2 nd Edition
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
METHODOLOGY OF BASIC 
AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Second Edition
Edited by
A.I. Oiayinka,
V. O. Taiwo,
A. Raji-Oyelade and 
I. P. Farai
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Published by:
The Postgraduate School 
University of Ibadan, 
Ibadan.
E-mail: postgrad@mail.ui.edu.ng
Website: http://www.postgraduateschool.ui.edu.ng
Published 2006
All Rights Reserved
ISBN 978 - 37883 - 9 - 6
Printed by: Dabfol Printers, Ibadan. 
0803-449-5517
u
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Contents
PAGE
Contributors iii
Foreword vii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
1. Definition, Spectrum and Types of Research
I. Fawole, F. O. Egbokhure, (). A. Itiola.
A. I. Odeiide and A.I. Olayinka 1
2. The Link between Everyday Reasoning, Scientific 
Reasoning, Scientific Research and Theory
S. A. Babarinde 19
3. Design and Development of Conceptual Frame 
work in Research
0. C. Aworh, J. B. Babalola, A. S. Gbadegesin,
1. M. Isiugo-Abanihe, E. O. Oladiran and
F. Y. Okunmadewa 3 7
4. Preparing a Research Proposal
A. 1. Olayinka and B. E. Owumi 53
5. Use of Logical Framew ork Approach in Research 
Proposal Writing For Grants
B.O. Agbeja 83
6. Systematic Collection of Data
G. A. T. Ogundipe, E. O. Lucas and A. 1. Sanni 95
7. Analysis of Qualitative Data
A. S. Jegede 113
8. Use of a Research Questionnaire
J. O. Osiki 133
xii
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
9. Statistical Analysis and Inferences.
E. A. Bamgboye, E. O. Lucas, B. O. Agbeja, G. 
Adewale, B. O. Ogunleye and 1. Fawole 151
10. Data Retrieval and Use of ICT in Research
O. A. Fakolujo 203
11. Use of Computers and the Internet for 
Research Purposes
O. A. Bamiro, A. E. Oluleye and M. A. Tiamiyu 215
12. Information and Document Retrieval on the
Internet
A. O. Osofisan 235
13. Writing a Phd Thesis
A. I. Olayinka and R. Oriaku 245
14. The University of Ibadan Manual of Style 
(UIMS) for Thesis Writing
A. Raji-Oyelade, T. O. Alonge and
E.O. Olapade-Olaopa 267
15. Ethics in Research
O. Obono, A. Arowojolu, A. J. Ajuwon,
G. A. T. Ogundipe, J. A. Yakubu and
A. G. Falusi 281
16. Challenges in Conducting Research in 
Developing Countries
G.O.S. Ekhaguere, A. I. Olayinka, VO. Tamo
T. O. Alonge and O.M. Obono 321
Appendixes 335
Index
xiii
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
13
WRITING A PhD THESIS
Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
D efinitions
Thesis
The word ‘thesis’ is a common term so well rooted in schol­
arly talk and presentations that one often wonders if the mean­
ing is as universal as it sounds. Thesis simply means “a disser­
tation resulting from original research - especially when sub­
mitted for the award o f a degree or diploma”. It is a complete 
record o f the research done for a postgraduate degree. The 
emphasis is on originality and research (hypothesis, idea, line 
o f argument).
Research
Research is another word that academicians constantly use in 
various contexts. It can be summed up as “a systematic inves­
tigation to establish facts aimed at increasing the sum of knowl­
edge” [Chambers English Dictionary 1990) and the Collins 
Dictionary and Thesaurus 1992)]. Doing research involves 
three main steps, namely:
• Starting research,
• Managing research, and 
Reporting research.
Starting Research
Starting research involves the following:
Clarifying research problem;
• Establishing researcn objectives;
• Formulating research questions;
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
244 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
Outlining research methods;
Conducting literature review; and 
Drafting a concept proposal.
Statement of the Problem
There has to be a description o f research topic. This will in­
clude:
Background information,
Evidence/prior research.
High priority, and
• Magmtude o f the impact.
Research Objectives
The research objective deals with the question “what is to be 
achieved through research? ”
• Provide basis for detailed design o f the research; 
Allow evaluation of the research; and 
Provide criteria to measure the outcomes.
The general objectives give the overall aim of the research. 
There should be only one or two. On the other hand, the 
specific objectives are the concrete processes in the research, 
which are directly addressable by the methodology and which 
are followed in order to achieve the general objective(s).
For example, the general objective in a doctoral thesis 
could be to examine the fundamental determinants o f the real 
exchange in Nigeria, while the specific objectives are to:
analyse the determinants o f the real exchange rate in 
Nigeria,
assess their relative effects on real exchange rate, and 
evaluate the effects o f alternative policy measures on 
the real exchange rate (Yekini 2004).
