TEAMWORK AND TRAINING VARIABLES AS PREDICTORS OF WORKERS’ PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC ORGANISATIONS IN CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA BY ANNE EMMANUEL, OMORI B.Ed. Cooperative Management (UNICAL), M.Ed. Industrial Education (Ibadan) MATRIC NO: 129509 A Thesis in the Department of Adult Education, Submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN CERTIFICATION I certify that this research was carried out by Anne Emmanuel OMORI (Matric No. 129509) in the Department of Adult Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria under my supervision. ...................................................... Supervisor Prof. Peter B. Abu Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan, Nigeria ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to Almighty God for His inestimable LOVE and Grace that had propelled the successful completion of this study at His appointed time. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Foremost, I am grateful to God for seeing me through my years of University education. I dedicate this work to God Almighty. He has been the wind beneath my wings. His Grace and Mercy has brought me thus far and I am grateful. My deepest appreciation and thanks go to my dynamic and amiable supervisor Professor Peter B. Abu for his guidance and constructive criticisms that helped me stay focused from the beginning of this work to the end. His intellectual advice, understanding and patience led to the successful completion of this research. Sir, it is a great honour for me to be guided into the academic world by your hands. May the omnipotent God continue to bless and keep you and your entire household. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my Head of Department, Professor Deborah Egunyomi and all lecturers in the Department of Adult Education whose inputs and contributions made the research work a success. Beginning with Professors M. O. Akintayo, T.A. Akanji, Drs. A.A. Sarumi, I.A. Abiona, Omobola Adelore, K.O. Kester, K.O. Ojokheta, O.E. Olajide, Agbomehre Momoh, Stella Odiaka, Olabisi Oladeji, C. O. Omoregie and Miss Funmi Ojo. I am highly indebted to my wonderful and amiable five-in-one father: AVM (RTD) Emmanuel E. Edem for his unwavering support and also for his material and financial support throughout my education and research work. He has been a father, mother, sister, brother and friend to me. Thank you for believing in me. May the Lord bless you and keep you now and forevermore. Amen. I extend my sincere gratitude to my wonderful grandma and guardian in the person of Dr. Dotun Oduneye for always being interested in my academic progress and always inspiring me. May God prolong your days on this planet and increase you more and more. I wish to register my unalloyed appreciation to Professor A. I. Isangedighi in the Department of Educational Foundation, University of Calabar, Calabar whose scholarly criticism and corrections help to make the research instruments more creditable. I also want to thank the Management and staff of the selected ministries, departments and agencies for their help and contribution towards the success of this research. My research assistants in the University of Calabar and the sampled ministries, departments and agencies in the person of Chinendu, iv James, Richard, Mr. Obo, Mr. Ayi, Mr. Bassey, and Miss Joy respectively. I appreciate you all for being there for me. In your time of need, my heavenly father will be there for you all. This acknowledgement will be incomplete without mentioning members of Glory Tabernacle Ministry Discipleship Centre, Bello Quarters, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. I thank you all for your ceaseless prayer, love and support. Many thanks to all my friends on whose wings of love I am flying. I am eternally grateful to Dr. P. U. Bassey, Dr. S. Akpama, and Mr. I. Adamu I say thank you for your support. To all my friends in Block ‘E’ Tafawa Balewa Hall, University of Ibadan while on the programme are sincerely appreciated for their moral support. Finally, I return all thanks to my Awesome God, the beginning and end, my refuge and my fortress. v ABSTRACT There has been persistent poor performance among workers in public organisations in Cross River State of Nigeria over the years. The trend is exacerbated by lack of teamwork and unsystematic training programmes. Previous studies have focused more attention on staff performance appraisal, commitment and job involvement with less attention paid to the combined effects of teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) and training (training needs identification, plan, design, delivery, evaluation variables) on workers’ performance. This study, therefore, examined the extent to which teamwork and training variables predicted workers’ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. The descriptive survey design of ex-post facto type was employed. Cluster sampling technique was adopted to divide the public service into Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs). Purposive sampling technique was used to select 10 ministries, 10 departments and five agencies. These MDAs were stratified along three job cadres, namely: 221 junior, 574 senior and 273 managerial. A total of 1,068 respondents were randomly selected to represent the entire population of public servants in Cross River State. Participants were 584 males and 484 females. Teamwork Variables (r = 0.87), Workers’ Training variables (r = 0.78) and Workers’ Performance Rating (r = 0.86) scales were used for data collection. These were complemented with in-depth interview with selected 15 public service workers across the three cadres in MDAs. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Pearson product moment correlation and multiple regression at 0.05 level of significance; while the qualitative data were content analysed. Workers’ performance was: managerial (44.90 ± 1.21), senior (44.23 ± 2.42) and junior (43.13 ± 2.22) cadres. Teamwork and training variables had a significant joint prediction of workers’ 2 performance in public service (R = .070, F(9, 1068) = 8.794,) and accounted for 7% in its variance. 2 There was a significant joint prediction of teamwork variables on workers’ performance (R = .037, F(4, 1068) = 10.306) and accounted for 3.7% in its variance. Training variables had a 2 significant joint prediction of workers’ performance (R = .033, F(5, 1065) = 7.258) and accounted for 3.3% of its variance. Communication (β = -.099, t = -2.792), team-spirit (β = .058, t = 1.565), recognition (β = .104, t = 3.228) and collaboration (β = .134, t = 3.726) had relative contributions to workers’ performance. Training needs identification (r = .112), training design (r = .78), training plan (r = .019) and training evaluation (r = .045) had significant positive relationships with workers’ performance, while training delivery did not. Teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) and training (training needs identification, plan, design, delivery, evaluation) variables positively influenced workers’ performance in public organisations of Cross River State, Nigeria. Adequate consideration should be given to these variables so as to improve workers’ performance in public organisations. Attention should be given to employees’ personal characteristics in motivating them to higher performance level. Keywords: Teamwork and training variables, Workers’ performance, organisations, Cross River State Word count: 473 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract v Table of contents vi List of Tables xi List of Figures x List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 6 1.3 Objectives of the Study 7 1.4 Research Questions 7 1.5 Research Hypotheses 8 1.6 Significance of the Study 8 1.7 Scope of the Study 9 1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms 10 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Workers’ Performance 12 2.2.1 Factors Affecting Workers’ Performance 20 2.3 Concept of Teamwork Variables 27 2.4 Concept of Training Variables 30 vii 2.5 Concept and Principle of Civil Service 35 2.5.1 The Nigerian Public Service 32 2.5.2 Performance in the Nigerian Public Service 38 2.6 Teamwork Variables and Workers’ Performance 41 2.6.1 Communication and workers’ performance 41 2.6.2 Team-spirit and workers’ performance 48 2.6.3 Team recognition and workers’ performance 51 2.6.4 Collaboration and workers’ performance 54 2.7 Training variables and workers’ performance 57 2.7.1 Training needs identification and workers’ performance 57 2.7.2 Training plan and Workers’ Performance 64 2.7.3 Training design and workers’ performance 66 2.7.4 Training delivery and workers’ performance 73 2.7.4.1 Methods of Training delivery 81 2.7.5 Training Evaluation and Workers’ Performance 85 2.8 Empirical Studies 94 2.9 Theoretical Framework 99 2.9.1 Configurational or Bundle Theory 100 2.9.2 Conceptual Framework 100 2.10 Appraisal of Literature 103 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design 104 3.2 Population of the Study 104 3.3 Sampling and sampling techniques 104 3.4 Instrumentation 107 3.4.1 Teamwork Variables Scale 107 viii 3.4.2 Workers’ Training Variables Scale 107 3.4.3 Workers’ Performance Rating Scale 108 3.4.4 In-depth Interview (IDI) Schedule and Guides 108 3.5 Administration of Research Instrument 111 3.6 Method of Data Analysis 111 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Analyses of demographic characteristics of the respondents 113 4.2 presentation of Results on the test of contributions and strength of the Relationship between the independent and dependent variables 119 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary 139 5.2 Conclusion 140 5.3 Recommendations 141 5.4 Contributions to knowledge 141 5.5 Limitations to the study 142 5.6 Suggestions for further studies 143 References 144 Appendices 177 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Population and sample selection for the study Table 4.1a Correlation Matrix between Workers’ Performance, teamwork and training Variables Table 4.1b: Multiple Regression Analysis showing joint predictions of teamwork and training variables on workers’ performance in public organisations Table 4.2: Relative contributions of teamwork and training variables to workers’ Performance Table 4.3a: Correlation matrix between four related teamwork variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration and workers' performance in public organisation Table 4.3b: Joint predictions of teamwork variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration on workers' performance in public organisation Table 4.3c: Relative predictions of communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration on workers’ performance Table 4.4a: Correlation matrix between five related training variables of training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation and workers' performance in public organisations Table 4.4b: Joint Predictions of Training Variables on Workers’ Performance Table 4.4c: Relative predictions of training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation on workers’ performance Table 4.5a: A Summary of the Descriptive statistics of significant differences in workers’ performance of the respondent across Job Cadres Table 4.5b: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showing the significant differences in workers’ performance across job cadres of the respondents Table 4.5c: Fishers' LSD Multiple Comparison Test Analysis of differential in workers' performance across Job Cadre of the respondents x LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Research framework 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Age 4.2 Distribution of Respondents by Educational Attainment 4.3: Distribution of Respondent by Years of Experience 4.4: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status 4.5: Distribution of Respondents by Gender xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies HR Human Resource E.G Example I.E That is HRM Human Resource Management SMEs Small and Medium-sized Enterprises WRP Workers’ Performance COM Communication TS Team Spirit REC Recognition COL Collaboration TNI Training Needs Identification TRP Training Plan TRD Training Design TDE Training Delivery TRE Training Evaluation JNR Junior SNR Senior MGT Managerial TVQ Teamwork variables questionnaire TNV Training variables SA Strongly Agree A Agree D Disagree SA Strongly Agree 2 R Square root ADJ Adjusted β Beta IDI In-depth Interview xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study Public organisations are government owned organisations charged with the responsibility of providing social services for the general wellbeing of the citizen. It is the hub for the implementation of programmes, policies, plans and actions of government. The major concerns of the organisations are to provide vital services and utilities for people‘s welfare and progress, and to accelerate socio-economic development. However, the extent to which these objectives could be achieved depends greatly on the level of performance of the workers in such public organisations. Thus, Performance is an extremely important criterion that relates to organisational outcomes and success. Performance can be defined as the achievement of specified task measured against predetermined or identified standards of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed. In an employment contract, performance is deemed to be the accomplishment of a commitment in such a manner that releases the performer from all liabilities laid down under the contract. Kenney (1992) noted that worker's performance is measured against the performance standards set by the organisation. In every organisation there are some expectations from the employees with respect to their performance. And when they perform up to the set standards and meet organisational expectations they are believed to be better performers. Functioning and presentation of employees is also termed as workers‘ performance. This means that effective administration and presentation of employees‘ tasks which reflect the quality desired by the organisation can also be termed as performance. Workers‘ performance in Nigerian public service could be measured in terms of enthusiasm, organisation, foresight, punctuality, efficiency, application of professional knowledge, expression on paper, oral expression, acceptance of responsibility, adaptability, effectiveness, relations with colleagues/public, emotionality, reliability 1 under pressure and appreciation. Workers‘ performance is an important factor and the building block which increases overall performance of the organisation. It is considered one of the most important constructs in the field of industrial/organisational psychology because of its role in the understanding of many functions that take place in the work place. Workers‘ performance also helps to explain the value and utility that each worker adds to an organisation (Jimoh, 2008). Workers‘ performance has been identified as the significant key for organisations whether private or public to gain competitives advantage and superior productivity. Noticeably, the only enduring competitive advantage in this global economy is a high- quality, well-motivated workforce that are willing to work together as a team to acheived optimum performance. Unfortunately, the level of performance of an average Nigerian public service worker is low and weak, because Nigerian public service workers are said to have poor attitude to work resulting to low performance, commitment and dedication among others. Observation over the decade shows that optimal performance of workers within the public service is no longer obtained in Nigeria in general and Cross River state in particular. Observers of public servants come out with a common impression that generally Nigerian public servants are lazy, slow, sleepy, reluctant to act, unconcerned, deceitful in their approach and displayed ineffectiveness in the discharge of their duties. These workers are said to lack enthusiasm, zeal, the briskness and the momentum of proficiency; and generally dislike anybody talk about hardwork, efficiency, dedication, honesty, competence and productivity –all of which charactized achievement in a service/production oriented society. In almost all situations, the typical Nigerian worker is indolent or not wanting to work. He/she avoids work and responsibility but loves money, wealth and all good things of life. Many public servants found it easier to align themselves with the government of the day and participate in treasury looting that has reduced Nigeria to an embarrassment among the comity of serious nations. Most often, it is a common sight to see workers in the public service continually functioning as discrete and act as separate collections. Also, more often than not workers are at loggerheads with their management over one grievance or another. Valuables man-hours or work periods are lost over some short or long drawn disputes. Also, one observes that the average worker in the Nigerian public service (Ministries, 2 Departments and Agencies) gives only about 30 to 35 per cent performace on the job and performs below that of their counterpart in the private sector. Noticeably, workers serving in the Nigerian public service at all tiers of government are mostly bloated, unwieldy and ineffective. Besides, Nigerian public servants are engulfed within a system that does not give sufficient room for innovation, which is particularly necessary for quick change. Also, engulfed within a system that is generally too bureaucratic and too conservative adaptation. Public servants also experienced uncoordinated, fragmented less unplanned and unsystematic training programmes, traditional hierarchical structures; even there is no collaboration at work among ministries, departments and agencies. This is evidenced by the high number of complaints from the general public as well as public servants themselves. In effect, this sad scenario coupled with the poor attitude of individual to work in this organisation provides auspicious grounds for performance to drop and subsequently pose problems to the socio-economic development of Nigeria in general and Cross River state in particular. The question now is how can employers of labour in Nigeria improve the persistent workers‘ performance? Or what strategic measures can be used to enhance the dwindled performance of public servants? Within the strategic human resource management perspective, bundling set of appropriate human resource (HR) practices are needed to sustain performance. As pointed out by Lepak and Snell (1999), instead of focusing on particular HR practice independently or in isolation, employers need to look more broadly at bundles of HR practices that are implementation in combination. It is imperative that elimination of performance requires teamwork and systematic training programmes in public organisations. This is because teamwork and training are HR practice tools for building effective performance in any organisations. Teamwork according to Xyrichis and Ream (2008) is seen as a dynamic process involving two or more workers with complementary backgrounds and skills, sharing common organisational goals and exercising concerted physical and mental effort in achieving a quality outcome. For instant, delivering legal services require a team of lawyers and accountants working together on a single case. A Japanese writer Ryunosuke Satoro once said, ‗‘individually, we are one drop, together, we are an ocean‘‘. This beautiful metaphor describes a very simple and practical idea: by 3 working together, people can accomplish far more than they could alone; this is a sentiment increasingly being shared by the corporate world. Teamwork is subsumed by various components that are combined to reinforce one another to aggravate and sustain performance problems of workers in any organisation; such components are: communication, mutual trust, recognition, team-spirit and collaboration (Daft, 2012). For the purpose of this study, these components are referred to as teamwork variables. Training is another human resource practice in question which can be used in elimination of performance gap in an organisation. Training is defined as the process through which change of behaviours, knowledge and motivation of employees can be achieved in order to improve the compatibility between the characteristics and capabilities of the employee and the job requirements (Durra & Sabahg, 2010). Training involves systematic approach which generally follows a sequence of activities or series of stages that include training needs identification, plan, design, delivery and evaluation (Armstrong, 2003; Dzamesi, 2012). For the purpose of this study, these sequences of activities/stages of training are regarded as training variables. The training variables also provide boundaries and guidance to the desired outcome. Training is important as it brings a lot of excellence factors and skills that can be owned by employees in any organisation, such as: the ability to analyze situations and build initiatives to solve problems, and play a positive role within the working groups. It is equally a necessity in the workplace, without it, employees do not perform their duties or responsibilities in the organisation. Training and teamwork are the processes of investing in people so that they are equipped to perform. These processes are part of an overall human resource practice approach that hopefully will result in people being motivated to perform. Both teamwork and training variables have been used by employers of labour mostly outside public organisation. Otuko, Chege and Douglas (2013) worked on the effects of training dimensions on employee‘s work performance with a focus on Mumias Sugar Company. The study indicated that there was a positive and significant effect between training needs assessment; training contents and employee performance in Mumias Sugar Company Limited. also the cigarette rollers‘ job performance in East Java, Indonesia were very positive about the effects of teamwork in terms of making them gain higher production and work better through a sense of team responsibility. 4 Teamwork and training are HR practices which have been proven to be effective in all the four performance indices in any organisation: attitudinal, behavioural, operational and financial measures. Literature reveals that unsystematic training and diminished work relationships of workers are very prevalence in the public organisations. The emerging team paradigm is constructed on the new assumption that knowledge, insights and answers are found throughout the organisation in the abilities and knowledge of all organisational members when brought together in teams. Employees treasure a sense of working in team in an organisation but the use of traditional hierarchical structures Nigerian public service has marred the sense of belonging in the organisation and workers act as strangers, that is, they are hardly involved in teamwork; therefore, as long as there is inadequate coordination, communication gap, over centralization of decision making and non-application of team-spirit in the public service; there is a tendency for public servants not to exert themselves or have a full sense of commitment and dedication. Invariably, the formal educational system does not adequately teach specific job skills for a position in a particular organisation. Few employees have the requisite skills, knowledge, abilities and competencies (SKAC) needed to work. As a result, many require extensive training to acquire the necessary SKAC to be able to make substantive contribution towards the organisation‘s growth. If employees are to experience flexibility and effectiveness on the job, they need to acquire and develop knowledge and skills, and if they are to believe that they are valued by the organisation they work for, then they need to see visible signs of management‘s commitment to the their training and career needs. It has become necessary for organisations to provide long and systematic training programmes for its employees. This is because every aspect and activity of an organisation involves people. For instance, a manager in an organisation will not be successful until he has subordinates beneath him who are well equipped with skills, talent and knowledge. Although, the issue of workers‘ performance is not new, previous studies have primarily focused attention more either on objective measures of work productivity (such as the number of days absent, counts of specified acts, or output maintained in organisational records) or on subjective judgments of quantity and quality of work from the employee him/herself, peers, or supervisors. Particularly, such previous 5 studies include job involvement (Rizwan, 2011), employee productivity (Wurim, 2012; Maduka & Okafor, 2014), and performance appraisal system (Owoyemi & Olusoji, 2013). While these methods may provide valuable information, it can be argued that none of them captures the complexity and full range of behaviours that constitute workers‘s performance at work. This raises the question of what exactly constitutes workers‘ performance at the work place? In the same vein, none of these studies have bothered to give consideration for the combined effect of teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) and training (training needs identification, plan, design, delivery, evaluation) variables on workers‘ performance in public organisation. This study therefore examined the extent to which the combination of teamwork and training predisposed workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Workers in public organisations in Nigeria have come under heavy criticism in recent years because of their low performance. In the opinions of their critics, workers in public organisations have not performed according to expectations compared to their private organisations workers. Consequently, the unsatisfactory performance of workers in the public service posed a great threat on the quality of service delivery to the nation, citizen and the economy (Emeh, 2012). Also, the repercussions of under- performance of public service workers have been impediments for effective implementation of government policies there by causing the country to lose its competitiveness and its direct investments. It is essential to understand that the success of the government of Nigeria largely depends on the quality of its workforce (public servants) that is statutorily charged with the responsibility to analysing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating policies and programmes of government. To be able to deliver such levels of service, on the current scale and complexity, a unique combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours of those who deliver the service becomes imperative and vital. In view of its importance, researchers have not only been interested in understanding the impact of workers‘ performance on factors like motivation, organisational culture and the likes, but more importantly, have been trying to identify the factors that can either build or destroy such performance. Several studies have been done to examine the workers‘ performance in Nigerian public service but most of these studies have largely 6 focussed on ethics and motivation, ethnicity factors, compensation management, job involvement, talent management, performance appraisal system, commitment, and selection interview and selection test have been offers by researchers as matrix of factors that tend to have adverse effects on workers‘ performance; while little has been done to examine the combined effects of teamwork and training variables on workers‘ performance in public service. This therefore, aroused the curiocity of the researcher to examined the extent to which teamwork and training variables could be linked to workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria; hence filling the existing gap. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study was to investigate the extent to which teamwork and training variables predispose workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. Specific objectives are to: i. examine the extent to which teamwork variables (communication, team- spirit, team-recognition, and collaboration) relate with workers‘ performance in public organisation in Cross River state, Nigeria. ii. examine the relationship between training variables (training needs identification training design, delivery and training evaluation) with workers‘ performance in public organisation in Cross River state, Nigeria. iii. examine the performance differentials in the public service of Cross River state on the basis of age, gender, education level, years of experience and job cadre. 1.4 Research Questions The questions answered in this research are: RQ1: To what extent do teamwork and training variables predisposed workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria? RQ2: what is the relative contribution of each individual independent variables (teamwork and traning variables) to workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria? 7 1.5 Research Hypotheses HO1 There is no significant relationship between teamwork variables (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) and workers‘ performance in public organisations. HO2 There is no significant relationship between training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation) and workers‘ performance in public organisations. HO3 There is no significant differences in performance level in public service on the basis of age, gender, education level, years of experience and job cadre in Cross River state 1.6 Significance of the Study The study of teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria will contribute significantly to the body of literature in human resource management, public service administration as well as two human resource practices of training and teamwork variables as they significantly influence workers performance. The study will further help the management of various organisations, both private and government owned, to formulate appropriate action plans aimed at boosting the morale of their workers consequently resulting in increased and improved workers‘ performance, as this will eventually translate to better and enhanced services delivery. Apart from this, the study will serve as baseline for public organisations administrators to correct, adjust and update their strategies with the hope of improving upon the workers performance in the organisation and this will go a long way in reducing the prevalent problem of low performance among public orgaisations workers. It is believed that this study will also provide an empirical reference for measuring the achievement of the set objectives for the study. It is also envisaged that this study shall contribute positively to the body of literature in human resource management. Finally, in terms of recruitment and selection, the findings of this research work could be of tremendous assistance to the public organisations management in Nigeria as well as other corporate organisations to put in place strategies as well as a well -defined and sustained human resource practices in conjunction with other human resource practices that may eventually enhance performance of the managerial, senior cadres 8 officers and junior cadre officers in the public organisations in Nigeria as well as Cross River State. Moreover, findings from this research will contribute significally towards future theoretical advancements in public services models. It is then hope that the recommendation of this research will strengthen the knowledge bank in the state and the nation at large. Consequently, the recommendations from this research if properly implemented in the public service will not only accord its relevance to the public workers in Nigeria and Cross River State in particular, but most imperatively to work environment improvement. Moreover, the study will help policy makers to see the need for systematic training programmes and integration of teamwork in the public service. 1.7 Scope of the Study This study focused on teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations of Cross River State, Nigeria. The choice of this study was made because of its relevance and potential to organisations and the economic development of Nigeria and Cross River state in particular. The choice of the state is because of the increasing concern of the state government in human capacity building of its workforce to enhance optimal performance. Only state public service (that is, Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDAs) are covered in this study. This is because, first they are vital instrument with which the government of the day implement its policies and programmes. Also, the public service is a permanent appointment and not a temporary one and they are the lifeline and machinery for socio- economic development of the state. The selected ministries are: Agriclture, Lands and Housing, Health, Education, Environment, Works, Information, Water Resources, Youth and Sport, and Local Government Affairs. While the selected departments are: Establishment and management services, public transportation, culture and heritage, tourism and development, fire service, investment promotion, special duties, Due process, project monitor and culture and heritage. And the five selected Agencies are: Geographic Information, Adult and Nonformal Education, State Rural Development, Road Maintenance and State Electricity. Besides, the study further covered all the three categories of workers (public servants) in the selected MDAs. The three categories of workers are: junior (GL. 1-6), senior 9 (GL. 7-12) and managerial cadre (GL. 13 & above). The reason of including all the three cadres in the MDAs was to ensure that the study covers a broad spectrum of opinions on workers‘ performance within the system. Hence, the study strictly covered worker‘s performance in public service in Cross River state starting from 2000 – 2013, which is thirteen (13) years. This period was chosen because successive governments in Cross River State have embarked on policy aimed at improving the performance of its workers and effectiveness of the public service. Also, within this chosen period the government would have implemented its intervention programmes of capacity building to revamp workers‘ performance. The study was delimited to teamwork variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration. While training variables that was covered in this study were training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation. These variables of teamwork and training were selected for this study because it offers a practical behavioural and precise explanation of teamwork and training that can be understood by the respondents and the researcher. 1.8 Operational Definition of Terms The following terms are operationalized as used in the study. Teamwork variables: Teamwork variables in this study refer to an umbrella that encompasses various components of teamwork such as; team- spirit, team- recognition, communication and collaboration among the public organisation workers within the civil service of Cross River state. Training variables: Training variables are elements or components that encompass various interweaving strands of training like training needs identification, training design, plan, delivery and evaluation that impact knowledge and help workers (public service) to acquire the skills necessary for them to perform their jobs. Workers’ performance: This refers to the way junior, senior and managerial staff in public service carry out their duty at the work place whether positively or negatively to enhance the achievement of goals and objectives of the organisation. This is measured with the following indices: attitudinal, behavioural and operational. Public organisations: This refers to government Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) established to perform specific functions in Nigeria as well as Cross River state at relatively cheaper costs. 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 This chapter explored various concepts and reviewed literatures that are relevant to the study. Similarly, the theoretical framework appropriate to this study is examined. Concept and factors such as age, gender, education level, and years of experience that influence workers‘ performance Concept and principle of civil service in Nigeria Nigeria public service Performance in the public service Concept of teamwork variables and workers perception of teamwork in public organisations Communication and workers‘ performance Team-spirit and workers‘ performance Team-recognition and workers‘ performance Collaboration and workers performance Concept of training variables Training needs identification and workers‘ performance Training plan and worker‘ performance Training design and workers‘ performance Training delivery and workers‘ performance Training evaluation and workers‘ performance Empirical studies Theoretical framework: Job performance theory and configuration or ‗fit‘ approach. Conceptual framework Appraisal of literature review Research hypotheses 11 2.2 Workers’ Performance Workers‘ performance, which also connotes ‗Employee performance‘ in various organisations, has been a hot spot that has taken the fancy and attention of researchers in the recent times now. Mostly in public organisation hot sore of the studies. It has also been suggested that outstanding workers‘ performance signifies that a public organisation is both effective and efficient in supplying public goods and services (Putu, Mimba, Van-Heden, & Tillema, 2007). Thus, workers‘ performance is important for the organisations to make every effort to help low performers. Workers‘ performance is of paramount importance in maintaining an enviable position of any organisation. Researches have shown that no organisation can exist unless its workers are highly productive (Vermeeren, Kuipers & Steijin, 2009; Olorunsola, 2012). Hence, worker performance is a sensible indication of a worker‘s productivity. Vermeeren et al. (2009) revealed that workers‘ performance could help public organisations to improve service delivery because land, buildings or materials do not yield organisation productivity; rather, it is ‗human capital‘ that runs a business and produces value from the existing resources. On one hand, numerous public organisations in the world over suffer because their performance is so depressed that they cannot withstand the pressure (Acquaah & Yasai-Adekani, 2008). On the other hand, through the generation and implementation of innovative strategies, many public sector organisations have managed to achieve satisfactory performance, which has enabled them to sustain their competitiveness and to survive during times of economic turbulence (Zane, Kane & Marcus, 2004 cited in Mafini & Pooe, 2014). Workers‘ performance is normally looked at in terms of outcomes. However, it can also be looked at in terms of behavior (Armstrong, 2000). On the other hand, Kenney (1992) stated that employee's performance is measured against the performance standards set by the organisation. There are a number of measures that can be taken into consideration when measuring performance for example using of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, quality and profitability measures (Ahuja 1992); as briefly explained hereafter. Profitability is the ability to earn profits consistently over a period of time. It is expressed as the ratio of gross profit to sales or return on capital employed (Wood & Stangster, 2002). Efficiency and effectiveness-efficiency is the ability to produce the desired outcomes by using as minimal resources as possible while 12 effectiveness is the ability of employees to meet the desired objectives or target (Stoner, 1996). In every organisation there are some expectations from the employees with respect to their performance. And when they perform up to the set standards and meet organisational expectations they are better performers. More over, workers‘ performance can also be seen as the functioning and presentation of employees. This indicates how workers are able to effectively administer their task and assignments and also how they present their assignment to reflect the quality and good service desired by their companies. Workers‘ performance is everything about the performance of workers in a firm or a company or an organisation. And according to Saetang, Sulumnad, Thampitak and Sungkaeu (2010) workers‘ performance remains an important factor to push forward an excellent organisation. Performance on the other hand, is defined as the act of doing a task or a work. Performance is a major multidimensional construct aimed to achieve results and has a strong link to strategic goals of an organisation (Campbell, 1990). Furthermore, he explains that performance is the key element to achieve the goals of the organisation by increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation which is helpful for the achievement of the organisational goals. Corroborated this view, Hughes, Ginneth and Curphy (2009) postulated that performance is those behaviours directed towards the organisation‘s mission and goals. This means that performance of individuals become crucial for organisation‘s survival, and the success or failure of such an organisation depends, to a large extent, on the performance of the individuals in that particular organisation. McShane and VonGlinow (2010) viewed performance as goal directed behaviours under the individual‘s control that support organisational objectives. Performance has been observed to be a function of individual‘s knowledge, skills, and ability and experience. Thus it can be expressed in the following equation: Performance (P) = f (K, S, A, E). However behavioural theorists have argued that performance is not exclusively a function of knowledge, skills, ability and experience but workers need to be motivated to reach their optimum performance. Consequently, Asare-Bediako (2002) provides a performance (mathematical) model that must be considered: Performance = (ability) x (motivation) 13 From the above mathematical model, performance is the product of ability and motivation. While ability is the ―can‖ factor in the equation, ―motivation is the ―want to‖ factor. Thus if the employee has the ability (can factor) and at the same time is provided the needed motivation (want to factor), then performance would be better from the combined effect of ability and motivation. Conversely, if the level of individual power, strength or capacity performs a task is low and at the same time is well-motivated, and then individual‘s power or capacity would be enhanced by the combined effect of ability and motivation. It therefore follows