UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
CONTRIBUTORS 
Bpeyerni I. Ajewole 
Department of Forest Resources Management, 
University Of %adan, Ibadan, Nigeria 
Taufinus C. Aju 
Departmen: of Foresky and Environmental Management 
Te~knologyI.m o State Polytechnic, Umuagwc-Ohaji, Nigeria 
Olufunke 0. Olayode 
Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Management 
University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria 
Francis N. Onurnadu 
Department of Rural Sociology and Extension 
Michael Okpara Universiiy of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria 
I3avid.A. Ogar 
Department of Forestry and Wildhfe Resources Management, 
University of Calabar, Nigeria 
Ismail 0.A zeez 
Department of Forest Resources Management, University of ibadan, 
Ibadan, Nigeria 
Benjamin I. Dagba 
Department of Social and Environmental Forestry, 
University of Agriculture, Makwdi, Benue State, Nigeria 
Gabriel A. Fayenuwo 
Department of Forest Management, Biodiversity and Wildhfe 
Services, Ministry of Environment, Osun State, Nigeria 
Olusola 0.Famuyide 
Foresetry Research Institute of Nigeria, 
P.M.B. 5054, Jericho, Ibadan, Nigeria 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Chapter 34 
Secondary Wood Processing and the Nigeria 
Sawmill Industry: Issues, Challenges 
and Opportunities 277 
S. LAGBENGA L A m E  
Chapter 15 
Challenges of Wood Utilisation in Nigeria 293 
OLUKAYODE Y. GGUNSANWO 
Chapter 16 
Lesser Used Wood Species and their 
Relevance to Sustainability of Tropical Forest 305 
OLWAYEMISI G.E. AROWOSOGE 
Chapter 17 
Traditional Agroforestry and Sustainable Forest 
Management in Cross River State, Nigeria 323 
OTU I. IBOR 
Chapter 15 
Impact Assessment of Exploitation of Tropical 
Forests: Edo antd Oyo States, Nigeria Experience 343 
OLA'PZ'NJI ADEBAYO 
Chapter 19 
Forest Management and Impact on the 
Socio-economic lives of Foresf Enclave 
Dwellers and adjoining Communities in Edo State 353 
SAMSON. 0.I KPONMWONBA AND ISMAIL. 0 . A ZEEZ 
Index 3 77 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
FOREST MANAGEMENT AND BMPACT ON THE 
SOClOECQNOMlC LIVES OF FOREST ENCWYE 
DWELLERS AND ADJOlNiNGC OMMUNITIES BN 
ED0 STATE 
Samson. 0.J kponmwonba and lsmeib. 0.W neez 
Introduction 
Forests constitute one of the principaI renewable natural resources of 
man'und (FAO, 1985a). They exert a great influence on the Lives and 
forhmes of the m a 1 p eople and serve as a source of food (Arnahri, 
1995). Aimufia (2002) observed from the Holy Bible that the 
relationship between man and his physical and biotic environment 
ori,ginated from creation. Man's actions, through the use or misuse of 
forests from time immemorial, have led to the disappearance of a 
greater proportion of the forests whch once occupied the earth's 
surface. Globally, tropical forests now cover less than a quarter of 
their areal extent about a century ago (Bruening, 1981). In Nigeria, 
the situation is alarming with the co~ntrylo osing 398,000 hectares of 
forests annually (Shami, 2001). 
Due to the destruction of forests, they are unable to perform their 
usual functions of maintaining timber quality, amelioration of 
cIimate, watershed and farmland protection and erosion control. 
Forest management started for various purposes from the pre-literate 
times. For the early man, forests were like paradise; full of life, 
providing for his entire daily needs and he tended to protect it. 
UNIVERSI Y OF IBADAN
LIBRARY
356 forest ;tfanagenrerzi lmpnct on the Soc:oecononzic tiies . . . 
Popoola (1992) observes that a forest is a source of iooc! and shelter 
for man, it also exerts profo~md& l~ler.ce on air and water that are 
essential to the sustahabfity of Me. Trees and forests inf!uenced 
people's ways of lives and are in culhrres, languages, mythologies 
and folklores of people living within and around forests (Crew, 
2003). 
In Nigeria, organization of forests and enactment of +he first forest 
ordinance were considered imperative by the colonial administrators 
in 1901 and a target of 25% of the co~mtry'sl and area was earmarked 
for resenation (Lowe, 1986). Znabor (1986) observed :hat the target 
reservation could not be achieved because of the widespread stdf 
resistance of local comm~mitiesw ho rightly established their claim to 
the land. %s may explain why the proportion of the country's total 
land area put ~mdefro rest reservation in 1976, was 10% out of whch 
only 209/0 was capable of producing timber (Adeyoju 2001). The 
lowland's moist forest zones m the country form the productive 
forests. However, forests outside the reserved areas, which formed 
about 90% of the total land area of the counti-y, constituted fie 
common property forests where the local comm~mitiesc an harvest 
trees or farm without restriction. Accordingly, the forest resources in 
these areas were soon destroyed by the local comm~mities,w hich 
then encroached on the reserved land for a more fertile soil for 
farming. Tous, the s~zpporta nd commitment of rtval comm~mities 
are indispensable in sustaining forest functions. WWF (1996), claims 
that the knowledge and skills of local people is the possible saviour 
of the environment. 
In the time past, Edo State was one of the very few states in the 
country that had very rich forest resources and was thus referred to 
as the "green gold" of Nigeria. The forest was rich in economic 
timber species, while non-timber forest products and wildlife fama 
were ab~mdantlya vailable in all the forest reserves, especially in 
Okom~zS, akpoba, Ohosu, Ekiadolor and Ehor. Over the years, these 
rich forest reserves had been subjected to wanton destructmn 
through ~mcontrolled exploitations. As a result, Garuba (1996) 
observed that, there is poll~~tioan d uncomfortable warmth due to 
reduction ~hDx ygen and Increased carbon-dioxide in the ailnvsphele 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
of Ecio State. Tnis chxpter reports forest management as it impacts 
the Me of dwellers in enclaves and comrmities sllrro~mdingfo rest 
reserves h Edo State. 
