EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE TRAINING AND SELF-
EFFICACY TECHNIQUE ON PRE-RETIREMENT ANXIETY OF PUBLIC 
SERVANTS IN IBADAN, NIGERIA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BY 
 
MOTUNRAYO AYOBAMI, ADEBAYO 
 
84805 
 
 
A Thesis in the Department of Guidance and Counselling  
 
Submitted to the Faculty of Education 
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of  
 
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY  
 
of the 
 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN  
 
 
 
 
   
 
  
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
CERTIFICATION 
I certify that this work was carried out by Adebayo, Motunrayo Ayobami in the 
Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan under my supervision. 
 
 
 
_______________________ 
Supervisor 
Dr. S.O. Salami  
B.Ed (Ibadan), M.Ed. Ph.D. (Ilorin) 
Senior Lecturer, Department of Guidance and Counselling,  
University of Ibadan, Ibadan 
 
 
_______________________ 
Co-Supervisor 
Aremu, Amos Oyesoji 
Senior Lecturer 
B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D. (Ibadan) 
Department of Guidance and Counselling,  
University of Ibadan, Ibadan    
 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
DEDICATION 
 This thesis is dedicated  
- To the glory of the Almighty father who has no impossibility. 
- To my husband ‟Segun and my children Adejoke, Olusegun and Okikiola for 
their understanding, endurance and support all through.  
  
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I will praise the Lord always; His praise shall continually be in my mouth. I will 
bless thee and praise thy name forever. Great is thy faithfulness.  
I express my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to the almighty father for His 
grace, mercy, wisdom and favour. He blessed me throughout my course of studies from 
graduate to doctorate degree in this university. 
I most humbly thank my supervisor; Dr. S.O. Salami who had been a source of 
encouragement to me from the day I resumed for the doctorate till few days after my 
post-field presentation when he went on sabbatical. He graciously handed me over to 
another diligent colleague of his, Dr. Oyesoji Aremu who shouldered the remaining 
responsibility to the final stage.  
My sincere acknowledgement goes to the Head of Department of Guidance and 
Counselling Dr. Ayo Hammed and his team of diligent lecturers: Prof. C.B.U. Nwakwe, 
Drs. Ajibola Falaye, D.A. Adeyemo, ‟Soji Awoyemi, C.C. Asuzu, R.A. Animashaun, 
‟Bayo Oluwole, A.M. Audu, ‟Buchi Okparah, Moses Ogundokun and J.O. Fehintola. I 
specially thank Drs. M.S. Eniola and Femi Fakolade for their encouragement throughout 
the course of my study.  
I owe a debt of gratitude to others who spiritually assisted me, Rev. O.O. Olajide, 
the prayer band and children church of Bodija Estate Baptist Church. To my friends; the 
Agbajes, Adeyemis, Adeyemos, Olayinkas, Ogunjimis and Salawu, I say a big thank you. 
To my classmates Dr. Jude Akomolafe, Messers P.M.A. Adadu, A.A. Onabamiro, A.A. 
Adejumo, Victor Torubelli and Mrs. Ikejiakwu, you are all wonderful. To Titilope Asifat 
who typed this thesis, thank you for answering my call even at odd times, you are 
blessed.  
I am mostly indebted to my family; my parents through whom I came to this 
world Deacon and Mrs. J.A. Adejumo, my siblings; Gbenga Adejumo, Funmi Adetola, 
Kayode Adejumo, Bimbo Adejumo, Ronke Ola and Seun Adejumo. I thank you all for 
your support. 
To my children, Adejoke, Olusegun, Okikiola I appreciate your love and 
perseverance throughout my course. Kingsley Omotayo you are specially thanked for 
your calls and encouragement.             
Finally, I thank my husband ‟Segun, I will always love you. You encouraged me 
from the first day we met to see me through my education without looking back. You 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
have been a source of encouragement and you taught me to always persevere and be 
focused, to see me through any difficulty. God bless you abundantly. 
Once again, I thank the almighty for making everything possible. I will forever 
serve you.    
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
ABSTRACT 
Retirement is voluntary or involuntary withdrawal from active work role. It poses 
emotional problem to several people who are about to retire and even those who are still 
having many years to spend in service. Pre-retirement anxiety could, therefore, constitute 
psychological problems which, more often than not, brings about apprehension, 
maladjustment and social tensions. Past studies on retirement focused on mental health 
and influence of sociological factors, only few studies are available on pre-retirement 
anxiety. This study, therefore, investigated effects of Emotional Intelligence Training 
(EIT) and Self-efficacy Technique (SET) on pre-retirement anxiety of public servants in 
Ibadan, Nigeria.  
A pre-test, post-test, control group quasi-experimental design with a 3x2x2 
factorial matrix was used for the study. There were two treatment conditions (EIT and 
SET) and a control group. The moderator variables were gender and self-esteem. 
Multistage and stratified sampling techniques were used to select 103 Oyo State public 
servants (54 males and 49 females) who participated in the study. The participants were 
randomly assigned into the experimental and control groups. Sarason‟s General Anxiety 
Scale (=0.81) and Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (=0.77) were employed to collect data. 
The experimental groups were exposed to eight weeks training sessions, while 
participants in the control group received no training. Nine hypotheses were tested at 0.05 
level of significance. Data were analysed using Analysis of Covariance. 
There was significant difference in the anxiety of pre-retirees exposed to 
treatment and control groups (F (2, 97) =38.77; P<0.05). The participants exposed to EIT 
performed better ( x =19.26) than those exposed to SET ( x =23.09) on the measure of 
pre-retirement anxiety. The participants in the EIT performed better ( x = 19.26) than 
those in the control ( x = 28.47) on the level of pre-retirement anxiety. Treated 
participants in SET were also better ( x = 23.09) than those in the control ( x = 28.47). 
However, there was no significant difference in the anxiety of pre-retirees males and 
females exposed to EIT and those exposed to SET. Similarly, no significant difference 
was found in the anxiety of pre-retirees with low and high self-esteem exposed to EIT 
and those exposed to SET. In the same vein, no significant difference was found in the 
interaction effect of treatment and gender on the anxiety of intending retirees. 
Emotional intelligence training and self-efficacy techniques were effective in 
reducing pre-retirement anxiety of public servants. Counselling and social psychologists 
should, therefore, utilise the two strategies in the management of pre-retirement anxiety 
of public servants. These strategies should also be incorporated into the retirement policy 
of state and federal governments.   
        
Key words: Emotional intelligence training, Self-efficacy technique, Pre-retirement 
anxiety, Public servants   
 
Word count: 418 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
   
CONTENTS                           PAGE 
Title Page          i 
Certification           ii 
Dedication          iii 
Acknowledgement          iv  
Abstract          vi 
Table of Contents         vii 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the Problem       1 
1.2 Statement of the Problem       6 
1.3 Purpose of the Study         7 
1.4 Significance of the Study        7 
1.5 Scope of the Study         8 
1.6 Operational Definition of Terms      8 
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 Theoretical Background        9 
2.1.1 Concept of Retirement        9 
2.1.2 Types of Retirement         13 
2.1.3 Concept of Public Service       16 
2.1.4 Concept of Work        16 
2.1.5 Concept of Self-esteem       17 
2.1.6 Concept and Nature of Anxiety      19 
2.1.7 Theories of Anxiety        25 
2.1.8 Causes of Pre-retirement Anxiety       27 
2.1.9 Theories of Retirement        28 
2.1.10 Theories of Emotion        32 
2.1.11 Emotional Intelligence        36 
2.1.12 Self-efficacy          43 
2.2 Empirical Studies        44 
2.2.1 Retirement Anxiety and Pre-retirement Anxiety    49 
2.2.2 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Emotional Intelligence     53 
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2.2.3 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-efficacy      58 
2.2.4 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Gender      62 
2.2.5 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-esteem      63 
2.3 Conceptual Model of the Study             65 
2.4 Hypotheses         68 
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY  
3.1 Research Design        69 
3.2 Population         70 
3.3 Sample         70 
3.4 Sampling Technique        70 
3.5 Participants         70 
3.6 Qualification         71 
3.7 Instrumentation         71 
3.8 Reliability and Validity of Instruments      72 
3.9 Procedure         72 
3.10 Data Analysis         76 
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS  
4.1 Introduction          77 
4.2 Summary of Findings        99 
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND 
RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.1 Introduction         101 
5.2 Conclusion from Findings       105 
5.3  Implication of the Findings       105 
5.4 Limitation of the Study        106 
5.5 Peculiarities of the Study       106   
5.6 Recommendations        106 
5.7 Contribution to Knowledge       107 
5.8 Suggestion for Further Research      108 
REFERENCES  …  …  …  …  109 
APPENDIX    …  …  …  …  124 
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LIST OF TABLES 
            
         PAGE 
Table 1.1: Number of Retirees between 2001 and 2008     2 
Table 3.1: 3x2x2 Factorial Quasi-experimental Design     69 
Table 3.2: Demographic Information of 103 Participants    71 
Table 3.3: Respondents by how many more years before mandatory  
retirement         71 
Table 4.1: Unadjusted x  means and adjusted Y-means of Participants of  
Pre-retirement Anxiety Scores Based on Intervention (ROW) and  
Level of Self-esteem (Column)      77 
Table 4.2: 3x2 Analysis of Covariance using Emotional Intelligence  
Training, Self-efficacy Technique and the Control Group     78 
Table 4.3: Rows and Columns Adjusted Mean Compared   79 
Table 4.4:  Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y – X ‟s  
Pooled SE Computed from least Mean square and t-values         79 
Table 4.5:  Unadjusted X means and adjusted Y-means of Participants  
of Pre-retirement Anxiety Scores Based on Intervention (ROW)  
and Level of Self-esteem (Columns)      81 
Table 4.6: 2x2 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Subjects Treated  
with Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-efficacy Technique 82 
Table 4.7: Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X‟s Compared   83 
Table 4.8:   Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X‟s Pooled SE  
Computed from Least Mean Square and t-values   83 
Table 4.9:  Unadjusted X-mean and adjusted Y-means of Participants  
of Pre-retirement Anxiety Scores based on Intervention (ROW)  
and Level of Self-esteem (Columns)      84 
Table 4.10:  A 2x2 Pre and Post Treatment Comparison of Self-efficacy  
Technique and the Control Group using ANCOVA   85 
Table 4.11:  Rows and Columns Adjusted Y- X ‟S Compared    86 
Table 4.12:  Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X‟s Pooled SE  
Computed from least Mean Square and t-values   86 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
Table 4.13: Unadjusted X-mean and adjusted Y-means of Participants  
of Pre-retirement Anxiety Scores based on Intervention (ROW)  
and Level of Self-esteem (Columns)      87 
Table 4.14:  A 2x2 Pre and Post Treatment Comparison of Self-efficacy  
Technique and the Control Group using ANCOVA   88 
Table 4.15:  Rows and Columns Adjusted Y- X ‟S Compared    89 
Table 4.16:  Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X‟s; Pooled  
SE Computed from Least Mean Square and t-values   90 
Table 4:17:  ANCOVA on the Anxiety of Male and Female Intending  
Retirees Exposed to EIT      91 
Table 4.18: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of the  
Anxiety of Male and Female Intending Retirees Exposed to EIT 92 
Table 4.19: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of Male and Female Intending  
Retirees Exposed to SET      93 
Table 4.20:  Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of the Anxiety  
of Male and Female Intending Retirees Exposed to SET  94 
Table 4.21: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of High and Low Self-esteem of  
Participants Exposed EIT      95 
Table 4.22: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of High  
and Low Intending Retirees Exposed to EIT    96 
Table 4.23: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of High and Low Intending Retirees  
Exposed to SET       97 
Table 4.24: Summary of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) of High  
and Low Intending Retirees Exposed to SET    98 
Table 4.25:  Summary on Interaction Effect of Treatment and Gender on the  
Anxiety of Intending Retirees     99 
 
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LIST OF FIGURES  
          PAGE 
Fig. 2.2: Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs    32 
Fig. 2.2: Schacheter-Singer Theory of Emotion   35 
Fig. 2.3: Izards Theory of Emotion Psychology   36 
 
 
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the Study 
 Work has been described as a basic need in human lives. It performs basic 
functions such as provision of money, regulates life activities, removes boredom, gives 
sense of purpose, provides status and stimulates interpersonal relationships with others 
(Akinboye, 1998). It is also seen as a means by which individuals are integrated into the 
society and as a basic biological need of human beings for survival. Individual‟s ability to 
satisfy the financial, economic and psychological needs of his/her family depends on 
work. Work removes boredom and provides sense of purpose to an individual. In an ideal 
setting, workers set goals to be achieved at a point in time in their career or job. 
Akinboye (1998) posited that work breaks boredom by creating challenging activities, 
generating variety of strategies, tactics and skills in the worker. He further stressed that 
work provides simple exercises for the human system, which are made to be exercised 
from time to time to avoid dysfunctions which may arise due to lack of use.  
Public service is a formal organisation designed to coordinate activities of many 
individuals in the pursuit of tasks set up by the government (Al-Gazali, 2008). In Africa, 
especially in Nigeria setting; female and male roles are seen as mutually exclusive (Orji, 
2000). Orji (2000) concluded that particular roles in some professions and governance are 
seen as normal for one gender but abnormal for the other. Gender discrimination may be 
due to attitudinal perception of the male and female folk themselves. But in the general 
knowledge of the public service, both sexes are present and equally assigned roles of 
responsibilities which earn them their promotion and increase in ego. Position of 
authority had been in play between male and female and so the number of years and age 
in service have been on equal terms for any individual working in the public service. In 
Oyo State, male and female had been accorded the level of positions which existed in the 
mainstream of public service, from office clerk to managerial positions. Many public 
servants are preoccupied with their daily official routine and the attendant benefits like 
free housing, free health facilities and promotions without tuning their minds to 
retirement. They suddenly realised that retirement is approaching and often resort to 
finding ways to remain in service by falsifying their ages to enjoy perquisites of office for 
a longer period.  
 Withdrawal from gainful employment has been an area of focus in recent times. 
In most cases, retirement is tied to age or years of service. Before the colonial era, people 
worked as long as they were able to work but in the present dispensation, there is the 
general acceptance of the principle of retirement. Garrett (1999) confirmed that 
retirement for many working class people is a social disaster and its being associated with 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
four basic deprivations, namely: status and a role in the society; companionship; income 
and a meaningful lifestyle.   
Nigerian retirement situation is worrisome. It has been so for some years. Official 
statistical information as it is shown in Table 1.1 indicate the retirees rate in the public 
service of Oyo State from 2001 to 2008. 
 
Table 1.1: Number of Retirees between 2001 and 2008  
Year  Civil Servants  Teachers Total 
2001 251 125 376 
2002 1,110 124 1,234 
2003 148 53 203 
2004 197 120 317 
2005 57 44 101 
2006 165 93 258 
2007 137 98 235 
2008 192 108 300 
Total 2,257 758 3,032 
Source: Ministry of Establishment, Training and Poverty Alleviation, 2008. 
 
From the table, it shows more and more people will be retired from time to time 
which could lead to anxiety, social tension, psychological imbalance and some other 
health related problems.   
Interview with people over the media stating problems encountered as a result of 
non-payment of gratuity and pension also indicated the trend things are going with 
mandatory retirement. Laslett (1991) described a similar stage of life as the “Third Age”. 
It is usually assumed as an era when one sheds professional responsibilities and begins 
the pursuit of personal fulfillment and achievement. De Beauvoir (1970) ascertained that 
the day one retires, the person is cut off from the past and must adapt to a new status. He 
assumed previous work can be viewed as a time-consuming and restrictive necessity that 
dominates one‟s life, though a source of stability, interest and an established role within 
the society.  
 Most public servants are anxious due to some problems they are yet to solve such 
as where and how to live during retirement which are related to various  circumstances of 
life (Lasisi, 1997) the type or quality of house, the type of dwelling in which one resides 
and place of attachment are significantly related to satisfaction or anxiety (Evans, 
Kantrowitz & Eshelman, 2002; Gueldner, Loeb, Morris, Penrod, Bramlet & Johnson, 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
2001). Relocating from present abode to elsewhere within the area one lives or moving 
totally to another part of the country. It is therefore, paramount that public servants have 
plans for their life after retirement; it is also important they have choices for their plans.   
 Preparing for and anticipating retirement is a phase of pre-retirement (Atchley, 
1976). It has been associated with lots of attitudes (Atchley, 1991; Behling & Merves, 
1985; Evans, Ekirdt & Bosse, 1985; Turner, Bailey & Scott, 1994). Studies confirmed 
that those who are better prepared for retirement have positive attitude than those who are 
not (Helman & Paladino, 2004; Mutran, Reitzes & Fernandez, 1997).  
 Evans et al (1985) asserted that retirement-oriented activities increase with 
proximity to time of retirement. Atchley (1976) argued that proximity to retirement and 
not age is the key to preparation level. 
 Many intending retirees only think of the financial aspect but there is more to 
retirement is more than the gratuity and pension to be received. Pre-retirement involves a 
lot of activities as confirmed by different studies such as talking with family members, 
reading on retirement (Evans et al, 1985), preparedness for retirement, knowledge of 
retirement issues (Glamser, 1977, 1981), retirement planning such as financial and 
employment planning (Turner et al 1994). Planning on health insurance, pension 
contribution and other securities (Behling & Merves, 1995).           
 Retirement is a vital stage in human development all over the world. It is 
inevitable because there is time for everything. Retirement has been defined in so many 
ways. It is a self-defined notion that means different things to different people. For some, 
retirement means reducing the amount of work hours from full-time to part-time while 
for some, it may mean working on a voluntary basis (Atchley, 1988; Richarson, 1999). 
Richardson (1999) perceived retirement as ceasing from all work activity paid or unpaid. 
It is seen as disengagement from business or public life. Nwolise (2007) described 
retirement as an act of withdrawal from active (professional) service or production into 
privacy or seclusion. He further stated that it may be seen as a period in which one is no 
more in active service to the society though one can still be contributing in other ways to 
national wealth and development as well as the progressive locomotion of humanity. 
Retirement, according to the American Heritage Dictionary (2000), is the withdrawal 
from one‟s occupation, business or office, having finished one‟s active working life. It is 
a transition from the world of work into a world of less rigorous work activity and rest, 
especially with respect of retirement due to old age or long years of service (Belsky, 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
1990). 
 In Nigeria, some energetic and ablebodied public servants have been retired from 
public service due to government policy and not necessarily due to years of service or 
age. In the second republic in Nigeria, some state governments reduced their workforce 
due to lack of fund to pay wage bill. The Federal Government in 2005 also planned to 
reduce its workforce by 74,000. By a Federal Government circular on retirement, pension 
and gratuity dated 20th February, 1997, a worker who is 60 years of age or had put in 35 
years in service is declared retired and wages for any excess days in which he/she 
remained in service is deducted from his/her gratuity. Therefore, retirement poses a threat 
to many people who may not know what to do with their lives after retiring from service. 
 Studies have established the relationship of retirement to mental health. Bosse, 
Aldwin, Levenson and Workman-Daniels (1991) affirmed that retirement is stressful, 
Skarborn and Nicki (2000) attested to the worrisome attitude been experienced  by 
individuals going on retirement. Anxiety was also found in relation to retirement by 
Reitzes, Mutran and Fernandez (1996) and in the opinion of Fretz, Kluge, Ossana, Jones 
and Merikangas (1989) attitude towards retirement was found to be the largest predictor 
of anxiety for people approaching retirement age. 
 Also, some researches have demonstrated how anxiety and other problems are 
related to preparedness for retirement, knowledge of retirement, marital status, financial 
status, etc. Other studies on retirement have focused mainly on life after retirement. 
Okumagba (1990) found that many pensioners are not happy in retirement because they 
suffered loneliness and inability to make ends meet due to irregularity in the payment of 
their retirement benefits.             
 Odu (1998) revealed that retirees are dissatisfied with their state in retirement. 
Other studies by Denga (1996) and Ode (2004) found that anxiety level unknown 
previously become very high as from 55 years of age; there is increased incidence of 
stress because of stressful feelings; emotional balance is difficult to achieve; there are 
feelings of nostalgia; depression is common and incidence of cardiovascular disease is 
seen occasionally and future plans are uncertain. 
 Gist, Wu and Verma (2004), Gokhale, Kotlikoff and Sebelhaus (1996); Yuh, 
Montato and Hanna (1998) also indicated in their studies that many individuals may not 
have sufficient resources to maintain their financial independence during retirement. 
Moreover, status which is an aspect of well-being that is gained by the feelings of being 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
„superior‟ to others in the eyes of relevant others and oneself will become difficult to 
maintain after retirement because status through occupational prestige will be reduced. 
All these may lead to low self-esteem and anxiety.      
 With these research findings, many who are about to retire due to age or length of 
service are in dilemma of what to do or how to cope with the inevitable. They may have 
the fear of the changes that will come from a routine work role to less or no work role, 
inadequate financial resources and the psychological fulfillment of going to work and 
coming back home which would no longer be there, the unceremonial way of retiring 
people, often without notice, late payment of gratuity, irregular payment of pension and 
other psychological distress that would be encountered made many in the public service 
to see retirement as a sort of death contrary to the biological death that is terminal 
(Fajana, 1992). In essence, many intending retirees are very anxious about what will 
become of them after retirement.   
 In spite of the existence of various schemes in Nigeria, there are still a number of 
inadequacies in the implementation of retirement income policy in the country which are 
a source of worry to would-be retirees. Further, someone who had been living in 
affluence or is able to manage his/her earnings from salary collected with some other 
fringe benefits who knows retirement is drawing near may have cause to be anxious 
knowing that these benefits would no longer be enjoyed. With this kind of worry, there is 
need to help the public servants to be relieved of the psychological trauma and anxiety 
that may be experienced by the absence of work, low income and loneliness in 
retirement. 
 Therefore, this study would make use of two treatment strategies. Emotional 
Intelligence Training and Self-efficacy Technique to create confidence, self-reliance to 
reduce anxiety in the public servants who are preparing for retirement. Emotional 
intelligence encompasses social intelligence and emphasises the effect of emotions on 
individuals ability to view situations objectively and thus, to understand ourselves, and 
other people. It is the ability to sense, understand and effectively apply control over 
emotions and appropriately channelling it as a source of energy to positively influence 
our behaviour. 
 Few studies have explored the effectiveness of emotional intelligence training, for 
instance, Fer (2004) reports using emotional intelligence (EQ) in-service training to 
enhance the effectiveness of 20 secondary school teachers in their private lives and in the 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
classroom setting. Gardner (2005) examines the effectiveness of emotional intelligence 
training in decreasing feeling of stress and strain among 79 tutors. The findings of 
Gardner (2005) demonstrate the potency of EQ training programme in decreasing feeling 
of stress and strain among teachers. EQ training was also used in remediating 
aggressiveness in adolescence with visual impairment (Eniola, 2007). The interaction 
effect reveals that the participants treated with EIT show significant improvement in their 
aggressive behaviour pattern than their counterpart in the control group. Also, 
Animasahun (2007) found that participants exposed to EQ training performed better than 
their counterparts in the control group. 
 Though, EQ training has been used to enhance the effectiveness of teachers to 
reduce stress and enhance positive life skills of prison inmates, to the best knowledge of 
the researcher, no study has examined the effectiveness of EQ training on pre-retirement 
anxiety.      
 Self-efficacy technique also enhances human accomplishment and control in 
many ways. Public servants with high assurance in their capabilities could approach 
difficult tasks and situations, of life such as retirement as a challenge rather than be self-
defeating with their thoughts and feelings or see it as threats to be avoided. Instead, they 
could take efficacious and bold steps to face the future.         
 Several studies have been conducted on self-efficacy. Betoret (2006) examined 
relationship between teacher occupational stressor, self-efficacy, coping resources and 
burn-out. Brown and Morrissey (2004) found that self-efficacy inversely correlated with 
anxiety. In spite of the studies reported above on self-efficacy, not a single literature was 
found where self-efficacy technique was used to reduce pre-retirement anxiety among 
public servants. This is a gap to be filled in this study. Therefore, this study utilised 
emotional intelligence training and self-efficacy technique on pre-retirement anxiety of 
public servants in Ibadan, Nigeria.  
         
1.2 Statement of the Problem 
 Retirement is withdrawal from active work role. It poses problems to several 
people who are about to retire and even those who still have many years to spend in 
service. In Nigeria, it is a common practice for people to be retired or retrenched without 
notification. Many public servants who are still agile are out of job before they get to the 
official retirement age or years of service on grounds of re-organisation, re-structuring, 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
poor economy, politics, redundancy, etc. These make people work under anxiety of what 
is to become of their future which could have negative effect on the well-being of 
individuals. 
 For instance, thousands were retired in Osun State in the second republic which 
sent many unprepared public servants home. Likewise, in Oyo State, in 2007 the 
government did a re-organisation which also sent many public servants home without any 
form of entitlement. These developments made those still on the job to be anxious and 
even caused some psychological discomfort which resulted in social dysfunction in the 
family which in turn affected their children and relatives, unnecessary hostility towards 
colleagues, inefficiency, dishonesty with government funds at their disposals in order to 
accumulate wealth, maladjustment in the society, which caused increased patients in  
hospitals due to ill-health, feeling of worthlessness which may lead to loneliness, 
depression and even suicide. Consequently, many public servants indulged in engaging in 
dual jobs which inevitably affected their primary assignment. 
 
1.3 Purpose of the Study  
This study experimentally examined the effect of emotional intelligence training 
and self-efficacy technique in reducing pre-retirement anxiety of public servants in 
Ibadan. The study also investigated the differential effectiveness of emotional 
intelligence training and self-efficacy technique in enhancing coping skills of facing 
retirement. Further, influence of gender and self-esteem on the pre-retirement anxiety of 
public servants were examined.    
 
1.4 Significance of the Study  
 The two treatment packages, namely; Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-
efficacy technique were used on public servants having maximum of five years to the 
determined age or to the end of their years in service. These two packages were explored 
to help reduce anxiety, create confidence and self-reliance among pre-retiring public 
servants for retirement when it eventually comes. It would also guide the private and 
government agencies such as National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), Housing 
Corporation, Water Corporation etc. in introducing pre-retirement seminars, workshops 
that would equip would-be retirees to be better prepared for retirement.  
 It would also help counselling psychologists and all other personnel in the 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
“helping profession” in their counselling programmes and techniques in dealing with 
anxiety related issues. Also, workers in the private sectors and entrepreneurs would see 
the importance of pre-retiring seminars and effects of retirement and be able to prepare 
their workers towards it.     
 It would help the pre-retiring public servants to prepare effectively for retirement, 
to adjust to social life after retirement, improve their psychological well-being and have a 
fulfilled life in retirement. It would also provide researchers with relevant data strategies 
in reducing anxiety among populace.       
 
1.4 Scope of the Study  
 The scope of this study was limited to public servants who have five years to the 
statutory retirement age of 60, 65 or 70 or 35 years in service as the case may be working 
under the Oyo State government.    
 