that while the ability may exist in the employee, the absence of motivation such as: ergonomics of the environment; rewards and leadership (just to mention a few) must bring about non- performance. According to researchers and management experts (Armstrong, 2004; Mulika, 2010; Egbosionu, 2011; & Suleiman, 2014), to curb the prevailing problem of low workers‘ performance in organisations and to eliminate the performance gap require effective teamwork. In the opinion of Shanheen, Naqvi and Khan (2013) to increase the worker performance, it is crucial to inspire the employees by means of satisfying the space in between skills necessary and the owned or operated by means of staff through delivering applicable training. The inspiration through training creates the enthusiasm which transforms the employees to well organise and well-mannered, that ultimately affects the performance of organisation (Saleem, Shahid & Naseem, 2011). Thus, training here act as want factor. Charles and Melvin (1986) opine that performance is a function of three interacting variables presented in a simple equation of: P = f (O, C, W). Where ‗O‘ = opportunity, ‗C‘ = capacity, and ‗W‘ = willingness. They further stress that if any of these categories is missing or has a low value, then performance will not occur or will occur at a very low level. Conversely, Shah, Jaffari, Aziz, Ejaz, Haq and Raza (2011) concludes that Performance = Abilities + Opportunities + Motivation. In this case, motivation is seen as what its general definitions state, more precisely ‗those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented. For individual employee‘s optimum performance to be achieved, requires on the part of the human capital managers to learn the skills of managing people, be practice rather than reactive and also have a mind shift from the 14 old ways of managing people. Saeed and Asghar (2012) holds that employee performance principally depends upon many factors like training and development, performance appraisals, employee motivation, employee satisfaction, compensation, job security, organisational structure and others. Performance is defined as the output and accomplishments of a worker, which are acknowledged by the organisation or system in which he works (Robbins, 2004). In order words, performance is also defined as the achievement of specified task measured against predetermined or identified standards of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed. Mathis and Jackson (2009) alludes that performance is associated with quantity of output, quality of output, and timelines of output, presence /attendance on the job, efficiency of the work completed and effectiveness of work completed. Owolabi (2005) sees performance to mean the relationship of some volume of output to a specific volume of input. He claimed that performance does not mean or indicate how hard an individual had worked. Byars and Rue (2006) however defines performance as the degree to which an employee accomplished the tasks that made his or her job. On the most basic level, Borman and Motowidlo (1993) distinguish between task and contextual performance. Task performance refers to an individual‘s proficiency with which he or she performs activities which contribute to the organisation‘s ‗technical core‘. This contribution can be both direct (e.g., in the case of production workers), or indirect (e.g., in the case of managers or staff personnel). Contextual performance refers to activities which do not contribute to the technical core but which support the organisational, social, and psychological environment in which organisational goals are pursued. Contextual performance includes not only behaviours such as helping co- workers or being a reliable member of the organisation, but also making suggestions about how to improve work procedures (Sonnentag & Frese, 2002). However, contextual performance is predicted by other individual variables, not only task performance. Abilities and skills tend to predict task performance while personality and related factors tend to predict contextual performance (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Hattrup, O‘Connell, & Wingate, 1998). However, specific aspects of contextual performance such as personal initiative have been shown to be predicted both by ability and motivational factors. Rotundo and Sackett (2002) 15 compared the relative importance of these three groups of performance behaviours in managerial ratings of subordinates‘ overall job performance. They found that each of these three categories of performance behaviours contributed to overall performance rating, with core task performance given the highest weight, followed by counterproductive performance and citizenship performance. Consistent with these findings, then, this study also focuses on three categories of performance behaviours, too. Workers‘ performance in general, refers to behaviour that are relevant to organisational goals and that are under the control of individual employees (Campbell, McCloy, Oppler & Sager, 1993). According to Sonnentag and Frese (2002) workers‘ performance is not stable over time.Variability in a worker‘s performance over time reflects learning processes and other long-term changes. Workers‘ performance changes as a result of learning. Studies showed that performance initially increases with increasing time spent in a specific job and later reaches a plateau (Avolio, Waldman & McDaniel, 1990; Quinones, Ford, & Teachout, 1995). Moreso, the processes underlying performance change over time. During early phases of skill acquisition, performance relies largely on ‗controlled processing‘, the availability of declarative knowledge and the optimal allocation of limited attentional resources, whereas later in the skill acquisition process, performance largely relies on automatic processing, procedural knowledge, and psychomotor abilities (Ackerman, 1988; Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). In service settings, customers have become an important factor in how worker performance is defined. In order to establish whether such tasks have been accomplished, indicators or measures are needed to assist in tracking, measuring and managing this task performance. In essence, worker performance is directly related to workers‘ competence and willingness to serve above and beyond the call of duty (Dipaola & Hoy, 2005; Munene, Mulira & Kasekende, 2008). According to Ajila and Abiola (2004), for an organisation to compete favourably among its peers, the performance of the employees goes a long way in determining the success of the organisation. To him, performance of workers in any organisation is vital not only for the growth and development of the organisation, but also for the growth of an individual employee. As organisations endeavour to enhance 16 performance of their workers so as to achieve increased output, strategies for maximizing workers‘ contributions must be taken into cognizance. However, the success of any performance strategy depends, to a large extent, on the level of performance support the employer provides. A worker‘s performance is determined by many factors; some of which are work environment, the worker‘s natural potentials, co-worker and personal issues, training, skills, experience, and readiness to improve on the job (Ajila, 1997). For instance, a work environment that is too hot, cold, dark, poorly ventilated and dirty certainly will foster poor and low job performance thus making productivity to suffer. In contrast, a scintillating work environment that encourages collaboration, teamwork, trust, sharing resources is more likely to foster top and high performers than one in which workers are overly competitive and suspicious of one another. Equally important for fostering high job performance are clear and well defined job description, right skills, adequate experience and training, support and rewards, whether extrinsic or intrinsic. Furthermore, personal factors such as marital and family issues, financial challenges and illness can influence performance of any worker. Studies show that attitudes influence performance. For example, Christen, Iyer and Soberman (2006); Zhang and Zheng (2009) found evidence that job satisfaction – an attitudinal variable – influences worker performance – a behavioural variable. Workers‘ performance is higher in happy and satisfied employees and the management find it easy to motivate high performers to attain firm targets (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2007). The employee could be only satisfied when they feel themselves competent to perform their jobs, which is achieved through better training programs. Recognizing the role of training practices, enable the top executives to create better working environment that ultimately improves the motivational level as well as the performance of the workforce. It is increasingly acknowledged that workers‘ performance is a multi-dimensional construct, consisting of distinct sets of behaviours that together influence overall organisational functioning. In addition to assessing the job specific behaviours that characterize performance, performance assessments also frequently capture more general behaviours that are not necessarily related to employees‘ core functions, but are nonetheless considered important to overall performance (Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). Although studies vary, four sets of performance-related behaviours are 17 typically examined (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). First to consider are behaviours related to task performance. These include meeting timelines and production goals as well as the proficiency with which employees perform the tasks that are specified in their job descriptions. Second, organisational citizenship encompasses the range of ―extra role‖ behaviours that often are not formally included in job descriptions including helping others, promoting the organisation to outsiders, suggesting ways the organisation can improve and employee loyalty. Employees‘ ability to communicate, get along with others, demonstrate respect for colleagues and work effectively as team members are a third set of behaviours that are increasingly viewed as crucial to overall employee performance. Finally, counterproductive behaviours such as unethical behavior or unexcused absences are also considered. To some extent, task performance, organisational citizenship and interpersonal skills can be distinguished by whether they capture prescribed or more discretionary behaviours (Beehr, Ivanitskaya, Hansen, Erofeev & Gudanowski, 2001). That is, completing tasks and meeting deadlines are basic elements of a job that we would expect most employees to acknowledge as important, and are relatively easy to capture via observation or assessment. In some cases, these behaviours may be job role specific. On the other hand, behaviours related to organisational citizenship and interpersonal competence focus on more abstract features of jobs that likely go outside of the boundaries of typical employee performance measures and can be subsequently transferred from one job to another. While moderate associations have been observed between the various components of employee performance (Viswesvaran, Schmidt & Deniz, 2005), a key to understanding and facilitating better employee performance is determining which aspects of employees‘ behaviours and actions are most influential on their overall performance. By and large, task performance generally accounts for more of the variance in overall performance relative to contextual behaviours (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Interestingly, one study suggests that while the behaviours related to task performance might be more amenable to training and instruction than contextual behaviours and teamwork, the latter may be increasingly important as service-related jobs become more abundant across the economy. Furthermore, the links between specific behaviours and overall performance may be dependent on who is assessing worker performance. The rise of service-related jobs has occurred as part of a larger shift in 18 the economy frequently referred to as the ―knowledge economy.‖ The knowledge economy took form as general purpose technologies became ubiquitous, markets were increasingly globalized, consumers and businesses began demanding higher value- added products and services and highly-skilled workers grew in supply. The shift to the knowledge economy likely has had implications on the performance- related behaviours that are valued most in the workforce. Recent UK-based workforce surveys revealed that all workers, regardless of occupation, needed to effectively communicate, engage with customers and clients, collaborate with others and solve problem on a regular basis in their jobs (Felstead, Gallie, Green & Zhou, 2007; Faurth, Mahdon, McVerry & Brinkley, 2009). While job complexity has increased generally across occupations over the past decade in both developed and developing countries, research has also revealed that there were distinct types of workers in the knowledge economy, distinguished by the frequency with which they used high-level tacit knowledge to complete their everyday work tasks. The most highly-skilled workers used and applied knowledge flexibly to enable long-range planning, conceptualize new ideas and opportunities, develop strategy and engage in complex analytical tasks. Further, many of these core ―knowledge‖ jobs required ongoing, on-the-job learning (Felstead et al., 2007). The whole of these findings suggest that aspects of performance relating to teamwork, helping others and sharing information relative to more task- or time management-related indicators may be increasingly important in the knowledge- intensive services organisations, and that the relevance of various performance related behaviours may vary depending on the level of complexity (e.g, learning new things, multitasking, problem solving, etc.) workers‘ face on the job. Beyond the aspects of performance that are most important in today‘s knowledge economy, it is also crucial to consider who is measuring employee performance. There is a large body of research examining the extent to which different ‗ratters‘ whether they are employees themselves, managers, peers or subordinates assess workers‘ performance (Facteau & Craig, 2001). The rationale behind incorporating diverse assessments is that each ratter views an individual employee‘s performance from a different perspective. For example, managers might be more tuned into aspects of employees‘ task performance, simply because they are ultimately responsible for meeting targets and keeping to budget. 19 While we might expect some differences by ratter in average performance ratings (e.g, managers give lower ratings than employees), there is little evidence that the overarching concepts measured in many performance assessments diverges between ratters (Scullen, Mount & Judge, 2003; Facteau & Craig, 2001). Indeed, using performance ratings from more than one person might increase the reliability of the assessment and prevent self-ratter bias, whereby employees form inflated ratings of their own performance. Factors Affecting Workers’ Performance An effective worker is a combination of a good skill set and a productive work environment. Many factors affect workers‘ performance that employers need to be aware of and should work to improve at all times. Some of these factors are age, gender, education level, work experience, and job cadre. Age Age plays a role in describing how an individual changes over time and subsequently may affect how performance changes over time (Waldman and Avolio, 1993). Notably, age has also been shown to be associated with decreases in performance on tests of learning, memory, reasoning, spatial abilities, and psychomotor speed. Aging may also affect performance through motivation (Jimoh, 2008). Simultaneous to the accumulation of job experience and organizational tenure, the individual necessarily is getting older. Thus, age may also play a role in describing how an individual changes over time and subsequently may affect how performance changes over time (Avolio, 1993). There has long been a view of a negative age-performance relationship, although the belief has endured without conclusive empirical support. One theoretical rationale for the hypothesized negative relationship is the decremental theory of Aging, which suggests that increased age causes deterioration in abilities, such as speed, dexterity, motor coordination and strength (Salthouse, 1997). Similarly, Hunter and Schmidt (2000) have advanced a model that suggests there is an underlying single negative effect of age-related influences on a wide range of cognitive variables. A large number of studies present evidence of the negative effects of aging on the workers‘ performance of administrative workers in tertiary institutions is strongly supported. Notably, age has also been shown to be associated with decreases in performance on tests of learning, memory, reasoning, spatial abilities and 20 psychomotor speed (Salthouse, 1997). Aging may also affect performance through motivation. Wright and Hamilton (1978) suggest that older employees go through a ―grinding down‖ stage where they accept what is available to them and lessen their expectations. Supporting this proposition, empirical work demonstrates a negative relationship between age and ambition, aspirations and overall motivation (Judge & Locke, 1993). Aging may also affect how others perceive, and therefore treat, an individual. Research suggests that older workers are evaluated more harshly than younger workers are given raises less readily and are offered fewer training and networking opportunities. Thus, even if an individual does not change in terms of performance-causing characteristics, other employees may fulfill their own expectations of performance changes by reducing opportunities for performance or development, or by giving lower evaluation. Despite the theory suggesting that aging will affect performance, and empirical evidence showing age effects on performance-related constructs, research on the age/performance relationship has shown mixed results. Meta-analyses have shown that age alone accounts for little variance in job performance (Murphy, 1989). It should be noted that not all examinations of aging suggest negative effects. Furthermore, (Murphy, 1990) posit that performance may remain constant at higher age levels because work experience may compensate for any diminishing effect due to aging. A study by Yearta (1995) showed that age does not affect work performance, thus it contradicts with what have been revealed by Smedley and Whitten (2006), who suggested that difference of age could be also a potential factor for work performance. This is in tandem with a study by Shultz and Adam (2007) which indicated that there were significant differences between age groups concerning work performance. Kujala et al. (2005) emphasised that younger people are poor on work performance but this is opposed by a study by Birren and Schaie (2001). Accounting for experience, though, should reveal the relationship with age. The theoretical position positing a relationship between age and performance does not imply that the effect of age on performance is linear. Again, we expect a non-linear relationship, with the negative effects of age becoming stronger as employees age. Thus, the total relationship between employee age and job performance should be non-linear. Evidence supporting this position is mixed. Murphy (1989) found some support for a curvilinear hypothesis. Specifically, 21 he examined studies with young employees versus those of all ages and found that the young samples had a higher age/performance correlation than the other studies. While this result is informative, as no other meta-analysis had yet examined such a moderator, it is limited in that it had only a few studies in the younger group. More importantly, it did not treat age as a continuous variable and thus did not examine the potential non-linear relationship between age and performance over the plausible range of age values. Some others have found support for non-linear effects of age but lacked a sufficient range (particularly of older workers) in the sample to fully test the nature of the age/performance relationship at all values potentially facing modern employers. For these reasons, stronger support of a non-linear relationship may not have been detected by this previous research and further work is necessary to substantiate this proposed non-linear relationship. Employee age should be negatively related to performance, with the effect increasing in magnitude as age increases. These effects should operate simultaneously (Salthouse, 1997). Furthermore, it is important to note that the strength of the effects varies over time. Thus, the positive effects of job experience and organisational tenure should be initially strong but grow weaker over time. Simultaneously, the expected negative effects of age should be at first small but become increasingly stronger while the positive effects of experience and seniority are diminishing, because the expected magnitude of the forces changes over time. Work Experience Experience can be defined as the culmination of context-based events that an individual perceives (Quinones, 1995). This definition provides a distinction between knowledge accumulated through education and the process of actually performing a job. Within the context of a job, experience entails the accumulation of job-specific knowledge from action, practice and perception of the tasks and duties associated with a specific job. While the concept of experience seems straightforward, recent research into the implications of its measurement shows it to be multifaceted (Quinones, 1995). Thus, despite much research using such approximations and terms for work experience as work tenure, job experience, organisational tenure and seniority interchangeably in-depth treatments of the variable suggest that it varies by level of specification (task, job, work-group, and organisation) and measurement. 22 In essence, Ng and Feldman (2013) found a positive, moderate correlation between tenure and innovative behaviours, which consist of idea generation, dissemination and implementation. These behaviours were evaluated as distinct from core task performance. This relationship suggests that employees who stay in a role longer may become more capable of facilitating and implementing change. Also, the employees who have more on the job experience have better performance because there is an increase in both skills and competencies because of more on the work experience. Human Capital Theory suggests that employees make investments of experience in themselves, which enhance their ability and thus influence their performance (Smith, 2000). Learning theory also predicts that work experience enhances job ability. Both perspectives suggest that worker performance changes over time because individuals accumulate work experience. As work experience leads to the accumulation of relevant knowledge, skills and abilities, performance should improve. From this basis, models of performance posit that job experience has a positive effect on worker performance (Campbell, 1990). In the same vein, Schmidt (1990) claims work experience influences job knowledge and task proficiency, which in turn affect worker performance. They further argue that the relative advantage of one‘s work experience is significantly greater at lower levels of work experience than at higher levels. Job Position/Cadre Job position or cadre is another variable that has been studied beside gender, age, education level and work experience. Greenberg and Baron (1995) stated that status in organisation is recognised as both formal and informal in nature. Formal status refers to attempts made to differentiate between the degree of formal and informal authority given to employees by an organisation. This is accomplished through the use of status symbols – for instance symbols that reflect the position of an individual within an organisation‗s hierarchy. Examples of status symbol include job titles like ―Director and reserved parking spaces. Status symbols serve to remind organisational members of their relative roles, thereby reducing uncertainty and provide stability to the social order. On the other hand, informal status refers to prestige accorded individuals with certain characteristics that are not formally dictated by the organisation. Halloram and Brenton (1987) stated that receiving a higher status is a symbol of success, thus people feel that they only experience success when they attain a higher status. Achieving a higher 23 status brings feelings of true success, but only when feelings of genuine achievement are experienced. Genuine achievement requires constant challenge. When genuine challenges are not offered, it will result in stagnation and frustration. Lower level status does affect achievement because there is little opportunity for creativity, judgment and initiation to come into play. The higher the job levels, the greater the opportunity will be to tackle new problems. Judge, Thoresen, Bona and Patton (2001) states that people with a high need to achieve are likely to seek tasks where they are fully responsible, they set goals for themselves and value competent colleagues. Based on the information above, if a person moves from one level of job position to another, he or she sees himself or herself in another level of job hierarchy, feeling honoured and tending to work harder. If no promotional opportunities are available, employees experience burnout and tend to be dissatisfied. Lee and Benedict (2009) opine that there is difference between top managers and middle managers in work performance. This indicates that job position has significant impact on work performance. In contrary, a study by Roebuck, Sightler and Brush (1995) noted that there is no difference in term of work performance between different positions in an organisation. Gender Gender here is understood to refer to the nature and distribution of roles and power between men and women both within and outside the public service system. We recognise that as a socially constructed concept gender is inherently dynamic with the meaning of what it is to be a man and a woman varying across cultures and historical moments. Gender is a set of characteristics distinguishing between male and female. Gender difference in labour market has been an important analysis constitue among labour economist. Researchers have continued to argue that gender is a major factor that enhance performance of the individual in the organisation and as a result, certain type of work are specifically gender based. It has been proven that gender role in work performance cannot be overlooked. Hartman (1988) investigated the impact of occupation and sex on sex role-stereotyping. Among the findings of the study are that high work performance was perceived to be more related to masculine than feminine gender and that men were seen as more powerful than women. Similarly, good performance was also viewed as more related to men than women. Knudson (1982) studied whether women trained in management were as assertive and as competent in their jobs as men with similar training. The results of the study 24 indicated that women were as assertive as men and performed equally well on their jobs as their men counterparts. However, Champion, Kurth, Hastings and Harris (1984) noted that many of the characteristics that were associated with being male or female reflect cultural beliefs and practices rather than fundamental differences. They noted that people were taught gender roles at early stage of their lives and these roles reflect the status or position that they are expected to play. This assertion was supported by Uwe (1999) who found that male and female workers did not differ significantly in their vocational orientation within the realistic, investigative, enterprising and conforming vocational groups. Joshi (1993) investigates the possible gender-related differences in the determinants of job performance. The parameters of performance included were absence, performance evaluations and commitment to the organisation. The results indicated some similarities as also some critical differences in the determinants of job performance of the two sexes. Factors extrinsic to the job (i.e. related to family) had impact on job performance of both the groups but more so in the case of female workers. The negative impact of such off-the-job problems was set off by their higher satisfaction with the firm. Also, Also, Yammarino and Dubinsky (1988) found gender and job differences in their study of the influence of gender on performance. Researchers have also noted that gender did not have a significant impact on work performance. However, a study done by Abraham (2003) and Owolabi (2005) in a separate environment shows that there was significant difference in the performance of male workers. Nevertheless, in the study of Jimoh (2008) of situational judgement, emotional labour, conscientiousness and demographic factors as predictors of job performance among university administrative workers in southwestern Nigeria, no difference in work performance of male and female was found. Educational Level The education level of an individual employee is also another major factor that may or may not enhance the effectiveness of an employee in the chosen work place. Education level refers to the academic credentials or degrees an individual has obtained. Although education level is a continuous variable, it is frequently measured categorically in research studies. Here, it is used the term ―educated employees‖ to 25 refer to those individuals who hold at least bachelor‘s degrees because these degrees are necessary for entry into many higher-paying occupations (Trusty & Niles, 2004). In two major studies, Hunter and his colleagues (Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998) found that cognitive ability was strongly related to job performance and was an important contributor to success on virtually every job. Further, Hunter (1986) suggests that cognitive ability facilitates the learning of job-relevant knowledge and thereby indirectly promotes stronger job performance as well. Earlier study by Brenner (1982) compared individuals with different levels of education—8 years or less, 9–11 years, 12 years, 1–3 years of college, 4 years of college, some graduate work, master degree, and PhD —in terms of their achievement motivation. This study suggests that, as level of education increased, achievement orientation increased as well. Johnson and Elder (2002) found in a longitudinal study that, compared with high school graduates, those who have college degrees tend to attach greater importance to altruistic rewards (e.g., helping others) and social rewards (e.g., developing good relationships with others). Rose (2005) and Lindsay and William (1984) found similar results in cross-sectional studies. Furthermore, researchers have found that years of education were positively related to Conscientiousness, even when controlling for other socio-demographic variables (Dudley, Orvis, Lebiecki, & Cortina, 2006; Goldberg, Sweeney, Merenda & Hughes, 1998). Also, Berns (1989) discovered that workers educational level also affected his/her overall work performance level. Thomas and Feldman (2009) meta-analysis shows that highly educated workers tend to display greater creativity and to demonstrate more citizenship behaviours than do less educated workers. Moreover, highly educated workers appear to engage in fewer counterproductive work behaviours like workplace aggression, workplace substance use, and absenteeism. Literature revealed that education has a function as a screening device in selecting employees and as a human capital device that may induce greater performance. Kim and Mohtadi (1992) asserts that education has a direct effect on economic development, economic growth, individual ability (potential and work performance). Hence, a study by Iranzo and Peri (2006) concluded that as the level of education increased up to secondary level it had little effect (less than 2 per cent) on total factor 26 productivity for every additional year of education. For academic education levels and beyond there was a large effect, around 17 per cent. 2.3 Concept of Teamwork Variables Teamwork is widely recognised, and have come to stay and dominate the way work is performed; also have gained importance as public and private entities saw the substantial benefits of such programmes (Parker, 2008). Changes in today‘s work environment have made teamwork a reality in organisations, as knowledge sharing is crucial for success. Employees, managers, as well as executives have to share information. In addition, because of the complexity of operations as well as proliferation of knowledge in various fields, it is essential for employees at all levels to have the opportunity to work as teams and learn from each other for them to generate innovative solutions to organisational, efficiency and operational issues (Margerison & McCann, 1995). Leading researchers in the field of work organisation, Katzenbach and Smith (1993), are convinced that people working in a team function more efficiently, are less prone to stress and make a greater effort in their work. Organisations which emphasize more on teams have results in increased employee performance, greater productivity and better problem solving at work (Cohen & Bailey, 1999). In the view of Hayes (2005) teamwork reduces fluctuations in performance and improves work morale. Nowadays, in the business world, every organisation gives more importance to teamwork because they know this is the key to success. Achieving flexibility and innovation requires teamwork. Due to this, the concept of working together collaboratively as a team by pooling knowledge and experience ensures buildings meet the needs of today, let alone tomorrow. Teamwork among employees is central because it has a positive impact on all the four performance indices in any organisation: attitudinal, behavioural, operational and financial measures (Delarue, Van-Hootegem, Procter & Burridhe, 2008). Researchers viewed teamwork as ―a multidimensional construct that is characterized by a set of flexible and adaptive behaviours, cognitions and attitudes that interact to achieve mutual goals and adaption to changing internal and external environments‖ (Salas, Burke & Cannon-Bowers, 2000; Hoegl & Gemuenden, 2001; Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006; Duel, 2010). In other words, teamwork consist knowledge, skills and 27 attitudes (KSA‘s) that are exhibited in order to support team members, and team goal accomplishments (Duel, 2010). Currently many organisational disciplines have adopted teamwork as essential in achieving success and their mission statements routinely alludes to the importance of teamwork, utilizing such words as cooperation, coordination, collaboration, and Communication as key components (Ooko, 2013). In the light of this, teamwork variables assumed considerable importance in contemporary work environment because of its impact on employee performance and job satisfaction. In the organisational behaviour literature, teamwork variables have been defined in many ways by various authors and researchers. However, many researchers would agree that teamwork variables can be referred to as components, factors, features, and practices that facilitate effective teamwork (Salas, Cooke & Rosen, 2008). Teamwork variables are described as components which embodies characteristics such as team recognition, dimensions, congruence (Odden & Avon, 2001), positive corporate culture, recognition and feedback (Bacon & Blyton, 2005), collaboration, team orientation, mutual performance monitoring, backup behaviour, adaptability and shared mental models (Salas, Sims & Burke, 2005). Others components that subsumed teamwork includes: coordination, goal setting, problem solving, team leadership and monitoring, relevant skill, mutual trust, united commitment (team spirit), good communication, negotiating skills, appropriate leadership, internal support, external support (Duel, 2010; Daft, 2012). However, components argued to subsume teamwork are being labelled differently and used inconsistently, making the construct difficult to measure and empirical results challenging to compare (Duel, 2010; Salas, Burke, & Cannon-Bowers, 2000; Salas, Cooke, & Rosen, 2008). Nevertheless, this study delves into four components that the researcher deems to be of importance to the study. These are: communication, team spirit, recognition and collaboration. Communication as one of the most important core components of teamwork is mentioned by quite a lot of authors. For instance, According to Pearce and Robbinson (2009) teams are groups of individuals who work together to accomplish a task/project. Team effectiveness is dependent upon team communication. The quality of the teamwork, to a large extent, depends upon the quality of the information shared. The ability of team members to understand and communicate information enables them to work together collaboratively. Similarly, 28 Gupta, (2008) asserts that a team is formed when individuals with a common goal come together on a common platform. The team members must complement each other and avoid silly conflicts among themselves. Communication plays a very important role in team building and extracting the best out of the team members. A team member must clearly understand what his fellow team members are up to. Effective teamwork and communication are critical for ensuring high reliability and the safe delivery of services. Building effective teams and improving communication through standardized tools will move effective teamwork forward in Nigeria public organisations and contribute to a culture of service delivery. Team spirit focuses specifically on the confidence that a team has in its ability to be effective. Team spirit encompasses both potency and group drive. Homburg, Workman and Jansen (2002) see team spirit as a valuable asset for team members as well as an organisation. They stressed also that there is a positive correlation existing between team spirit and employee job satisfaction level. Again, others had suggested that increase in team spirit will result in better employee performance (Boyt, Lusch & Naylor, 2001; Manzoor, Hafiz, Murad & Zulqarnain, 2011; Mbah, 2014). Recognition is the acknowledgement of an individual or team behaviour, effort and accomplishments that support the organisation‘s goals and values. Recognition is one of the four motivators which can contribute to an employee commitment when it is present. Teamwork, according to Staniforth (2000), ‗‘is the collective way of working which results in potential benefits and greater synergy‘‘. In the words of Ooko (2013), reward and recognition activities are valued by employees and therefore provide motivation and incentives. In essence, collaboration is another essential variable of teamwork. Collaboration is a process of common work with acceptable goals and philosophy. It has been defined as an interaction between superior and junior that enables the knowledge and skills of both professionals to synergistically influence the service delivery. Thus, the actual practice of teamwork in work organisations highlight that teamwork requires a group of a diverse individual to work together, sharing both information and ideas, in order to achieve a common goal. Ideas in the teamwork involve the collection of ideas from the team members in order to achieve the group goal. Ideas can be collected in the team through brainstorming sessions where participants state their ideas as they are noted down. It also, requires organisation workers, mostly from 29 different professional backgrounds and complementary skills to coordinate communicate and collaborate in order to perform interdependent tasks and make mutually accountable decisions towards a shared goal of improved outcomes. Ingram (2000) observed that teamwork is a strategy that has a potential to improve the performance of individuals and organisations, but it needs to be nurtured over time. Organisations need to look at strategies for improving performance in the light of increasingly competitive environments. Top managers need to have the vision to introduce teamwork activities within the organisations, the sensitivity to nourish it and the courage to permit teams to play an important part in decision making. Conti and Kleiner (2003) submitted that teams offer greater participation, challenges and feelings of accomplishment. Organisations with teams will attract and retain the best people. This in turn will create a high performance organisation that is flexible, efficient and most importantly, profitable. In the same vein, Aichouni (2005) posits that no employee can work alone; he/she has to take the help of his/her colleagues to accomplish the tasks efficiently. It has been observed that outcomes are far better when employees work in team rather than individually as every individual can contribute in his best possible way. Teamwork, according to Xyrichis and Ream (2008) referred to a dynamic process involving two or more workers with complementary backgrounds and skills, sharing common organisational goals and exercising concerted physical and mental effort in achieving a quality outcome. Hamid (2011) contended that teamwork is a fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results. By implication, teamwork relies upon individuals working together in a cooperative environment to achieve common team goals through sharing knowledge and skills. Buttressing this assertion, Mbinya (2013) wrote that most organisations have embraced teamwork so as to achieve their organisational target. Teamwork in many organisations is as important as the mutual interactions of man. 2.4 Concept of Training Variables Training is an essential and indispensable part of Human Resource Management, ―the importance and value of training has long been recognized. Consider the popular and often repeated quotation ‗‘Give a person a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a person to fish and you feed him for a lifetime‘‘ (Mcclelland, 2002), this understandable and far-sighted saying was from a famous ancient Chinese thinker and 30 philosopher Confucius. This saying has explained clearly how important it is to train an employee to conquer his/her work than just give him/her a job of income. By observing today‘s work climate and the exponential growth in technology with its effect on the economy and society, the need for training is more pronounced than ever. Numerous definitions have been used to expound the training variables concept. For instance, training variables is the systematic training cycle designed to ensure that employees in an organisation are equipped with the right skills to meet the objectives of the organisation (Noe, 2008; Murton, Inman & O‘Sullivan, 2010). Training variables is conceptualised as systematic approach which generally follows sequence of activities in developing training programme (Kraiger, 2003; Armstrong, 2004). Training is, accordingly, ‗‘the planned and systematic modification of behaviour through learning events, programmes and instruction which enable individuals to achieve the levels of knowledge, skill and competence needed to carry out their work effectively‘‘ (Armstrong, 2001). Two aspects of this definition of training could be inferred as the most feature and distinctive elements of training as opposed to other methods in the wider field of learning. First, training is planned and systematic; and secondly, it aims at the improvement of defined abilities related to work. Thus, the training variables are model reflecting these characteristics. It emphasises that training is a continuous process, a circle on which the end leads back to the beginning, rather than a single linear and isolated event with a defined start and finish (Koster, 2004). By implication, training cover interrelated stages and process that strengthen employees‘ knowledge and skill needed to performance their job effectively. Training variables referred to series of stages or steps involving the establishment of a training policy, training needs identification, training plans, training design, training delivery (implementation) and evaluation and feedback (Armstrong, 2003; Dzamesi, 2012). It is a well-structured and internally logical model serving as a theoretical and practical guide for professionals concerned with training (Kallarakkal, 2009). Execution on this model is believed to ensure training effectiveness (Blanchard & Thacker, 2003; Noe, 2005). A successful training programme needs to be systematic because systematic procedures allow employers to combine various variables of training to make them function as a whole. 