Forestry in Edo State 
Edo State is endowed with enormous forest resources but which are 
fast dwindhg and almost exhagsted. Forest resources are a major 
source of income to government, stakeholders and local com~mi t i e s  
in which capital C ~ bI e  invested as a fo~mdation for rural 
industrialization. Majority of the people of the State - s e  forests and 
depend on Me rich forest resotlrces for their Evelihood. m e  State is 
also blessed ~vithri ch agricultural land and varied vegetation with 
high ecological diversities. The innumerable benefits (timber, fuel 
wood, medicinal plants, and forest foods, sucltl as seeds, leaves, roots, 
tuber, and m-usbooms) accnzing from the forest to the people cannot 
be q~~antdied. 
There is ferNe land for farming, as well as wildlife resources, such as 
bush-meat, on which majority of the local people depend for food, 
and thus enhance the stability of rural population. In addition, the 
forests provide materials for local people for such items as mortar 
and pestle, kitchen spoon, cane for basket, hoes, tool-handles, canoe 
and energy s~zpply,s uch as fuel-wood; income generation from sale 
of forest products such as wood carving and other non-wood 
products. Tourism and eco-tomism largely focus on forests, for 
physical relaxation, bird viewing, canopy walks, trees, home and 
game viewing which can also deliver si,@ficant social and economic 
benefits, thereby adding value to the protection of forest ecosystem 
(FAO, 2005). 
Unmindful of these benefits on h ~ m a nliv es, Uzamere (2006) claimed 
that the forested areas of the State were on the verge of extinction, 
owing to over-exploitation of wood and non-wood products, bush 
burning, dereservation and farming activities. These, he concluded, 
manifest in the destruction of forests, loss of val~zablet imber trees, 
flora and fatma, loss of biodiversity, extinction of many traditional 
plant and animal species for medicine, wind and land erosion, 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
358 Forest Marzugemeni a~zdI mpact on the Sonoeconomic Lices . . . 
siltation of rivers, i ~ p o v e r i s ~ e onf t a grica!isual l a ~ d s d,  egraded 
forest and increasing poverh. 
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) 13 Edo State 
h most rural settlements in Edo State, hTFPs provide the basic 
needs of most mral comm~mities.T he items serve not only for their 
st~bsis:mce but also as a source of income. They can be grosxped into 
food, household utensils, income generation employment and 
medicinal categories, depending on their uses. As submitied by 
Azeke (2002), more than 90% of the rural comm~xnitiesin  Edo State 
are engaged in NTFPs collection and associated industries. Thus, the 
lives of most rural dwellers in tile State are intricately tied to these 
local industries and crafts (Ikponmwonba, 2008). 
1Many NTFPs now form part of the rural, cultural and social lives in 
Edo State as most of the items are used either in the household or in 
culh~racl eremonies/festivals. The roles of forestry craft indus?L ' ~ eisn  
the lives of the people of the State cannot be overemphasized. For 
many of then, these are age-long traditions, whch are passed from 
generation to generation, e.g. wood carving in Benin City and mat- 
making or cloth weaving in Aucki. The products form a strong 
economic base upon whch, the lives of most rural dwellers in the 
state depend. 
The contribution of NTFPs (Table 1) shows that the largest uses of 
wood are in the small wood-based industries, such as bench mills, 
fuel wood, canoe, charcoal, chew sticks and poles. This was reposed 
by Etuikudo et nl. (1994) who submitted that about 95% of the wood 
consumed in Nigeria is for fuelwood. It is estimated that the hancial 
yields from NTFPs is much hgher than that derivable from timber 
products. For instance, N F P s  (especially poles and rattan) yielded 
&92 milhon from market estimate in Cross River State in 1992 
(Omoluabi, 1994). 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S./U'.Ikpcinmwonba and 1.0.A zeez 359 
Table 1: Identified Forest Benefits in Edo State 
Wood Non Wood Products 
productsi products from forest provided by forest) 
particle from forest craft 
boards (NWP) industries 
Sawn logs, Honey, Animai Purification of air. 
Veneer logs, Wrapping- producis such Filtration and regulation of 
Pulpwood, Leaves, as Hides Sr water. 
Poles, Bush meat, Skin, Soil protection against erosion 
Fuel wood, Snail, Fru~ts, Leather, Protection against wind storm. 
Match, food, 7ex udates, slippers, Protection of water catchment 
Chewing- Medicinal- Leather- bags, areas or water-shed. 
sticks, plants, Leather- Amelioration of weather. 
Fencing- Spices, Seeds shoes, Protection of plants and animaI 
sticks, Nuts, Wallet, against desiccation. 
Yam- sticks, Edible- Charcoal, Act as wind break against desert 
Canoe, mushroom, Mortar & encroachment. 
Mortar & Thatching- pestle, Protection of wildlife habitat. 
pestles, grass, Barks, Chewing- Source of genetic resource and 
Furniture, Soil, Forage, stick, ecosystem productivity. 
Pulp & M~nerals, Canoe, Beautification. 
paper, Dyes, Palm- Broom, Landscaping. 
Masks, wine . Sleeping- Recreation. 
Walking- mats, Nature tourism and Ecotourism. 
stick, Tooth- pick, Help in nutrient cycling and 
Char coal Pencil, Slate, improve soil fertility. 
Various Assist in hydrologcal cycle. 
carved 
wooden I 
components, 
Masks, 
Walking- 
sticks, 
Ma tch-s tick, 
Dyed-cloth, 
Palm-wine, 
Local gin, 
Components, 
Pulp & paper 
Source: Ikponmwonba, 2002 
In Edo State, forests provide food and condiments, which mwly 
people consume and sell for income. The forest foods are found in 
most villages across the state. These food i te~ra~rse consumed mostly 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
360 Forest Mana,oe!ne??fr ?ni :nzpc: 077 flze Socioeco?zonzic Lives . . . 
d~u-hgt he lean periods before new crops arn harvested. More tI-<an 
60% of the rural dweiiers ~tIhIe State are engaged in the collection 
and processing of forest ioocls (I!cpomvonba, 2008). 