1.5 Operational Definition of Terms 
Retirement: Disengagement from workforce after attaining specified years or age or year 
in service.  
Pre-retirement: Few years to statutory age in public service or in years of service. In this 
study it refers to those individuals in public service who are 55 years and above or have 
spent 30 years in service.   
Retiree: Someone who has stopped work having attained the statutory retirement age or 
length of service.  
Anxiety: Feeling of being worried about something that may happen. 
Emotional Intelligence Training:  This is a programme designed to improve and 
enhance emotional intelligence of anxious intending retirees.  
Self-efficacy Technique: A package designed to boost intending retirees belief in their 
capabilities.  
Mandatory or Involuntary Retirement: This is a kind of retirement where the 
employer compels an employee to retire having reached the statutory retirement age of 35 
years in service or 60 years of age. It may also be retiring an employee against his or her 
wish due to re-organisation, illness or reform.     
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 This chapter examines theoretical and empirical studies, conceptual model and 
hypotheses. 
Theoretical Background  
 Concept of Retirement  
 Types of Retirement  
 Concept of Public Service 
 Concept of Work 
 Concept of Self-esteem 
 Concept and Nature of Anxiety 
 Theories of Anxiety 
 Causes of Pre-retirement Anxiety  
 Theories of Retirement - Disengagement theory, Continuity theory, Activity 
theory, Crisis theory, Self Actualisation theory.   
 Theories of Emotion 
 Emotional Intelligence  
 Self-efficacy  
Empirical Studies 
 Retirement and Pre-retirement Anxiety 
 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Emotional Intelligence  
 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-efficacy   
 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Gender 
 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-esteem  
Conceptual Model 
Hypotheses   
 
2.1 Theoretical Background  
2.1.1 Concept of Retirement 
 Retirement is an institution that is socially constructed and has evolved over time 
(Marshall, 1995). The transformation of retirement involves changes in the nature and 
social pattering of work; the nature, timing and meaning of retirement. This 
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transformation causes considerable policy concern at the societal level because the 
institution of retirement is critical for both work and social security.    
 Retirement often occurs under conditions that leave individuals little choice over 
the transition (Gallo, Bradley, Siegel & Kasl, 2000). Establishment of mandatory 
retirement age has been a political issue in many countries of the world. Age and years in 
service in which any worker must retire in the public service had been a strong contention 
between the public servants and the government throughout the world. This is an 
indication that confirms the inevitability of retirement. Each country of the world had to 
settle for bargaining that suits the government and the environment they belong. 
 In 1970, the mandatory retirement age of Japanese workers was 55 years or even 
less. In 1980, approximately half of Japan corporation had 55 years as their retirement 
age. But in the 80‟s, the older employees expressed the desire to continue work past age 
60, so in 1986, the government enacted the law concerning the stabilisation of 
employment for the elderly people in an effort to encourage private organisations retain 
or employ older workers. More pressure was on the legislature and in 1998, the 
mandatory retirement age in Japan became 60, which brought the retirement age closer to 
the age when pension payments would begin (Japan Insight, 1999). Japan information 
network (1997) confirmed eligibility for pensions will be raised from 60 to 61 in fiscal 
year 2001 and to 65 in 2013. This confirms that any employee who leaves work before 
that age will not receive income until he/she reaches the specified age.  
 In Europe, the issue of the transition from work to retirement is attracting more 
and more attention. There is widespread debate on the introduction of periods 
characterised by a reduction of working time in order to “soften” the exit from work. 
With the importance of retaining older workers in employment and cutting down the 
burden on pension system increasingly being recognised, greater attention is being paid 
to progressive retirement. One of the measures that have been implemented in order to 
encourage participation of older people in the labour market is “progressive retirement”. 
It aims at retaining older people within the active population by reducing their working 
and at the same time granting some sort of income support measure (Pedersini, 2001). 
 In the United States of America, current retirement policy is based upon federal 
statutes and programmes dated as early as 1935. It has never established a comprehensive 
and unified retirement policy. It was confirmed by USDHHS (1983) that between 1983 
and the end of the century, the population age, 65 years and above is expected to increase 
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by 40 per cent and by the year 2030, one in every five Americans will be 65 years or 
older. 
 The 1978 Amendments to the age discrimination in Employment Act raised the 
minimum age at which most workers can be forced to retire from 65 to 70 years in an 
attempt to retain older persons in the workforce. Henkens and Van Dalen (2003) 
suggested that “forced” retirement accounted for 30-40 per cent of early retirement.  
 In Nigeria, before the advent of the colonial masters, people simply kept on 
working until they made decision to stop or are no longer capable of doing their normal 
routine or usual tasks which earn them their living. Most of these tasks such as 
agriculture, buying and selling of goods, farm products, weaving, carving and other 
menial jobs. With the European colonisation, white collar jobs headed by the colonial 
masters became the order of the day and pensionable retirement and fixed age for 
retirement grew out of colonial civil service policy (Ogunbameru, 1987). 
 In developing countries, unsteady government policies and incoherent reform 
especially in the economy run by the military made it impossible for workers to be 
adequately catered for or protected in any form. Many suffered forced retirement and 
those that reached mandatory retirement age had little or no preparation for their new life 
role. Some laws were enacted by different governments of the federation at different 
times to take care of particular events, issues and institutions as the needs arose within the 
labour sector in the country. One of such is the National Provident Fund. The National 
Provident Fund Act was enacted in 1961 as a form of social security for workers. It is a 
contributory system for some categories of workers. Under it the worker contributes 
certain amount of money on a monthly basis from his/her salary, while the employer 
provides a matching sum. The money is invested and paid to the employee upon 
retirement, resignation, termination or emigration as provided for under the Act (Nigeria 
Labour Handbook, 1991). 
 From these contributions, the Act as amended provides for various forms of social 
security benefits, including old age, sickness and survivor benefits. The monies collected 
from the workers and employers are as defined by law. Also, to take care of the future of 
workers, the public service pension scheme, otherwise known as Decree 102 came into 
being in 1979. This scheme only covers public servants working with the Federal 
Government. The public service pension scheme is not funded because neither the 
employer nor the employee sets aside some fund on behalf of the members of the scheme, 
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but benefits are paid on a pay-as-you-go basis. The rule follows that any employer that 
worked for 10 years shall be entitled to a lump sum benefit but those who served up to 15 
years shall be entitled to both gratuity and pensions (Odumosu, 1991). This form was 
adopted by state governments, but because of inadequate allocation of fund the policy did 
not work due to number of retiring public servants yearly.                      
 In Nigeria, retirement age in public service is 60 years, though there are 
variations. Judges retire at 65 years of age while university lecturers and justices of the 
Supreme Court retire at 70. The statutory number of years in service is 35 and any public 
servant who attains 35 years in service has to retire irrespective of his/her age. 
 Retirement is seen by many as “tomorrow” that will “never come” so it is 
perceived as a threat especially when pronouncements like re-structuring, re-organisation 
or reform is being mentioned. Apart from this, those who are near completion of their 
years in service and those whose age is close to the statutory law of the land perceived 
retirement negatively. 
 Walker (1992) sees retirement as essentially a social institution implying 
transition out of another formally organised social role, that of paid employment. 
Odumosu (1991) observed that retirement, like work does not have the same meaning for 
all individuals. To some, it is the realisation of a life-long goal that represents the 
happiest time of their life; to others, it is a time of bitterness and frustration. Still, others 
view it with shock and disbelief. That is, something they never thought would happen to 
them. Those that had retired before now had different stories to tell on their health, 
income, comfortability and life in general. Hayne (1995) stated that in contrast to 
previous generations, retirees of today can anticipate a substantial period of active living. 
A primary goal of retirement planning is to provide sufficient income to prevent a 
person‟s living standard from dropping significantly below pre-retirement levels (Kaplan, 
1996).  
 Many individuals do not prepare, save or invest adequately for retirement and old 
age (Barker, 1995). The present generation of intending retirees are only saving one third 
of what they will need to maintain their standard of living (Dennis, 1996) and only 36% 
have tried to estimate how much they need to save for retirement (Retirement Confidence 
Survey, 1997). 
 Though retirement financial needs are a concern, many tend to appease their 
current desires without considering their future needs (Stone, 1993). Wallfesh (1996) 
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suggested that there is a widespread myopic concerning retirement needs, people may fail 
to save enough, resulting in catastrophic drops in post-retirement income and lifestyle. 
Since retirement is a transition, it changes the pattern of life with consequent 
reorganisation of use of time, social relationships of the individual involved.  
 Spiro (2001) noted how individuals should be vigilant about their physical health 
during pre-retirement and retirement years and how they should engage in behaviours to 
maintain good health and a fulfilled life in retirement. People born between 1946 and 
1964, are the next generation nearing retirement (Mcples & Abney, 2006). The present 
intending retirees were found to be in better physical health conditions when compared 
with the generation before them (Zapolsky, 2003).      
 
2.1.2 Types of Retirement  
 A retiring public servant is affected either positively or negatively depending on 
the circumstances leading to his or her disengagement from normal routine. Therefore, it 
is important to know the types of retirement in order to consider the reactions of retiring 
individuals. 
 Akinboye (1998) outlined eight types of retirement: age-related retirement; 
Length of service-related retirement; forced or involuntary retirement; forced or 
involuntary resignation; voluntary retirement; ill-health-related retirement; retirement due 
to redundancy and dismissal or termination 
 
Age-related Retirement: This is where the employee retires after the attainment of a 
specified age. In Nigeria, public servants retire at age 60, 65 or 70 years. 
Length of Service related Retirement : Employee retires at a specified number of years 
after employment. Length of service for public servants in Nigeria is 35 years. In France, 
teachers retire 30 years after employment (Gillanders, Buss, Wingard & Gemmel, 1991).  
In the United States of America, policemen and soldiers are allowed to retire on half pay 
after 20 years of service or three-quarter pay after 30 years of service (US Dept. of 
Labour, 2000). 
Forced or Involuntary Retirement: This is when worker or workers are asked to retire 
or forced out of service when they do not want to do so. Such may be given normal 
benefits if he or she has put in a number of years in service.  
 When an individual is asked to retire against his or her wish, many things may be 
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attributed to it such as re-organisation, reform, re-structuring, misconduct, disloyalty, 
new policy of the government. In 1997, the Federal Government did some reforms in the 
civil service which sent many unprepared individuals to retire with immediate effect. 
These categories of people in most cases do not prepare for retirement and may cause lots 
of problem and trauma to those affected.  
Forced or Involuntary Resignation: This is when an individual is asked to resign 
his/her appointment within a stipulated dates or with immediate effect. It may be due to 
in-efficiency, fraud or incompetence. People in this frame of retirement, usually react to 
their resignation with a negative feeling such as emotional disturbance, depression etc. 
Voluntary Retirement: This is when an individual retires at will. It is usually not 
traumatic because the individual must have prepared for another work role he or she 
wishes to engage in. 
Ill-Health-related Retirement: An individual with serious health problem may be 
forced to retire since he/she could no longer perform his/her expected role. It could be 
that his/her health problem is terminal, which may involve illnesses like cancer, 
Parkinson‟s disease, mental illness etc. 
Retirement due to Redundancy: An employee that could not cope with modern trend of 
organisational development could be retired. The age of information technology now 
renders many underutilised and with the improvement in technology, many workers are 
retired due to redundancy. 
Dismissal or Termination: This is a type of forced retirement which may not be 
accompanied by any benefit. It may be due to disciplinary measure to a worker who has 
been found to be disloyal or fraudulent. 
 Akinade (1993) stated four types of retirement, they are: Voluntary retirement; 
Compulsory or forced retirement; Mandatory retirement and Retirement due to failing 
health 
Voluntary Retirement: He described it as a form of early or wishful retirement which is 
decided by the employee rather than the employer. 
Compulsory or Forced Retirement: This type of retirement is decided by the employer 
against the wish of the employee. It ranges from retirement with immediate effect, 
retirement with or without benefit. Akinade (1993) further submits that such retirement 
may arise from disloyalty, indiscipline, divided interest, drunkenness, rudeness, 
absenteeism, refusal to go on transfer, immorality or criminal practices on the side of the 
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employee. 
Mandatory Retirement: Is described as a normal and expected retirement. For any 
employee, the condition of service has been clearly stated on assumption of duty. 
Retirement due to failing health: Employee may be retired due to illness or any other 
form of disability that may not allow the worker to be at optimum use. Illness such as 
mental disorder and terminal diseases could cause this. 
Phased Retirement: Phased retirement is seen as a gradual change in a person‟s work 
arrangements as a transition toward full retirement (U.S. Department of Labour 2000). 
 Townsend (2001) sees phased retirement as any arrangement that enables older 
workers reduce their work hours and responsibilities. Flahaven (2002) sees the concept of 
phased retirement as a continued work pass normal retirement for the same employer or 
employers within the same system. It is also seen as an arrangement under which a non 
key employee who has reached 59½ years is permitted to voluntarily receive a pro rata 
potion of his or her pension annuity based on a reduction in work hours (Candill, 2005). 
 
Bridgework 
Bridgework is defined as paid employment that falls between the time when an 
individual leaves his or her primacy job or career and the time of complete withdrawal 
from the workforce (Kim & Feldman, 2000). Many reasons may be given for getting 
involved in bridgework such as gaining psychosocial benefits: making social connections 
(Perlmain, 1982) creating new life role (Elwell & Maltbie-Crannel, 1981) caring for 
spouse, children or parents (Magai & Halpern, 2001).    
 
Emotional Aspect of Retirement 
 Retirement is viewed differently, to some positively, while to others negatively. It 
is viewed like any other transition in a person‟s life cycle and has emotional reward and 
hazards. It is a fact that engaging in an activity for long and being paid makes an 
individual active and productive and so ending such work life could not be an easy task. 
Many aspects that could be emotional are the contrast between the world of works, tasks, 
income, roles engaged in and the uncertainty that retirement brings. 
 Aside work roles, loneliness that may likely be encountered in retirement poses a 
lot of worry to intending retirees. To feel lonely is to be overwhelmed by an unbearable 
feeling of separateness, at a very deep level. To some degree, it is a totally normal 
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emotion, a part of growing up, working and retiring. Loneliness and need for 
companionship may be a bigger challenge in retirement than aches and sickness will ever 
be. It is one thing that cannot be ignored in preparing for a fulfilled retirement.        
Also, financial aspect is important for an emotional healthy retirement. In the 
society, work remains a defining feature of our daily lives and our identity. It is more 
than the mental or physical tasks one performs while in employment. It refers to the idea 
of being paid and engaged in activities that are productive for self and the society.  
Public servants should know it is not easy to wake-up one day and find out he or 
she no longer has a routine or where to go. They may think they have lost some control, 
self-esteem and respect. Intending retirees should be ready to face these challenges plan 
to fill their lives with meaningful, constructive activities such as regular association with 
others and engaging in other activities involving people and some income.        
   
2.1.3 Concept of Public Service 
 The term “Public Service” in Nigeria can be used as a generic expression to refer 
to all establishments that produce services enjoyed by the populace through the 
instrumentality of the government. Such may be at a cost but not necessarily at a profit. It 
is also in contradistinction to services produced by the private sector where services are 
of necessity produced at a cost to engender profit for the entrepreneur. 
 It follows that, public service will include the civil service, the public corporations 
and agencies, the public schools at all levels and the armed forces. It can therefore be at 
the federal, state and local council layers of the government. 
 
2.1.4 Concept of Work 
 Individuals have different perspectives of work. Although, social psychologists 
believe in the centrality of work role in the level of satisfaction of man. It is perceived as 
the only antidote for poverty and central to existence, other aspects of human life derive 
their significance from the world of work. Soleye (1989) posits that work is a very 
familiar social fact to workers, to the employed who are desperately looking for it, to 
those temporarily out of it and to those intending to abandon it. Work is therefore, 
common knowledge and a common sense issue. Work as opined by Akinboye (1998) 
provides sense of purpose and status. Friedman and Havinghust (1954) identified five 
general functions that work performs in the lives of individuals. 
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- That work or job gives persons income or some financial return with which to 
maintain themselves and workers are expected to produce goods and services 
and make economic contributions. 
- That work functions as a regulator of life activities, going to work at certain 
hours of the day and controls how people spend a large portion of their time 
daily. 
- It gives sense of identity. Since we know that a man‟s job is his price tag and 
calling card as noted by Hughes (1970). 
- It serves as a base for social relationships and  
- It affords workers a cluster of experiences which is enriched through 
interaction with people around.  
Work is a fundamental value of all societies. It elects one‟s social and physical 
environment which in turns represents an individual‟s physical and mental activities 
through which a person maintains contacts with his/her environment.    
Work is increasingly being seen as the fourth leg of retirement income stool 
(Pengy, 1996; Bryant & Sullivan, 1996; Murphy, 1995). Approximately 33% of men who 
retire early return to work within the first two years (Murphy, 1995). More men and 
women realise the potential for healthy and productive lives after age 65 and do not want 
a reduction from their pre-retirement lifestyle that can result from having less income.      
 
2.1.5 Concept of Self-Esteem 
 Peoples feelings and thoughts about themselves fluctuate based on their daily 
experiences, but self-esteem is something more fundamental than the normal “ups and 
downs” associated with situational changes. 
 The term “Self-esteem” is one of the oldest concepts in psychology having been 
first created by William James in 1890. Self-esteem was first presented as a ratio that is 
found by dividing one‟s successes in areas of life that are important to a given individual 
by the failures in them or one‟s success/pretensions (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & 
Vohs, 2003). 
 Branden (1969) defined self-esteem as the experience of being competent to cope 
with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness. He provided a 
particularly compelling view on self-esteem in 1990. He sees it as having two interrelated 
aspects: a sense of personal efficacy (self-efficacy) or confidence in a person‟s ability to 
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think and act; and a sense of personal worth (self-respect) or an affirmative attitude 
towards a person‟s right to live and happy. To Brown and Alexander (1991), they define 
self-esteem as the way individuals perceive and value themselves and that it has a number 
of dimensions which include family relations, social competence, peer relations and 
personal security.  
 Self-esteem is a person‟s overall evaluation of his or her self-worth or self-image. 
Researchers have shown great interest in self-esteem, on how it is developed and 
maintained (Hewill, 2001, Baumerster, Cumphell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003; Hochschild, 
Climbolic, Cohen & O‟Neilli, 2004). Although, self-esteem is strongly related to 
happiness, it has not been found that individuals high in self-esteem have better 
relationships than their counterparts with low self-esteem. Fleming and Courtney (1984) 
believed that people do have a general level of self-esteem but could have fluctuating 
level of self-esteem in particular domains of their lives.         
 Self-esteem stems from autonomous self-determined actions that reflect the 
authentic self. It is characterised by viewing the self inherently worthy of esteem and 
love. Deci and Ryan (1995) suggested that true self-esteem is prone to autonomous 
motivation because it involves reflecting the authentic core self and viewing the self as 
inherently worthy. Individuals with high self-esteem are more equipped to deal with 
problems and frustrations. Badner, Wells and Peterson (1989) suggested that a stable 
level of self-esteem is the outcome of a self-evaluative affective process. That is, when 
people feel they are doing well, they feel good about themselves and have higher self-
esteem.    
 In a nutshell, self-esteem is the disposition to experience oneself as competent to 
cope with the challenges of life and to be deserving of happiness. It is based on ones 
ability to assess him/herself accurately and still be able to accept and to value him/herself 
unconditionally (Mckay & Fanning, 2000). Self-esteem is directly related to well being. 
Individuals with high self-esteem are more equipped to deal with problems and 
frustrations. Self-esteem is important to help individuals cope with changes that occur in 
life. 
 Self-esteem is largely developed during childhood. It also develops and evolves 
throughout one‟s life as image of oneself is built through one‟s experiences with different 
people and activities. It is the emotional dimension of self-perception which may be 
positive or negative judgements people have of themselves. The degree of self-esteem 
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plays an important role in behaviour. People with low self-esteem tend to be unsuccessful 
and do not adapt well to stressful event, while those with high self-esteem have the 
opposite experience. Self-esteem has been branded the concept of a „social vaccine‟, a 
dimension of personality that empowers people and inoculates them against a wide 
spectrum of self-defeating and socially undesirable behaviour. Often, self-esteem is tied 
closely to a job (Aremu, 2007). Aremu (2007) stressed that retirement from a job makes 
some people feel part of their identity has been left behind. They lose their sense of 
achievement, of being appreciated and respected for their accomplishments. With this, 
pre-retirees may be affected one way or the other due to loss of roles, reduced income, 
which may occur and even create anxiety, stress, loneliness and increased likelihood for 
depression. It can cause problems with friendship and relationships, it can also lead to 
drug and alcohol use. These negative consequences will then reinforce the negative self-
image which will continue to dampen an individuals self-image.            
 
2.1.6 Concept and Nature of Anxiety  
 Anxiety is a natural reaction that involves mind and body. It serves an important 
basic survival function which is an alarm system that is activated whenever a person 
perceives danger or threat. Anxiety is described as having cognitive, somatic, emotional 
and behavioural components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). This cognitive 
components are the expectations of certain danger which the body prepares the organism 
to deal with, the threat or emergency reaction somatically, the blood pressure and heart 
rate increase, sweating and major muscle groups also increases. Emotionally, both 
voluntary and involuntary behaviours may arise when directed at escaping or avoiding 
the source of anxiety. 
 Wolpe (1981) described anxiety as the autonomic response patterns characteristic 
of a particular individual organism after the administration of a noxious stimulus. In the 
view of Morakinyo (1987), he sees anxiety as inseparable from daily living as there are 
many situations and thoughts which can give human beings considerable concerns and 
therefore cause anxiety. Anxiety disorder are the most common form of psychopathology 
in children and adults with estimated lifetime prevalence rate of 9% and 15% respectively 
(Silverman & Ginsburg, 1998). Anxiety disorder complications range from symptomatic 
distress and situational avoidance to social dysfunction. It was confirmed by Pallock, 
Rosenbaum, Marrs, Miller and Biederman (1995) that anxiety that begins early in life 
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risks factors for subsequent and perhaps more chronically psychopathology in adulthood.   
 Anxiety is an unpleasant, emotional state of high energy that involves a complex 
combination of emotions that include fear, apprehension and worry. Rosen and Schulkin 
(1998) agreed that neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to 
underlie anxiety. It is a mood characterised by negative affect, bodily tension and 
apprehension about the future (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). It is a state of 
unease, uncomfortable and unpleasant feelings that an individual experiences when in 
stressful or fearful situations. Anxiety like pain, is a normal biological mechanism when 
occasioned by circumstance which warrant it, such as being confronted by a potentially 
dangerous situation. It has both physical and mental manifestations which may be seen in 
three major ways: somatically (that is in physiological and biological reactions), 
cognitively (in the individual‟s thought and feelings) and behaviourally (in the 
individual‟s actions). Anxiety disorders are associated with a range of psychosocial 
impairments, this was confirmed by Mattison (1992).           
 Anxiety is everywhere and a certain amount is considered essential to get a person 
perform at his or her highest levels of efficiency and productivity. This is confirmed by 
Eysenck (1998) quoting Yerkes-Dodson Law which states that performance is enhanced 
with mild levels of anxiety but begins to suffer if the anxiety becomes too great and this 
causes significant subjective distress or impairment in functioning of the individuals. 
Thus anxiety may be a positive or negative condition in a person, though it generally 
originates as symptoms of psychiatric disorders. 
 Anxiety could act as a way of alerting an individual about possible danger and 
thus enables us take steps to avoid what we feel anxious about. It makes part of human 
being make plans and anticipate the future about things that might work or go wrong in 
future. It motivates people to prepare for an upcoming event and can help keep them 
focused on the task at hand. 
 Chugh (1995), Regier, Rae, Narrow, Kaelber and Schatzberg (1998) confirmed 
that anxiety cuts across human culture. The National Institute of Mental Health 
confirmed that approximately 40 million people who are above 18 years of age is affected 
by anxiety. 
 
Causes of Anxiety 
 The etiology of most anxiety disorders has come into sharper focus in the last 
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decade. The likelihood of developing anxiety involves a combination of life experiences, 
psychological traits and, or genetic factors. The National Institute of Mental Health, 
NIMH (1998) confirmed that anxiety disorders are so heterogeneous and that the disorder 
like panic, appear to have a stronger genetic basis than others. It refers to an unpleasant 
and overriding mental tension that has no apparent identifiable cause. 
 What anxiety disorders have in common is a state of increased arousal or fear 
(Barbee, 1998). It is conceptualised as an abnormal or exaggerated version of arousal. 
Anxiety disorders are the most common or frequently occurring mental disorders. 
Anxiety may be understood as the pathological counterpart of normal fear, it manifest by 
disturbances of mood as well as of thinking behaviour and physiological activity. 
 Factors that could contribute to the development of anxiety are numerous. Some 
of which are; environment, personality, heredity, and brain chemistry.  
Environmental Factor: Environment plays an important role in the development of 
anxiety disorder. Facing difficulties such as poverty early separation from the mother, 
Freud (1909), Anderson and Black (1995) confirmed cause anxiety. Anxiety may 
therefore be a signal of unconscious fantasies about dangerous situations (Cloitre & 
Shear, 1995). 
Personality Traits: Personality differences can affect whether or not one can develop 
anxiety disorder. People with anxiety disorders often view themselves as powerless, this 
could lead to low self-confidence and poor coping skills. Freidman and Rosenman (1974) 
described common personality characteristics of men who developed coronary disease as 
a Type A behaviour pattern (this is characterised by being expressively competitive, hard 
driven). Type B behaviour pattern is a relaxed and easy going personality, hardiness is a 
personality style characterised by a sense of commitment and control rather than 
powerlessness and perception of challenges rather than thoughts. 
Heredity: Anxiety tends to run in families, people with anxiety disorders often have a 
family history of anxiety, mood disorders or substance abuse. It was confirmed by 
researchers that there are genetic factors which represent an inherited risk for anxiety 
disorders. 
Brain Chemistry: Studies confirmed that imbalance of neurotransmitter such as 
serotonin, GABA (Gamma amino butyric acid) and Norephinephrine may contribute to 
anxiety disorders. GABA synaptic excitation might get out of control and spread through 
the brain in a reverberating circuit. 
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Symptoms of Anxiety: The symptoms of anxiety as described by the American 
Psychiatric Association (1994) in DSM-IV stated the following: 
Restlessness and irritability 
Timidity, shyness, social withdrawal 
Restless sleep and nightmares 
Pervasive worry and fearfulness 
 Some other emotional and psychological symptoms are: Apprehension, 
uneasiness and dread; Impaired concentration or selective attention; Nervousness and 
jumpiness; Avoidance; Hypervigilance; Confusion and Self-consciousness and insecurity.    
 
Types of Anxiety  
 Fear, worry and panic go along with anxiety. Fear is described as an emotional 
state that is aroused in the face of immediate danger. It builds up quickly but short lived. 
Fear is all about preparing the individual to the fight to fight response, a situation that 
requires some rapid response. Panic is a fear response triggered at an inappropriate time, 
it also affect with bodily sensations. Worry is like anxiety, it refers to a diffuse state, it is 
specifically on an imminent perceived threat or danger which is focused on a range of 
negative outcomes which may be ahead in the future (DSM-IV). 
 The following have been considered as anxiety disorders; Generalised Anxiety 
Disorders; Phobias; Panic disorders; Obsessive-compulsive disorders; Post-traumatic 
stress disorders and Social anxiety disorder. 
 
Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD) 
 GAD is defined as a protracted period of anxiety and worry accompanied by 
multiple associated symptoms (DSM-IV). People with this disorder are constantly 
anxious and worry incessantly about even minor matter (Sanderson & Barlow, 1990). 
People with this type of anxiety worry about their work, relationship, health etc. Minor 
things worry them a lot, their anxiety shifts from one aspect of life to another because the 
anxiety is not focused, their worry often relate to finances, family, personal health. They 
recognise their anxiety as irrational or out of proportion, but feel unable to control their 
worry. 
 Individuals with GAD are highly sensitive to threat and in particular threat that 
has personal relevance; they allocate their attention much more readily than people who 
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are not anxious (Butler & Matthews, 1983; MacLeod, Mathews & Tata, 1986; Matthews, 
1997). The acute awareness seems to be automatic and unconscious. GAD as been 
confirmed to affect twice as many women than men and could lead to considerable 
impairment (Brawman-Mintzer & Lydiad, 1996, 1997). Symptoms of GAD include 
muscle tension, easy fatiguability, poor concentration, insomnia and irritability.     
 
Phobias 
 It means dread or fear. It is a fear of specific object or situation. Barlow, Gorman, 
Shear and Woods (1998) admit that individual with phobic disorder has an irrational, 
overwhelming persist fear of a particular object and cannot point to the cause of their 
nervous feelings. Common phobias include fear of water (hydrophobia), fear of height 
(acrophobia), fear of enclosed space (claustrophobia) fear of insect, snakes etc. 
(ophidrophobia). 
 