31 However, Fanibuyan (2001) defines training as the systematic process of altering the behaviour and or attitudes of employees in a direction to increase organizational goals and development as programme generally aimed at educating employees above and beyond the immediate technical requirement of the job and have a main objective of the improvement of the effective performance of all workers. Jackson and Schuler (2003) see training as improving competencies needed today or very soon. According to Campbell and Kuncel, (2002) training is defined as the planned intervention that is designed to enhance the determinants of individual job performance. Going by the above definitions, training can be seen as corporate efforts to reorientate employees in the process of improving organisational performance. Its aim is to bridge the gap between the required standard of employee‘s performance and actual performance. It also implies changing the behaviour of individuals by giving them whatever additional specific items of knowledge, skills or attitude they need to perform up to required standard. Hence, training is a set of planned activities on the part of an organisation to increase the job knowledge and skills or to modify the attitudes and social behaviour of its members in ways consistent with goals of the organisation and requirement of the job (Schmidt, 2007). On this basis, Denby (2010) say, training is the processes of investing in people so that they are equipped to perform. These processes are part of an overall human resource management approach that hopefully will result in people being motivated to perform. Murton, Inman and O‘Sullivan (2010) posit that, training is usually instructor led and aimed at developing a particular skill or changing behaviour and gaining specific knowledge. Massod (2010) and Khanfar (2011) are of the opinion that training is an active means to enable individual to make use of his capability and his potential capability. According to Saleem, Shahid and Naseem (2011) training is an organised increase from the know-how skills and sensations needed for workers to execute efficiently in the offered process, as well as, to operate in underling situation. However, he added one thing more that it (training) extends the production of the organization. By these definitions, training is good for establishing uniformity in the ways the recipients of training will react to a given situation, especially in the work place. Nakpodia (2011) in his opinion see training as a systematic process of altering the behaviour, knowledge and motivation of employees in a direction to increase the effectiveness and organisational goal achievement. Kester (2011) view training as a 32 process whereby an employee or group of employees acquires a variety of skills and knowledge through instruction and practices. To Punia and Saurabh (2013) training is the application of gained knowledge and experience. Training has also been defined in the Glossary of Training Terms (Manpower Services Commission, U.K.) as "a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose in the work situation is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy current and future manpower needs of the organisation". It clearly implies that the role of training is to improve the overall performance of the organisation. The term 'performance' is, therefore, interwoven with training. Training can be seen as organised activity aimed at imparting information and instructions to improve the recipient's performance or to help him or her attain a required level of knowledge or skill (Appiah, Boamah, Baryeh, Browne, Ferkah & Marku-Ablerdu, 2013). Training variables is the device to fill gap and organisations must practice it intelligently to increase employee efficiency. Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for performing the job assigned to him/her. It may be defined as a systematic development of the knowledge, skills and behaviour required by employees to do adequately on confirmed task or job (Shaheen, Naqvi & Khan, 2013) or simply learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job (Amin, Saeed, Lodhi, Simra, Iqbal & Rida-e- Tehreem, 2013). On the other hand, Elnaga and Imran (2013) define employee training as programmes that provide workers with information, new skills, or professional development opportunities. It can take place in numerous ways, on the job or off the job; in the organisation or outside organisation. Regardless of the view, the term training draws elements of acquiring new knowledge to help manage both current and future situations. Synthesising the definitions of authors above, training is considered as a systematic process. Therefore, it needs the effective ways and methods in order to improve the performance. In this stead, training variables have also been viewed as a systematic approach for effective training programme. Systematic means that following certain steps, beginning with, an identification of training needs, followed by a training plan, which the more practical aspects of conducting training event are considered; then 33 design and development of an appropriate training to serve the needs, the implementation of the training according to the plan, and finally the evaluation of the training programme to determine whether the original needs had been achieved. Training has been an important variable in increasing organisational productivity. Most of researches including Sepulveda (2005); Colombo and Stanca (2008); Konings and Vanormelingen (2009) revealed that training is a fundamental and effectual instrument in successful accomplishment of the firm's goals and objectives, resulting in higher productivity. Identification of training needs, design and implementation of training programmes, transfer of training, and evaluation of programme benefits are key activities (Krishnaveni & Sripirabaa, 2008) in addition to studying general training variables such as types of training, selection of trainees, selection criteria, and evaluation instruments. Most of the benefits derived from training are easily attained when training is planned. This means that the organisation, trainers and trainees are prepared for the training well in advance. Nikandrou and Bereri (2009) argue that trainees must recognise the usefulness and relevance of the training to their job. Also, a good designed training programme is not sufficient to guarantee its quality. Several researchers (Carliner, 2003; Gauld & Miller, 2004; Charney & Conway, 2005; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2008; Nguyen, 2009) state that every aspect that relates to the training programme‘s implementation and design (i.e. trainer, training goals, environment, training process, content, material) can influence the trainees‘ learning level and supposed usefulness of the programme. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) indicated that many factors should be taken into consideration when planning and conducting an effective training course: identifying training needs, determining objectives, deciding subject content, choosing trainees, Setting the appropriate schedule, determining suitable facilities, Selecting proper trainers, determining and preparing audio visual aids, Managing the training programme, and evaluating the programme. After discussing the definitions of the concept of training, it is clear that training variables are concerned with decreasing or removing gap in skills, capabilities, knowledge and attitudes, in addition to improving any unwelcome attitudes which may possibly exist through the organisation Olusanya, Awotungase & Ohadebere, 2012). Invariably, the various definitions and/or meaning of training as enabling strategy in performance capabilities of employees and their organisation point to the fact that the 34 two parties (organisations and its workforce) derive benefits from training activities. And this derivation of benefits from training activities are also an attestation to importance and rationale for evolving training programmes in the public organisations for service delivery. 2.5 Concept and Principle of Civil Service The civil service is a term used to describe public servants who are directly employees of the federal and state government, other than the police, armed forces personnel, tile judicial personnel and the teachers (Oladoyin, 2008). It usually excludes also employees of statutory corporations and boards. The civil Service embodies all servants of the state, other than those holding political appointments, who are employed in a civil capacity and whose remuneration is paid out of money voted by the legislature. Adamolekun (1983) found the civil service to be ‗‘the body of permanent officials appointed to assist the political executive in formulating and implementing governmental policies‘‘. He further posits that, the second usage of the term as referring to the ministries and departments within which specific aspects of government are carried out. It is very important to note that though civil service and public service has been conceived by so many people to mean the same thing, but technically, not the same as per se. For instance, public service is broader and more inclusive. Investwords.com (2011) defines public service as that part of the economy concerned with providing basic government services. The composition of the civil service varies from country to country, but in most countries, the public service includes institutions that provide services such as the policing, defence, public roads, mass transit, education, healthcare and electricity. Further explains that the public service provides services that non- payer of taxes cannot be excluded from, such as: street lighting, public education and roads. These services are often referred to in economics as public goods. It can therefore be said that civil service is narrower in scope and excludes some government employees who are public servants (Obikeze & Anthony, 2004). The civil service is the administrative structure employed in the civil capacity to fulfil government policies and programmes. This can be viewed in terms of structures, that is, ministries, departments, and so on, or the human occupants of public offices i.e. permanent secretaries, ministers and higher administrative staff. However, section 2 of 35 the pensions Act of 1951 defines the civil service as ‗‘the service in a civil capacity under the government of the federal or a college university or a pensionable employment under local authority‘‘. There is a distinction between the civil service and the military service and police service. While military and police service are principally concerned with the safeguard of the country from external and internal dangers, the civil service is concerned with strictly civil and non-technical affairs of the state. Members of the civil service are employed in a civil capacity as distinguished from military, police capacity or judicial. Military officers, police officers, judicial officers and many other technical officers like engineers, doctors and draughtsmen are, frankly speaking not civil servants. Civil servants are mainly of two categories: lower clerical staff and higher administrative staff. The higher administrative staffs are directly responsible to the political head of department. On the other hand, the lower clerical staffs help the administrative staff and works under its direct supervision and control. The state reaches the citizens through the civil servants who are well trained, skilled and permanent body of professional class of officials, and who have taken government service as a career (Ekhator, 2002). Apart from this, the civil service is guided by vile trip, impartiality. The principle of permanence is also seen as part of the maxims. Anonymity: the principle of anonymity states that civil servants should be seen and not by principle be heard. Though they advise political office holders on issues relating to government they neither take the blame nor the glory of such policies. They are not expected to be seen defending such policies. That job is better than left for political office holders and nor the career officers. Civil servants as far as possible, are anonymous, and should not be seen as craving for publicity. Neutrality: the civil servant must be politically neutral. His job is to serve the government of the day with full dedication irrespective of what he feels about that particular government. He ought not allow personal prejudices to colour his dedication to his duty. He is not expected to be a card carrying member of political party or get involved in partisan politics though he is expected to vote at election times. The essence of making the civil servant politically neutral is hinged on the fact that since he does not leave with a change in government, he is not expected to have a strong attachment to any particular government so as to enable him give best to make 36 government policies succeed irrespective of his personal feelings towards such policies or government. Impartiality: civil servants are paid from tax payers‘ money which does not belong to anybody or group in particular. They are therefore expected to discharge their duties without fear or favour. Since the constitution emphasizes the equality of all citizens, they are supposed to be treated equally by the civil servants. In rendering service to the public, the civil servant is expected to treat everybody with a high degree of impartiality. Favouritism is against the principle of the civil service and should not be encouraged in any guise whatsoever. Permanence: the civil service is often defined as a permanent body of officials that carry out government decisions. It is permanent and its life is not tied to the life of any, particular government. Governments come and go but the service remains, or to use the; Nigerian popular saying, ‗soldier go, soldier come but barrack remains‘. The civil service in this regard, is the barrack that remains (Obikeze & Anthony, 2004). The Nigerian Public Service The Public service is contained in Section 277 Sub section 91 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria of 1979 as amended in 1989 as encompassing the civil service (Ministerial departments), statutory corporations or parastatals, judiciary, legislature, educational institutions, financially wholly or principally owned by government at the State, Local and Federal levels, Nigeria Police or Armed Forces and other organizations in which the Federal or state governments owned controlling share of interest: The meaning of the concept of Public or Civil Service as established by the Nigerian constitution is provided for in sections 169, 171, 206, 208 and 318 and in section 10 of the Third schedule of the 1999 constitution. The constitutional provisions do not recognize the term. “The Nigerian Public Service” The constitution only recognizes the Public Service of the Federation at the Federal State and Local Government Council Levels (Olaopa, 2008). Public service is a body or department in the executive arm of government with the responsibility of assisting in the planning and implementation of government policies. It is not profit-oriented but an institution established to deliver essential services to the people (Arowolo, 2012). Most public services are service-oriented. The public service (Ministries, Departments, and Agencies) has always been the tool available to the 37 Nigerian government for the implementation of developmental goals and objectives. It is seen as the pivot for growth of African economies (economic) commission for African 2003. It is responsible for the creation of an appropriate conducive environment in which all sectors of the economy can operate maximally. In Nigeria, the country‘s government bureaucracy is the public service. This is because government at whatever level enunciates and implements its policies, programmes and projects through the instrumentality of the public service. The Civil Service was conceived as an apparatus or instrument of British rule to serve British interests. It had an upper service echelon, occupied by the colonialists and the Junior Service position occupied by Nigerians. This situation remained so till 1945 when agitation by Nigerian nationalists reached its peak. Generally, Nigerians began to take over the functions of the colonialists until the Civil service and all other organs of government were completely indigenized (Oladoyin, 2008). The patriarchs of the Nigerian public service whose contributions stood out indelibly were Chief Simeon Adebo for the Western Region, Chief Jerome Udoji for Eastern Region and Sir Kashin Imam for the Northern Region. The public Service in Nigeria is a colonial heritage of public administration during which the upper echelon of the civil service was dominated by the Europeans on whom were concentrated executive judicial and legislative powers. The Nigeria public Service is a creation of the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Successive constitutional reviews increased the stake of Nigerians at the helm of the public Service until independence in 1960. Independence was supposed to catalyze the evolution of the service as a national institution for spear heading the rapid transformation of the nation and enduring continuity inn administration. It has failed to do any of these. Though the Nigerian Public Service has undergone changes and transformation over the years, unfortunately successive reforms have not made significant impact to reengineer the public sector. Reforms were tailed towards achieving effectiveness of the service because of the successive government that a thorough bred public service was necessary for effective delivery of public services (Olaopa, 2006). Performance in the Nigeria Public Service It is obvious that Nigeria has a large Public organisation with large personnel. Their major function is to implement government policies and programmes. While it is true 38 that some governments did or do not have any programme for the common good, the public organisation has not successfully implemented the policies and programmes of those that did. Many civil servants found it easier to align themselves with the government of the day and participate in treasury looting that has reduced Nigeria to an embarrassment among the comity of serious nations (Suleiman, 2014). There is significant evidence to suggest that the Public Service in Nigeria has not delivered on the purposes for which it was established. With several cases of building collapse, plane crash, moribund refineries and the resultant importation of Petroleum products into the country by the Federal Government and so on as witnessed in recent times, the Public Sector cannot untie itself the shackle of poor performance necessitated by inefficiency and ineffectiveness. Management inertia has been identified by Researchers and Practitioners as one of the factors that are responsible for poor performance in the Public Sector. Former President Olusegun Obasanjo while introducing a set of Public Service Reforms in 2003 observed inter-alia: Nigerians have too long been feeling short-changed by the quality of public service. Our public offices have too long been showcase for combined evils of inefficiency and corruption, whilst being impediments for effective implementation of government policies. Nigerians deserve better and I will ensure they get what is better (Obasanjo, 2003). The aftermath of this was the invention of series of reforms which led to privatization, downsizing and right-sizing of the Public Service and even minimizing the role of the Public Sector in the National life. The Nigerian Public Service has undergone changes and transformation over the years; unfortunately, successive reforms have not made significant impact to reengineer the Public Sector. Reforms were tailored towards achieving efficiency and effectiveness of the service on the understanding that a thorough-bred Public Service was necessary for efficient delivery of public service. Again, the public sector has continuously failed to deliver. Adamolekun in a Survey conducted in 2005 captured this development when he categorizes Nigeria as one of the ‗hesitant reformers‘, alongside Cote d‘Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea, Togo, Zimbabwe. This survey may be controversial but the essential point has been made: the rate of reform execution in the Nigeria Public Service is lacklustre. It is very difficult to compare Nigeria, for instance, with other countries like Botswana and South Africa whose Public Services are much more effective and efficient. 39 The Public Service in Nigeria is generally criticized, among others for being too bureaucratic, too conservative and there are conduct derived from colonial based civil service which was designed just to make law and order. Corroborating on this unfortunate situation, Adeyemo and Adeleke (2008) stress that the superstructure has remained defective and the several public service review exercises ended up with the civil service being put in a straight jacket. Furthermore, inadequate co-ordination, communication gap, over centralization of decision making, non-application of reforms reports has marred efficiency and effectiveness of the Nigeria Public Service (El-Rufai, 2013).Resultantly, the sector operates far below expectation with escalating personnel costs, problems of productivity and redundancy among its workers to the extent that some of the organizations have been shut down. The above constitutes the environment in which the Nigeria Public Service operates and which has equally hindered development. Therefore, the need to identify and provide for more efficient ways of handling the Public Service becomes imperative. On the contrary, the performance of public sector in Nigeria has been replete with varying contradictions (Adeyemo & Salami, 2008) and has even become an epitome of all that is corrupt, mediocre and fraudulent (Imhonopi & Urim, 2013). As it stands, the public sector in Nigeria has virtually collapsed. Politics and politicisation has systematically bastardised the very essence of the sector. Consequently, morale is weak, remuneration is very poor, efficiency is no more, competence has been ditched and merit abandoned (Kagara, 2009). In the public sector for example, all government departments have to be efficient as they have to deliver value for taxpayers‘ money. In fact, efficient, effective, responsive, transparent and community oriented public service delivery is an imperative prerequisite because without it unethical behaviour will result (Raga & Taylor, 2005). Lending credence to this view, Adesola, Oyeniyi and Adeyemi (2013) asserts that efficiency encompasses the qualitative and value-laden expectations of the society. The public sector in Nigeria exists to propel socio-economic development and to guard against the control of the economy from foreign domination and exploitation but, the performance of the sector has been replete with varying contradictions (Adeyemo & Salami, 2008). The civil service in Nigeria for example, seems unable to cope with the prevailing ideological, political and economic changes as well as the management innovations; such that the institutional and capacity weakness of the civil service is 40 considered one of the fundamental causes of socio-political upheavals and economic crisis (Chukwuemeka & Eme, 2011). In essence, Okpala (2012) reported that Nigeria lost several hundred billions of Naira over the last few decades due of flagrant abuse of procedures, lack, of transparency and merit in the award of contracts in the public sector. The Nigerian public sector ever since the country‘s independence from Britain in 1960 has been grappling with weak governance structure, red-tapism, weak accountability, low professional standards, waste and corruption, poor productivity, and lack of control, redundancy and over-bloated staff structure (Ogunrotifa, 2012). 2.6 Teamwork Variables and Workers’ Performance Communication Team communication refers to the nature by which teammates exchange task related information, and in general, establishing patterns of interaction (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). In general terms, communication is the exchange of information between two or more individuals irrespective of the medium (Salas et al., 2000). According to Koontz and Weihrich (2004), communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being understood by the receiver. It is the means by which organisational activity is unified. It is seen as the means by which behaviour is modified, change is effected, information is made productive, and goals are achieved. It is also important to state that communication is the vehicle through which information relevant to decisions is transferred. It is fundamental to the implementation of decisions. Communication, in whatever form, is goal directed in organisations. Communication is broadly intended to secure performance at all levels that results in the implementation of decisions and the achievement of organisational goals (Layman, Williams, Damitan & Bures, 2006). Communication is an inter- personal process that results in the exchange of information. This process serves a number of organisational functions as: the expression of emotions, the motivation of behavior and performance, the transmitter of technical information required for decision-making; and the control of organisations activities. Scott and Mitchell (1976) in Siburian (2013) identified and described the major functions communication processes serve within organisations. They identified four major purposes served by communication and classify the process further by 41 identifying the following: the orientation of the communication; the objectives served by the communication; and theoretical and research issues emphasized by those who study that particular aspect of communication. Emotive: communication networks are made up of people, and much of what people communicate to each other has emotional content. Employee motivation needs interaction with others socially as major motive of employees. Communication, be formal or informal, is a major means for satisfying these needs. Through communication, employees can express their frustrations and satisfaction to each other and to management. In addition, communication provides a mechanism by which individuals can compare attitudes and resolve ambiguities about their jobs, their roles, and areas of conflict between groups and individuals. If an employee, for example, is dissatisfied with his/her pay he/she will often communicate with others informally, to determine whether the feelings are justified or not. Communication may be defined as a two-way process in which meaning is conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. Having good communication skills is a very important aspect of preventing and managing conflict. It involves the imparting of information from a sender to a receiver through a defined medium. The process requires that the parties involved share an area of commonality. Some forms of communication are: - Verbal which includes oral (speaking, or singing) and written communications - Non-verbal communication transmits meaning through body language, touch, and eye-contact. Welcome signs reflecting the range of ethnic languages spoken in the work environment create an even more inviting atmosphere (Lai & Ishiyama, 2004). Also, communication has two interconnected aspects. The first acts as a physical means to accomplish tasks, including commands, stating intentions, and information. The second is how things are communicated (Kanki & Palmer, 1993). Communication may involve impressions created or words expressed. The aim is to obtain good performance and a service delivery. These are typified by behavioral markers such as speaking up, using clear language, listening, taking other‘s opinions seriously, and confirming messages. Some tools and technologies to provide information between team members has been define as electronic mail, desktop conferencing, and video conferencing. E-mail is used to reduce cost of coordination and to speed up information sharing (Monplaisir & Singh, 2002; Crow, 2002a). However, consider when communication is not received or is not understood by the person needing it the 42 most. Very often, individuals will receive very different messages when hearing the same communication because of their own perspectives and biases (Bandow, 2001). Sub-skills and alternative labels of communication are:  Information exchange Closed-loop communication Information sharing Procedural talk  Volunteering/requesting information Consulting with others Effective influence Open exchange of relevant interpretations Evaluative interchange Communication may be hindered because the environment has become stressful and team members have become focused on their individual tasks rather than on how those tasks affect other team members‘ tasks. Furthermore, consider that providing too much information (information overload) can degrade performance in teams that are performing in stressful environments (Salas, Sims & Burke, 2005). If communication is successful, it results in transfer of meaning. If this transfer of meaning is not achieved as intended, then true communication has not taken place. There are three basic communication styles. They are: i) Aggressive; ii) Passive, and iii) Assertive. Each affects relationships and practices differently. Aggressive Style: This type of communication chooses to attack first and win at all costs; wants to be right and have the last word. It says: ―I am in charge‖ or ―my way or the highway‖. The effect of this style is provocation, counter aggression, alienation from others, resistance, defiance, covering up, and compliance with resentment. The aggressive style might be effective when a decision is to be made quickly as in emergencies. Passive Style: This style of communication is non-confrontational, and prefers to be silent. It is apologetic, and self – conscious. It seems to say: ―Anything you want.‖ Passive communication might be appropriate when: - Emotions are running high and it makes 43 sense to take a break in order to calm down and regain perspective - When your power is less than the other person‘s - When the other person‘s position is impossible to change. Assertive Style: This type of communication shares feelings without hurting others; it expresses self- confidence and engages others in finding solutions. Effective communication practices improve interpersonal interactions by reducing conflict and misunderstanding. Effective communication involves arriving at a shared understanding of a situation and in some instances a shared course of action. This requires a wide range of generic communication skills, from negotiation and listening, to goal setting and assertiveness, and being able to apply these generic skills in a variety of contexts and situations. Effective communication also requires individuals and teams having access to adequate and timely information necessary to perform their role effectively and appropriately. The use of technical terms and jargon, acronyms and abbreviations and diagrams to communicate can influence how well information is shared and therefore the effectiveness of communication. As in business, adhering to the five standards of effective communication in organisation is likely to facilitate improvements in the exchange of information between workers and organisation. Hernon and Rossiter (2006) and Clutterbuck (2007) aver that effective communication has a strong linked with organisation success. Kerzner (2013) advocate that inadequate communication is a major drawback to the development of good teams as it induces low motivation levels, drops in team spirit; and it contributes to poorly stated targets and poor project control, coordination and flow of work. Hoegl and Parboteeah (2003) reported after studying the data of leaders and managers of 145 teams specialized in software development that good coordination and open exchange of pertinent information during the task promotes team effectiveness. There is less number of conflicts and high understanding when members of team openly communicate with each other (Ensley, Pearson & Amason, 2000). Team performance improved when decisions are made unanimously (Jackson, Joshi & Erhardt, (2003). In relation to team communication and workers‘ performance specifically, it has been shown that communication becomes more important for performance when teams understand a complex task. In contrast, communication has been found not to be significantly related to performance for simple or less complex tasks. More complex tasks are often non- rountine and are said to have higher information and cognitive 44 processing requirement (Abdel-Halim, 1983). Such increases in cognitive demand necessitate increased communication which can facilitate potential cognitive enhancements for a team resulting in improved performance. This increased cognitive demand is not produced for tasks that are simpler rountine in nature. In addition to this, increased cognitive may need to engage in more communication in order to have better performance, for other teams, the quality of the communication they engage in is more important than how much communication actually takes place. A study by Morrissette, Hornseth, and Shellar (1975 cited in Salas et al. 2005) found that providing access to information to multiple team members (i.e., redundant information) improved team performance. Effective teams require reliable communication processes, with clearly defined responsibilities and appropriate delegation. A more substantial line of research has focused on the type of communication or interaction associated with team performance (Hirokawa, 1990). For example, research understaken by Sorenson (1971 cited in Hassall, 2009) shows that the communication activity based on IPA approach of structuring, generating, elaborating and evaluating were positively related to performance quality for a production task. However, only generating and elaborating communication activity was associated with performance quality for problem-solving tasks. While these results are suggestive of there being differences in the types of communication activity important for different types of team tasks, these findings did not replicate to a second type of production or problem- solving task undertaken by different teams. In contrast to comparing a production and problem-solving task, Mabry and Attridge (1990) sought to investigate team communication and performance for a structured (rank task) and unstructured task (case study). Similarly applying Bales‘ IPA approach as a measure of communication activity, the results of this study showed no relationship between communication activity and performance on a structured task. Yet a number of significant findings emerged for the unstructured task. Result showed that the communication activity of agreeing was significantly related to case studies that were optimistic or had a positive outlook or orientation in expression, the communication activity of giving opinion was significantly related to case study answers that expressed a strong belief or opinion about an idea or proposal, and the communication activity of disagreeing was significantly related to case studies with originality or novelty in their responses. Not all researchers investigating the 45 relationship between types of communication activity and performance have found positive relationships. Sundstrom, Busby and Bobrow (1997) sought to test the relationship between communication activity and decision quality for teams performing a desert survival problem-solving task. The results of the result showed no relationship between any communication activity measure and team decision quality. Scarnati (2001) pointed out that by following proper structure of organization, enduring effective communication, making resources available, developing trust among team members, promoting respect for culture differences of the corporate and the conditions in which teamwork is conducted can lead to effective and high performing teams. Communication is the oxygen of an organisation body. The proper transference of communication from one part of the body to another part is essential for the survival and growth of an organisation (Schmidt, Roger, Easton & Wardrope, 2007). It is the vehicle by which information cell relevant to decision functions of an organisation is transferred from one part to another. It is the infusion and implementation of decision. People come together to exchange information for an effective product development. For instance, designers and engineers work together to bring their efforts, knowledge and expertise. Communication is necessary for achieving organisation‘s goals. Harvey and Koubek (2000) contended that members must pay attention about the ―words‖ they are using to express their own ideas to another member. Crow (2002b) mention that, there are three important factors for effective communication; ―willingness to talk and share information and effectively presenting point of view‖, ―active listening‖, and ―understanding‖. Similarly, Fleischer and Liker (1997) specify two aspects; ―expressing yourself‖ and ―listening‖. Employers and employees must express their ideas clearly to the other one for preventing misunderstandings. Also listening is important as expressing ideas. If they listen carefully, they can understand each other easily. At this point, feedback comes into prominence. If both side expresses their ideas clearly and listens their ideas carefully; their feedback will be more effective. Varvel, Adams, Pride and Ulloa (2004) define effecting factors for mature communication as:  Articulate ideas clearly and concisely,  Give compelling reasons for their ideas, 46  Listen without interrupting,  Clarify what others have said, and  Provide constructive feedback (higher level of understanding. Dey (1993) argues that without communication and mutual cooperation, teamwork is unsuccessful. Thus, for the success of teamwork, mutual-cooperation and communication among team members is very important. For participants to adjust, they need to communicate and cooperate. The communication used in teamwork can be either verbal or non-verbal. The qualities of a good team are capable, intelligent, communicative individual with a clear understanding of the problem at hand would like to cooperate in order to solve the problem as a team. Hence, the important values of teamwork are communication, conflict resolution, and cooperation among employees (Levy, 2005). Bacon and Blyton (2005) argue that the success of teamwork in an organisation also depends on the organisational culture created by the management. The organisational culture of interpersonal communication and training encourages sharing amongst employees. Such a culture encourages teamwork as compared to conservative cultures where employees are not encouraged to share their experiences and skills. Changes in today‘s business world have made teamwork a reality in organisations, as knowledge sharing is crucial for success. Employees, managers, as well as executives have to share information. In addition, because of the complexity of operations as well as proliferation of knowledge in various fields, it is essential for employees at all levels to have the opportunity work as teams and learn from each other for them to generate innovative solutions to organisational, efficiency and operational issues (Margerison & McCann, 1995). Teamwork is said to have benefits which can make a positive impact in the organisation (Yvonne, 2012). A distinctive feature of teamwork is the successive work actions to assemble different parts of the product. In places where the aim is to improve the process of production, teamwork is more of complexity, increase in communication and integrative work. Bacon and Blyton (2005) highlight the two important factors, that is, self-management team and interpersonal team skills. These factors enhance the communication as well as interpersonal relationship between team members and also boost the employee performances. Teamwork is a significant tool of new type of work organisation. Teamwork is a precise organisational measure that 47 shows many different features in all type of organisations including non-profit (Mulika, 2010). In the health care industry, DeFontes and Surbida (2004) studied a way of improving patient safety through addressing human factors that lead to medical errors. They introduced the Preoperative Safety Briefing project, developed in the Kaiser Permanente Orange County Service Area in order to embrace a fundamental cultural change that emphasized safety as part of clinical quality standards. Important elements of the project design included creation of a climate of improved communication, collaboration, and teamwork. As a pre and post test, they conducted the project in a county medical center and found that wrong-site surgeries decreased, employee satisfaction increased, and nursing personnel turnover decreased. Based on these outcomes, they concluded that team members who work together and communicate well can quickly detect and more easily avoid medical errors. Overall, the existing literature on the relationship between communication and team performance shows some evidence that communication is positively related to team performance, but this evidence also shows that communication is sometimes not related to team performance. What the current literature is suggestive of, but currently does not provide any evidence for, is relating communication to workers‘ performance with particular reference to public organisations. This study aims to further identify. 