Research Questions
Research questions are derived from the research objectives. 
They provide direction of the research methods, i.e. 
hypothesis tests - 
data requirement/acquisition 
data analysis
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 245
Questions should be about size or magnitude, order, prob­
ability (error and bias), relationship or causality.
Research Concept and Framework
The various dimensions of research include among others the 
following:
Examination/investigation
Experimentation
Exploration
Fact finding
Groundwork
Inquiry
Probing
Scrutiny
Analysis ^
>  ¥
It is, therefore, implied that the framework of a sound 
research will include the following:
adequate experimental design and conceptual frame­
work;
adequate knowledge of previous work carried out by 
other workers in that field of study; 
competence in executing the proposed concept or 
research process;
•. orderly data collection which may involve bench work, 
clinical tests, the use of well authenticated question­
naires (instruments) etc.;
analysis of data to pave the way for a balanced inter­
pretation of the results;
a sound argument and presentation of the emerging 
facts to highlight the specific nature of the contribu­
tion of the research to knowledge.
W riting a thesis
How do I know what I think 
Until I see what I say?
-E.M. Forester, in Scott and Garrison (2002:17)
This quotation reminds us that any form of writing is ba­
sically an act of communicating not only with others but, per­
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
246 Olayinka, A. /. and Oriaku R. O.
haps more importantly, with ourselves. In other words, writ­
ing is one of the best ways by which we learn. The common 
notion that we write in order to indicate what we already 
know, or that learning ends when we begin to write for the 
benefit of the reader, does not totally reflect reality. On the 
contrary, we continue to learn even as we write, often com­
ing to a new understanding of our subject.
I believe in miracles in every area of life ex­
cept writing. Experience has shown me that 
there are no miracles in writing. The only thing 
that produces good writing is hard work.
I. S. Singer, in Lunsford and Connors (1992).
The second quotation reminds us of the obvious but often 
ignored fact that writing is 90 percent perspiration and 10 
percent inspiration. Taken together, the two quotations re­
mind us of what we need to do as we set out to put pen to 
paper to report our study or the accompanying abstract. These 
include the following in a general sense (Scott & Garrison, 
17-21).
When you set out to write:
Remember that you learn by writing.
Challenge yourself- Remember that writing is a strug- 
gle.
Remember: everybody has writing skills. Yours will 
get better the more you use them.
Maintain enthusiasm for your work.
Challenge yourself; think usefully about your topic.
As you keep to these rules, it is important to note that all 
aspects of thesis writing, including abstracting, seek to do 
two things: they seek: 
to inform and 
to persuade
Emphasis in the blend shifts from one goal to the other as 
the writer moves from one task to the other.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 247
Elements of Persuasive Writing
The goal of informative (or expository) writing is simply To 
impart information about the subject of investigation. Persua­
sive writing seeks to convince the reader of the author’s par­
ticular point o f view or to influence the audience’s opinion. 
Obviously, this can be done only through a careful blend of 
substance or content (information) with form or style o f com­
munication. Key elements here include the following (Scott 
& Garrison, 22-28).
Define your purpose.
Know what you want to say and keep an eye on your 
own biases.
Define your audience.
Be inventive in the discovery and recovery of what 
you already know about your topic.
Do not wait for inspiration -  always set time limits for 
yourself.
Brainstorm with yourself -  compile all ideas that oc­
cur to you on the topic as quickly as possible. 
Organize your thoughts.
Be flexible as your writing progresses. Do not be a 
slave to your initial assumptions.
Stay obj ective and self-critical.