Panic Disorder 
 DSM-IV described panic disorder as a discrete period of intense fear or 
discomfort that is associated with numerous somatic and cognitive symptoms. It is 
marked by recurrent sudden onset of intense apprehension or terror. The terror can 
seemingly come out of no where or can be cued by external stimuli or internal tough 
processes. Individual involved often has a feeling of impending doom but may not feel 
anxious all the time. It produces palpitations, extreme shortness of breath, chest pains, 
trembling, sweating, dizziness and a feeling of helplessness. It grows to the extent of 
doing things they cannot control e.g. suicide. 
 
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 
 People with OCD persistently experience certain intrusive thought or images 
(obsessions) feel compelled to perform certain behaviours (compulsory). OCD 
significantly interferes with the individuals ability to function and may consume a great 
deal of time. Bellodi, Cavallini, Bertelli, Chiapparino, Riboldi and Smeraldi (2001) 
confirmed that OCD seems to be genetic and runs in families. Brain imaging techniques 
have also been found as neurological links for OCD. 
 
 
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 
 It mostly occurs after people experience trauma or catastrophic events such as loss 
of job, loved ones, accident etc. People with this disorder relieve the traumatic event 
through recurrent dreams or intrusive memories. They feel emotionally detached and 
estranged from others, they experience difficulty in sleeping, trouble in concentrating and 
irritability. 
 An individual who has been enjoying his career for years is faced with reality of 
retirement, there is the tendency to have anxiety on issues that involves the individuals 
life style, personal finance, health, social relationship, emotional changes and adjustments 
such people have to make when retirement finally comes. 
 
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) 
 Social anxiety disorder (SA) is characterised by an intense fear of situations, 
usually social or performance situations where embarrassment may occur (Butler & 
Matthews, 1983). Individuals with the disorder are acutely aware of the physical signs of 
their anxiety and fear that others will notice, judge them and think poorly of them. This 
fear often results in extreme anxiety in anticipation of an activity, a panic attack when 
faced with an activity, or in the avoidance altogether. Adults usually recognise that their 
fears are unfounded or excessive, but suffer from them nonetheless. Symptoms of social 
phobia manifest themselves physically and can include: palpitations, tremors, sweating, 
diarrhea, confusion and blushing 
 People with social phobia tend to be sensitive to criticism and rejection, have 
difficulty asserting themselves, and suffer from low self-esteem. The most common fears 
associated with the disorder are a fear of speaking in public or to strangers, a fear of 
meeting new people and performance fears, such as writing, eating or drinking in public. 
Sufferers usually fear more than one type of social setting (APA, 2000). Onset of the 
disorder is usually in mid to late adolescence, but children have also been diagnosed with 
social phobia. Children with the disorder are prone to excessive shyness, clinging 
behaviour, tantrums and even mutism (APA, 2000). There is usually a marked decline in 
performance and individual affected try to avoid taking part in appropriate social 
activities. Their fears are centred on peer setting rather than social activities.  
      
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2.1.7 Theories of Anxiety  
Psychological Views of Anxiety 
 There are several major psychological theories of anxiety: psychoanalytic theory, 
behavioural theories and cognitive theories.    
Freud Psychoanalytic Theory of Anxiety  
 The study of anxiety is at the root of psychoanalytic explorations of the human 
condition. Anxiety is a warning signal that danger is present and that overwhelming 
emotions may be felt, giving rise to unmanageable helplessness. Freuds thinking about 
anxiety included differentiation of two types of anxiety which are primitive and primary 
anxiety that relates to a traumatic experience of total disintegration leading to possible 
consequence of being flooded by overwhelming qualities of instinctual tension. It thus 
suggests that anxiety stems from unconscious conflicts that arose from discomfort during 
infancy or childhood. 
 The two theories of anxiety proposed by Freud in 1895 and 1926 respectively 
showed the distinction between neurotic and realistic anxiety and the claim that 
repression - caused anxiety. He distinguished the two types of anxiety a traumatic, 
reality-oriented “automatic” anxiety in which the system was overwhelmed, and a 
secondary, “Neurotic” anxiety in which reprisals of these situations were anticipated thus 
setting in motion defensive processes. “Automatic anxiety” was an affective reaction to 
the helplessness experienced during a traumatic experience.        
 The second form of anxiety originated within the physical system and was 
mediated by the ego. This “Signal anxiety” presaged the emergence of a new “danger 
situation” that would be a repetition of one of the several earlier, “traumatic states”. 
These states, whose prototype lay in birth, correspond to the central pre-occupations of 
different developmental levels, as the infant‟s needs become progressively abstracted 
from the original situation of immediate sensory overload to more sophisticated form of 
need regulation capable of synthesizing the many elements facing it from the reality and 
pleasure principles and object world. These moments, loss of the object, loss of the 
object‟s love, the threat of castration and fear of punishment by the internalised objects of 
the superego which were experienced serially, the developmental process, could re-
emerge at any time in a person‟s subsequent adult life, typically brought on by some 
confliction of reality and intrapsychic conflict as a new edition of anxiety.                
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 Freud confirmed that anxiety becomes a signal of impending over simulation. The 
individual is warned that he is in danger of being reduced to an infantile state of 
helplessness through over simulation of the id impulses and other forces. He further 
stressed that anxiety played a functional role, that is in helping the ego to take down 
before being overwhelmed. Laplanche and Pontalis (1985) described automatic or 
primary anxiety as the subjects reaction each time he finds himself in a traumatic 
situation – that is each time he is confronted by an inflow of excitations, whether of 
external or internal origin which he is unable to master. Rycroft (1968) said Freud though 
it had connections to the overwhelming experience of birth. The signalling function of 
anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biological adapted to warn the organism of 
danger of a threat to its equilibrium. Signal anxiety is to ensure that the automatic anxiety 
is never experienced by enabling the ego to institute defensive precautions. By this theory 
an intending retiree‟s anxiety could be resolved by identifying and resolving the 
unconscious conflict and the symptoms that symbolise the conflict would then disappear.  
 
Learning Theory of Anxiety 
 Learning theorists attempted to explain the nature and consequences of 
punishment. Application of some painful event following the performance of a response 
interferes with the performance of that response in subsequent occasion when the 
organism avoids a situation; it is through the operation of some mediating factors 
preceding the occurrence of a painful event. The mediating situation suffered by the 
organism is referred to by learning theorists as anxiety. 
 Anxiety was seen as a drive by these theorists, in their assumption that when a 
neural stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) is paired with unconditioned stimulus (US) 
which produces a painful event will elicit a conditional response or (CR) after a number 
of frequent pairing. The conditioned response is what is called anxiety. It is a secondary 
drive established by classical conditioning. 
 The learning theorist‟s position assumes emotional autonomic responses 
correlated with the anxiety state which suggests that anxiety is necessarily derived only 
from those primary conditions that are automatically arousing. Their assumptions 
consequently suggested two classes; that anxiety operates as a secondary drive and 
exhibits all the properties of drives, serving as motives for the establishment of new 
behaviour and that when anxiety acts as a drive, new responses are reinforced by the 
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reduction of that drive. With general anxiety disorder, unpredictable positive and 
negative reinforcement is seen as leading to anxiety, especially because the person is 
unsure about whether avoidant behaviours are effective.    
 They believed that anxiety is a learned behaviour that can be unlearned. The 
conclusion of the theorist perceived as for the intending retirees having the feelings of 
anxiety, they could have a drive to think of how to get off the hook of worry and 
apprehension and plan for the future in order to make a fulfilling retirement. 
 
Cognitive Theory  
 Cognitive factors, especially the way people interprete or think about stressful 
events, play a crucial role in the etiology of anxiety. A decisive factor is the individual‟s 
perception, which can intensify or dampen the response. One of the most salient negative 
cognitions in anxiety is the sense of not being able to control ones feelings. It is typified 
by a state of helplessness due to a perceived inability to predict, control or obtain desired 
results (Barlow, 1996). Negative cognitions are frequently found in individuals with 
anxiety (Ingram, 1998). Some others incorporated the role of individual vulnerability, 
which include both genetic and acquired (Smoller & Tsuangi, 1998; Coplan, Pin, Papp & 
Gorman, 1997) predispositions.  
 
2.1.8 Causes of Pre-retirement Anxiety     
 Many things could lead to pre-retirement anxiety. These include the lateness in 
payment of gratuity and pension of retirees and the unimpressive psychological well-
being of those who had retired.  
Pre-retirement anxiety may also be caused by the inability of prospective retirees 
to have a roof over their heads at the point of retirement and as Lasisi (1997) noted that 
this could be frustrating. Some may still have children in school as well as parents to 
cater for. The challenges of managing new or lower income, change in social status could 
cause anxiety. Many who are about to retire have the fear because of the uncertainty that 
await them. Scheneider (1971) in a longitudinal study of retirement reported that in 1962, 
63% of men and 71% of women were reluctant to retire. He further submitted that men 
who are about to retire are more likely to be negative about it. Riley and Forner (1968) 
also submitted that prospective retirees view retirement less positively than younger 
people. This was based on Katona‟s (1965) assumption that in 1962, people who are age 
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55 and 64 were more likely to dread retirement because of financial difficulty in 
retirement than their younger ones.  
 People respond not only to the objective features of a situation but also to the 
meaning this situation has for them. Belief systems, expectations of change are part of 
those factors which are central in determining adjustment in retirement (Abel & Hayslip, 
1986). It has also been confirmed that pre-retirement expectations are important 
determinants of the retirement decisions (Henkens, 1999) and play a role in the retirement 
process (Gall & Evans, 2000). Retirement anxiety that is negative expectations about the 
consequences of the transition may negatively influence adjustment and fulfilled 
retirement (Fletcher & Hansson, 1991).             
 
2.1.9 Theories of Retirement                  
 Retirement, according to the American Heritage Dictionary (2000) is the 
withdrawal from one‟s occupation, business or office, having finished one‟s active 
working life. Retirement can also be a new role to play such as collecting money without 
having a position of responsibility in the workplace. It is a phase in the latter part of one‟s 
life that comes after many years of employment (Atchley, 1976). 
 Many theories described retirement in various ways and in relation to individual‟s 
adjustment and well-being. The following theories will be discussed in this review: 
Disengagement theory, Continuity theory, Activity theory, Crisis theory and Maslow‟s 
Self-actualization theory.      
 
Disengagement Theory 
 Disengagement theory was described by Cumming and Henry (1963) as “an 
inevitable mutual withdrawal resulting in decreased interaction between the aging person 
and others in the social systems he belongs to. They believed there is no way aging could 
be isolated from the characteristics of the social system in which it is experienced. They 
argued that functional maintenance of social systems requires some mechanism for 
systematically disengaging older people from major life roles, roles critical to social 
system maintenance.  
 Their argument was that people make decisions concerning their life course and 
the individual in disengagement theory in effect takes it as his or her obligation to 
disengage for the benefit of the social system. They confirmed that the extent to which 
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one actualizes disengagement will determine how well one is adjusted or happy in old 
age. 
 This theory affirms that individual worker will eventually shift from their normal 
role to relax and keep the social order intact. But, when a worker is not ready to leave at 
the time, there may be a problem of adjustment and the individual may not be sure of 
what to do to maintain the social order and this could create anxiety which could 
eventually lead to depression of the individual. 
 
Continuity Theory 
 Continuity theory informs the understanding of post-retirement employment. It 
suggests that absence from work is psychologically stressful because individuals 
experience “rolelessness” (Hornstein & Wapner, 1985; Richardson & Kilty, 1991). This 
shows that life without full-time work is not best without any daily structure.       
 On retirement, either voluntary or involuntary individuals who have high career 
identification are likely to seek continuity through some form of work involvement, since 
self-worth is highly tied to their professional accomplishments, participation in bridge 
employment, part-time work, temporary consulting or professional association is likely to 
be sought and more rewarding when achieved (Atchley, 1989).     
 Continuity theory suggests that sudden, abrupt transition from work to retirement 
are often associated with high levels of stress. This is consistent with the findings of 
Nicholson 1984, on career transition, which suggests that disruptions in important roles 
and important contexts cause individuals to feel some disorientation during transition 
period (Bradford, 1979). 
 Atchley proposes a seven-stage longitudinal theory of retirement as follows: 
 Remote pre-retirement stage: He believed that individuals ignores the reality of 
retirement pretending it will never happen. Individual is busy with middle 
years life that is full of activities. 
 Near pre-retirement stage: He confirmed that individual is forced to accept the 
impending reality of retirement. Practical steps are taken to prepare financially 
towards retirement.       
 Honeymoon stage: Here individuals experience freedom from deadline on 
activities, having his or her time to use freely. 
 Disenchantment stage: He said people feel disappointed to what retirement is 
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all about. Not having much to do, loss of work role and status. Many may find 
the gap between ideals about retirement and actual retirement realities difficult 
to manage. 
 Re-orientation stage: Here people find way of adjusting to their new way of 
life, reality of retirement. 
 Stability stage: He manages what comes his way at least to make ends meet. 
 Termination stage: He said, person leaves retirement to re-enter workforce or 
be totally dependent if too old to secure a job. 
 Continuity theory also describes retirement as a linear series of life events that 
gradually lead to a logical career stage and a pleasant experience or transition without 
maladjustment or distress into retirement (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2000; Quick & Meon, 
1998). Kim and Moen (2001) are of the assumption that older black women are looking 
forward to retirement where there will be a reduction in their stress levels and a greater 
quality of life may not be realised, and so many return to work after retirement because of 
rolessness or lack of fulfillment in retirement. 
 
Activity Theory  
 Activity theory emphasises the importance of ongoing social activity. It suggests 
that a person‟s self-concept is related to the roles held by that individual if he maintains 
other roles in substitution for those lost roles.  
 It is important for any retiring individual to maintain a positive sense of self and 
substitute new roles for those lost ones. The theory makes the following assumptions: 
(i) encouraging people to remain active and develop own-age friends. 
(ii) standards and expectations of middle age should be projected to older age. 
(iii) individual should be encouraged to expand and be involved in other activities.  
Vinicle and Ekerdt (1991) confirmed that only few people take up totally new 
endeavours and activities since participation in activities. This theory, which states that 
older people need to maintain their former levels of involvement as much as possible in 
the family, social and civic activities is much more widely accepted. This confirms that 
many intending retirees may opt for a second career to make them maintain life structure 
in retirement.   
 
 
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Crisis Theory  
 Crisis theory states that retirement do have negative effect on the quality of life in 
retirement (Bell, 1979). It was confirmed by Miller (1965) that retirement brings with it 
identity crisis. He said it is basically degrading because individual will no longer be able 
to perform and carry out work role he has been used to. 
 Atchley argued against this theory, when he said individuals in retirement, 
identified with their occupation even when they no longer perform such role or roles. 
That is a retired military man will always see himself as a military even in retirement. 
Although it is believed that there are some changes in social roles as confirmed by 
Omoresemi (1987) that there are changes in social roles and expectations different from 
the individual‟s roles and expectations during the working years. 
 Crisis sets in when an individual finds it difficult to make provision for family and 
self. The crisis is aggravated when gratuity and pension is not forth coming and lots of 
things have to be done. A retiring public servant that lives in a government quarter needs 
to move out at retirement and when provision for accommodation could not be met, 
anxiety sets in. For any retiring public servant, the fear of inadequacy of those retirees 
create a bleak future of retirement life to intending retirees. Giften and McNeil explained 
that according to crisis theory, for an experience to be considered a crisis, the individual 
must perceive it as being emotionally hazardous.    
 
Self-actualisation Theory  
 The self-actualisation theory believed that people strive to become all that they 
want by fulfilling and making up for their basic needs. The need for survival, security, 
belonging, esteem and self-actualisation in Maslow‟s hierarchy of need has been a 
common needs all people have since birth (Bittel & Newstrom, 1990). If a need is not 
met, the individuals may be consumed and when a need is met, the individual progresses 
to the next level. At retirement, there may be needs that are no longer being met and these 
unsatisfied needs may be hazardous to retiree‟s health. A retiree may not feel secure 
because of a loss of employer benefits for healthcare and other types of plans that might 
provide other resources (Dintelman, 2002). 
 The self-actualisation theory believed in two kinds of needs: basic needs which 
are:  
(i) Physiological needs for food, water, sleep, oxygen.           
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(ii) Safety needs: safety and security needs for the avoidance of pain, fear, 
dangers and threats. 
(iii) Belongingness and love needs: This need focused affiliation with people, 
affection, such as being wanted and loved by family and friends.  
(iv) Self-esteem needs: These include self-respect, achievement attention and 
appreciation. 
The second need is the Meta needs. This is the last stage of the Maslows hierarchy of 
needs. The meta needs are the needs for self-actualisation which involves personal 
growth rather than self-maintenance.  
 His believe was that the need system was ordered hierarchically. Needs at the 
lowest level must be fairly well satisfied before the needs at the next level become 
important. 
Fig. 2.1: Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs 
        
 
        Self-actualisation 
       
       Esteem needs 
       
       Belongingness and love needs 
        
       Safety needs 
        
        Physiological needs  
 
  
   The fact that these needs must be met by any individual to survive, intending 
retirees may feel that leaving the job to retirement may cause some inadequacies because 
of decrease in income, social status, self-esteem and these may cause anxiety or 
apprehension on how these basic needs could be met in order to become fulfilled.  
 
2.1.10 Theories of Emotion 
 Emotion is a widespread concept which is not easy to come up with a generally 
acceptable definition. According to Sloman (1981), emotion creates a response in the 
mind that arises spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort. Emotion is physical 
expression often involuntary related feelings. Sloman conceptualised emotion as a 
cognitive process. He stressed that emotion is derived from the cognitive brain centres, 
the frontal lobe producing a psychological change in addition to the psycho-physiological 
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change. 
 Le Doux (1986) explained emotion in a neurobiological term as a pleasant or 
unpleasant mental state organised in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. Emotion 
is also defined as a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of 
feelings, thoughts and behaviours.    
 Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotions as organised responses, crossing the 
boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including the physiological, cognitive, 
motivational and experiential systems. Their believe suggested that emotions typically 
arise in response to an event, either internal or external that has a positively or negatively 
valenced meaning for the individual. Emotions are important for survival, decision 
making, boundary setting, communication and unity. Emotions alert us when we feel 
uncomfortable with present situation. Emotions are the primary source of human energy, 
aspiration and drive, activating our innermost feelings and purpose in life and 
transforming them from things we think about to values we live. 
 
The Biological Bases of Emotion 
 Emotion as opined by Greenberg and Snell (1997) includes an expressive or 
motor components, an experimental element, a regulatory component and a recognition 
or processing factor. They explored that the expressive or motor component houses the 
ability to express emotion through facial expressions, body posture and vocal tone. The 
experimental element is where one experiences feeling as a result of the awareness of 
cues from the central nervous system, feedback from one‟s facial expression and one‟s 
own interpretation of what is occurring around him or her. Thus, the regulatory 
components deals with reacting to the experienced emotion. 
 Individuals react very differently to the same emotion because of differences in 
their regulatory component. Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotions as organized 
responses, crossing the boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including the 
physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. They believe that 
emotions arise in response to an event, either internal or external that has a positively or 
negatively valence meaning for the individual. One‟s emotions do affect daily 
functioning along with reactions to events taking place.        
 The area of the brain known as the limbic system is central to emotional 
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experience. The structures located within this system are involved in several aspects of 
emotion such as recognition of emotional expressions on the face, action tendencies and 
the storage of emotional memories (Greenberg & Snell, 1997). 
 Amygdala plays a particularly important role in regulating emotion. The 
amygdala‟s primary function is in the interpretation of incoming sensory information 
concerning survival and emotional needs. The information first goes to the thalamus and 
moves simultaneously to the amygdala and the cortex of the brain. It has been confirmed 
that the amygdala can store emotional memories unconsciously which in turn impact 
behaviour without ever coming into consciousness (Le Doux, 1995). The amygdala 
processes the information quickly and sends signals to the hypothalamus which in turn 
activates the autonomic nervous system. 
 The cortex processes the information more slowly, and this allows people to 
appraise or evaluate the event. Dawson, Panagiotides, Winger and Hill (1992) proposed 
that the frontal lobe is the regulator in the emotional process by guiding coping and 
control of emotional expression. The frontal cortex has a unique connection with the 
limbic system because it is the only neocortical safe where information processed in the 
system is represented.    
 It has been confirmed by Dawson, Panagiotides, Winger and Hill (1992) that the 
frontal cortex is where cognition and emotion connect. They also proposed that the 
frontal lobe is the regulator in the emotional process by guiding, coping and control of 
emotional expression.    
 Emotion has been viewed in different perspective by different theorists. 
 
James-Lange Theory of Emotion 
 Emotion theory according to James and Lange states that within human beings is 
a response to experience in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates 
physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration and 
dryness of the mouth. The consequences of these physiological events are summed up as 
emotion after being interpreted in the brain.  
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 Perception of Physiological Emotional 
 emotion- changes  experience  
 
arousing event  
 
James-Lange Theory of Emotion 
 The theory proposed that physiological changes are the sources of emotional 
feelings.        
 
Canon-Bard Theory of Emotion 
 These theorists argued against James-Lange theory regarding the physiological 
aspects of emotion. He said there is no mechanism to emotion but that emotion arises first 
and then stimulate typical behaviour. They confirmed that emotion is the result of one‟s 
perception of reaction or “bodily change”. 
 
Schacheter-Singer Theory of Emotion 
 The theorists believed that two factors are responsible for emotional experience; 
the physiological arousal and cognition based on external environment. That is an 
emotion-producing event causes physiological arousal and examining the environment to 
help in interpreting the event. 
 
 
Physiological 
 
 arousal  
Emotional 
experience  
 Cognitive label 
based on external  
 
environment   
 
Fig. 2.2:Schacheter-Singer Theory of Emotion 
 
 Their theory purportedly showed that individuals can have different emotional 
reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state. Although this theory was 
criticized by many such as Reisenzein (1983) and Plutchik (1994). 
Izard’s Theory of Emotion 
 His theory suggested two different kinds of emotion pathways are responsible for 
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our feelings (Izard, 1989, 1991, 1993; Izard and Youngstrom, 1996). He explained that 
cognition is not necessary for the first kind of emotional experience, but that it is 
necessary for the second kind.  
 
 
Subcortical brain Emotional 
 Inborn structure (e.g. thalamus experience  
 reactions and amygdala 
P  erception of 
emotional-
a rousing event  
Learned Emotional 
 Cortex  reactions experience  
 
Izard‟s theory of emotion, which proposes two separates routes for the production of 
emotional experience.  
Fig. 2.3: 
   Source: Izards Theory of Emotion Psychology 1999 
He stated that there are nine innate and unique emotions which produce the main 
human motivational system. These emotions are interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, 
disgust, anger, shame, fear and contempt. He said all of them are discrete because of the 
facial and physical activities that follow these emotions. His theory was considered the 
most comprehensive theory of emotion in the 1970‟s.  
 
2.1.11 Emotional Intelligence   
 Emotional Intelligence and its study as a concept has raised considerable interest 
over the past decade (Day, 2004). The term “Emotional Intelligence” promoted by 
Goleman‟s book in 1995 has also been a growing interest in diversified areas of 
psychology and corporate world in that both the latter and former are searching for ways 
in which to develop a competitive advantage in the field of study. There are several 
definitions of what EQ is and what the concept actually encompasses. Although many of 
these definitions of the concept of EQ lack sufficient research evidence to properly 
substantiate their views (Palmer & Jasen, 2004). 
 Sternberg (1985) devoted much of his career to the study of various conceptions 
of human intelligence which he started with his Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence; 
he later expanded upon his view of human ability and success. He affirmed that 
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successful intelligence is that set of mental abilities used to achieve one‟s goals. In 1998, 
he claimed that successful intelligence involves three aspect which are interrelated but are 
distinct, they are analytical, creative and practical thinking. Practical thinking is the 
ability to size up a situation well, to be able to determine how to achieve goals, to display 
awareness to the world around you and to display interest in the world at large 
(Sternberg, 1990; Sternberg, Forsythe, Hedlund, Horvath, Wagner, Williams, Snook & 
Grigorenko, 2000; Wagner, 2000). 
 Emotional Intelligence concept argues that, Intelligence Quotient is too narrow to 
determine success but that there are other areas of Emotional Intelligence that dictates 
and enable how successful an individual is. Although, emotional intelligence has received 
much attention, it has been difficult for researcher to agree on one definition of it. 
“Emotional Intelligence” (EQ) refers to the capacity for recognsing our own feelings and 
those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves 
and in our relationship (Goleman, 1998).    
While several theories associated with the EQ paradigm currently exist, the three 
that have generated the most interest in terms of research and application are the theories  
of Mayer and Salovey (1997), Bar-On (2000) and Goleman (1998; Goleman, Boyatzis & 
Mckee, 2002). While each theory represents a unique set of constructs that represents the 
theoretical orientation and context in which each of these authors have decide to frame 
their theory, all share a common desire to understand and measure the abilities and traits 
related to recognsing and regulating emotions in ourselves and others.   
 Mayer and Salovey (1990) attempted to clarify the definition of emotional 
intelligence, they categorized five (5) domains 
Self-awareness: Observing oneself and recognizing feelings as it happens. 
Managing emotions: handling feelings so that they are appropriate, realizing what is 
behind the feelings and finding ways to handle it. 
Motivating oneself: directing emotions in the service of a goal. 
Empathy: understanding others feelings and appreciating the difference in feelings. 
Handling relationship: managing others emotions, social skills and competence. 
 Mayer and Salovey (1993) defined EQ as “a type of social intelligence that 
involves the ability to monitor one‟s own and others‟ emotion, to discriminate among 
them and use the information to guide one‟s thinking and actions. Goleman (1997) also 
provides a useful definition of the concept and believes that EQ is about. 
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- Knowing what you are feeling and being able to handle those feelings. 
- Being able to motivate yourself to get job done, be creative and perform at 
your peak and sensing what others are feeling and handling relationships 
effectively.  
Martinez (1992) describes EQ in a more concise way as “an array of non-
cognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influences a person‟s ability to cope 
with environment demands and pressures.” This definition suggests that EQ unlike some 
other traditional concepts of intelligence, is not believed to be solely cognitive, but 
encompasses skills that assist individuals in coping with day-to-day activities. Although 
Goleman (1996:1997) informed that traditional ideas of intelligence must not be totally 
disregarded because they are relevant to the individual‟s daily living skills and work 
performance so both traditional concepts of intelligence as well as concepts of EQ should 
be used. 
According to Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) EQ includes the ability to 
perceive, appraise and express emotion accurately and adaptively; the ability to 
understand emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and generate feelings 
where they facilitate cognitive activities and adaptive action; and the ability to regulate 
emotions in oneself and others. Those authors definition means that “emotional 
intelligent” person is one who is able to process emotion – laden information and then 
use this information in cognitive tasks and other required behaviour (Palmer & Jansen, 
2004). 
How people manage their emotions can be a major determinant of how effectively 
intellectual abilities can be assembled. Individuals utilize both creative and constructive 
thinking in their problem solving to maintain performance, emotional intelligence is a 
valuable resource. When powerful emotions are experienced, attention is directed to 
different problems. People may be redirected to give attention to problems with 
immediate importance such as retiring. Rather than interrupt ongoing cognitive activities, 
emotion can assist people in reprioritizing the internal and external demands on their 
attention and allocating resources accordingly (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Moods may be 
used to motivate persistence at challenging tasks. People may use moods to boost 
themselves, thus increasing their performance at different tasks (Salovey & Birnbaum, 
1989). Epstein and Feist (1988) assert that people with positive attitudes create 
interpersonal experiences that lead to positive outcomes for themselves and other around 
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them. This could also be achieved by intending retirees who really get the skills in 
emotional intelligence and its competencies to be well adjusted and be able to manage 
their emotions effectively.       
Emotions have an impact on everything that people do. On the other hand, 
emotions can lead to an increased morale among public servants, but on the other hand 
emotions can also be destructive. Negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, anger, and 
hostility use up much of individual‟s energy and lower morale, which in turn leads to 
sickness, absenteeism and apathy (Bagshaw, 2000). Emotional Intelligence can be seen to 
dictate interpersonal relationships as opined by Klausner (1997). In a research conducted 
by Cooper (1997) shows that emotions that are properly managed can and do have 
successful outcomes. He affirmed that carefully managed emotions can drive trust, 
loyalty, commitment and increase productivity, innovation and accomplishment in the 
individual. 
Many authors have suggested that emotional intelligence is essential for 
effectiveness. Studies also affirmed that EQ facilitates individuals adaptation and change 
(Quy, 1999). Also, Shutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden and Dornheim 
(1998) show that EQ is associated with effective outcomes such as greater optimism, less 
anxiety and less impulsivity.    
Over the years, various theories have been developed on EQ. The concept of 
emotional intelligence is not a new one. Langley (2000) suggested that it was Aristotle 
who first mentioned the importance of emotions in human interaction. As Aristotle puts 
it, those who possess the rare skill to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at 
the right time, for the right purpose and in the right way are at an advantage in any 
domain of life. But, the first real theory of emotional intelligence came from the writings 
of Thorndike (1920) who believed that there were different types of intelligence. He 
identified the first as that used in measured using IQ test, as abstract intelligence, second, 
understanding and manipulating objects and shapes, which he named concrete 
intelligence and the third social intelligence. He defined it as “the ability to understand 
and relate to people” (Bagshaw, 2000). This last type is what is today known as 
Emotional Intelligence. In the research done by Thorndike (1920) where he looked into 
social intelligence as a means of explaining variations in results not accounted for by IQ 
tests was revived by Gardner (1983) when he affirmed that there were seven types of 
intelligence. His main reference was in intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence which 
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form foundation for many other models of EQ. Gardners concepts makes reference to the 
fact that people have the ability to know and understand emotions as well as other 
individual‟s emotions and intentions which is believed to guide our behaviour. To build 
on this concepts, Gardner and Hatch (1989) developed what is known as multiple 
intelligences which were different from the normal IQ (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000).          
 