2.6.2 Team-Spirit and workers’ performance Team-spirit is the feeling and viewpoint that employee holds about the group. Team spirit is also known as esprit de corps in which employee shares their problem with each other within the organization (Jaworski & Kohli, 1993). Team-spirit, then, is also defined as the confidence expressed by a team, as well as the intensity with which its members invest energy on behalf of the team. Team-spirit is all about working together as one to pave ways for success and productivity in a particular business. One research study concluded that team is prepared by group of people who jointly depended on one another in order to achieve team objective. Boyt, Lusch and Mejza (2005) reports that team-spirit is composed of group members‟ feelings, beliefs and values. In addition, team-spirit in the organisation is the key to achieve common goal of the team. Team- spirit is the key for success in the organisation (William, Swee-Lim & Cesar, 2005). 48 Team-spirit is recognized as adding to team involvement and as driving force behind team force esprit de corps is individual category phenomenon which is based upon feelings and beliefs that the employee holds about the group. It is well known as team spirit that exits in organisation and how much employees in the organisation are concerned about each others problems (Jaworski & Kohli, 1993). Hence, Boyt et al. (2005) argue that team is composed of group of people who collectively depend on each other‘s work as in shape of team to reach a common objective that acts as biding force for the team. Additionally authors suggest this phenomenon as group cohesiveness (unity), organisational identification (recognition) and esprit de corps. In fact, team-spirit is made up of eagerly shared feelings, beliefs and values about group membership and performance (Boyt et al., 2001). Furthermore authors say esprit de corps or team-spirit in organisation indicates the strong desire to achieve common goal even in the face of hostility. William et al. (2005) define team-spirit as the level to which employee obliged to common goal and to one another in the organisation. In addition esprit de corps is valued asset among organisational members who do not have formal authority over each other (Homburg et al., 2002). In literature the term has been widely applied to know the employee satisfaction and found mixed outcomes. Like, Meral and Lutfihak (2009) in their study sample of employee from Telecommunication sector organisation in Turkey have identified positive impact of team spirit on their job satisfaction level. Boyt et al. (2005) also confirmed the positive correlation between team spirit and employee job satisfaction level. Authors further argued that increase in team-spirit due to perceived social capital will increase employee satisfaction level. On the other hand Hwang and Chang (2009) in their study of public sector hospitals in Korea indicate that the esprit de corps feeling of warmth and workgroup friendliness has been negatively perceived by physicians. Study carried in Pakistan from the sample of IT professional however indicated that the concept of esprit corps is not very popular in Pakistan and employee mostly pursues their individual tasks as part of job assigned to them (Trimizi & Shazad, 2009). Another researcher considers team-spirit as a valuable asset for team members as well as an organisation (Homburg et al., 2002). One research study find out the positive correlation exist between team-spirit and employee job satisfaction level. Researcher further suggested that increase in team-spirit will result in better employee 49 performance (Boyt et al., 2001). On the other hand, research study was conducted in Korean hospitals which indicate that esprit de corps has been negatively recognized by physicians (Hwang & Chang, 2009). Most of the employees pursue their individual tasks rather than group (Trimizi & Shahzad, 2009). Afful-Broni (2004) believes in team-spirit as he labels one of his fourteen management principles as ―esprit de corps‖ and is convinced that when there is team-spirit, work absenteeism is minimized, since employees are more loyal to their work and have no intention to deceive their team members. To Fairweather (2005), employees will feel happier and work better if they perceive their employer as reasonable and fair. Cory (2006) contends that when workers perceive inequity, they will try to re-establish equitable changes. Researcher, Hamilton, Nickerson and Owan (2003) found that the adoption of teams at the plant level improved worker productivity even after taking into account the selection of high-ability workers into teams. It has also been argued that teamwork enhances performance through the increased scope it gives employees to use their knowledge, skills and abilities. This raises motivation, thereby reducing shirking and enhancing employee retention (Benders, Huijgen & Pekruhl, 2001; Spreitzer, Cohen & Ledford, 1999). At the same time, it facilitates employee learning and skill acquisition, as well as information sharing, which may be particularly important in conditions of growing economic uncertainty (Wall, Cordery & Clegg, 2002; Vaskova, 2007). Many businesses have climbed high upon the ladder of success because their team of workers are bonded together in a spirit of perfect harmony which makes it easy for them to achieve their goals. The relationship between team spirit and team performance was expected to be similar to previous findings concerning group potency. The performance and success of a business or company depends on the commitment of the people working together in unity in their workplace. Individual with high spirit at work are well adjusted and exhibit a sense of inner harmony, positive energy, conscientiousness, and a spiritual inclination (Kinjerski, 2004). More specifically, employee boniness at work has been found to be positively related to employee work attitudes, such as job satisfaction, organisational commitment, work self-esteem, and the lack of intention to quit (Milliman, Czaplewski & Ferguson, 2003). Because these attitudes have been associated with a reduction in absenteeism 50 and turnover and increase in job performance, it follow that team spirit should also lead to similar results. Team-spirit allows the organisation to produce better products at lower costs. It helps individual workers to develop skills and experience. Many organisations have developed useful teams for effective and efficient performances. Even though what employee know counts – knowledge, it is the emotional connection employee share with other workers that spell the difference between success and failure in the business or organisation (Mishra, 2014). Team-spirit in the workplace makes it easier for workers to work towards common goals to build successful businesses. Employees develop a positive attitude and involvement. Also, employee‘s morale and spirits are increased and maintained under team performance. 2.6.3 Team Recognition and Workers’ Performance According to Recognition Professional International (2007), recognition is seen as acknowledging or giving special attention to employee actions, efforts, behavior or performance. Recognition can include both formal and informal programs and supports business strategy by reinforcing certain behaviours (e.g., extraordinary accomplishments) that contribute to organisational success (Mintzberg, 2011). Recognition acknowledges employee contributions immediately after the fact, usually with predetermined goals or performance levels that the employee is expected to achieve. Recognition awards can be cash or noncash (e.g., verbal recognition, trophies, certificates, plaques, dinners, tickets) (WorldatWork, 2010). Brown (2011) claimed recognition is an after-the-fact display of appreciation or acknowledgement of an individual‘s or team‘s desired behaviour, effort or business result that supports the organisation‘s goals and values. Recognition involves day-to- day, informal and formal recognition (Recognition Professionals International‘s Glossary of Terms). Day-to-Day Recognition encompasses a wide range of acknowledgement that is frequent, ongoing and informal. It may consist of intangible recognition, Awards, Celebrations or eligibility for Awards or Celebrations to recognize behaviors that support organisational goals and values. It may include thank you notes or forms that employees give to one another or verbal praise. All employees can participate in this recognition, supporting recognition up, down and across the organization. In fact, one of the most extensive research studies conducted to date on 51 the link between recognition and performance points to the need to recognize workers every seven days (Gibson, 2008; Mbah, 2014). Informal Recognition singles out individuals or teams for progress toward milestones, achieving goals or projects completed. Celebrations may include low-cost mementos or refreshments as a way to celebrate achievements or outstanding positive behavior. It is less structured than Formal Recognition and reaches a larger percentage of the employee population. Formal Recognition consists of a structured program with defined processes and criteria linked to organisational values and goals, a nomination and selection process and an Awards ceremony where employees receive public recognition and are presented with awards in a formal setting. Generally speaking, it is an annual program and only a small percentage of employees are recognized. Considerable evidence exists that non-cash rewards are often preferable, both for increasing engagement (and resulting performance) and for maximizing the return on investment for recognition programs (e.g., non-cash programs often cost less, creating a positive cost-benefit relationship) (Murlis & Watson, 2011). Effective team recognition programs link recognition to corporate strategy, specific goals and levels of performance improvements (Armstrong, 2012). There is considerable evidence that when recognition is misused or used in ways that are not linked to desired behaviours it can have no positive effect and, in some cases, can even decrease individual performance. For example, Robinson (1988); Marriner-Tomey (1996) and Armstrong (2012) affirmed that positive reinforcement increases the probability of a recurrence of the desired behaviour. Team recognition reinforces behaviors that improve individual and team performance, align with organisational values and result in better overall employee and organisation performance (Merchiore, 2008). In system analysis parlance, this means that recognition programs create a positive feedback loop in which the increase in desired behaviors enhances recognition that, in turn, will further increase performance - potentially to its maximum level based on the abilities of the individual‘s abilities. Recognition is treated as universally applicable and, if provided on a contingent basis in managing employee behavior, can be a very powerful reinforcer to improve performance. For example, under the Luthans and Kreitner (1985) organisational behavior modification approach, after the critical employee performance behaviours 52 are identified, measured and functionally analyzed, then the intervention step can contingently apply recognition to strengthen and accelerate the identified behaviours with resulting performance improvement. A large number of studies over the years have verified that recognition is indeed a powerful positive reinforcer for employee behaviours leading to performance improvement in both manufacturing and service organisations (Welsh, Luthans & Sommer, 1993; Luthans, Fox & Davis, 1991) A meta-analysis of all studies over the past 20 years that used the organisational behaviour modification approach to behavioural management using recognition as the intervention found an average of 15 percent performance improvement in service applications. When recognition was combined with performance feedback an average increase of 41 percent in manufacturing and 30 percent in service organisations was found (Luthans & Stajkovic, 1999). Interestingly, the use of monetary reinforcement as the intervention had about the same impact as the recognition in the service applications, but when the recognition was combined with performance feedback, it had about the same impact as the money in manufacturing and about twice the impact as the money in service applications. Rabey (2003) state that, recognition and reward are the primary focus of the individuals who are working in teams. Perceptive managers know and constantly capture the benefits of the team. Teams show the collective strength of the individuals and boost the motivation and morale of individual as well. Managers critically observe the team member‘s hidden working potential otherwise managers may lose them. (Staniforth, 2000) assert that teamwork is the collective way of working which result in potential benefits and greater synergy. Managers must plan and design an appropriate reward system for the employee and encourage their participation in team projects. They must also set the group goals which are connected towards the company strategic plan, building of employee performance and fair payment methods. After implementation of above captioned concern, managers are able to establish their teams. Periodically monitoring the teamwork activities in order to check its effectiveness should be the primary focus of every business strategy (Musselwhite, 2001). Team recognition at the macro level involves many characteristics that affect the collaborative process, the cognitive skills required and ultimately the quality of 53 outcome (Warner, Letsky & Cowen, 2005). Delarue and DePrins (2004) argue that every work organizations should positively recognize the members of the various teams in the organization. Positive recognition entails recognizing outstanding performance, continued performance, and improved performance. Furthermore, Warner et al. (2005) argued that understanding the impact of these dimensions is critical to modelling dynamic teamwork and human-agent collaborative processes. Employees crave for a job well done including being noticed and acknowledged when they do something well (Blanchard & Thacker, 2007). Yet what typically happen are nothing or worse yet, the assignment of more work. Blanchard and Thacker (2007) further posit that when firms do not take the time to actively reward and recognized good performance, the passion for the job diminishes with every unrecognized accomplishment. Employees are motivated by performance feedback with the desire to do well. Research further shows that teamwork is a fragile process which needs to be handling carefully in a supportive organisational environment. Anderson and West (2002) argue that effective organisational environment is one in which employee communicate, participate and work in trustable atmosphere. Herzberg (1987) demonstrates that, team recognition can provide both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Dunford (1992) submitted that recognition improves employee performance. Thus, team effectiveness is conditioned, in part by leader stimulation and maintenance of a climate for individual and group growth. Team task performance is the degree to which the team‘s product or service meets the needs of those who use it (Wageman, 2001). 2.6.4 Collaboration and workers’ performance Teamwork is a cornerstone of collaboration, and is essential to any organisation in today‘s world. Despite the fact that collaborative work is often times necessary many find it enjoyable. Collaboration according to Frost and Sullivan (2006) is the driver of performance. Collaboration is an important factor that affects teamwork success since knowledge integration and conflict resolving is procured in the short run (Rainey, 2005). Then, Prasad (1996) define collaboration as to seek out the unplanned and unpredictable activities among team members. Crow (2002a) states that ―the basis for bringing together the knowledge, experience and skills of multiple team members to contribute to the development of a new product more effectively than individual team members performing their narrow tasks in support of product development‖. 54 Individuals within or across teams may differentiate themselves to the extent to which they wish to accomplish team tasks through collaboration as opposed to autonomous work (Wagner, Neuman & Christiansen, 1996). A team composed of individuals wishing to work autonomously may only prove effective if individuals in the team possess quality individual skills. Similarly, a team composed of individuals preferring collaboration may only prove effective if individuals in the team possess quality collaboration skills. Fleischer and Liker (1997) state collaboration is an important issue for the conflicts occurring between engineers and industrial designers. If they share their ideas and information, and work collaboratively for achieving an innovative solution, every team member wins. On the other hand, as Rainey (2005) denotes, collaboration helps for providing design requirements and downstream implications. Crow (2002a) found that requirements of effective collaboration are:  Early involvement and the availability of resources to effectively collaborate  A culture that encourages teamwork, cooperation and collaboration  Effective teamwork and team member cooperation  Defined team member responsibilities based on collaboration  A defined product development process based on early sharing of information and collaboration  Collocation or virtual collocation  Collaboration technology Lang, Dickson and Buchal (2002) summarize factors for successful collaboration;  Cognitive synchronization/reconciliation,  Developing shared meaning,  Developing shared memories,  Negotiation,  Communication of data, knowledge, information,  Planning of activities, tasks, methodologies,  Management of tasks. Crow (2002a) also stresses that an effective collaboration also requires an effective teamwork. Employees and employers must understand and trust each other. In public organisations system, many times conflicts may occur, but ―decision-making must be based on a collaborative approach.‖ Collaboration has been linked positively to a 55 variety of organisational performance measures (e.g., performance quality, efficiency, productivity, innovativeness, technical performance, budget adherence) in a variety of settings, including for example, new product development (Lovelace, Shapiro & Weingart, 2001), manufacturing (Lapre & Van Wassenhove, 2001), marketing (DeLuca & Atuahene, 2007), and healthcare (Baggs, Schmitt, Mushlin, Mitchell, Eldredge, Oakes & Hutson, 1999). The literature on interdisciplinary groups and teams provides three, complementary explanations for this link. The first relates to the quality of the decisions that are made when individuals with diverse expertise collaborate. Better decisions typically are made because collaborators openly share their pertinent expertise, raise relevant questions, consider alternatives more fully, and integrate ideas across disciplines to enrich the decision choice set (Wang & Noe, 2010). These actions lead to higher quality decisions that ultimately improve performance (Jehn & Bendersky, 2003; Lovelace et al. 2001). The second explanation for improved performance is that interdisciplinary collaboration improves coordination, that is, the management and integration of different pieces of the task to accomplish the collective goal (Wang & Wang, 2012). Research suggests that collaborators coordinate their actions well because they develop trans-active memory about ―who knows what‖ (Liang, Moreland & Argote, 1995; Reagans, Argote & Brooks, 2005). That knowledge enables elements of the task to be delegated to individuals with the most relevant expertise. Additionally, it facilitates the development of a shared understanding that not only strengthens the relationships among collaborators, but also enables them to coordinate their work effectively (Gittell, 2002; Reagans et al. 2005). Liang et al. (1995) showed that collaborators experienced less need for planning, less confusion and fewer misunderstandings. Gittell (2002) further showed that they accomplished their work more efficiently and at higher quality. Her findings echo a substantial body of research showing a positive impact of coordination on organisational performance (Adler, 1995; Argote, 1982; Faraj & Sproull, 2000). The third explanation given for the interdisciplinary collaboration performance relationship is collaborators‘ skill at error detection and recovery. Jassawalla and Sashittal (1998) observed that collaborators develop collective mindfulness, that is, a shared vigilance to the task and each other. This mindfulness increases their detection of changing conditions and errors, enabling them to respond sooner to minimize 56 adverse effects on performance (Preuss, 2003; Weick, Sutcliffe & Obstfeld, 1999). In effect, collaborators improve performance by bolstering organisational resilience the organisation‘s ability to adjust positively under shifting conditions (Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003; Dutton & Ragin, 2006). Odden and Avon (2001) found out that teachers in the United States have far less time for non-teaching, professional-enrichment activities than their counterparts in high- achieving foreign countries. Schools that are collaborative, meanwhile, seemed to have better morale than other schools, according to the MetLife survey report (2007). Furthermore, educators in schools with higher levels of collaboration were more likely to agree that the teachers, principal, and other professionals trust each other, a factor that facilitates teacher performance. Also, teachers in such schools were also more likely to say that they and their colleagues shared responsibility for the achievement of all students and were more likely to be satisfied with their careers. In general, collaboration leads to greater professional satisfaction for teachers which consequently leads to better teacher performance, said Linda Davin, a senior policy analyst in the National Education Association's teacher quality department. Meta-analytic results suggest that preference for collaboration serves as one of the more important dispositional predictors of task performance (Bell, 2007). Similar to task, goal, and outcome interdependence, preference for collaboration serves as an indicator of the level of interdependency among team members. 2.7 Training Variables and Workers’ Performance Training needs identification and workers’ performance Training needs identification answers the questions, who if there is, needs training? And what training should be given? According to Armstrong (2003), Buckley and Caple (2004), training needs identification is one of the main processes that should be carried out by organisations, since it is believed that failure to perform this process is a major reason why training outcomes are not always favourable. There is therefore the need for public organisations in a country like Nigeria to first identify the training needs of the organisations. The needs should be identified in accordance with well organised procedure looking at training needs from the organisational and employee perspective. If training programmes are to be effective, they must satisfy the needs of trainees, so the identification of training needs is the first step and a basic stage in training administration (Noe, 1999; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). 57 Rothwell and Sredl (1992) describe training needs assessment as the initial movement toward developing human resources development program, the subsequent learning instruction are basically depend on proper identification or assessment of the training needs. If the need assessment is inaccurate, the learners are most likely to drop out, no matter how motivated they may be. Conducting a thorough needs assessment before training is designed and delivered helps set appropriate goals for training and ensure that trainees are ready to participate (Blanchard & Thacker, 2007). It is common to define a training need as the gap that occurs between the exact needs of a given work and the current capability of the incumbent (Robinson, 1988). Similarly, Stewart (1999) argued that a training need is the same as the gap between existing capability and that required in order to achieve performance objectives. By implication, whenever there is a gap or vacuum between what employee is doing and what he should do, there is a training need. Armstrong (2003) stated that all learning and training actions have to be built on the understanding of what needs to be done and why it needs to be done. Thus, carrying out systematic needs identification is a critical opening step to the design of training and can definitely affect the whole importance of training programmes (Arthur et al., 2003). Dzamesi (2012) claimed that training need is any shortfall in employee performance or potential performance which can be remedied by appropriate training. There are many ways of overcoming deficiencies in human performance at work, and training is only one of them. It is important to recognize this fact since sometimes training staff are asked to meet needs which ought to be dealt with in some other way, such as improving pay, replacing machinery or simplifying procedures. Armstrong (1995) before now presents a clearer understanding of what is meant by training needs. He writes that the gap between what people know and can do and what people should know and be able to do is called training need. Therefore when an organisation observes that there is a gap between what is happening and what should happen, there is a training need. Armstrong (1996) however, argues that training needs analysis should cover problems to be solved, as well as future demands based on whether the organisation must acquire new skills or knowledge or must improve existing competencies. Gunu, Oni, Tsado and Ajayi (2013) reiterated that, training needs refers to any deficiency of skill knowledge on the part of the employee which be remedied through training. A training need exists when an employee lacks the knowledge or skill 58 to perform any assigned task satisfactorily. This implies that an organisation must set standards of performance for job or duties in every department, division or production unit, so that workers can check for themselves how often and how well they are performing their task. Training need arises where there is the need to improve or adapt or adjust to changes and solve problems in order to improve on both employee and organisational performance. The purpose of a training needs identification program therefore is to identify the gap that exist between the required and the actual competencies expected of organisations and employees so as to determine the kinds of training that can help bridge the gap (Asare-Bediako, 2002). On this note, Buckley and Caple (2004) said when deciding whether or not to train, the first issue of importance is to define what constitutes the training need. It is suggested that a training need can be assumed to exist in two ways, these being when training is the most proper and operative tool of overwhelming an existing or expected deficit in performance, and when present or future job objectives are clearly linked to the organisation‘s corporate objectives. Bennett and Leduchowicz (2007) conclude that there should be more contact between trainers and clients and trainees‘ managers. Regarding the kinds of training need, Buckley and Caple (2004) described two types, reactive and proactive. Reactive training occurs as the result of an immediate and crucial on-job production gap for which a behavioural reason can be recognised and separated from other reasons. On the other hand, proactive training may be strictly related to the organisation‘s strategy and human resources policy. Thus, proactive training is future-oriented and may originated for many reasons such as expected technical expansion, or the results of management improvement and employees replacement procedures and policies. According to Noe (2005), three analytical steps must be undertaken in order to identify training needs: organisational, personal and task analysis. Organisational analysis includes defining the extent to which training matches the organisation‘s plans and resources, and whether managers and peers are willing to support trainees during the post-training time. Person analysis is done to assure that training is actually needed, and includes an evaluation of who needs training, and whether the nominated people have the precondition skills, attitude and beliefs to chief the training programme‘s contents. Task analysis focuses on 59 identifying the skills and abilities, task and knowledge that will be imparted to the trainee during the training programme (Islam, Javed & Khan, 2014). Training-needs analysis is the first significant phase of a systematic training process and it establishes the base of a training programme (Bimpitsos & Petridou, 2012). Techniques such as observation, interviews, surveys and questionnaires and added performance appraisal can be used to identify training needs (Cole, 2002). The quality of the training outcomes is based on the training needs assessment data; if the training needs have not been appropriately assessed, then both the design of the training programme will not achieve the expectations of participants, and the training efforts are a waste of time. Vermeulen (2002); Holton and Baldwin (2003) stressed the need for the training to match what was required in context of the trainees‘ jobs. Wognum (2001) is of the view that, training needs may occur at three organisational levels namely:  strategic level: where needs are determined by top management while considering organisations goals, mission, strategy and problems, which need to be resolved or fixed  tactical level: where needs are determined with middle management while considering developments needs to the coordination and cooperation between organisation units and  operational level: where needs are determined with lower executive management and other employees while considering problems related to operations such as performance problems of individual workers and departments in subject. In order to enable an organisation formulate human resource training and development goals that will enable both formal and informal human resource training and development methods and programmes create a workforce that enables effectiveness and competitiveness, it is worth giving consideration to, providing proper coordination as well as proper incorporation of the needs within the three levels. The first issue is to identify the needs relevant to the organisations objectives. Commenting on determining training needs, Wright and Geroy (2001) emphasize that in today's highly competitive business environment, undertaking program simply 60 because other firms are doing it is asking for trouble. Instead, they added, a systematic approach to addressing bona fide needs must be undertaken. In addition, training needs may be determined by conducting analyses on several levels. From an overall organisational perspective, the firm's strategic mission, goals and corporate plans should be studied, along with the results of human resource planning. The next step or level of analysis focuses on the tasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the firm's purposes. Job descriptions, performance appraisals, and interviews or surveys of supervisors and job incumbents are important data sources for this analysis level. Finally, individual training needs must be addressed. The relevant questions are, "Who needs to be trained?" and "what kind of training is needed?" In the same vein, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) concluded many methods to identify training needs, including:  Ask the individuals.  Ask the supervisors of the employees.  Ask people who are familiar with the work and in what way it is being accomplished, such as customers, peers and subordinates.  Test the participants.  Analyse performance evaluation. A number of approaches have been highlighted in previous literature for identifying needs (Torrington, Hall & Taylor, 2005). These are the problem-centred (performance gap) and profile comparison (changes and skills) approaches. Similarly, a number of approaches for analyzing training needs depending or either new or current employees have been pointed out by earlier studies. The two most traditional approaches being the problem centered approach and the profile comparison approach. The problem centred approach focuses on any performance difficulties and the corporation analyses if the problems are due to insufficient skills, which then need to be developed if the problem is to be solved. Profile comparison approach on the other hand focuses on matching the competencies with the job filled, whether new position or existing position. Some changes in strategy and technology may also bring the need for new or additional skills. Cole (2002) observed that if an organisation has to justify its training expenditure, it must surely do so on the basis of organisational need. Organisations adopting a systematic approach to training and development will usually set about defining their 61 need for training in accordance with a well organised procedure (Cascio, 2003). Such a procedure will entail looking at training needs from a number of different perspectives. These perspectives are: organisational, departmental or functional, job and employee. Organisational need – the organisational analysis happens in a situation where effectiveness of the organisation and its success in meeting its goals are analyzed to determine where deviation or differences exist. This makes it easy to know what program to be implemented. Thus, organisation analysis looks at the variances between their success and failure to ascertain which ones training could help remedy. Functional need – at this level, training managers analyze the specific ability needs determined by job descriptions and job specifications of the jobs in the work area or work unit. The need can also be determined by observing the work performance of work groups and survey job holders, supervisors, and training committees. Any lapses in their efficiency and effectiveness help determine the training need. Individual need – Cascio (2003) continues that employees‘ training needs could be measured by the individual performances of the employees. He stated that the effectiveness and efficiency is measured against the required standards through interviews, observations, attitude surveys, or objective records of their performance. The researcher thinks that these three levels – organisational, functional and individual gaps between expected results and actual results can suggest training needs, for the researcher, active solicitation of suggestions from employees, supervisors, managers and training committees can also provide training needs ideas. The particular perspective chosen will depend on the circumstances. For example, if changes in the external environment of the organisation are exerting pressures for change internally, then a corporate or organisational perspective needs to be taken. If, however, the issue is one of improving skills in a particular category of employees, then occupational or job group will provide the focus of efforts. In summary, two ways to maximize the benefits of training is to conduct a needs assessment using experienced SMEs and to make sure trainees are ready and motivated for training. For instance, training readiness can be enhanced by lowering trainees‘ anxiety about training, demonstrating the value of training before training begins, and making sure employees are highly involved and engaged with their jobs (Salem, Himanshu & Stewart, 2012). 62 Torrington et al. (2005) assert that there are three categories of identifying training and development needs. These include: resolving problems, this focuses on workers‘ performance, improving certain working practices, this focuses on improvement regardless of the performance problems and changing or renewing the organisation situation, which may arise because of innovations or changes in strategy. It is worth putting in mind that during the identification of training needs, there is need to create, develop, maintain and improve any systems relevant in contributing to the availability of people with required skills. Some studies have proceeded by looking at performance in terms of employee performance in particular (Purcell, Kinnie & Hutchinson, 2003; Harrison, 2000) while others have extended to a general outlook of organisational performance (Stewart, Mann, Brown & Price, 2005). In one way or another, the two are related in the sense that employee performance is a function of organisational performance since employee performance influences general organisational performance. In relation to the above submission, Wright and Geroy (2001) note that, employee competencies change through effective training programs. It therefore not only improves the overall performance of the employees to effectively perform their current jobs but also enhances the knowledge, skills an attitude of the workers necessary for the future job, thus contributing to superior organisational performance. The branch of earlier research on training and employee performance has discovered interesting findings regarding this relationship. Training has been proved to generate performance improvement related benefits for the employee as well as for the organization by positively influencing employee performance through the development of employee knowledge, skills, ability, competencies and behavior (Appiah, 2010; Harrison, 2000). Moreover, other studies for example one by Stewart et al. (2005) elaborate on training as a means of dealing with skill deficits and performance gaps as a way of improving employee performance. They argue that, bridging the performance gap refers to implementing a relevant training intervention for the sake of developing particular skills and abilities of the employees and enhancing employee performance. He further elaborate the concept by stating that training facilitate organisation to recognize that its workers are not performing well and as thus their knowledge, skills and attitudes needs to be moulded according to the firm needs. It is always so that employees possess a certain amount of knowledge related to different jobs. 63 However, it is important to note that this is not enough and employees need to constantly adapt to new requirements of work performance. In other words, organisations need to have continuous policies of training and retaining of employees and thus not to wait for occurrences of skill and performance gaps. Inadequate training assessment and analysis is due to lack of expertise and it is irrespective of the size of firms (Gunu et al., 2013). In addition, the larger the gap between the skills required to perform a task and the actual skills available for performing a task, the greater the lack of job satisfaction and the greater the increase in employee turnover within the organisation. Conversely then, not having the skills to perform a job correctly can set up employees for failure and put the organisation at a less-than-competitive disadvantage. The resulting high turnover would predict the need for even more training that would then have a direct impact on the bottom line of any business. 2.7.2 Training plan and workers’ performance Kenney and Reid (1986) are of the view that, planned training is the deliberate intervention aimed at achieving the learning necessary for improved job performance. The training plan will serve as the guidelines for both the trainer and the trainee to follow in order to successfully implement the program. It covers the individuals involved in the training, the person that will administer the program, the required resources and the content to be followed. Once the plan for the program has been outlined then the training lesson is designed. The training lesson is developed to help the participants focus on the segments developed and also set out the time frame for each segment. After this, a competent trainer is hired to undertake the training. The trainer should be able to communicate and transfer knowledge effectively. After recognising training needs, setting objectives is the second step. There is also the need for the organisation and the employees to know the motive for which they undergo training. It can, therefore be concluded that training programs will not be more effective unless the purpose for which it was administered is known. Therefore in planning training, Planning is separated into specifying training objectives, designing training program, selecting training methods. Training goals, training method, duration, program structure, location and selection of trainees. Practical problems are to be answered in the planning stage (Yang, 2010). It has been argued that, in systematic training, the selection of trainees should be achieved on the basis of a shortage of skills and knowledge identified through training-needs analysis. They also 64 pointed out that the training should be appropriate to what was expected by the participants and match their job context. Most of the benefits derived from training are easily attained when training is planned (Buckley & Caple, 2004). This means that the organisation, trainers and trainees are prepared for the training well in advance. The training plan will serve as the guidelines for both the trainer and the trainee to follow in order to successfully implement the program. It covers the individuals involved in the training, the person that will administer the program, the required resources and the content to be followed. Once the plan for the program has been outlined then the training lesson is designed. The training lesson is developed to help the participants focus on the segments developed and also set out the time frame for each segment. After this, a competent trainer is hired to undertake the training. The trainer should be able to communicate and transfer knowledge effectively. Finally, it is very important that the trainer will be able to communicate and transfer the skills and knowledge effectively so that the needed impart is realized. Thus the trainer should be well prepared to take on the task in order to achieve the desired results. Training objectives should however be attainable. These objectives should be set in accordance with the needs of the training programme‘s participants and be clear and measurable for all aspects of the training programme (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). These authors suggested that objectives must be set in the following order: What results are we trying to accomplish? What behaviours are needed to achieve these desired outcomes? What skills, knowledge, and attitudes are needed to realise these behaviours? A training program is successful if the objectives are achieved. Buckley and Caple (2004) considered training objectives as providing inputs to programme design as well as the degree of achievement; the absence of proper objectives will lead to other problems associated with the evaluation process and will affect the whole success of the programme. Kozlowski, Toney, Mullins, Weissbein, Brown and Bell (2001); Carliner (2003); Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2008) argues that training objectives should be set prudently in order to assist trainees understand that the objectives of the training event are strictly related to their everyday work activities (training usefulness). Moreover, when the participants understand that the training programme will assist them to increase their performance, it is possibly that they will raise their job-related skills and knowledge. 