Gender -0.749 0.712 -0.053 1.052 0.293 Qualification 0.146 0.340 0.020 0.430 0.667 Age 0.128 0.036 0.187 3.533 0.000 Work experience 0.060 0.073 0.041 0.819 0.413 Subject taught -0.013 0.031 -0.018 0.411 0.681 Self-efficacy 0.186 0.094 0.094 1.967 0.050 Locus of control 0.274 0.168 0.080 1.632 0.103 Self-esteem 0.107 0.047 0.102 2.266 0.024 b. Dependent variable: Teacher‟s effectiveness Table 4.6 shows that all the independent variables make relative contribution to teachers‟ effectiveness. The variables are arranged in order of importance or magnitude: age (β = 0.187, t = 3.533, p<0.05), teacher‟s self-esteem (β = 0.102, t = 2.266, p<0.05); self-efficacy (β = 0.094, t = 1.967, P<0.05); teacher locus of control (β = 0.080, t= 1.632, P> 0.05), gender (β = -0.053, t= 1.052, P > 0.05), work experience (β = 0.041, t= 0.819, P> 0.05), qualification (β = 0.020, t= 0.430, P > 0.05) and subject taught (β = -0.018, t = 0.411, P > 0.05) in that order. Hypothesis one (i): There is no significant relationship between teacher self-efficacy and teachers‟ effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. Table 4.7: Relationship between self efficacy and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P remark Self-efficacy 510 21.08 3.66 Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 0.116 <0.05 Significant effectiveness 90 Table 4.7 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between teacher self-efficacy and teacher effectiveness is 0.116 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between teacher self-efficacy and teacher‟s effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis one (ii): There is no significant relationship between teacher self-esteem and teachers‟ effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.8: Relationship between teacher self-esteem and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P remark Self- esteem 510 30.96 6.89 Not Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 0.048 >0.05 Significant effectiveness Table 4.8 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between the self-esteem and teacher effectiveness is 0.048 and P > 0.05. Since P > 0.05, it implies there is no significant relationship between teachers‟ self-esteem and teacher‟s effectiveness,based on this, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis one (iii): There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ locus of control and teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. Table 4.9: Relationship between Teacher locus of control and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P Remark Teacher locus 510 36.73 2.12 of control 508 0.089 <0.05 Significant Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 effectiveness Table 4.9 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between teachers‟ locus of control and their effectiveness is 0.089 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between teachers‟ locus of control and their effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. 9 1 Hypothesis one (IV): There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ work experience and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.10: Relationship between Teacher work-experience and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P Remark Work- 510 3.93 5.01 experience 508 0.056  0.05 Not Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 Significant effectiveness Table 4.10 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between teachers‟ work experience and teacher effectiveness is 0.056 and P > 0.05. Since P > 0.05, it implies there is no significant relationship between teachers‟ work experience and their effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis one (v): There is no significant relationship between gender and teacher effectiveness among teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.11: Relationship between gender and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P remark Gender 510 - - Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 0.017  0.05 Not effectiveness Significant Table 4.11 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between gender and teacher effectiveness is 0.017 and P > 0.05. Since P > 0.05, it implies there is no significant relationship between gender and teachers‟ effectiveness based on this, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis Two (VI): There is no significant relationship between openness to experience and teachers‟ effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria 92 Table 4.12: Relationship between Openness to experience and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P Remark Openness to 510 16.17 3.8 experience 508 0.149 < 0.05 Significant Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 effectiveness Table 4.12 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between openness to experience and teachers‟ effectiveness is 0.149 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between openness to experience and teacher‟s effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis Two (vii): There is no significant relationship between agreeableness and teachers‟ effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.13: Relationship between Teacher agreeableness and Teacher‟s Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P Remark agreeableness 510 24.46 4.43 Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 -0.113 <0.05 Significant effectiveness Table 4.13 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between agreeableness and teacher effectiveness is -0.113 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between agreeableness and teachers‟ effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis Two (viii): There is no significant relationship between extroversion and teacher effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. Table 4.14: Relationship between extroversion and Teachers‟ Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P remark Extroversion 510 51.84 6.81 Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 0.026 <0.05 Not Significant effectiveness 93 Table 4.14 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between extroversion and teacher effectiveness is 0.026 and P > 0.05. Since P > 0.05, it implies there is no significant relationship between extroversion and teacher‟s effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis Two (ix): There is no significant