Ability Based Model of EQ 
 Mayer and Salovey (1997) in their continued research following their initial 
definition of EQ was revised to; the ability to perceive emotion integrate emotion, to 
facilitating thought, understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote personal 
growth.  
 The model views emotions as useful sources of information that helps one to 
make sense of and navigate the social environment (Salovey and Grewal, 2005). The 
model explains that individual vary in their ability to process information of an emotional 
nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. The ability 
is seen to manifest in some adaptive behaviour the model suggested that EQ include four 
types of abilities (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).     
- Perceiving emotion – The ability to detect and decipher emotions, ability to 
identify one‟s own emotions. 
- Using emotions – The ability to harness emotions to facilitate various 
cognitive activities such as thinking and problem solving. That is the 
emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing 
moods in order to best fit the task at hand. 
- Understanding emotions – Ability to comprehend emotional language and to 
appreciate complicated relationship among emotions. Ability to be sensitive to 
slight variations between emotions and the ability to recognise and describe 
how emotions evolve over time. 
- Managing emotions – Ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in 
others. In this, emotional intelligent individual can harness emotions even 
navigate ones and manage them to achieve intended goals.          
In some other researches, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) defined it as “the 
ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and 
reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others”. 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
 
The EQ Mixed Model  
 Goleman focuses on EQ as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive 
managerial performance, measured and self-assessment via the Emotional Intelligence 
Appraisal (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005).     
 Goleman (1995) sees emotional intelligence as the skills that helps people 
harmonise, should become increasingly valued as a workplace asset in the years to come. 
He confirmed that emotional intelligence consist of five (5) components; knowing our 
emotions (self-awareness), managing them, motivating ourselves, recognizing emotions 
in others (empathy) and handling relationships.              
 Goleman (1998) mixed competency with personal trait. He considers EQ as the 
capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves 
and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.  
He suggested four dimensions of application to EQ. 
- Self-awareness – The ability to read one‟s emotions and recognising the 
impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.  
- Self-management – involves in controlling one‟s emotion and impulses and 
adapting to changing circumstances.  
- Social awareness – The ability to sense, understand and react to others 
emotions while comprehending social networks.  
- Social skills – capacity for acting in such a way that one is able to get desired 
results from others and reach the desired goals. 
 These four domains of emotional intelligence would help any public servant 
intending to retire from service. It would help in managing their emotions towards 
retirements, the emotions of those they would have in service and the adjustment needed 
when retirement finally comes. It would also help to reduce their anxiety towards 
retirement, since they would be able to monitor their emotions and feelings and that of 
others and properly handle them well. 
 
The Trait EQ Model 
 The trait model of Emotional Intelligence proposed a conceptual distinction 
between the ability based model and a trait based model of EQ (Petrides and Furnham, 
2000). This model refers to “a constellation of behavioural dispositions and self-
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perceptions concerning one‟s ability to recognise, process and utilise emotion – laden 
information”. This definition by Petrides et al encompasses behavioural dispositions and 
self perceived abilities which is measured by self report unlike the ability based model 
which assesses actual abilities expressed in performance based measures.      
 Cooper and Ayman (1997) defined EQ as the ability to sense, understand and 
effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, 
information, connection, and influence. It was confirmed by studies that the fact that EQ 
actually meet the standard for intelligent mental performance, rather than just preferred 
ways of behaviour or non-intellectual achievements. 
 They base their definitions of EQ as the ability to navigate life towards ever 
increasing degrees of freedom of accessing innate skills and to integrate emotions and 
awareness, to align feelings and reason, to direct actions with vision, to solve problems, 
resolve conflicts and enhance interpersonal and intra-personal relationships. 
 Their competency definition suggested four areas of emotional intelligence 
application which include. 
Listen – involves an individual ability to be open to emotional, intellectual and 
social communication.       
Love - involves ability to sense the true meaning of compassion. 
Choose - involves ability to redirect thoughts, feeling and actions based on values 
and beliefs.  
Be free - involves ability to reinvent a vision and live according to purpose. 
Also, in Akinboye (2003) a competency based definition of EQ was suggested by 
Q-metrics as the ability to sense, understand and effectively apply the power and acumen 
of emotions as a source of human energy, information, trust, creativity and influence. The 
Q-metrics application of EQ is divided into three 
Awareness  - involves emotional self-awareness, emotional expressing and emotional 
awareness of others. 
Competencies – involves intentionality, creativity, resilience, interpersonal, connected 
and constructive discontent. 
Values and attitudes – involves outlook, compassion, intuition, trust, radius, personal 
power and integrated self. 
 Bar-On broadly defined the interpretation of emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 
1997; Bar-On, 2000). He said, Emotional Intelligence includes one‟s emotional, personal 
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and social dimensions of general intelligence and in (2002), he described emotional 
intelligence as it involves abilities and skills related to understanding oneself and others, 
relating to peers and family members and adapting to changing environmental situations 
and demands. Emotional intelligence as also been confirmed to increase with age, that 
older people display higher levels of emotional intelligence than younger people 
(Kafetsios, 2004; Wei, 2004; Van Rooy, Alonso, Viswesvaran, 2005; Adeyemo, 2004). 
EQ is a construct that can be developed and improved through training and remedial 
programmes as well as through therapeutic intervention (Bar-On & Parker, 2000)>  
 
2.1.12 Self-Efficacy 
 The concept of self-efficacy is the aim of Albert Bandura‟s social cognitive 
theory. He believes that individuals exercise control over their thoughts, feelings and 
actions. The last two decades have witnessed the use of self-efficacy because it is used in 
diversified areas and has received support from different findings from diverse fields. 
Self-efficacy construct has emerged as an important facet in this theory. The theory is 
understood in the “triadic recipocality” (Bandura, 1986). The interplay of where 
behaviour, cognition and environment exist and influence each other.     
 Bandura (1997, 2000 and 2001) sees self-efficacy as the belief that one can master 
a situation and produce positive outcomes. Bandura and Locke (2003), Bandura, Caprara, 
Barbarenlli, Gerbino and Pastoeli (2003) showed that self-efficacy is related to a number 
of positive developments in peoples lives, including solving problems, becoming 
sociable. It also influences whether people develop healthy habits (Fletcher and Banasik, 
2001). Self-efficacy helps individuals in unsatisfactory situations by encouraging them to 
believe they can succeed. Retirement is one of the difficult situations and a transition that 
needs efficacious steps to overcome.      
 According to social cognitive theory, people are considered to be self-organising, 
self-reflective, self-regulative and also make judgements about themselves based on their 
own activity. self-efficacy affects personal motivational processes, affect and behaviour, 
and they are related to personality characteristics, stress perception, life satisfaction and 
achievements throughout different areas of functioning (Bandura, 1997). 
 Self-efficacy also influences human behaviour through its effect on goal striving 
and motivation. Efficacious individuals have high future orientation that are characterised 
as pursuing their goals and engaging in daily planning of their activities (Strathman, 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
Gleicher, Boninger and Edward, 1994). Those who are highly future-oriented believe in 
their own ability to produce a desired effect and lead a more active and self-determinant 
life.       
 Self-efficacy makes a difference to how people feel, think and act (Bandura, 
1997). He confirmed that people with high self-efficacy choose to perform more 
challenging tasks, set themselves higher goals and stick to them. Once an action has been 
taken, highly self-efficacious people intensify more and persist longer than those low in 
self-efficacy, when there is an obstacles or set back, they remain committed and recover 
more quickly to their desired goals. Self-efficacy, or the belief that one can effectively 
cope with a given situation predicts whether people will enter a new and unfamiliar 
situation as well as the affective reasons to the situation. Self-efficacy is commonly 
understood as being task-specific, Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995); Sherer, Maddux, 
Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs and Rogers (1982) have also conceptualised a 
generalised sense of self-efficacy that refers to a global confidence is one‟s coping ability 
across a wide range of demanding situations. 
 Bandura (1997) confirmed that people with low self-efficacy have low self-
esteem and harbour pessimistic thought about their accomplishments and personal 
development. It also determines the cognitive appraisal of stressful situations. It is related 
to positive and negative emotions. Self-efficacy leads to effective problem solving, 
followed by increase of positive emotions. Low sense of self-efficacy is associated with 
negative emotions and helplessness. Those burdened with self-inefficacy suffer distress 
and negative emotions such as anxiety and depression (Bandura, 1997; Schwarzer, 1992).      
 Self-efficacy has been found in relation to clinical problems such as depression 
(Davis & Yate, 1983), Phobias (Bandura, 1983), Pain control (Manning & Wright, 1983), 
Stress in various ways (Jerusalem & Miltagi, 1995) also in connection with assertiveness 
(Lee, 1984). Self-efficacy is the belief of one‟s capabilities to organise and execute the 
courses of action required to produce given attainments. An individual‟s estimate of his 
ability to cope with a situation and outcome expectancy, an individuals estimate of his 
likelihood of certain consequences occurring. It is people confidence in their ability to 
achieve a specific goal in a specific situation, referring to the capability people believe 
they possess to effect a specific behaviour or to accomplish a certain level of 
performance. Bandura 1977 and 1986 confirmed that self-efficacy is not the skills one 
has but one‟s judgement of what one can do with those skills.            
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 Self-efficacy is a person‟s evaluation of his or her ability or competency to 
perform a task, reach a goal, or overcome an obstacle (Bandura, 1977) perform in both 
physical (Courneya & McAnley, 1993; Gould & Weiss, 1981; Ng Tam, Yew & Lam, 
1999) and academic (Sunna & Pusecker, 1994) tasks performance on the job (Huang, 
1988) and ability to deal with anxiety and depression (Cheung and Sun, 2000) is 
enhanced by strong feelings of self-efficacy. 
 Ormrod (2006) sees self-efficacy as a belief that one has the capabilities to 
execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. It is confirmed 
that self-efficacy judgement is the determinant of behaviour, when one‟s self-beliefs are 
high or facing challenges, effort to master is there, than one with low self-efficacy (Locke 
& Lutham, 1990) supporting the claim, Bandura (1997) said high self-efficacy results 
from attained task mastery over repeated performance experience. Bandura believes how 
people behave can often be predicted by the beliefs they hold about their capabilities than 
by what they are actually capable of accomplishing. It shows that self-efficacy 
perceptions could determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they 
have.                 
 
Self-efficacy and Human Functioning  
 Self-efficacy beliefs determine how much effort people are likely to expend on 
activity, their perseverance when confronting obstacles. It is confirmed that the higher the 
sense of efficacy the greater the effort and persistence. 
 It also influences an individual thought patterns and emotional reactions. People 
with high self-efficacy create a feeling of serenity in approaching difficult tasks and 
activities but those with low self-efficacy believe that things are tougher than they really 
are, this belief fosters anxiety, stress, depression and narrow vision on how to solve a 
problem. 
 Lots of studies have been conducted on the four major psychological processes 
through which self-beliefs of efficacy affect human functioning. These processes are 
cognitive, motivation, affective and selection processes. 
 
Cognitive Process 
 Schunck (1989) confirmed that the effects of self-efficacy beliefs on cognitive 
processes take a variety of forms. Since much of human behaviour is purposive, it is 
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regulated by forethought embodying values goals. The author affirmed that most courses 
of action are initially organized in thought and individual‟s belief in their efficacy shape 
the types of scenarios they construct and rehearse. Individual high in sense of efficacy 
visualize success scenarios that provide positive guides and supports for performance, but 
those individuals low in their efficacy, visualize failure and dwell on many things that 
can go wrong. In the cognitive processes, it is difficult to achieve much while fighting 
self-doubt. If a major decision is to be taken by an individual such as retirement, it is 
important that the individual involved needs to predict events and to develop ways to 
control those thought that affect their lives. It is important that intending retirees draw on 
their knowledge to construct options, to weigh and integrate predictive factors, to test and 
realize their judgements against the immediate and distant results of their actions, and to 
remember which factors they had tested and how they had worked. Furthermore, to 
remain task oriented is facing pressing and situational demands, strong sense of efficacy 
is needed to setback failures that have significant repercussions. When an individual is 
faced with task of managing difficult situation such as retirement, those who are beset of 
self-doubts about their efficacy become incoherent and erratic in their analytical thinking, 
lower their aspirations and the quality of their performance degenerates but those whose 
sense of efficacy is high, set themselves challenging goals and are focused in order to 
achieve their set goals even in retirement. 
 
Motivational Processes 
 It is believed that human motivation is cognitively generated. People motivate 
themselves and guide their actions by forethought. People form beliefs about what they 
can do and the likely outcomes of prospective actions, goals set for themselves and plan 
courses of action designed to realise them. Bandura (1991b) ascertained that people act 
on their beliefs about what they can do, as well as on their beliefs about the likely 
outcomes of performance. He asserts that the motivating influence of outcome 
expectancies is thus partly governed by self-beliefs of efficacy. Motivation based on 
goals or personal standards is governed by self-satisfying and self-dissatisfying reaction 
to one‟s performance, perceived self-efficacy for goal attainment and readjustment of 
personnel goals based on one‟s progress. Intending retirees, may be influenced by one of 
the above self-influences to be motivated. Highly self-efficacious intending retirees 
would determine the goals set for themselves; how long they can persevere in the face of 
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difficulties. Strong perseverance contributes to performance accomplishments and those 
who harbour self-doubts about their capabilities slacken their efforts or give up easily 
which may bring anxiety. Intending retirees who have strong belief in their capabilities 
would exert greater effort and master the challenges even if they fail; they look for 
improvement to get themselves set for the better. 
 
Affective Processes 
Stress and depression experienced in a threatening situation show the coping 
capabilities of peoples beliefs. Those who believed they could exercise control over 
threats do not bottle-up disturbing thought patterns, but those who believe they cannot 
manage threats experience high anxiety arousal. Bandura (1986) confirmed that 
perceived coping self-efficacy regulates avoidance behaviour as well as anxiety arousal. 
That is the stronger the sense of self-efficacy the bolder people are in facing obstacles. He 
affirmed that anxiety arousal is affected not only by perceived coping efficacy but by 
perceived efficacy to control disturbing thoughts. Social cognitive theory prescribes 
mastery experiences as a principal means of personality change. Mastery experiences are 
structural in ways to build coping skills and instill beliefs that one can exercise control 
over potential threats. Pre-retirees who have a low sense of social efficacy, judge 
themselves badly and by this raised their anxiety and lose the sense of coping effectively 
but those who believe in their capabilities and could effect the control of perceived 
efficacy would not made judgement that would overturn their expectations since 
perceived coping self-efficacy and thought control efficacy operate jointly to reduce 
anxiety and avoidant behaviour. 
 
Selection Processes  
People are partly the product of their environment. In most cases people avoid 
activities and situations they believed exceed their coping capabilities but readily 
undertake challenging activities and select situations they judge themselves capable of 
handling (Lent & Hackett, 1987). People cultivate different competencies, interests and 
social networks that determine life courses by selecting situations they could handle 
adequately. Public servants who are nearing retirement may want to avoid the trauma 
they are likely to pass through in their pre-retirement phase of life by not discussing the 
issue of retirement or seeking for adjustment in the home environment so as not to think 
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about the impending phase of life. 
Human accomplishment and positive well-being require a sense of optimism and 
personal efficacy because social realities are strewn with difficulties, impediments, 
adversities, setbacks and frustrations. It is important people have a robust sense of 
personal efficacy to sustain the effort to succeed. Major life changes such as retirement, 
loss of friends or spouse or relocation need interpersonal skills to cultivate new social 
relationship that can contribute to positive functioning and personal well being.               
                    
Sources of Self-Efficacy 
 People form their self-efficacy from four main sources. These are: 
(i) Creating a strong sense of efficacy through mastery experiences. When 
individual is able to overcome obstacles through perseverance, such tends to 
gain experience and efficacy could be firmly established. This confirms that 
the most potent or influential source of efficacy information is based on 
authentic mastery experience. Outcomes interpreted as successful tends to 
raise self-efficacy while failure lowers it. 
(ii) Vicarious experiences provided by social models. Here an individual sees 
people who are similar to themselves succeeding, this could aid their 
capability to venture into doing similar activities, even if they fail. Vicarious 
forms can produce significant and enduring changes through their effects on 
performance. Observing others perceived to be similarly competent can help 
instill self-beliefs that will influence ones course and direction that life will 
take.     
(iii) Social persuasion. This strengthens peoples beliefs that they have what it takes 
to make it. Persuasion boost in perceived self-efficacy lead people to try hard 
enough to succeed. Persuasion involves encouragement and support from 
others. Although, it is not a strong source of increasing self-efficacy like the 
mastery experience and vicarious learning. Bandura (1997) affirmed that 
effective persuasions should not be confused with knee-jerk praise or empty 
inspirational homilies. His conclusion is in consonance with Erickson‟s 
1980:95 in which he cautioned that weak ego is not strengthened by being 
persistently bolstered. Thus a retiring public servant may strive to succeed no 
matter the odds. 
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(iv) Peoples somatic and emotional states in judging their capabilities. Here, 
individuals interpret stress reactions and tension signs of vulnerability to poor 
performance. Mood, strength and stamina are used in judging physical 
achievements. Positive mood enhances perceived self-efficacy. As Bandura 
(1997) observed, he said people live in psychic environments that are 
primarily of their own making. People gauge their degree of confidence by the 
emotional state they experience as they contemplate an action. Since 
individuals have the ability to alter own thinking, self-efficacy in turn, also 
powerful influence the physiological states.  
 Intending retirees may make use of these sources of self-efficacy to boost theirs. 
Having strong and high self-efficacy could reduce their tension and anxiety towards 
retirement and be able to stabilize and think on what they could do to make a meaningful 
retirement life. 
 
2.2 Empirical Studies 
 Recent studies in emotional intelligence have continued to broaden the 
understanding of the concept. Bracket, Mayer and Warner (2004), Kafetsios (2004), 
Perry, Ball and Stancy (2004), Wei (2004), Van Rooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran (2005) 
confirmed that emotional intelligence is gender related with women scoring higher on 
measures of emotional intelligence than men. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) also 
confirmed that emotional intelligent person is more likely to have possessions of 
sentimental attachment around the home and to have more positive social interactions and 
be more adept at describing motivational goals, aims and missions.  
 
2.2.1 Retirement Anxiety and Pre-retirement Anxiety  
 Palmore, Burchett, Fillenbaum, George and William (1985) stated in their studies 
on causes and consequences of retirement, they affirmed that, retirees are substantially 
poorer, sickler, less active and less satisfied in retirement. Negative effects are produced 
in the way the workers are retired in the study of Palmore (1985) he found that 
involuntary retirees outweigh those who retire voluntarily and this account for poor 
health, depression and other physical ill-health.  
 This is in contrast to the studies of Gillanders, Buss, Wingard and Gemmel (1991) 
that did a study of older steel workers who were forced to retire early because of 
downsizing; their report showed that this did not show any adverse effects on their health. 
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This may be because loss of job is close to normal retirement age and it may have little or 
no effects. 
 Sharpley and Layton (1998) in their studies on effects of age of retirement, reason 
for retirement, and pre-retirement training on psychological and physical health during 
retirement reported that whether retirement is because of age, redundancy or illness, or is 
voluntary: and the presence of pre-retirement education or training on anxiety, stress and 
physical health following retirement. They investigated 349 males and 385 females 
ranging from 44 to 90 years spread across the first five years following retirement from 
full-time work. The findings indicated that men who retired earlier reported better 
physical health, no significant effect was found with women, both men and women who 
retired voluntarily were significantly less anxious, depressed and that the experience of 
pre-retirement education or training appeared to be associated with reduced psychological 
distress.          
 Skarborn and Nicki (2000) compared levels of worry between employees nearing 
retirement and those already retired. Their motive was to determine if there were 
differences in levels of worry between these pre-retirement and post-retirement groups. 
Participants (N=96) were given four instruments that measured levels of worry. The 
authors recruited the pre-retirement group (n=48) from various businesses and 
corporations within the community and the post-retirement group (n=48) from seniors‟ 
associations. Result indicated pre-retirees had higher level of worry than post retirees. 
They confirmed pre-retirees worried mostly about family, finance and other issues when 
compared to post-retirees.       
 There has been confirmation that the importance of work as an important part of a 
person‟s life and so retirees face a multitude of work-related concerns such as job loss, 
grief, guilt, loss of self-esteem, loss of identity and loss of social support (Archer and 
Rhode, 1993). Turner, Kessler and House (1991) asserted that retirees suffer increase 
depression, anxiety and physical illness than people who were employed. In a similar 
findings, it was reported that a high degree of activity later in life was correlated with a 
positive adjustment to retirement and discouragement from life was correlated to lower 
life satisfaction in older adult who are not involved in social activities such as work and 
hobby groups. 
 In support of the aforementioned, Randell (1981) presented three challenges that 
influence wellness during retirement. First, he described challenges to physical wellness, 
reported that disease processes can develop as the body ages. Second, he illustrated 
challenges concerning psychological wellness, describing how retirement can affect an 
individuals self-concept and lastly, social wellness may be threatened due to the loss of 
one‟s role of worker within society, resulting in a sense of worthlessness and loneliness. 
Also, AARP (2004) conducted a survey of 1,200 baby boomers between the ages of 38-
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57 years old. The purpose of the study was to gain an understanding of participants 
beliefs, attitudes and behaviour toward retirement. The reported that 69% of baby 
boomers are optimistic about their retirement years, and that 46% of baby boomers 
attitudes about retirement in recent years have become more positive when compared to a 
survey taken by AARP five years earlier. However, 31% of baby boomers were not 
optimistic about their retirement, which may be related to anticipate retirement problems. 
In another study, AARP (2004) found that 79% of baby boomers plan to work during 
their retirement, 35% of those want to work for enjoyment and 25% want to work due to 
financial necessity. The AARP results did not report why the other 40% of participants 
will return of work. These participants who work due to financial necessity may by 
dealing with unforeseen challenges at this time of life (Heckhausen, 2001) such as caring 
for spouse, children or parents (Magai & Halpern, 2001). These challenges may be 
accompanied by financial responsibilities that result in a need to supplement income in 
retirement. 
 Also, Wolpent (1991) studied air force personnel to determine the impact of a 
multi-function, pre-retirement planning programme on the military-to-civilian transition. 
He found that to a limited degree, pre-retirement planning leads to higher job satisfaction, 
which in turn directly affect life satisfaction.    
 It has been confirmed that individual who tried to continue the structure of their 
lives in retirement were much more active and happy (Atchley, 1989). It was also 
confirmed that it was healthy to try to preserve structure and routine into retirement 
(Atchley, 1989; Kart, 1990; Kart, 1997). Kim and Moen (2001) found that post 
retirement employment appears to be beneficial for men‟s psychological well-being 
because they reported highest morale and lowest depression in contrast to those retired 
and not re-employed who experienced lowest morale and most depression. 
 Bosse, Aldwin, Levenson and Workman-Daniel (1991) analysed data from the 
Normative Aging study in one of the more recent studies of health outcome of retirement. 
The data were collected in 1985, evaluating a sample of working and retired men ages 39 
to 88, with the goal of examining retirement as both a stage and as a transition. Measures 
included employment status and the Elders Life Stress Inventory (ELSI). The ELSI 
assesses stress from daily hassles as well as life events. Five domains of daily hassles 
were assessed, including health, marital, social relations, household finances and 
retirements. Results from ELSI indicated that retirement was listed as the least stressful 
event out of 31 life events. However, 30% of the participants did rate retirement as 
stressful. Health and financial concerns were the best predictors of retirement stress.       
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 Hershey, Henkens and Van Dalen (2006) explored the psychological mechanisms 
that underlie the retirement planning and saving tendencies of workers. Participants were 
988 Dutch and 429 Americans, 25-64 years of age. Analyses were designed to (a) 
examine the extent to which structural variables were related to planning tendencies and 
(b) develop culture-specific path analysis models to identify the mechanisms that underlie 
perceived financial preparedness for retirement. Findings revealed striking differences 
across countries not only among structural variables predictive of key psychological and 
retirement planning construct. The findings in suggests policy analyst should take into 
account both individual and cultural differences in the psychological predispositions of 
workers when considering pension reforms that stress individual responsibility for 
planning. 
 Dorfman (1989) investigated preparation for retirement in the rural elderly and 
the relationship between that preparation and retirement satisfaction. A number of 
anticipatory socialisation for retirement mechanisms were investigated including 
planning for retirement, pre-retirement, discussion on retirement with others, and 
exposure to written information and mass media programmes about retirement. 
Respondents were 252 men and 199 women who participated in the retirement substudy 
of an 8 years epidemiological investigation of persons aged 65 and over. Planning for 
retirement, reading about retirement, and exposure to radio or television programmes 
about retirement were significant correlations of retirement satisfaction for both sexes. 
Gradual retirement was a significant correlate of retirement satisfaction for males only. 
After health, planning for retirement was the second strongest prediction of retirement 
satisfaction for males. Scholossberg (2004) in a study of 100 retirees found that 
retirement is not one but many transitions that coping with these transitions depend on the 
role of work and family life of the individuals. The timing of retirement, the degree to 
which retirement is planned for, the degree to which a work has been satisfying, the 
expectations one has about retirement, the degree to which a meaningful life is 
established one‟s health and sense of financial security. Ubangha attitude to retirement 
planning and retirement between among teachers in four local government areas of Lagos 
metropolis. Results showed that 65% of the teachers indicated willingness to continue 
teaching after retirement if given the chance.  
 MacEwen, Barling, Kelloway and Hagginbotton (1995) in their study on 
retirement anxiety suggests that parental socialisation and personal financial planning are 
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associated with positive retirement expectations. And in another study conducted by 
Floyd, Hayne, Doll, Wine Miller, Lemsky and Burgy (1992) on retirement satisfaction 
and expectancies, it was found that saving and planning have a positive relationship with 
retirement experiences and satisfaction. Beehr (1986) conducted psychological review on 
retirement issues, suggested that the degree of consistency between individuals pre-post 
retirement activities is affected by their formal and informal planning, health, economic 
status and occupational goal attainment. He concluded that economic status and health 
variables have been used intensively when predicting retirement decisions. Fitzpatrick 
(1979) Manion (1976) and Ullmann (1976) all claimed that successful pre-retirement 
programmes have significant impact on retirement satisfaction. In the views of Anderson 
(1989) affirmed that significant differences exist between the perceived life satisfaction 
of retirees who participated in pre-retirement programme as compared to those who did 
not. Anderson‟s study supports the need for pre-retirement training, planning and 
retirement preparatory programmes. 
 Devaney and Kim (2003) examined retirement expectations of the older self-
employed worker and suggested job skill programmes and training could improve the 
financial well-being of the older self-employed and enable him or her to plan for 
retirement. In another study conducted by Harold and Patricia (1999) they focused on the 
relationship between financial planning and retirement satisfaction. They found that 
thinking about retirement and attending planning meetings have a significant positive 
impact on satisfaction even when income, wealth and other factors are included as 
variable. To Brunson, Snow and Gustafson (1998) they examined midlife career and non-
career military personnel. The study confirmed adequacy level of financial planning has a 
significant positive impact on the level of satisfaction in retirement.                 
 