65 Doherty and Bacon (1982) indicated that there are many advantages of formulating training objectives. Among them are: • Assists the programme design and choosing of training material • Provides a basis for the evaluation of training programme • Assists in participants‘ selection • Enhances communication between trainers and trainees Bowman and Wilson (2008) stated that unsuitable planning and implementation can lead to misunderstandings concerning the expectations and the accomplishments attained through training. Within a similar breadth, Bimpitsos and Petridou (2012) argued that planning is one of the essential stages of an efficient training programme, and this planning includes designing the objectives of training. Bennett and Leduchowicz (2007) stressed that planning the training activity and setting training aims and objectives are among the major roles of trainers. Once attainable and measurable training objectives have been considered, a training plan can be developed. This planning tool provides a step-by-step written document for others to follow. A training plan can be either a complete training program or just one task. The training plan details the course content, resources require, method of training, who should do the training and who should be trained. Once a training plan outlining general program requirements has been developed, the organisation will need to concentrate on specific segments of that plan. This is done with the use of a training lesson. Generally, there is one training lesson for each training session. This means if ten sessions are planned, ten training lessons must be developed. A training lesson serves the following purpose:  It provides a content outline for the lesson  It suggests activities/specific instructions which will help to make training easier  It defines suggested time to be spent on each segment within the segment. 2.7.3 Training Design and Workers Performance Training is designed to provide learners with knowledge and skills needed for their present job because few people come to the job with the complete knowledge and experience necessary to perform their assigned job. The training design step involves the plan, structure and detailed scheduling of the programme. It has to take into consideration the participants‘ characteristics, the available resources, training 66 objectives, and the current levels of knowledge regarding the training process (Tannenbaum & Yuki, 1992; De Cenzo & Robbins, 1996). All the actions related to conversion of the training content into a training programme are enclosed in the training design. It is very necessary for an organisation to design the training very carefully (Armstrong, 2000). Those organisations which develop a good training design according to the need of the employees as well as to the organisation always get good results (Tihanyi, Ellstrand, Daily & Dalton, 2000). Training design plays a very vital role in the employee performance but a bad training design is nothing but a loss of time and money (Tsaur & Lin, 2004). Training is a type of activity which is planned, systematic and results in enhanced level of skill, knowledge and competency that are necessary to perform work effectively (Gordon, 1992). There exists a positive association between training and employee performance. Training generates benefits for the employee as well as for the organisation by positively influencing employee performance through the development of employee knowledge, skills, ability, competencies and behavior (Nyagabona, 2010). Performance can be defined as the achievement of specified task measured against predetermined or identified standards of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed. In an employment contract, performance is deemed to be the accomplishment of a commitment in such a manner that releases the performer from all liabilities laid down under the contract. Efficiency and effectiveness are ingredients of performance apart from competitiveness and productivity and training is a way of increasing individual‘s performance (Cooke, 2000). Similarly, Kenney (1992) notes that employee's performance is measured against the performance standards set by the organisation. In every organisation there are some expectations from the employees with respect to their performance. And when they perform up to the set standards and meet organisational expectations they are believed to be good performers. Functioning and presentation of employees is also termed as employee performance. This means that effective administration and presentation of employees‘ tasks which reflect the quality desired by the organisation can also be termed as performance. While much is known about the economics of training in the developed world, studies of issues associated with training in less-developed countries are rarely found. Training design and trainee characteristics are considered as the most significant groups of variables influencing the effectiveness of training programmes 67 (Kontoghiorghes, 2001; Schraeder, 2009; and Hornik, McDowell, Romero & Pareja, 1987) stated that, in a training setting, learning may be enriched by flexible design, especially of content, where the definite subjects covered are directed straight to the requirements and interests of participants. Chiaburu and Tekleab (2005) confirmed that trainees with adequate support from their supervisors usually attend training sessions with a stronger belief in the programme‘s usefulness, and are motivated to gain the best out of the training. Additionally, this support will ensure that they complete the programme. The design of the training programme should involve key stakeholders prior to the start of the programme. In terms of design, recent research suggests that the benefits of training are enhanced by applying theory based learning principles such as encouraging trainees to organize the training content, making sure trainees expend effort in the acquisition of new skills, and providing trainees with an opportunity to make errors together with explicit instructions to encourage them to learn from these errors (Hasniza, 2009; Velada, Caetano, Michel, Lyons & Kavanagh, 2007; Otuko, Kimanichege & Musiega, 2013). Training programme design consists of major components; the content should be organised and divided into manageable learning pieces, training means and approaches, to match the trainee characteristics. Moreover, the trainees‘ motivation and attitudes have a significant effect on the achievement of any training programme. As long as the content of the programme is concerned, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2008) stated that training programme content impacts learning; in other words, the participant‘ skills and knowledge levels will be improved if the participants comprehend that the content encounters their work requirements. Schraeder (2009) explained that the content, PowerPoint slides, overheads, handouts, and any other materials related to the training programme need to be well designed to reach a high- level of quality and competence, in addition to ensuring that the materials reflect a high level of professionalism. Chen, Kirkman, Kanfer, Allen and Rosen (2007) argued that a good training programme needs course content to be appropriate to job requirements and needs to use methods of training that can support trainees‘ contributions. Thus, Martin (2010) asserts that appropriate conduct of the training programme depends on good design. Moreover, Yamnill and McLean (2005); Hutchins (2009) postulated that when the training programme materials content are alike to those used in the participant‘s work 68 place, then it is further possible that their knowledge will be enlarged, and their understanding of the training‘s usefulness. Consequently, the training content, hand- outs, and any materials should be available to participants either prior to or during the programme (Schraeder, 2009). The content of the training defines the training programme material that will be delivered, e.g. manuals, notes, etc. (Charney and Conway, 2005). Lastly, giving the suitable material to participants does not assure the training‘s achievement. This materials need to be used properly by participants. Organisations that are dedicated to generating profits for its owners (shareholders), providing quality service to its customers and beneficiaries, invest in the training of its employees (Evans & Lindsay, 1999). The more highly motivated a trainee, the more quickly and systematically a new skill or knowledge is acquired. That is why training should be related to money, job promotion, and recognition. That is, something which the trainee desires. There are four prerequisites for learning: Motivation comes first. Cue is the second requirement. The learner can recognize related indicators (cue) and associate them with desired responses with the help of training. Response comes third. Training should be immediately followed by positive reinforcement so that the learner can feel the response. Last is the feedback; it is the information which learner receives and indicates in the quality of his response. This response must be given as quickly as possible to ensure successful learning is acquired (Bryan, 1990). Training generates benefits for the employee as well as the organisation by positively influencing employee performance through the development of employee knowledge, skills, ability, competencies and behavior (Appiah, 2010). It is obvious that training plays an important role in the development of organisation, improving performance as well as increasing productivity, and eventually putting companies in the best position to face competition and stay at the top. This means that, there is a significant difference between the organisations that train their employees and those organisations that do not. Raja, Furqan and Muhammad (2011) conducted a research on impact of training and development on organisational performance in Pakistan, with 100 respondents and a tested hypothesis: ‗‘training design has significant effect on the organisational performance‘‘. The findings revealed that training design has significant effect on organisational performance. It then, seems that a good training design plays a 69 vital role in the employee as well as organisation performance, a bad training design is nothing but a loss of time and money (Tsaur & Lin, 2004). It is very necessary for the organisation to design the training very carefully (Armstrong, 2000). The design of the training should be according to the needs of the employees. Those organisations which develop a good training design according to the need of the employees as well as to the organisation always get good results (Raja et al., 2011). Training needs and objectives play essential roles in designing successful training programmes, including subject content. Once the identification of training needs has been effectively completed, the next step is to decide how training will be achieved (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2006). Several studies in each of these two domains provide information on how to maximize the benefits of training. Linou and Kontogiannis (2004) compared immediate recall and follow-up retention levels (after six weeks) in four groups. Trainees were production engineering undergraduates. The primary objective of training was to help participants develop diagnostic strategies to identify symptoms and problems given a set of fault scenarios. One group received systemic training (focusing on structural, functional, and physical relationships among subsystems), two groups received either low-level or high-level diagnostic information, and one group received general training on theories related to manufacturing plants. The theory group and both diagnostic groups performed better on the immediate recall measures, whereas the systemic group performed better on the retention measure, presumably because group members built a more stable organisation (mental model) of the training content. Similarly, Holladay and Quinones (2003) shows that adding variability to practice trials resulted in better long-term retention, presumably because trainees had to exert greater effort during skill acquisition. Researchers continued to explore error training as a strategy for increasing performance and maintaining performance under changing environmental demands. In contrast to traditional training design approaches that focus on teaching correct methods (and avoiding errors), error management training encourages trainees to make errors and engage in reflection to understand the causes of errors and strategies to avoid making them in the future. Heimbeck, Frese, Sonnentag and Keith (2003) implemented error training using a sample of undergraduate students. The task consisted of learning how to use spreadsheet software (i.e., Excel). 70 Performance was assessed by raters who reviewed videotaped sessions and rated whether discrete tasks such as entering data correctly or formatting a table were performed correctly. Trainees who were provided the opportunity to make errors (together with explicit instructions encouraging them to learn from these errors) performed significantly higher than those in error-avoidant conditions. In a follow-up experiment, participants learning how to use presentations software (i.e., PowerPoint) performed better in the error training with meta-cognition prompting (i.e., instructions encouraging trainees to think explicitly about what the problem is, what they are trying to achieve, and so forth) compared to the error-avoidant condition. According to McKenna and Beech (2002) in their book ―Human Resource Management-A Concise Analysis‖, it is stated that ―It is important that a sound basis is established for other associated elements of Human Resource Management practice such as performance management (appraisal), reward management (motivation) combined with training and development‖. What this means is that training and development itself cannot help in total employee development without the complement of employee appraisal and motivation. One of the things to consider in designing a training program is what the program is to accomplish, that is the objectives. In other words a training program cannot be designed until what that program is to accomplish is known. It is imperative for organisations to realize that in designing a training program, it is equally important to consider what the trainees should know or be able to do after the training is complete (Jackson & Schuler, 2003). Training objectives should however be attainable and measurable. A training program is successful if the objectives are achieved. There is also the need for the organisation and the employees to know the motive for which they undergo training. It can, therefore be concluded that training programs will not be more effective unless the purpose for which it was administered is known. Therefore in planning training, it should go through these stages: develop a training plan, designing a training lesson, selecting the trainer and prepare the trainee (Zaccarelli, 1997). Most of the benefits derived from training are easily attained when training is planned. This means that the organisation, trainers and trainees are prepared for the training well in advance. A meta-analysis by Keith and Frese (2005) reported that overall error management training was superior to either proceduralized error-avoidant training or exploratory 71 training without error encouragement. Effect sizes were moderated by two important factors: Effect sizes were greater for post-transfer measures compared to within- training performance, and for adaptive transfer tasks (as opposed to tasks structurally similar to training). Thus, error training may be appropriate for developing a deeper task understanding that facilitates transfer to novel tasks. Research on error training highlights the importance of understanding and affecting learner states and answers long-standing calls to engage in research on how individuals learn, not in just the latest training fads. For example, Schmidt and Ford (2003) reported that levels of meta- cognitive activity mediated the effects of a computer-based training program on declarative knowledge, task performance, and participants‘ self-efficacy. An increasing amount of evidence suggests that trainees‘ self-regulatory processes mediate the training–learning relationship. Self-regulation refers to the extent to which executive- level cognitive systems in the learner monitor and exert control on the learner‘s attention and active engagement of training content (Vancouver & Day, 2005). Bhatti, Battour, Sundram and Othman (2013) suggest that training programmes should be designed according to the nature of the training, and the available resources; trainers are among the key stakeholders who should be involved in the design stage. Clearly, Yaghi (2010) stressed that failure to attend the training course negatively affects the training events; also matching the training programme to the needs of the job increases trainees‘ perceptions of the importance of training and the value of attending the programme (Tai, 2006). This has also been indicated that several parties contribute to the process of training; trainers are one of the key actors in almost all of the stages of the training process including design. The training institute is part of the training programmes design process. Thus, training organisations need to outline and implement new strategies that will allow them to develop training. In summary, the application of appropriate training design can help maximize the benefits of training. Agarwala (2007) contend that, ―Training activities are designed to help the organization to achieve its overall goals‖. Through enhancing individual employee skills, training results in improved individual and organisational performance. Training increases the confidence, motivation and commitment of staff, enhances responsibility and the possibility of increased pay and promotion. Training widens the chance for carrier development as the employees are able to develop and master their fields of professional. It helps to improve the availability and quality of staff, through creation 72 of better sources of internal recruitment (Gellejah, 2004). Training can be used as a succession planning technique within the organisation. The training of public organisations workers contributes directly to the development of human resources within public organisations (Olaniyan & Ojo, 2008). In addition, training plays a critical role in increasing workers‘ adaptability and flexibility, which employers have found is becoming increasingly important. Thus, it is important for an organisation to maintain a necessary competence in its employees through adequate training (Tai, 2006). However, unavailability of training or denial of workers participation in training programme might lead them to develop poor attitude and perceptions that are against the overall goals and objectives of the organisation. Consequently, Elangovan and Karakowsky (1999) stated that a trainee who considers the training as unimportant to his or her job will devote less time and effort on acquiring the skills and knowledge required by the job. 2.7.4 Training Delivery and Workers’ Performance The delivery stage or implementing training involves the actual delivery and presentation of the training in a responsive and collaborative way. After successfully planning and designing the training, then the training program should be effectively carried out following the plan. Delivery stlye is a very important part of training programme. Employees are very conscious about the delivery style (Armstrong, 2000). If someone is not deliverying the training in an impressive style and he is not capturing the attention of the audience it means he/she is wasting the time (Mark & Griffin, 2000). It is very necessary for a trainer to engage its audience during the training session (Philip & Eves, 2005). The trainer should be well prepared and skilful, and the trainees should be actively participating in the training. In the actual delivery of any training programme, there must be a creation of a learning environment where participants feel comfortable and safe to try out new ideas, learn from one another, and explore new viewpoints. In terms of training delivery, recent research indicates that the benefits of using technology can be enhanced by providing trainees with adaptive guidance. As observed by Lam and Kong (1992) and Poon and Othman (2000), training contents and delivery approaches positively employee performance because most of the organisations tend to focus at people skills in implementing training programmes since it influence directly to employee performance. And it has a positive 73 effect on the organisational performance. It improves the organisational performance (Raja et al., 2011). Published studies involving 19,331 trainees, the researchers found that Web-based instruction was 6% more effective than classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge but was equally effective for teaching procedural knowledge (Sitzmann, Kraiger, Stewart & Wisher, 2006). However, when the same instructional methods were used in both forms of instruction, there were no differences in the relative effectiveness of either media. Thus, the small advantage of Web-based instruction over classroom training may be due more to the use of novel (and effective) training strategies than to the medium per se. Researchers are also exploring the impact of novel training technologies on outcomes other than learning. For example, Wesson and Gogus (2005) compared two different methods for delivering socialization training to new employees: a group social-based program and an individual computer-based program. This quasi-experiment included 261 new employees from a large technology- based consulting firm. The social-based program was substantially more successful in socializing new employees regarding people, politics, and organisational goals and values. Arthur et al. (2003) found that the efficiency of training seems to differ as a function of the identified training delivery systems, and the task or skill being trained. Chen et al. (2006) argue that a good training programme needs to use methods of training that can support trainees‘ contributions. There are various methods of training that an organisation may adopt depending on the main objectives of training. Many authors such as Tracey, Hinkin, Tannenbaum and Matheiu (2001), Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy (2007) offer a convenient vision, since they consider the types of training which take place inside or outside an organisation. Perhaps the first distinction to be made is between the location of the training, in which respect Beardwell, Holden and Claydon (2004) noted that provision for training can be on-the-job and off-the-job. In explaining the differences, Cole (1997) described an off-the-job location as a training centre which may be on or away from the organisation‘s sites, or a training institution, and where the emphasis is frequently on increasing an accepting of common principles, providing related knowledge, and creating an awareness of reasonable concepts and practices. Schraeder (2009) stated that many training 74 programmes can be expanded to contain some amount of energetic participation by the participants, involving them in actions that directly linked with the planned objectives of the programme. However, a fully on-the-job location, in contrast, is one where the worker is actually performing the tasks for which he/she has been hired, and the emphasis is on the gaining of definite skills in the original situation. According to Wright and Geroy (2001), employee competencies change through effective training programs. It not only improves the overall performance of the employees to effectively perform the current job but also enhance the knowledge, skills and attitude of the workers necessary for the future job, thus contributing to superior organisational performance. Through training the employee competencies are developed and enable them to implement the job related work efficiently, and achieve firm objectives in a competitive manner. Training-related changes should result in improved job performance and other positive changes (e.g., acquisition of new skills; Satterfield & Hughes, 2007) that serve as antecedents of job performance (Kraiger, 2002). Reassuringly, Arthur et al. (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of 1152 effect sizes from 165 sources and ascertained that in comparison with no-training or pre- training states, training had an overall positive effect on job-related behaviours or performance. However, although differences in terms of effect sizes were not large, the effectiveness of training varied depending on the training delivery method and the skill or task being trained. For example, the most effective training programs were those including both cognitive and interpersonal skills, followed by those including psychomotor skills or tasks. Ambetsa (2006) study on the contribution of technical and vocational training to sustainable development found out that short term training contributes to individuals‘ personal development, increases their productivity and income at work and facilitates everybody‘s participation. Training effects on performance may be subtle (though measurable). In a qualitative study involving mechanics in Northern India, Barber (2004) found that on-the-job training led to greater innovation and tacit skills. Tacit skills are behaviours acquired through informal learning that are useful for effective performance. Regarding innovation, trained mechanics learned to build two Jeep bodies using only a homemade hammer, chisel, and oxyacetylene welder. Regarding tacit skills, Barber (2004) noted that the job of a mechanic requires ―feel‖ to be successful. Specifically, trained mechanics developed an intuitive feel when removing 75 dents—a complex process particularly when the fender is badly crumpled. As a result of informal training, one of the mechanics had a ―good feeling of how to hit the metal at the exact spot so the work progresses in a systematic fashion‖. This type of tacit skill was particularly useful in the Indian context because, although most shops in developed nations would not even attempt to repair a fender that was damaged so badly, this type of repair is common practice in the developing world. Bigambo (2004), in his study on the output of Moi University academic staff and basing on the educational theory, found out that training is directly related to performance requirements of the employee's current assignment and should respond to organisational or operational need as defined by the organisation. Likewise, Emojong (2004) in his study on in-service training programs and their effects on performance of staff at Ugandan Revenue Authority found out that the training courses the organisation offers to its employees have been on immense significance on their performance at work. Buckley and Caple (2000) in their book working on training of teachers in elementary schools in North London, added that training at whatever level, has both intrinsic and extrinsic benefits to the individual resulting from the ability to perform a task with better skills and from extra earnings accrued to increased job performance coupled with promotion prospects. Davis and Yi (2004) conducted two experiments with nearly 300 participants using behavior-modeling training and were able to improve computer skills substantially. Although behavior-modeling training has a rich history of success a unique aspect of this research was that training was found to affect changes in worker skills through a change in trainees‘ knowledge structures or mental models. Specifically, mentally rehearsing tasks allowed trainees to increase declarative knowledge and task performance, each measured 10 days after the training was completed. More so, Taylor, Russ-Eft and Chan (2005) conducted a meta-analysis including 117 behavior- modeling training studies. They ascertained that the largest effects were for declarative and procedural knowledge (ds around 1.0 resulting from comparing training versus a no-training or pre-test condition). However, they reported substantial variance in the distribution of effect sizes, indicating the need to investigate moderators of the relationship between behavior-modeling training and outcomes. Declarative knowledge is knowledge about ―what‖ (e.g., facts, meaning of terms), whereas 76 procedural knowledge is knowledge about ―how‖ (i.e., how to perform skilled behavior) (Aguinis, 2009). Training not only may affect declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge, but also may enhance strategic knowledge, defined as knowing when to apply a specific knowledge or skill (Kozlowski et al. 2001). Smith, Ford and Kozlowski (1997) refer to this as training for adaptive expertise. In addition, training may enable consistency in performance across conditions. For example, Driskell and Salas (1992) conducted a study including 79 U.S. Navy technical school trainees who performed a computer- based task. Trainees participated in a stress-exposure training session. This training exposes trainees to information regarding stressors (e.g., noise, time urgency), to the stressors, and how these stressors are likely to affect performance. Results showed that training was beneficial in that trainees performed well under a novel stressor and when performing a novel task. Thus, stress training helps maintain performance consistency. Performance consistency may also result from enhancing trainees‘ self-efficacy or self management skills. Evidently, Frayne and Geringer (2000) conducted a field experiment in which they administered self-management training (lectures, group discussions, and case studies) to 30 salespeople in the life insurance industry, Results showed that salespeople who participated in the training program demonstrated higher self-efficacy, outcome expectancy (e.g., ―I will increase my sense of accomplishment‖), and objective outcomes (e.g., number of new policies sold) as well as subjective job performance (i.e., sales managers‘ ratings of each salesperson‘s performance). Training-related performance improvement was sustained over a 12- month period after training ended. Collins and Holton (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of the benefits of managerial leadership development programs including 83 studies published between 1982 and 2001. They found that mean ds (comparing training with no training) ranged from 0.96 to 1.37 for knowledge outcomes and from 0.35 to 1.01 for expertise/behavioural outcomes. Knowledge was defined as principles, facts, attitudes, and skills measured using both subjective (e.g., self-reports) and objective (e.g., standardized tests) measures. Expertise/behavioural outcomes were defined as changes in on-the-job behavior and were also assessed using both subjective (e.g., peer ratings) and objective (e.g., standardized tests) measures. Expertise/behavioural outcomes were defined as 77 changes in on-the-job behavior and were also assessed using both subjective (e.g., peer ratings) and objective (e.g., behavioural) measures. Morris and Robie (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of cross-cultural training on expatriate performance and adjustment. Their meta-analysis included 16 studies that investigated adjustment and 25 studies that investigated job performance as the focal dependent variables. In contract, Gaudine and Saks (2004) found no differences between a relapse prevention and transfer enhancement intervention for nurses attending a two-day training program. The researchers suggested that transfer climate and support were likely more potent determinants of transfer than were post- training interventions. Huint and Saks (2003) examined managers‘ reactions to either a relapse prevention intervention or one emphasizing supervisor support. For a sample of 174 managers and students, there was no significant difference in preferences for either intervention, although there was a slight tendency to prefer the supervisor support intervention. Participation in training programs has been identified as the major learning avenue for workers to improve and address negative perceptions and attitude at workplace. Rudman (2001) suggest that training tends to wider the workers mental and physical attitudes. However, inadequate or denial of workers participation in training program might lead them to develop poor attitude and perceptions that are against the overall goals and objectives of the organization. With the transformation of knowledge society, training and development has been identified as a strategic tool for competitive positioning (Kamal & Othman, 2012). Hence, giving opportunities for worker to further learn about their required and expected task will increase individual worker‘s performance and exposed them to believe that they are part and parcel of the organisation. The importance of giving adequate training to workers can never be overlooked because it is the part that needs to be focused, emphasized and concerned upon. Training can be considered as ineffective if the targeted group of workers is deterred from gaining access to it (Abeeha & Bariha, 2012). Hence, giving opportunities to workers to further learn about their required and expected task will increase individual worker‘s performance and exposed them to believe that they are part and parcel of the organisation. Evans and Lindsay (1999) discover that, Motorola and Texas Instruments provide at least 40 hours of training to 78 every employee quarterly and this has significantly impacted on the employee performance. It is wide view that without proper training, businesses/organisations can lose employees. This can occur for varying reasons, including the inability to complete tasks and assignments properly and failure to comply with company rules and guidelines. Because hiring and training new employees costs more than simply training current ones, a lack of proper employee training actually costs companies and businesses money. If training is not carried out often and effectively, new hires and older employees are not taught and told to perform identical tasks and assignments the same way. Also, old training techniques become outdated, causing unnecessary conflicts in the workplace. When employees are not trained, the protocol and guidelines that they ought to follow are not stated clearly, creating an environment of chaos, confusion and conflict. Training keeps employees focused and up to date on the most effective ways to do their jobs. Without training, employees are less likely to complete tasks quickly and effectively enough. This can cause a lull in the production of the company, and that can in turn dramatically reduce the business' profit. Once profit is reduced, it becomes more difficult to allocate time and money to training and to company upkeep (McNamara, 2008). If employees are not trained or if they do not receive proper training, customer relations suffer. Employees who do not know what is required of them do not fully understand how to converse with customers and how to provide the customer with what he seeks. Without employee training, customer satisfaction often declines, also leading to a reduction in profit for the business (Ubeda-Garcia, Claver-Cortes, Marco- Lajara & Zaragoza-Saez, 2014). Training plays a significant role in the development of organisations, enhancing performance as well as increasing productivity, and ultimately putting companies in the best position to face competition and stay at the top. On the job training plays a significant role in the development of organisations, enhancing performance as well as increasing productivity, and ultimately putting companies in the best position to face competition and stay at the top (Manzoor et al., 2011). This means that, there is a significant relationship between organisations that train their employees and organisations that do not. Every organisation that is committed to generating profits for its owners (shareholders) and providing quality 79 service for its customers and beneficiaries must invest in the on the job training for its employees. Training programme is a strategic function of human capital management which focuses on developing employee competencies in order to overcome daily, routine and short-term problems (Ismail & Bongogoh, 2007). In a research conducted on ―The Effectiveness of Training in the Public Service‖ by Haslinda and Mahyuddin (2009) suggest that public sector organisations had increase their concern with regards to the effectiveness of training and development since it is critical to enhanced on-the-job performance in order to achieve Key Performance Indicators (KPI) for each employees. Azara, Syed and Muhammad (2013) argue that training personnel cannot be said to be effective or even be of any important unless the trained personnel are utilized to the advantage of the individual in the system. Utilisation is development of workers to their area of specialisation. If an employee is not trained in his or her area of specialization, he or she will not be efficient or effective in job performance. So, it is necessary to ensure that the right peg is in the right hole. Utilisation simply implies, making proper use of organisations trained employees‘ acquired skills from its training programmes. Asare-Bediako (2002) assert that, employees must be trained, and where possible developed to meet their own career needs and the need of the organisation. Training is job or task-oriented. It aims at enabling individuals to perform better on the jobs they are currently doing. Ismail and Bongogoh (2007) emphasize that adequate motivation to learn (Training) should be seen as a crucial aspect of the organisational training system where motivating individuals to learn up to date knowledge, skills, abilities and have good moral values (attitude) may strongly upgrade subsequent positive personal outcomes (e.g., satisfaction, performance, commitment, trust and good work ethics). Hence, these positive outcomes may lead employees to achieve and support both organisational and Human Resource Management‘s strategies and goals. Maicibi and Nkata (2005) establish that training involves both learning and teaching. With improved employee job performance and productivity derived from short-term and long term training (e.g. conferences and sabbaticals), the organisation is bound to benefit in terms of shorter learning time, decreases in wastage, fewer accidents, less absenteeism, lower labour turn-over and greater customer satisfaction (Desimone & Werner, 2012). 