The importar~ceo f these foods to the lives of the people is attested to 
by the naming of some settlements/vdlages based on certain 
associated forest foods. For instance, Ugbogi town in Ovia South- 
West Local Government Area derives its name from Irvingill 
gabonensis (Bini-Ogri) due to tb.e ab~mdanceo f t h s  product in t.he 
area. Some of the ab~mdanfto rest foods in the state include edible 
fruits of economic importance, srlch as hvingin gabonesis (Sush 
mango), Chiysophyllzrm albidt~wl( African star apple), Dacyodtrs edzrZis 
(African pear), Elaies g~rineensis( oil palm), Dennettin tripetala (pepper 
fruit) and Spondins mombin. Others incl~~dPezn tnclethra macrophlla 
(African oil bean), Garcinia kola (bitter kola), Cola acczrminnta and C. 
nitida, Trectrlia apicnnn (African bread fruit), Blighin sapicin and 
Tet~ac~zrpidizircno nophoruln (African walnut). 
Most of these forest foods serve as delicacies even to urban dwellers. 
It is not tmcommon to see vehicles parked along the highways in the 
state to ptlrchase some of these forest foods. But the deche  of these 
forests has negatively affected the supply stlbstantially. The need to 
conserve these forest resources for the sustenance of nual 
pop~dationsi s very-important. This calls for an effective approach to 
the management of state forest resources to enhance sustainability. 
Other very important non-timber forest prod~lctsin the State are the 
natural medicines from the forest. Most rwal dwellers in the state 
rely on herbal medicine. Majority of the r~u;ala nd urban poor 
dwellers take to herbal medicine because orthodox medicine is often 
expensive and not readily available. h Chma, traditional medicine 
has been integrated into the modem medical health care programme. 
There is need to do the same in Nigeria, as tlus will go a long way in 
improving health care delivery to nual dwellers. 
Forest Exploitation 
Forest exploitation activities are a part of the bedrock of Edo State 
economy. As observed by Poore (1976), adequate habitat 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
consemation should be the yardstick ior %.e presewation of high 
forest ecosystem, wiuch is characteristic of Edo State. Such 
conservation sho~ddfo llow a management plan to ensure sustamed 
existence of h g h  fores: plants and mjmals as well as the sustenance 
of human Me. Contrary to h,ex ploitation has assumed an alarming 
dimension in recent years, with untold effects on the lives of t'ne 
people, economy m d  Me envirorment of Edo State. At present, 
about 280 s a w d l  units, over 1000 bd-& and planting 
machines, 159 registered timber contractors and 582 Liber  lorries 
are operating in tle State and are all depegdent on the State's forest 
resources. Apart from th_is legal explo~tation,t here is iUegal f e l h g  of 
trees. which is now elevated to crrminal stahls, as Log thieves are 
heavily armed m d  operating mostly at night. 
In addition, apart from the legitimate exploitation of round logs by 
contractors that are issued, compartment or relics area allocation 
papers, there is a form of exploitation, whch involves felling and 
sawing of trees at skimp site with power chain saws. The flitches so 
derived are transported by htunan porters to the nearest road-side 
for easy conveyance. Although this practice is prohbited in the State, 
it is rampant and usually employed by illegal fellers. 
Consequently, forest exploitation in Edo State has become an all 
comer's affairs with politicians dictating the tune and organizing 
exploitation and patrol activities. This has aggravated the problems 
associated with forest exploitation. The rate of exploitation has 
tripled recently, leading to rapid depletion of the State forest 
resources. This has tremendous implications for biodiversity 
conservation in the State. Lecomber (1975) opines that uncontrolled 
forest exploitation leads to the extinction of animals and plants 
whose genetic resources are of considerable value to man. 
Forest Management 
Forest management is the deliberate application of a system of 
management into the conservation, ntlrh~ring, harvesting and 
renewal of forest resources. It is essential for providing sustainable 
flow of forest resources to industries or other consumers. Without 
management, forest resources will be completely depleted. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.~kponrniuonbna nd 1.0.A zeez 353 
frequent or repeated c-dtivation of the same portion of !and for 
arable crops w;thout forest tree seedhgs. Arising from these 
kequent allocat;,ons, all h e  r e ~ , & ~ l:hgi@  forests in fkte state forest 
reserves have been repeatedly allocated and now devoid of sizeable 
timber trees. By 2010, the old classical approach to forest 
management based on sustaked yield principle w i em~ ph asis on 
forest, trees and conservation, whzh is practiced in the state, has 
completely broken down giving way to no defirute system of 
management. 
Forest Regeneration 
The process of replanting vai~lablet imber trees in forest reserves in 
order to provide tknber inp erpetuity under adequate management 
practices is forest regeneration. By 1992, forest regeneration, wild lire 
conservation and special services became a division in the State. The 
division is responsible for the execution and co-ordination of the 
state forest regeneration/afforestation programme, whch incl~~des 
n~~rseriese, ed orchards and plantation establishments as well as 
procurement of adeq~zates eed stock. However, critical shortages of 
technical staff, materials and inadeq~~aftcem ding have stalled most 
siviculh~raol perations in the State. At present, forest exploitation has 
almost exhausted the whole merchantable trees in the forest estate, 
while regeneration is minimal or nonexistent. 
TnuizgI~n system of forest regeneration is the main form of 
afforestation practised in the state. Tlus tntinpJn system of farming 
started in the State as far back as 1926. It is a system of raising forest 
crops in combination with arable crops. It is a form of quasi-m~ltiphe 
land-use because the agricultural crops do not generally contk~~tle 
throughout the rotation of the forest crop, but are confined to that 
period whch ends with the closure of canopy of forest crops, usually 
2 - 3 years (King, 1968).T he advantages at the inception are that the 
cost of site preparation (felling, brushing, burning, loaping and 
packing of debris), whch is carried out by ta~mgyafa rmers, is saved 
for government. 