relationship between neuroticism and teachers‟ effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.15: Relationship between Neuroticism and Teacher‟s Effectiveness variable N X SD Df R P remark neuroticism 510 20.26 4.08 Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 -0.197 <0.05 Significant effectiveness Table 4.15 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between neuroticism and teacher effectiveness is -0.197 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between neuroticism and teachers‟ effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis Two (x): There is no significant relationship between conscientiousness and teachers‟ effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria Table 4.16: Relationship between Conscientiousness and Teachers‟ Effectiveness Variable N X SD Df R P remark Work-experience 510 30.39 4.42 Teacher- 510 45.86 7.23 508 -0.195 <0.05 Significant effectiveness Table 4.16 reveals that the correlation coefficient “r” between conscientiousness and teacher effectiveness is -0.195 and P < 0.05. Since P < 0.05, it implies there is significant relationship between conscientiousness and teachers‟ effectiveness, based on this, the null hypothesis is rejected. 9 4 Summary of Findings Findings of this study are summarised thus: RQ1. That openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness are significant to Teachers‟ effectiveness among teachers in Lagos-state, Nigeria. RQ2. The five, independent variables viz: openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism and conscientiousness on Teacher‟s effectiveness shows there was significant effect of the independent variables P<0.05 RQ3. All the five independent variables show relative contribution to teachers‟ effectiveness, meaning that the five independent variables contributed differently and significantly to teachers effectiveness. RQ4. Gender, work experience, self-efficacy, locus of control and teacher self-esteem are significant to their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. RQ5. The five independent variables viz: gender, work experience, self-efficacy, locus of control and teacher self-esteem on their effectiveness show that there is significant effect of the independent variables P<0.05. RQ6. All the five independent variables show relative contribution to teachers‟ effectiveness. meaning that the five independent variables contributed differently and significantly to teachers‟ effectiveness. Hypotheses 1i. There is significant relationship between teachers‟ self-efficacy and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria ii. There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ self-esteem and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. iii. There is significant relationship between teachers‟ locus of control and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria iv. There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ work experience and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. v. There is no significant relationship between gender and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. 2vi. There is significant relationship between teachers‟ openness to experience and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. 95 vii There is significant relationship between teachers‟ agreeableness and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. viii. There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ extroversion and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. ix. There is significant relationship between teachers‟ neuroticism and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. x. There is significant relationship between teachers‟ conscientiousness and their effectiveness in Lagos State, Nigeria. 96 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents the discussion of findings, conclusion and recommendations. It also presents implications of the findings and limitations of the study as well as suggestions for further studies. Discussion of Findings The results of research questions 1 and 2 revealed that the independent variables (personality factors) viz: openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism and conscientiousness on teachers‟ effectiveness show there was significant effect of the independent variables. This finding support the findings of Low, (1977); Bhagoliwal (1987); Murray, Rubliton and Paunonen (1990); Kechy and Berthelen (1995); Wangoo, (1996); Bhardwaj, Gupta, (2008). These researchers argued that teacher personality is a predictor of teachers‟ effectiveness, that is teachers who are emotionally stable, friendly, restrained and tolerant were rated more effective than their counterparts who do not possess the mentioned traits. Also, attributes such as acceptance, spontaneity, autonomy, democratic in nature and creativeness were found to enhance teachers‟ effectiveness. Further, this finding supports Dickson and Wersma (1984) who contended that there is ample evidence supporting the view that personality of a teacher is a very important determinant of successful teaching, and that the teachers‟ effectiveness is perceived to exist as a consequence of the characteristics of a teacher as a person. The result of research question 3 revealed that the independent variables (personality factors) viz: openness to experience, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism and conscientiousness show that they contributed differently and significantly to teachers‟ effectiveness. Notably, openness is viewed as the best predictor of teachers‟ effectiveness, followed by conscientiousness, neuroticism, extroversion and agreeableness as the least predictor. This result supports by the study of Gordon and Yorke (2007) that openness to experience is the best predictor of teaching effectiveness when compared with extroversion- introversion, thinking-feeling and judgment-perception temperament types. This finding contradicts the findings of Banick and Mount (1991) that extroversion was a valid predictor for occupation involving social interaction (e.g Education and management). Also these finding disagree with the finding of Furnham and Chamiono- Premuzie (2005) because they concluded that overall, students tend to prefer conscientious, open and stable personalities, however this preference was largely a function of students‟ own personality trait. Further, this finding is contradicts Judge, Heller and Mount (2002) who