80 As opined by Rowden and Conine (2005), trained employees are more able to satisfy the customers and employees who learn as a result of training program shows a greater level of job satisfaction along with superior performance. Training is important and an imperative tool for the organisation to revamp the performance of all the personnel for organisational growth and success. It is beneficial to both employers and employees of an organisation. An employee will become more efficient and productive if he is trained well. Firms can develop and enhance the quality of the current employees by providing comprehensive training and development (Tsai, Yen, Huang & Huang, 2007). Training is essential not only to increase productivity but also to motivate and inspire workers by letting them know how important their jobs are and giving them all the information they need to perform those jobs (Raja et al., 2011). Brum (2007) reported that training is probably the hardiest strategy to improve employee‘s determination towards the organisation performance. But, Akhtar, Ali, Sadaqat and Hafeez (2011) discover that training has an optimistic association between motivations along with job engagement involving personnel doing work in organisations. Muzaffar, Salamat and Ali (2012) assert that, to increase the employee‘s performance, it is crucial to inspire the employees by means of satisfying the space in between skills necessary and the owned or operated by means of staff through delivering applicable training. Companies committed to investment in their human resource generate long term and sustainable profitability for the company. In a study in America on the impact of human capital investments such as employer-provided training and development, Black and Lynch (1996) stated that ―returns on training and development investments increase productivity by 16%‖. This further reinforces the role of training on employees. Based on the attributes that are developed the employees implement them on their tasks and thus the company is able to improve thus generate the profits for the firm. Also because the attributes are imparted and developed through the systematic and planned training program, it becomes a part of the employees thus they are able to implement them on every task thus the increased profit leading to sustainable profitability. Methods of training delivery In the field of training and development most authors and scholars established that forms and type of employee training are inter-related. However, organisations have a lot of methods to choose from. Invariably, the particular training methods to be at any 81 time depends on a number of factors such as, cost implications, timing, number of trainees involved, depth of knowledge required, and background of the trainees, among others (Kester, 2011). Hence, Cascio (2003) submit that an effective training methods generally fulfils such objectives: provide motivation to the trainee to improve job performance, develop a willingness to change, provide for the trainee‘s active participation in the learning process, provide a knowledge of results attempts to improve (i.e., feedback), and permit practice where appropriate. Jones, George and Hill (2000) identified two different training methods that organisations may choose from for training and developing skills of its employees. These are on-the-job training given to organisational employees while conducting their regular work at the same working venues and off-the-job training involves taking employees away from their usual work environments and therefore all concentration is left out to the training. Examples of the on-the-job training include but are not limited to job rotations and transfers, coaching and/or mentoring. On the other hand, off-the- job training examples include conferences, role playing, and many more. Ejiogu (2000) found that off-the-job training would include lecture, vestibule training, role playing, case study, discussion and simulation. Armstrong (1995) listed group exercises, team building, distance learning, outdoor and workshops as part of off-the- job training. He further explains that off-the-job training may be provided by members of the training department, external education and training establishments, or training providers-training consultants or guest speakers. He encourages employers to be closely involved to bring reality into the classroom, to ease the transfer of learning, and to make sure that those involved in off-the-job training are carefully selected, briefed and monitored so as to ensure that they make the right contribution. Kester (2011) also, classified training into three (3) broad categories: information presentation techniques, simulation methods and on-the-job training methods. Information, presentation techniques include lectures, correspondence course, conferences, videos, vestibule, behaviour modelling and systematic observation, distance learning, intelligent tutoring, programmed instruction and sensitivity training. While the simulation methods include: orientation training, apprenticeships, near-the- job training (using identical equipment but away from the job site), on-the -job training, job rotation, committee assignments, understudy assignments, on-the-job coaching, and performance appraisal. 82 Armstrong (2004) argues that on-the-job training may consist of teaching or coaching by more experienced people or trainers at the desk or at the bench. Different organisations are motivated to take on different training methods for a number of reasons for example; (1) depending on the organisation‘s strategy, goals and resources available, (2) depending on the needs identified at the time, and (2) the target group to be trained which may include among others individual workers, groups, teams, department or the entire organisation. Armstrong further stressed that on-the-job training is the only way to develop and practice the specific managerial, team leading, technical, selling, manual, and administrative skills needed by the organisation and it has the advantages of actuality and immediacy as the individual works, learns and develops expertise at the same time. Training activities in an organisation should be a continuous process and not a once and for all activity. It is an ongoing process for new, old, transferred and promoted employees. Armstrong (1995) is of the opinion that training strategy takes a long- term view of what skills, knowledge and levels of competence employees of the organization need. Training should be an integral part of the management process which in turn requires managers to review regularly with their teams and the individuals reporting to them, performance in relation to agreed objectives. Coaching and/or mentoring: This involves having the more experienced employees coach the less experienced employee (McCourt & Derek, 2003). It is argued that mentoring offers a wide range of advantages for development of the responsibility and relationship building (Torrington et al., 2005). The practice is often applied to newly recruited graduates in the organisation by being attached to mentor who might be their immediate managers or another senior manager. This however does not imply that older employees are excluded from this training and development method but it is mainly emphasized for the newly employed persons within the organisation. Organisations often begin their involvement in training with executive coaching. In situations where the outcomes are positive, the organisation may then decide there is value in extending training further down through the management ranks. In most cases, external trainers are engaged for these purposes, and the impact on both individuals and the organisation can be profound. For example, a study by Manchester Consulting (McGovern, Hope-Hailey, 83 & Stiles, 1998) found that 77% of executives reported improved working relationships with their direct reports. Orientation This is yet another training and development method. This involves getting new employees familiarized and trained on the new job within an organisation. During this process, they are exposed to different undertakings for example the nature of their new work, how to take on their identified tasks and responsibilities and what is generally expected of the employees by the organization. They are further given a general overview of the organisational working environment including for example working systems, technology, and office layout, briefed about the existing organisational culture, health and safety issues, working conditions, processes and procedures. Conferences A training and development method involves presentations by more than one person to a wide audience. It is more cost effective when group of employees are trained on a particular topic all at the same time in large audiences. This method is however disadvantageous because it is not easy to ensure that all individual trainees understand the topic at hand as a whole; not all trainees follow at the same pace during the training sessions; focus may go to particular trainees who may seem to understand faster than others and thus leading tot under training other individuals. Job rotation and transfers McCourt and Derek (2003) sees job rotation and transfers as a way of developing employee skills within organisation involves movements of employees from one official responsibility to another for example taking on higher rank position within the organisation, and one branch of the organisation to another. For transfers for example, it could involve movement of employees from one country to another. These rotations and transfers facilitate employees acquire knowledge of the different operations within the organisation together with the differences existing in different countries where the organisation operates. The knowledge acquired by the selected employees for this method is beneficial to the organisation as it may increase the competitive advantage of the organisation. 84 Role playing Involves training and development techniques that attempt to capture and bring forth decision making situations to the employee being trained. In other words, the method allows employees to act out work scenarios. It involves the presentation of problems and solutions for example in an organisation setting for discussion. Trainees are provided with some information related to the description of the roles, concerns, objectives, responsibilities, emotions, and many more. Following is provision of a general description of the situation and the problem they face. The trainees are there after required to act out their roles. This method is more effective when carried out under stress-free or alternatively minimal-stress environments so as to facilitate easier learning. It is a very effective training method for a wide range of employees for example those in sales or customer service area, management and support employees. Intentionally, training programmes are provided for the employees with best of the career opportunities in different industry and encourages their individual growth and achievement (Kruger, 2008). Job characteristics and firm background were found to play key roles in determining training provision. Workers who received off-the-job training were less likely to receive on-the-job training, while those who received on- the-job training were neither more nor less likely to have received off-the-job training. However, a complementary relationship was found between receiving informal training and receiving on-the-job or off-the-job training. Earnings differentials were not found to correlate with different types of training. Unlike in developed countries, training in China was usually intended to remedy skills deficiencies, rather than enhance productivity (Ying, 2004). 2.7.5 Training Evaluation and Workers’ Performance Evaluation of the training is an unavoidable stage in the training process, to get the feedback helps adjusting and organizing future trainings. Plans for future training can be done in this stage. Evaluation is the ending stage of a training cycle but at the same time it is the basis for the new training cycle (Woods & Hollnagel, 2006; Nickson, 2007). Training evaluation also present a detail examination of training programme in order to see the benefit of training in reflects to workers‘ performance. Training evaluation is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective training decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and modification of various instructional activities (Werner & DeSimone, 2006). This 85 definition mentions both descriptive and summative information which are available and equally present in any given training and development intervention. Training evaluation includes the systematic collection of information according to a predetermined plan to ensure the information is appropriate and useful. Apart from that training evaluation measures the performance of employee by looking at their understanding of training purpose. Training evaluation is a process of assessing the results or outcomes of training (King, King & Rothwell, 2001). It determines the significance of the training including to what extent and how well the training met the individual or organisational needs. Training evaluation shows the benefits of training with regards to learning and job performance, and these benefits should be informed to the top management as well as the stakeholders of their investments in terms of money, time and effort (Abdel- Wahab, Dainty, Ison & Hazlehurst, 2008). Al-Ajlouni, Athammuh and Jaradat (2010) viewed that the evaluation of any training programme has certain aims to fulfil. These are concerned with the determination of change in the organisational behaviour and the changes needed in the organisational structure. Scholars asserts that evaluation of any training programme must inform whether the training programme has been able to deliver the goals and objectives in terms of cost incurred and benefit achieved, the analysis of the information is the concluding part of any evaluation programme. They also stressed that the analysis of data should be summarised and then compared with the data of other training programmes similar nature. On the basis of these comparisons, problems and strength should be identified which would help the trainer in his future training programme. Given that, human resources (employees or workers) are considered one of the most vital resources of any organisation, there is little doubt that training is more successful if it is tailor-made. Further, Bimpitsos and Petridou (2012) stressed the necessity and the importance of training evaluation, considering it as an integral part of training. Training evaluation is a system for measuring changes resulting from training interventions, identifying whether trainees have achieved learning outcomes (Tan & Tan, 2000). Training evaluation is the most crucial and important part in designing and conducting training programmes (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). Hence, Otuko et al. (2013) postulated that evaluation of content of the training and the methods employed, 86 measure performance of knowledge, skills and attitudes against the standard could easily contributed to enhanced employee performance at work depending on the choice of evaluation criteria. Evaluation is an integral feature of training, but it could be difficult because it is often hard to set measurable objectives. Evaluation differs from validation in that it attempts to measure the overall cost benefit of the training program and not just the achievement of its laid down objectives. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) contend that the most shared motive for evaluation is to identify the success of a training programme and ways in which it can be improved. Generally, scholars agree that evaluation is an important if problematic part of the training process, and the last stage of a systematic training programme (Lingham, Richley & Rezania, 2006; Shahrooz, 2012). Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones when you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be noted and adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet specified goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will prevent the training from straying from its goals. Brinkerhoff (1989) pointed out that the challenge for organisations is to consider training as an essential and energetic partner that certainly impacts their competitive situation. In accepting this challenge, organisations should not only increase the quantity of evaluations of a training course, but they should include the evaluation‘s results into the training design practice itself. Further, he stresses that unless leaders in training engage in far greater usage of evaluation and other quality improvement efforts than they now pursue, the training profession faces serious threats to its survival. Campbell (1998) placed great importance on training evaluation as a principal means of setting objectives for the training programmes. Generally, the effectiveness of training programmes depends on the standards chosen to measure it (Arthur et al., 2003). Evaluating training outcomes is a crucial component of the learning process. Currently, organisations are investing more money in training than ever before, so the evaluation of training consequences is essential and helps organisations to evaluate their efficiency more accurately (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart & Wright, 2006). Training- 87 course evaluations have their origins in the business community where value for money for training has long been considered important (Darby, 2007). Saharan (2011) highlighted that most organisation are taking feedback from employees for training effectiveness to maximize its benefits. In the ceaseless drive for a competitive edge, companies subscribe to the belief that smarter, better trained workers increase chances for success. Evaluating training results is an important component of the training process, there is a general agreement that this is the least well conducted part of training activities, frequently ignored or practised ineffectively. Study concluded that one of the focal jobs of the trainer is to assess for training usefulness, and to confirm that the selected training approaches have accomplished an anticipated outcome (Srivastava, Deb & Prasad, 2001; Mahapatra & Lai, 2005). The purpose of training evaluation is to identify the cost-benefit relation of employees‘ development programmes, to offer feedback on the usefulness of the training, and define how much the participants have benefited. Hunt and Baruch (2003) highlighted that some organisations invest a great deal of time and effort in elaborate training programmes designed to improve the so- called soft skills of managing. Yet assessing the effectiveness of such initiatives has been rare. Recent developments in the use of survey feedback have provided a technique for pre and post training assessment. A study, at a leading business school, was designed to assess the impact of interpersonal skills training on top managers. The evaluation of training was based on subordinate feedback conducted before, and six months after training programme took place. The result indicates significant impact on some but not all of the competencies and skill under study. In earlier study, Reid and Barrington (1997) found that evaluation permits training to be assessed in financial expressions, and can offer data to defend increased training. In later study, Gopal (2008) carried out evaluation of training in two ways. (i) Individual programme wise evaluation and (ii) Overall evaluation of all programmes. The evaluation of training provides useful feedback to the training professional and management as to help in making appropriate and effective one for the next better programme. Therefore evaluation of training is not exactly the end point in the training function. In fact it is a starting point. Concern for the evaluation process, when planning a training course, it is crucial to allow the setting of appropriate training aims and learning results. This can assist to develop the quality of future training events, 88 consequently avoiding training actions being wasted. Evaluating the benefits of training can also enable individuals to determine the worth of training, rather than the real costs. Training-programme evaluation can help organisations to develop their workforce training and improvement activities (Lewis & Thornhill, 1994). Based on a study conducted by Powell and Yalcin (2010) on evaluating the efficiency of training programmes, several results may be of interest. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2008) indicated that training evaluation should measure the outcomes of the training and the transfer and application of what has been learned in the workplace. Evans and Lindsay (1999) in their study revealed that Motorola uses on the job coaching to reinforce training; Ritz-Carlton has follow-up sessions to monitor instructional effectiveness. Also public organisations need an approach for evaluating training effectiveness. Ritz-Carlton requires employees to pass written and skill demonstration tests. Other companies use on-the-job evaluation or tests in simulated work environments. Many measure behaviour and attitude changes. However, the true test of training effectiveness is results. By establishing a linkage between training and results, public organisations can show the impact on employee satisfaction and also identify gaps in training. There are several methods for evaluating training. AL-Athari and Zairi (2002) has examined the current training evaluation activity and challenges that face Kuwaiti organisations. The study reveals that the majority of respondents, both in government and in private sectors, only evaluate their training programme occasionally. The most popular evaluation tools and technique used by government and private sectors were questionnaires. The most common model used by Kuwaiti organizations is the Kirkpatrick model, while the most common level of evaluation for both government and private sector is reaction type. Beardwell, Holden and Claydon (2004) have identified some of these methods as follows: i. Questionnaires (feedback forms): this is a common way of eliciting trainee responses to courses and programs. ii. Tests or examinations: these are common on formal courses, especially those that result in certification for instance a diploma in word processing skills. End-of-course tests can also be employed after non-certificate short courses to check the progress of trainees. 89 iii. Projects are initially seen as learning methods but they can also provide valuable information to instructor about the participants‘ understanding of subject matter. iv. Structured exercises and case studies also provide opportunities to apply learned skills and techniques under the observation of tutors and evaluators. v. Interviews of trainees after the course or instruction period are another technique for gathering information directly from the learners. These can be formal or informal, individual or group, face-to-face or by telephone. The Kirkpatrick four-level approach to training evaluation continues to be the most widely used training evaluation model among practitioners such as Sugrue and Rivera (2005), although the approach continues to be criticized by researchers like: (Holton, 2005; Spitzer, 2005). There has been little empirical work in the twenty-first century on designing and validating new evaluation measures, although there have been several conceptual contributions to frameworks guiding evaluation decisions (Kraiger, 2002; Wang & Wilcox, 2006). Kraiger (2002) proposed a decision-based evaluation model. The model frames decisions about how to measure training impact around the intended purpose for evaluation-purposes of decision making, marketing, and providing feedback to participants, instructors, or instructional designers. The model also emphasizes tailoring evaluation measures to the needs and sophistication of the intended audience(s). It proposes a comprehensive taxonomy for evaluation, including assessing the training program, changes in the learner, and changes in the organisation. Notably, a number of authors have criticized the lack of rigor in training evaluation designs (e.g., Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley & Riedel, 2006; O‘Connor, Flin & Fletcher, 2002). Although Kraiger‘s model emphasizes the importance of solid designs (as compared to more or better measures), he argued that meaningful evaluation can be done with incomplete research designs, a point raised earlier by Sackett and Mullen (1993); Tannenbaum and Woods (1992), and later echoed by Kraiger, McLinden and Casper (2004). The internal referencing strategy, in which effect sizes for trained behavior (or knowledge) are compared to effect sizes for non-trained behaviours (or knowledge), was used in several studies as an alternative to more rigorous designs with a control 90 group (Aguinis & Branstetter, 2007). In the same vein, Brown (2005) proposed a theoretical structure with distinct factors (enjoyment, relevance, and technology satisfaction) as well as a second-order factor of overall satisfaction, related in part to trainee affect. Data from two studies reported by Brown (2005) supported this model. In a study of 181 Korean workers, Lim and Morris (2006) found that the relationship between perceived applicability (training utility) and perceived application (transfer) decreased as the time between training and measurement increased. There continues to be calls for establishing the return on investment for training, particularly as training continues to be outsourced and new forms of TDI are marketed as cost effective. It is important that training evaluation include a consideration of the intended purpose of the evaluation, the needs and sophistication of the intended audience, and the variables related to various types of utility reactions (i.e., affective versus utility). McNamera (2008) opines that a key aspect of evaluation is to monitor and evaluate the performance of the trainees when they are back on their jobs, to determine whether the training programme has actually resulted in improved performance. Moreover, poor performance reviews due to inadequate job training can produce employee dissatisfaction and conflict, and negative attitude (Truitt, 2012). The worker‘s goals are always to have success in their careers, so that they can perform their job better and in an efficient and effective manner. Hence, organisations spend an enormous amount of time and money on training in order to assist employee's learning of job-related competencies (Noe et al., 2006). As a result of the financial investments organisations make in training, it is important to provide results that training efforts are being fully realized (Dowling & Welch, 2005). From the economic point of view, training cost is keeping the record of the costs of training which assumed one of the most important variables. It is one of the inputs in evaluation of the training programme. Hoegsdal (2004) comes up with a total cost of training pyramid with five elements which include; purchase costs, following costs, running costs of implementation, opportunity cost and utility or lost utility of the initiative/programme. Every training program has costs, and as the cost of the training program goes up, the utility goes down. If the training programmes improves the trained employees‘ job performance, the more employees that are trained, the greater the utility. To determine how effective a training program is in naira or dollars gained, a utility analysis can be conducted, using the utility of training equation. For example, 91 in Farrell and Hakstian (2001) meta-analysis of training programs for sales representatives, they found improvements in sales productivity of 23% and a dollar gain per employee for the duration of their tenure of $64,633 for sales representatives and $93,684 for senior sales representatives. The amount of money invested in training programme plays an important role in determining the types of skills, knowledge and abilities employees of an organisation. The training programme would help employees to achieve organisational goals and increases productivity while employees are armed with professional knowledge, experienced skills and valid thoughts; staff training also motivates and inspires workers by providing employees all needed information in work as well as help them to recognize how important their jobs are (Yafang, 2008). The purpose of training employees is to improve their knowledge and skills, which improves their individual capability. Whether the training should be done is a kind of cost–benefit calculation; the improvement in the employees‘ job performance should be greater than the cost of training the employees. The cost of a training program includes the time and costs to develop the course, instructional materials, equipment, the wages of the trainers, and lost productivity of the employees while they are in the training program. Generally, every organisation that is committed to generating profits for its owners (shareholders), providing quality service for its customers and beneficiaries invest in the training of its employees (Evans & Lindsay, 1999). In the view of Robert Simpson Managing director of Legna Construction Limited , a construction company located in the central region of Ghana which contributes substantially to the development of the country through its roads construction and employment of the country‘s human resource, training of the company‘s human resource contributed to the company gaining substantial increase in revenue from 2005 – 2009. (40% increase from 2001 – 2004). He attributed this to the skills and knowledge the employees gained through the training that helped them be more efficient thus reduced cost on the job thereby gaining more revenue. Training generates benefits for the worker as well as for the organisation by positively influencing worker performance through the development of worker‘s knowledge, skills, ability, competencies and behaviour (Sultana, Irum, Kamran & Nasir, 2012). This is agreeable with the opinion of Qureshi and Ramay (2006) who argues that 92 training as a Human Resource (HR) practice has a very positive impact on the performance of the employees as there is highly positive correlation found in their study. Danvila, Castillo, Miguel and Rodny (2009) found training to provide employees with the skills, abilities and knowledge required by the post. This effect can be explained in a way that the organisation is interested in investing in training for the employees and giving them confidence and intends to count on them in future, they will make more effort and give their best at their work in an effective way. Technical and professional skills are very important for the employees to perform a job in an effective way (Adeyemo & Adeleke, 2008). Providing training opportunities to employees can enhance the performance of the employees. Farooq and Khan (2011) aver that, the role of the valuable training is to improve the quality of task process that brings improvement in the performance of employees. Okanya (2008) says that training directly influences on the employees outcomes (employee performance) and puts indirect effect on the organisation performance that is mediated with employee performance. It has been revealed by Muzaffar et al. (2012) that, trained employee is an important asset for the organisation. Trained employee achieved the long term goals which are valuable for the organisation success. Training improves the interpersonal skills of employee (De Cieri & Kramar, 2008). Training maintains the capability of both employees and organisation (Eneh, 2010). Hence, training must be available to employees to meet the needs of both the organization and the employee in order to build and retain a work force of skilled and efficient employees. Singh and Madhumita (2012) believe that training is important mean to improve the employees‘ productivity which ultimately affects the organisation performance and effectiveness. Saleem, Shahid and Naseem (2011) posit that training is major activity of human resources development for employees‘ development. In this competitive world, training is the key strategy to achieve the organisational objectives. Training benefits employees‘ performance and organisational effectiveness. Attractive employee‘s performance is highly demanding in this competitive world for achieving the organisational performance. Niazi (2011) said in his study that training is beneficial for both employee and organisation. Trained employee can face the current and future challenges of organisation and achieve the competitive advantages. ALDamoe, Yazam and Ahmed (2012) said in his study that highly skilful and knowledgeable staff is very 93 necessary for the improvement of the organisation. Training increases the productivity of employee, improves the services of the employee and brings the positive change in the organisation (Rehman & Ajmal, 2011). Training gives the outcome in the shape of tangible and intangible (Iatagana, Dinu & Stoica, 2010). 2.8 Empirical Studies Human Resources (HR)-performance linkage has been given an enormous recognition in the western countries and a lot of work has been carried out on this linkage. As a result, it has been recommended by Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe (2002); Dessler, (2003) that organisations who‘s actively adhere to the human resource practice as a human resource planning (HRP) strategies were likely to expand competitive advantage in the global market. In this regard, some of the past empirical findings that are related to the present study are examined in order to point out the major differences and similarities, thereby fill the existing gap. Workers’ Performance Previous studies found that job satisfaction – an attitudinal variable influences workers‘ performance – a behavioural variable (Christen, Iyer & Soberman, 2006; Zhang & Zheng, 2009). In their empirical study, Porter and Lawler (1968) found that satisfaction of higher order needs would be the most closely related to performance. Although, the causal direction between job satisfaction and worker performance is still not resolved, Judge, Thoresen, Bono, and Patton (2001) found that the average true correlation between job satisfaction and worker performance was estimated to be 0.30. Also, prior studies have indicated various factors as predictors of workers‘ performance. Teamwork Variables and Workers’ Performance Cohen and Bailey (1997) observed that type of team matters for performance. Performance and attitudinal benefits from self-directed work teams were superior to parallel teams, suggesting that group autonomy and self regulation have stronger effects than consultative participation. Autonomy was related to higher performance for work teams, but not for project teams. Functional diversity had no effect on team performance in work teams but showed effects in parallel teams, as well as mixed effects in project and management teams. Hoegl and Gemuenden (2001) studied the influence of six teamwork quality factors – communication, coordination, balance of 94 member contribution, mutual support effort and cohesion on the success of innovative project. They based their model on the fundamental idea that the success of team depends on the degree to which team members are able to collaborate. Their results established teamwork quality factors were significantly correlated with performance ratings. In addition, they argued that teamwork quality is not the only determinant for project success. Other factors such as management, organisational fctors and communication between the team and external sources might also play a role in determining project success. In a wider European study, Benders et al. (2001) also found a positive effect of group delegation for reducing employee absenteeism rates and improving organisational performance. Karia and Ahmad (2001) examined the effect of teamwork as a dimension of organisational culture or organisational commitment and found significant relationship between the two variables. Hamilton, Nickerson and Owan (2003) found that the adoption of teams at the plant level improved worker productivity even after taking into account the selection of high-ability workers into teams. Batt (2004) found that self- managed teams was associated with significantly higher levels of perceived discretion, employment security and satisfaction for workers and were effective in improving objective performance measures. A study of Ooi and Arumugam (2006) found that teamwork, training and development, reward and recognition and communication dimensions of organisational culture significantly influence organisational and individual performance. Manzoor et al. (2011) also conducted a research on the effect of teamwork on employee performance about the staff members of Higher Education Department of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa (KPK), Peshawar Province of Pakistan. Several measures of employee performance were analyzed including esprit de corps, team trust and recognition and rewards. The research study uses regression and correlation techniques in order to analyze the relationship between two variables that is teamwork and employee performance. The result of the study found a significant positive impact on the response variables. Iroegbu and Agu (2013) examined the utilizing teams for high performance in Nigerians universities with preference to University of Nigeria, Enugu campus. The result shows that teamwork has significant effect on workers‘ performance in the university. In same vein, Musriha (2013) examines the influence of teamwork, working environment on job satisfaction and job performance and found 95 that teamwork significantly influences the cigarette rollers‘ job performance in East Java. This means that the better teamwork will generate higher job performance of Clove Cigarette Factories in East Java, Indonesia. Sajuyigbe, Olaye and Adeyemi (2013) examined the impact of reward on employees‘ performance with special reference to selected manufacturing companies in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. They found reward dimensions (pay, performance bonus, recognition, and praise) has joint predictors of employees‘ performance. Weimar (2013) focused on communication, coordination of expertise, cohesion, trust, mutual support and value diversity as it relates to performance measure in Dutch and one Ukraine software development projects; the outcome of the study indicates a positive significant relationship between teamwork quality factors and performance measures(effectiveness and efficiency). In addition, the study revealed that communication, mutual support and coordination of expertise showed somewhat higher correlations with performance measures. This could suggest that communication and mutual support are of somewhat more impotance for performance than the other teamwork quality factors. The above study only concerns itself with software development projects and strictly on effectiveness and efficiency in Dutch and Ukraine, hence, it does not concentrate on public organisation as this study (teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria) intends. Furthermore, Mbah (2014) found a positive and strong relationship between esprit de corps, team trust and reward/recognition and recognition and employee‘s performance. The study concentrates itself on employees in selected manufacturing firms in Anambra state and not on public organisations in Cross River State as this study (teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria) is of more generic in terms of population. Training variables and Workers’ Performance In a study in America on the impact of human capital investments such as employer- provided training and development, Black and Lynch (1996) indicate that employer- provided training and development raises subjective productivity and performance measure by almost 16%. Again they state that, returns on training and development investments increase productivity by 16%. Ogunu (2002) in his study titled ―Evaluation of Management Training and Development Programme of Guinness 96 Nigeria PLC‖ examined the management training and development programme of Guinness Nigeria PLC, Benin City with a view to ascertaining its relevance, adequacy, and effectiveness. Hypotheses testing in the study revealed that facilities for staff training were adequate for effective training of management staff, training programme for management staff were relevant to the jobs they performed, and the training programme undergone by staff did indeed improve their performance and effectiveness at works. Another study by Sergio, Salvador and Jose (2002) examines the effects of sales training on sales force performance in the context of small and medium-sized companies (SMEs). The study on 202 organisations showed that sales training effects on sales force performance. Singh (2004) investigated the relationship between six HRM practices and firm level performance in India. 359 firms were drawn from firms listed in the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) database. Of these 359 firms, 82 responded positively to the survey. Using regression and correlation analysis, the study found a significant relationship between the two HR practices, namely training and compensation, and perceived organisational and market performance of firms. Tessema and Soeters (2006) examined how, when and to what extent HR practices affect performance in Eritrea, Africa‘s youngest and poorest country. They reported that successful implementation of HR practices could enhance individual and civil service organisation of Eritrea, but the economic and political environment within which HR practices operate are not conducive. Their study tried to shed some light on the HRM-performance debate within the context of a developing country. De Meuse, Hostager and O‘Neill (2007) examined the effectiveness of workplace diversity training on employee performance. The findings revealed that workplace diversity training had a positive impact on the employees. Okpara and Pamela (2008) examined the extent to which organisations in Nigeria use various HRM practice and the perceived challenges and prospects of these practices. Data were collected from 253 managers in 12 selected companies in 10 cities. Their findings reveal that HRM practices, such as training, recruitment, compensation, performance appraisal and reward systems are still in place and that issue of tribalism, AIDS, training and development and corruption are some of the challenges facing 97 HRM in Nigeria. Nkebem (2009) investigates the relationship between in-service training and librarians‘ job performance of 11 university libraries in Nigeria. The result shows a significant relationship between in-service training and job performance. Kester, Adogun and Boyede (2009) in their study of training and improved workers performance submits that time spent on presentation, frequency of exposure to training programmes has relative contributions to levels of significance of the independent variables. Hasniza (2009) and Trang (2014) respectively investigated the role of training in determining the employee‘s work commitment and performance. The results revealed that training commitment, training needs assessment, training contents and delivery approaches, and training evaluation positively and significantly influence the employee‘s work commitment and performance. Moreso, training commitment and training evaluation were found to be more important dimentions of training in affecting employees‘s work commitment and performance. Eneh (2010) in his study on the effect of job training on workers‘ efficiency and productivity in PAMOL Nigeria Limited found out that, workers‘ efficiency and productivity was has a result of job training and corporation from co-workers in different units and department of the organisation. Nakpodia (2011) examined the relationship between training and utilisation of staff on job performance in post primary Education Board in North Senatorial District of Delta State, Nigeria and concluded that the performance of the university graduate staff is far above that of NCE graduate staff as a result of the in-depth knowledge of course studied. In another study, Ojambati, Akinbile and Abiola-Falemu (2012) examined personnel training and development as a vital tool for construction workers performance in south west geo-political zone of Nigeria. Using inferential statistic, the result of the analysis revealed that if companies status is enhanced there will be needs for them to give adequate financial support to the training efforts of their employees in other to increase their current skill level/or performance so as to increase their productivity. Sultana, Irum, Kamran and Nasir (2012) study impact of training on employee performance in telecommunication sector in Pakistan. The result of the study revealed that 50.1% of variation in employee performance is brought by training programmes. 