With the concept of a research at the background, the first 
step in writing a thesis is the choice o f a title. This title should 
be clever, brief and thought-provoking. Examples of care- 
fully-chosen PhD titles in the University of Ibadan as consid­
ered and approved by the Executive Committee of the Post­
graduate School in January 2005 are given below:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
248 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
O r ig in a l  t i t le M o d if ie d  t i t le %  r e d u c t io n R e fe re n c e
L u c a n  te a c h in g  on  T h e  R e d e e m e d  14 O g u n to y in b o -  
th e  p o o r  in  th e  C h r is t ia n  A te re  (2 0 0 5 )
c o n te x t  o f  th e  C h u rc h  o f  G o d ’s 
R e d e e m e d  C h r is t ia n  p ro g ra m m e  fo r  th e  
C h u r c h  o f  G o d ’s p o o r  in  L a g o s  in  th e  
p r o g ra m m e s  fo r  th e  c o n te x t  o f  L u c a n  
p o o r  in  L a g o s  T e a c h in g  (1 8  
(W o rd  c o u n t:  2 1 ) w o rd s )
C u s to m a ry  la n d  la w  E v o lu t io n , d e v e lo p ­ 8 A d e k u n le
in  s o u th -w e s te rn  m e n t  a n d  t r a v a i l s  o f  (2 0 0 5 )
N ig e r ia :  re le v a n c e  c u s to m a ry  la n d  law  
a n d  n e e d  fo r  w id e r  in  s o u th -w e s te rn  
a p p l ic a t io n  N ig e r ia  (11  w o rd s )
(1 2  w o rd s )
G lo b a l i s a t io n  an d  G lo b a l is a tio n  a n d  th e  45 A d e n u g b a
la b o u r :  a  c a s e  s tu d y  N ig e r ia n  L a b o u r  (2 0 0 5 )
o f  th e  N ig e r ia n  C o n g re s s  (6  w o rd s )
L a b o u r  C o n g re s s  
(11 w o rd s )
O u tc o m e  o f  r e p ro d u ­
c t iv e  h e a l th  e d u c a  U n w a n te d  p r e g n a n c y  3 9 A d e g b e n ro
t io n a l  in te rv e n t io n  a n d  d r o p - o u t  ra te  (2 0 0 5 )
o n  d r o p - o u t  ra te  d u e  a m o n g  ru ra l  s e c o n d ­
to  u n w a n te d  p r e g n a  a ry  s c h o o l s tu d e n ts  in  
n c y  a m o n g  s e le c te d  O s u n  S ta te , N ig e r ia  
ru ra l  s e c o n d a ry  (1 4  w o rd s )
s c h o o l  s tu d e n ts  
in  O s u n  S ta te , 
N ig e r ia  
(2 3  w o rd s )
It can be observed that in each case the modified title is shorter 
and more concise than the original title.
Put together, therefore, to write a dissertation based on 
an original idea in a chosen field, that is systematically pack­
aged to enhance the body of knowledge is not a trivial job. 
The “writing-up” is mainly a compilation of and presentation 
of the emerging new facts from the research. This write-up 
must have a focus in which are embedded the following:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 249
New knowledge,
Understanding and appreciation of the field of study. 
Critical analysis of related work (as it relates to the 
field of study).
A package information designed for the benefit of the 
reader and not for the writer 
A footnote to point out the direction that the work 
will go from where the candidate has stopped.
The hallmarks of writing a doctoral thesis include the
following:
(a) Have a “thesis” of the thesis. A doctoral thesis should 
be summarized in at least one sentence. This avoids 
long, tortuous repetition which ultimately confuses 
the candidate.
(b) Clearly define the research problem at a very early 
state in the research process and find the solution as 
the thesis is written.
(c) Start writing a first draft early, based on preliminary 
conceptual maps. This will need revising, editing and 
re-writing. This editing/correction helps the super­
visor convey a message to the candidate right from 
the outset.
Layout of a Doctoral Thesis
The ultimate aim, however, is to:
1. present the hypothesis and research problems that have 
arisen probably from previous works,
2. highlight the results of the methods employed in tack­
ling them,
3. present the results o f the method employed,
4. interpret these results in the light of the new solutions 
and/or findings,
5. conclude the research based on the results, bring to 
the fore the problems yet unsolved and proffer the 
way forward.
A typical outline of a doctoral thesis is shown below:
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
250 Olayinka, A. /. and Oriaku R. O.
Q u estio n s /issu es  to be  C hapter/section  o f  th esis
addressed
W hy am  I d o in g  it? Introduction  /  S ig n ifica n ce
W hat is know n?  Literature rev iew  
W hat is unknow n? R ev iew  o f  research / 
Identify ing gaps
W hat do I hor»e to  d iscover? A im s
H ow  am I g o in g  to find it? M eth o d o lo g y
W hat have 1 found, and w hat R esu lts D iscu ssio n
d o es  it m ean? Or w hat do  
they  m ean?
S o  w hat? W hat are the C o n clu sio n s
p o ss ib le  app lications or 
recom m en d ation s?
W hat contribution  d oes it 
m ake to  k n o w led g e?  
W hat next?
This layout sums up the thought process and arrangement of 
facts. It may be followed in this pattern in some disciplines or 
it could be implied as it provides for easy sequencing and 
logical reasoning.
Abstract
An abstract is a summary (usually not more than 500 words) 
of the contents of a thesis or any other document. An ab­
stract, by definition, is both informative and persuasive.
The dos and don ’ts o f  abstract writing
Stress content and not intent in a four-part outline 
indicating:
-  The principal obj ectives and scope of the research 
(What was done? Why was it done?).
-  Methodology (How was it done?).