This system was beset by nLmerotls problems and first assessed to 
have failed in 1973 due to: 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
LIBRARY
364 Forest )Management and Impact on t i;e Socioeconomic Lives . . . 
a) Encroachment, Inadequzt2 funding m6.3 Lack of manpower 
Xiere was m influx of farmers into forest rzsen7es, kom both m a 1  
and urban areas and so more areas were opened-np for plantirig. On 
@NO occasions, 1973 and 1984, gove-ment attempted t~ ban the 
system in the then Bendel State but succmbed :o pressures horn 
farmers, as the matter became ~oliticized.W hen absolute 3x1w as 
not possible, government placed a ban on high forest farming horn 
1983/S4 fanning season. Today, the destructive farming in the high 
forest continues unabated and the effect on areas encroached upon is 
enormous in spite of arrest and prosecution of offenders. The local 
communities are adamant because of Gie ab~mdanyt ield of plantains 
and other crops in the high forest. They also take advantage of the 
weak forest protection fabric engendered by critical shortage of staff 
and poor lo@stics. 
A large nunber of farmers encroached on the State's forest reserves 
for farming dtring the economic recession of the Structural 
Adjustment Programme (SAP). These people needed to feed due to 
the harsh economic situation in the cotm'ny at the time. Thus, the 
s ~ r p l ufsa rmers that codd not be accommodated as tatmgya famers 
encroached on the forest reserves. Also in fixis group were those that 
dis,pised as taunyga farmers that had been banned from farmins in 
the lugh forest. They deliberately encroached on the high forests 
because of the h g h  yield of harvest, especially from plantain 
cultivation. A more seriotls threat was from the native settlers 
fanning in the h g h  forest, as they asserted ownershp of the reserves. 
The taunpja fanning system, even though known to have failed, is 
still being referred to as the method of regeneration in the State. 
There is no definite system of practice, no definite size, or areas 
earmarked for each year's farming practice, and more importantly, 
no planting of tree seedlings. The ad-hoc nature of the system today 
c m o t  lead to any meaningful regeneration. The patches of areas 
opened LIP are scattered across the dil'ferent forest reserves for a 
particular year and are not contiguous. 
The total area earmarked for annual planting is usually less than 40 
hectares, compared with about 1000 hectares farmed annually by 
tazingya famers across the State. Apart from the money realized from 
the partnership in 2004 and 2005, no fund has been released for 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.licponmwonba and LO. Azetlz 365 
regeneraticn acsvities in the State for "he past ten years. ?his is in 
addition to inadequate manpower, logiitics and inputs. Tne system 
Kierefore destroys the forest more than my other m e a x  of 
en~roachrr~enTt.h ere is therefore need for dialogue wit& Pcie native 
settlers, the ori,@tal owners of the forests to check or csntrol ibis 
deliberate encroachment into high forests for farming. 
5.) Private Sector Parficipation in Forest Regeneration 
it was desire of the then Bendel State Government to encourage 
private sector participation in forest regeneratio~w hen it allocated 
different portions of the forest reserves to Messrs A T & P (Nig) Ltd 
Sapele, Iyayi Groulp of Companies, Benin Ciiy; Piedmont Plywood 
(Nig) Ltd, Ologbo and A.1.W Morgan, Benin City to pwsue their 
regeneration programmes. Apart from the lyayi Group, all other 
companies' regeneration activities have long ceased to exist. 
However, the Edo State Government in 2004 formed partnershps 
with stakeholders, Edo State Timber Management Committee and 
Edo State Sawmillers Association, to source for funds for nursery and 
plantation developments. The agreement, which was for two years in 
the first instance, resulted in members of the S a w d e r s  Association 
agreeing to contribute $415,000 (fifteen thousand naira) each and 
2420,000 (twenty thousand naira) per licence to the Forest 
Regeneration F ~ m dy early. From these contributions, 1J5, 000 from 
each donor goes to the S a w d e r s  Association's acco~mt.A  total 
amo~mot f M3, 555,000.00 (Three million, five hundred and fifiy-five 
naira) was realized by government, while $4930, 000 and S565, 000 
went to the sawmillers and timber licences respectively for each year. 
The projects, which were executed in 2004 from the fund, are shown 
in Table 2. In addition, the sawmillers established 200,000 nursery 
seedlings at Ologbo in 2005 and a 9-seater bus for regeneration 
activities was donated to the Forestry Department. Earlier on in 2003, 
the Timber Management Committee estabhhed a 12 ha mixed 
indigenous species of mostly Meliaceae, TerminaZia ivorensis and 
Nat~clead iderrichii, at Ehor Forest Reserve from the Association Fund. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
366 Forest A 4 m q e m e n t  and irnpnct on the Socioeconoiiic Lines , . . 
Table 2: Plantation Establishment in 2004 
/ NO Local Govt. I XreaProposed Area 
I Area 1 10 be Planfed 1 Actually 1 Planted 
1 O h i n  (i) 4ha 4.11 ii: i11k 8,300 1 
ceremonial 
4Ha (ii) Teak 8,000 
:s 1 Ikpoba-Okha 1 plantation (ii) 4ha Taungya plantation Taungya 1 5Ha 
antatlon 
Ghunmwonde 12ha Taungya 16Ha Gmelina 32,000 
plantat~on 7 
I 
4. Esan West 6ha Taungya Gmelina 1 12,000 
plantation 
5. Ovia North 411a Taungya 4Ha 
plantation 
Sotruce: Edo State Department of Foreshy (2007) 
Dereservation of Forest for Various Uses 
Large-scale dereservation of the State forest reserves by government 
has taken place over the years, for commercial agriculh~re,o il 
exploration, oil-palm and rubber plantation development, 
urbanization, grazing and comm~mitye xpansion. This has reduced 
substantially, not only the size of forest estates but also the richness 
of the ecology to abotlt 13%, leading to loss of biodiversity and 
destruction of the ecosystem. Apart from loss of timber species, the 
non-timber forest prod~~ctost,h er tangible benefits derivable from the 
forest mostly by the local cornm~mitiesa re destroyed. Et~ikudo(2 000) 
referred to ihese as biological materials (other than industrial ro~md- 
wood and derived sawn-tirnber, wood-chips, wood-based panels and 
pulp-wood) that may be extracted from the forest ecosystem and are 
utrlized within the household or arc marketed. 