2.2.2 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Emotional Intelligence  
 Studies have shown that some older workers decided to remain in the workplace 
rather than retiring because they make their decision on several factors other than income 
alone, they look beyond economic issues, social, mental and physical well-being play a 
significant role in their decision to retire (AARP Work and Career Study, 2002). Lim 
(2003) examined the attitudes of older workers towards work and retirement, retirement 
planning and their willingness to continue working after retirement and to undergo 
retraining. Data were collected via questionnaire surveys. Respondents consisted of 204 
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individuals aged 40 and above who attended courses. Finding is suggested that work 
occupied a salient part of the respondents‟ lives. In general, respondents also held rather 
ambivalent attitudes with regards to the prospect of retirement, i.e. while they did not 
view retirement negatively, they were nevertheless anxious about certain aspects of 
retirement. Results suggested that majority of respondents preferred to remain employed 
in some ways even after they have officially retired from the work force, that is partial 
rather than full retirement.     
 Sati (1988) in his study compared daily activities, pre-retirement and that of post-
retirement covering the low, medium and high ages. The study is to ascertain the 
differentiated utilization of free time activities as determined by educational status and 
period of retirement of the aged. Methods used were the interview schedule for collecting 
the qualitative and quantitative data. Graphs and charts were also used to describe the 
methods that it used, daily activities and their utilization of time. Findings show that 
during the pre-retirement period major activities performed by the major respondents 
were attending office, reading day and night, sleeping, conversation with spouse, 
household duties and listening to radio. The average unutilised time which could not be 
accounted for came to 240. 21 minutes per day. In the post-retirement life the majority of 
the respondents revealed to be primarily occupied with activities like reading, day/night 
sleeping, play with the children, morning/evening walk, prayer and worship, household 
duties and listening to radio. The average unutilised time came to 330.61 minutes per 
day. The study revealed that the duration of unutilised time increased by 94 minutes per 
day during post-retirement period compared to pre-retirement one. This shows that at 
retirement, if there is no activities to occupy for the lost roles, it will certainly affect any 
individual.      
 Higgs and Dulewikz (2008) in their study in which data on EQ, personality (using 
the “Big 5” model) and well-being were obtained from a sample of 150 in-work 
managers. The well-being scales employed covered both subjective well-being and 
psychological well-being (SWB and PWB) as well as a combined measure. Analyses of 
the data demonstrated significant relationships between EQ and measures of well-being 
as well as a number of relationships between “Big 5” personality factors and well-being 
measures. However, EQ explained more variance in well-being measures than personality 
factors alone. The finding provides important evidence to support the validity of EQ 
construct as operationalised employed a “mixed model”.  
 Emotional intelligence had been confirmed by many researches to help in anxiety. 
There is confirmation that emotions can either enhance or inhibit the ability to learn with 
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social and cultural influences causing changes in behaviour and altering biological 
processes. Eleven basic emotions were introduced in three experimental conditions, they 
are: happiness, interest, surprise, contempt, disgust, shame, fear, anger, distress, sadness 
and anxiety. The study confirmed that successful experiences are connected to positive 
emotions and relationships while negative experiences disconnected relationally (Mudge, 
Grinnan & Priesmeyer, 2006).  
 Matthew, Emo, Funke, Zeidner, Roberts, Costa and Schulze (2006) also 
confirmed that low emotional intelligence was related to worry states and avoidance 
coping even with the (Five Factor Model) statistically controlled. However, emotional 
intelligence was not specifically related to task induced changes in stress states. It was 
confirmed that neuroticism related to stress, worry and emotional focused coping and 
conscientiousness predicted use of table focused coping, but emotional intelligence 
predicted stress responses and coping strategies. Significant difference was found in 
personality traits of physically trained and physically untrained individuals in seven 
areas: anxiety, depression, hostility, intelligence, emotional stability, conscientiousness, 
self-assurance and state of relaxation (Tharp & Schlegelmilch, 1977). 
 There has been an assertion that the effectiveness of emotional intelligence in four 
key themes from their interview data where emotional intelligence was considered to be 
highly significant in the mental health care experience (a) within the content of their 
relationship with patients, (b) the substance of supervision, (c) as a source of their 
motivation, (d) as enabling them to carry out their responsibilities. The ability to manage 
emotions was confirmed as arising from the demands and within the context of the 
patient relationship. Managing emotions was negotiated within each patient encounter 
and in thing sense situationally dependent (Akerjordet & Serverinsson, 2004). Cooper 
(1997) confirmed that people with high level of emotional intelligence have greater 
career success, foster greater personal relationship, have more effective leadership skills 
and are healthier than those with low emotional intelligence. Bar-On (2003) also found 
the significant relationship between emotional and social intelligence including 
psychological health. He found that emotional and social intelligences competencies were 
found on psychological health, where he said that the ability to manage emotions and 
cope with stress, the drive to accomplish personal goals in order to live a meaningful 
fulfilled life and the ability to verify feelings and thinking.                    
 Shutte, Maloff, Simunek, McKenley and Hollander (2002) confirmed that 
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individuals with emotional intelligence would use their ability to understand and regulate 
emotions to maintain more positive mood and higher self-esteem. They further stressed 
that individuals higher in Emotional Intelligence would be better able to resist situational 
threats to positive mood and self-esteem. It has also been confirmed that people who are 
high in self-control are people who can manage their impulsive feelings and distressing 
emotions well, stay composed, positive and unflappable even in trying moments 
(Goleman, 1998).  Ciarrochi, Chan and Bajgar (2001) confirmed that emotional 
intelligence have impact on psychological health, they said emotional intelligence may 
help people from stressful events and be able to adapt adequately to situation.     
 Summerfeldt, Kloosterman, Antony and Parker (2006) revealed that there has 
been no published investigation made of the relationship between social anxiety and 
emotional intelligence (EI), or of their shared impact upon interpersonal adjustment. In 
their study, that showed the use of structural equation modelling with self-report data 
from a large non-clinical sample (N=2629), EI was found to be highly related to social 
interaction anxiety, but not performance anxiety. A model permitting these three 
predictors to inter-correlate indicated that the EI factor was the dominant predictor of 
interpersonal adjustment, substantially reducing the unique contribution made by 
interaction anxiety. This pattern reflected the principal contributions made to interaction 
anxiety by the interpersonal and particularly intrapersonal domains in EI.          
 Also, in the study of Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) examining the 
association between emotional intelligence (EI), anxiety, depression and mental physical 
health in university students. The sample was made up of 184 individuals (38 men and 
146 women). EI was evaluated by the Trait meta-mood scale which evaluates the three 
dimensions with the Trait Anxiety Questionnaire and depression with the Becks 
Depression Inventory. Mental, social and physical health were evaluated with the SF-12 
Health Survey. Results showed that high emotional attention was positively and 
significantly related to high anxiety, depression and to low levels of role emotional social 
functioning and mental health, vitality and general health.  
 Fernandez-Barrocal and Extremera (2006) analysed the influence of EQ on 
emotional responses in laboratory context. Specifically, the experiment investigates how 
EQ affect previous mood state? How does to a better mood recovery? The experiment 
comprises of three phases. At time I experimenter assesses mood states of the participants 
before mood induction. At time 1, participants before mood induction. At time 2, 
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participants are randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions: amusement, 
anger and sadness mood conditions. Subsequently, participants are assessed in their mood 
states. At time 3 (mood recovery phase) following a rest period participants are evaluated 
in mood states and intrusive thoughts measures. Results indicated that EQ specifically, 
clarify and repair is related to previous mood states, emotional reactivity to mood 
induction conditions and emotional recovery. They affirmed that EQ could join the list of 
personal and interpersonal factors that contributes to the efficient processing of positive 
and negative emotions.        
 In another study conducted by Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Westphel and Coifman 
(2004) emotions were examined in the form of expression. In their study, participants 
performance in a college laboratory task was observed where they were to exert enhanced 
emotional expression, suppressed emotional expression, and behave normally on 
different trials. Participants involved in the study were shown images on a computer 
screen and asked to express or suppress the emotions felt as associated. After completing 
these tasks, the participants were given a memory task involving the images observed on 
their computer screens. Four questions were asked about each picture; half to emotional 
details and half to non-emotional details. Distress participants were recorded one month 
of beginning college and again at the end of the second academic year. Result found that 
subjects who are better able to enhance and suppress the expression of emotion showed 
less distress as recorded two years after the initial test. The research highlighted the 
importance of emotional flexibility and management in order to reduce distress and 
anxiety.     
 Researchers also have found that, when people can regain and maintain positive 
emotional states, they are likely not to get sick or to use medical services when faced 
with a stressful life experience (Goldman, Kraemer & Salovey, 1996). Prederikson‟s 
(2001) belief that the main function of positive emotions is to facilitate the ability to cope 
with problems.  Brotheridge (2006) examines the role of EQ in predicting emotional 
labour relative to situational demand in service workers. The findings support the relation 
between EQ and deep acting in services workers, which is considered to be more 
adaptive than surface acting. He also examines the predictive value of EQ in emotional 
labour controlling for situational demands, and a possible moderation effect of EQ in the 
relationship between emotional labour and situational demands. Results indicate a role of 
EQ as a predictor of perceived situational demand, which in turn, predicts the nature of 
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emotional labour performed.     
 In a study conducted by Frederickson and Joiner (2000) they affirmed that 
individuals who experience more positive emotions (such as happiness) used broader 
coping strategies than those who experience more negative emotions such as sadness. 
They further assert that individuals who experienced positive emotions were likelier to 
think about ways to deal with the problem and to step back from the situation and be 
more objective than were individuals who experienced negative emotions. 
 As Salovey and other (2000) posited, social support, such as caring family and 
friends are important factor in stress and coping that is likely linked with positive 
emotions.  
         
2.2.3 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-efficacy  
 Solunge and Henkens (2005) examined adjustment to retirement by couples. 
Older workers and their partners, they investigated the extent to which adjustment is 
influenced by the context in which the transition is made and psychological factors 
shaped by individual expectations and evaluations prior to retirement. Data was collected 
from 559 older couples who experienced the transition into retirement of one of the 
partners. It was affirmed that adjustment to retirement is influenced by the context in 
which the transition is made as well as individual psychological factors. A strong 
quantitative attachment to work (full-time jobs, long work histories) a lack of control 
over the transition, retirement anxiety (negative pre-retirement expectations) and low 
scores on self-efficacy are predictors of difficult adjustment.        
 Self-efficacy has also been found to be a useful technique in handling anxiety. 
This was confirmed in the study by Labrecque, Marchand, Dugas and Letarde (2007) in a 
study which evaluated the efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy for cormorbid panic 
disorder with agoraphobia (PDA) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) by combining 
treatment strategies for both disorders. Three participants with primary PDA and 
secondary GAD took part in the study. After treatment, 2 of the 3 participants achieved 
high and state functioning and maintained this level of functioning at 3-6- and 12 months 
follow-ups. The third participant also improved but only reached high end-state 
functioning at 6 months follow-up. Finding shows that the combined treatment is 
relatively effective for PDA and GAD comorbidity.                
 There has been an investigation on the moderating effect of self-efficacy on 
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stressor-strain relationship among 30 telephone interviewers in an academic survey 
research centre. The participants filled out measures of the skills confidence inventory 
and the scale of perceived social self-efficacy. They reported their state anxiety and 
recorded number of refusals at the middle and the end of a 4-hour work shift. Significant 
relationships were found between the number of refusals and interviewer related anxiety, 
at the middle and the end of the shift. Results confirmed that perceived self-efficacy 
tended to buffer the relationship at the middle of the shift but strengthen the relationship 
at the end of shift (Xie, 2007). 
 Betoret (2006) in the study on the relationship among teacher occupational 
stressor, self-efficacy, coping resources and burnout were investigated in a sample of 247 
Spanish secondary school teachers. Concretely, two specific aims were formulated in 
order to examine the effect of teaching stressors on teacher burnout and the role of self-
efficacy and school coping resources as mediator variable in the stressor-burnout 
relationship.     
 Teacher reported that when their pedagogical practice in the school setting was 
being interfered with or hindered by a set of factors from the multiple contexts involved 
in student learning, problems of burnout occurred. In addition, it was found that teachers 
with a high level of self-efficacy and more coping resources reported suffering less stress 
and burnout than teachers with low level of self-efficacy and fewer coping resources.  
 In developing a verbal self-guidance (VSG) training program as a transfer of 
training to enhance the application and usage of skills learned in a training session, post 
training and then assessed the impact of the training on presentation performance, self-
efficacy (i.e. task specific confidence) and anxiety, it was confirmed that participants 
trained in VSG (n = 33) had significantly higher self-efficacy concerning their 
presentation performance relative to those in the comparison group (n = 32) who took 
part in a lecture and discussion activity (Brown and Morrissey, 2004). 
 Self-efficacy was significantly and positively correlated with presentation 
performance and self-efficacy such that anxiety increased as performance and self-
efficacy decreased. Fretz (1989) also studied self-efficacy knowledge, planfulness, job 
commitment and social support as predictor of anxiety and depression about retirement, 
using 129 who were employed of a large technological agency and university. It was 
found that best predictors of pre-retirement worry were low sense of self-efficacy and 
low degree of planfulness.          
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 Pajares, Johnson and Usher (2007) examined the influence of Albert Bandura‟s 
four hypothesised sources of self-efficacy on students‟ writing self-efficacy beliefs (N = 
1256) and to explore how these sources differ as a function of gender and academic level. 
Consistent with the tenets of self-efficacy theory, each of the sources significantly 
correlated with writing self-efficacy and with each other. As hypothesised, students‟ 
perceived mastery experience accounted for the greatest proposition of the variance in 
writing self-efficacy. This was the case for girls and for boys, as well as for students in 
elementary school, middle school, and high school. Social persuasion and anxiety also 
predicted writing self-efficacy. Vicarious experience did not predict writing self-efficacy. 
Girls reported greater mastery experience, vicarious experience and social persuasion, as 
well as lower writing anxiety. Girls also reported stronger writing self-efficacy and were 
rated better writers by their teachers. Elementary school students reported stronger 
mastery experience, vicarious experience and social persuasions than did either middle 
school or high school students. Elementary school students also reported stronger self-
efficacy. Findings support and refine the theoretical tenets of Bandura‟s social cognitive 
theory.  
 Wei and Ku (2007) developed and examined a conceptual model of working 
through self-defeating patterns. 390 participants at a large mid western university were 
used. It was found that self-defeating patterns mediated the relations between attachment 
and distress. Also, self-esteem mediated the link between self-defeating patterns, anxiety 
and depression, whereas social self-efficacy mediated the association between self-
defeating patterns and interpersonal distress. A total of 33% of the variance is self-
defeating patterns was explained by attachment anxiety and avoidance, 39% of the 
variance in self-esteem and 13% of the variance in social self-efficacy were explained by 
self-defeating patterns and attachment anxiety; 50% of the variance in depression was 
explained by attachment anxiety, self-defeating patterns; self-esteem; 45% of the 
variance in interpersonal distress was explained by attachment anxiety and avoidance, 
self-defeating patterns and social self-efficacy. 
 Shores and Shannon (2007) surveyed a total of n=761 individuals to investigate 
the relationships between self-regulated learning, motivation, anxiety, attributions and 
achievement. It was revealed that significant contributions are made by motivation and 
anxiety on both test scores and failure were related to academic performance while 
failure attribution was significantly related to mathematics grade. As for sixth grade 
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students, the study revealed relationship exists between motivation, anxiety and academic 
performance with specific factors such as self-efficacy, intrinsic value and worry 
significantly predicting both test score and mathematics grade for sixth graders. Findings 
underlie the importance of motivation and anxiety for students and how these constructs 
interact to facilitate self-regulation over the course of developing expertise in a domain. 
 Wei, Russel and Zakalik (2005) in their longitudinal study examined whether self-
efficacy and self-disclosure serve as mediators between attachment and feelings of 
loneliness and subsequent anxiety and depression. 308 participants were used. Findings 
confirmed that social self-efficacy mediated the association between attachment anxiety 
and feelings of loneliness and subsequent depression, whereas self-disclosure mediated 
the association between attachment avoidance and feelings of loneliness and subsequent 
depression. These relationships were found after controlling for the initial level of anxiety 
and depression. A total of 55% of the variance in loneliness was explained by attachment 
anxiety, social self-efficacy and self-disclosure, whereas 42% of the variance in 
subsequent depression was explained by the initial level of loneliness and depression. 
 Mallinckrodt and Wei (2005) studies 430 individuals, elements of social 
competencies and interpersonal processes model were tested. Two social competences 
were hypothesised to mediate the directs of 2 independent variables, attachment anxiety 
and avoidance on 2 outcomes, psychological distress and perceived social support. Social 
self-efficacy was expected to be a significant mediator only for attachment avoidance. 
The study confirmed that both social self-efficacy and emotional awareness served as 
significant mediators for both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance.  
 Barlow, Cullen-Powell and Cheshire (2006) studied the proportion of mothers of 
children with cerebral palsy who experience distress, particularly in terms of depressed 
and anxious moods. They examined the level of maternal anxious and depressed moods, 
association between maternal psychological well-being and self-efficacy and perception 
of children‟s eating, sleeping and mobility were also examined. Participants were 78 
mothers, mean age, 37 years and standard deviation, 7.91 of children with CP age less 
than 16 years of age. Self-administered questionnaires based on standard measures of 
anxious and depressed moods that were mailed to mothers. Findings showed that 29.8%, 
26% and 11.7% of mothers were at low, moderate and high risks of clinically depressed 
moods were inversely associated with generalised self-efficacy (CP = 0.001) and anxious 
mood was inversely associated with children‟s sleeping difficulties. Also, they confirmed 
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that levels of maternal psychological well-being are a cause for concern and warrant 
exploration of intervention that will reduce maternal distress and increase self-efficacy.                          
 Baer and Garland (2005) evaluated the efficacy of cognitive-behavioural group 
therapy programme for adolescents with social phobia, simplified both in terms of time 
and labour intensity from a previously studied program (Social Effectiveness Therapy for 
Children and Adolescents) to be more appropriate for a community out-patient 
psychiatric setting. Twelve adolescents with social phobia (ages 13-18) diagnosed by 
DSM-IV criteria and confirmed with Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children 
assessment, were randomly assigned to treatment (n-6) and waitlist (n=6) groups. The 
waitlist group was subsequently treated, and results were included in data analysis. The 
result confirmed that treated participants showed significant greater improvement in both 
examiner evaluated (Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children) and self-
reported (Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory) symptoms of social anxiety.               
 
2.2.4 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Gender 
 Our perception of retirement differs. Studies have reported gender differences in 
older workers orientation toward retirement, with women expressing less favourable 
views. Hatch (1992) study of 557 women and 245 men in their 60‟s not currently 
married, showed that previously, married women, who often face a poor financial 
situation in retirement were less likely than previously married men to agree that older 
workers should retire and also were less likely to define themselves retirees. Never 
married women and men did not differ on these measures of retirement orientation, but 
they differ in a more general measure of well-being, with the women holding a more 
positive attitude toward life in retirement. It was therefore concluded that differences in 
women‟s and men‟s occupational and economic circumstances are responsible in part of 
gender differences in retirement.      
Some studies showed that female experience retirement differently from male 
(Atchley and Robinson, 1982; Joo and Pauwels, 2002; Newman, Sherman & Haggin, 
1982). Males were found to likely have more positive attitude towards retirement than 
females (Atchley & Robinson, 1982). Joo and Pauwels (2002) also found that males had 
higher retirement confidence than females. In contrast, female workers were found to be 
less prepared for retirement than their male counterparts (Behling & Merves, 1985).     
 
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2.2.5 Pre-retirement Anxiety and Self-esteem  
   Retirement is a transitional stage of life that can be a pleasant experience for some 
yet traumatic for others. Many researches have focused on the economic aspect of 
retirement, particularly income, security, while others have tried to describe and 
understand the potential negative impact of retirement on health and well being.  
 The self is another area of importance in retirement. Rosemberg (1964) referred to 
self-esteem as the emotional element of the self, how the individual feels about himself or 
herself. Self-esteem is a product of comparison of any individual of what he/she is (self-
concept) what he/she ought to be (self-ideal). The impact of self-esteem have been 
studied by various researchers. Back and Guptill (1966) using a semantic differential 
scale to study the self-concept among pre-retirees and retirees, identified three 
dimensions: involvement, optimism and autonomy. They found in the study that the 
involvement scores for retired persons were considerably lower than for the pre-retirees. 
They found thing to be true regardless of socio-economic status, and concluded there is 
decline in perception of self as involved as a result of loss of work. Their findings 
indicate that, if the individual was healthy, had middle upper stratum occupation and had 
a number of personnel interests than the loss of a sense of involvement resulting from 
retirement would be minimized. They concluded that retirement did not successfully fill 
the gap left by the loss of work role. 
 Cottrell and Atchley (1969) in their study of retired teacher and telephone 
company employees using Rozenberg self-esteem scale found that self-esteem tend to be 
high in retirement. Parnes, Fleisher, Mirljus and Spitz (1970) in their longitudinal study 
of male aged between 45-59 found that those with high satisfaction with their job were 
likely to report negative attitudes concerning retirement. Some other studies confirmed 
the fluctuation of self-esteem in individuals. Knox, Funk, Elliott and Bush (1998) studied 
212 high school students. 127 females and 85 males. The students completed the self-
perception profile for adolescents Global Self-worth scale by Harter (1988). In addition, 
they also completed the Hoped for Possible Selves Questionnaire (Cross and Markus, 
1991). This questionnaire elicits information about the students perception of themselves 
and their future through responses to item on a 7-point likert-type scale. The researcher 
found that there was a positive correlation between the two instruments. This suggests 
that students with high self-esteem have more positive views of their future. In another 
study conducted by Rivas-Torres, Fernandez and Maceira (1995) on self-esteem and 
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gender, their research revealed that females score consistently lower in self-esteem 
instruments than males (Chubb, Fertman & Ross, 1997). Flansburg (1991) found that 
although self-esteem among both males and females decreases during adolescence, 
females as a group start out with lower levels of self-esteem. The levels of self-esteem 
among females decrease significantly more than levels among males during adolescence.  
 Also, in a study by Baumeister (1997) on self-esteem across the life span which 
involved 300,000 individuals, to rate the extent to which they have high self-esteem. The 
study indicated that self-esteem dropped in adolescence and late adulthood. Self-esteem 
of females was lower than self-esteem in male through most of the life span and was 
especially low for females during adolescence. In the opinion of Baumeister, he affirmed 
that self-esteem do not indicate that high self-esteem produces a good performance 
rather, high self-esteem is produced by success.        
 In a longitudinal study conducted by Block and Robins (1993) on self-esteem, 91 
students 47 females and 44 males, during their first year of high school, their last year of 
high school and again five years following high school. Female self-esteem was 
consistently lower than male self-esteem. They however, found that males tended to 
increase in self-esteem overtime whereas, females tended to decrease in self-esteem 
overtime. The disparity between the genders increase overtime. In another study of self-
esteem over time, Block (1991) studied students at ages 11, 14, 18 and 23. Of the self-
esteem of females and males at age 14 was the same. He found a difference in female and 
male. Self-esteem among the participants during other time period of 14 and 18. the 
female participants showed no change in self-esteem, whereas the males reported an 
increase in self-esteem. 
In a similar study, Raymore, Godbey and Crawford (1994) used 363 high school 
seniors to conduct a study on self-esteem. Among the participants, 153 were female and 
208 were male. The results allowed the researchers to divide the students into three 
categories: high, medium and low self-esteem. Among the male students 60% were 
included in the high self-esteem category, whereas, only 46% of females were included in 
the same category. There was almost equivalent percentage of males and females in the 
medium self-esteem category. Nineteen percent of males and 20% of females were rated 
as having medium self-esteem included 21% of the males and 34% of the females.             
In the study of Chubb, Fertman and Ross (1997) where they studied adolescents 
self-esteem throughout high school to determine whether or not there was a change in 
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self-esteem as students progressed from ninth grade to twelfth grade. The researcher 
surveyed 174 students each year for 4 years. The longitudinal data revealed that 
adolescent self-esteem did not change significantly over the four years that the students 
were in high school. Of the students in the study, 95% were white, of the remaining 5%, a 
significant portion was African American.          
 High self-esteem has positive effect (Leary, Scherindorfer & Haupt, 1995). It was 
confirmed that negative self-evaluations are associated with inadequate social skills 
(Olmstead, Guy, O‟Malley & Bentler, 1991) loneliness (McWhirter, 1997), depression 
(Jex, Cvetanovski & Allen, 1994) and poorer performance following a failure experience 
(Tafarodi & Vu, 1997). 
 It was also confirmed by Butler, Hokansm and Flynn (1994) that self-esteem 
fluctuations up and down in response to changes in the situation. Negative life events 
such as loss of jobs problems at work, within the family, among friends, self-esteem 
decreases, anxiety increases and individual involve seeks reassurance in a variety of ways 
(Joiner, Katz & Lew, 1999). 
 Research has focused on the beneficial aspect of self-esteem and has found that 
high self-esteem is related to a variety of positive mental health indices, such as less 
anxiety, less loneliness, less social anxiety and less alcoholic and drug abuse (Leary, 
1999b). Smith and Petty (1995) also found that high self-esteem was related to positive 
thinking in an unpleasant situation.  
 Tesser (2001) confirmed that level of self-esteem remains fairly constant because 
multiple mechanisms is used to maintain that level. Individuals with high self-esteem 
recall favourable events more accurately which helps to maintain a positive self-
evaluation, unlike individuals with low self-esteem who recall unfavourable events more 
accurately, thus maintaining a negative self-evaluation (Story, 1998). Browne (1992), 
Wayment and Taylor (1995) also confirmed that we judge ourselves on the basis of social 
comparison which affect our self-esteem. 
 