-  Results (What was found?), and
-  The principal conclusions (Significance of find­
ings?).
Assume your reader is knowledgeable.
Avoid the use of passive voice.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 251
Keep the abstract short.
You can name authorities but make no reference to 
specific literature.
An Example of a well-written abstract is shown below 
(Yekini 2004)
ABSTRACT
There has been persistent depreciation of the naira exchange 
rate since the mid-1980s. Although the monetary authorities 
have implemented various policy reform measures, a stable 
exchange rate is yet to be achieved. Against this background, 
the study examines the fundamental determinants of the real 
exchange rate in Nigeria. The specific objectives are to: ana­
lyse the determinants o f the real exchange rate in Nigeria; as­
sess their relative effects on real exchange rate; and evaluate 
the effects of alternative policy measures on the real exchange 
rate.
Compared to previous research, this study breaks new 
ground by evaluating the effects of such fundamental deter­
minants as measures of capital flow, domestic capital accu­
mulation, price of crude oil, etc. and by carrying out a simula­
tion exercise aimed at gauging the effects o f policy changes.
This study used a macroeconomic model composed of six 
equations. Ordinary least square technique was employed for 
the estimation o f the model equations over the period 1970 to 
2000. This enabled the study to cover the policy shifts over 
the periods before, during and after structural adjustment. A 
simulation exercise was also conducted to test the effects of 
alternative policy measures on real exchange rate. The simu­
lation exercise was conducted using nominal exchange rate, 
aggregate credit and domestic capital accumulation based on 
government policy targets. These policy targets were based 
on the macroeconomic environment in the respective fiscal 
years. Time series properties of the variables used in the model 
were examined. Further, long run ̂ properties of the variables 
were examined. The existence ofco-integrating relationship 
informed the estimation o f short run dynamic model.
The results revealed that the major determinants o f real 
exchange rate are terms of trade, government consumption of
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
252 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
non-tradables, domestic capital accumulation, growth in do­
mestic credit, capital flow, nominal exchange rate, techno­
logical progress and crude oil prices. The terms of trade are 
negatively related to real exchange rate at 5%level, and this 
is an indication that improvement in terms of trade leads to 
appreciation of real exchange rate. Also the effect of oil price 
on real exchange rate movement is negative at 1 % level. This 
shows that increase in crude oil earnings leads to apprecia­
tion of real exchange rate.
Further, the results reveal that improvement in capital 
inflow will appreciate real exchange rate while nominal ex­
change rate appreciation leads to appreciation of real exchange 
rate. The in-sample simulation results show that nominal ex­
change rate depreciation leads to the depreciation of real ex­
change rate, while growth in domestic credit leads to appre­
ciation of real exchange rate. The out-of-sample simulation 
results show that growth in these variables leads to deprecia­
tion of the real exchange rate.
The overall lesson from these findings is that the design 
of fiscal and monetary policies (which affects some of the 
significant determinants of real exchange), and their imple­
mentation should be more consistent and effective if persist­
ent depreciation of naira exchange rate is to be addressed.
Keywords: real exchange rate determinants, macroeconomic 
policy reforms, Nigeria 
Word count'. 480
Introduction
What is the topic and why is it important? State the problem(s) 
as simply as you can. Remember that you have been working 
on this project for a few years, so you will be very conversant 
with it. Try to step back mentally and take a broader view of 
the problem. How does it fit into the broader world of your 
discipline?
The introduction should contain information on the fol­
lowing issues:
Background to the research 
Research problem and hypotheses
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 253
Justification for the research
Methodology
Outline o f the thesis
Definitions
Conclusions
Literature Review
What is literature review about?
Literature review serves as the source o f specific 
knowledge, research topic, conceptual framework and 
research methods.
It is all about conducting information search to solve 
a research problem.
It acts as a bridge between what is known and un­
known about the research problem.
• It is a vehicle for illustrating why and how the study 
can be carried out in terms of methodology and the 
current state o f knowledge in the problem area.
The literature review should contain only prior research 
works and advanced materials. Review o f basic theories is a 
pre-requisite for the research not a part o f it.
Sources of Literature
The sources o f literature in a research will include the fol­
lowing:
Theses, dissertations 
Journals
Academic working papers 
Advanced textbooks or monographs
• Encyclopedias, Handbooks.
The following guidelines are useful in preparing a litera­
ture review. These are not to be followed question by ques­
tion, but the researcher should let them simply inform his/her 
thinldng.
What issues does the writer regard as pertinent? 
What seems to be the purpose o f the article?
What assumptions about the topic or theory seem to
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
254 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
underlie the article?
How do these assumptions compare with the assump­
tions o f others who have studied the same topic from 
other perspectives?