argued that neuroticism, 97 conscientiousness and extraversion are positive predictors of job performance and satisfaction, whereas openness to experience and agreeableness showed weak correlation with job performance and satisfaction. Based on the outcome of this result, personality factors vis-à-vis openness, agreeableness, assertiveness, neuroticism and conscientiousness are predictive factors in measuring teachers‟ effectiveness, in other words, there exist a relationship between the personality of the teacher and his/her teaching effectiveness. The result of research questions 4 and 5 showed that gender, work experience, self efficacy, locus of control and teacher self-esteem showed significant effect on teachers‟ effectiveness. This result supports the previous studies conducted by Czemaik (1990); Watson (1991); Moore and Esselman (1992). In these studies, researchers contended that students of teachers‟ with high level of efficacy have outperformed students who had teachers with low level of efficacy, also highly efficacious teachers were found to use reformed based teaching method such as inquiry and student centred approach, while teachers with low level of self-efficacy used more teacher directed methods, such as lecturing and textbook reading. Also, the finding supports Burn (1991), Samupwa and Alzaliyeen, (2009); that teachers with high self-esteem tend to espouse more pupil-centered and less teacher- directed approaches to teaching. Similarly, the finding supports the earlier position of Sherman and Gile (1981); Rose and Medley (1984); Gershaw (1989); Agnes (1994); Murat (1996) Sheared (1996); Cain and Mckay (1996), which state that teachers with internal locus of control are more likely to work for student achievement, tolerate delays in rewards, and plan for long term goals. Further, this finding corroborates Akiri and Ugbomgbo (2008); Avalos and Haddad (1981) that gender interaction between teachers and students have significant effects on students achievement. Lastly, this finding supports Schuler (1984); Ogundare (2001) and Adeyemi (2008) that experienced teacher perception of their teaching objectives was significantly more subject oriented as compared with their first year teacher. The result of research question 6 shows that the five independent variables relatively contribute to teachers‟ effectiveness. These mean that the five independent variables contribute differently and significantly to teachers‟ effectiveness. This finding is consistent with Judge and Bono (2001) who concluded from a meta-analysis study that all the psychological factors contributed differently to teachers‟ effectiveness. Also, the justification for the outcome of the result lays in the fact that, psychological factors vis-à-vis self-efficacy, self-esteem locus of control, work experience and gender are 9 8 determining factors in measuring teachers‟ effectiveness, that is, there exists a correlation between psychological factors and the teachers‟ teaching effectiveness Hypothesis 1 (i) result showed there is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and teachers‟ effectiveness in secondary schools. This finding supports Gibson and Dembo (1984); Huskey (1988); Watson (1991); Bandura (1994) Moore and Esselman 1997; and Pajares (2002) who all report that greater achievement was found in rural, urban, majority blacks and white schools for students who had teachers with high level of self-efficacy ; teachers with high levels of self- efficacy work longer with students that struggle, recognise students‟ error and attempt new teaching methods that support students; teachers‟ personal efficacy belief affected their job satisfaction and students‟ academic achievement; teachers with high efficacy create mastery experiences for students whereas teachers‟ with low instructional efficacy undermine students‟ cognitive development as well as students judgment of their capabilities. Based on the result, self-efficacy was considered a determining factor on the effectiveness of teachers. Hypothesis1 (ii) result showed that there is no significant relationship between self- esteem and teachers‟ effectiveness in secondary schools. This outcome agrees with the views of Feldman and Downey (1994), Leary, Tambor, Terdal, Down (1995), and Ayuk, Mendoza- Denton, Mischel, Downey, Peake and Rodrignez (2000) who argued that people, overtime experience real or imagined rejection, develop low level of self-esteem than people who feel accepted and included in their social environment. Low self-esteem in turn predisposes the person to more readily perceive others as rejecting him or her. This finding contradicts the findings of Burn (1991); Dobbins (1996); Tinsley and Hardy (2003); Arnold and Hughes (2005); Abdullah, Samuphia and Alzaidiyeen (2009) as they reported that; teachers‟ self- esteem play a central role in the complexity of the learning process; among the various qualities an effective teacher possesses are; ability to control the classroom atmosphere without being a dictator, have a sense of humour, great communication skills, are confident and have high self esteem. The self-esteem of teacher did not show any statistical significance to their effectiveness, hence, they in turn show some form of rejection. Hypothesis 1 (iii) result showed there is a significant relationship between locus of control and teachers‟ effectiveness in secondary schools. This finding coroborated Rose and Medley (1981); Gershaw (1989); Kay and Chang (1989); Sheard (1996) and Bimal (2001) who argued that teachers with five all more years of experience were more internal when compared with pre-service teachers and those with less than five years experience. However, 9 9 the current finding negates Rose and Medley (1981) where no significant difference in teachers‟ internal locus of control and students‟ achievement in several other subjects was reported. Based on the results, locus of control showed a statistical significance as a determinant of teacher effectiveness, hence, the teachers‟ capacity to demonstrate resilience and focus on helping students attain their goal is an important measure of the effective teacher. Hypothesis 1 (iv) revealed there is no significant relationship between work experience and teachers‟ effectiveness. This outcome supports Sach (2004) that no difference was found between effective and ineffective teachers who had spent five or more years in an urban school