2.3 Conceptual Model of the Study        
 This study is based on the framework designed by the researcher which depicted 
showed the variables of the study, the therapeutic packages used and the outcome of the 
treatment. 
 Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-efficacy technique are the treatment 
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packages used in this research. They are manipulated on the dependent variable, which is 
reduction in anxiety in the pre-retirement era. The intervening variables are organismic 
and environmental. The organismic factors are inherent in the subjects, which may be 
mediating a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. They include, 
thinking perception, emotional state and self-esteem. The environmental factors include 
educational status, lifestyle, family and government policies. 
 Dependent variable which is the expected behavioural outcome through effective 
manipulation of independent and the intervening variables is reduction in anxiety towards 
retirement and self-sufficient.        
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CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR THE STUDY   
 
Independent  Intervening Variables  
              De pendent Variable 
 Variables 
     
 
         Organismic    Environmental   
 
S
 
E
 
 Gender  
  Educational Reduction in 
L
 F 
 Emotional Status Anxiety 
 Thinking F
 Intelligence  towards 
 perception  
U
Training   Life style retirement  
 L    
  Emotional 
F 
 Government I 
 State  Self-Efficacy policy 
  
L
Technique   
  Self-esteem 
M
 Family  
  
E
N
  Age  
T  
 
 
 
S        O        R 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
2.4 Hypotheses 
1. There is no significant difference in the of anxiety of intending retirees in the 
experimental groups (Emotional Intelligence Training) (EIT) and (Self-
efficacy Technique) (SET) and the control group. 
2. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees exposed 
to EIT (Experimental group I) and those exposed to SET (Experimental group 
II). 
3. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees exposed 
to EIT and those in the control group. 
4. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees exposed 
to SET and those in the control group.           
5. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of male and female intending 
retirees treated with EIT. 
6. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of male and female intending 
retirees treated with SET. 
7. There is no significant difference in the anxiety between high and low self-
esteem participants treated with EIT treatment.   
8. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of high and low self-esteem 
participants exposed to SET. 
9. There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and   gender on the 
anxiety of intending retirees.   
Key 
EIT – Emotional Intelligence Training 
SET – Self-efficacy Technique 
 
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CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
 This chapter presents the design and methodology to be employed for this study. 
For easy presentation and comprehension, the chapter is arranged under the following 
headings: 
 
3.1 Research Design 
 This study adopted 3x2x2 pre-test, post-test, control quasi experimental design. 
The research had three groups; two experimental groups and one control group. The 
experimental groups were participants in Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-
efficacy technique. There were two main columns stating the gender of the participants 
(54male and 49 female) and subcolumns self-esteem on indicating high and low. 
 The participants were randomly assigned to each cell based on the respondents‟ 
response to the instruments administered. The summary of the research design is 
presented in Table 3.1. 
 
Table 3.1: 3x2x2 Factorial Quasi-experimental Design   
 
Gender B 
 Male B1 Female B2  
Self-Esteem c Self-Esteem c 
High C1 Low C2 High C1 Low C2 
EIT A1 A1 B1 C1 = 13  A1 B1 C2 = 6 A1 B2 C1 = 12 A1 B2 C2 = 3 34 
SET A2 A2 B1 C1 = 8 A2 B1 C2 = 11 A2 B2 C1 = 5 A2 B2 C2 = 9 33 
CONTROL A3 A3 B1 C1 = 10 A3 B1 C2 = 6 A3 B2 C1 = 13 A3 B2 C2 = 7 36 
TOTAL 31 23 30 19 103 
 
Key 
A1 = Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT)         
A2 = Self-efficacy Technique (SET) 
A3 = Control 
B1 = Male 
B2 = Female 
C1 = High Self-esteem 
C2 = Low Self-esteem    
 
 
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3.2 Population  
 This comprised all pre-retirees in the public service of the Oyo State government.   
 
3.3 Sample 
 This comprised 103 pre-retirees selected from intending retirees in the public 
service of the Oyo State government. Males 54 (52%) and females 49(48%) with the 
mean age of 54.2 years, standard deviation is 1.033 and age range is ten years and they 
are all married, although some are widow/widower.  
 
3.4 Sampling Technique  
 Multistage and stratified random sampling techniques were used to select 103 
Oyo State public servants. First, the researcher got permission from the Head of Service 
of the Oyo State government that allowed the researcher to use public servants for the 
study. The researcher then visited the Ministry of Establishment, Training and Poverty 
Alleviation to get the records of all civil and public servants whose age and years of 
service fall between 55 years and those with 30 years or more in service respectively. 
Some 312 public servants nearing their retirement were identified. The adapted Sarason‟s 
general anxiety scale was administered to the identified intending retirees who were 
willing to participate in the programme to determine their anxiety level. 
 After the screening exercise, 227 intending retirees were identified as highly 
anxious about their retirement. Stratified random sampling technique was used to choose 
54 males and 49 females who finally participated in the training programme.  
  
3.5 Participants  
 The participants were 103 pre-retiring public servants (male = 54, female = 49) 
who were having five years to their retirement age or over 30 years in service under the 
Oyo State government. The researcher used some research assistants from some of the 
establishments/ministries in the distribution and collection of questionnaires. Participants 
of the study were selected using purposive sampling techniques. The researcher had 
liaised with some establishments connecting her with the registering staff where 
compilations of records of public servants that had at most five years to retirement either 
in age or length of service. 
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Table 3.2: Demographic Information of 103 Participants  
Variable  Number Percentage  
Gender 
Male 54 52% 
Female 49 48% 
Self-esteem    
Low  42 40.8% 
High 61 59.2% 
 
Table 3.3: Respondents by how many more years before mandatory retirement  
Years Frequency Percentage  
5 54 52.4 
4 14 13.6 
3 16 15.5 
2 15 14.6 
1 4 3.9 
 103  
 
3.6 Qualification for Participation 
 The criteria used to select the participants for the study were: 
(i) He/She must be an employee under the Oyo State government;  
(ii) He/She must not have more than five years to retirement; and        
(iii) Must be willing to attend and participate in the training session. 
 
3.7 Instrumentation 
 The instruments used for data collection, screening and selection of participants 
were the following scales: Adopted and Modified Sarason‟s General Anxiety Scale 
(1980) and Rosenberg‟s Self-esteem Scale (1965). The first section consisted of several 
items on respondents socio-demographic variables such as age, sex, family, socio-
economic status, educational qualification and occupation. The second sections were the 
two scales used. 
 The adopted and modified Sarason‟s General Anxiety Scale consisted of 17 items 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
with True or False format. It was affirmed to measure general anxiety and its correlation 
coefficient was 0.81. 
 The Rosenberg self-esteem scale is a ten items self-report that measures global 
self-esteem. It consisted of ten statements related to overall feelings of self-worth or self-
acceptance. The items are answered on a four point scale ranging from strongly agree to 
strongly disagree. Scores are calculated as follows.  
 For items 1, 2, 4, 6 and 7 – Strongly Agree = 3, Agree = 2, Disagree = 1 and 
Strongly Disagree = 0. 
 For items 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 which are reversed in valence: Strongly Agree = 0, 
Agree = 1, Disagree = 2 and Strongly Disagree = 3. It has been reported to be highly 
reliable and has a coefficient alpha of .77. 
     
3.8 Reliability and Validity of Instruments 
 The reliability and validity of instruments used in researches are important. 
Reliability refers to whether an instrument consistently measures phenomenon over time 
(Gall, Borg & Gall, 1996). Validity refers to whether an instrument measures what it is 
designed to measure (Gall et al, 1996). 
 The test re-test method was used to assess the coefficient of stability. The test re-
test method involved the administration of the scales to 40 adults whose ages are between 
40 and 60 years on different occasions of two weeks interval to determine the reliability 
of the instruments. The test re-test co-efficient of adopted and modified Sarason‟s anxiety 
scale was .79 and that of Rosenberg self-esteem scale was .74 
 
3.9 Procedure 
 This study was carried out in three stages as follows: 
i. Pre-treatment;    
ii. Treatment; and  
iii. Evaluation.  
Pre-treatment stage was familiarisation visit to the different establishments that 
had been randomly selected for the study. 
The researcher obtained a letter of introduction from the head of Department 
which helped the researcher to gain easy access in government establishments/ministries 
in Ibadan. Having secured the approvals of the establishments and the intending retirees 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
who are willing to get involved in the programme, The adopted and modified General 
Anxiety Scale and Rosenberg‟s Self-esteem Scale were administered. At the end of the 
test, their responses were collected for screening. Those who scored above average were 
randomly selected. This was done to all the participants both in the treatment groups and 
the control group.  
 
The Treatment Session 
 This session was the actual treatment session. Participants in the two experimental 
groups were subjected to eight weeks of treatment programmes. The control group only 
participated in the first and last sessions which was the pre- and post-tests sessions. 
 
Evaluation Stage  
 Evaluation of the treatment packages and programmes were collated at the end of  
the treatment sessions to determine the treatments outcome.  
 
Treatment Group One 
Emotional Intelligence Training Programme 
Session I: 
Introductory Remarks  
(i) Welcome the participants;  
(ii) Administration of scales and fixing dates and venue of meeting; 
(iii) Distribution of note pads and biros; and 
(iv) The researcher thanked them for coming. 
 
Session II 
Objectives: At the end of the session, the participants should understand the concept of 
emotional intelligence and emotional competences.  
Session III 
Objective: At the end of the session, participants should understand the competences of 
emotional intelligence.     
 
 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
Session IV 
Objectives: At the end of the session, participants should be able to mention types of 
retirement. 
- Brief history on retirement;  
- Types of retirement; and  
- Take home assignment.  
Session V 
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, participants should be able to identify causes of 
anxiety. 
- Brief lesson on and types of anxiety; and 
- Take home assignment 
Session VI 
 Review of take-home assignments. 
Objective: Participants should be able to mention how anxiety affect human 
performance. 
 
Session VII 
 Training on self-esteem and how it can be enhanced. 
- Take home assignment. 
Session VIII 
- Revision and evaluation of work done so far. 
- Administration of post-test. 
Experimental Group II  
Self-efficacy Technique 
Session I 
- Familiarisation with participants 
- Administration of pre-test. 
- Distribution of note pads and writing materials. 
Session II    
Participants were welcomed warmly. 
Objective: Explain the concept of retirement and its effects on workers. 
Take home assignment. 
 
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Session III 
Objective: At the end of the session, participants should be able to summarise and 
understand the concept and sources of self-efficacy.     
Take home assignment  
Session IV 
Conceptualisation of concept and sources of self-efficacy continued. 
Session V 
Objectives: At the end of the session, participants should be able to identify causes of 
anxiety. 
- Brief lesson on anxiety and types of anxiety 
- Take home assignment. 
Session VI 
Objective: Participants should be able to mention how anxiety affect human performance 
. 
Session VII 
Training on self-esteem and how it can be enhanced. 
Session VIII 
Revision and evaluation of work done.  
Administration of post-test. 
Control Group 
Session I: Administration of pre-tests 
Session II: Administration of post-tests 
 
Control of Extraneous Variables  
 The study was an experimental study which involved the manipulation of 
independent variable to determine its effects on the participants. The researcher tried to 
ensure that the observed differences in this study were not due to extraneous variable(s) 
within or outside the researcher‟s, participants‟, environment as well as the 
methodological framework. Thus, extraneous variables were controlled. The study used 
the quasi-experimental design, 3x2x2 factorial which prevented the possible variations 
that could occur with the participants. 
 Simple randomisation was used to assign participants to treatment and control 
groups, it was conducted without any bias for effective control. The researcher was the 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
only person that did the treatment of the participants which ensured that the uniform 
treatment were given to the participants in each of the treatment groups.  
 The sites of treatments were quite a distance from each other to avoid 
proliferation of information from one participant in one group to another in the other 
group. 
      
3.10 Data Analysis  
 The study utilised Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to ascertain the differential 
effectiveness of the two intervention techniques - Emotional Intelligence raining and 
Self-efficacy Technique on the pre retirement anxiety of public servants in Ibadan. The 
Multiple Classification Analysis was used to conduct post-hoc analysis (pairwise 
comparison) for possible explanation of the direction of observed significant main effects 
of the treatments.  
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CHAPTER FOUR  
RESULTS 
4.1 Introduction  
 This chapter presents the results from the tests of nine hypotheses stated in the 
study. They are in form of Tables and pertinent references are made. 
 The statistical techniques used, methods of data analysis and results obtained are 
stated. For each hypothesis, the statistical tests of significance selected and applied to the 
data are described, followed by a statement indicating whether the hypothesis is to be 
accepted or rejected. 
 Twenty-four Tables are used to present the findings in summary form. Each 
hypothesis is predicated on a Table. The results are presented hypothesis by hypothesis. 
 
Hypothesis One 
The first hypothesis states there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees in the experimental groups (Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) and 
Self-efficacy Technique (SET) and the control group. This hypothesis is tested at the 
probability level of alpha = 0.05. The statistical technique employed and the 
computational details following are as summarised below. 
 
Table 4.1: Unadjusted x  means and adjusted Y-means of Participants of Pre-
retirement Anxiety Scores Based on Intervention (ROW) and Level of 
Self-esteem (Column)   
 
  Column  
Variables   Low Self-esteem  High Self-esteem 
Row N X- x ‟s   Y- x ‟s  N  X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  
EIT 9 22.11 19.60 25 25.32 19.04 
SET 20 19.80 22.37 13 24.08 24.40 
CONT 13 22.39 28.03 23 23.26 28.72 
                 
 As could be inferred from Table 4.1, the X-means and Y-means independent of 
the self-esteem, the overall X-means was 22.981 while the adjusted Y-means confirmed 
the superior treatment gain of EIT over SET and control group. In Table 4.1, 
juxtapositioning of the range of means scores using the self-esteem trend shows that 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
subjects exposed to the EIT had the lowest mean scores advantage over the other 
treatment condition. Those exposed to the SET followed while the control group was the 
highest.  
 
Table 4.2: 3x2 Analysis of Covariance using Emotional Intelligence Training, 
Self-efficacy Technique and the Control Group    
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Rows 2 82.345 41.173 38.17 <0.05 S 
Columns 1 0.782 0.782 0.74 >0.05 NS 
Interaction 2 1.692 0.846 0.80 >0.05 NS 
Within 97 103.014 01.062    
Total 102 187.83     
                 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
 The above Table summarised the computational details of the tested hypothesis 
using ANCOVA. The post-treatment, using scores of the three experimental conditions of 
Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT), Self-efficacy Technique (SET) and the control 
group subsumed along their level of self-esteem. The treatment outcome utilising the 
ANCOVA at the 0.05 alpha level shows that there is significant difference among the 
(level of self-esteem performance) of the treatments and the control group, that is 
particular at the row where the obtained value of F(2,97) = 38.17; P <0.05.  
 Table 4.3 shows the summary of findings when the pair-wise comparison post hoc 
statistical method is used. As could be seen in the Table, the cells show where it is both 
significant and non-significant.    
 
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Table 4.3: Rows and Columns Adjusted Mean Compared 
Rows Columns (Self-esteem) 
Treatment Packages  Low High 
EIT 19.60(a) 19.04(b) 
SET 22.37(c) 24.40(d) 
CONT 28.03(e) 28.72(f) 
 
Table 4.4: Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y – X ’s Pooled SE 
Computed from least Mean square and t-values         
 
Cell N DF LMS Pooled t- P Remark  
SE value 
a vs b 34 32 0.782 0.342 1.647 >0.05 NS 
a vs c 29 27 0.782 0.354 7.820 <0.05 S 
a vs d 22 20 0.782 0.385 12.460 <0.05 S 
a vs e 22 20 0.782 0.385 3.246 <0.05 S 
a vs f 32 30 0.782 0.342 3.120 <0.05 S 
b vs c 45 43 0.782 0.265 12.552 <0.05 S 
b vs d 38 36 0.782 0.306 1.644 >0.05 NS 
b vs e 38 36 0.782 0.306 2.752 <0.05 S 
b vs f 48 46 0.782 0.250 2.423 <0.05 S 
c vs d 33 31 0.782 0.319 0.650 >0,05 NS 
c vs e 33 31 0.782 0.319 1.807 >0.05 NS 
c vs f 43 41 0.782 0.265 1.686 >0.05 NS 
d vs e 26 24 0.782 0.342 1.240 >0.05 NS 
d vs f 36 34 0.782 0.306 1.322 >0.05 NS 
e vs f 36 34 0.782 0.306 0.212 >0.05 NS 
 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
Results of Hypothesis One Explained as presented in Table 4.4 
1. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of intending retirees 
with low self-esteem and those with high self-esteem exposed to EIT 
(t=1.647, df = 32, p > 0.05). 
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2. There is significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees with low 
self-esteem exposed to EIT and their counterparts with low self-esteem 
exposed to SET (t=7.820, df = 27, p <0.05). 
3. There is significant difference between the low self-esteem participants 
exposed to EIT and high self-esteem participants exposed to SET (t=12.460, 
df = 20, p < 0.05). 
4. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants exposed to EIT and their counterparts with low self-esteem in the 
control group (t=3.246, df = 20, p<0.05). 
5. There is significant difference in the anxiety of low self-esteem participants 
exposed to EIT and those of high self-esteem participants in the control group 
(t=3.120, df = 30, p<0.05). 
6. There is significant difference between low self-esteem participants exposed 
to EIT and those of high self-esteem participants exposed to SET (t=12.552, 
df = 43, p < 0.05). 
7. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of participants high in 
self-esteem exposed to EIT and their counterparts with high self-esteem 
exposed to SET (t=1.644, df = 36, p > 0.05). 
8. There is significant difference between anxiety of high self-esteem 
participants exposed to EIT and anxiety of low self-esteem participants in the 
control group (t=2.752, df = 36, p<0.05). 
9. There is significant difference between the anxiety of high self-esteem of 
participants exposed to EIT and high self-esteem participants in the control 
group (t=2.423, df = 46, p<0.05). 
10. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants and high self-esteem participants exposed to SET (t=0.650, df = 
31, p>0.05).  
11. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants exposed to SET and high self-esteem participants in the control 
group (t=1.807, df = 31, p>0.05).  
12. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants treated with SET and those high in self-esteem in the control 
group (t=1.686, df = 41, p>0.05).  
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13. There is no significant difference between high self-esteem participants 
exposed to SET and those low in self-esteem in the control group (t=1.240, df 
= 24, p>0.05).  
14. There is no significant difference in the anxiety  of participants high in self-
esteem exposed to SET and their counterparts in the control group (t=1.322, 
df = 34, p>0.05).  
15. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants in the control group and those high in self-esteem in the control 
group (t=0.212, df = 34, p>0.05).  
 
Hypothesis Two 
 The second hypothesis states there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees exposed to EIT (Experimental Group I) and those exposed to SET 
(Experimental Group II). The outcome of this hypothesis tested with ANCOVA at alpha 
level of 0.05 is as summarised in Table 4.5     
 
Table 4.5: Unadjusted X means and adjusted Y-means of Participants of Pre-
retirement Anxiety Scores Based on Intervention (ROW) and Level of 
Self-esteem (Columns)   
 
  Columns 
Variables   Low Self-esteem  High Self-esteem 
Row  N X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  N  X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  
EIT 9 22.11 19.49 25 25.32 19.33 
SET 20 19.80 21.97 13 24.08 24.54 
 
 As could be inferred from Table 4.5 which shows the X-means and Y-means are 
independent of self-esteem, the average X-means was 23.00 while the adjusted Y-means 
confirmed the superior treatment gain of EIT over SET.                    
 
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Table 4.6: 2x2 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Subjects Treated with 
Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-efficacy Technique 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Rows 1 14.773 14.773 10.18 <0.05 S 
Columns 1 1.454 1.454 1.00 >0.05 NS 
Interaction 1 1.870 1.870 1.29 >0.05 NS 
Within 63 91.413 1.451    
Total 66 109.510     
                 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
 The treatment outcome utilising the ANCOVA at the 0.05 alpha level shows that 
there was significant difference between EIT and SET, particularly at the row where the 
obtained value of F(1,63) = 10.18; P < 0.05 (Table 4.6). Further computation was 
undertaken as shown below corroborate the trend of the findings. Tables 4.7 and 4.8 
show the rows and columns adjusted mean compared and the summary of findings when 
the pair-wise comparison post-hoc statistical method was used. As could be seen in the 
Table 4.8, the cells showed where it is significant and not significant. 
   
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Table 4.7: Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X’s Compared 
 
Rows Self-esteem (Columns 
Treatment Packages  Low High 
EIT 19.49(a) 19.33(b) 
SET 21.97(c) 24.54(d) 
 
Table 4.8: Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X’s Pooled SE Computed 
from Least Mean Square and t-values 
 
Cell N DF LMS Pooled t- P Remark  
SE value 
a vs b 29 27 1.451 0.410 0.395 >0.05 NS 
a vs c 34 32 1.451 0.408 6.069 <0.05 S 
a vs d 22 20 1.451 0.522 9.672 <0.05 S 
b vs c 45 43 1.451 0.361 7.307 <0.05 S 
b vs d 33 31 1.451 0.429 12.147 <0.05 S 
c vs d 38 36 1.451 0.412 21.991 <0.05 S 
 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
a = Low self-esteem participants exposed to EIT 
b = High self-esteem participants exposed to EIT  
c = Low self-esteem participants exposed to SET 
d = High self-esteem participants exposed to SET  
 
Results of hypothesis two explained as presented in Table 4.8. 
1. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants and high self-esteem participants exposed to EIT (t=0.395, df = 
27, p>0.05). 
2. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
intending retirees exposed to EIT and their counterparts in SET (t=6.069, df = 
32, p<0.05). 
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3. There is significant difference between low self-esteem intending retirees 
exposed to EIT and high self-esteem intending retirees exposed to SET 
(t=9.672, df = 20, p<0.05). 
4. There is significant difference between the anxiety of high self-esteem 
intending retirees exposed to EIT and low self-esteem intending retirees 
exposed to SET (t=7.307, df = 43, p<0.05). 
5. There is significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees with high 
self-esteem exposed to EIT and high self-esteem participants exposed to SET 
(t=12.147, df = 31, p<0.05). 
6. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants and high self-esteem participants exposed to SET (t=21.991, df = 
36, p<0.05). 
 
Hypothesis Three  
 The third hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees exposed to EIT and those in the control group. In testing this 
hypothesis, the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at the alpha level of 0.05 is the 
statistical method adopted. The findings following the computational details are as 
summarised in Table 4.9. 
 
Table 4.9: Unadjusted X-mean and adjusted Y-means of Participants of Pre-
retirement Anxiety Scores based on Intervention (ROW) and Level of 
Self-esteem (Columns)   
 
  Column 
Variables   Low Self-esteem  High Self-esteem 
Row  N X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  N  X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  
EIT 9 22.11 19.59 25 25.32 19.12 
Control 13 22.38 28.03 23 23.26 28.75 
       
Overall x-mean = 23.686 
 As could be inferable from Table 4.9, which shows the X-means and Y-means are 
independent of the self-esteem, the overall X-means was 23.686 while the adjusted Y-
means confirmed the superior treatment gain of EIT over the control group. The means‟ 
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scores using the self-esteem trend show that participants exposed to EIT had the least 
mean score of anxiety over the control group.  
    
Table 4.10: A 2x2 Pre and Post Treatment Comparison of Self-efficacy Technique 
and the Control Group using ANCOVA 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Rows 1 81.634 81.634 70.15 <0.05 S 
Columns 1 0.014 0.014 0.01 >0.05 NS 
Interaction 1 0.357 0.357 0.31 >0.05 NS 
Within 66 76.824 1.164    
Total 69 158.829     
                 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
 The result from Table 4.10 shows that the treatment outcome utilising the 
ANCOVA at the 0.05 alpha level post a significant difference between level of anxiety of 
intending retirees that was exposed to EIT and the control group. Premised on the 
obtained value of F(1,66) = 70.15, the null hypothesis is rejected. It is therefore concluded 
that there is significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees exposed to EIT and 
those in the control group. Further comparison is undertaken as shown below to 
corroborate the trend of findings.  
 The following Tables (i.e. Tables 4.11 and 4.12) show the rows and columns 
adjusted mean compared and the summary of findings when the pairwise comparison 
post hoc statistical analysis is used. As could be seen in Table 4.12, the cells show where 
it is both significant and otherwise.        
 
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Table 4.11: Rows and Columns Adjusted Y- X ’S Compared  
 
Rows Self-Esteem  
Treatment Packages  Low High 
EIT 19.59(a) 19.12(b) 
CONT 28.03(c) 28.75(d) 
   
 
Table 4.12: Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X’s Pooled SE 
Computed from least Mean Square and t-values 
 
Cell N DF LMS Pooled t- P Remark  
SE value 
a vs b 22 20 0.014 0.040 12.0 <0.05 S 
a vs c 34 32 0.014 0.051 165.43 <0.05 S 
a vs d 32 30 0.014 0.046 198.98 <0.05 S 
b vs c 38 36 0.014 0.040 222.93 <0.05 S 
b vs d 36 34 0.014 0.033 291.91 <0.05 S 
c vs d 48 46 0.014 0.041 17.46 <0.05 S 
 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
Key: 
a = Low self-esteem participants exposed to EIT 
b = High self-esteem participants exposed to EIT 
c = Low self-esteem participants in the Control Group 
d = High self-esteem participants in the to Control Group 
 
Results of hypothesis three explained as presented in Table 4.12  
1. There is significant difference between low self-esteem and high self-esteem 
participants exposed to EIT (t=12.0, df = 20, p <0.05). 
2. There is significant difference between low self-esteem participants exposed 
to EIT and their counterparts in the control group (t=165.43, df = 32, p<0.05). 
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3. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants exposed to EIT and high self-esteem participants in the control 
group (t=198.98, df = 30, p<0.05). 
4. There is significant difference between high self-esteem participants exposed 
to EIT and low self-esteem participants in the control group (t=222.93, df = 
36, p<0.05). 
5. There is significant difference between low self-esteem particiapants exposed 
to EIT and their counterpart in the control group (t=291.91, df = 34, p<0.05). 
6. There is significant difference between low self-esteem participants and high 
self-esteem participants in the control group (t=17.46, df = 46, p<0.05)         
 
Hypothesis Four  
 The fourth hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees exposed to SET and those in the control group. 
 This hypothesis is tested at the alpha level of 0.05 using the ANCOVA. The 
computational details following the treatment outcome are summarised in Table 4.13. 
 
Table 4.13: Unadjusted X-mean and adjusted Y-means of Participants of Pre-
retirement Anxiety Scores based on Intervention (ROW) and Level of 
Self-esteem (Columns)   
 
  Column 
Variables   Low Self-esteem  High Self-esteem 
Row  N X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  N  X- x ‟s  Y- x ‟s  
SET 20 19.80 22.79 13 24.08 24.02 
CONT 13 22.39 27.97 23 23.26 28.49 
 
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Table 4.14: A 2x2 Pre and Post Treatment Comparison of Self-efficacy Technique 
and the Control Group using ANCOVA 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Rows 1 23.299 23.299 39.80 <0.05 S 
Columns 1 0.780 0.780 1.33 >0.05 NS 
Interaction 1 0.125 0.125 0.21 >0.05 NS 
Within 65 38.025 0.585    
Total 68 62.229     
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
 
 The Table 4.13 summarised the computational details of the tested hypothesis 
using the ANCOVA. The post treatment scores of the SET and the control subsumed 
along their level of self-esteem show that subjects treated with SET exhibited the 
favourable treatment gain. The treatment outcome utilising the ANCOVA at the 0.05 
alpha level shows that there is significant difference between the participants exposed to 
SET treatment and the control group, that is particularly at the row where the obtained 
value of F(1,65) = 39.80; P < 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of 
alternative hypothesis and is concluded that there is significant difference in the anxiety 
of intending retirees exposed to SET and those in the control group. Further computation 
is done as shown below to corroborate the trend of the findings.    
 
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Table 4.15: Rows and Columns Adjusted Y- X ’S Compared  
Rows Self-Esteem  
Treatment Packages  Low High 
SET 22.79(a) 24.02(b) 
CONT 27.97(c) 28.49(d) 
 
 As could be inferred from Table 4.15 shows the X-mean and Y-mean are 
independent of self-esteem, the overall X-mean was 22.246 while the adjusted Y-Mean 
confirmed the superior treatment gain of SET over the control group. Table 4.16 shows 
the summary of findings when the pair-wise comparison post-hoc statistical method is 
used as could be seen in Table 4.16, the cells show where it is significant and not 
significant. 
 