What is the value of this approach i.e. in what context 
might this approach be useful?
What sort of methodology did the scholar use?
What is your assessment of the article?
Questions to be addressed by the literature review section 
The literature review section of a PhD thesis should address 
the following four questions:
Where did the problem come from?
What is already known about the problem?
What are the methods used so far to solve the prob­
lem?
What suggestions do previous studies recommend for 
further studies?
A robust and insightful literature search that provides an­
swers to the above would not only enrich the understanding 
o f the researcher in relation to the research problem but also 
enables him/her to avoid the mistakes of previous studies. 
Case Study
For example, a thesis on Democracy, Governance and Hu­
man Rights in Africa grouped its review o f literature into the 
following sections: (Has s/he answered the four questions 
above?)
(i) Decentralization in African History: sketches the 
development of decentralization and thus trying 
to answer the question, ‘where did the problem 
come from?’
(ii) Why decentralize? Examining various justifications 
behind decentralization reforms. The section is also 
based on the review of literature in order to an­
swer the question of the origin of decentraliza­
tion.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 255
(iii) Dimensions of decentralization: Here the review 
looks into how decentralization is being structured 
around actors, powers and accountability relations. 
In other words, the section is reviewing literature 
in order to answer the question on what is already 
known about the problem.
(iv) Implementation of decentralization. Here the vari­
ous methods used so far to solve the problem of 
decentralization in the literature are explored in­
cluding the enabling environment, planning, over­
sight etc.
(v) The last section of the review sets research priori­
ties based on the gaps in knowledge identified in 
the previous sections.
Problems with Some PhD Theses
Unfortunately, the reviews of literature section in most 
doctoral theses are often clumsy, make dull reading 
and are excruciating torture for most examiners and 
readers.
If the review section is well written and documented it 
may be publishable with few editorial work and possi­
ble updating.
Matters Arising
Indeed some journals such as the Review o f  Educa­
tional Research are exclusively devoted to such criti­
cal retrospectives on scholarship.
Therefore, there is the need to provide some useful 
tips on how to write a good literature review section 
of a doctoral thesis.
Useful Tips on How to Write Literature Review Section o f a
Doctoral thesis
Keep up with the literature in your area of study and
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
256 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
make notes about important papers throughout the 
duration of your doctoral programme.
Read extensively in the area that either is directly or 
indirectly related to the topic of study. When you read 
about a topic related to your area of study, write down 
the following about what you have read. The title, 
author(s), year, volume and pages.
Make a concise summary of the main arguments in 
the literature you have read in your own words.
Do not concentrate on research findings when read­
ing research articles, thus overlooking valuable infor­
mation on methods etc.
Whatever arguments must be sustained in the review 
of the literature, there is no place for “Adeogun says 
this...” and “Livingstone says that..
Such paragraph-by-paragraph recital makes the lit­
erature review section very boring to read and has 
the tendency for dulling the senses. Note that a litera­
ture review is not just a catalogue of works.
Make sure you read relevant papers about your likely 
examiners or potential employers.
There is no limit to the number of papers to be in­
cluded in this section but all relevant papers read must 
be included in a logical order depending on the pur­
pose of study. For example, the review could be ap­
proached chronologically so that the trends in the 
development in the area of research could be followed.
Last part o f  the Literature Review section
In most cases, the concluding section of a review should be 
able to identify the gap in knowledge the doctoral student 
intends to fill.
Methodology
The methodology section of any doctoral thesis, whether it is 
an empirical research or not, must be able to answer the ques­
tion ‘How am I  going to do it?’. This section describes the 
ways the study was carried out, the instruments used and the 
analytical techniques used in the data analysis. It is the easi­
est section of the thesis to write because it usually contains
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Writing A PhD Thesis 257
the writing down o f what the researcher did and how he did 
it. Inmost science-based disciplines it is an important section 
because the methodology selected for a particular research 
determines to a large extent the quality o f data obtained.
Issues to address in Presentation of Methodology
The issues to he addressed in the section on methodology 
include the following:
The research design
The sources o f data (primary, secondary, archival etc.) 
The procedure for collecting the data, and 
The analysis o f data.
In general, the methodology section o f a doctoral the­
sis must provide a step-by-step set o f procedures used 
for conducting the investigations. The section must 
be written carefully, formally and in a logical order.
For most science-based and other empirical research, the 
methodological section must contain the following:
identification and description(s) o f the target popula­
tion and sampling technique used; 
presentation o f instruments and techniques for meas­
urement;
presentation o f a design for the collection o f data; 
presentation o f procedures for collecting and record­
ing data;
explanation o f data analysis procedures used; and 
development o f plans for contingencies such as sub­
ject mortality.