98 Furthermore, the T-value was 8.58 that explain training as good predictor of employee performance. Also, Jagero, Komba and Mlingi (2012) study relationship between on- the-job training and employee‘s performance in courier companies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The study found out that there was a big relationship between on-the- job training and employee‘s performance in DHL and FedEX. Elnaga and Imran (2013) study the effect of training on employee performance. The study affirmed the proposition that training has a positive impact on employee performance. Similarly, Otuko, Kimanichege and Musiega (2013) study effect of training dimensions on employee‘s work performance in Mumias Sugar Company in Kakamega County, Kenya. They concluded that training needs assessment, training contents and training evaluation has a positive and significant effect on the employee performance in the Mumias Sugar Company. Further Shaheen, Naqvi and Khan (2013) focused on visualising the importance of training for school teachers at the district of Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistani and in analysing its relationship between training and teachers‘ performance. They found out a significant and positive association between training and organsation performance. In conclusion a number of empirical studies have been done on predictors of workers‘ performance as reported above; surprisingly, to the best of the researcher knowledge, existing empirical evidences offers no empirical evidences on the combined effect of teamwork and training variables on workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. This suggests the need for study to investigate teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. The basis of this study (teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria) is multidimensional based on the fact that the study considered a bundle of variables, rather than single and isolated variable as the study focused only on state public service employees and combined effect of components of teamwork and training on their performance. 2.9 Theoretical Framework The central theme of this research study revolves round teamwork, training variables and workers‘ performance in public organisations setting. Therefore, since the crux of this research work is on two independent and one dependent variables, hence the theoretical framework of this study is anchor on the configurational theory. 99 Configurational/Bundle Theory The Configurational theory is an offshoot of the contingency theory that dominated research until the 1970. In both theories, the concept of ‗‘fit‘‘ in strategic management is the underlying assumption. The concept postulates that performance of an organisation depends on the fit of environment and organisational design. The configuration theory was initially developed by Shortell (1977) who introduced an approach that lists different context variables and design forms. Configurational theory suggests that organisations are best understood as coherent clusters of distinct attributes that occur together commonly (Miller, 1986; Mintzberg & Lampel, 1999). The theory is concerned with how the configuration pattern of multiple independent variables, rather than each individual dependent variable is related to organisational performance (Delery & Doty, 1996). Its key prediction is that a small number of congruent configurations should describe a large proportion of high-performing organisations (Miller, 1986). Configuration theory therefore focuses on the identification of sets of practices, recognizing that the benefit of adopting one practice may increase with the adoption of other complementary practices. This theory is relevant to the study since the theory is concerned with how a pattern of multiple independent variables (for example, teamwork and training variables) relate to a dependent variable (e.g. workers‘ performance), rather than how individual independent variable relate to a dependent variable. In the same vein, the theory postulate that individual human resource management practices have been combined to form unique patterns of practices that depict different configurations, and these different configurations have been related to effectiveness outcomes. This theory is significant in the area of teamwork and training variables as predictors of workers‘ performance since public organisations are required to adopt bundle of strategies to improve the workers‘ performance and satisfy the organisation goals. Also, the theory is relevant to this study in that it aims at stressing the importance of teamwork, training variables and workers‘ performance of public organisations. Again, the theory highlighted the need for teamwork and training variables in public organisation and thereby achieving optimum workers‘ performance. Conceptual Framework Based on the review of literature, the following model (figure 2.1) was developed to consolidate and illustrate the relationship between the independents (teamwork and 100 training variables) on dependent (workers‘ performance) variables. The conceptual framework for this study was personally designed by the researcher. Variables identified and discussed in the literature were used to construct the conceptual framework. The main variables are teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration), training (training needs identification, plan, design, delivery, evaluation) variables and workers‘ performance. The model shows the independent variables (teamwork and training variables) interact and influenced the dependent variable (workers‘ performance). This implies that workers‘ performance is a function of teamwork and training variables. Based on performance model equation: Performance (P) = f (K, S, A, E), thus, the mathematical formula that correspond to the conceptual framework are shown in workers‘ performance (WP) = f (COM, TS, REC, COL, TNI, TRP, TRD, TDE, TRE). Where ‗COM‘ = Communication, ‗TS‘ = Team- spirit, ‗REC‘ = Recognition, ‗COL‘ = Collaboration, ‗TNI‘ = Training needs identification, ‗TRP‘ = Training plan, ‗TRD‘ = Training design, ‗TDE‘ = Training delivery, and ‗TRE‘ = Training evaluation. 101 TEAMWORK VARIABLES Communication (COM) Workers‘ Performance Team-Spirit (TS)  Acceptance of responsibility  Enthusiasm 0  Organisation Recognition (REC)  Foresight  Appreciation  Reliable under Collaboration (COL) pressure  Punctuality/ regularly  Oral expression TRAINING VARIABLES  adaptability  Efficiency Training needs  Emotionality identification (TNI)  Effectiveness  Relationship with Training p lan (TRP) Public/colleagues  Expression on paper Training de sign (TRD)  Application of professional knowledge Training deli very (TDE) Training e valuation (TRE) Figure 2.1: Con ceptual framework for teamwork and training variables influence on Workers‘ performance Source: Fieldw ork (2014) 0 102 2.10 Appraisal of Literature In this chapter, comprehensive reviews of past and present literature in areas of teamwork and training variables that relate to workers‘ performance in public organisations have been extensively reviewed. From the bodies of literature reviewed so far, it shows that public organisations needs to employ appropriate strategies and techniques such as teamwork and training in conjunction with their components in nurturing the human resources in order to win their commitment for good performance and resultantly attain the organisational objectives and the overall goals. Various concepts, principle, types of training programmes, perception public workers towards training and teamwork variables, factors in the public organisations that affects training programmes, theoretical frameworks were equally reviewed. All these are done with a view of linking the study with how to improve workers‘ performance in the public organisations with reference to Cross River State. The theory of configuration was examined and their significance to this study was discussed in detail. However, despite the abundance literature to support the independent variables of teamwork and training variables, each having a relationship with the dependent variable (workers‘ performance) in public organisation system, to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge there appear to be no empirical studies in Cross River State and Nigeria in general to show a combined link of teamwork, training variables and workers‘ performance. The study therefore, filled such existing gap. Furthermore, a conceptual framework illustrates the association of the two independent variables and the dependent variable and appraisal of literature form the concluding part of this chapter. Hence, this research configurational theory guided this study. 103 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter focuses on the methodology that was employed for data gathering as well as the relevant statistical analytical tools that was employed for analyzing the data gathered for the study. 3.1 Research Design The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive survey design of the ex- post facto type. The proposed choice of the design was considered appropriate, because the independent variables are in existence and cannot be manipulated by the researcher to cause a change in the dependent variable. Rather, design allows the researcher to test for cause-effects relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Also, the design allows the representation of the entire population by a sample population. 3.2 Population of the study The population for this study was all public servants whose appointment has been confirmed in the Ministries, Department and Agencies in Cross River state. These included managerial (GL. 13 & above) senior (GL. 7-13) and junior (GL. 1-6) cadres. There were about 15,000 public servants in Cross River State MDAs as published by the Cross River State civil service commission. 3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques The sample size used in this study was carefully selected to ensure that they are of the same characteristics as the main population. In this context, a combination of sampling techniques was adopted for this study; which included the cluster, purposive, stratified and simple random sampling techniques. The cluster sampling technique was used to divide the public service of Cross River state into three different units: ministries, departments and agencies. While the purposive sampling technique was used to select 10 Ministries, 10 Departments and 5 104 Agencies in Cross River state civil service. Moreover, the target population in each of the selected Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDAs) was stratified along the axis of the three cadres; this included junior, senior and managerial cadres. Using the proportional stratified random sampling technique, the actual sample respondents for the study was drawn. For equitable representation of all MDAs, 20% of junior (221), senior (574) and managerial (273) were taken from the selected ministries, department and agencies, such that a total of 1,068 sample respondents were selected to serve as respondents for the study. The breakdown of the population and selection for the study is spelt out in table 3.1. 105 Table 3.1a. Distribution of Study Sample by Ministries Ministries Total Junior Cadre Senior Cadre Managerial Cadre Pop. Pop. Sample Pop Sample Pop. Sample Agriculture 478 70 14 252 20 156 31 Environment 254 50 10 72 14 132 26 Education 224 34 7 145 29 45 9 Health 2,096 253 51 1,378 276 465 93 Works 315 86 17 152 30 77 15 Lands & Housing 329 51 10 231 46 47 9 Information 163 17 3 78 16 68 14 Local Govt. Affairs 50 17 3 21 4 12 2 Water Resources 25 8 2 12 2 5 1 Youth Dev. & 60 21 4 22 4 17 3 Orientation Total 3,994 609 121 2,363 441 1,024 203 Table 3.1b. Distribution of Study Sample by Departments Department Total Junior Cadre Senior Cadre Managerial Cadre Pop. Pop. Sample Pop Sample Pop. Sample Culture & heritage 183 56 11 93 17 34 2 Project monitoring 17 5 1 9 2 3 1 Public transportation 222 72 14 115 23 35 7 Tourism dev. 55 19 4 25 5 11 2 Fire service 336 127 25 120 24 89 18 Special duties 20 7 1 10 2 3 1 Investment prom. 30 9 2 16 3 5 1 Due process 42 5 1 21 4 16 3 Mineral resources 27 16 3 8 2 3 1 Establishment & 155 45 9 62 12 48 10 management service Total 1,087 361 71 479 94 247 46 Table 3.1c. Distribution of Study Sample by Agencies Agencies Total Junior cadre Senior cadre Managerial cadre pop. Pop. Sample Pop. Sample Pop. Sample Geographic & info. 60 15 3 35 7 10 2 State rural dev. 70 23 5 27 5 20 5 Road maintenance 49 36 7 8 2 5 2 State electricity 77 26 5 28 6 23 5 Adult & non-formal 191 45 9 96 19 50 10 education Total 447 145 29 194 39 108 24 Source: Field study, 2014 Total sample size = 1,068 106 NB: Abreviation above are as follow Est. Mgt. Serv. = Establishment & Management Services POP = Population Govt = Government Dev = Development 3.4 Instrumentation The study employed three set of questionnaire for data collection. These are: Teamwork Variables Scale (TVS), Workers‘ Training Variables Scale (WTVS) and Workers‘ Performance Rating Scale (WPRS) – Jimoh (2008). This was complemented with in-deptht interview (IDI) with two staff each from the three different cadres across three each of the ministries, departments and agencies. 3.4.1 Teamwork Variables Scale The Teamwork Variables Scale was a self-structured questionnaire that measured the extent to which teamwork variables relate with workers‘ performance. Some items were adopted from Team Effectiveness Questionnaire (TEQ) 2.0 and Team Assessment Questionnaire Questionnaire (TAQ) 2.0 developed by Jon Maxwell and modified. It was designed on the 4-point Likert Scale format of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree D) =2, strongly disagree (SD) =1 and contained 20- item relating to the teamwork variables. This covered such variables as communication, team -spirit, team- recognition, and collaboration. The content of teamwork variables scale was validated by subjecting it to the criticisms of experts in the area of test and evaluation. The criticisms and suggestions made by the experts help to ascertained the validation of the instrument. However, the teamwork variables scale undergone a test retest pilot study using a sample size of 12 civil servants from the State School Board and Civil Service Commission in Cross River state. This was done using the test and re-test reliability test, while reliability coefficient value (r) of 0.87 was obtained at the 0.05 level of significance using Pearson‘s correlation statistics. 3.4.2 Workers’ Training Variables Scale The Workers‘ Training Variables Scale was a self-structured questionnaire that measured the extent to which training variables relates with workers‘ performance in the public organisations. And some items were modified form Trang (2014) ‗Training 107 affects the employee’s performance’. It was designed on the 4-point Likert Scale format of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree D) =2, strongly disagree (SD) =1 and contained 25- item relating to the workers‘ training variables. This covered such training variables as training needs identification, training design, delivery and training evaluation. The contents of workers‘ training variables Scale was validated by subjecting it to the criticisms of experts in the area of test and evaluation. The criticisms and suggestions made by the experts were used in ascertaining the validation of the instrument. Thereafter, a test retest pilot study was carried out using a sample size of 12 civil servants from the State School Board and Civil Service Commission in Cross River state. A test and re-test reliability was done and a reliability co-efficient value (r) of 0.78 was obtained from the pilot test and re-test using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics at the 0.05 level of significance. 3.4.3 Workers’ Performance Rating Scale This scale was adapted from Jimoh (2008) ‗workers‘ performance scale‘. It was designed to assess the individual level of performance in the organisation. It measures the workers‘ performance variables such as: enthusiasm, organisation, foresight, appreciation, reliability under pressure, punctuality, efficiency, application of professional knowledge, expression on paper, oral expression, emotionality, acceptance of resposiblity, relationship with colleagues, adaptability and effectiveness. It was designed on the 4- point Likert scale format of Very good performance (VGP) = 4; Good performance (GP) = 3; Fair performance (FP) =2; and Poor performance (PP) =1. A pilot study was conducted on a sample of 12 participants, and internal consistency coefficient of 0.83 was obtained using the split-half reliability method and this made the questionnaire to overcome the cultural biasness. The adapted and modified scale has a test re-test reliability value of 0.86. 3.4.4 In-depth Interview (IDI) Schedule and Guides The qualitative method of in-depth interview (IDI) was used to supplement the quantitative method, in order to ensure that some information that was not captured by the questionnaire was captured with face-to-face interview. This was imperative as most respondents tend to have negative and phobia on research value, hence the questionnaire alone may not serve the purpose of gathering adequate information from 108 them. An interview guide was used during the interview of key informats like immediate supervisors, office managers and directors of personnel in the sample MDAs. The interview questions were design before the actual interview take place. The questions were qrouped into four sections. The first section was about demography data, the second was on teamwork variables, the third on training variables, the fourth section focuses on workers‘ performance level. The interview was done through face-to-face contact with the officers in the management, and senior cadres in the sample MDAs and their opinions are represent different views from different positions. Before the actual take off of the interviews with the interviewees, the researcher paid a visit to the sample MDAs in order to get herself familiarise with the respondents thereby negotiate time and dates for the interview with the interviewees. The interviews were done on different dates in the selected interviewees offices as summarized below. 109 Table 3.2: Schedule of IDI sessions conducted for the study MDAs Location of IDI No of Date of No of sessions interview interviewee per session Ministry of Agriculture Barrack Road, 3 19 Nov. 2014 1 Calabar Ministry of Cultural centre 3 26 Nov. 2014 1 Environment road Calabar Departments of Tourism Okoi Arikpo 3 13 January, 1 Development House, 10 Calabar 2015 Road Establishment and New secretariat, 2 18 February, 1 Management Services Calabar 2015 Adult and Non-formal Michael Ani 2 25 February, 1 Education Secretariat, 2015 Calabar Cross River Geographic Leopard Town 2 15 January, 1 Information Agency Road, Calabar 2015 Source: Field study, 2014 110 IDI Guides 1. Relationship between teamwork variables and workers‘ performance in the public service 2. Relationship between training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation) and workers‘ performance in public service 3. Performance differentials in the civil service on the basis of job cadre (junior, senior, managerial). 3.5 Administration of Research Instrument The researcher obtained due authorization from the Head of Department through her supervisor and embarked on visitation to the selected ministries, departments, and agencies, as a way of familiarising herself with the participants for the study. The researcher personally administered the questionnaire on the respondents with the aid of Heads of the selected MDAs. The researcher also consulted the human resource management units for their assistance in the distribution and collection of the questionnaire from the workers after presentation of letter of authorization from the department. The questionnaire was administered on a participant at a time, the researcher also tried as much as possible to control the influence of the subjects over one another in responding to the questionnaire. However, the researcher took time to explain verbally the main purpose of the test to the participants, assuring them of confidentiality. Instruction regarding how to respond to the questionnaire was read out and adequately explained to the participants after distribution. Questions were entertained before the participants reacted to the tests and the researcher‗s was at a standby for further clarification during the process of responding to the tests. However, a total of 1,200 questionnaires were administered for the study. Completed questionnaires received were 1,115, which represents 93% response rate and only 1,068 questionnaires were used and the remaining were discarded as they were incomplete and could not be used for statistical purposes. 3.6 Method of Data Analysis The data collected through the quantitative information of the three sets of questionnaire for the study was collated and statistically analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics such as charts, percentages, mean and standard deviation. In 111 addition, the research questions and hypotheses were subjected to inferential statistics using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) analysis as well as multiple regressions at 0.05 level of significance. 112 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This chapter focuses on results and analyses of data collected from the field as well as the discussion of the findings based on the research questions raised and the hypotheses formulated for the study. First, the demographic characteristics of the respondents used for the study are presented using charts. Then followed by the presentation of the results on the test contributions of the relationship among the independent and dependent variables inherent in the study using tables, accompanied by interpretation and discussion in line with the existing literature in the study. 4.1 Analysis of Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents This section of the chapter four deals with the presentation of demographic characteristics of the respondents used in the study as contained in the front page of the research instruments used for the study. The demographic characteristics of the respondents in this study are age, gender, marital status, educational level, and years of experience as well as marital statue. Each of the demographic characteristics are presented in chart and followed by the interpretation. 113 0.20% 1.00% >50 20 -25years 16.60% 13.50% 44-49years 26-31years 11 144 30.50% 32-37years 326 38.20% 408 38-43years 177 2 Figure 4.1. Distribution of Respondents by Age Source: Field survey, 2015 The result on figure 4.1 above reveals that 13.50% of the respondents were within age 26 and 31, 30.50% were with 32–37years old, 38.20% were within the age range of 38 and 43, while 16.60% fall within the age range of 44-49 and .02% were above 50 years. This shows that majority of the respondents are within the age of 26 and 49. This indicates that the public servants are young, mature and energetic which in turn demands teamwork and training to improve their performance in the public organisations. 114 70.00% 61.30% 60.00% 0Post Secondary 50.00% 40.00% Series 3 30.00% Series 2 Series 1 20.00% 17.7% 18.20% Prof. Cert Secondary 10.00% 2.2% .6% Primary 0.00% No Formal Educ. 24 194 655 189 6 Figure 4.2. Distribution of Respondents by Educational Attainment Source: Field survey, 2015 The result on figure 4.2 shows that 2.2% of the respondents attended primary school, 18.2% attended secondary school, 61.3% had various post secondary school certificates, while 17.7% of the respondents had professional certificates and .6% had no formal education. This means that most of the respondents are well educated above secondary level and professional certificates. It also suggests that people of different educational qualifications are present in the public organisations. By implications, different levels of training which is planned and systematic may be required to improve their performance. 115 38.30% 22-28years 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 21.70% <7years 17.50% 20.00% 8-14years Series 1 Series 2 11.30% 15.00% 11.10% 15-21years 29-35 years 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 232 187 121 119 409 Figure 4.3. Distribution of Respondents by Years of Experience Source: Field survey, 2015 The result on figure 4.3 shows that 21.70% of the respondents are within 7years of job experience, 17.5% had spent 8 – 14 years, 11.30% of the respondent spent 15 – 21 years. Also, figure 4.3 revealed that 38.30% of the respondents had spent 22 – 28 years. While 11.10% of the respondents had spent 29–35 years working in various ministries, departments and agencies of the public organisations in Cross River state, Nigeria. The respondents have served public organisations from 1-35 years. This means the organisation has a blend of experienced and young professionals who require constant teamwork and refresher training to update their skills and perform on the job. Since majority of the respondents had spent more than twenty years in the public service this implies that the employees who have more on the years of experience have better performance because there is an increase in both skills and competencies because more on the years of experience. 116 70.00% 60.00% 63.6% Married 50.00% Series 3 40.00% Series 2 30.00% Series 1 27.1% 20.00% Single 9.3% 10.00% Separated 0.00% 289 679 100 Figure 4.4. Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status Source: Field survey, 2015 Figure 4.4 shows that majority of the respondents were married 63.6%; while 27.1% were single and 9.4% had separated from their spouse. 117 45.30% 584 54.70% 484 Figure 4.5. Distribution of Respondents by Gender Source: Field survey, 2015. Figure 4.5 shows the distribution of the respondents by gender. It demonstrates that 54.7% of the respondents were male while 45.3% of the respondents were female. This result means that majority of the respondents were male. 118 4.2 Presentation of Results on the Test of Contributions and Strength of the Relationship between the Independent and Dependent Variables This session of the chapter deals with the presentation of results relating to the test of prediction of the independent variables on the dependent variable as well as their depth of the relationship. The presentations are done on the basis of the research questions and hypotheses raised for the study using multiple regression analysis and correlation matrix. Each of the results and findings are presented in tables followed by their interpretations and discussions. The results are presented sequentially below. Research Question one and two 1. To what extent does teamwork and training variables (communication, team- spirit, recognition collaboration, training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation) predispose workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria? 2. What is the relative contribution of relative contribution of each of the independent variables to the dependent variables? 119 Table 4.1a. Correlation Matrix between Workers’ Performance, teamwork and training Variables Variables WPR COM TS REC COL TNI TRP TRD TDE TRE WRP 1.000 COM .010 1.000 TS .115** .446** 1.000 REC .134** .185** .350** 1.000 COL .136** .467** .470** .183** 1.000 TNI .112** .157** .171** .035 .238** 1.000 TRP -.019 .170** .108** .063** .145** .390** 1.000 TRD -.078* .298** .165** -.012 .354** .412** .517** 1.000 TDE .000 .159** .161** .042 .144** .356** .368** .375** 1.000 TRE -.045 .273** .194** -.139* .159** .342** .444** .444** .532** 1.000 **significant at 0.05 and 0.01 level 120 The correlation matrix result in Table 4.1a displays correlation coefficients between the nine independent variables, namely: teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition, and collaboration), training (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation variables) and the dependent variable (workers‘ performance). The result in the Table 4.1a shows that the dependent variable – workers‘ performance was most highly correlated with collaboration and recognition, with correlation coefficient of .136 and 134 respectively. This shows that collaboration and recognition are perceived as the dominant teamwork variables. In the same vien, the rest of correlation coefficients among independents variables (teamwork and training) and dependent variable (workers‘ performance) are team-spirit (r = .115), training needs identification (r = .112), training plan (r =.-78); while communication (r = .010), training plan (r =.-019), training evaluation (r = -.045) had the lowest correlation coefficients. However, the relationships amongst teamwork, training variables and workers‘ performance were found to be significant at 0.05 and 0.01 alpha level. Therefore, optimal workers‘ performance is associated with higher collaboration, team-spirit, recognition, communication, training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation. Thence, the result support the dominant view of human resource efficacy, that individual human resource practices have the limited ability to improve employee‘s performance but in a combination, they can enable organisation to improved its employee‘s performance (Miller, 1986; Mintzberg & Lampel, 1999). 121 Table 4.1b. Multiple Regression Analysis showing joint predictions of teamwork and training variables on workers’ performance in public organisations Source of Sum of df Mean F Sig. variation Squares Square Regression 3106.572 9 345.175 8.794 .000 Residual 41447.039 1059 Total 44553.611 1068 39.249 Model Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients t B Std. Beta Sig Error 1 (constant) 2.118 17.216 .000 COM 36.466 .105 -.066 -1.833 .067 TS -.192 .099 .045 1.214 .225 REC .121 .087 .091 2.747 .006 COL .240 .095 .157 4.218 .000 TNI .400 .086 .154 4.457 .000 TRP .383 .091 -.002 -.059 .953 TRD -.005 .098 -.172 -4.399 .000 TDE -.429 .090 -.001 -.033 .974 TRE -.003 .071 -.022 -.551 .582 -.039 2 2 *significant at .05 levels; R = .264, R = .070, Adjusted R = .062, Std. Error = 6.26491 122 The result in Table 4.1b shows that teamwork variables (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) and training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation) are significant joint predictors of 2 2 workers‘ performance (R = .070, F(9, 1059) = 8.794, P< .05) with R = .264, Adj. R = .062 and Std error = 6.26491. This result means that any variations in workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River State are jointly accounted for by 7% variation in a combination of the independent variables. Table 4.1b also displays the results of the relative contributions of the independent variables: communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration, training needs identification, plan, design, delivery, and evaluation in the prediction of the dependent variable (workers‘ performance). Since the regression weight (β) indicates the relative contribution of each of the independent variables to the dependent variable, the results show that training needs identification is the most significant predictor of workers‘ performance in public organisations (β = .154, t = 4.457, P< .05), followed by collaboration (β = .157, t = 4.218, P< .05), recognition (β = .091, t = 2.747, P< .05), team-spirit (β = .045, t = 1.214, P> .05), then, communication (β = -.066, t = -1.833, P> .05), training design (β = -.172, t = -.4.399, P< .05), training evaluation (-.022, t = - .551, P> .05), training plan (β = -.002, t = -.059, P> .05), and training delivery (β = - .001, t = -.033, P> ,05). The result in table 4.1b further shows that, communication, recognition, team-spirit and collaboration are the four teamwork variables that contribute to the prediction of workers‘ performance. Training needs identification and training design are the only two training variables that contribute to workers‘ performance. Because the sign associated with the regression weights (β) indicate the direction of prediction. It follows that, the relationship between team-spirit, recognition, collaboration and workers‘ performance is positive and significant. In addition, communication has a negative relationship with workers‘ performance. Training needs identification positively and significantly relates with workers‘ performance; while training design has a negative relationship. The results of the regression analysis show that communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration, training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation positively and significantly influenced workers‘ performance in public organisations. So, the prediction equation is developed: 123 WRP = a + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + β5X5 + β6X6 + β7X7 + β8X8 + β9X9 + WRP = 36.466 +-.066COM + .045TS .091REC + .157COL + .154TNI + -.002TRP + -.172TRD + -.001TDE + -.022TRE Where, WRP = workers‘ performance X1 = communication (COM) X2 = Team-spirit (TS) X3 = Recognition (REC) X4 = Collaboration (COL) X5 = Training needs identification (TNI) X6 = Training plan (TRP) X7 = Training design (TRD) X8 = Training delivery TDE X9 = Training evaluation (TRE) And ‗a‘ is constant and β1 ...... β9 are coefficient to estimate. The above prediction equation implies that workers‘ performance is predicable from teamwork and training variables. This implies that, if any of these variables is missing or has a low value, then workers‘ performance will not occur or will occur at a very low level. This confirms the findings of Hasniza (2009); Mulika (2010); Raja et al. (2011); Muzaffar et al. (2012) and Mbah (2014). This result is also in line with the configuration theory which emphasized the effective combination of teamwork and training variables in public organisations setting could have universal addictive effect on workers‘ performance.In this way, organisations combining teamwork variables and well-organized training are more likely to obtain better results. The finding also collaborate with the findings of Singh (2004); Ooi and Arumugam (2006) and; Okpara and Pamela (2008) who concluded that when various human resource practices are integrated into organisational strategies and operations in support of with others hopefully will increase the performance of the organisation as well as that of the employees. The result is also in tune with Dunford (1992) who posit that recognition improves employees‘ performance. This finding consolidates the findi ngs of Deci and Ryan (1985) established significant association between recognition a nd workers‘ performance. This study is affirms the submission of Robbison (1988) and 124 Mintzberg (2011) that team recognition reinforces behaviour that improve individual performance. In the same vein the result is consistent with the submittion of Lovelace et al. (2001) who postulate that collaboration is a key driver of overall performance of companies and organisations around the world. The finding of this study is equally in support of assertion of Afful-Broni (2004) who advocates that, when there is team- spirit work absenteeism is minimized. O‘Neill et al. (2012) assert that implementing teamwork within organisations or enterprises result in major positive changes on the work and performance level of employees (team members). Such positive impacts include creating a united effort, ensuring fair distribution of work, reducing risks, subordinating personal interests to organisational interests and ensuring timely completion of any work with high quality and efficiency. The finding of the study corroborates with the argument of Kozlowski et al. (2001), Carliner (2003) and Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2008) that training plan should be set prudently in order to assist trainees understand that the objectives of the training event are strictly related to their everyday work activities (training usefulness). Moreover, when the participants understand that the training programme will assist them to increase their performance, it is possibly that they will raise their job-related skills and knowledge. Bowman and Wilson (2008) stated that unsuitable planning and implementation can lead to misunderstandings concerning the expectations and the accomplishments attained through training. Similarly, training design plays a very vital role in the worker performance; a bad training design is nothing but loss of time and money (Tsaur and Lin, 2004). The effectiveness of training is depending on evaluation of employees by looking at their understanding throughout the training programmes, and their ability to transfer the new skills and knowledge into their work tasks. So, employees who understand the purpose of training and able to transfer new skills and knowledge, then employees are committed and able to perform well in organisation. Thus, the findings bring into limelight that teamwork and training variables would lead to higher workers‘ performance, this in turn would affect organisation‘s performance. However, respondents reported that training practices had a positive impact on preparing them to be more effective in their work, increasing their technical abilities, interpersonal abilities. One immediate supervisor whose subordinate had undergone more systematic training programme said, 125 Some of these trainings are really good. I have observed that some of my officers are now more serious when it comes to her work. These days, I do not have to remind her of her roles. I have seen that she now has a positive attitude to work. In fact our relations within and outside the department have greatly improved, her output is good and she meets her targets. I think the training really helped her a lot. I am very happy. Hypothesis One There is no significant relationship between teamwork variables of communication, recognition, team-spirit, collaboration and workers‘ performance in public organisation. 126 Table 4.2a. Correlation matrix between four related teamwork variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration and workers' performance in public organisation variables WPR COM TS REC COL Pearson WPR 1.000 Correlation COM .009 1.000 TS .114** .447** 1.000 REC .130** .188** .351** 1.000 COL .135** .468** .471** .184** 1.000 **Significant at .05 and level Table 4.2b: Joint predictions of teamwork variables of communication, team- spirit, recognition and collaboration on workers' performance in public organisation Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 1665.120 4 416.280 10.306* .000 Residual 42935.138 1063 40.391 Total 44600.257 1067 2 2 R = .193, R = .037, Adj. R = .034 Table 4.2c: Relative predictions of communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration on workers’ performance Model Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta T Sig. 1 (Constant) 36.857 1.860 19.817* .000 Communication -.287 .103 -.099 -2.792* .005 Team Spirit .155 .099 .058 1.565* .118 Recognition .273 .084 .104 3.228* .001 Correlation .342 .092 .134 3.726* .000 *significant at .05 127 The result in table 4.2a is the matrix of the inter-correlation coefficient among the four related teamwork variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration and workers' performance in public organisations. In the table, most of the correlation 2 coefficients were found to be significant and positive with R =.193 and R = .037. This means that 3.7% of the variability of workers' performance was jointly accounted for by the predictor variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition, and collaboration as criterion variables. The information in table 4.2b shows that teamwork variables of communication, team- spirit, recognition, collaboration are significant joint predictors of workers' performance in public organization (F(4, 1063) =10.306, P < .05). Hence, the null hypothesis which stated that teamwork variables (communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration) are not significant joint predictors of workers' performance in public organisations was rejected at .05 level of significant and the alternate hypothesis was retained. The regression model also shows the contribution of each of the variables in the prediction of workers‘ performance in public organisations. Since the regression weight indicates the relative contribution of each of the variables, the result in table 4.2c shows that the teamwork variables of collaboration is the most significant predictor of workers' performance (β 134, t=3.726' P< 05), followed by team recognition (β .104, t= 3.228, P <.05), Communication (β - .099, t = -2.792, P < .05) and team-spirit (β = .058; t=1.565; P>.05) in that order with 2 a coefficient of determination of R = .037). This means that any variation in workers' performance in public organisation is accounted for by 3.7% variation in a combination of the predictor variables. This result is in line with the responses from the in-depth interview (IDI). For instance, some respondents claimed that teamwork is an important to be considered in public service because individualism will not enhance staff performance, rather working in team will increase performance, brings new initiative, idea and suggestion. Majority of the respondents are of the opinion that working in teams, they tend to work better and faster. The result in table 4.2c also shows that only collaboration, recognition, and communication are the individual significant predictors of workers' performance in public organisations. Since the sign associated with the regression weights (β) indicate the direction of prediction, it follows that the prediction of workers' performance in public organisations by collaboration and recognition are in the positive direction 128 while that of communication is in the negative direction. This result means that there is a significant positive relationship between collaboration, recognition and workers' performance in public organisations. This result indicates that if there is collaboration and recognition in the public organisations, there will be better workers' performance. On the other hand, if collaboration and recognition is missing or has a low value in public organisations, workers' performance in public organisations also will be poor or will be at a very low level. This result is consistent with the findings of Welsh, Luthans and Sommer (1993) who found that recognition is a powerful positive reinforcer for employee behaviours leading to performance improvement in both manufacturing and service organisations. The result in table 4.2c further shows that there is a significance negative relationship between communication and workers' performance in public organisations. This result means that as the teamwork variables of communication effective use in public organisation, workers' performance in public organisations will improved. Conversely, lack of effective teamwork variable of communication in public organisation will cause workers' performance in public organisations deminish. In relation to communication and workers‘ performance specifically, it has been shown that communication becomes important in enhancing workers‘ performance. This result is in tune with Morrissette, Hornseth and Shellar (2005) who found that providing access to information to multiple team members improved team performance. By implication public workers required reliable communication process with clearly defined responsibilities and appropriate delegation to improve their performance. The result also in table 4.2c reveals that team-spirit does not significantly relate to workers' performance in public organisation. However, the result in table 4.2c shows that teamwork variables (communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration) are significant joint predictors of worker performance in public organisations and prediction could be represented using the prediction equation below: WRP = 36.857 + -.287X1 + .115X2 + .273X3 +. 