district. However, this study contradicts Adeyemi (2008); Zaku (1983) Stiggins and Duke (1990) who reported that there is a significant relationship between teachers‟ teaching experience and learning outcome among secondary school students. Further, they contended that the importance of experienced teachers is necessary for school effectiveness. Also, this finding contradicts Day et al (2006) who reported that teachers‟ professional life phases related to experience are core moderating influences on their effectiveness. Based on the result work experience did not show any statistical significance as a determinant of teachers‟ effectiveness, hence it should not be considered as a factor in the determinant of the teacher effectiveness, since it has been argued that it is a moderating factor in the professional life of teachers. Hypothesis 1 (v ) found there is no significant relationship between gender and teachers‟ effectiveness. This finding supports Holmmund and Sund (2005), Lymns (2005), and Adeyemi (2008). They reported that teachers‟ gender has no effect on students outcome; and that there exists no relationship between male and female teachers‟ effectiveness as a means of enhancing quality learning. However, the finding contradicts Hasan (1990); Mwanwenda and Mwanwenda (1998); and Jatol (2008) as they reveal that pupils taught by female teachers with long teaching experience performed significantly better than pupils taught by their male counterpart with short teaching experience and that students of male teachers achieve better in Mathematics in grades 4 and 5 than students taught by female teachers. Based on the result, gender did not show statistical significance on teachers‟ effectiveness, the implication is that gender as a factor is not a determinant of the effective teacher, hence, equity and fairness should be considered in the development of teachers‟ across all subjects. Hypothesis 2 (vi) revealed there is a significant relationship between openness to experience and teachers‟ effectiveness. This result supports Gordon and Yorke (2007) who contended 10 0 that openness to experience is the best predictor of teacher effectiveness when compared with other personality traits. However, this finding is not in line with Barrick and Mount (1991) who averred that extroversion is a valid predictor for occupations involving social interaction which by inference include the teaching profession. Further, this finding contradicts Mohan (1995) as he contended that teachers have been found to be effective when they are not dominated by anarchistic self and a neurotic need for power and authority. Based on the result, openness to experience showed a statistical significance to teachers‟ effectiveness, which is a determinant of an effective teacher. Conclusively, teachers should show flexibility, curiosity and sensitivity when relating with students. Hypothesis2 (vii) result showed there is a significant relationship between agreeableness and teacher effectiveness. According to Weiten (2001) and Gray (2002) agreeableness is characterised by the tendency to be sympathetic, trusting, cooperating, modest and straightforward rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The finding is consistent with that of Lew (1977) and Bhardwaj (1998) who reported that teachers with high level of affective interpersonal skills (agreeableness) are more effective and perceived as warm, friendly and supportive, communicate clearly, motivate and discipline pupils effectively. Based on the result, agreeableness showed a statistical significance to teacher effectiveness. In other words, it is a determinant of an effective teacher. Teachers‟ should exhibit trait, such as altruism, tender mindedness and straightforwardness when interacting with students. Hypothesis 2 (viii) revealed there is no significant relationship between extroversion and teachers‟ effectiveness in secondary schools. This is consistent with the finding of Gupta (2008) who reported there are no significant differences in knowledge sharing and acquisition activities among individuals who are high and low in extroversion, openness and neuroticism. However, the finding contradicts Pal and Bhagoliwal (1987); Sparks and Lipka (1992); and Wangoo (1996), who reported that effective teachers are more expressive and socialised compared with other teachers. Based on the result, extroversion did not show any statistical significance to teachers‟ effectiveness. Hypothesis 2 (ix) results showed that there is a significant relationship between neuroticism and teachers‟ effectiveness. Neuroticism according to Morris and Maistro (2006) is characterised by the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression. This finding is explained Bhardwaj (1998), as he noted there is a lot of stress in society. Families are breaking up and single parent and divorced families are on the increase, 10 1 hence teachers could become angered and emotionally strained when dealing with products of such homes. This finding supports Church (1994) that those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. Whereas Paunonen and Asthon (2001) posited that at the other end of the continuum, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. Based on the result, neuroticism showed a statistical significance to teachers‟ effectiveness, which is neuroticism, is a determinant of an effective teacher. This finding notably has been affected by stress in the society; hence, efforts must be geared towards reducing the stress caused by societal changes and or problems. Hypothesis 2 (x) results showed there is a significant relationship between conscientiousness and teachers‟ effectiveness. Conscientiousness according to Morris and Maestro (2006) is characterised by competence, order, dutifulness, achievement, striving, self- discipline and deliberation. This finding supports Gupta (2008) that individuals who score high in conscientiousness are more involved in knowledge acquisition activities than individuals who score low. Rougton (2006) and Gupta (2008) contradicts this finding as they reported that those who score low in the conscientious continuum are unstructured, have flexible and informal approach to work, they are engaged in multiple tasks, not detail and conscious, prefers big picture strategy, less committed to formal tasks and dislike paperwork. Based on the result, conscientiousness showed a statistical significance to teachers‟ effectiveness, this implies that it is a predictor of teachers‟ effectiveness, hence, teachers should show competence, dutifulness, self-discipline, order and so on in the course of interacting with students. Implications for Educational Practice The findings from this study have several implications for educational practice when considering poor performance of students in external examinations, engagement in antisocial behaviour and poor teacher contribution to classroom interaction. From the findings, teachers‟ personalities are identified as important factors in the professional practice of in- service teachers‟ effectiveness, that is, teachers should possess such personality characteristics as warmth, assertive, actively excited, modest, tender minded, competent, order, dutiful, self- discipline and aesthetic The study also found negative relationship between neuroticism and teacher effectiveness but it is imperative to mention that a teacher‟s emotional state could contribute 10 2 significantly to his/her effectiveness. Hence, maintaining stable emotional state is viewed as relevant to teaching effectiveness. The study also found that some psychological factors contributed significantly to teachers‟ effectiveness, that is, teachers must possess significant level of self- efficacy for effective classroom interaction. In other words; teachers must possess some degree of self- confidence in content and pedagogical skills for effective classroom delivery. Teachers must also possess a great level of internal locus of control as a requirement for promoting changes in student learning. In other words, teachers must exhibit a relatively strong sense of personal control in the course of professional practice, notably, no relationship was found between work experience and teachers‟ effectiveness. It is important to also note that a teacher‟s work experience is a moderating variable in teaching profession. Accordingly, teacher‟s work experience should be considered in professional practice. The outcome of this study is important to the education manager, policy maker, curriculum developers, school psychologist/counsellors and ministry of education. These will guide in the formulation of policies, development of training programmes and curriculum that will enhance teachers‟ productivity. Limitations of the Study In the process of conducting this research, a number of limitations were encountered, some of the teachers showed apathy towards filling the questionnaires because they assumed they would not enjoy any direct benefit by so doing. Second, they observed that the items in the instruments were cumbersome. Thus, causing delay in their responses and leaving out some items or not responding to others out rightly. Third, there were also losses of questionnaires. Contributions to Knowledge This study examined psycho-demographic factors as correlates of teacher effectiveness. The result indicated that teacher personality factors such as openness to experience, agreeableness, neuroticism and conscientiousness are significant predictors of teacher effectiveness and that extroversion is not a significant predictor of teacher effectiveness. The result also revealed that teacher psychological factors such as self efficacy, self esteem and locus of control showed significant relationship with teacher‟s effectiveness while gender and work experience did not show significant relationship with teacher effectiveness. 10 3 This study will be a veritable source of information for future researches for people within and outside the academia such as education managers, policy makers and Ministry of Education and curriculum planners. Finally, its contribution to knowledge is that it adds to the existing bodies of information and filling the existing gap with regard to the total effect of psycho-demographic factors on teachers‟ effectiveness of secondary school teachers. Recommendations Based on the findings from this study, the following recommendations are made: Teachers‟ personality factor must be considered as an integral part of their professional development and practice, that is, those who should teach should possess certain personality characteristics required for successful classroom interaction. Teacher should be seen to possess higher self-efficacy; this will influence their content and pedagogical mastery during the teaching and learning process. Teachers should possess internal locus of control, this will enable them develop commitment towards student goal attainment, help struggling students, engage in diverse teaching methods and spend more time with students. Policy makers and educational managers should continually develop programmes to further promote teachers personality, self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, etc. Such programmes should include self regulation and meta-cognitive training in other to enhance their level of effectiveness, with a view to enhancing student general performance. Conclusion The independent variables in this study could be used to predict and increase teachers‟ effectiveness among secondary school teachers. The variables show composite and relative contribution as influencing teachers‟ effectiveness. The study revealed that teachers‟ personality attributions are important to enhancing their classroom effectiveness, hence effort should be geared towards improving teachers‟ personality through appropriate interventions and prospective teachers should be screened and inducted before employment. The study also reveals that teachers‟ psychological attributions are important factors for enhancing their effectiveness, thus, self efficacy and locus of control must be improved upon for teachers in secondary schools and prospective teachers must be thoroughly screened and trained appropriately. 10 4 The model from this study is appropriate in explaining the influence of independent variables on the dependent variable with openness to experiences being the most potent personality trait, followed by conscientiousness, neuroticism, extroversion and agreeableness. Teachers‟ self esteem is the most potent psychological factor, followed by self-efficacy, teacher locus of control, gender and work experience. This implies school proprietors and policy makers must continually evolve programmes and interventions that will enhance teacher effectiveness. Suggestions for Further Studies This research is not conclusive. 