Results and Discussion
There are two major modes o f presentation o f results:
the pictorial and 
• the rhetorical.
The mode o f presentation o f results will vary from one 
discipline to another, from one research subject to another. 
The presentation o f results in Economics is likely to require 
the use of tables, graphs and diagrams; a thesis in Literature
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
258 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
or Religious Studies is less likely to contain these. [Some­
times the pictorial and rhetorical modes are used together 
because they are mutually supportive.]
To begin with, you need a thesis statement to enable 
you organize your results into a coherent body of in­
formation.
The thesis statement is an encapsulation of the details 
to come and the point of view of the researcher. [Hav­
ing a thesis statement helps you maintain focus on 
your research objective. The thesis statement could 
change or be modified several times in the course of 
the writing o f your draft(s) as fresh problems and 
insights emerge.]
Whatever is irrelevant to the thesis statement may dis­
tract you or weaken your discussion in the text; it 
should therefore be left out of the text. [This is often 
difficult for researchers because of the impression they 
stand to make with the accumulation of data. Such a 
sentimental attachment to data should be avoided by 
the researcher. He/she should be consoled by the fact 
that such materials which are left out are not neces­
sarily useless; they could ultimately form the kernel 
of other/postdoctoral publications.]
Results should be presented logically, if your points 
are to be made effectively.
For [you to achieve] coherence [which means stick­
ing together logically] (White 267), you need to fol­
low your outline. In that regard, the items should be 
arranged with regard to their connectedness. This will 
require that you organize them under sub-headings. 
Find the connections between the sub-divisions to ar­
rive at the coherence of the whole presentation. [To 
enhance coherence and fluency of your paper “you 
may need to add transitions (bridges) between sen­
tences and paragraphs or to define connections or 
contrasts” {Gibaldi 40}]
Organizational Plan
In discussing your results, decide on and always keep 
in mind the method(s) you intend to use in your pres-
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Writing A PhD Thesis 259
entation. This should be considered when you are 
drawing the outline of your thesis. That is to say that 
your outline will be determined by a consideration of 
your set objective and the approach by which you in­
tend to get there.
Do you want to define? To define something entails 
setting boundaries or limitations. A categorical (dic­
tionary-type of) definition requires that the item to be 
defined be identified as belonging to a certain class 
and is then distinguished from other members of that 
class. The advantage of this is that it makes for brevity 
and detachment. You could then go from this type of 
definition to a stipulative definition which goes be­
yond “the general meaning of the subject (item) to in­
clude particular insights or applications based on the 
writer’s own experience or reasoning.” This “places 
emphasis on the writer’s individual insights and expe­
rience with the subject in question” and enables him/ 
her elucidate and illuminate a concept. Writers fre­
quently use operational definitions whereby empha­
sis is moved from what the subject/item is to define 
what it does. There is also lexical definition whereby 
the writer examines the nature of the word itself, sup­
plying its etymology (theoretical or known origin) and 
possibly the evolution of its usage. For instance, a lexi­
cal definition of microscope would call attention to its 
derivation from the Latin word micro (Greek, micros), 
meaning ‘small’; and from the Latin word scopium, 
which was derived from the Greek word skopein, 
meaning ‘to see’.
Narrate: This involves the principle of storytelling, 
the presentation in the form of a story o f personal ex­
perience which is true, or of fiction, invented experi­
ence which gives the impression that it could be true. 
“Narration plays a vital role in informational writing... 
It is the rhetorical technique that conveys the history 
of the subject at hand.” “Since every subject has a his­
tory, historical narration is relevant to every subject,
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260 Olayinka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
without exception.” Illustrations (tables, diagrams, 
charts, maps, etc.) present data succinctly even picto- 
rially and so are interesting, even absorbing, but their 
effectiveness is enhanced when the same data are pre­
sented in an even more absorbing manner, as in a story. 
They make for greater involvement o f the audience/ 
reader than illustrations do.
Describe: Description has an evocative power which 
“enhances a reader’s involvement with the subject/ 
material.” This “makes it an important rhetorical tech­
nique for conveying information.” It may be used to 
enhance the reader’s “understanding o f a natural phe­
nomenon or process.” Description may include com­
parison: How is X similar to Y? How is X dissimilar 
to Y? Descriptions that answer such questions con­
tribute to a broader understanding o f the subject at 
hand].
Classify: This is a way of defining a subject by plac­
ing it in a category or class, before going on to distin­
guish it from other members o f that category/class. 
As a rhetorical technique, classification puts empha­
sis on the logical principles that reveal why the item in 
question belongs to one category and not to another. 
For example, living organisms are classified into fam­
ily, genus, species, order, class, phylum, kingdom, etc. 