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Table 4.16: Comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted Y-X’s; Pooled SE 
Computed from Least Mean Square and t-values 
 
Cell N DF LMS Pooled t- P Remark  
SE value 
a vs b 33 31 0.125 0.127 9.74 <0.05 S 
a vs c 33 31 0.125 0.127 40.795 <0.05 S 
a vs d 43 41 0.125 0.105 54.381 <0.05 S 
b vs c 26 24 0.125 0.141 27.972 <0.05 S 
b vs d 36 34 0.125 0.122 36.664 <0.05 S 
c vs d 36 34 0.125 0.122 5.290 <0.05 S 
S = Significant at  = 0.05, NS = Not Significant at  = 0.05.   
Key:  
a = Low self-esteem participants exposed to SET 
b = High self-esteem participants exposed to SET 
c = Low self-esteem participants in the Control Group 
d = High self-esteem participants in the Control Group 
 
Results of hypothesis four explained as presented in Table 4.16   
1. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants and high self-esteem participants exposed to SET (t=9.74, df = 
31, p<0.05). 
2. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem 
participants exposed to SET and their counterparts in the control group 
(t=40.795, df = 31, p<0.05). 
3. There is significant difference between the anxiety of intending retirees with 
low self-esteem that are exposed to SET and those in the control group under 
high self-esteem (t=54.381, df = 41, p<0.05). 
4. There is significant difference between the high self-esteem participants 
exposed to SET and low self-esteem in the control group (t=27.972, df = 24, 
p<0.05). 
5. There is significant difference between the anxiety of high self-esteem 
participants exposed to SET and their counterparts in the control group 
(t=36.664, df = 34, p<0.05). 
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6. There is significant difference between the anxiety of low self-esteem and 
high self-esteem participants in the control group (t=5.290, df=34, p<0.05).     
 
Hypothesis Five 
 The fifth hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
male and female intending retirees exposed to EIT. In testing this hypothesis, the 
ANCOVA statistical method at the alpha level of 0.05 is used to ascertain the 
investigated outcome. The findings are summarised in Table 4.17. 
 
Table 4:17: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of Male and Female Intending Retirees 
Exposed to EIT 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
SEX 1 8.717 8.717 0.611 0.44 NS 
Explained  2 9.036 4.516 0.317 0.731 NS 
Residual  31 442.522 14.275    
Total 33 451.559     
 
 Table 4.17 explains the results of ANCOVA in the anxiety of male and female 
intending retirees exposed to EIT. It is observed in the Table that there is no significant 
difference in the anxiety of male and female intending retirees exposed to EIT. The F-
ratio is F 1/31 = 0.611 not significant at 0.05 level of significance. 
 The result is further interpreted using Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) to 
provide more insights. 
 
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Table 4.18: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of the Anxiety of                      
Male and Female Intending Retirees Exposed to EIT 
 
Variable + Category  N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted for Beta  
Deviation Deviation  
Male 19 -0.42  -0.46  
Female 15 0.53 0.59 
   0.13  0.14 
2
Multiple R  0.020 
Multiple R 0.141 
Grand mean = 22.21 
 Table 4.18 indicates that the means of the two groups are 22.79 and 22.74 for 
male and female respectively. From this result, it could be seen that there was no 
significant difference in the anxiety of male and female intending retirees exposed to EIT. 
 
Independent Variables and the Dependent Variables  
2
R  stands for the composite contribution of Emotional Intelligence and Self-efficacy on 
intending retirees anxiety.  
R is the relationship or the correlation between the independent variable Emotional 
Intelligence and Self-efficacy on intending retirees anxiety.     
    
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Hypothesis Six 
 The sixth hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
male and female intending retirees exposed to SET. This hypothesis is tested at the 0.05 
level of significance using ANCOVA. The statistical analysis employed and the details of 
obtained results are presented in Table 4.19. 
 
Table 4.19: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of Male and Female Intending Retirees 
Exposed to SET 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Pretest 1 80.499 80.499 7.653 0.010 S 
Sex 1 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.992 NS 
Explained  2 80.500 40.250 3.827 0.033 S 
Residual  30 315.560 10.519    
Total 32 396.061     
   
 Table 4.19 shows that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of male and 
female intending retirees exposed to SET. The F-ratio is F(1/30) = 0.000 and it is not 
significant at 0.05 level of significance. 
 Further interpretation is made using the Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) 
to provide an insight to the findings.   
 
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Table 4.20: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of the Anxiety of 
Male and Female Intending Retirees Exposed to SET 
 
Variable + Category  N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted for Beta  
Deviation Deviation 
Male 19 0.06  0.000  
Female 14 -0.08 0.01 
   0.02  0.00 
Multiple R2 0.203 
Multiple R 0.451 
Grand mean = 21.58 
 
 Table 4.20 indicates that the mean of the male and female are 21.63 and 21.50 
respectively. From this result, it could be observed that there is no significant difference 
in the anxiety of male and female intending retirees exposed to SET. 
 
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Hypothesis Seven 
 This hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of high 
and low self-esteem participants exposed to EIT. 
 In testing this hypothesis, the ANCOVA statistical method at the alpha level of 
0.05 was used to ascertain the investigated outcome. The findings are summarised in 
Table 4.21. 
 
Table 4.21: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of High and Low Self-esteem of Participants 
Exposed EIT 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Pretest 1 0.320 0.320 0.023 0.882 NS 
Self-esteem 1 11.514 11.514 0.812 0.375 NS 
Explained  2 11.834 5.917 0.47 0.663 NS 
Residual  31 439.725 14.185    
Total 33 451.559     
 Table 4.21 explains the result of ANCOVA in the anxiety of high and low self-
esteem (participants) intending retirees exposed to EIT. It is observed in the Table that 
there is no significant difference in the anxiety of high and low intending retirees exposed 
to EIT. The F-ratio is F(1/31) = 0.812 P > 0.05. The result is further interpreted using 
MCA to provide more insights.  
 
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Table 4.22: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) Summary of High and Low 
Intending Retirees Exposed to EIT 
 
Variable + Category  N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted for Beta  
Deviation Deviation 
Low 9 -0.43  -1.63  
High 25 0.15 0.60 
   0.07  0.28 
Multiple R2 0.026 
Multiple R 0.162 
Grand mean = 22.21 
 
 Table 4.22 further indicates that the means of the low and high are 21.78 and 
22.36 respectively. From this result, it could be observed that there is no significant 
difference in the anxiety of low and high intending retirees exposed to EIT. 
 
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Hypothesis Eight 
 This hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of high 
and low self-esteem participants exposed to SET. This hypothesis is tested using 
ANCOVA at the alpha level 0.05 to ascertain the investigated outcome. The findings are 
summarised in Tables 4.23 and 4.24. 
 
Table 4.23: ANCOVA on the Anxiety of High and Low Intending Retirees 
Exposed to SET 
 
Source of Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Variation Square  Square  
Pretest 1 80.499 80.499 8.091 0.008 S 
Self-esteem 1 17.076 17.076 1.716 0.200 NS 
Explained  2 97.575 48.788 4.904 0.014 S 
Residual  30 298.486 9.950    
Total 32 396.061     
    
 Table 4.23 explains the result of ANCOVA of high and low self-esteem of 
intending retirees exposed to SET. It is observed in the Table that there is no significant 
difference in the anxiety of high and low intending retirees exposed to SET. The F-ratio 
is (F1/30) = 1.716 P > 0.05. The result is further interpreted using MCA to provide more 
insights.  
 
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Table 4.24: Summary of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) of High and Low 
Intending Retirees Exposed to SET 
Variable + N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted for Beta  
Category  Deviation Deviation 
Low 20 -1.38  -1.10  
High 13 2.12 
   0.49  0.39 
Multiple R2 0.246 
Multiple R 0.496 
Grand mean 
= 21.58 
 Table 4.24 indicates that the means of the low and high self-esteem of intending 
retirees with anxiety exposed to SET are 20.20 and 23.69 respectively. From this result, it 
could be observed that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of low and high 
self-esteem of intending retirees exposed to SET. 
 
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Hypothesis Nine 
 The ninth hypothesis states that there is no significant interaction effect of 
treatment and gender on the anxiety of intending retirees. In testing this hypothesis, the 
ANCOVA statistical method at the alpha level of 0.05 was used to ascertain the 
investigated outcome. The findings are summarised in Table 4.25. 
 
Table 4.25: Summary on Interaction Effect of Treatment and Gender on the 
Anxiety of Intending Retirees 
 
Source of Variation Df Sum of Mean F P Remark  
Square  Square  
Pretest 1 28.405 28.405 2.206 0.141 NS 
Treatment  2 228.033 114.016 8.854 0.000 S 
Sex 1 0.039 0.039 0.003 0.956 NS 
Treatment VS Sex  2 87.147 43.573 0.402 0.670 Ns 
Explained 6 266.824 44.471 3.454 0.004 S 
Residual  96 1236.166 12.877 
Total 102 1502.990 
  
 Table 4.25 explains the result of ANCOVA of the interaction effect of treatment 
and gender on the anxiety of intending retirees. It is observed in the Table that there is no 
significant difference in the interaction effect of treatment and gender on the anxiety of 
intending retirees. The F-ratio is (F2/96) = 0.402  P>0.05, therefore, it is concluded that 
the null hypothesis is confirmed.  
 
4.2 Summary of Findings 
1. There is a significant difference between the anxiety of intending retirees in the 
experimental groups (EIT and SET) and the control group. 
2. Significant difference existed in the anxiety of intending retirees exposed to EIT 
and those exposed to SET. 
3. Significant difference is found between the anxiety of intending retirees 
exposed to EIT and those in the control group. 
4. Significant difference is established between the anxiety of intending retirees 
exposed to SET and those in the control group. 
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5. No significant difference existed between the anxiety of male and female 
intending retirees exposed to EIT. 
6. There is no significant difference in the anxiety of male and female intending 
retirees exposed to SET. 
7. No significant difference is found between the anxiety of high and low self-
esteem of participants exposed to EIT. 
8. There is no significant difference between the anxiety of high and low self-
esteem participants exposed to SET. 
9. There is no significant difference in the interaction effect of treatment and 
gender on the anxiety of intending retirees. 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
5.1 Introduction  
 This chapter discusses the findings of the study in relation to the nine hypotheses 
stated in the second chapter. It also discusses the implications of the findings, and it 
makes recommendations and suggestions for further research. 
The first hypothesis states there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees in the experimental groups (EIT and SET) and the control group. The 
first hypothesis reveals a significant difference in the anxiety of intending retirees in the 
experimental groups and the control group. The findings indicate that both treatment 
packages (EIT and SET) were effective and had impact on the participants. The control 
group did not manifest any change because it was not exposed to any treatment. The 
participants exposed to Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) had lowest mean score in 
anxiety measure. This supports Cooper (1997) who affirmed that people with high 
emotional intelligence have greater success, foster greater personal relationship and have 
effective leadership skills and are healthier than those with low emotional intelligence. 
This find also corroborates the findings of Fernandez-Berocal and Extemera (2006) 
which indicated that EQ specifically clarify and repair previous mood states emotional 
reactivity to mood, induced condition and emotional recovery which affirmed that EQ 
could be used to facilitate personal and interpersonal factors that contribute to the 
efficient processing of positive and negative emotions. Also, the findings lend credence 
to the study of Mudge, Grinnan and Priesmeyer (2006) that affirmed that successful 
experiences are connected to positive emotions and relationships in that emotion can 
either enhance or inhibit the ability to learn and which may cause changes in behaviour 
and also alter biological processes. The findings also corroborate the study of Xie (2007) 
which confirmed the reduction in the anxiety of 30 telephone interviewers who had 
stressor strained relationship. With the skills in self-efficacy, they reported strengthened 
relationship. 
The findings also support the study of Fretz (1989) which confirmed that self-
efficacy knowledge affect or enhance pre-retirement worry. He affirmed that low sense of 
self-efficacy and low degree of planfulness may increase anxiety level of pre-retirees. 
The findings of the study is not surprising because EIT apparently impacted on 
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pre-retirees on how to perceive, analyse their emotions of themselves and that of others 
and use the proceeds of information gathered for problem-solving. Anxiety is as a result 
of anticipated problems so being emotionally intelligent, they have acquired the skills to 
envisage and solve potential problems effectively. There is a link between emotions and 
anxiety since they both belong to the affective domain. If a person cannot handle his or 
her emotions and the feelings of others properly, he or she will unnecessarily be anxious. 
The skills acquired by the participants perhaps contributed to lower anxiety recorded after 
the treatment programme.  
Moreover, self-efficacy refers to the confidence, capability one has in his or her 
ability to achieve a desired goal. Building such confidence in the participants must have 
helped to identify their potentials. In the course of the training, the psychological 
processes through which self-beliefs of efficacy affect human functioning must have 
come into play to assist the pre-retirees such as the cognitive, motivational, affective and 
selective processes which helped the pre-retirees to gain in ways to perceive future 
problems and ways of solving them.  
The second hypothesis states that, there is no significant difference in the anxiety 
of intending retirees exposed to Emotional Intelligence Training (EIT) group and those 
exposed to self-efficacy technique (SET). This hypothesis is also rejected. The first 
experimental group (EIT) had the least mean score compared the second experimental 
group (SET). This finding lend credence to Bar On (2003) that found significant 
relationship between emotional and social intelligence on psychological health where he 
affirmed that the ability to manage emotions and cope with stress and accomplish 
personal goals. The findings is also in consonance with that of Goleman (1998) who he 
confirmed that people who are high in self-control are people who can manage their 
feelings and distressing emotions well, stay composed and positive even in trying 
moments.  
The result is due to the competences learnt during the training which helped in 
their coping skills. Further, people are so emotional when it gets to things that are 
personal to them which concern their life. The emotional competencies such as 
perceiving emotions, analysing it and being able to use the thoughts gathered to ascertain 
an achievable goal has helped in reducing the anxiety level of those in EIT group than 
those in SET group.  
The third hypothesis states, there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
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intending retirees exposed to EIT and those in the control group. The null hypothesis is 
rejected. The findings affirmed the studies of Shutte, Malouff, Simunelc, McKenley and 
Hollander (2002) which posited that individuals with emotional intelligence would use 
their ability to understand and regulate emotions and maintain more positive mood and 
higher self-esteem. These authors also confirmed that individuals who are higher in EQ 
would be better able to resist situational threats to positive mood and self-esteem. The 
result is not surprising since the EIT group had training sessions on skills and 
competencies that can reduce their anxiety unlike the control group that had no treatment.  
The fourth hypothesis states, there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
intending retirees exposed to SET and those in the control group. The findings show that 
there is significant difference and so the null hypothesis is rejected. This supports Brown 
and Morrisey (2004) that assessed the impact of self-efficacy anxiety in a presentation 
performance. The result of the study revealed that those higher in self-efficacy performed 
better and are less anxious than those who did not take part in the activity. This study also 
affirms Fretz (1989) which asserted that predictor of pre-retirement worry were low 
degree of planning. The training sessions that those in the SET group were given set them 
ahead of the control group that had no training at all which made those in the SET group 
to have lower score in their level of anxiety.  
The fifth hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
male and female intending retirees exposed to EIT. The hypothesis was confirmed which 
ascertained there was no significant difference. This finding contradicts the findings of 
Bracket, Mayer and Werner (2004), Kafetsions (2004), Perry, Ball and Stancy (2004), 
Wei (2004), Van Rooy, Alonso and Visiwesvaran (2005) who affirmed that emotional 
intelligence is gender related, with women scoring higher on measures of emotional 
intelligence than men. The result of this finding may be because the participants both 
male and female were exposed to the same treatment and were also having the same 
exposure in the public service under the same government this may contribute to the 
findings of the result. 
The sixth hypothesis states there is no significant difference in the anxiety of male 
and female intending retirees exposed to SET. The findings show there is no significant 
difference. The results contradict the findings of Lewinsohn  and Lewinsohn, Gotlib, 
Seeley and Allen (1998) whose assertion is that anxiety states are more frequently met in 
women than men. These authors also affirmed that anxiety appears in female in all the 
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period of their life while in men, it is more frequent in adulthood but decreases after the 
age of 50. Also, the result is not in agreement with the findings of Kendler, Neaale, 
Kessler, Heath and Eaves (1992) which found phobias greater in men than women. The 
confirmation of the findings may be as a result of the environmental demands faced by 
the participants. They are in the same environment and exposed to the same pressure and 
workload.     
The seventh hypothesis states that, there is no significant difference in the anxiety 
of high and low self-esteem participants exposed to EIT. The hypothesis was confirmed. 
The finding contradicts Shutte et al (2002) which asserted that emotional intelligent 
people have positive mood and higher self-esteem. It also did not support Raymore, 
Godbey and Crawford (1994) that found almost equivalent percentage of male and 
female in the medium self-esteem category. They affirmed that 19 percent of the male 
and 20 percent of female were rated as having medium self-esteem included 20 percent of 
male and 34 percent of the female. It confirms that self-esteem does not have effect in 
this anxiety level and this could be as a result that self-esteem has been formed  early in 
life and does not change through life span though some studies confirmed it could be 
developed.  
The eighth hypothesis states there is no significant difference in the anxiety of 
high and low self-esteem participants exposed to SET. Tables 4.22 and 4.23 show there is 
no difference in high and low self-esteem. The result lend credence to the findings of 
Reitzes, Mutran and Fernandez (1996) where they studied pre-retirement influence on 
post-retirement self-esteem, one out of many findings of their study affirmed that self-
esteem does not decline in the transition into retirement. The findings is not in 
consonance with that of Leary (1999) which confirmed high self-esteem in individuals is 
related to positive mental health such as less anxiety, less loneliness and less alcohol and 
drug abuse.  
 The ninth hypothesis states that there is no significant interaction effect of 
treatment and gender on the anxiety of intending retirees. Table 4.24 explains the 
interaction effect of treatment and sex on anxiety. The null hypothesis was confirmed. 
The findings are not in consonance with the findings of Borkovec and Mathews (1988), 
Brown, Harris and Hepworth (1994); DiNardo (1991), Sanderson, DiNardo, Rapee and 
Barlow (1990) that affirmed that between 55 percent and 65 percent of individuals with 
generalised anxiety disorder are female. Also, the finding is not in agreement with that of 
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Brackett et al (2004), Kafetsios (2004), Perry et al (2004), Wei (2004), Van Rooy et al 
(2005) who affirmed that emotional intelligence is gender related. Researches of 
Lewinsohn and Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Seeley and Allen (1998) also affirmed that anxiety 
appears more in female than male. These findings which contradict other studies might be 
as a result that the study is carried out in a different setting.   
 
5.2 Conclusions from Findings 
 This study investigated the effect of emotional intelligence training and self-
efficacy technique on the pre-retirement anxiety of public servants in Ibadan, Nigeria. 
The moderating variables used in the study were gender and self-esteem. The training 
programes were carried out, relevant data collected and analysed using appropriate 
statistical analysis. Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were 
made: 
(i) If the principles and technique of EIT are applied on pre-retirees, their anxiety 
towards retirement would reduce; and   
(ii) Introduction of self-efficacy techniques could help to reduce pre-retirement 
anxiety among public servants in igeria.  
 
5.3 Implications of the Study  
 The present study established that EIT and SET are effective in reducing pre-
retirement anxiety of public servants.  
 Therefore, the Ministry of Labour and Productivity should design and implement 
some training programmes that would employ the techniques used in this study for the 
purpose of reducing pre-retirement anxiety of public servants. They should also liase with 
experts in counselling psychology and personnel management in fostering self-
confidence, socio and emotional competency among workers early before retirement. 
Further, capacity building and skill acquisition trainings should be organised for those 
who are about to retire bearing in mind the socio-economic situation in the country where 
cost of living is quite high.              
 Finally, policy makers and financial educators should keep emphasising the 
importance of retirement planning.    
  
 
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5.4 Limitations of the Study   
 The researcher encountered a number of limitations in the course of this study. 
Many intending retirees did not want to partake because of time constraint; the researcher 
could not start the field work at the specified time due to strike action embarked on by 
workers in the state service. 
 Also, awkward job schedules disturbed the training sessions of some participants, 
a few also were transferred during the training session and more importantly, the number 
of participants is not adequate since only 103 participants took part in the training. 
However, none of the limitations above could invalidate the findings in this study.  
 
5.5 Peculiarities of the Study  
 This study is peculiar because not many researches have been carried out on this 
area in Nigeria. The few ones available were studies which specifically focused on 
mental health in retirement. 
 To the best knowledge of the researcher, not a single research in counselling 
psychology has employed EIT and SET in reducing pre-retirement anxiety of public 
servants in Ibadan. The present study not only sought to reduce pre-retirement anixety, it 
also examined the differential effectiveness of the two therapeutic training programmes. 
 This study is also peculiar because gender and self-esteem were measured during 
the course of investigating their anxiety and how it could be reduced through 
psychological treatments. This study revealed that pre-retirement anxiety could be 
reduced through the use of the two interventions; EIT and SET.                
 
5.6 Recommendations 
 The findings of the study have potential ability to facilitate counselling 
opportunities to bring about behavioural change in the public service. Various ministries, 
departments and agencies should be alive to their duties in collation and compilation of 
intending retirees on regular basis in order to remind workers and prepare them towards a 
emotionally healthy retirement.    
Government should pay salaries commensurate to the global standard, to alleviate 
poverty which often account for most problems encountered by public servants who often 
do not have basic amenities before proceeding into retirement. They should partner with 
private investors on various retirement schemes. The revenue mobilisation, allocation and 
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SYSTEM
physical commission that had been assigned the duty of retirement reform should review 
the retirement age, in order to give room for those who are still productive after age 60 to 
continue work or be reemployed as senior citizen in their places of work. 
Counselling psychologists, career counsellors and personnel psychologists should 
endeavour to utilise EIT and SET in ameliorating stress and anxiety related problems 
among intending retirees and those who had retired.    
It is important to adopt a unified retirement scheme that will help workers in their 
later years. It is suggested that workers in public, civil and private agencies could adopt 
the following for general benefit: 
(i) Workers should be economically enhanced – From the fieldwork conducted in the 
course of this study, it is observed that there is an association between salary 
grade level, commitment and savings for retirement. This shows that there is the 
need for the government to increase the minimum wage. Although, in most cases, 
every increase is accompanied by inflation, some part of the salary should be 
deducted from the source and kept safe for collection at point of retirement. All 
bottlenecks should however be removed for immediate collection when retirement 
comes. 
(ii) Pre-retirement training programmes: Courses should be organised for all cadres of 
workers at least once in two years to ensure that all workers have the opportunity 
to participate and so keep reminding them to prepare.     
Finally, EIT and SET should be incorporated in life planning education for 
secondary school age adolescents to prepare them for the future. 
 
5.7 Contributions to Knowledge     
 This study has contributed to knowledge in the following ways. First, the two 
treatment packages, EIT and SET utilised in this study are effective in treatment of pre-
retirement anxiety among public servants. Second, self-esteem is not a potent moderator 
of pre-retirement anxiety and likewise, gender is not a determining factor in pre-
retirement anxiety symptomatology. Third, pre-retirement anxiety is a psychological 
construct, modifiable using various psychological techniques. This study shows the 
efficacy of emotional intelligence training programme as very essential for all workers.   
 
 
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5.8 Suggestion for Further Research  
 The study examined the effects of EIT and SET in pre-retirement anxiety among 
public servants in Ibadan. Pre-retirement anxiety is a verifiable psychological construct 
among the public servants and it can be manipulated. The study has clearly demonstrated 
that emotional intelligence therapy is an effective method of reducing pre-retirement 
anxiety among the participants.  
 Also, application of SET is also found to be effective in treatment of pre-
retirement anxiety. Notably, some other areas that could not be covered by the researcher 
such as the pre-retirees socio-economic status, educational qualifications, marital 
adjustment status of intending retirees, comparison of pre-retirement anxiety between 
federal and state public servants and government and private workers could be studied. 
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for vocational high school students. Psychological Reports. 95.3:1207-1218. 
Xie, D. 2007. Buffering or straightening: The moderating effect of self-efficacy on 
stressor-strain relationship. Journal of Career Assessment, 15.3:351-366. 
Yuh, Y., Montato, C.P. and Hanna, S. 1998. Are Americans prepared for retirement? 
Financial Counselling and Planning, 9.1:1-12.                            
Zapolsky, S. 2003. American Association of Retired Persons. www.aarp.org. 
Zimmerman, B.J. 1995. Self-efficacy and educational development. In A. Bandura (Ed), 
Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York: Cambridge University Press. 202-231. 
   
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APPENDIX I 
 
Department of Guidance and Counselling 
Faculty of Education 
University of Ibadan 
Ibadan. 
 
Sept 4, 2008 
 
Dear Sir/Ma 
 
Research on the Effects of Emotional Intelligence Training and Self-Efficacy 
Technique on Pre-retirement Anxiety of Public Servants in Ibadan, Nigeria 
 
I am a doctoral student of Counselling Psychology in the Department of Guidance and 
Counselling, University of Ibadan working on the above named topic for my thesis. It 
shall be appreciated if you can spare some time to fill the questionnaires attached and 
also for the training sessions coming up soon. 
 
The information given will be used solely for research purpose and the researcher 
promised total confidentiality. 
 
Your cooperation is highly appreciated. 
 
Yours faithfully, 
 
 
Motunrayo Adebayo (Mrs.)     
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APPENDIX II 
 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN 
FACULTY OF EDUCATION 
DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING 
 
INTRODUCTION TO RESPONDENTS 
Dear Respondents,     
 This questionnaire is designed basically for a research purpose. It seeks to know 
how you would react to statements of items below. All information provided would be 
treated confidentially. 
 Please be honest as much as possible in your responses. 
 Thank you. 
SECTION A 
INSTRUCTION  
 Please read carefully and supply the information required below. Tick in the box 
provided in front of your choice/response. 
Age: 
Gender:  Male [ ] Female [ ] 
Marital Status: Single [      ] Married [ ] Widow [ ] 
Work Experience: 5-10 yrs [ ] 11-15 years [   ]   
   16-20 years [ ] 21-25 years [ ]  
   26-30 years [ ] 31-35 yrs [ ] 
Educational Background 
WAEC [ ]  Technical College [ ]  
NCE, OND, HND, B.Ed. [ ] M.Ed, M.Sc [ ]  
Others [ ]      
Salary Grade Level: 1-6 [ ] 7-12 [ ] 13-16 [ ] 
Others [ ]  
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SECTION B 
SARASON’S GENERAL ANXIETY SCALE 
  True False  
1 I feel like melting away because going into retirement is like a   
competition. 
2 I worry about maintaining my mental health while in retirement.    
3 I worry about my social adjustment when I retire.    
4 I am a hard-hearted person and I don‟t think I can change even   
in retirement. 
5 I wish I could be as happy as I am now when I retire.   
6 I don‟t seem to be able to control worrying about retirement   
even when I know there is no basis for worry.  
7 I practically never show fear on my face despite the impending   
retirement. 
8 When I think of retirement, I get very anxious.    
9 In recent time, I am usually upset when I remember retirement.   
10 I perspire a lot when I am with retirees.   
11 I sometimes become so excited that I find it hard to go to sleep   
when I think of retirement. 
12 I am more concern about my health when I retire.   
13 I am inclined to take things hard even before retirement.   
14 I have had periods in which I lost sleep over worry on   
retirement. 
15 I have been afraid of things will turn out when I retire.   
16 I am easily embarrassed when people refer to my retirement.    
17 I have period of such restlessness that I cannot sit long in place   
when retirement issues come to my mind. 
 
 
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SECTION C 
ROSENBERG’S SELF-ESTEEM SCALE  
S/N Statement  Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly 
Agree Disagree  
1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least     
on an equal plane with others. 
2. I feel that I have a number of good failure.     
3. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a     
failure. 
4. I am able to do things as well as most     
other people. 
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.     
6. I take a positive attitude toward myself.      
7. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.      
8. I wish I could have more respect for     
myself. 
9. I certainly feel useless at times.      
10. At times I think I am no good at all.      
 