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Years of Experience: SECTION B NEO-FFI SCALE Choose among the alternative responses that which best describes your behavior. Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Uncertain (U), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). S/N STATEMENTS SA A U D SD Openness to Experience 1. I am not a worrier. 2. I like to have a lot of people around me. 3. I don‟t like to waste my time daydreaming. 4. I try to be courteous to everyone I meet. 5. I keep my belongings clean and neat. 6. I often feel inferior to others. 7. I laugh easily. 8. Once I find the right way to do something, I stick to it. Conscientiousness 9. I often get into arguments with my family and co-workers. 10 I‟m pretty good pacing myself s as to get things done on time. 11 When I‟m under a great deal of stress, sometimes I feel like 12 7 I‟m going to pieces 12 I don‟t consider myself especially “light hearted” 13 I am intrigued by the patterns I find in art and nature. 14 Some people think I‟m selfish and egoistical. 15 I am not a very methodical person. 16 I rarely feel lonely or blue. 17 I really enjoy talking to people 18 I believe letting students hear controversial speakers can only confuse and mislead them. 19 I would rather cooperate with others than compete with them 20 I try t perform all the tasks assigned to me conscientiously. Extroversion 21 I often feel tense and jittery 22 I like to be where the action is. 23 Poetry has little or no effect on me. 24 I tend to be cynical and skeptical of other‟s intentions. 25 I have a clear set of goals and work towards them in an orderly fashion. 26 Sometimes I feel completely worthless. 27 I usually prefer to do things alone. 28 I often try new and foreign foods 29 I believe that most people will take advantage of you if you let them. 30 I waste a lot of time before settling down to work. 31 I rarely feel fearful r anxious. 32 I often feel as if I‟m bursting with energy 33 I seldom notice the moods or feelings that different environment produce. 34 Most people I know like me. 35 I work hard to accomplish my goals. 36 I often get angry at the way people treat me. 37 I am a cheerful, high-spirited person. 38 I believe we should look up to our authorities for decisions on moral issues. 39. Some people think of me as a cold and calculating 40 When I make a commitment, I can always be counted on to fellow through. 41 Too often, when things go wrong, I get discouraged and feel like giving up. 42 I am not a cheerful optimist. Agreeableness 43 Sometimes when I am reading poetry or looking at a work of art, I feel a chill or wave f excitement. 44 I‟m hard-headed and tough-minded in my attitudes. 45 Sometimes I‟m not dependable or reliable as I should be. 46 I am seldom sad or depression. 47 My life is fast-paced. 48 I have little interest in speculating n the nature of the 12 8 universe or the human conditions. 49 I generally try to be thoughtful and considerate. 50 I am a productive person who always gets the job done 51 I often feel helpless and want someone else to solve my problems. 52 I am a very active person. 53 I have a lot of intellectual curiosity. Neuroticism 54 If I don‟t like people, I let them know it. 55 I never seem to be able to get organized. 56 At times I have been so ashamed I just wanted to hide. 57 I would rather go my way than be a leader of others 58 I often enjoy playing with theories or abstract ideas. 59 If necessary, I am willing to manipulate people to get what I want. 60 I strive for excellence in everything I do. ROSENBERG SELF-ESTEEM SCALE S/N ITEMS SA A D SD 1 I feel that I‟m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 2. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 3. All in all I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 4. I am able to do things as well as most others people. 5. I fee I do not have much to be proud of. 6. I take a positive attitude towards myself. 7. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 9. I certainly feel useless at times. 10. At times I think I am no good at all. 12 9 Teacher Locus of Control Biserial Item Correlations 1. When the grades of your students improve, it is more likely a. Because you found ways to motivate the students, or b. Because the students were trying harder to do well. 2. Suppose you had difficulties in setting up learning centers for students in your classroom. Would this probably happen? a. Because you lacked the appropriate materials, or b. Because you didn‟t spend enough time in developing activities to go into the center. 3. Suppose your students did not appear to be benefiting from a more individualized method of instruction. The reason for this would probably be a. because you were having some problems managing this type of instruction, or b. because the students in you class were such that they needed a more traditional kind of approach. 4. When a student gets a better grade on his report card than he usually gets, is it a. because the student was putting more effort into his school work, or b. because you found better ways of teaching that student. 5. If the students in your class became disruptive and noisy when you left them alone in the room for five minutes, would this happen a. because you didn‟t leave them interesting work to do while you were gone, or b. because the students were more noisy that day than they usually are. 6. When some of your students fail a test, it is more likely a. because they weren‟t attending to the lesson, or b. because you didn‟t use enough examples to illustrate the concept. 7. Suppose you were successful at using learning centers with your class of 30 student. Would this occur a. because you worked hard at it, or b. because your students easily conformed to the new classroom procedure. 8. When a student pulls his or her grade up from a “C” to a “B”, it is more likely a. because you came up with an idea to motivate the student, or b. because the student was trying harder to do well. 9. Suppose you are teaching a student a particular concept in arithmetic or math and the student has trouble learning it. Would this happen 13 0 a. because the student wasn‟t able to understand it, or b. because you couldn‟t explain it very well. 10. When a student does better in school than he usually does, is it more likely a. because the student was trying harder, or b. because you tried hard to encourage the student to do better. 