Such a classification scheme simultaneously identifies 
an organism by its genus name and its species name, 
as well as demonstrates its relationship to other or­
ganisms.
Divide: This is another way o f defining a subject/ 
material by identifying its constituent parts, thus pro­
viding additional insight into its nature. For example, 
one can classify a tree by species - palm, oak, iroko, 
etc - even by subspecies -  date-palm, oil-palm and 
raffia-palm etc. But a particular tree is also talked about 
by dividing it into its parts: root system, trunk, leaves, 
etc. Usually these parts are referred to in terms of
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Writing A PhD Thesis 261
their “interrelationship into an organic whole.”
Argue: Argument is necessary when one seeks to 
validate or contradict an existing idea or position, often 
with the aid of supportive data. In other words, to 
argue entails providing reasons to show that some­
thing is true or untrue. In adopting this method, the 
onus is on the researcher to convince the reader about 
the validity of his stated position. When you argue, 
strive to convince your reader that your stance -  es­
pecially on a controversial issue -  is more sensible, 
more beneficial, and more ethical perhaps than the 
position taken by those with opposing views(White, 
160-1), hence the emphasis on logicality of presenta­
tion.
Analyse: A subject/material may be defined and clas­
sified, its appearance and function/value described and 
its historical background told but the reader would 
still not understand its process. This problem is solved 
by analysis which entails probing the nature of the 
subject with a view to determining how or why it 
works. The nature of a rock, its constituent elements, 
history, will not alone tell us why there is the phenom­
enon known as earthquake or how it occurs. But by 
describing the tensions inherent in the history and 
composition of the rock and the interpenetration be­
tween these and the larger environment a process is 
initiated which leads to earthquakes or volcanic erup­
tions, etc one is stressing cause and effect. This is the 
stuff o f analysis. When the subject is technical, rare 
or exotic, the analyst uses analogy: a comparison be­
tween the subject or phenomenon being analyzed and 
an object or phenomenon which is considered to be 
much more familiar to the reader. The use of appro­
priate and vivid diction facilitates analysis. An ana­
lytic write-up on a given subject identifies and de­
scribes the parts of that subject and then goes on to 
show how the parts interact to create the whole (White 
111).
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262 Olayiitka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
Organizing Principles
Depending on what the subject of the research is, any 
of the following principles could determine the struc­
ture and effectiveness of the presentation:
-  Cause and effect: This stresses the relatedness 
of things, enhances understanding of a process and 
the idea o f organism or sense of system.
-  Chronology: This stresses order (natural order/ 
sequence) with regard to time and is linked with 
cause and effect.
-  Logic: This could be a deductive line of argument 
which moves from the general to the specific {e.g. 
from corruption in the Nigeria Police Force to the 
shooting of recalcitrant drivers at police check­
points). An inductive line of argument moves from 
the specific to the general (e.g. from the shooting 
of recalcitrant drivers at police checkpoints to 
corruption in the Nigeria Police Force).
Where empirical investigations, physical surveys and 
computations are carried out the data generated are 
presented as illustrations in the form of diagrams, ta­
bles, graphs and charts.
Sometimes illustrations are given as maps and photo­
graphs.
The illustrations to be used should be assembled and 
arranged in the order that the researcher is going to 
use them.
When they are required, such charts, maps and pho­
tographs are selectively presented. Figures which re­
peat data need not be used more than once. However, 
the frequency of recurrence should be noted and ex­
plained.
Minor variations in the available charts and figures 
should be summarized rather than be included. The 
significance of such variations should be noted and 
explained.
Details contained in the charts, plates, maps, or fig­
ures do not have to be restated in the text.
Scales of and keys to maps should be indicated to
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Writing A PhD Thesis 263
facilitate the reading o f these. Axes and other keys to 
the reading o f graphs/charts etc should be given. Any 
magnifications o f plates and appropriate units o f meas­
urement should be stated.
Indicate explanatory footnotes by placing standard 
footnote reference markers (*, +, #) after words or 
numbers o f the illustrations (Figures and Tables) they 
refer to.
Binomial names o f plants and animals should always 
be italicized or underlined.
Always be mindful o f your objective.
-  Are you aiming at breaking new grounds?
-  Are you expanding the scope o f an existing posi­
tion?
-  Are you persuading your audience to accept a 
position?
-  Are you explaining, describing or arguing?
Relate your results and discussion to the literature re­
view.
A discussion o f the results should take into cognisance 
the conditions under which they (the results) were 
obtained.
Be mindful o f your audience -  its composition, spe­
cialization, etc.
The various methods are not mutually exclusive but reinforce 
one another.