342X4 WPR = 36.857 +-.287COM = .155TS + .273REG + .342COL 4 Where: X1 = Communication, X2 = Team-Spirit, X3 = Recognition, X = Collaboration 129 Hypothesis Two There is no significant relationship between training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation) and workers‘ performance in public organisations. Table 4.3a: Correlation matrix between five related training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation) and workers' performance in public organisations WPR TNI TRP TRD TDE TRE Pearson WPR 1.000 Correlation TNI .112** 1.000 TRP -.019 .390** 1.000 TRD -.078* .412** .517 1.000 TDE .000 .356** .368 .375** 1.000 TRE -.045 .342** .444 .444** .532** 1.000 **Significant at .05 and .01 level; Table 4.3b: Joint Predictions of Training Variables on Workers’ Performance Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig. squares Square a Regression 1474.845 5 294.969 7.258 .000 Residual 43078.765 1060 40.640 Total 44553.611 1065 2 2 R=.182, R =.033, Adj. R =.029, Std. Error = 6.37498 130 Table 4.3c: Relative predictions of training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation on workers’ performance Model Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta T Sig. 1 (Constant) 43.121 1.517 28.416** .000 TNI .450 .087 .181 5.201** .000 TRP -.007 .091 -.003 -.072** .943 TRD -.331 .094 -.133 -3.507** .000 TDE .036 .091 .015 .401 .688 TRE -.097 .069 -.054 -1.412 .158 The correlation matrix result in Table 4.3a shows correlation coefficients between the five training variables (training need identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation) and workers‘ performance in public organisations. The result in Table 4.3a shows workers' performance in public organisations is most highly correlated with training needs identification, with correlation coefficient of .112. This shows that training needs identification is perceived as the dominant training variable, and is significantly positively correlated with workers‘ performance. Training design (r = - .78) and training evaluation (r = -.045) has significant negative correlation with workers‘ performance; while training plan (r = -.019) is found with a lower negative insignificant coefficient. And training delivery had the least correlation coefficient (r = .000). However, the other relationship amongst the training variables was found to be significant at .05 and .01 alpha level. Therefore, higher workers‘ performance is associated with training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and evaluation. This result is consistent with the findings by Asim (2013) that there is both direct and indirect relationship between employee‘s training and work performance. He notes in his findings that training helps to create good results at work. This in turn stimulates the employees more to achieve better work performance. The result in table 4.3b shows that training need identification, training plan, training design, training delivery and training evaluation are significant joint predictors of 2 2 workers' performance in public organisations (R = .033, F = 7.258, R = .182, Adj. R = .029, P< .05). This value means that 3.3% variability in workers‘ performance in 131 public organisations was jointly accounted for by the predictor variables of training need identification, training plan, training design, training delivery and training evaluation. Hence, the null hypothesis that speculated that there is no significant relationship between training variables (training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery, evaluation) and workers‘ performance in public organisations was rejected and the alternate hypothesis retained. This result is in support of previous researchers (Hasniza, 2009 & Trang, 2014) that training variables have significant effect on workers‘ performance. Trained employees perform well as compared to untrained employees. Some respondents claimed that the function of training is to recharge the enthusiasm barreries. That training will inject some enthusiasm back into their working lives and reassure them that they are doing important work that is needed and appreciated. And appropriate training environment helps them to feel useful again - and this can be even more important than the simple transfer of knowledge and skills. The regression model in table 4.3c shows the relative contributions of each of the training variables to the dependent variable (Workers‘ performance). The table 4.3c reveals that training need identification is the most significant predictor of workers‘ performance in public organisations (β = 181, t = 5.201, P < .05), followed by training design (β = .133, t = -3.507, P< .05), training evaluation (β = -.054, t = -1.412, P < .05), training delivery (β = .015, t = .401, P < .05) and training plan (β = .003, t = 2 .072, P> .05) in that order with a coefficient of determination of R = .033. This result means that any variation in workers‘ performance in public organisation was accounted for by 3.3% of variation in a combination of the predictor variables. Also, result in Table 4.3c illustatrates that training needs identification and design are only variables of training that contribute to prediction of workers‘ performance. Training plan is the only training variable that have insignificance influence (P>0.05) on workers' performance in public organisations. In addition, training design and evaluation have negative influence on workers‘ performance, but training needs identification and delivery has positive influence on workers' performance. This could suggest that training needs identification, design, delivery and evaluation are of more important for workers‘ performance than the other training variables. However, training needs identification, plan, design, delivery and evaluation are significant joint predictor workers‘ performance. So, the squares prediction equation is depicted as: 132 WPR = a + X1 + X2 + X3 +X4 + X5 WPR = 43.121 + .181X1 + -.003X2 + -.133X3 +-.015X4 + -.054X5 Where: WRP = predicted workers‘ performance X1 = training needs identification X2 = Training plan X3 = Training Design X4 = Training Delivery, X5 = Training Evaluation. The squares prediction equation a is constant represented and X1 are the regression coefficients of the training variables. The result finding shows that training variables significantly influence workers‘ performance in public organisations in Cross River state. The findings of the study collaborate with the study done by Hasniza (2009) who conclude that training dimensions such as training commitment, training needs assessment, training contents and delivery approaches, and training evaluation, have significant influence on employee‘s work commitment and performance. This study is also consistent with the findings of Otuko, Kimanichege and Musiega (2013) who established that training dimensions such as training needs assessment, training contents and training evaluation have positive and significant effect on employees‘ performance in Mumias Sugar Company Limited. This implies that training variables is considered as one of the processes in achieving organisational goals by attracting and maintaining employees, and also managing them effectively. Following the submission of Brown (2002) training can be expensive; therefore it is critical that training be tailored to meet the specialised needs of the organisation and individual trainees. Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) postulate that needs identification is the most important steps in deciding who and what should be trained. In addition to justifying the costs of training and providing important data for organisation, taking part in a need identification can actually improve employee‘s satisfaction with training and thereby inprove their performances. Based on the literature review, training needs identification is important in designing training programme because training needs identification provides the basis for measuring the effectiveness of training in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes expected in relation to workers‘ performance. In addition, Tsaur and Lin (2004) assert that training 133 design plays a very vital role in the workers‘ performance; a bad training design is nothing but the loss of time and money. Given the importance of training variables, it can be said that training is the only ways of identifying the deprived need of employees and then building their required competence level so that they may perform well and achieved organisational goals. It is evident that importance of training attached to workers‘ performance in public organisation, which the findings indicate employees who receive training in relations to their work tasks, are able to perform adequately. A number of respondents believed that training variables not only develops the capabilities of the employee but sharpen their thinking ability and creativity in order to take better decision in time and in more productive manner. Hypothesis Three There is no significant difference in workers' performance in public organisations on the basis of influence of job cadre. The independent variables are: job cadre which was categorized into junior cadre, senior cadre and managerial while dependent variable is workers 'performance in public organisations designed by fifteen indices. To test this hypothesis, One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used. The mean overall workers' performance and its sub variables based on influence of job cadre was first completed and compared using the one way analysis of variance. The results of the analysis are presented in table 4.4a (see appendix one), 4.4b and 4.4c. 134 Table 4.4c: Fishers' LSD Multiple Comparison Test Analysis of differential in workers' performance across Job Cadre of the respondents Worker's Performance Job Cadre Junior Senior Managerial (N = 221) (N=574) (N = 273) a b Enthusiasm Junior 3.06 -.008 -.185 c Senior -.0.16 3.07 - 178 Managerial -3.22* -3.79* 3.25 MSW = .406 a b Organisation Junior 2.86 -.130 -275 c Senior -2.32 2.99 -.144 Managerial -4.28* -2.76* 3.14 MSW = .505 a b Foresight Junior 2.70 -.1199 -.2.77 c Senior -2.18* 2.90 -.077 Managerial -2.64 0.91 2.98 MSW = 1.333 a b Expression on paper Junior 2.90 -.3.21 -.3.52 c Senior -3.44 3.22 -.031 Managerial -3.31 0.36 3.25 MSW = 1.384 a b Oral Expression Junior 2.95 -136 -2.21 c Senior -2.71 3.09 -.085 Managerial -3.86* -1.83 3.17 MSW = 400 Overall workers' a b Performance Junior 43.13 -1.107 -1.774 Senior -2.17* 44.23 -.668 Managerial -3.04* 1.41 44.90 MSW = 41.513 * Significant at .05 a. Group means are on the principal diagonal b. Differences between group means are above the diagonals. c. Fisher's LSD t - values are below the diagonals. 135 The result in table 4.4a (see appendix i) is a summary of the descriptive statistics of significant differences of workers' performance in public organisations across the three job cadre (junior, senior, managerial) of the respondents. Examination of table 4.4a shows that managerial cadre had the highest mean of overall workers' performance (44.90 ± 1.21), followed by senior cadre (44.23 ± 2.42) and lastly junior cadre (43.13 ± 2.22). A breakdown of the analysis in the same table 4.4a shows that the workers‘ performance sub-variables of enthusiasm (Mean = 3.25), organization (Mean = 3.14), foresight (Mean = 2.98), appreciation (Mean = 3.15), punctuality and regularity (Mean = 3.14), efficiency (Mean = 2.92), application of professional knowledge (Mean = 3.19), expression on paper (Mean = 3.25), and oral expression (Mean = 3.17), had the highest mean workers' performance in public organisation followed by their senior cadre and lastly by their junior cadre, with exception of workers' performance sub- variables of reliability under pressure which had the senior cadre having the highest mean workers' performance (Mean = 2.50), followed by managerial cadre (Mean = 2.77), and lastly junior cadre (Mean = 2.57), emotionality with the junior cadre having the highest mean performance (Mean = 2.83) followed managerial cadre (Mean = 2.70) and lastly senior cadres (Mean= 2.68); acceptance of responsibility with senior cadre having the highest mean performance (Mean = 2.92), followed by managerial cadre (Mean = 2.87) and lastly junior cadre (Mean = 2.81); relationship with public colleagues with the junior cadre having highest mean performance (Mean = 2.96), followed by managerial cadre (Mean = 2.94) and lastly senior cadre (Mean = 2.90). Adaptability, with senior cadre having the highest mean performance (Mean = 2.78), followed by the junior cadre (Mean = 2.76) and lastly by managerial cadre (Mean = 2.66), and effectiveness, with junior cadre having the highest mean performance (Mean = 2.99), followed by senior cadre (Mean = 2.87) and managerial cadre (Mean = 2.86). Result of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in Table 4.4b (see appendix ii) shows that there is significant difference in workers' performance of the respondents on the basis of job cadre in terms of enthusiasm (F = 8.115, P< .05), organisation (F = 9.265, P< .05), foresight (F = 3.721, P< .05), expression on paper (F = 7.00, P< .05), Oral expression (F= 7.516, P< .05) and overall workers' performance (F = 4.682, P< .05). The null hypothesis for these six out of fifteen cases was rejected because the 136 calculated F = ratios of 8.115, 9.265, 3.721, 7.00, 7.516 and 4.682 were found to be far greater than the critical F-ratio of 2.99 given .05 level of significance and with 2 and 1065 degrees of freedom. This finding implies that job cadre significantly influences workers' performance in terms of enthusiasm, organisation, foresight, expression on paper, oral expression and overall workers' performance in public organisations. Given the significant F- ratio for these six cases, a detailed multiple comparison test analysis using Fishers' Least significant difference (LSD) was done to locate the source of difference. Hence, the result presented in table 4.4c reveals that workers‘ performance in terms of enthusiasm, managerial cadre had significant higher workers' performance in terms of enthusiasm than junior cadre (t = -3.22) and Senior cadre (t = -3.79). Other pairwise comparison between junior and senior cadre was found to be insignificant. This finding implies that workers in the managerial cadre perform higher in terms of enthusiasm than junior and senior workers. With regards to workers‘ performance in terms of organisation, managerial cadre have a higher performance in organisation than junior cadre workers (t = -4.28) and senior cadre (t = -2.76). Similarly, senior cadre workers have a higher mean performance in terms of organisation than junior cadre workers (t = -2.76). This finding means that managerial cadre perform better in organisation than junior and senior cadre workers, senior cadre workers also perform higher than junior workers when come to organisation. Also, workers' performance in terms of foresight, the result in the Table 4.4c shows that managerial cadre had a higher mean workers' performance in terms of foresight than junior cadre workers ( t = 2.64). In the same vein senior cadre had a higher mean performance in terms of foresight than junior cadre (t = 2.78). Other pairwise comparison between managerial and senior cadre were found to be insignificant (t = 0.91). This finding means that managerial and senior cadre workers have more foresight than junior cadre workers in public organisations. When workers' performance in terms of expression on paper was considered, the result in Table 4.4c shows that managerial cadre had a significant higher mean performance in terms of expression on paper than the junior cadre (t = 3.31). Similarly, senior cadre had a significant higher mean performance in terms of expression on paper than junior cadre (t = -3.44). Other pairwise comparison between managerial and seniors was 137 found to be insignificant (t = 0.30). With regards to workers' performance in terms of oral expression, the result in table 4.4c showed that managerial cadre had a higher mean performance in oral expression than junior level cadre (t = -3.88). Similarly, senior level cadre had a higher mean performance in oral expression than junior level cadre (t = 2.71). Other pairwise comparison was found to be insignificant (t = -1.83). This finding means that workers in the senior and managerial cadre are better in oral expression than workers in the junior cadre. In terms of overall workers' performance in public organisations, the result in Table 4.4c revealed that managerial cadre had a significant highest mean overall performance than junior cadre (t= -3.04). Similarly, senior cadre workers had a higher value of overall performance than junior cadre workers (t = -2.17). Then other pairwise comparison between senior and managerial cadre was found to be insignificant (t = 1.41). The finding means that senior and managerial workers perform better in public organisations than junior cadre workers. It is evident that majority of the respondents are in senior cadre in Cross River State public service. This is consistent with the findings Lee and Benedict (2009) who concluded that there was a difference top managers and middle managers work performance. This result is also consistent with findings of Balay (2010) in Turkey, Kanchana and Pananchanatham (2012) in India and Amangala (2013) in Nigeria. 138 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study examined the extent to which teamwork and training variables predispose workers‘ performance of public organisations in cross river state, Nigeria. This chapter therefore, presents the summary of the study, conclusion, recommendations, and limitation to the study and contributions to knowledge as well as suggestions for further studies. 5.1 Summary The study employed the acceptable format of five chapters recommended by the University of Ibadan; beginning with the first chapter which is the general introduction up to the fifth chapters with the first chapter highlighting the introduction of the study and its background. The study comprehensively review past and related literature on the independent variables (teamwork and training variables of communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration, training needs identification, training plan, design, delivery and training evaluation respectively) and dependent variable (workers‘ performance). Also factors like age, gender, education level and marital status was reviewed. Besides, detailed review of concepts such as workers‘ performance, teamwork variables, training variables and civil/public service among others was extensively done. The review serve as an anchor point to the study in that it exposes the researcher to critically trace the antecedent and lapses in which the present study filled. Theoretical framework was critically was not left out. A conceptual framework guiding future research like the present one was developed. The study descriptive survey research design of ex-post facto type was employed. A total of 1,068 respondents were randomly selected to represent the entire population of public servants in Cross River state. Participants were 221 junior (GL. 1-6), 574 senior (GL. 7-12) and 273 managerial (GL. 13 & above) drawn from selected 10 ministries, 139 10 departments and 5 agencies of Cross River Civil Service were the sample pupolation for the study. Three set of questionnaire complemented with indepth- interview with 15 public servants across the three MDAs were used for data collection. The data collected from the study respondents were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlational matrix, and multiple regressions at 0.05 level of significance; while the qualitative data were content analysed. The findings this study revealed that:  teamwork and training variables had a significant joint prediction of workers‘ performance in public service in Cross River state;  there was a significant joint prediction of teamwork variables (communication, team-spirit, recognition, collaboration) of workers‘ performance in public service in Cross River state;  communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration had relative contributions to workers‘ performance in public service in Cross River State;  training variables (training need identification, training plan, training design, training delivery and training evaluation) had a significant joint prediction of workers‘ performance in public service in Cross River state;  training needs identification, plan, design, and evaluation had significant positive relationships with workers‘ performance in Cross River state;while training delivery did not.  Also, there was a difference in workers‘ performance at junior, senior and managerial cadre in public service in Cross River state. 5.2 Conclusion Workers‘ performance remains the primary element of effective functioning of most organisations, including those in government. Knowing what factors influence workers‘ performance is a prerequisite to improving performance. The results of this study have delineated teamwork (communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration) and training (training needs identification, plan, design and delivery and evaluation) variables as effective strategies in improving workers‘ performance. It is thus, concluded that adequate considerations should be given to these variables so as to improve workers‘ performance in either public organisation or private sector. Hence, the broad concept of teamwork and training variables retains its prominence as the primary function of workers‘ performance. 140 5.3 Recommendations Predicated on the objectives and findings of the study, the following recommendations become imperatives: i. A combination of teamwork and training variables should be seen as potent function of optimal workers‘ performance and organisational success. ii. Since training variables has significant influence on worker‘ performance, it is important to reinforce and apply training variables as part of organisational agendas in achieving organisational goals and greater increase in employees‘ knowledge, skills and abilities. Besides, training needs of each of the three cadres and that of the organisation should be analysed using proven instruments. Training design should be designed enlisting active participation of the personnel at varying levels irrespective of their qualification skill, knowledge, suitability to the job etc. Training evaluation should be enhanced in terms of content of the training and the methods employed, measuring performance of knowledge, skills and attitudes against the standard to ensure organisational and employees‘ goals are achieved. iii. There is need for communication, team-spirit, recognition and collaboration that characterised effective teamwork in the public organisation with a view of evoking performance among surbordinates. With support from upper level management employees work confidently in teams and increase productivity of the organisation. iv. In addition, attention should be given to employees‘ personal characteristics in motivating them to higher performance level. 5.4 Contributions to knowledge The contributions i. The findings of study established a significant contribution by advancing the teamwork and training variables literature to a better understanding of teamwork and training variables as essential ingredients for improving performance among workers in public organisations. ii. The study further established that practicing these variables in such organisations was able to yield better and long lasting results in this prominent area. 141 iii. The findings made a contribution by creating awareness and understanding that teamwork or training alone may not be able to realize its benefits if it is disconnected from other human resource management functions or if the organisation is dysfunctional in other areas (e.g. communication). iv. The study established that training or teamwork had the greatest impact when it is combined with other practices based on empirical research like this. v. The findings of this study can be used as a guideline by the management of public organisations to upgrade the effectiveness of teamwork and training programmes in their organisations. 5.5 Limitations to the study This study has some limitations like any other research. Time and scope constraints limited administration of the survey to one state public organisation employees: Cross River. Public organisation employees in other states/geopolitical zone were not included as parts of thee sample in this study. The federal public servants were not covered by the study. While this constraint could limit the potential generalization to the study to the broader population of government workers, the research approach and factors identified provide a solid basis for a wider survey. Beside, though teamwork and training variables portrayed a big portion of the variance in workers‘ performance, there is still a part of the variance left unexplain. The study focused on four teamwork variables; whereas there are several component of teamwork such as trust which is a key predictor for team performance, mutual support, coordination, and value diversity are all essential component of teamwork that can exert positive influence on performance. Due to the scope constraint, we did not incorporate these components in the study. Apart from this, the non payment of staff salaries for over three months in the state couple with the busy schedules of some of the respondents and their social responsibilities made it very challenging for them to respond to the questionnaires in time and to return them collation and data analysis. This further reduced the returns rate of questionnaires. However, inspite of the above limitations, the results and findings as well as recommendations accruing from them does not in any way affected and invalidated by the afore listed limitations. 142 5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies The limitations and strengths of this study offer guidelines for further studies in this or related topics. i. A study scope targeting several states or another individual state would help to generalize the findings in this area of research. Of course, similar studies in other geo-political or countries would yield useful insight into the generalisation potential of these results across cultures. ii. 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Human Resource Development Quarterly 20: 331-351. 176 Appendices Appendix 1 Summary of Descriptive Statitics Table 4.5a: A Summary of the Descriptive statistics of significant differences in workers’ performance of the respondent across Job Cadres Workers’ Job cadre N Mean Standard Standard performance Deviation Error Enthusiasm Junior 221 3.06 .60720 .04084 (EN) Senior 574 3.07 .69913 .02918 Managerial 273 3.25 .51113 .03094 Total 1068 3.11 .64131 .01962 Organisation Junior 221 2.86 .79752 .05365 (ORG) Senior 574 2.99 .72476 .03025 Managerial 273 3.14 .59628 .03609 Total 1068 3.00 .71598 .02191 Foresight (FO) Junior 221 2.70 .73960 .04986 Senior 574 2.90 .1.44578 .06035 Managerial 273 2.98 .60909 .03686 Total 1068 2.88 1.15755 .03544 Appreciation Junior 221 2.97 .56342 .03790 (AP) Senior 574 3.01 1.08368 .04523 Managerial 273 3.15 1.92969 .11679 Total 1068 3.04 1.28445 .03930 Reliable under Junior 221 2.57 .85285 .05737 pressure (RP) Senior 574 2.80 1.44386 .06027 Managerial 273 2.77 .76196 .04612 Total 1068 2.75 1.19383 .03653 Punctuality and Junior 221 3.13 .66896 .04500 Regularity (PR) Senior 574 3.11 .67988 .02838 Managerial 273 3.14 .74751 .04524 Total 1068 3.12 .69502 .02127 177 Efficiency (EF) Junior 221 2.73 .64402 .04332 Senior 574 2.91 1.41862 .05921 Managerial 273 2.92 .78446 .04748 Total 1068 2.88 1.15276 .03527 Application of Junior 221 3.10 2.68742 .14041 professional Senior 574 3.17 .68179 .02846 knowledge Managerial 273 3.19 .66827 .04045 Total 1068 3.10 1.12443 .03441 (APK) Expression on Junior 221 2.90 .77989 .05246 paper (EP) Senior 574 3.22 1.45371 .06068 Managerial 273 3.25 .69016 .04177 Total 1068 3.16 1.18316 .03620 Oral Expression Junior 221 2.95 .65209 .04386 (OE) Senior 574 3.09 .65428 .02731 Managerial 273 3.17 .56737 .03434 Total 1068 3.08 .63660 .01948 Emotionality Junior 221 2.83 2.25039 .15138 (EM) Senior 574 2.68 .83657 .03492 Managerial 273 2.70 .82464 .04991 Total 1068 2.72 1.26379 .03867 Acceptance of Junior 221 2.81 .71157 .04787 Responsibility Senior 574 2.92 .78353 .03270 (AR) Managerial 273 2.87 .72572 .04392 Total 1068 2.89 .75519 .02311 Relations with Junior 221 2.96 .69971 .04707 public Senior 574 2.90 .72229 .03015 colleagues Managerial 273 2.94 .67808 .04104 Total 1068 2.92 .70648 .02162 (RPC) Adaptability Junior 221 2.76 .76801 .05166 Senior 574 2.78 .70481 .02942 Managerial 273 2.66 .69398 .04200 Total 1068 2.75 .71682 .02193 Effectiveness Junior 221 2.97 .67365 .04531 (EFF) Senior 574 2.87 .77392 .03230 Managerial 273 2.86 .71551 .04330 Total 1068 2.89 .73993 .02264 178 Appendix 2 ANOVA Table Table 4.4b: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showing the significant differences in workers’ performance across job cadres of the respondents Sum of Mean Variables Squares df Square F Sig. EN Between Groups 6.587 2 3.294 8.115* .000 Within Groups 432.247 1065 .406 Total 438.834 1067 ORG Between Groups 9.354 2 4.677 9.265* .000 Within Groups 537.623 1065 .505 Total 546.977 1067 FO Between Groups 9.922 2 4.961 3.721* .025 Within Groups 1418.434 1064 1.333 Total 1428.356 1066 AP Between Groups 4.754 2 2.377 1.442 .237 Within Groups 1755.594 1065 1.648 Total 1760.348 1067 RP Between Groups 8.232 2 4.116 2.898 .056 Within Groups 1512.495 1065 1.420 Total 1520.727 1067 PR Between Groups .117 2 .058 .120 .887 Within Groups 515.302 1065 .484 Total 515.419 1067 EF Between Groups 6.113 2 3.056 2.306 .100 Within Groups 1411.785 1065 1.326 Total 1417.898 1067 APK Between Groups 2.615 2 1.307 1.034 .356 Within Groups 1346.429 1065 1.264 Total 1349.044 1067 EP Between Groups 19.381 2 9.690 7.000* .001 Within Groups 1474.271 1065 1.384 Total 1493.652 1067 OE Between Groups 6.019 2 3.009 7.516* .001 Within Groups 426.397 1065 .400 Total 432.416 1067 EM Between Groups 4.047 2 2.024 1.268 .282 Within Groups 1700.120 1065 1.596 Total 1704.168 1067 AR Between Groups 2.092 2 1.046 1.837 .160 Within Groups 606.425 1065 .569 Total 608.517 1067 RPC Between Groups .841 2 .421 .843 .431 Within Groups 531.708 1065 .499 Total 532.550 1067 ADA Between Groups 2.846 2 1.423 2.779 .063 Within Groups 545.404 1065 .512 Total 548.250 1067 EFF Between Groups 1.892 2 .946 1.731 .178 Within Groups 582.290 1065 .547 Total 584.183 1067 WPR Between Groups 388.758 2 194.379 4.682 .009 Within Groups 44211.500 1065 41.513 179 Sum of Mean Variables Squares df Square F Sig. EN Between Groups 6.587 2 3.294 8.115* .000 Within Groups 432.247 1065 .406 Total 438.834 1067 ORG Between Groups 9.354 2 4.677 9.265* .000 Within Groups 537.623 1065 .505 Total 546.977 1067 FO Between Groups 9.922 2 4.961 3.721* .025 Within Groups 1418.434 1064 1.333 Total 1428.356 1066 AP Between Groups 4.754 2 2.377 1.442 .237 Within Groups 1755.594 1065 1.648 Total 1760.348 1067 RP Between Groups 8.232 2 4.116 2.898 .056 Within Groups 1512.495 1065 1.420 Total 1520.727 1067 PR Between Groups .117 2 .058 .120 .887 Within Groups 515.302 1065 .484 Total 515.419 1067 EF Between Groups 6.113 2 3.056 2.306 .100 Within Groups 1411.785 1065 1.326 Total 1417.898 1067 APK Between Groups 2.615 2 1.307 1.034 .356 Within Groups 1346.429 1065 1.264 Total 1349.044 1067 EP Between Groups 19.381 2 9.690 7.000* .001 Within Groups 1474.271 1065 1.384 Total 1493.652 1067 OE Between Groups 6.019 2 3.009 7.516* .001 Within Groups 426.397 1065 .400 Total 432.416 1067 EM Between Groups 4.047 2 2.024 1.268 .282 Within Groups 1700.120 1065 1.596 Total 1704.168 1067 AR Between Groups 2.092 2 1.046 1.837 .160 Within Groups 606.425 1065 .569 Total 608.517 1067 RPC Between Groups .841 2 .421 .843 .431 Within Groups 531.708 1065 .499 Total 532.550 1067 ADA Between Groups 2.846 2 1.423 2.779 .063 Within Groups 545.404 1065 .512 Total 548.250 1067 EFF Between Groups 1.892 2 .946 1.731 .178 Within Groups 582.290 1065 .547 Total 584.183 1067 WPR Between Groups 388.758 2 194.379 4.682 .009 Within Groups 44211.500 1065 41.513 Total 44600.257 1067 180 Appendix 3 Cover Letter DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN NIGERIA Dear Respondent (s), This questionnaire is designed to collect data on ―Teamwork and Training Variables as Predictors of Workers‘ Performance in public organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria‖. All information given will remain confidential and used only for research purposes. your participation is voluntary, and indeed your name is not required, but for the ease of analysis please indicates your personal details as presented in the questionnaire. Your opinions, precious time and participation will be a great contribution towards the noble cause of knowledge creation. Thanks for your cooperation. Anne Emmanuel OMORI Personal Information Ministry/Department/Agency: ........................................................................................ Put a tick ( ) in the space that is most appropriate for you. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ] Marital Status: (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Separated [ ] Age: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Educational Level: (a) primary school [ ] (b) secondary school [ ] (c) Post- secondary [ ] (d) professional courses [ ] (e) no formal education [ ] 6. Designation: ............................................................................................................ 7. Years of Experience: ............................................................................................... 8. Job Cadre: …………………………………………………………………… 181 Appendix 4 TEAMWORK VARIABLES QUESTIONNAIRE Please complete the following questionnaire by placing a check mark {/} in the box that corresponds to your level of agreement from strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D) to strongly disagree (SD). Please answer every question and select only one response for each question. s/no Items SA A D SD Communication 1 I always listen to hear my co-workers‘ opinion about a given task in my work place. 2 I frequently communicate with my superior on any difficult issue at the workplace. 3 I verbally verify any information that I received from my co-workers before acting on it. 4 I am always willing to convey my ideas to colleagues in writing to help us make collective decision at the work place. 5 I regularly keep my co-workers informed about useful information for the benefit of achieving the organisation set goals. Team Spirit 6 I always relate openly with my co-workers irrespective of their background. 7 I am always ready to work with my co-workers toward a common goal in the work place. 8 I often display strong loyalty toward my fellow workers in the organisation. 9 I tend to disagree with my fellow workers on what is important to the organisation. 10 I have similar goals with my fellow worker in the organisation. Recognition 11 I am always encouraged whenever am being praise in my 182 work place. 12 I publicly recognize the good work of my fellow workers. 13 I sometimes do not celebrate the success of others in my workplace. 14 I feel motivated when frequently praised verbally or written for my achievement. 15 I tend to be less concern when my good effort is not well appreciated. Collaboration 16 I always am willing to share work resources with co- workers for good results. 17 I often share work knowledge with others in my work place. 18 Most times, I am actively involved in assisting others when there is problem. 19 I always standby others when there is a problem to solve in the work place. 20 I am always sensitive to the needs of other workers in the work place. 183 TRAINING VARIABLES QUESTIONNAIRE Please use the following response scale to fill the table below by ticking the number which presents the most appropriate answer as illustrated below. Kindly be as objectives as possible. Extremely true = 4, true = 3, untrue = 2, extremely untrue = 1 s/no Items 4 3 2 1 Training needs identification 1 Training need identification is considered primary task before designing any training programme in this organisation. 2 Performance appraisal is used as basis to identify my training needs. 3 Training needs assessment is carried out every year in relation to organisation goals. 4 Self-report questionnaire is use to identify workers‘ training needs in the organisation. 5 Training needs assessment is not often carried out every year in relation to employee competence gaps in the work place. Training plan 6 When planning for training programme in the organisation I am sometimes communicated to. 7 The trainers are always included in the training course. 8 Course content required for training programme is usually considered during the planning process in the organisation. 9 Training lesson is developed to help me stay focus during the training course. 10 Previously developed training plan is repeated in training course Training design 11 I always go with a clear understanding of the skills I am expected to acquire from the training course. 12 The training course is on the basis of carefully identified developmental needs. 184 13 Sufficient time is allocated to a training course in the organisation. 14 Training course is designed at level of my abilities. 15 Training courses content sometimes do not match my job requirement. Training delivery 16 Lecture method is used in presenting training materials. 17 On-the- job training is always encouraged for workers in the organisation. 18 The trainers are able to teach the subject matter thoroughly. 19 My interest is often encouraged on the topic of the training course. 20 Copies of training materials are often given to me before the training course commence. Training Evaluation 21 There is a well defined mechanism for evaluating training courses in the work place. 22 Training courses are evaluated based on well defined objectives of training programme in my work place. 23 Sufficient follow up of learning outcomes are made after training courses in the organisation. 24 Training courses are evaluated against my job objectives. 25 Training evaluation is done every year in my organisation. 185 WORKERS’ PERFORMANCE RATING SCALE Instruction: Please rate the worker on the following practices and behaviours by ticking () the number which best describes the worker in question. Kindly be as objective as possible. Use the following format as a guide. Excellent (Exc) = 4; Very good (VG) = 3; Good (G) = 2; Poor (P) =1 s/no PERFORMANCE DESCRIPTION 4 3 2 1 1 Enthusiasm Very enthusiastic warm and understanding 2 Organisation Well-organised, business like and oriented 3 Foresight Stimulating and imaginative anticipates problems and develop solutions in advance 4 Appreciation Appreciates others‘ feeling and needs. 5 Reliable under Performs competently under pressure pressure 6 Punctuality and Regular punctual, always regularly regular at work. 7 Efficiency He/she achieves his/her goals at minimal cost. 8 Application of Highly proficient in the professional practical application of knowledge professional knowledge. 9 Expression on Written work, always clear and paper thorough. 10 Oral expression Put his point across clearly, convincingly, and concisely 11 Emotionality Emotionally balance even at odd times. 12 Acceptance of Seeks and accepts responsibility responsibilities at all time. 13 Relations with the Sensitive to other people‘s public colleagues feeling tactful and understanding of personal problems, earn great respect. 14 Adaptability His/her ability to change the work process/organisation. 15 Effectiveness Successfully meets the needs of customers. 186 Appendix 5 Schedule Interview for the immediate supervisors of junior cadre, senior and managerial cadre of Cross River State Public Service This interview guide seeks your opinion on the influence of teamwork and training on workers‘ performance. Your response will be kept confidential. Thank you. 1. From your observation, do employees perform better when working together as a team or when working individually? 2. Would you affirm that the recognition accrued to the employees in your organisation aid them in accomplishing tasks on time and successfully? 3. In your opinion, do think good communication skills possessed by employees enhanced them in performing tasks effectively? 4. Do you think collaboration enables employees to coordinate their work effectively? 5. Does team-spirit help employees to achieve common organisation goal through improved performance? 6. In your own view, do you think systematic attempts to assess the training needs of the organisation, identify the job requirements to be trained and identify who needs training and the kind of training to be delivered could help employee to perform properly in tasks? 7. In your assessment, could you please attest that improved individual performance is as a result of effective training plan? 8. Does training design have an effect on employee performance? 9. Would you affirm that that the use of methods of training that can support trainees‘ contributions could in improved employees‘ performance? 10. Do you think evaluating training programmes improves the trained employees‘ performance? 11. Would you agree that there is performance balance in the entire three job cadre (Junior, senior and managerial) in your organisation? 187