11. If you couldn‟t keep your class quiet, it would probably be a. because the students came to school more rowdy than usual, or b. because you were so frustrated that you weren‟t able to settle them down. 12. Suppose a play put on by your class was voted the “Best Class Play of the Year” by students and faculty in your school. Would it be a. because you put in a lot of time and effort as the director, or b. because the students were cooperative. 13. Suppose it were the week before Easter vacation and you were having some trouble keeping order in your classroom. This would more likely happen a. because you weren‟t putting extra effort into keeping the students under control, or b. because the students were more uncontrollable than usual. 14. If one of your students couldn‟t do a class assignment, would it be a. because the student wasn‟t paying attention during the class lesson, or b. because you gave the student an assignment that wasn‟t on his or her level. 15. Suppose you wanted to teach a series of lessons on Lagos, but the lessons didn‟t turn out as well as you had expected. This would more likely happen a. Because the students weren‟t that interest in learning about Lagos or b. Because you didn‟t put enough effort into developing the lessons. 16. Suppose a student who does not typically participate in class begins to volunteer his or her answers. This would more likely happen a. because the student finally encountered a topic of interest to him or her, or b. because you tried hard to encourage the student to volunteer his or her answers. 17. Suppose one of your students cannot remain on task for a particular assignment. Would this be more likely to happen a. because you gave the student a task that was somewhat less interesting than most tasks, or b. because the student was unable to concentrate on his or her schoolwork that day. 13 1 18. Suppose you were unable to devise an instructional system as requested by the principal, which would accommodate the “needs of Individual students” in your class. This would most likely happen a. because there were too many students in your class, or b. because you didn‟t have enough knowledge or experience with individualized instructional programs. 19. If the students in your class perform better than they usually do on a test, would this happen a. because the students studied a lot of the test, or b. because you did a good job of teaching the subject area. 20. When the performance of a student in your class appears to be slowly deteriorating, it is usually a. because you weren‟t trying hard enough to motivate him or her, or b. because the student was putting less effort into his or her schoolwork. 21. Suppose a new student was assigned to your class and this student had a difficult time making friends with his or her classmates. Would it be more likely a. that most of the other students did not make an effort to be friends with the new student, or b. that you were not trying hard enough to encourage the other students to be more friendly towards the newcomers. 22. If the student in your class performed better on a standardized achievement test given at the end of the year compared to students you had last year, it would probably be a. because you put more effort into teaching this year, or b. because this year‟s class of students were somewhat smarter than last year‟s. 23. Suppose, one day, you find yourself reprimanding one of your students more often than usual. Would this be more likely to happen a. because that student was misbehaving more than usual that day, or b. because you were somewhat less tolerant. 24. Suppose one of your underachievers does his or her homework better than usual. This would probably happen a. because the student tried hard to do the assignment, or b. because you tried to explain how to do the assignment. 13 2 25. Suppose on of your students began to do better schoolwork than he usually dos. Would this happen a. because you put much effort into helping thee student do better, or b. because the student was trying harder to do well in school. Response Format: 1 = Not at all true; 2 – Badly true; 3 – Moderately true; 4 – Exactly true. TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY SCALE S/N ITEMS 1 2 3 4 1 I am convinced that I am able to successfully teach all relevant subject content to even the most difficult students. 2. I know that I can maintain a positive relationship with parents even when tensions arise. 3. When I try really hard, I am able to reach even the most difficult students. 4. I am convinced that, as time by, I will continue to become more and more capable of helping to address my students‟ needs. 5. Even if a get disrupted while teaching, I am confident that I can maintain my composure and continue to teach well. 6. I am confident in my ability to be responsive students‟ needs even if I am having a bad way. 7. If I try hard enough, I know that I can exert a positive influence on both the personal and academic development of my students. 8. I am convinced that I can develop creative ways to cope with system constraints (such as budget cuts and other administrative problems) and continue to teach well. 9. I know that I can motivate my students to participate in innovative projects. 10. I know that I can carry out innovative projects even when I am opposed by skeptical colleagues. 13 3 Teacher Effectiveness Self-Reported Questionnaire Establishes a positive classroom learning climate 1. I communicate high expectations for student 1 2 3 4 5 2. I exhibit personal enthusiasm 3. I use positive reinforcement techniques (nods, praises, avoids criticism or negative remarks). Creates positive classroom environment 4. I encourage student‟s interactions and communication 5. I convey genuine concern for students (Empathetic, understanding, warm, friendly) 6. I know and use student‟s names. 7. I display students‟ work in the classroom (ample amount, attractively displayed, current) 8. I prepare an inviting and cheerful classroom 9. I prepare bulletin boards that are attractive, motivating and current. Demonstrates a variety of teaching resources/Evaluative Strategies. 10 I use flexible grouping where appropriate 11. I use a variety of explanations that differs in complexity. 12. I use a variety of teaching methods. (peer tutoring, individual/small group instruction) 13. I use manipulative materials/instructional aids/resources effectively (computers, manipulative, field trips. 