Dereservahon has taken place in almost alI the forest reserves across 
the state. Arising from incessant de-reservation requests, the State 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.1.kponmmo~zbna nd 1.0.A zeez 367 
Government in i994 prom~dgateda n edict - "Edict No. 13, on forest 
utdisation and development" whch states that: "De-reservation for 
con~erc ia lp urposes is proEjbited". However, +& could not be 
sustained as pressure on dereservation contin~~etod  increase. As at 
2002, about 133, 234 hectares or 23% of the state forest estate had 
been dereserved. Between 2002 and 2004, a further 6% (34,343 ha) 
was ceded mainly for agricdhue. Furtherinore, in 2006, another 4% 
was ceded, apart from other outright encroachments, leaving an 
estimated 13% of the state's lar-d area tmder forest estate. 
The situation is such that the actual area c~mently~ mderf orest 
reserve is unknown. In some instances, more than three-q~xarterso f 
the entire forest reserve has been ceded to oil palm plantation. The 
Obaretin Forest Reserve, for instance, whch was constituted by 
Benin Native Authority's Order 26 of 1935 with 10,800 hectares, is 
almost completely concessioned to Presco Oil-Palm Plc for oil palm 
plantation development. Prior to dereservation, this reserve housed 
Terminalin ivorensis and Nnticlen diderrichii plantations of more than 
1000 hectares. These were b~dldozed for oil-palm establishment, 
thereby changiig the entire natural ecosystem to that of monoc~dture 
plantation. 
Thus, dereservation has resulted in the disappearance of not only 
timber species but many more forest food species harvested from the 
wild that have not been domesticated. Lusigi (1991) reported that 
deforestation does not only affect the productive potential of plants 
b t ~ tm ay also result in species extinction and loss of habitat. The 
greatest threat to the conservation of forest and forest resources in 
the co~mtryto day is loss of habitat and ineffective laws to protect the 
forests. Osemeobo (1993) stated that weak laws encourage misuse 
and abuse of forest resources, as government alone takes decisions 
on forestry matters. Most of these dereservations carried out by the 
state government are without the consent of the local habitants, the 
original owners of the reserves. Enforcement of a federal legislation 
against dereservation may help curtail this reckless abuse on the 
environment. 
Encroachment 
Encroachment may be defined as the deliberate entering into a forest 
reserve for other forms of land use practices outside that which the 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
368 Forest Mnnageme?zt and impgc: on the Socioeconomic Lives 
forest was set up, witkt0LIt permission from tce appropriate 
authority-.T he purpose of encroachment in the state includes, but not 
limited to, arable and commercial fanning, r x a l  and wban 
expansion, highw-ay consw~ction, oil-exploration and grazing. 
ifteAkhara nd Woque (2005) defhes encroachment as illegal entering 
into a constituted or protected forest to cause damage, thereby 
contravening some or all the provisions of certain sectiors of the 
forest law of tie coun+xy. 
Tne history of encroachment into E2o State forest reserves is as old as 
the reserves thel?lselves. Encroachment was first noticed when the 
reserve boundary pillars were tampered with. This offence was 
however minimal because reserve bo~mdariesw ere then maintained. 
Actual encroachment started when the reserves' boundaries were no 
longer maintained. Thus, causes of encroachment into forest reserves, 
according to Adetula (2001), incl~~dneo n-maintenance of forest 
reseme boundaries, non-availabikty of signposts, granting of too 
many rights during constitution of forest reserves, activities of 
enclave settlers, customary tenure, inadequate monitoring of taungya 
farms and land h~mger. In addtion, population growth, 
unemployment, lack of management planning, and lack of effective 
policy and le,@slation to deal with land offenders are factors 
responsible for encroachment. 
Generally, encroachment has adverse effects on the lives of people 
and the environment, as it causes land and soil degradation, 
destruction of watershed/catchment areas, drying of streams, 
destruction of habitat of flora and fa~ma.A  typical example is the 
destruction of Ogba Rrver and its catchment area, which formerly 
supplied water to 1/21 of the population of Benin City, Edo State. 
Iftekhar and Hoque (2001) suggests the following, amongst others, as 
solutions to encroachment of forest reserves: 
a) Re-s~weying the remaining forest reserves and erecting 
numbered beacons. Also calculating the land areas lost to 
encroachment/ dereservation. 
b) Demarcatjng forest reserves and producing LIP-to-date maps 
of the reserves. 
c) Strengthening and protecting patrol staff with adequate 
manpower, materials and equipment. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
LIBRARY
d) Irnprovkg forest departments' discipline and efficiency. 
e) Reviewing forest lands and policy of the co~mtryin  line with 
modem jnternational thinking. 
f)  Planiing up areas already encroached upon as well as those 
under e~croachnenth reat. 
g) Preparing management plms to ensure sustained and 
hproved yields, conducting p~zblice ducation and obtaining 
cooperation of law enforcement agents. 
Forestry and Rural Development 
In most developing countries, forestry activities are associated with 
rural areas where there is a lack of basic amenities, such as potable 
water, good roads, electricity, health care, schools, etc. Ln h s s hdy,  
Ikponmwonba (2008) identhed the most needed social amenities 
among residents of some forest enclaves and surrounding 
cornrn~mitiesin  Edo State (Table 3) as good road (24.4%), pipe-borne 
water (21.9), secondary schools (21.5%) and hospitals/dispensaries 
(13.6%).N on-available social amenities identified by the same study 
(Table 3) included secondary schools (19.0%), good roads (19.?~~/0), 
hospital/dispensary (18.2%),p ipe-borne water (16.2%) and ezectricity 
(16.2%).T hese underscore the need to enlist comxnity participation 
in forest management, whch is the present global trend, to ensure 
that the needs of rural dwellers (social and mfrastructural) are met 
within their whims. 