The presentation of results and the discussion that goes 
with it require painstaking attention to details, relevance, re­
lationships. Usually several drafts are made in the course o f  
re-evaluating past work or positions held, revising the con­
clusions, and tne general worth or validity o f the study. These 
drafts need to be preserved separately, at least until the study 
is presented officially and approval is given to it. The avail­
ability o f the computer and word processing make revisions 
less cumbersome.
Final Chapter, References and Appendices 
Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Work
A summary o f  conclusions is usually longer than the fina l 
section o f  the abstract, and you have the space to be more
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264 Olayinka, A. 1. and Oriaku R. O.
explicit and more careful with qualifications. You might fin d  
it helpful to put your conclusions in form  o f  points.
Many researchers hesitate to impose their interpretations 
and conclusions on the reader, especially when they pertain 
to the significance of their results. Unfortunately, without 
them, the reader can only wonder why he read the thesis. 
Examiners in particular are unlikely to ascribe any more sig­
nificance to a thesis than the author gives it. The conclusions 
section should include:
The principles, relationships, and generalisations in­
ferred from the results (but not a repetition o f the 
results),
Any exceptions to or problems with these principles, 
relationships, and generalizations as indicated by the 
results,
Agreements (or disagreements) with previously publi­
shed work,
Theoretical implications and possible practical appli­
cations o f the work, and
Conclusions drawn (especially regarding significance), 
with a summary o f the evidence for each conclusion.
It is often the case with scientific investigations that more 
questions than answers are produced. Some o f the questions 
or issues that can emerge, under the discussion o f  
recommenda-tions for further work, include:
Does the work suggest any interesting further av­
enues?
Are there ways in which the work could be improved 
upon by future workers?
What are the practical implications o f the work?
This chapter should usually be reasonably short— a few 
pages perhaps. As with the introduction, it is a good idea to 
ask someone who is not a specialist to read this section and 
to comment.
References
The style o f referencing is described in detail in Chapter 
10 o f this book.
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Writing A PhD Thesis 265
Ackno w ledge me it ts
All those individuals and institutions who have contrib­
uted to the success of the research should be thanked, but 
this section o f the thesis should be brief.
Appendices
If there is any material that should be in the thesis but 
which would break up the flow or bore the reader unbear­
ably, include it as an appendix. Some things which are typi­
cally included in appendices are:
important and original computer programmes, 
data files that are too large to be represented simply 
in the results chapters,
pictures or diagrams of results which are not impor­
tant enough to keep in the main text, and 
research instruments
SUMMARY
Causes o f  failure o f  a thesis
poor presentation / writing / communication
‘unoriginal research’
wrongly conceived topic
poor structuring of an argument
inadequate bibliography
poor supervision
In writing your thesis, prepare a first draft that includes 
all the
data,
arguments, and
conclusions which you had planned to cover.
Then, edit your manuscript carefully. From the reader’s 
point of view;
Is the text clear?
Are the figures thoroughly integrated with the text?
Go through this process at least twice, having a new draft 
typed each time. When you are satisfied, test your success on
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266 Olayiitka, A. I. and Oriaku R. O.
a colleague, preferably one who is not well acquainted with 
the subject matter. Be prepared fo r  criticism. If one reader 
does not understand parts of your text, others will have the 
same problems. Remember, you are thoroughly acquainted 
with your subject; your reader is not.
Remember that “Good writing will not save a bad idea, 
but bad writing can kill a good one”.
REFERENCES
Adegbenro, C. A. In preparation. Unwanted pregnancy and 
drop-out rate among rural secondary school students in 
Osun State, Nigeria. PhD thesis, University of Ibadan. 
Adekunle, T.K. in preparation. Evolution, development and 
travails o f  customary land law in south-western, Nigeria. 
PhD thesis, University of Ibadan.
Adenugba, A. A., In preparation. Globalisation and the Ni­
gerian Labour Congress. PhD thesis, University of Ibadan. 
Gibaldi, J.1999. ML A Handbook fo r  writers o f  research pa­
pers, 5th ed. New York: The Modern Language Associa­
tion of America.
Lunsford, A. & Connors, R. 1992. The St. Martins Hand­
book, New York: St Martins Press.
Oguntoyinbo-Atere, M.I. In preparation. The Redeemed 
Christian Church o f  G od’s programme fo r  the poor in 
Lagos in the context o f  Lucan Teaching. PhD thesis, Uni­
versity ofIbadan.
Scott, G. & Garrison, S. 2002. The political science student 
writer s manual, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
White, F. D. 1986. The writer s art: A practical rhetoric and 
handbook, Belmont, California: Wadsworth.
Yekini, T. K. 2004. Real exchange rate determinants in the 
context o f  macroeconomic policy reforms in Nigeria. PhD 
thesis, University of Ibadan.
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