14. I identify learners who need more assistance/re-teaching 15. I assign homework and provide feedback 16. I provide a variety of activities to meet individual needs. Development of classroom that values diversity and civil mindedness 17. I use behaviour incentives systems to manage students behavior (uses charts, tokens, to keep students on task) 18. I promptly handles inappropriate behavior 19. I continuously monitors the entire classroom 13 4 20. I use a motivating techniques to focus on the lesson 21. I clearly states objectives of the lesson 22. I present new skill/material accurately. 23. I present detailed directions and explanation 24. I emphasize key points of the lesson. Collaboration with other teachers, administrators, parents and education professionals. 25. I relate with other teachers on improving complex topics 26. I inform parents of their wards incapacitation in learning complex topic. 27. I inform the school administrator of student disobedience and truancy. 28. I re-teach if student failure rate is high. 29. In collaboration with other teachers, I work with student with special needs. 30. I pay major attention to students with high rate of failure. 13 5 PSYCHO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL IN LAGOS-STATE, NIGERIA UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Dear Respondents, This questionnaire is designed basically for a research purpose. It seeks to know how you would react to these statements. All information provided would be treated confidentially. Please be honest as much as possible in your responses. SECTION A 5. Gender: Male [ ] Female: [ ] 6. Class: 3. Subject Teachers Name: SECTION B Response Format: 1= Often 2= occasionally 3= Not necessary 4= Not at all Teacher Effectiveness Questionnaire (Student Version) Establishes a positive classroom learning climate 1. My teacher communicates his their expectation about learning 1 2 3 4 outcome to students 2. My teacher exhibit personal enthusiasm while teaching 1 2 3 4 3. My teacher use positive reinforcement techniques 1 2 3 4 (nods, praises, avoids criticism or negative remarks) in the class room Creates positive classroom environment 1. My teacher encourages student‟s interactions and communication 1 2 3 4 2. My teacher conveys genuine concern for students 1 2 3 4 (empathetic, understanding, warm, friendly) 3. My teacher knows and calls student‟s names while teachings 1 2 3 4 4. My teacher displays students‟ work in the classroom 1 2 3 4 (ample amount, attractively displayed, current) to motivate other 5. My teacher creates an enabling class room 1 2 3 4 6. My teacher prepares teaching charts that are attractive, motivating 1 2 3 4 and current. 13 6 Demonstrates a variety of teaching resources/Evaluative Strategies. 1. My teacher uses flexible grouping where appropriate 1 2 3 4 2. My teacher uses a variety of explanations that differs in complexity. 1 2 3 4 3. My teacher uses a variety of teaching methods. 1 2 3 4 (peer tutoring, individual/small group instruction) 4. My teacher uses manipulative materials/instructional aids/resources 1 2 3 4 effectively (computers, manipulative, field trips. 5. My teacher identifies learners who need more assistance/re-teaching 1 2 3 4 6. My teacher assigns homework and provide feedback. 1 2 3 4 7. My teacher provides a variety of activities to meet our individual needs. 1 2 3 4 Development of classroom that values diversity and civil mindedness 1. My teacher uses reinforcements to motivate students behavior (uses charts, tokens, to keep students on task) 1 2 3 4 2. My teacher handles maturely inappropriate behavior in the class room 1 2 3 4 3. My teacher continuously monitors the entire classroom 1 2 3 4 4. My teacher clearly states objectives of the lesson 1 2 3 4 5. My teacher presents new skill/material accurately. 1 2 3 4 6. My teacher presents detailed directions and explanation 1 2 3 4 7. My teacher emphasizes key points of the lesson. 1 2 3 4 13 7 PSYCHO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL IN LAGOS-STATE, NIGERIA UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Dear Respondents, This questionnaire is designed basically for a research purpose. It seeks to know how you would react to these statements. All information provided would be treated confidentially. Please be honest as much as possible in your responses. SECTION A 1. Gender: Male [ ] Female: [ ] 2. Qualification: B.Ed./B.Sc.: [ ] M.Ed/M.Sc.: [ ] Ph.D: [ ] Others:(specify): 3. Age: 4. Years of Experience: SECTION B Response Format: 1= Often 2= occasionally 3= Not necessary 4= Not at all Teacher Effectiveness Questionnaire (Principal/ Head of Unit Version) Classroom environment/ climate 1. The teacher communicate is able to effectively implement 1 2 3 4 Classroom discipline management procedures 2. The teacher is able to communicate clear expectation for 1 2 3 4 achievement and behavior that promotes and encourages self discipline and self-directed learning. 3. The teacher is able to provide support to achieve positive, 1 2 3 4 equitable and engaging learning environment 4. The teacher is able to build and maintain positive rapport with student 1 2 3 4 13 8 Demonstrate the utilization varieties of teaching resources/Evaluative strategies 1. The teacher is able to implement varied instruction that integrates 1 2 3 4 Critical thinking, inquiry and problem solving. 2. The teacher is able to respond to the needs of students by being 1 2 3 4 Flexible in instructional approach and differentiating instructions 3. The teacher is able to use formative assessment to guide 1 2 3 4 Instructions. 4. The teacher is able to engage and motivate student through learner 1 2 3 4 Centered instructions. 5. The teacher is able to integrate effective modeling, into the 1 2 3 4 Instructional process. 6. The teacher is able to assume various roles in the instructional 1 2 3 4 process (e.g instructor, facilitator, or audience). 7. The teacher is able to set clear learning goals and adjust 1 2 3 4 Instruction with standards-based content. 8. The teacher is able to provide quality and timely feedback 1 2 3 4 to students. Collaborating with parents and other members within the school. 1. The teacher is able to build and maintain positive rapport and two- 1 2 3 4 way communication with students families. 2. The teacher inform the school administrator of students 1 2 3 4 disobedience and truancy 3. The teacher collaborate with other teachers when resolving 1 2 3 4 problems of students with special needs. 13 9