According to Olawoye (1996), Commtsnity Forestry (CF) was 
initiated to integrate forestry and comxmity development, with the 
view to involving rural people in forest management. As st~bmitted 
by FA0 (2003), economic development is one of the best ways to 
improve rural community's welfare and lessen the considerable 
disadvantages they suffer. In Nigeria, rural people are highly 
neglected and considered as destroyers of environment rather than a 
factor in the solution to aheving sustainable forest management. 
In most rural settings, good health is not guaranteed due to the poor 
quality of drinking water and absence of health centres. As foxestry is 
mostly nxral-based, with activities such as ago-forestry, farm 
forestry, ta~mgya farming and cottage indu~stries, it has been 
identified as a veritable tool for rural development. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
370 cores: Itlanngeme?zt 2nd impact an ihe Socioeconcnrfc Lives 
Table 3: Status 02 Social Amenities in Some Forest Reserves' 
Enclaves and Sun-ounciing Communities in Edo Stat2 
Okornu Sakpoba Ehor Mean 
Freq. Freq. 96 Freq. % Freq. % 
Q/* 
1" 
Most needed 
social amenities 
Pnmary Schools 11 1.66 
Hospitals/Dispe 78 11.75 
nsaries 
Pipe borne Water 111 16.72 
Electricity 20 3.01 
Secondary 102 15.36 
Schools 
Good Roads 109 16.42 
Markets 19 2.86 
No Response 14 2.11 
Unavailable Social Amenities 
Primary Schools 28 4.13 1 
Hosp~tal/Dispen 117 17.26 36 
sary 
Pipe borne Water 122 17.99 23 
Electricity 106 25.63 33 
Secondary 123 18.14 38 
Schools 
Good Road 125 18.44 36 
Market 37 5.46 9 
No Response 20 2.95 2 
Sorrrce: Ikyorunwonba (2008) 
The areas of transfer of development to rural areas according to 
EhtLudo et al. (1994), are: 
a) Development of roads and the attraction of other 
infrastructure to rural areas. 
b) Stabkation of rmal comm~mtiest hrough the provision of 
local employment opportunities. 
c) Encouraging socioeconomic development. 
d) Development of forest villages. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.llczorzn~:uonbna rza LO. Azeez 371 
Deve!opment of Rural Roads 
Forestry operations suchL as timber exploitation, afforestation 
estab'&sment of wood-based industries ied to the opening of roads 
to r i m y  n ~ aslet tlements and urban areas. In Edo State, these roads 
became h e  main access roads to many villages and even outside tl?e 
state. For example, Ogharefe, Igbakele - Sakponba - Ugo road, Benin 
- Idu waterside - Iguomokhua - Sakponba road, Abraka - Evboesi - 
Ugo road, 3-ikrowa - Udo - Benin road, Benin-Ehor-Auchi road, are 
among the prominerit rrtral roads which were developed from forest 
exi-raction and evacuation routes. Apart from local and state roads, 
the Lagos - Ijebu-Ode - Ore - Benin express way was developed from 
a former forestry extraction route. Ln this process, many nrral 
comrn~mitiesw ere lirked and served as important economic routes 
for evacuation of farm produce and linkages to bigger cities. Among 
the prominent timber industries that developed roads to rural 
comm~uUtiesa re African Timber and Plywood Limited (AT&?) 
Sapele, Nigerian Hardwood Company based at Obiaruk~in~  Delta 
State and the Northern Nigeria Timber Company, in Okura, Lafia, 
Kogi State, and lately, Iyayi Brothers Nigeria Ltd, Egba, Edo State. 
Many other wood-based industries also contributed immensely to 
the development of rural roads across the country. 
Stabilization of Rural Communities 
The presence of many wood-based industries helps to stabilize rural 
pop~dations,m ostly by ctubing the movement of youths to urban 
areas. The provision of employment opportunities to most nsral men 
and women through such activities as timber exploitation, 
afforestation, seed collection and nursery development led to the 
growth and sustenance of rural pop~dations. ExampIes of such 
employment generation companies are African Timber and Plywood 
Lid, Sapele, Nigeria I-Iardwood Ltd, Obiaruku, Piedmont Plywood 
Plc, Ologbo and Iyayi Brothers Nigeria Ltd, Egba. Apart from those 
directly engaged by these industries, some took to small-scale 
businesses, such as trading in food items and NlTPs and fanning. 
Encouraging Socio-Economic Development 
Forestry and wood-based enterprises create employment 
opportunities for most rural dwellers. Economic development is one 
of the best ways to improve a community's welfare and lessen the 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
n-2  Fores: Alfil~nnngeme~azntd  finpact 07: fhe Soc:Ozc~i~on-~ z'i cv e s.  . . 
corsiderable disadvantages they saffer (FAG, 2C05). Many workers 
are engaged in Lhe industries, afforestation, exvloitation, rural road 
c~nstructiona nd rnairite~ancep rojects. Tne incone realised from 
sue% g a h d  erqioyment h e l p  to raise the economic status of the 
rural comm~miiies.A part from this, people invest part of their 
income in other venmes such as trading for their wives, and thus 
contribute to nlral development. 
In addition to the roles of forestry and wood-based industries in 
rural development, &ere is the provision of self-employment in the 
areas of non-timber forest products. For example, fuel-wood ar,d 
charcoal form the main somces of energy for coolung and heating in 
the rural comm~miiies,h ence the demand for fuel-wood is ever on 
the increase. Most people in the nural communities cannot afford 
alternative sources of energy; they therefore rely on file1 wood. FA0 
(1985b) states that alternative energy sources are either too costly or 
not available. According to Papka (1997), the anntlal fuel-wood 
consumption in Nigeria stands at 70 rmllion m3 and this acco~mtsf or 
well over 90% of the total annual wood production in the co~mtry 
(NEST, 1991). This does not deviate sharply from the approximately 
200 &on people the world over, mostly the rural people and urban 
poor, who depend on fuel wood as their mam source of energy for 
cooking and warmth (FAO, op. cit.). 