 
  
 
  
      
    
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APPENDIX II 
TREATMENT PACKAGE 
Experimental Group I 
Emotional Intelligence Training 
Session I: Familiarisation and Administration of Instruments  
 The session entails the following: 
 The researcher welcomed the participants to the venue. She introduced herself; 
she asked the participants to also introduce themselves. The participants exchanged 
pleasantries with themselves, which facilitated rapport among the participants. The 
researcher highlights the benefits of coming regularly for meetings on the agreed days. 
She asked them to suggest convenient day or days of the week, time and venue. 
The researcher and the participants agreed on Mondays 4-5.30 p.m. at Onila Hall, 
Polytechnic Road, Ibadan. The researcher and the participants outlined rules for the 
meetings.     
- The participants should come early and also be punctual.  
- The participants are free to ask questions at will. 
- There will be take home assignments and 
- All must be conscious of time. 
After the agreement, the researcher randomly assigned them to treatment and 
control groups.    
- The researcher administered the scales with the help of her assistant. 
- Distribution of notepads and biros. 
- The researcher thanked the participants. 
- Light refreshments was served. 
Session II: Concept of emotional intelligence and difference between emotional 
intelligence and emotional intelligence competences.  
Objective: At the end of the session, the participants should be able to effectively explain 
the concept emotional intelligence and differentiate between it and emotional intelligence 
competences. 
The researcher and her assistant were already at the venue to welcome the 
participants who came on time. At exactly 4.00 p.m., the meeting started. The researcher 
explained the concept “emotional intelligence” as a construct that indicates a kind of 
intelligence or skill that involves the ability to and positively influence one‟s own and 
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other people‟s emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) described emotional intelligence as 
“a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one‟s own other‟s 
feelings and emotions to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide 
one‟s thinking and action. Further explanation was made to explain the given definition. 
The researcher added that monitoring ones and others‟ emotional feelings help a lot to 
overcome some problems that may arise from ignorance. When an individual is able to 
observe when he or she is emotionally or psychologically disturbed for instance, the 
individual may want to be alone or make some derogatory comments on people around 
him or her which may cause problems, but when the individual is able to monitor or 
observe his/her emotion and be able to know how to handle it properly, the individual 
will certainly avoid problems that may cause destructive or anti-social behaviour. The 
researcher explained the definition of Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) that expressed 
EQ as the ability to perceive, appraise and express emotion accurately and adaptively; to 
understand emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and generate feelings 
where they facilitate cognitive abilities and adaptive action; and ability to regulate 
emotions in oneself and others. The authors definition explained knowing how to deal 
with oneself and others and be able to achieve required behaviour. 
Emotional competence refers to the personal and social skills that lead to superior 
performance or achievement. It is linked to and based on emotional intelligence. It must 
be of note that any individual needs a level of EQ to learn the emotional competencies. If 
an individual has the ability to recognise emotion accurately especially others feelings, he 
is likely to influence others easily. The researcher educate the intending retirees that 
people who are better able to regulate their emotions will find it easier to develop a 
competency such as being initiative and have achievement drive.  
In conclusion, EQ is an important factor in developing emotional competence and 
this will equally facilitate their emotional and psychological recovery when in a traumatic 
situation.       
Assignment 
Participants were asked to differentiate between Emotional Intelligence and emotional 
competencies. 
Refreshment was served    
Session III: Discussion on competencies of emotional intelligence   
Objective: At the end of the session, the participants  should be able to mention the 
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emotional intelligence competencies. 
 The researcher and her assistant were around to receive the participants who also 
came on time. She asked about their work, family and welfare generally. They responded 
positively. 
 The business of the day started in earnest, with the review of last sessions work, 
refreshing their memory about what is emotional intelligence and emotional 
competencies. 
The researcher acquaints the participants to some of these emotional intelligence 
competencies. Such as Goleman‟s competencies that states the skills in four major areas. 
Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management. 
She explains that self-awareness entails the ability to read one‟s emotions and 
recognizing their impact using our feelings to guide decisions. 
Self-management entails the controlling one‟s emotions and adapting to changing 
circumstances. This is being able to express positive thinking into situation we found our 
self, this will help us to make appropriate decisions to solve problems at hand. 
Social awareness – this involves the ability to sense, understand others, around us. 
This helps us to carry other people along to understand what situation we are, making 
them to share our beliefs to help threaten situations. 
The last one which is relationship management entails the ability to inspire, 
influence and develop others and still managing conflict. She explains that our thought 
processes needs to be adequately enhanced to be able to handle others while undergoing 
personal problems. The Goleman‟s competencies are personal and social which are 
greatly useful to our existence.  
After explaining Goleman‟s, she moved to Bar-On emotional competencies. She 
explained EQ in relation to Bar-On‟s definition and emotional competencies.   
Emotional intelligence is defined as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, 
competent and skills that influence one‟s ability to succeed in coping with environmental 
demands and pressures. EQ involves abilities and skills that contribute to an effective 
performance. It includes the ability to understands one‟s own emotions, to empathize 
with others and to be able to draw upon the best of one‟s own inner resources, while 
encouraging others to do the same. People who are emotionally intelligent are also 
socially skilled, have a positive outlook, are innovative, and are able to adapt to change 
such as retirement.  
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Research has shown that emotional and social functioning as measured by Bar-On 
have significant impact on effectiveness. Thus, together they constitute only one to a 
number of contributing factors such as experience, knowledge, skills, etc. 
1. Intrapersonal  
2. Interpersonal  
3. Adaptability  
4. General Mood  
Emotional Intelligence directly influences one‟s general psychological well-being 
and is an important factor in determining your ability to succeed in life. People who have 
high emotional quotient are generally emotionally and socially effective in dealing with 
daily demands.           
Their emotionally intelligent behaviour is typically evident in all aspect of their 
lives.  
Intrapersonal – This pertains to self-awareness and self-expression. This includes 
understanding of self and our emotions, ability to express thoughts and feelings, ability to 
be self-reliant, and free of destructive emotional thoughts, free of emotional dependency 
on others and the ability to drive to set and achieve one‟s goals. 
These skills are discussed to improve in the intending retirees. Improving their 
intrapersonal skills will help a lot in determining the way they would handle their 
retirement anxiety. Intending retirees are urged to visualize themselves as confident and 
be self-assured of the future. Conscious effort not to compare themselves with others 
should be avoided; you are to practice affirming your uniqueness.  
    Intending retirees should keep personal records of specific situations, how they 
feel and why they have such feeling. 
They should make conscious effort to be aware of their feelings, try to understand 
them and see whether there is underlying feelings why they feel so. 
Trying to convey the way one feels to others along with the reasons behind those 
feelings. 
Think and visualize difficult situations or problem that may arise and practice 
ways of approaching them more assertively. Be sensitive to suggestions and be ready to 
discard unreasonable ones.  
Interpersonal skill – This consists of the social awareness and interpersonal 
relationship skills. The interpersonal abilities include awareness of others emotional 
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feelings and needs as well as the ability to establish and maintain cooperative, 
constructive and mutual relationships. Having such skills would help intending retirees to 
be good listeners and be able to understand and appreciate the feelings of others 
effectively.  
Intending retirees need to empathise, that is to imagine how others feel and why 
they feel so. They should be more cooperative at home and at work. Doing things for 
others not thinking of what to get in return. Intending retirees should examine nature of 
their present relationship with others, deciding on way to improve them and getting along 
as well. Need to participate in social skills training program which includes empathy 
development, and practicing the basic social skills that are vital to build good working 
relationship with others. 
Intending retirees who are having few years to retirement need to make effort in 
studying and understanding their nature of relationship with others. It is important to 
improve on relationship skills. 
 Practice looking in the perspective of others. Empathy, imagine the feelings of 
others in any situation and see how you can go on without hurting those around 
you. 
 Show concern for others, what they think and why they think so. 
 Be relaxed at home and at work. Do things willingly not minding to whom and 
not expecting any grantis in return.  
 Practice the basic social skills that are important to build good working 
relationships  
Stress Management  
 This pertains to emotional management and regulation. It is the ability to manage 
and control emotions so they work for us and not against us. It is important to be able to 
know when one is under pressure which could lead to stress and be able to control 
oneself. For pre-retirees, you have to be proactive in stressful situations because, there is 
always a way out of any difficult situation. You need to prioritise your activities, make 
lists and don‟t leave things undone till the last minutes. When in a stressful condition, 
relax your muscles and breath deeply to ease off the heat in you. Control your emotions 
rather than being controlled by them. Let your emotions work for you and not against 
you. 
Take time to do something you enjoy doing.   
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Adaptability 
 This aspect entails the skills involved in change management. It requires 
individual to realistically and flexibility cope with their immediate situation and 
effectively solve problems as they arise. Intending retirees need to have good problem-
solving skills which include the ability to identify present and potential problems and to 
implement potentially effective solutions. You must be ready to adapt to new changes 
that is coming. For instance, some are having just a year or two to leave, there is need to 
start your compilations of your record of work, know your financial standing, check your 
health status engage in other activities. The relationship discussion we had, improve in 
your relationship with your spouses, children, friends and colleagues. Some other things 
to be done are: 
(1) Examine immediate situation rather than jumping to conclusions.  
(2) Change your strategy or strategies when you observe your usual way of doing 
things does not work.  
(3) Think of many solutions when trying to solve a problem. 
(4) Consider the pros and cons of the outcomes of each possible solution before 
deciding on your best choice.              
General Mood 
 This is the overall encompassing skills that fuel the self-motivation needed to set 
and achieve goals. These include an optimistic and positive outlook combined with a 
feeling of happiness and contentment, with oneself, others and life in general. Intending 
retirees should not see their working years as wasted years of fruitless efforts but should 
realize that, they have gained and acquire skills to help to be independent and move on 
with life.     
 As a group planning for the future, you should complain less, be more positive 
and make sure you enjoy yourself.  
 Look at the brighter side of life and see whatever that comes your way as it is. 
 Try to be optimistic when faced with problems and difficult situations.    
 Let your approach toward situation be hope of success rather than fear of failure. 
 Discard whatever thoughts that can make you sad. 
Suggested Guidelines for Enhancing EQ 
 Maintaining good relationship 
 Setting self-directed goals to be achieved. 
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 Breaking goals down into achievable steps. 
 Build insight and self-awareness. 
 Use models as examples and be positive. 
The researcher thanked the participants and light refreshment was served. 
Assignment: The participants were asked to compare Goleman‟s and Bar-On‟s 
emotional competencies and suggest their view against next lesson.  
Session IV: Discussion on Types of Retirement. 
Objective: At the end of the session, participants should be able to mention types of 
retirement.  
 The researcher and her assistant had to wait for about 10 minutes before the final 
arrival of the last batch of the participants who apologised for coming late. Others 
accepted their apology and we started the session at 4.10 p.m.   
 The researcher stated with a brief introduction on retirement. She informed the 
participants of what existed in the olden days. No formal retirement but that people just 
kept on working till they are no longer capable of doing them job. But, with western 
colonization, retirement became the order of the day. Since then, reviews on retirement 
policy had been on with when workers should be retired. 
 It is important to know different kinds of retirement to be able to appreciate what 
retirement entails. Akinboye (1998) highlighted 8 types of retirement. 
Age-related retirement  
Length of service-related retirement  
Forced or involuntary retirement  
Ill-health-related retirement.              
Retirement due to redundancy  
Dismissal or termination. 
Each of these was explained fully and the participants contributed immensely. They 
brainstorm on why people want to stay longer in service. Some of their contributions on 
this were: 
- To have income monthly as it used to be   
- Not to be lonely. 
- Half bread is better than none. That is receiving the income that was not 
enough is better than not to have anything at all to take care of their problems. 
Take home assignment: Participants are to critically assess retirement process in the state.    
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Light refreshment was served and the researcher thanked them. 
Session V: Meaning of Anxiety, Causes and Reactions caused by Anxiety  
Objective: To explain the meaning of anxiety  
   To highlight causes of anxiety and  
  To explain reactions caused by anxiety  
 The researcher welcomed the participants who were punctual for day‟s meeting. 
Asked about their work and family, they also asked of the researcher and her assistants 
welfare. The session started with the review on the take home assignment. The business 
of the day started with the researcher defining what anexity is. 
 The American Psychiatry Association (1994), Barlow (1988) described anxiety as 
a mood-state characterised by marked negative affect, bodily tension and apprehension 
about the future. 
 Seligman, Walker and Rosenham (2001) described it as having cognitive, 
somatic, emotional and behavioural components. 
- The cognitive components are expectation of certain danger which the body 
prepares the organism to deal with, the threat or emergency reaction, 
somatically the blood pressure, heart rate increased, sweating and major 
muscles groups also increased. Emotionally both voluntary and involuntary 
behaviours may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety. 
- It is termed as unpleasant emotional state that includes fear, apprehension and 
worry.       
Causes 
Cause is unknown, but it as been linked strongly with genetics. 
Factors that contribute to development of anxiety 
- Environmental factor – facing difficulties, poverty, separation, and dangerous 
situations. 
- Personality traits. Those who are expressly competitive in nature or hard 
driven are usually anxious. Those who are relaxed and easy going may not 
frequently be anxious. 
- Heredity – It has been confirmed that anxiety runs in family. 
- Symptoms by APA (1994) 
- Restlessness. 
- Shyness, timidity. 
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- Social withdrawal 
- Worry and fearfulness  
- Dread, apprehension 
- Nervousness 
- The participants were thanked and refreshment was served, 
- Take home assignment – They were encouraged to list those things that could 
make them anxious. 
Session VI: Anxiety and how it affects human functioning  
Objective: At the end of the session, participants were able to mention how anxiety 
affects the human performance. 
The researcher welcomed them and the session started promptly. 
 The session was an interactive one, we grouped ourselves into three to discuss and 
put down our comments on how anxiety could affect us for about 10 minutes. 
 The participants converged again to continue the session, discussion of each 
group outcomes: 
- Things gathered and that are common to the groups are: 
 Finance – when there is no money, it is difficult to get things done and anxiety 
sets in. 
 Having a house – At certain stage in life, everyone thinks of having a house, if 
this is not, how to build one or get a convenient accommodation causes 
anxiety.  
 Children‟s welfare – If the children are in school, and retirement is fast 
approaching taking care of them might cause some problems that may lead to 
anxiety. 
 Death – Agreed that is inevitable, but no one wants to die young especially 
when children and parents are still there to cater for. 
These were discussed at length and it was concluded that what cannot be changed 
should be accepted. Death is inevitable and that human don‟t have power to change it, but 
we can live our lives well, plan well and make ourselves happy before the end comes. 
On others, proper planning is necessary. We should not bite more than we can 
chew. We should adequately control our spending and enforce compulsory savings.   
The researcher thanked the participants and refreshments was served.  
Assignment: Participants were asked to suggest what they are interested in that could 
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engage them and still fetch them some little income.  
Session VII: Discussion on Self-esteem and how it could be developed or maintained.  
Objectives: Participants were able to define self-esteem. 
 Participants were welcomed. Business started in earnest.  
 Self-esteem has been defined as the experience of being competent to cope with 
the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness (Branden, 1969). 
 It is also seen as a sense of personnel worth (Self-respect) or attitude towards a 
person‟s right to live and be happy. A disposition to be able to assess ourselves 
accurately, to accept and value ourselves unconditionally. 
 Self-esteem is largely developed during childhood. It evolves throughout live as 
we build an image for ourselves. It is the emotional dimension of self-perception which 
may be positive or negative judgements people have of themselves.  
 Low self-esteem causes anxiety, stress, loneliness, depression and could also lead 
to alcohol use and drug abuse. High self-esteem makes us confident and able to solve 
problems we have. 
 The participants were allowed to ask questions on what we did. Response was 
given and they were thanked for participating. Refreshment was served        
Session VIII: Possible steps one can take to prepare for an emotionally healthy 
retirement  
Objective: Revision and evaluation of work done so far. 
 Participants were welcomed. The researcher thanked them for their commitment 
so far. She informed them of the sessions we had earlier and that we are concluding 
today. They were happy to be part of the programme. The researcher administered the 
post-test.     
The researcher explained that since we know retirement is inevitable, then we 
should not be non-challant about it. No time is too late or too early to do something about 
retirement.    
As a public servant, we are to count our days in service right from inception. For 
us that are having not more than five years we are to: 
 Start gathering the record of all places you have worked for easy compilation. 
 Ask for the forms and procedures you need to start your pension and that of 
gratuity. 
 Go for medical check up and settle any family rift that could create any future 
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problem. 
 Start something you have passion for that could bring some income. 
 Be involved in other activities outside your work place. 
 Don‟t make other big decisions during this transition period.  
 We had refreshments and they also appreciated the researcher for the 
enlightenment. They confirmed they are fulfilled and happy to be part of the programme.    
               
Experimental Group II 
Self-efficacy Technique Group 
Session I: Familiarisation and administration of tests. 
 The session entails the following: 
 The researcher welcomed the participants to the venue. She introduced herself as 
Mrs. Motunrayo Adebayo and her assistant as Mrs. Tayo Ojewusi. The participants did 
the same giving their names and where they are working. Registration of participants 
took place stating their names and phone numbers.    
The researcher highlights the benefits of coming regularly for meetings on the 
agreed days. She asked them to suggest convenient day or days of the week, time and 
venue. They agreed for Thursdays 4-5.30 p.m. at Oba Abass Alesinloye Hall, Eleyele, 
Ibadan. The researcher and the participants outlined rules for our meetings.     
- The participants should come on time.  
- The participants are free to ask questions at will. 
- There will be take home assignments. 
- All must be conscious of time. 
The researcher administered the scales with the help of her assistant, we also 
distributed notepads and biros. The researcher thanked the participants and light 
refreshments was served. 
Session II: Concept of Self-efficacy and its sources  
Objective: The participants should be able to define self-efficacy and its sources. 
 The researcher explains the meaning of self-efficacy as defined by Bandura 
(1977) as a person‟s evaluation of his or her ability or competency to perform a task, 
reach a goal or overcome an obstacle. Ormrod (2006) sees self-efficacy as a belief that 
one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions. It is believed that self-efficacy 
judgement is the determinant of behaviour. It is when one‟s belief is high, effort to master 
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is there to face challenging situation. Albert Bandura beliefs that how people behave can 
often be predicted by the beliefs they hold about their capabilities than by what they are 
actually capable of accomplishing. This shows that self-efficacy perceptions could 
determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they have. 
 The researcher mentioned the four main sources of self-efficacy these are: 
- creating a strong sense of efficacy through mastery experience. Persevere to 
gain experience. 
- vicarious experiences – here an individual sees people who are similar 
succeeding this could aid their capability to venture into doing similar 
activities, even if they fail, they try the more to succeed. 
- social persuasion – to strengthens people beliefs that they have what it takes to 
succeed. 
- people somatic and emotional state in judging their beliefs. They judge 
themselves through stress reaction. 
These sources were discussed one after the other. The first source which 
explained that setbacks and difficulties in human pursuits serve a useful purpose in 
teaching that success usually requires sustained effort. If an individual is convinced they 
have what it takes to succeed, one is likely to persevere in the face of difficulties by 
sticking through tough times and emerge stronger and successful from adversity.  
The second source: Vicarious experience which is also known as modelling. It 
was explained here that individual sees people similar to themselves succeeding by 
sustained effort. As observer, one thinks if he/she can do it, I can do it as well. This is 
comparison between a person and someone else. Seeing other people succeeding 
increases ones self-efficacy, and where they see people failing, there is the likelihood that 
ones self-efficacy decreases. It is more effective when one sees oneself similar to ones 
model.  
The third, social persuasion has a great influence on individual. It relates to 
encouragement or discouragement. When words of encouragement rings in ones hear and 
one thinks of those words, it can influence or increase ones self-efficacy, although 
negative persuasion decreases it. 
The fourth which is the psychological aspect. Personal conviction or emotional 
states in judging their capabilities. Often in stressful situations, we exhibits signs of 
aches, pains, distress and anxiety. Ones perceptions of these responses can markedly alter 
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a person‟s self-efficacy than the sheer power of the response. 
Assignment: Participants are to mention the sources of self-efficacy citing examples in 
our day-today events. 
Light refreshment was served and the researcher thanked them for coming. 
Sessions III: Discussion on self-efficacy and how it affects human functioning.  
Objective: Participants should be able to discuss the psychological processes through 
which self-beliefs of efficacy affect human functioning.  
  The researcher explained the psychological processes through which self-beliefs 
could affect human functioning. She itemized four processes.  
The cognitive processes 
The motivational processes 
The affective process and  
The selection process. 
 The researcher explained each processes one after the other. cognitive process is 
where most actions are initiated. We think of something, ways of doing it, the pros and 
cons and the expected result are rehearsed before doing it. One that is high in self-
efficacy visualise success and this boost and increase one‟s self-efficacy. For anyone that 
visualised failure, non performance and defeat, the sense of self-efficacy is decreased. So 
as intending retirees, we should visualise success in whatever we want to undertake.  
 Motivational processes, people motivate themselves and guide their actions by 
forethought. As we are now, especially those of us who are having few years to 
retirement, we might be thinking of taking a step, goal or action. Our bodies are what we 
are likely to act on, which will motivate us into realising our goals. Motivation is based 
on goals or personal standards by self-satisfying and self-dissatisfying reactions to one‟s 
performance and attainment and re-adjustment of personal goals. Having strong belief in 
our capabilities would help us to master the challenges and improve on skills to make us 
succeed.  
 Affective process: Coping capabilities affect how much stress, anxiety we 
experience in facing threatening situations as well as our motivational level. We view our 
environment as unsafe with possible danger, we magnify the severity of possible threats 
and worry about things that may happen. But, the stronger the sense of our efficacy the 
bolder we are likely to take in threatening situations. It is in the affective process that we 
are more likely to be aroused and this could affect our functioning as individual which 
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may increase our decrease our efficacy depending on or thought process. 
 The selection processes, this is our ability to exercise some control over those 
things we encounter in our day-to-day activities. We are the product of our environment, 
therefore, belief of personal efficacy can shape the course of live and type of activities 
and environment we choose. We are likely to avoid those things we are not capable of 
succeeding in and select those that we can handle perfectly without any or with little 
problem. Our interests, social network mostly determine our life courses which equally 
influence our behaviour. As intending retirees, we must adjust to those positive aspect of 
our environment and have a positive outlook at things in order to make favourable 
decision on any of our choices.  
Assignment: Participants are to list those things they think can do to help their self-
beliefs.               
Session IV: Concept of retirement and its effects on workers. 
Objective: Participants should be able to state different types of retirement.   
 The researcher started with brief introduction on retirement. She informed the 
participants of what existed in the olden days, that there was no formal retirement but that 
people just kept on working till they are no longer capable of doing their job. But, with 
western colonization, retirement became the order of the day. Since, then reviews on 
retirement policy had been on. Different policies were made on when workers are to 
retire. 
 It is important to know different kinds of retirement to be able to appreciate what 
retirement entails. Akinboye (1998) highlighted types of retirement.  
Age-related retirement 
Length of service-related retirement                                                                                                                                                                    
Forced or involuntary retirement  
Ill-health-related retirement 
Retirement due to redundancy 
Dismissal or termination. 
 Each of these was explained fully and the participants contributed immensely. 
They brainstorm on why people want to stay longer in service. Some of their 
contributions were  
Fear of the unknown 
No preparation yet 
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No shelter 
Difficulty and delay in getting entitlement     
To interact with people  
Not to be lonely. 
Assignment: Participants are to critically assess retirement process in the state. 
Light refreshment was served and the researcher appreciated their punctuality.    
Session V: Meaning of anxiety, causes and reactions caused by anxiety. 
Objective: To explain the meaning of anxiety  
   To highlight causes of anxiety 
  To explain reactions caused by anxiety   
 The researcher welcomed the participants who were punctual for day‟s meeting. 
Asked about their work and family, they also asked of the researcher and her assistants 
welfare. The session started with the review on the take home assignment. The business 
of the day started with the researcher defining what anexity is. 
 The American Psychiatry Association (1994), Barlow (1988) described anxiety as 
a mood-state characterised by marked negative affect, bodily tension and apprehension 
about the future. 
 Seligman, Wadker and Rosenham (2001) described it as having cognitive, 
somatic, emotional and behavioural components. 
- The cognitive components are expectation of certain danger which the body 
prepares the organism to deal with, the threat or emergency reaction, 
somatically the blood pressure, heart rate increased, sweating and major 
muscles groups also increased. Emotionally both voluntary and involuntary 
behaviours may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety. 
- It is termed as unpleasant emotional state that includes fear, apprehension and 
worry.       
Causes 
Cause is unknown, but it as been linked strongly with genetics. 
Factors that contribute to development of anxiety 
- Environmental factor – facing difficulties, poverty, separation, and dangerous 
situations. 
- Personality traits. Those who are expressly competitive in nature or hard 
driven are usually anxious. Those who are relaxed and easy going may not 
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frequently be anxious. 
- Heredity – It has been confirmed that anxiety runs in family. 
- Symptoms by APA (1994) 
- Restlessness. 
- Shyness, timidity. 
- Social withdrawal 
- Worry and fearfulness  
- Dread, apprehension 
- Nervousness 
- The participants were thanked and refreshment was served, 
- Take home assignment – They were encouraged to lost those things that can 
make them anxious. 
Session VI: Anxiety and how it affects human functioning.  
Objective: At the end of the session, participants were able to mention how anxiety 
affects the human performance. 
The researcher welcomed then and the session started promptly. 
 The session was an interactive one, we grouped ourselves into three to discuss and 
put down our comments on how anxiety could affect us for about 10 minutes. The 
participants converged again to continue the session, discussion each group outcomes. 
- Things gathered that are common to the groups are: 
Salary not enough - Poverty is eating deep 
Having a house -  – At certain stage in life, everyone thinks of having a house, if this 
is not, how to build one or get a convenient accommodation causes anxiety.  
Children‟s welfare – If the children are in school, and retirement is fast approaching 
taking care of them might cause some problems that may lead to anxiety. 
To many responsibilities – Family responsibility is much on individuals in our 
society.  
Death – Agreed that is inevitable, but no one wants to die young especially when 
children and parents are still there to cater for. 
These were discussed at length and it was concluded that what cannot be changed 
should be accepted. Death is inevitable and that human don‟t have power to change, but 
we can live our lives well, plan well and make ourselves happy before the end comes. 
On others, proper planning is necessary. We should not bite more than we can 
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chew. We should adequately control our spending and enforce compulsory savings. We 
should gradually start something that can increase our income to meet our financial needs 
now and even in retirement.    
The researcher thanked the participants and refreshments was served.  
Assignment: Participants were asked to suggest what they are interested in that could 
engage them and still fetch them some little income.  
Session VII: Discussion on Self-esteem and how it could be developed or maintained. 
Objectives: Participants were able to define self-esteem. 
 Participants were welcomed. Business started in earnest.  
 Self-esteem has been defined as the experience of being competent to cope with 
the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness (Branden, 1969). 
 It is also seen as a sense of personal worth (Self-respect) or attitude towards a 
person‟s right to live and be happy. A disposition to be able to assess ourselves 
accurately, to accept and value ourselves unconditionally. 
 Self-esteem is largely developed during childhood. It evolves throughout live as 
we build on image for ourselves. It is the emotional dimension of self-perception which 
may be positive or negative judgements people have of themselves.  
 Low self-esteem causes anxiety, stress, loneliness, depression and could also lead 
to alcohol use and drug abuse. High self-esteem makes us confident and able to solve 
problems we have. 
 The participants were allowed to ask questions on what we did. Response was 
given and they were thanked for participating. Refreshment was served        
Session VIII: Possible steps one can take to prepare for an emotionally healthy 
retirement 
Objective: Revision and evaluation of work done so far. 
 Participants were welcomed. The researcher thanked them for their commitment 
so far. She informed them of the sessions we had earlier and that we are concluding 
today. They were happy to be part of the programme. The researcher administered the 
post-test.     
 We had refreshments and they also appreciated the researcher for the 
enlightenment. They confirmed they are fulfilled and happy to be part of the programme. 
Photographs were taken and people exchange pleasantries.     
 
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Control Group 
Session I 
- Researcher welcomed the participants  
- Administration of Pre-test scale. 
- Served light refreshment. 
Session II 
- Researcher welcomed the participants. 
- Administered post-test scale.   
- Appreciated and entertained them.   
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