Charcoal is also used in nlral areas. It is used in heating box irons for 
ironing clothes, cooking, roasting of foods such as maize, yam and 
plantain and for heating houses during cold periods. Quite a n ~ m b e r  
of mral populations, especially women, are engaged in firewood 
collection for household needs and to earn an income. 
Other areas where forestry provides self-employment for rural 
pop~dationsa re in hunting, which is a traditional occupation of most 
rural men in Edo State. It is estimated that more than 60% of meat 
constuned in rural areas in the State comes from bush meat. Other 
NTFPs such as chewing sticks, carvings, mortar and pestle 
production, cane and mat weaving, wine tapping, snail collection 
and fruit gathering are among important self-employment 
opporhnities offered by forests to rural communities. Thus, the uses 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
372 Forest A~Innngema~azltz d !;n$nct 01: fhe Socioe~oi~orrzLici ves . . . 
co~siderabled isadvani-ags thev suffer (FA3, 2C03). Mmy workers 
are engaged in the induskies, afforestation, exploitation, rural road 
cons&uctiori and inakte~aacep rojecis. The income realised frsm 
such g a k d  eapioymeat he+ to raise the economic stakus of fhe 
rural cornm~miiies. Apart from &is, peopie invest part of %eh 
income in other ventures such as trading for their wives, and + h s  
contribute to rural development. 
In addition to the roles of forestry and wood-based industries in 
rural development, there is the provision of self-employment in the 
areas of non-timber forest prodtlcts. For example, fuel-wood afid 
charcoal form the main sources of energy for cooking and heating in 
the rural commtmiiies, hence the demand for fuel-wood is ever on 
the increase. Most people in the nlral comm~mitiesc annot afford 
alternative sources of energy; they therefore rely on fnel wood. FA0 
(198%) states that alternative energy sotlrces are either too costly or 
not available. According to Papka (1997), the annual fuel-wood 
consumption in Nigeria stands at 70 rmllion m3 and this accotmts for 
well over 90% of the total annual wood prodttction in the cotntry 
(NEST, 1991). This does not deviate sharply from the approximately 
200 mdhon people the ~ ~ o rolvder , mostly the rural people and urban 
poor, who depend on fuel wood as their main source of energy for 
cooking and warmth (FAO, op. cit.). 
Charcoal is also used in rtlral areas. It is used in heating box irons for 
ironing clothes, cooking, roasting of foods slich as maize, yam and 
plantain and for heating houses during cold periods. Quite a n~mber  
of rural yop~dations,e specially women, are engaged in firewood 
collection for household needs and to earn an income. 
Other areas where forestry provides self-employment for rural 
pop~dationsa re in hunting, which is a traditional occupation of most 
nlral men in Edo State. It is estimated that more than 60% of meat 
cons~unedin  rural areas in the State comes from bush meat. Other 
NTFPs such as chewing sticks, carvings, mortar and pestle 
production, cane and mat weaving, wine tapping, snail collection 
and fruit gathering are among important self-employment 
opportunities offered by forests to rural communities. Thus, the uses 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.Ikponmulonbn and i.0.. Azeez 373 
of these forest products wig contim1e to increase, and h the process, 
generate more income for the nuai  comiiv-nities. Although forestry 
stlV has t%e potential :o contribt~tem ore to the livelihood of rural 
communities, there is the need for judicious exploitation of forest 
resou-ces. These resources are been depleted without replacement. 
Hence, ii sustainablliiy is desired, there is the need to promote and 
set-LIPc ottage industries to u t h e  forest products as raw materials in 
order to generate more income and coniribute to nzral development. 
Development of Forest Villages 
Many governments and wcod-based mduslries provided residential 
quarters for their staff. This led to the creation of forest villages in 
several states of Nigeria. The r ~ x aclo mm~mitiesir , parts of Edo State 
whose growth and expansion were linked to forest enterprises 
include Sakponba, Ona, Iguomokh~~aE,v barhue, Ugo, Obozogbe, 
Ignelaba, Udo, Iguobaz~~wSai,l uko, Nikrowa and O k o m ~S~o.m e of 
these settlements have now grown into towns. 
Conclusion 
Sustainable forest management is an important tool for the 
development of r~zrale conomics, but the present state in Edo State 
leaves much to be desired. The State must take policing of the 
remaining resources very serious by creating enabling policies and 
environment for sustainable management of its forest estates and 
make overhues at reforestation of the degraded forests. Also worthy 
of note is that sustainable development is people-oriented; therefore, 
charting a way forward for sustainable forest management in Edo 
State should involve the rural people whose livelhood hinges on 
resources from the forest estates. 
REFERENCES 
Adetula, T. (2001): Encroachment and its impact on Forest Development- A 
case s t ~ ~ odf yO ndo State, Journal of Tvopical Forest Resoz~rcesv ol. 17 
(2) 2001. 12 - 27. 
Adeyoju, S. K. (2001): Forestry for National Development - A critique of the 
Nigerian situation. @ J L. Popoola, Abu, J. E. and Oni, P. I. (eds.) 
Forestrv and National Development. Proceedings of the 27tlI Annual 
Conference of FAN, Abuja Sept., 2001 pp. 55 - 58. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
374 For& ~M~nngemeanntd  ixpizc: on :he Socioecclnomic Lives . . . 
A k u f i a ,  r?. I. (2002): Forest, Peo~lea nd Environment: Keynote Xddress. 
Proceedings of National Workshop Org&ed by FAN CONSULT 
a4 Edo State Chapter of FAN, in L. Popoola (ed.) Forest, Peo~ le  
and Environment, pp. 5 - 14. 
Amalciri, M. A. (1995): Forestry Development and the Small-Scale Fanners - 
Keynote Address. In E.A Oduwaiye (ed) Proceedings of the 24Ul 
h u a l c onference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, held in 
Kad~maK, aduna State 30e1 November, 1995. 
Azeke, I. E. (2002): Forestry contributions to Edo State Economy. L. 
Popcola (ed.) Forests, People and the Environment. Proceedings of 
a National Workshop organised by FAN CONSULT and Edo State 
Chapter of FL4N,h eid in Benin City, Edo State, 3 - 6 Sept. 2002 pp. 
27- 41. 
Bruening, E. F. (1981): "bWESCO plan to halt degradation of biosphere" 
World wood, July, 1981. lOpp 
Crew, J. (2003): Forest and tree symbolism in folklore. In: Perceptions of 
Forest, UNASYLVA Vol. 54 No. 213,2003.37~. 
Egboh E. 0.( 1985): Forest Policy in Nigeria, 1897-1960; University of 
Nigeria Press, Nsukka. 
Enabor, E. E. (1986): Socio-economic factors of Deforestation in Nigeria. h: 
Oguntala (ed.) The clallenge of Deforestation in Ni~eria.  
Proceeding of 1986 Forestry Association of Nigeria Annual 
Conference: 111 - 125. 
Ektkudo, I. G. (2000): Forests, Our divine treasure, Dorand Publishers, 
Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State, pp. 1-  34. 
V. Attah and I. N. Akpanebe (1994): Elements of Forestry. 
Usanga and Sons Ent. Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State. 127 -140. 
FA0 (1985a): Tree Growing by Rural People, Forestry Paper 64. ISBN 92-5- 
102341-7 Rome. 130pp. 
(1985b): Intensive Multiple use of Forest Management in the tropics. 
Forestry paper 55, Rome. 68pp. 
-(2 003): Privatization and Environment Handbook, Vol. 1, Policy and 
Procedure, Burea~~ of Public Enterprises, Abuja. 
(http:/  /www.mon~abav.com/2O~eria) 
-( 2005): State of the world Forest, Sixth edition F.A.0 Rome. 24pp. 
Garuba, 0. (1996): Keynote address at the Wcrkshop on Environmental 
Conservation. In: Proceeding of Workshop on Conservation 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
S.O.Lkponmzvoni7a and 1.0.A zeez 375 
organised by Edo Stace Znviromental Proteciionilgency EDSEPA 
,h collaboration with LwDP, Benin City. :! - S. 
Ifiekhar, M. and A. Eoque (2C05j: Causes of Forest Encroachment: AR 
Analysis of Sangladesh GeoJot~rnaVl, olume 62, N~unber1 . 
Ikponrnwonba, S. 0.(2 008): Community Participation in the Management of 
T r e e  Forest Resemes in Edo State, Nigeria - Unpublished Ph. D. 
Thesis submitted to tf.e Department of Forest Resources 
Management, Faculty of Agrlculkire and Forestry, University of 
roadan, Nignr:a. xxvi -i2 35pp. 
Kio, P. R. 0. (2002): Comm~nity Forestry for sustainable Forest 
Development. In: L. Popoola (ed.) Forest, People and the 
Environment. Proceeding of a workshop organized by FAN Consult 
and Edo Sta& Forestry Department 5 - 6 September, 2002. 
King, K. F. S. (1968): Agri-silviculh~re( The Ta~ngyaS ystem) Bull. NO. 1. 
Dept. of Forestry, University of Ibadan. 109pp. 
Lecomber, R. (1975): Economic Growth versus the Environment, Macmillan 
Studies in Economics; The Macmillan Press Ltd, London, p. 96. 
Lowe, R. G. (1986): Agriculh~raRl evolution in Africa? Macrnillan Publishers 
Ltd, London. p. 295. 
Lusigi, W. J. (1991): The role of ir.digenous vegetation in the conservation 
and maintenance of ecological stability. In: Z. H. Alyere and 
Perrino) Crop Genetic Resources of African, Volume 1, 1B PGR 
(UNEP/lITA/CNR). 171 - 176. 
NEST (1991): Nigeria's Threatened Environment. A National Profile of 
National Environment Study and Action Team, Nigeria. p. 116. 
Olawoye, J. E. (1996): Approach to Community Forest Development and 
Resol~~tiofn  Gender Issues in Tree and Land Tenure, Ghana Journal 
of Forestry Special edition: pp.108 - 122. 
Omoluabi, A. C. (1994): Trade in Timber and non-timber Forest Products in 
Cross River State of Nigeria. A report prepared for the C E F P  
(ODA assisted) Forest Department Headquarter Calabar. 
Osemeobo, G. J. (1993): Impact of Land-Use on Natural Regeneration of 
Endangered Timber species: A case study of Milicea excelsa 
Trzplocizlfon scleroxylon in Edo State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of 
Fotesiry vol 23(2) 1993. Reviewed in Natural Resources Journal 33 (4): 
1015-1025. 
UNIVERSI Y OF IBADAN LIBR
RY
Papka, P. M. (1997): Strategies for Sustaiqed Envirormental Conservabon 
through Resource De.-elopment. Proceedings of 25u1 Annual 
Conference of Forestry Assoclatlon of Nigeria, lhadan, Oyo State, 
September, 221ia- 26211, 1997. 281 - 256. 
Poore, D. (1976): The value of the Tropical Forest Ecosystem and the 
Environmentai consequences of their removal .F.O: FOT/76. FAO, 
Rome. P. 39. 
Popoola, L. (1992): Strategies for Development of Prlvate Forestry in 
Kigeria. In: F. A. Akinsanmi (ed.) Our Forest, Env~ronment and 
Heritage: Challenges for our veo~le .P roceeding of 22nd Annual 
Conference of Forestry Assoelahon of Nlgeria, Kano, 168-176. 
Shami, H. A. (2001): Goodwill statement presented at the 27t11 A n n ~ ~ a l  
Conference of FAN, IS Sept 2001, A b ~ ~3jpap . 
Uzamare, V. 0. (2006): Forest Exploitation Practices in Edo State. A paper 
presented at the workshop for stakeholders in the Forest Industry 
organised by M.A.N.R, Forestry Department, Edo State in 
collaboratikn with Broad base Concept Services Ltd, 9 Feb., 2006. 
World Resource Institute (2000): A First Look at Log,@ng in Gabon. Global 
Forest Watch: Linking Forest and People. World Research Institute: 
Washington D.C. 
TVWF (1996): Indigenous People and Conservation WWF statement and 
principles. Gland: World Wide Fund for Nature. 
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY